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realm . Yet to a lady of no discernible rank or influence he wrote : " Although I cannot admit the force of your argument in favour of Captain ( name unknown ) [ sic . ] , there is something so amiable and laudable in a sister contending for the promotion of her brother that no apology was necessary for your letter of the 24th , which I lose no time in acknowledging ; "
Famously , when Commander Lord Cochrane captured the 32 @-@ gun Spanish frigate El Gamo in the 14 @-@ gun sloop HMS Speedy a promotion was the usual reward for such a feat of skill and seamanship . It would be fair to argue that it would have been expected by both the commander and his friends and family . Unfortunately for Cochrane , the ship carrying the letter of that victory was intercepted and it was only received after he had himself been captured by the French and was facing a court @-@ martial over the loss of his ship . A court @-@ martial for losing one 's ship was common practice at the time and in many cases , including Cochrane 's , it was only a formality . It was only when Cochrane was cleared by the court that he could be promoted . Unfortunately the commander thought that the First Lord had deliberately withheld the promotion due to an unforeseen grudge ; he held this opinion for the rest of his life . Cochrane had many powerful friends and relatives who lobbied continuously on his behalf . These solicitations may have had a negative effect on Cochrane 's career as it is possible that Jervis became irritated by them .
= = = Resignation as First Lord = = =
The detailed investigation into corruption that St Vincent began caused him to become extremely unpopular as many influential men were involved in the various money making schemes perpetrated . The board of inquiry set up by St Vincent was responsible for the impeachment of Henry Dundas , 1st Viscount Melville and his trial for misappropriation of public funds . St Vincent had made an enemy of Pitt and Pitt used the naval reform and its unpopularity to attack the First Lord and the Addington administration . St Vincent left the office on 14 May 1804 when Addington was replaced as Prime Minister by Pitt . Lord Howick , second son of St Vincent 's friend Sir Charles Grey came to his defence and with the assistance of Charles James Fox moved for a vote of thanks in the Commons for St Vincent 's tireless efforts in naval reform in 1806 .
On 14 May 1806 , John Jeffery , one of the Members of Parliament for Poole , opened a Parliamentary debate condemning St Vincent for " unprecedented neglect in building and repairing of ships while his Lordship presided at the Board of Admiralty and with delivering up the navy to his successor in a far less efficient state than that in which he received it " . This motion was rejected and instead the Foreign Secretary , Charles James Fox , proposed a vote of thanks to Earl St Vincent , " That it appears to this house , that the conduct of the Earl of St. Vincent , in his late naval administration , has added an additional lustre to his exalted character , and is entitled to the approbation of this house . "
Fox had said of St Vincent 's appointment in 1801 " allow me to say , that I do not think it would be easy , if possible , to find a man in the whole community better suited , or more capable of the high office he fills , than the distinguished person at the head of the Admiralty – I mean the Earl of St Vincent . " and had continued his support of the Earl throughout his time as first lord .
= = Resumption of command = =
On 9 November 1805 St Vincent was promoted admiral of the red . He took command of the Channel fleet once more in the 110 @-@ gun first @-@ rate HMS Hibernia . During his tenure in command he spent much of his time at a house that he rented in the village of Rame . Once again he issued the orders that had become so effective in the Mediterranean and his previous Channel command . Once again these orders proved unpopular . For a short time in 1806 he gave command of the Channel fleet to his second @-@ in @-@ command Sir Charles Cotton in order that he might travel to Portugal on a particular mission . Portugal was under threat of invasion and St Vincent had been ordered , if necessary , to take the Portuguese court to its colony in Brazil . The invasion of Portugal was delayed and St Vincent was recalled to the Channel fleet . It was Sir Sidney Smith and Graham Moore who led the Royal family to safety in Brazil . St Vincent had long suffered from poor health and a change in government led to his resignation on 24 April 1807 .
The Earl had always attempted to promote on merit rather than patronage and had become increasingly frustrated with the system of preferment by social rank and not competence . At his retirement in 1807 he had an audience with the King . The King asked if the navy were a better institution now than it had been on St Vincent 's entrance into it . St Vincent replied that it was not . He stated : " Sire I have always thought that a sprinkling of nobility was very desirable in the Navy , as it gives some sort of consequence to the service ; but at present the Navy is so overrun by the younger branches of nobility , and the sons of Members of Parliament and they so swallow up all the patronage and so choke the channel to promotion , that the son of an old Officer , however meritorious both their services may have been , has little or no chance of getting on . " He continued on " I would rather promote the son of an old deserving Officer than of any noble in the land . " In a letter dated 18 October 1806 to Viscount Howick , then the First Lord . " If you will , my good Lord , bring a bill into Parliament to disqualify any Officer under the rank of Rear @-@ Admiral to sit in the House of Commons , the Navy may be preserved ; but while a little , drunken , worthless jackanapes is permitted to hold the seditious language he has done , in the presence of Flag @-@ officers of rank , you will require a man of greater health and vigour than I possess to command your fleets . " Presumably St Vincent was referring to a particular member of Parliament although his feelings on the subject remain clear .
= = Final years = =
In his retirement he seldom took his seat in the House of Lords and made his last appearance in either 1810 or 1811 . During these final years St Vincent gave generously to various charities , organisations and individuals . He donated £ 500 to the wounded and survivors of the Battle of Waterloo and £ 300 to relieve starvation in Ireland . St Vincent also donated £ 100 to the building of a Jewish chapel in Whitechapel , London . In 1807 St Vincent , as a member of the House of Lords , opposed a bill to abolish the slave trade . His motives appear to have been practical rather than humanitarian or otherwise . St Vincent argued that if Britain were to ban the trade it would simply be continued by other countries and thereby Britain would lose the revenue generated and be weakened accordingly . St Vincent spoke in opposition to the Convention of Sintra He spoke against the Walcheren Campaign and then condemned its failure , although conspicuously excluded the failure of its officers and men . St Vincent spoke in defence of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir John Moore 's retreat through Spain and Portugal and condemned the government and army commanders for failure to support him thoroughly . In 1816 his wife Martha died at Rochetts in Essex . The couple had no children . In the winter of 1818 – 1819 St Vincent went to recover his health in France . When he arrived at Toulon he was greeted by Admiral Édouard Missiessy who said of St Vincent that he was : " as much the father of the French as of the English Navy " .
= = = Further honours = = =
In 1800 St Vincent was made an honorary lieutenant @-@ general of Marines and in 1814 was promoted to general . These positions were little more than a sinecure and carried no official duties . In 1801 St Vincent had been created Viscount St Vincent of Meaford , Staffordshire. a title that because he had no children passed to his nephew , Edward Jervis Ricketts . In 1806 he was appointed as one of the thirty one elder brothers of Trinity House . The elder brothers along with the master form the court of Trinity House . In 1809 St Vincent was honoured by John VI of Portugal who awarded him the Royal Portuguese Military Order of the Tower and Sword in order to commemorate the safe arrival of the Royal Family in Brazil , after Napoleon had invaded Portugal . In May 1814 he was promoted acting admiral of the fleet and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Channel squadron . He was confirmed Admiral of the fleet on 19 July 1821 and George IV sent him a gold topped baton as a symbol of the office . The baton is currently held in the collections of the National Maritime Museum , Greenwich . On 2 January 1815 he was made Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath when the order was rearranged by the Prince Regent . The knight grand cross is the highest rank in the order .
= = = Death and memorial = = =
St Vincent died on 13 March 1823 and , because he had no children , the Barony of Jervis and the Earldom of St Vincent became extinct . His nephew , Edward Jervis Ricketts , became the 2nd Viscount St Vincent and changed his surname to Jervis , becoming Edward Jervis Jervis in honour of his uncle . St Vincent was buried at Stone in Staffordshire , in the family mausoleum , at his own request and a monument was erected in the crypt of St. Paul 's Cathedral .
= = = Legacy = = =
At least three ships and two stone frigates ( or shore establishments ) have been named HMS St Vincent either in honour of the Earl or after that battle that he won . HMS St. Vincent , commissioned in 1910 , was the first of her class and therefore the class of battleship was named after her . The St. Vincent – class battleships included HMS Collingwood and HMS Vanguard . Jervis , a J @-@ class destroyer , launched just prior to the Second World War , was named after the Admiral . HMS Jervis served throughout the war . She was known as a lucky ship as , despite taking part in several actions , she never lost a man to enemy fire . HMS Jervis Bay , an armed merchant cruiser that was lost in heroic circumstances , was indirectly named after him .
Jervis has also been remembered in schools in England . He has a boarding house ( Saint Vincent ) named in his honour at the Royal Hospital School . St Vincent College in Gosport , England is named after the admiral 's most famous battle .
As with many other officers during the great age of discovery there are several areas of the world named in the earl 's honour . Cape Jervis and Gulf St Vincent , South Australia , and Jervis Bay , New South Wales , Australia were named for him as was the town of Vincentia and Jervis Bay National Park . The County of St Vincent , New South Wales was also named in his honour . Jervis Inlet , in British Columbia , Canada , was also named for him .
= = Historiography = =
Though Jervis clearly had a strong impact during the Napoleonic Wars and afterwards on the development of the Navy , surprisingly few contemporary biographies of Jervis are available , and those are seriously lacking in breadth and thoroughness . The most recent work related to Jervis is The Remaking of the English Navy by Admiral St. Vincent : The Great Unclaimed Naval Revolution by Charles Arthur , 1986 , but this focused more on Jervis 's reforms to the docks , and less to other parts of his life . Evelyn Berkman 's Nelson 's Dear Lord : Portrait of St. Vincent ( 1962 ) , as the bibliographer Eugene Rasor points out , is merely an " effort " to create a biography . The same bibliographer says much the same about William Milbourne James 's " Old Oak " : The Life of John Jervis , Earl St. Vincent ( 1950 ) and Owen Sherrard 's A life of Lord St. Vincent ( 1933 ) , pointing to both as mediocre . Ruddock Mackay published an article in Mariner 's Mirror , which documented the early life of Jervis .
= = = Literature = = =
Andidora , Ronald ( 2000 ) . Iron Admirals : Naval Leadership in the Twentieth Century . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 31266 @-@ 3 .
Brenton , Edward Pelham ( 1838 ) . Life and Correspondence of John , Earl of St Vincent , G. C. B. , Admiral of the Fleet 1 . Henry Colburn . OCLC 464467577 .
Brenton , Edward Pelham ( 1838 ) . Life and Correspondence of John , Earl of St Vincent , G. C. B. , Admiral of the Fleet 2 . Henry Colburn . OCLC 464467577 .
The Naval Chronicle 04 . Bunney & Gold . OCLC 1759531 .
The Naval Chronicle 11 . Bunney & Gold . OCLC 1759531 .
The Naval Chronicle 13 . Bunney & Gold . OCLC 1759531 .
The Naval Chronicle 15 . Bunney & Gold . OCLC 1759531 .
Coleman , Terry ( 2001 ) . Nelson : The man and the legend . Bloomsbury . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7475 @-@ 5900 @-@ 9 .
Grundner , Tom ( 2007 ) . The Ramage Companion . Fireship Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 934757 @-@ 05 @-@ 5 .
Lavery , Brian ( 1983 ) . The Ship of the Line Volume 1 . Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85177 @-@ 252 @-@ 3 .
The Life of Nelson , Volume 1 ( of 2 ) by A. T. Mahan at Project Gutenberg
Marcus , Geoffrey ( 1971 ) . The Age of Nelson , The Royal Navy 1793 – 1815 . Viking Adult . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 10965 @-@ 4 .
Moseley , Brian ( 26 February 2013 ) . " Plymouth Breakwater " . The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History . Plymouth , UK : Plymouthdata Info . Archived from the original on 17 May 2013 . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .
Palmer , Michael ( 2005 ) . Command at sea : naval command and control since the sixteenth century . President and Fellows of Harvard College . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 01681 @-@ 1 .
Ralfe , J ( 1828 ) . Naval Biography of Great Britain , Volume 1 . Whitemore & Fenn . OCLC 310957964 .
Tucker , Jedediah Stephens ( 1844 ) . Admiral the Right Hon The Earl of St Vincent GCB & C. Memoirs 1 . Richard Bentley , New Burlington Street . OCLC 6083815 .
Tucker , Jedediah Stephens ( 1844 ) . Admiral the Right Hon The Earl of St Vincent GCB & C. Memoirs 2 . Richard Bentley , New Burlington Street . OCLC 6083815 .
Vale , Brian ( 2004 ) . The Audacious Admiral Cochrane : The True Life of a Naval Legend . Conway Maritime Press. pp. 34 – 37 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85177 @-@ 986 @-@ 7 .
Winfield , Rif ( 2007 ) . British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714 – 1792 : Design , Construction , Careers and Fates . Seaforth Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 700 @-@ 6 .
Guerres maritimes sous la république et l 'empire , Jean Pierre Edmond Jurien de La Gravière , Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de Villeneuve , Charpentier , 1860 Tome 1 , pp. 101 – 119
= CBS Reports : The Homosexuals =
" The Homosexuals " is a 1967 episode of the documentary television series CBS Reports . The hour @-@ long broadcast featured a discussion of a number of topics related to homosexuality and homosexuals . Mike Wallace anchored the episode , which aired on March 7 , 1967 . Although this was the first network documentary dealing with the topic of homosexuality , it was not the first televised in the United States . That was The Rejected , produced and aired in 1961 on KQED , a public television station in San Francisco .
Three years in the making , The Homosexuals went through two producers and multiple revisions . The episode included interviews with several gay men , psychiatrists , legal experts and cultural critics , interspersed with footage of a gay bar and a police sex sting . The Homosexuals garnered mixed critical response . The network received praise from some quarters and criticism from others for even airing the program .
= = Production = =
The program was initially proposed in 1964 . The first version was produced by William Peters , with production supervised by executive producer Fred W. Friendly . Upon accepting the assignment , Peters began his research by reading books and consulting with experts in the field . Peters suggested that the program focus exclusively on gay men and that he cover lesbians in a second program , and Friendly agreed . Principal filming took place starting in the fall of 1964 and continued through early 1965 . Peters interviewed men in San Francisco , Philadelphia , Charlotte and New York City , accumulating 30 hours of footage . The identities of several of the men were obscured in some fashion , either in shadow or , in one instance , behind a large potted palm tree . Also interviewed were psychiatrist Charles Socarides , who strongly advocated the position that homosexuality is a mental disorder , and fellow psychiatrist Irving Bieber , who shared Socarides ' opinion of homosexuality as pathology . Interspersed with these interview segments was footage , described as being in the cinéma vérité style , of the inside of a gay bar along with shots of hustlers working a street corner and a teenager being arrested in a public sex sting .
After assembling a rough cut , Peters approached Mike Wallace to anchor the hour . Wallace was initially reluctant but after viewing the program enthusiastically agreed . Despite his enthusiasm , Wallace 's commentary disparaged homosexuals .
The average homosexual , if there be such , is promiscuous . He is not interested or capable of a lasting relationship like that of a heterosexual marriage . His sex life , his love life , consists of a series of one – chance encounters at the clubs and bars he inhabits . And even on the streets of the city — the pick @-@ up , the one night stand , these are characteristics of the homosexual relationship .
Friendly generally approved of the first version but believed that it was necessary to include information on same @-@ sex sexual practices . When those practices were explained to him , however , he changed his mind . While the documentary was still in production , Friendly was promoted to the presidency of CBS News but left soon after over a disagreement over the network 's coverage of the Vietnam War . He was replaced by Richard S. Salant , who was known for his cost @-@ consciousness , which put the future of the documentary and the CBS Reports series in question .
Salant did try to kill the documentary , but stories about it began appearing in the trade press , putting CBS into a potentially embarrassing situation were it not to air . In mid @-@ 1965 , Salant gave Peters the go @-@ ahead to complete the episode . Peters worked with the New York chapter of the Mattachine Society to secure interviews with two additional gay subjects , Lars Larson and Jack Nichols , both of whom were fully accepting of their sexuality . Nichols later recalled his encounter with Wallace :
[ A ] fter we finished and the camera was turned off , Mike Wallace sat down with me and talked for about half an hour . He said , " You know , you answered all of my questions capably , but I have a feeling that you don 't really believe that homosexuality is as acceptable as you make it sound . " I asked him why he would say that . " Because , " he said , " in your heart I think you know it 's wrong . " It was infuriating . I told him I thought being gay was just fine , but that in his heart he thought it was wrong .
Peters added more footage of psychiatrists espousing that model along with scenes from the 1965 convention of the East Coast Homophile Organizations . CBS gave final approval to " The Homosexuals " and scheduled it to air in the spring of 1966 .
Salant later pulled the episode from the schedule and assigned producer Harry Morgan to re @-@ edit it . According to Wallace , Salant found the piece sensationalistic ; however , C. A. Tripp , a psychologist who had put CBS in touch with his patient Larson , claimed that Salant felt the piece was pro @-@ homosexuality . Morgan scrapped all but about 10 minutes of Peters ' final cut . CBS felt that the self @-@ accepting gay men made too favorable of an impression , so Morgan edited two of the interviews to make the men seem unhappier . According to Wallace , no sponsor would buy time during the episode because of the taboo nature of the subject matter . Commercial spots were filled by public service announcements for the Peace Corps and the Internal Revenue Service .
= = Overview = =
The first interview subject was a gay man , Lars Larson , who appeared undisguised and who spoke positively about his sexuality . Following his interview , Wallace gave the results of a CBS News poll that found that Americans considered homosexuality more harmful to the United States than adultery , abortion or prostitution , that two @-@ thirds of Americans described their reaction to homosexuality as " disgust , discomfort or fear " and that one in ten described their reaction as " hatred " . Just ten percent believed homosexuality was a crime but the majority still believed it should be criminally sanctioned .
Following the poll , another gay man was interviewed from his psychiatrist 's couch with his face obscured by shadow . He described coming out to his family , saying they treated him " like some wounded animal they were going to send to the vet . " Following this man was another unobscured subject Jack Nichols ( who had taken on the pseudonym " Warren Adkins " for the programme ) , co @-@ founder of the Washington , D.C. branch of the Mattachine Society . He contrasted the comments of the previous subject , saying that he had come out to his family at age 14 and , far from being treated like a sick animal , they treated him with warmth and understanding .
After remarks from Socarides advocating the disease model of homosexuality , Wallace discussed the legal aspects of homosexuality , noting that England was preparing to de @-@ criminalize homosexual acts . Federal judge James Braxton Craven , Jr. from North Carolina advocated a re @-@ evaluation of United States law , commenting , " Is it not time to redraft a criminal statute first enacted in 1533 ? " Following footage of Nichols and Mattachine D.C. co @-@ founder Frank Kameny picketing Independence Hall and the State Department , Kameny , under his real name , advocated a re @-@ examination of federal law that placed a blanket ban on known homosexuals receiving security clearances .
Next , Albert Goldman ( then an English professor at Columbia University ) and author and playwright Gore Vidal debated homosexuality , with an emphasis on the presence of homosexuals in the creative arts . Goldman asserted that homosexuality " is just one of a number of ... things all tending toward the subversion , toward the final erosion , of our cultural values . " Vidal , asserting that homosexuality is as natural as heterosexuality , countered by saying " The United States is living out some mad Protestant nineteenth @-@ century dream of human behavior .... I think the so @-@ called breaking of the moral fiber of this country is one of the healthiest things that 's begun to happen . "
Wallace closed with an interview with a gay man , with a wife and two children , who claimed that the narcissism of gay men made it impossible for two men to form a long @-@ term loving relationship . Wrapping up the hour , Wallace concluded :
The dilemma of the homosexual : told by the medical profession he is sick ; by the law that he 's a criminal ; shunned by employers ; rejected by heterosexual society . Incapable of a fulfilling relationship with a woman , or for that matter with a man . At the center of his life he remains anonymous . A displaced person . An outsider .
Also discussed were religious attitudes toward homosexuality and the Boise homosexuality scandal , a sweeping investigation of a supposed " homosexual underground " in Boise , Idaho in 1955 .
= = Critical reaction = =
Critical response of the time to the program was mixed . The New York Times , The Washington Star , and the Chicago Daily News praised CBS for addressing the subject . George Gent of the Times , however , commented on the anti @-@ gay bias of the show , noting that it would " have been better to give the minority viewpoint that homosexuals are just as normal as anyone else a chance to speak for itself . " The Chicago Tribune titled its review " TV No Spot to Unload Garbage " and attacked CBS for presenting such material to young and impressionable viewers .
More recent critical attention to " The Homosexuals " has also been mixed , trending to the negative . In one corner , anchor Mike Wallace is praised for debunking negative stereotypes about gay men . In the other , Wallace 's commentary is condemned as " a string of gross generalizations and negative stereotypes [ that ] sounds as if it was scripted by Rev. Jerry Falwell . " In noting that approximately 20 % of television viewers in the United States saw the program , LGBT activist Wayne Besen labels the broadcast " the single most destructive hour of antigay propaganda in our nation 's history . " He says that " [ ' The Homosexuals ' ] not only had a devastating effect on public opinion but also was a nuclear bomb dropped on the psyches of gay and lesbian Americans , who , prior to this show , had never been represented as a group on national television . "
= = Participants ' response and personal consequences = =
Lars Larson , the first interview subject , was infuriated after seeing the finished program . He had been led to believe that the episode would present a far more positive picture of American gay life . Larson , whose interview had been altered to make him seem less happy , filed a formal fraud complaint and withdrew his release . " They had some rather nasty , angry anti @-@ gay people on there who were treated as professionals , " he said . " I had no problem with Harry Morgan or Mike Wallace because they were thorough . But obviously others in the decision @-@ making process were truly upset with homosexuality . They saw it as a threat to the human race and were out to kill as best they could . " Jack Nichols was fired from his job as a hotel sales manager the day after the program aired .
For his part , anchor Mike Wallace came to regret his participation in the episode . " I should have known better , " he said in 1992 . Speaking in 1996 , Wallace stated , " That is — God help us — what our understanding was of the homosexual lifestyle a mere twenty @-@ five years ago because nobody was out of the closet and because that 's what we heard from doctors — that 's what Socarides told us , it was a matter of shame . " However , Wallace was at the time of broadcast close friends with noted designer James Amster ( creator of the landmark Amster Yard courtyard in New York City ) and Amster 's male long @-@ term companion , men whom Wallace later described as " a wonderful old married couple " and " [ b ] oth people that [ he ] admired " . Despite this personal knowledge , Wallace relied on the American Psychiatric Association 's categorization of homosexuality as a mental illness rather than his own experience in creating the episode . As recently as 1995 , Wallace told an interviewer that he believed homosexuals could change their orientation if they really wanted to .
= Horse rings in Portland , Oregon =
Horse rings , remnants of a time when horses and horse @-@ drawn vehicles provided the primary mode of transportation , can be found throughout Portland , Oregon . They were removed from curbs and sidewalks for safety purposes until the late 1970s , when one Portland resident complained about the rings disappearing . Today , the city of Portland helps to preserve the rings by requiring them to be replaced following sidewalk construction or repair .
In recent years Portland residents have started tethering model horses to the rings , sparking interaction , and drawing attention to part of the city 's history . The Horse Project , started by one resident of the Woodstock neighborhood in 2005 , encourages participation in the urban art movement . The rings and art installations have become a tourist attraction .
= = Background and history = =
Horse rings , often made of iron or brass , are remnants from the 1800s , when horses , and horse @-@ drawn vehicles , provided the primary mode of transportation . In 1978 , The Register @-@ Guard suggested that the rings might only be as old as the early 1900s . The rings allowed residents to tether their horses to sidewalks .
Prior to the late 1970s , rings were removed during sidewalk reconstruction or repair for safety purposes . In 1978 , after one Portland resident complained about the disappearance of rings , Connie McCready , then a City Commissioner , announced that rings could be replaced at a homeowner 's request , likely for a fee of $ 5 . Today , the city of Portland is committed to preserving the horse rings , which are reinstalled following curb and sidewalk construction or repair . An ordinance requires rings to be replaced at their original location ( or " as close as practical " ) . Original street names are also reset or restamped into new concrete . The ring supply is monitored by the Bureau of Maintenance . Portland is not the only city to preserve horse rings . City officials in Oak Harbor , Washington , confirmed that the last in a series of horse rings would be preserved during a February 2011 sidewalk construction project .
= = Horse Project = =
In September 2005 , Woodstock resident Scott Wayne Indiana tied his first plastic toy horse to a horse ring located in the Pearl District . Of his attempt to draw attention to the rings , and to celebrate Portland 's history , Indiana said : " I loved the rings , and felt that people just weren 't noticing them . This was an attempt to shake people out of their routines and get them to notice their surroundings . " Since then , the Horse Project has gained momentum and participation ; horses can be found tied to rings throughout the city , especially in east Portland . The installations have sparked interaction with residents , who have left hay , lassoes , riders , saddles , water , wool blankets , and other " treats " for the horses . Horses are often defaced or go missing .
The Horse Project has an official website , which encourages participation , and offers instructions for tethering . The project accepts donations and volunteer support . Participants considered selling kits for consumers interested in tethering horses . One Portland resident has reportedly installed more than 150 horses . Horses are the most frequent animal to be tied to rings , but pigs , dolls , and other animals have also appeared throughout the city .
Willamette Week included the Horse Project in its Best of Portland list for 2006 under the category Best Horse of a Different Color . In 2007 , The Oregonian 's Anna Griffin mentioned the project in an article about the " Keep Portland Weird " slogan , writing : " The ' Horse Project ' comes up anytime the subject of Portland weirdness arises . " Project participation continues despite Indiana 's move out of state in 2008 . In 2011 , the documentary film It 's a Ring Thing : The Portland Horse Project premiered at NW Documentary 's Homegrown DocFest . In 2012 , The Oregonian highlighted the engagement of a couple who attribute the start of their relationship to a horse ring installation in the Pearl District .
The city 's " Sustainable Stormwater Management " calendar for 2012 called the installations " stormwater art " , which " highlights healthy watersheds and demonstrates that stormwater is a resource and an asset " . The horse rings , and urban art installations , have become a tourist attraction .
= Château Gaillard =
Château Gaillard ( " Hearty Castle " ) is a ruined medieval castle , located 90 m above the commune of Les Andelys overlooking the River Seine , in the Eure département of historical Normandy , now Upper Normandy , France . It is located some 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) north @-@ west of Paris and 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from Rouen . Construction began in 1196 under the auspices of Richard the Lionheart , who was simultaneously King of England and feudal Duke of Normandy . The castle was expensive to build , but the majority of the work was done in an unusually short time . It took just two years , and at the same time the town of Petit Andely was constructed . Château Gaillard has a complex and advanced design , and uses early principles of concentric fortification ; it was also one of the earliest European castles to use machicolations . The castle consists of three enclosures separated by dry moats , with a keep in the inner enclosure .
Château Gaillard was captured in 1204 by the French king , Philip II , after a lengthy siege . In the mid @-@ 14th century , the castle was the residence of the exiled David II of Scotland . The castle changed hands several times in the Hundred Years ' War , but in 1449 the French king captured Château Gaillard from the English king definitively , and from then on it remained in French ownership . Henry IV of France ordered the demolition of Château Gaillard in 1599 ; although it was in ruins at the time , it was felt to be a threat to the security of the local population . The castle ruins are listed as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture . The inner bailey is open to the public from March to November , and the outer baileys are open all year .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Richard the Lionheart inherited Normandy from his father , Henry II , in 1189 when he ascended to the throne of England . There was rivalry between the French king and Richard as the King of England was more powerful than the King of France , despite the fact that Richard was a vassal of the French king and paid homage for his lands in the country . From 1190 to 1192 , Richard the Lionheart was on the Third Crusade . He was joined by Philip II of France as each was wary that the other might invade his territory in his absence . Richard was captured and imprisoned on the return journey to England , and he was not released until 4 February 1194 . In Richard 's absence , his brother John revolted with the aid of Philip ; amongst Philip 's conquests in the period of Richard 's imprisonment was Normandy . It took Richard until 1198 to reconquer Normandy .
= = = Construction = = =
Perched high above the River Seine , an important transport route , the site of Château Gaillard , in the manor of Andeli , was identified as a naturally defensible position . In the valley below the site was the town of Grand Andely . Under the terms of the Treaty of Louviers ( January 1196 ) between Richard and Philip II neither king was allowed to fortify the site ; despite this , Richard intended to build a castle at Andeli . Its purpose was to protect the duchy of Normandy from Philip II — it helped fill a gap in the Norman defences left by the fall of Château de Gisors and was 7 @.@ 4 miles ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) away from Château de Gaillon , a castle which belonged to Philip — and to act as a base from which Richard could launch his campaign to take back the Norman Vexin from French control . Richard tried to obtain the manor through negotiation . Walter de Coutances , Archbishop of Rouen , was reluctant to sell the manor as it was one of the diocese 's most profitable , and other lands belonging to the diocese had recently been damaged by war . When Philip besieged Aumale in Normandy , Richard grew tired of waiting and seized the manor , although the act was opposed by the Church .
In an attempt to get Pope Celestine III to intercede , Walter de Coutances left for Rome in November 1196 . Richard sent a delegation to represent him in Rome . One of the party , Richard 's Lord Chancellor William Longchamp ( who was also Bishop of Ely ) , died during the journey , although the rest , including the Philip of Poitou , Bishop of Durham , and Guillaume de Ruffière , Bishop of Lisieux , arrived in Rome . Walter de Coutances meanwhile issued an interdict against the duchy of Normandy which prohibited church services from being performed in the region . Roger of Howden detailed " the unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy " . Construction began with the interdict hanging over Normandy , but it was later repealed in April 1197 by Celestine , after Richard made gifts of land to Walter de Coutances and the diocese of Rouen , including two manors and the prosperous port of Dieppe . The site of Château Gaillard had not been fortified before , and the town of Petit Andely was constructed at the same time ; together with Grand Andely , the two are known as Les Andelys . The castle sits on a high limestone promontory , 90 m above Les Andelys and overlooking a bend in the River Seine . The castle was connected with Andelys through a series of contemporary outworks .
During King Richard 's reign , the Crown 's expenditure on castles declined from the levels spent by Henry II , Richard 's father , although this has been attributed to a concentration of resources on Richard 's war with the king of France . However , the work at Château Gaillard cost an estimated £ 12 @,@ 000 between 1196 and 1198 . Richard only spent an estimated £ 7 @,@ 000 on castles in England during his reign , similar as his father Henry II . The Pipe rolls for the construction of Château Gaillard contain the earliest details of how work was organised in castle building and what activities were involved . Amongst those workmen mentioned in the rolls are miners , stone cutters , quarrymen , masons , lime @-@ workers , carpenters , smiths , hodmen , water carriers , soldiers to guard the workers , diggers who cut the ditch surrounding the castle , and carters who transported the raw materials to the castle . A master @-@ mason is omitted , and military historian Allen Brown has suggested that it may be because Richard himself was the overall architect ; this is supported by the interest Richard showed in the work through his frequent presence .
Not only was the castle built at considerable expense , but it was built relatively rapidly ; construction of large stone castles often took the better part of a decade ; for instance the work at Dover Castle took place between 1179 and 1191 ( at a cost of £ 7 @,@ 000 ) . Richard was present during part of the construction to ensure construction proceeded at a rate he was happy with . According to William of Newburgh , in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a " rain of blood " . While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen , Richard was undeterred :
the king was not moved by this to slacken one whit the pace of work , in which he took such keen pleasure that , unless I am mistaken , even if an angel had descended from heaven to urge its abandonment he would have been roundly cursed .
After just a year , Château Gaillard was approaching completion and Richard remarked " Behold , how fair is this year @-@ old daughter of mine ! " Richard later boasted that he could hold the castle " were the walls made of butter " . By 1198 , the castle was largely completed . At one point , the castle was the site of the execution of three French soldiers in retaliation for a massacre of Welsh mercenaries ambushed by the French ; the three were thrown to their deaths from the castle 's position high above the surrounding landscape . In his final years , the castle became Richard 's favourite residence , and writs and charters were written at Château Gaillard , bearing " apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe " ( at the Fair Castle of the Rock ) . Richard did not enjoy the benefits of the castle for long , however , as he died in Limousin on 6 April 1199 , from an infected arrow wound to his shoulder , sustained while besieging Châlus .
= = = The Siege of Château Gaillard = = =
After Richard 's death , King John of England failed to effectively defend Normandy against Philip 's ongoing campaigns between 1202 and 1204 . Château de Falaise fell to Philip 's forces , as well as castles from Mortain to Pontorson while Philip simultaneously besieged Rouen , which capitulated to French forces on 24 June 1204 , effectively ending Norman independence . Philip laid siege to Château Gaillard , which was captured after a long siege from September 1203 to March 1204 . As Philip continued the siege throughout the winter and King John made no attempt to relieve the castle , it was only a matter of time before the castellan was forced to capitulate . The main source for the siege is Philippidos , a poem by William the Breton , Philip 's chaplain . As a result , modern scholars have paid little attention to the fate of the civilians of Les Andelys during the siege .
The local population sought refuge in the castle to escape from the French soldiers who ravaged the town . The castle was well supplied for a siege , but the extra mouths to feed rapidly diminished the stores . Between 1 @,@ 400 and 2 @,@ 200 non @-@ combatants were allowed inside , increasing the number of people in the castle at least fivefold . In an effort to alleviate the pressure on the castle 's supplies , Roger de Lacy , the castellan , evicted 500 civilians ; this first group was allowed to pass through the French lines unhindered , and a second group of similar size did the same a few days later . Philip was not present , and when he learned of the safe passage of the civilians , he forbade further people being allowed through the siege @-@ lines . The idea was to keep as many people as possible within Château Gaillard to drain its resources . Roger de Lacy evicted the remaining civilians from the castle , at least 400 people , and possibly as many as 1 @,@ 200 . The group was not allowed through , and the French opened fire on the civilians , who turned back to the castle for safety , but found the gates locked . They sought refuge at the base of the castle walls for three months ; over the winter , more than half their number died from exposure and starvation . Philip arrived at Château Gaillard in February 1204 , and ordered that the survivors should be fed and released . Such treatment of civilians in sieges was not uncommon , and such scenes were repeated much later at the sieges of Calais in 1346 and Rouen in 1418 – 1419 , both in the Hundred Years ' War .
The French gained access to the outermost ward by undermining one of the towers . Following this , Philip ordered a group of his men to look for a weak point in the castle . They gained access to the next ward when a soldier named Ralph found a latrine chute in use through which the French could clamber into the chapel . After ambushing several unsuspecting guards , and setting fire to the buildings , Philip 's men then lowered the drawbridge and allowed the rest of their army into the castle . The Anglo @-@ Norman troops retreated to the inner ward . After a short time the French successfully breached the gate of the inner ward , and the garrison retreated finally to the keep . With supplies running low Roger de Lacy and his garrison of 20 knights and 120 other soldiers surrendered to the French army , bringing the siege to an end on 6 March 1204 . In drawn @-@ out medieval sieges , contemporary writers often emphasised the importance of dwindling supplies in the capitulation of the garrison , as was the case with the Siege of Château Gaillard . With the castle under French control , the main obstacle to the French entering the Seine valley was removed ; they were able to enter the valley unmolested and take Normandy . Thus , for the first time since it had been given as a duchy to Rollo in 911 , Normandy was directly ruled by the French king . The city of Rouen surrendered to Philip II on 23 June 1204 . After that , the rest of Normandy was easily conquered by the French .
= = = Under French control = = =
In 1314 , Château Gaillard was the prison of Margaret and Blanche of Burgundy , future queens of France ; they had been convicted of adultery in the Tour de Nesle Affair , and after having their heads shaved they were locked away in the fortress . Following the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333 during the Second War of Scottish Independence , the child @-@ king David II and certain of his court were forced to flee to France for safety . At the time , southern Scotland was occupied by the forces of King Edward III of England . David , then nine years old , and his bride Joan of the Tower , the twelve @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Edward II , were granted the use of Château Gaillard by Philip VI . It remained their residence until David 's return to Scotland in 1341 . David did not stay out of English hands for long after his return ; he was captured after the Battle of Neville 's Cross in 1346 and endured an eleven @-@ year captivity in the Tower of London .
During the Hundred Years ' War between the English and French crowns , possession of the castle switched several times . Château Gaillard — along with Château de Gisors , Château de La Roche @-@ Guyon , Ivry @-@ la @-@ Bataille , and Mont Saint @-@ Michel — was one of five castles in the Normandy which offered resistance to Henry V of England in 1419 , after the capitulation of Rouen and much of the rest of the Duchy . Château Gaillard was besieged for a year before it was surrendered to the English in December 1419 ; all the resisting castles except Mont Saint @-@ Michel eventually fell , and Normandy was temporarily returned to English control . Étienne de Vignolles , a mercenary ( routier ) known as La Hire , then re @-@ captured Château Gaillard for the French in 1430 . However , the English were revived by the capture and execution of Joan of Arc , and although by then the war was turning against them , a month later they captured Château Gaillard again . When the French gained ascendency again between 1449 and 1453 the English were forced out of the region , and in 1449 the castle was taken by the French for the last time .
By 1573 , Château Gaillard was uninhabited and in a ruinous state , but it was still believed that the castle posed a threat to the local population if it was repaired . Therefore , at the request of the French States @-@ General , King Henry IV ordered the demolition of Château Gaillard in 1599 . Some of the building material was reused by Capuchin monks who were granted permission to use the stone for maintaining their monasteries . In 1611 , the demolition of Château Gaillard came to an end . The site was left as a ruin , and in 1862 was classified as a monument historique . In 1962 , a conference on the contributions of the Normans to medieval military architecture was held at Les Andelys . Allen Brown attended the conference and remarked that the castle was " in satisfying receipt of skilful care and attention " . The journal Château Gaillard : Études de Castellogie Médiévale , which was published as a result of the conference , has since run to 23 volumes , based on international conferences on the subject of castles . In the 1990s , archaeological excavations were carried out at Château Gaillard . The excavations investigated the north of the fortress , searching for an entrance postulated by architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc , but no such entrance was found . However , the excavation did reveal was that there was an addition to the north of the castle to enable the use of guns . Typologically , the structure has been dated to the 16th century . The conclusion of the excavations was that the site had " enormous archaeological potential " , but that there were still unanswered questions about the castle . After Philip II took Chateau Gaillard , he repaired the collapsed tower of the outer bailey that had been used to gain access to the castle . The archaeological investigation examined the tower generally thought to be the one collapsed by Philip , and although it did not recover any dating evidence , the consensus is that he completely rebuilt the tower . In conjunction with the archaeological work , efforts were made to preserve the remaining structures . Today , Château Gaillard 's inner bailey is open to the public from March to November , while the outer baileys are open all year round .
= = Layout and innovations = =
Château Gaillard consists of three baileys — an inner , a middle , and an outer with the main entrance to the castle — and a keep , also called a donjon , in the inner @-@ bailey . The baileys , which were separated by rock @-@ cut ditches , housed the castle 's stables , workshops , and storage facilities . It is common for extant castles to be the result of several phases of construction , and were adapted and added to over the period of their use ; however Château Gaillard essentially is the result of one period of building . The division into three wards bears similarities with the design of Château de Chinon , built by Henry II in the mid @-@ 12th century on a promontory overlooking a town .
The outer bailey is the southernmost feature of the castle ; it is pentagon shaped and there are five towers spaced along the wall , three of which are at corners . North of the outer bailey is the middle bailey which is an irregular polygon ; like the outer bailey , the wall of the middle bailey is studded with towers . The towers allowed the garrison to provide enfilading fire . In the fashion of the time , most of the towers in the curtain walls of the middle and outer baileys were cylindrical . Château Gaillard was one of the first castles in Europe to use machicolations — stone projections on top of a wall with openings that allowed objects to be dropped on an enemy at the base of the wall . Machicolations were introduced to Western architecture as a result of the Crusades . Until the 13th century , the tops of towers in European castles had usually been surrounded by wooden galleries , which served the same purpose as machicolations . An Eastern innovation , they may have originated in the first half of the 8th century .
Within the middle bailey was the inner bailey . The gatehouse from the middle to the inner @-@ bailey was one of the earliest examples of towers flanking the entrance to remove the blind @-@ spot immediately in front of the gate . This was part of a wider trend from around the late 12th or 13th century onwards for castle gateways to be strongly defended .
The design of the inner bailey , with its wall studded with semi @-@ circular projections , is unparalleled . This innovation had two advantages : firstly , the rounded wall absorbed the damage from siege engines much better as it did not provide a perfect angle to aim at ; secondly , the arrowslits in the curved wall allowed arrows to be fired at all angles . The inner bailey , which contained the main residential buildings , used the principles of concentric defence . This and the unusual design of the inner bailey 's curtain wall meant that castle was advanced for its age , since it was built before concentric fortification was fully developed in Crusader castles such as Krak des Chevaliers . Concentric castles were widely copied across Europe ; for instance when Edward I of England — who had himself been on Crusade — built castles in Wales in the late 13th century , four of the eight he founded were concentric .
The keep was inside the inner bailey and contained the king 's accommodation . It had two rooms : an antechamber and an audience room . While Allen Brown interpreted the audience room as the king 's chamber , historian Liddiard believes it is probably a throne room . A throne room emphasises the political importance of the castle . In England there is nothing similar to Château Gaillard 's keep , but there are buildings with a similar design in France in the 12th and 13th centuries .
Allen Brown described Château Gaillard as " one of the finest castles in Europe " and the military historian Sir Charles Oman wrote that :
Château Gaillard , as we have already had occasion to mention , was considered the masterpiece of its time . The reputation of its builder , Coeur de Lion , as a great military engineer might stand firm on this single structure . He was no mere copyist of the models he had seen in the East , but introduced many original details of his own invention into the stronghold .
Despite Château Gaillard 's reputation as a great fortress , Liddiard highlights the absence of a well in the keep as a peculiar weakness , and the castle was built on soft chalk , which would have allowed the walls to be undermined . This is attributed to Château Gaillard being important not solely as a military structure , but as a salient symbol of the power of Richard the Lionheart . It was a statement of dominance by Richard , having reconquered the lands Philip II had taken . Castles such as Château Gaillard in France , and Dover in England , were amongst the most advanced of their age , but were surpassed in both sophistication and cost by the works of Edward I of England in the latter half of the 13th century .
= Rhodium =
Rhodium is a chemical element with symbol Rh and atomic number 45 . It is a rare , silvery @-@ white , hard , and chemically inert transition metal . It is a member of the platinum group . It has only one naturally occurring isotope , 103Rh . Naturally occurring rhodium is usually found as the free metal , alloyed with similar metals , and rarely as a chemical compound in minerals such as bowieite and rhodplumsite . It is one of the rarest and most valuable precious metals .
Rhodium is a noble metal , resistant to corrosion , found in platinum or nickel ores together with the other members of the platinum group metals . It was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston in one such ore , and named for the rose color of one of its chlorine compounds , produced after it reacted with the powerful acid mixture aqua regia .
The element 's major use ( approximately 80 % of world rhodium production ) is as one of the catalysts in the three @-@ way catalytic converters in automobiles . Because rhodium metal is inert against corrosion and most aggressive chemicals , and because of its rarity , rhodium is usually alloyed with platinum or palladium and applied in high @-@ temperature and corrosion @-@ resistive coatings . White gold is often plated with a thin rhodium layer to improve its appearance while sterling silver is often rhodium @-@ plated for tarnish resistance .
Rhodium detectors are used in nuclear reactors to measure the neutron flux level .
= = History = =
Rhodium ( Greek rhodon ( ῥόδον ) meaning " rose " ) was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston , soon after his discovery of palladium . He used crude platinum ore presumably obtained from South America . His procedure involved dissolving the ore in aqua regia and neutralizing the acid with sodium hydroxide ( NaOH ) . He then precipitated the platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate by adding ammonium chloride ( NH
4Cl ) . Most other metals like copper , lead , palladium and rhodium were precipitated with zinc . Diluted nitric acid dissolved all but palladium and rhodium , which were dissolved in aqua regia , and the rhodium was precipitated by the addition of sodium chloride as Na
3 [ RhCl
6 ] · nH
2O . After being washed with ethanol , the rose @-@ red precipitate was reacted with zinc , which displaced the rhodium in the ionic compound and thereby released the rhodium as free metal .
After the discovery , the rare element had only minor applications ; for example , by the turn of the century , rhodium @-@ containing thermocouples were used to measure temperatures up to 1800 ° C. The first major application was electroplating for decorative uses and as corrosion @-@ resistant coating . The introduction of the three @-@ way catalytic converter by Volvo in 1976 increased the demand for rhodium . The previous catalytic converters used platinum or palladium , while the three @-@ way catalytic converter used rhodium to reduce the amount of NOx in the exhaust .
= = Characteristics = =
Rhodium is a hard , silvery , durable metal that has a high reflectance . Rhodium metal does not normally form an oxide , even when heated . Oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere only at the melting point of rhodium , but is released on solidification . Rhodium has both a higher melting point and lower density than platinum . It is not attacked by most acids : it is completely insoluble in nitric acid and dissolves slightly in aqua regia .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Rhodium belongs to group 9 of the periodic table , but the configuration of electrons in the outermost shells is atypical for the group . This anomaly is also observed in the neighboring elements , niobium ( 41 ) , ruthenium ( 44 ) , and palladium ( 46 ) .
The common oxidation state of rhodium is + 3 , but oxidation states from + 0 to + 6 are also observed .
Unlike ruthenium and osmium , rhodium forms no volatile oxygen compounds . The known stable oxides include Rh
2O
3 , RhO
2 , RhO
2 · xH
2O , Na
2RhO
3 , Sr
3LiRhO
6 and Sr
3NaRhO
6 . Halogen compounds are known in nearly the full range of possible oxidation states . Rhodium ( III ) chloride , rhodium ( IV ) fluoride , rhodium ( V ) fluoride and rhodium ( VI ) fluoride are examples . The lower oxidation states are stable only in the presence of ligands .
The best @-@ known rhodium @-@ halogen compound is the Wilkinson 's catalyst chlorotris ( triphenylphosphine ) rhodium ( I ) . This catalyst is used in the hydroformylation or hydrogenation of alkenes .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring rhodium is composed of only one isotope , 103Rh . The most stable radioisotopes are 101Rh with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 3 years , 102Rh with a half @-@ life of 207 days , 102mRh with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 9 years , and 99Rh with a half @-@ life of 16 @.@ 1 days . Twenty other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 92 @.@ 926 u ( 93Rh ) to 116 @.@ 925 u ( 117Rh ) . Most of these have half @-@ lives shorter than an hour , except 100Rh ( 20 @.@ 8 hours ) and 105Rh ( 35 @.@ 36 hours ) . It has numerous meta states , the most stable being 102mRh ( 0 @.@ 141 MeV ) with a half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 9 years and 101mRh ( 0 @.@ 157 MeV ) with a half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 34 days ( see isotopes of rhodium ) .
In isotopes weighing less than 103 ( the stable isotope ) , the primary decay mode is electron capture and the primary decay product is ruthenium In isotopes greater than 103 , the primary decay mode is beta emission and the primary product is palladium .
= = Occurrence = =
Rhodium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth 's crust , comprising an estimated 0 @.@ 0002 parts per million ( 2 × 10 − 10 ) . Its rarity affects its price and its use in commercial applications .
= = = Mining and price = = =
The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex because the ores mixed with other metals such as palladium , silver , platinum , and gold and there are very few rhodium @-@ bearing minerals . It is found in platinum ores and extracted as a white inert metal that is difficult to fuse . Principal sources are located in South Africa ; in river sands of the Ural Mountains ; and in North America , including the copper @-@ nickel sulfide mining area of the Sudbury , Ontario , region . Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small , the large amount of processed nickel ore makes rhodium recovery cost @-@ effective .
The main exporter of rhodium is South Africa ( approximately 80 % in 2010 ) followed by Russia . The annual world production is 30 tonnes . The price of rhodium is highly variable . In 2007 , rhodium cost approximately eight times more than gold , 450 times more than silver , and 27 @,@ 250 times more than copper by weight . In 2008 , the price briefly rose above $ 10 @,@ 000 per ounce ( $ 350 @,@ 000 per kilogram ) . The economic slowdown of the 3rd quarter of 2008 pushed rhodium prices sharply back below $ 1 @,@ 000 per ounce ( $ 35 @,@ 000 per kilogram ) ; the price rebounded to $ 2 @,@ 750 by early 2010 ( $ 97 @,@ 000 per kilogram ) ( more than twice the gold price ) , but in late 2013 , the prices were less than $ 1000 .
Political and financial problems led to very low oil prices and oversupply , causing most metals to drop in price . The economies of China , India and other emerging countries slowed in 2014 and 2015 . In 2014 alone , 23 @,@ 722 @,@ 890 motor vehicles were produced in China , excluding motorbikes . This resulted in a rhodium price of 740 @.@ 00 US- $ per Troy ounce ( 31 @.@ 1 grams ) in late November 2015 .
= = = Used nuclear fuels = = =
Rhodium is a fission product of uranium @-@ 235 ; therefore , each kilogram of fission product contains a significant amount of the lighter platinum group metals including rhodium . Used nuclear fuel is a potential source of rhodium . However , the extraction is complex and expensive , and the presence of rhodium radioisotopes requires a period of cooling storage for multiple half @-@ lives of the longest @-@ lived isotope ( about 10 years ) . These factors make the source unattractive and no large @-@ scale extraction has been attempted .
= = Applications = =
The primary use of this element is in automobiles as a catalytic converter , changing harmful unburned hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , and nitrogen oxide exhaust emissions into less noxious gases . Of 30 @,@ 000 kg of rhodium consumed worldwide in 2012 , 81 % ( 24 @,@ 300 kg ) went into and 8 @,@ 060 kg was recovered from this application . About 964 kg of rhodium was used in the glass industry , mostly for production of fiberglass and flat @-@ panel glass , and 2 @,@ 520 kg was used in the chemical industry .
= = = Catalyst = = =
In 2012 , 81 % of the world production of rhodium was consumed in automobile catalytic converters . Rhodium is preferable to the other platinum metals in the reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen :
2 NOx → x O
2 + N
2
Rhodium catalysts are used in a number of industrial processes , notably in catalytic carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid by the Monsanto process . It is also used to catalyze addition of hydrosilanes to molecular double bonds , a process important in manufacture of certain silicone rubbers . Rhodium catalysts are also used to reduce benzene to cyclohexane .
The complex of a rhodium ion with BINAP is a widely used chiral catalyst for chiral synthesis , as in the synthesis of menthol .
= = = Ornamental uses = = =
Rhodium finds use in jewelry and for decorations . It is electroplated on white gold and platinum to give it a reflective white surface at time of sale , after which the thin layer wears away with use . This is known as rhodium flashing in the jewelry business . It may also be used in coating sterling silver to protect against tarnish ( silver sulfide , Ag2S , produced from atmospheric hydrogen sulfide , H2S ) . Solid ( pure ) rhodium jewelry is very rare , more because of the difficulty of fabrication ( high melting point and poor malleability ) than because of the high price . The high cost ensures that rhodium is applied only as an electroplate .
Rhodium has also been used for honors or to signify elite status , when more commonly used metals such as silver , gold or platinum were deemed insufficient . In 1979 the Guinness Book of World Records gave Paul McCartney a rhodium @-@ plated disc for being history 's all @-@ time best @-@ selling songwriter and recording artist .
= = = Other uses = = =
Rhodium is used as an alloying agent for hardening and improving the corrosion resistance of platinum and palladium . These alloys are used in furnace windings , bushings for glass fiber production , thermocouple elements , electrodes for aircraft spark plugs , and laboratory crucibles . Other uses include :
Electrical contacts , where it is valued for small electrical resistance , small and stable contact resistance , and great corrosion resistance .
Rhodium plated by either electroplating or evaporation is extremely hard and useful for optical instruments .
Filters in mammography systems for the characteristic X @-@ rays it produces .
Rhodium neutron detectors are used in combustion engineering nuclear reactors to measure neutron flux levels – this method requires a digital filter to determine the current neutron flux level , generating three separate signals : immediate , a few seconds delay , and a minute delay , each with its own signal level ; all three are combined in the rhodium detector signal . The three Palo Verde nuclear reactors each have 305 rhodium neutron detectors , 61 detectors on each of five vertical levels , providing an accurate 3D " picture " of reactivity and allowing fine tuning to consume the nuclear fuel most economically .
= = Precautions = =
Being a noble metal , pure rhodium is inert . However , chemical complexes of rhodium can be reactive . Median lethal dose ( LD50 ) for rats is 198 mg of rhodium chloride ( RhCl
3 ) per kilogram of body weight . Like the other noble metals , all of which are too inert to occur as chemical compounds in nature , rhodium has not been found to serve any biological function . In elemental form , the metal is harmless .
People can be exposed to rhodium in the workplace by inhalation . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has specified the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for rhodium exposure in the workplace at 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday , and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set the recommended exposure limit ( REL ) , at the same level . At levels of 100 mg / m3 , rhodium is immediately dangerous to life and health . For soluble compounds , the PEL and REL are both 0 @.@ 001 mg / m3 .
= Survivor Series ( 1993 ) =
Survivor Series ( 1993 ) was the seventh annual Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on Thanksgiving Eve , November 24 , 1993 , at the Boston Garden in Boston , Massachusetts .
The event consisted of four tag @-@ team elimination matches and a bout for the Smoky Mountain Wrestling Tag Team Championship . The main event match saw the All @-@ Americans , a team of face wrestlers from the United States , competing against the Foreign Fanatics , a team of heels that represented other countries . The All @-@ Americans won the match when Lex Luger was the last man remaining . In an undercard match , four members of the Hart family competed against Shawn Michaels and a group of masked men . The original plan was for the Harts to face Jerry Lawler , with whom they were feuding , but Lawler was not able to appear at the event . The Harts won the match , but a confrontation between Bret Hart and Owen Hart after the match led to Owen turning against the family the following year .
The majority of the feuds remained unresolved and carried on to future events . Bam Bam Bigelow was scheduled to face his main rival , Doink the Clown , but Bigelow 's team ended up facing four other wrestlers wearing clown makeup instead . Matches from the Survivor Series also helped set up feuds for Royal Rumble 1994 , the WWF 's next pay @-@ per @-@ view . Razor Ramon 's rivalry with Irwin R. Schyster intensified at Survivor Series and led to Ramon defending his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Schyster at the Royal Rumble . This event also marked the beginning of The Undertaker 's feud with Yokozuna , and Yokozuna defended his WWF Championship against The Undertaker at the Royal Rumble .
= = Background = =
Several feuds surrounded the opening match , which saw the team of Razor Ramon , Marty Jannetty , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Mr. Perfect face the team of Irwin R. Schyster ( I.R.S. ) , Diesel , Rick Martel , and Adam Bomb . Diesel made his WWF debut on June 6 , 1993 as a bodyguard for Shawn Michaels in a match between Michaels and Jannetty . Diesel 's interference in the match helped Michaels to defeat Jannetty and win the WWF Intercontinental Championship . Diesel was also at ringside to help Michaels when Michaels faced Mr. Perfect for the title belt at SummerSlam 1993 . Diesel attacked Perfect on multiple occasions during the match and ultimately caused Perfect to lose the match via countout . In September 1993 , Michaels was stripped of the Intercontinental Championship by WWF President Jack Tunney . A battle royal was scheduled to determine the top two contenders for the championship . Ramon and Martel were the last two wrestlers in the ring , and they faced each other in a title match on the September 27 episode of Monday Night Raw . Ramon won the match and was awarded the championship belt .
Schyster had initiated a feud with Ramon in May 1993 after Ramon lost a match to The Kid ( later the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid ) , who was competing as a jobber at the time . Schyster and his tag team partner Ted DiBiase made fun of Ramon for the loss and offered him a job as a servant . In response , Ramon teamed with the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid for a series of matches against Schyster and DiBiase , and he also distracted Schyster during a match and caused him to lose to jobber P.J. Walker . Adam Bomb was not involved in any feuds with his opponents at Survivor Series , but there was animosity between Bomb and his teammate Rick Martel . Bomb 's manager , Harvey Wippleman , was at ringside to help Martel in a match against Ramon . Wippleman was standing in the way of the match , and Martel ran in to him . While Martel was distracted , Ramon pinned him to win the match . Martel then yelled at Wippleman and pushed him . Bomb came to the ring to defend his manager , and an argument ensued until Diesel and Schyster came to the ring to calm their teammates .
Jerry Lawler spent much of 1993 building a feud with the Hart family . Lawler had been using the nickname " The King " since defeating Jackie Fargo for the AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship in 1974 . After Bret Hart won the WWF 's 1993 King of the Ring tournament , Lawler confronted him and claimed to be the only king in the WWF . Lawler then attacked Hart from behind , hitting Hart with the scepter and throne that had been set up for the coronation ceremony . The feud escalated when Lawler involved Helen and Stu Hart , Bret 's parents , by insulting them while serving as commentator for WWF television programs . In what was billed as a " Family Feud " match , Bret Hart was joined by his brother Owen , who also worked for the WWF at the time , as well as his brothers Bruce and Keith , both of whom had also wrestled professionally . Lawler 's partners were three masked wrestlers known only as the Blue Knight , the Red Knight , and the Black Knight .
Lawler was unable to appear at the event , however , as he was indicted after being accused of raping and sodomizing a teenage girl , who later admitted to making up the story . Shawn Michaels , who replaced Lawler in the match , also had a rivalry with Bret Hart dating back to the previous year . Hart , who held the Intercontinental Championship for much of 1992 , defended the belt against Michaels many times , including in the WWF 's first ladder match . They had also wrestled each other in the main event of Survivor Series 1992 , when Hart defended his newly @-@ won WWF Championship against Michaels .
The Smoky Mountain Wrestling Tag Team Championship was defended at Survivor Series as part of a working agreement between WWF owner Vince McMahon and Smoky Mountain Wrestling ( SMW ) owner Jim Cornette . The Rock ' n ' Roll Express , who held the belts going into the event , had been feuding with The Heavenly Bodies over the title for over a year . The rivalry had been violent at times , including a barbed wire cage match and a Texas deathmatch .
Doink the Clown had annoyed Bam Bam Bigelow throughout October and November with such pranks as throwing water and confetti on him and dumping a pail of water on Bigelow 's on @-@ screen girlfriend Luna Vachon . He also tied a tripwire across the aisle during one of Bigelow 's matches ; after Bigelow fell over the wire , Doink attacked him with a broom . Bigelow responded by coming to the ring during one of Doink 's matches and destroying Doink 's toy wagon . The character of Doink was played by several wrestlers , who occasionally appeared at the same time . The match booked for Survivor Series advertised Bigelow teaming with Bastion Booger , who portrayed an overweight and dirty glutton , and The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) , a team of Samoans who were portrayed as savages , to face four Doinks . To promote the match , Doink appeared on the video wall that was part of the set during Bigelow 's matches leading up to the event . The wall used a split screen to show multiple Doinks talking and laughing at the same time .
In the main event , the team of the All @-@ Americans , which consisted of Lex Luger , Tatanka , and the Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott Steiner ) faced the Foreign Fanatics , which consisted of Yokozuna , Ludvig Borga , and The Quebecers ( Jacques and Pierre ) . The main storyline behind the match began that summer when Yokozuna , a Japanese sumo wrestler , challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of the USS Intrepid during an event on Independence Day . After several challengers were unable to lift Yokozuna , Luger arrived via helicopter and successfully performed what was termed " the bodyslam heard around the world " . Luger was granted a match for Yokozuna 's WWF Championship at SummerSlam . Luger got a victory via countout but did not win the title . In the dressing room after the match , Borga , a Finnish wrestler , interrupted Luger 's celebration by criticizing Luger and initiating a new feud .
The Steiner Brothers spent the fall 1993 feuding with The Quebecers , a Canadian tag team . They had faced each other several times since The Quebecers had won the WWF Tag Team Championship from the Steiners on September 13 . Since arriving in the WWF , Tatanka had been on a two @-@ year winning streak . Borga ended the streak on the October 30 , 1993 episode of WWF Superstars by pinning Tatanka after hitting him with a chair . After the match , Borga and Yokozuna attacked Tatanka , causing kayfabe injuries that forced Tatanka to withdraw from the match at Survivor Series . The All @-@ Americans recruited The Undertaker to replace Tatanka . On the November 15 episode of Monday Night Raw , Luger defeated Pierre ; as a result of a kayfabe injury in the match , the Foreign Fanatics had to replace Pierre with Crush , the sole American of the team .
Crush was feuding with Randy Savage going into the event . They had been on @-@ screen friends , but Crush was angry that Savage had not saved him from an attack by Yokozuna on the July 12 , 1993 episode of Monday Night Raw . To make his injuries seem real , Crush did not appear on WWF television programming for several months . He made his return on October 18 , accompanied by Yokozuna 's manager , Mr. Fuji , claiming that they sympathized with Crush 's sense of betrayal by Savage . Savage tried to make amends with Crush , who then attacked Savage and announced that he had turned against Savage and the United States and was aligning himself with Yokozuna , Fuji , and Japan .
= = Event = =
Prior to the televised broadcast , Billy Gunn defeated The Brooklyn Brawler in a dark match . The first match on the pay @-@ per @-@ view event saw Razor Ramon , Randy Savage , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid , and Marty Jannetty face Diesel , Irwin R. Schyster , Rick Martel , and Adam Bomb . Prior to the match , Ramon announced that Savage was taking the place of Perfect , who was unable to appear . Martel and Ramon began the match in the ring , but Martel soon tagged out to bring Bomb into the match . Ramon performed a suplex on Bomb and attempted to pin his opponent . Martel tried to rescue his partner but ended up hitting Bomb instead and causing an argument . The 1 – 2 – 3 Kid entered the match but was overpowered by Bomb and Diesel . After the Kid tagged out , Savage performed a diving elbow drop on Diesel before getting the pinfall to eliminate Diesel from the match . Ramon was attacked by his opponents but eventually tagged Savage back into the match . Savage got distracted when Crush appeared in the aisle , however , which allowed Schyster to eliminate him from the match . Ramon then performed a Razor 's Edge on Schyster and pinned him . Ramon attempted the same move on Martel , but Schyster snuck back into the ring and hit Ramon with a briefcase . Ramon fell out of the ring and was counted out of the match . The remaining four wrestlers fought back and forth , but the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid eventually pinned Martel after a sunset flip . Almost immediately , Jannetty performed a sunset flip on Bomb to win the match for his team .
The next bout was the " Family Feud " match that saw the Hart brothers ( Bret , Owen , Bruce , and Keith ) facing Shawn Michaels and His Knights . The knights wore masks to hide their identities , but it has been revealed that Jeff Gaylord was the Black Knight , Greg Valentine was the Blue Knight , and Barry Horowitz was the Red Knight . Ray Combs , then host of Family Feud , told jokes to insult Shawn Michaels prior to the bout and later served as guest commentator for the match . Michaels began the match by wrestling Bruce Hart . Although Michaels was able to go on the offensive against the Hart brothers , the knights were unable to achieve much success against the Harts . At one point , all four wrestlers brawled in the ring , but Owen was able to eliminate the Black Knight after performing a missile dropkick . Michaels and the knights regained control of the match , but Bret turned things around by eliminating the Red Knight via submission to the Sharpshooter . Bret sustained a kayfabe injury after being thrown out of the ring and sat out of the match for a few minutes . Meanwhile , Michaels provoked Stu Hart into punching him . Inside the ring , Owen forced the Blue Knight to submit to the Sharpshooter , which left Michaels by himself . While Bret was standing on the ring apron , however , Owen ran in to him and got distracted . This allowed Michaels to pin Owen and eliminate him from the match . Bret dominated the rest of the match against Michaels until Michaels walked back to the locker room . As a result , Michaels was counted out , and the Harts won the match . After the match , Owen returned to the ring and yelled at Bret , blaming Bret for causing him to be eliminated from the match .
All four men began the SMW Tag Team Championship match in the ring . The Rock ' n ' Roll Express ( Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson ) controlled most of the opening of the match with aerial maneuvers against The Heavenly Bodies ( Jimmy Del Ray and Tom Pritchard ) . Del Ray tried to help his partner but superkicked him instead . The Heavenly Bodies gained the advantage after Pritchard performed a powerbomb on Morton , which Del Ray followed with a moonsault . Del Ray and Morton fought back and forth , with Del Ray performing another moonsault and Morton executing a hurricanrana . After all four wrestlers brawled in the ring once more , Del Ray hit Gibson in the back with a tennis racquet . Pritchard then pinned Gibson to win the belts for The Heavenly Bodies .
The next match pitted Bam Bam Bigelow , Bastion Booger and The Headshrinkers ( accompanied by Luna Vachon and Afa ) against a team calling themselves the Four Doinks . After Bigelow 's team was introduced , Doink the Clown 's theme song began to play , but immediately switched to the theme of The Bushwhackers and Howard Finkel introduced the pair as Luke Doink and Butch Doink as they came down wearing clown wigs , with Luke riding a scooter and Butch pulling a wagon . As the fans waited to see who would be the other two Doinks , the intro to Doink 's theme played again and the two Doinks were joined by Mabel Doink and Mo Doink with their rapping manager Oscar Doink ; as they came to the ring they were referred to by Bobby Heenan as " Doinks on a Mission " .
Headshrinker Samu was eliminated first after he bit several of the balloons being carried by his opponents . He was purposely offered one more balloon by the Doinks , which he willfully bit into . Samu was stunned to find out that the balloon was full of water , which caused him to stumble back in surprise and Luke rolled him up and pinned him . Later , Booger has a chance to pin Luke after he hit the Trip to the Batcave on him . However , Booger got off of Luke and went to the corner where Headshrinker Fatu offered him a banana . As Booger was looking to perform the move again , his teammates dragged him away and Booger landed on his knees . Luke and Butch performed their trademark battering ram on Booger . Mabel then executed a leg drop on Booger and pinned him . Down four wrestlers to two , Bigelow 's team appeared to be making a comeback when Fatu began taking down his opponents with the carcass of a turkey that Afa had been eating from the entire match . He then performed a top rope splash onto Mo . Fatu got distracted , however , and examined a banana peel with curiosity . Butch entered the ring with a bucket and faked out Fatu by making like he was going to toss the contents of the buckrt onto him . This resulted in Fatu slipping on the banana peel , and Butch pinned him to eliminate him from the match . Left by himself , Bigelow began brutally atracking three of the Doinks and seemed to get the upper hand when Mabel entered the ring and Bigelow was unable to do much to him . Meanwhile , Butch dumped a bucket of confetti all over Luna , which caused Bigelow to become momentarily distracted and Mabel and Mo sandwiched him in the corner . Bigelow fell , Mabel performed a splash on him , and the referee counted the pin as the other three Doinks piled on . After the match , the real Doink the Clown appeared on the video screen to taunt Bigelow .
In the final match of the evening , The All @-@ Americans , consisting of Lex Luger , The Undertaker , and The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) , competed against the Foreign Fanatics ( Yokozuna , Ludvig Borga , Quebecer Jacques , and Crush ) . Scott Steiner and Jacques began the match , but Scott soon tagged in his brother Rick . Rick knocked Yokozuna out of the ring , but he was unable to perform much offense against Borga . Rick attempted a crossbody , during which Borga was supposed to catch him . Borga botched the move , but he pinned Rick anyway to eliminate him from the match . Crush faced Scott Steiner inside the ring , but Randy Savage then appeared in the aisle trying to get to the ring but was restrained by officials and The Smoking Gunns . Scott knocked Crush out of the ring , and Crush fought with Savage until being counted out of the match . Scott then turned his attention to Jacques before tagging Luger into the match . Luger eliminated Jacques with an elbow drop and a pinfall . Scott Steiner re @-@ entered the match and executed a superplex on Borga . When he tried to pin Borga , however , Yokozuna entered the ring . Yokozuna performed a leg drop on Steiner and pinned him to even the match at two wrestlers each . Luger fought with Borga and Yokozuna before tagging The Undertaker into the match . The Undertaker gained control of the match , but Yokozuna turned the momentum around by performing his signature move , the Banzai drop , on The Undertaker . When he attempted the move a second time , The Undertaker sat up . The two men then fought outside the ring until both were counted out and eliminated from the match . Luger and Borga then fought back and forth until Luger performed a running forearm smash and pinned Borga to win the match . After the match , Santa Claus came to the ring to celebrate with Luger .
= = Aftermath = =
Razor Ramon continued with two of his feuds after Survivor Series . Irwin R. Schyster stole Ramon 's gold chains , which set up a match for the Intercontinental Championship at Royal Rumble 1994 . Despite interference from Shawn Michaels , Ramon pinned Schyster to retain the title . Michaels and Ramon then faced each other at WrestleMania X. Diesel got involved , but Ramon won the match . Ramon then defended his title against Diesel on April 13 , 1994 . Diesel won the match and became the new WWF Intercontinental Champion . Ramon regained the belt in a rematch at SummerSlam 1994 , however . Meanwhile , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Marty Jannetty continued with their push from the promotion and won the WWF Tag Team Championship on January 10 , 1994 .
Owen Hart challenged Bret Hart to a match after Survivor Series , but Bret refused to fight his brother . The two reunited to face The Quebecers for the Tag Team Championship at Royal Rumble 1994 . Bret sustained a kayfabe injury during the match , which forced the referee to stop the match . Owen blamed Bret for the loss and attacked him after the match . They faced each other at WrestleMania X , where Owen defeated Bret . The rivalry continued , however , and the brothers feuded throughout 1994 and into 1995 . Bret 's feud with Lawler remained , but the two did not face each other again until In Your House 1 in May 1995 . The feud was reignited at that time , and they feuded at several pay @-@ per @-@ view events in 1995 .
Bam Bam Bigelow 's feud with Doink the Clown remained unresolved for several months . They were in the ring at the same time during the main event of the 1994 Royal Rumble , which was a battle royal @-@ style match . Bigelow attacked Doink and eliminated him from the match . The blow off match came at WrestleMania X , where Doink and his midget sidekick Dink faced Bigelow and his girlfriend Luna Vachon in a mixed tag team match . Bigelow and Vachon won the match to settle the feud .
The Steiner Brothers continued to challenge The Quebecers , but they were unable to regain the Tag Team Championship . As a result of their confrontation at Survivor Series , The Undertaker and Yokozuna faced each other at Royal Rumble 1994 in a casket match for Yokozuna 's WWF Championship . Mr. Fuji , Yokozuna 's manager , recruited several heel wrestlers to help Yokozuna win the match . The Undertaker supposedly died and disappeared from the WWF for several months , although , in reality , he was simply recovering from injuries . He resumed the feud with Yokozuna upon his return , however , and defeated Yokozuna in a casket match at Survivor Series 1994 . Luger also continued his rivalry with Yokozuna . As a co @-@ winner of the 1994 Royal Rumble match , Luger was granted a shot at Yokozuna 's WWF Championship . Mr. Perfect , who had returned to the WWF , was the referee for the match and turned heel by disqualifying Luger during the match .
Ludvig Borga was scheduled to continue his feud with Tatanka in a match at Royal Rumble 1994 . Borga sustained a legitimate ankle injury , however , and never returned to the WWF . WWF writers had also planned to have Borga feud with Luger , but they were forced to drop the storyline because of Borga 's departure .
Crush and Randy Savage also continued their feud . They fought each other during the battle royal at Royal Rumble 1994 until Crush eliminated Savage . To end the rivalry , they faced each other in a Falls Count Anywhere match at WrestleMania X , which Savage won .
= = = Reception = = =
The attendance for the event was 15 @,@ 509 , which generated $ 180 @,@ 000 in ticket sales . This was the lowest attendance for a Survivor Series event since 1989 . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate was 0 @.@ 82 , down from 1 @.@ 4 the previous year , and was the lowest buyrate in Survivor Series history to that point .
The event has been rated by several sources . Adam Gutschmidt , writing for Online Onslaught , stated that " many of the substitutions hurt the matches " and that " the main event was bland " . The Other Arena opined that the Four Doinks match was the worst on the card and that the confrontation between Lex Luger and Ludvig Borga was boring . Scott Criscuolo and Justin Rozzero reviewed the event for The History of WWE . Both writers gave Survivor Series 1993 a " C " rating and viewed the Family Feud match as the worst on the card . Matt Peddycord , writing for 411mania.com , gave the event a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . He pointed to the crowd 's chant of " We want Doink ! " as evidence that fans were upset by the Four Doinks match .
Survivor Series 1993 was released on VHS by Coliseum Video on December 15 , 1993 in North America . It was released in the United Kingdom by Silver Vision ; the VHS version was released on March 14 , 1994 , and the DVD was released as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line ( packaged together with Survivor Series 1994 ) on September 4 , 2006 .
= = Results = =
= = = Survivor Series elimination matches = = =
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= John Grant ( Gunpowder Plot ) =
John Grant ( c . 1570 – 30 January 1606 ) was a member of the failed Gunpowder Plot , a conspiracy to replace the Protestant King James I of England with a Catholic monarch . Grant was born around 1570 , and lived at Norbrook in Warwickshire . He married the sister of another plotter , Thomas Wintour . Grant was enlisted by Robert Catesby , a religious zealot who had grown so impatient with James 's lack of toleration for Catholics that he planned to kill him , by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder . Grant 's role in the conspiracy was to provide supplies for a planned Midlands uprising , during which James 's daughter , Princess Elizabeth , would be captured . However , on the eve of the planned explosion , Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the explosives the plotters had positioned in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords , and arrested .
As the government searched for Fawkes 's accomplices , Grant and the others engaged in a futile mission for support for the uprising . They stole horses from Warwick Castle , and further supplies from Hewell Grange , before stopping at Holbeche House . The plotters laid in front of the fire some of the gunpowder they had collected , to dry out , but a stray spark ignited the powder , and in the resultant conflagration Grant was blinded . Government forces besieged the house , and he was captured and taken to London .
At his arraignment in January 1606 Grant pleaded not guilty to high treason , but he was nevertheless sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered , and was executed three days later , on 30 January .
= = Background = =
Born some time around 1570 , John Grant lived at Norbrook , near Snitterfield in Warwickshire . He was married to Thomas Wintour 's sister , Dorothy , with a son , Wintour Grant . He is described by author Antonia Fraser as a melancholy individual , but also an intellectual who studied Latin and other languages . He was a resolute character , as the poursuivants who searched his home for Catholic priests were no doubt aware ; he was so unwelcoming to them that they eventually shied away from Norbrook . Grant was also involved in the Essex Rebellion against Elizabeth I , as were several of the men with whom he became better acquainted through what became known as the Gunpowder Plot .
= = Plot = =
English Catholics hoped that the years of persecution they had suffered during Elizabeth 's reign would end when James I came to the throne , as his attitude appeared moderate , even tolerant towards Catholics . In Robert Catesby 's view however , James had reneged on his promises , and he quickly lost patience with the new dynasty . He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , and inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the throne .
Catesby enlisted the help of six fellow Catholics , and by 25 March 1605 he had recruited three others : Robert Wintour , Christopher Wright , and Grant . Grant had received a letter from Catesby inviting him to a meeting that took place in Oxford at the Catherine Wheel inn , where he and Robert Wintour swore an oath after which they were told of the plan . Grant 's role in the uprising centred on his house at Norbrook , ideally located in the English Midlands close to Warwick and Stratford , and to Catesby 's childhood home at Lapworth ( then owned by John Wright ) . In summer 1605 Grant likely stored weapons and ammunition at Norbrook , but he was also to take charge of the provision of rare war horses from the nearby Warwick Castle .
Concern over the plague had delayed Parliament 's opening from February , to October 1605 , and the government later claimed that by December 1604 the plotters were busily digging a tunnel beneath Parliament . No evidence exists to substantiate this claim , and no trace of a tunnel was ever found , but perhaps because of the change of dates Grant seems not to have been involved in the endeavour , which was stopped when the tenancy to the undercroft beneath the House of Lords became available . By 20 July the explosives were in position , but the opening of Parliament was again prorogued , this time until 5 November 1605 . As Catesby added three more to the conspiracy , the last few details were worked out ; Fawkes was to light the fuse that would set off the explosion , and then escape to the continent , while the others would incite the Midlands uprising , and capture James 's daughter , Princess Elizabeth . Thus , as the plot moved closer to fruition , on Monday 4 November Grant and a friend were to be found in Dunchurch at the Red Lion inn , with the newly recruited Everard Digby and his " hunting party " . The group attended a Mass the next morning , before moving on .
= = Failure = =
Tipped off by an anonymous letter to William Parker , 4th Baron Monteagle , late on Monday night the authorities had made a search of Parliament . There they had discovered Fawkes guarding the gunpowder the plotters had placed in the undercroft beneath the House of Lords . Catesby and the others , en route to the Midlands , had been alerted to his arrest by those conspirators who had since fled London , and together had rode to Dunchurch to meet Digby and his party .
By Wednesday 6 November the government was busy searching for Fawkes ' accomplices , and towards the end of the day Grant 's name appeared on the list of suspects drawn up by the Lord Chief Justice . However , confirmation of his status as a fugitive would not arrive until the next day , when provoked by their raid for supplies on Warwick Castle , the government issued a public proclamation naming Percy , Catesby , Rookwood , Thomas Wintour and both Wright brothers as wanted men . On the same proclamation Grant was misidentified as Edward Grant , and Catesby 's servant , Thomas Bates , was probably also misnamed as Robert Ashfield . From Warwick they rode to Grant 's home at Norbrook , collecting muskets , calivers and ammunition that he had stored there . Then they continued west through Snitterfield toward Alcester , before stopping at Huddington at about 2 : 00 pm that afternoon . Early the next morning they attended a Mass conducted by Father Nicholas Hart , who also heard their confessions — a sign that in Fraser 's opinion demonstrates that none of them thought they had long to live .
Riding through pouring rain , the fugitives helped themselves to arms , ammunition and money from the vacant home of Lord Windsor at Hewell Grange . Any hopes they harboured of a larger uprising were dashed by the locals , who on hearing that the party stood for " God and Country " , replied that they were for " King James as well as God and Country " . The group finally reached Holbeche House , on the border of Staffordshire , at about 10 : 00 pm . Tired and desperate they spread in front of the fire some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder taken from Hewell Grange , to dry out . An ember from the fire landed on the powder , and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant and another man .
Grant was blinded by the conflagration , his eyes " burnt out " . Some of the plotters disappeared into the night , but Grant stayed with Catesby , Thomas Wintour , Rookwood , the Wright brothers and Percy . With the arrival of the Sheriff of Worcester and his company early on 8 November , the house was besieged . Catesby and Percy were killed , as were both Wright brothers . Wintour and Rookwood were each wounded and were easily captured , as was Grant .
= = Trial and execution = =
Grant and the survivors were taken first to Worcester in the custody of the Sheriff , and then to the Tower of London . At their arraignment on 27 January 1606 all except Digby pleaded " Not Guilty " , but the outcome was never in doubt ; they were all found guilty of high treason , and sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered .
The first executions were scheduled for Thursday 30 January 1606 . Along with Digby and Robert Wintour ( Bates was brought separately , from the Gatehouse Prison ) , Grant was strapped to a wattled hurdle and dragged through the streets of London to St Paul 's churchyard , by St.Paul 's Cathedral . Digby was the first to ascend the scaffold , and before he was executed gave a short speech . Wintour followed , saying little . Grant was next . At his trial , when asked why a death sentence should not be pronounced against him , he had replied that he was " guilty of a conspiracy intended , but never effected . " Similarly , when faced with the executioner 's halter he refused to confess — the only one of the condemned to do so . He was led quietly up the ladder and crossed himself , before being hanged and then subjected to the latter part of his sentence . The other four plotters were executed the following day , in Old Palace Yard .
= SMS Condor =
SMS Condor ( " His Majesty 's Ship Condor " ) was an unprotected cruiser of the Imperial German Navy . She was the fourth member of the Bussard class , which included five other vessels . The cruiser 's keel was laid down in Hamburg in 1891 , she was launched in February 1892 , and was commissioned in December of that year . Intended for overseas duty , Condor was armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and could steam at a speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) .
Condor served abroad for the majority of her career , first in German East Africa in the 1890s , followed by a stint in the South Seas Station in the Pacific Ocean in the 1900s . She was present in East Africa amid rising tensions with Britain during the Second Boer War in 1899 , and frequently suppressed uprisings in Germany 's Pacific island holdings in the decade before the outbreak of World War I. Badly worn out , she returned to Germany in March 1914 and was removed from service . In 1916 , she was converted into a storage hulk for mines . After the end of World War I , she was discarded and broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Condor was 83 @.@ 9 meters ( 275 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 864 t ( 1 @,@ 835 long tons ; 2 @,@ 055 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 950 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 460 km ; 3 @,@ 390 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . She was also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck .
= = Service history = =
Condor was ordered as a replacement for the gunboat SMS Eber , which had been sunk by the hurricane that hit Apia in 1889 . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1891 . An outbreak of Cholera in Hamburg made work on the ship difficult , but the completed hull was nevertheless ready for launching as scheduled , on 23 February 1892 . Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Wilhelm Schröder , the Chief of the Baltic Station , gave the speech at her launching , and she was christened by Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) von Bodenhausen , the director of the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Wilhelmshaven . The ship accidentally launched itself due to the tide coming earlier than expected . She was completed on 9 December of that year , when she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy ; precautions against cholera delayed the beginning of sea trials until 15 December .
= = = East Africa Station = = =
On 2 October 1894 , Condor was deployed to German East Africa , based in Dar es Salaam to replace the gunboat Möwe . One of the major reasons Condor was sent to the East African Station was the pressure Britain was placing on the Boer republics — the Transvaal and the Orange Free State — which Germany held to be in its interest . While in East Africa , Condor would have been able to rapidly respond to British actions in the region . And so while stationed here , Condor frequently moved back and forth between German East Africa and the eastern coast of South Africa until 1899 , when the Second Boer War broke out . From 15 December 1894 to 1 January 1895 , Condor was anchored in Lourenço Marques , the capital of Portuguese Mozambique . On 27 June , she joined her sister Cormoran in Delagoa Bay . Despite the tensions between Germany and Britain , Condor went to Durban for her annual overhaul , which lasted from 3 August to 16 November . She thereafter returned to German East Africa and replaced her sister Seeadler there .
In late December 1895 , the British launched the so @-@ called Jameson Raid into the Transvaal ; this prompted the German Navy to send Condor back to Lourenço Marques in January 1896 . From 14 to 16 June , she was sent to Mahé in the Seychelles to rest her crew . She was called back early to return to East Africa . From 26 August to 25 November , she lay off Cape Town , but protests against the German consul , Count von Pfeil , led to moving the cruiser back to Lourenço Marques , where she remained from 11 December to 2 February 1897 . A delegation from the cruiser was sent to the opening ceremonies for the Pretoria – Lourenço Marques rail line , which had been built with German funding . During this period , she served with the cruiser Schwalbe . On 3 January 1901 , Condor departed Africa , bound for Germany . While en route in the North Sea , she responded to the distress signal from the German steamer Mawska .
= = = South @-@ Seas Station = = =
While in Germany , she underwent repairs to her hull and propulsion system . Two years later , she was sent to the Pacific to replace Cormoran on the South @-@ Seas Station . On 26 June 1903 , she arrived in Singapore . In 1904 , Condor served with her sister Seeadler and the old gunboat Möwe , which had by that time been converted to a survey ship . Condor helped suppress minor unrest in German Samoa between July and September 1904 . In April – May 1905 , she went to Sydney , Australia for basic repairs . She thereafter carried the Imperial governor of German Samoa , Wilhelm Solf , on a visit to Hawaii ; the trip lasted from 30 August to 14 September . Annual overhauls in Sydney took place during the periods 9 March – 16 May 1907 and 10 March – 18 May 1908 . In October 1907 , Condor was sent to the southern Ralik Chain to conduct gunnery training . The gunfire was intended as a show of force to prevent the local tribal chief from rebelling against the German authorities .
In concert with the gunboat Jaguar , Condor participated in the suppression of unrest in the Marshall Islands in September and October 1908 . During this operation , she carried a contingent of Melanesian infantry to the island of Pohnpei to suppress tensions between rival factions on the island . In early 1909 , unrest broke out in Apia ; because Condor was absent , the light cruisers Leipzig and Arcona and Jaguar were sent to suppress the uprising . In August , Condor searched unsuccessfully for the lost government steamer Seestern , which had been sailing to Brisbane . Condor met the armored cruiser Scharnhorst and the light cruisers Nürnberg and Emden from the East Asia Squadron in Apia in July 1910 . In January 1911 , she went to Pohnpei again to suppress the Sokehs Rebellion , along with Leipzig and Cormoran .
From 20 May 1911 to 1 October 1911 , she underwent basic repairs at the Kaiserliche Werft at Tsingtau . During the Agadir Crisis in November , she went to Yap in order to be able to quickly receive news from the recently constructed wireless station there . Further maintenance was effected at Sydney from 1 March to 18 April 1912 . That year , her survey staff was enlarged to allow for greater coastal survey work in the German protectorates . On 3 December she left Simpsonhafen in Rabaul , by request of the governor of German New Guinea , to get in touch with a German scientific expedition . From 11 to 13 December the ship anchored in the Empress Augusta river ( Sepik ) , Kaiser @-@ Wilhelmsland , 246 nmi ( 456 km ; 283 mi ) upstream . At the times the base camp of the German Empress Augusta river expedition ( 1912 @-@ 1913 ) was situated here . She returned to Simpsonhafen on 18 December . On 8 January 1913 , Condor was reclassified as a gunboat . During basic repairs in Tsingtao in May , her hull was found to be in very bad condition . The order to return to Germany came while she was stationed in Apia in November . While en route , she had to protect the German steamer Zanzibar from hostile Moroccans , which had run aground off the Moroccan coast .
= = = Fate = = =
Condor arrived in Danzig on 30 March 1914 , where she was placed out of service . Starting in 1916 , she was reduced to a hulk for storing naval mines off Friedrichsort in Kiel . She served in this capacity throughout World War I , and she was discarded in the post @-@ war reduction in the strength of the German navy . She was stricken on 18 November 1920 and sold for scrapping on 8 April 1921 . She was broken up that year in Hamburg .
= Landing at Kip 's Bay =
The Landing at Kip 's Bay was a British amphibious landing during the New York Campaign in the American Revolutionary War on September 15 , 1776 , occurring on the eastern shore of present @-@ day Manhattan .
Heavy advance fire from British naval forces in the East River caused the inexperienced militia guarding the landing area to flee , making it possible for the British to land unopposed at Kip 's Bay . Skirmishes in the aftermath of the landing resulted in the British capture of some of those militia . British maneuvers following the landing very nearly cut off the escape route of some Continental Army forces stationed further southeast on the island . The flight of American troops was so rapid that George Washington , who was attempting to rally them , was left exposed dangerously close to British lines .
The operation was a British success , and resulted in the withdrawal of the Continental Army to Harlem Heights , ceding control of New York City on the lower half of the island . However , the following day , the Battle of Harlem Heights resulted in an American victory . The campaign of 1776 had not been a decisive victory for the British as the enemy 's resistance had not been broken . All the efforts at subjugation of the rebellion had failed and their armies had not been destroyed .
= = Background = =
The American Revolutionary War had not gone well for the British military in 1775 and early 1776 . At besieged Boston , the arrival of heavy guns for the Continental Army camp prompted General William Howe to withdraw from Boston to Halifax , Nova Scotia in March 1776 . He regrouped there , acquired supplies and reinforcements , and embarked in June on a campaign to gain control of New York City . Anticipating that the
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are simply listed , with what seemed to be related families , such as " Of the Anas " ( ducks ) and " Of the Mergus " ( sawbill ducks ) , side by side .
In this way the book takes the form of , and sets a precedent for , modern field guides . Indeed , the French naturalist François Holandre ( 1753 – 1830 ) assembled a field guide using Bewick 's woodcuts as early as 1800 .
Each account is closed with a miniature woodcut known from its position in the text as a tail @-@ piece . These small artworks depict aspects of country life , often with humorous subjects , but all with Bewick 's eye for detail , style , and precision . Some add to the illustration of the bird in question , as for example the heron , where the tail @-@ piece shows one heron catching an eel , and another flying away . The tail @-@ piece for Sabine 's snipe , a gamebird , shows a hunter firing , and a small bird falling to the ground . There is no exclusion of human life from the images : one tail @-@ piece depicts a works complete with smoking chimney beside a river .
= = Outline = =
= = = Land birds = = =
The first volume " containing the History and Description of Land Birds " begins with a preface , an introduction , and a list of technical terms illustrated with Bewick 's woodcuts . The introduction begins :
In no part of the animal creation are the wisdom , the goodness , and the bounty of Providence displayed in a more lively manner than in the structure , formation , and various endowments of the feathered tribes .
The birds are divided into granivorous ( grain eating ) and carnivorous groups , which are explained in some detail . The speed , senses , flight , migration , pairing behaviour and feeding of birds are then discussed , with observations from Spallanzani and Gilbert White , whose Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne was published in 1789 . The pleasure of watching birds is mentioned :
To the practical ornithologist there arises a considerable gratification in being able to ascertain the distinguishing characters of birds as they appear at a distance , whether at rest , or during their flight ; for not only every genus has something peculiar to itself , but each species has its own appropriate marks , by which a judicious observer may discriminate almost with certainty .
Bewick also mentions conservation , in the context of the probable local extinction of a valuable resource :
" Both this and the Great Bustard are excellent eating , and would well repay the trouble of domestication ; indeed , it seems surprising , that we should suffer these fine birds to be in danger of total extinction , although , if properly cultivated , they might afford as excellent a repast as our own domestic poultry , or even as the Turkey , for which we are indebted to distant countries . "
The 1847 edition , revised with additional woodcuts and descriptions , is organized as follows , with the species grouped into families such as the shrikes :
= = = Water birds = = =
The second volume " containing the History and Description of Water Birds " begins with its own preface , and its own introduction . Bewick discusses the question of where many seabirds go to breed , revisits the subject of migration , and concludes with reflections on " an all @-@ wise Providence " as shown in Nature .
The 1847 edition is organized as follows :
Foreign Birds
The ' foreign birds ' are not grouped but just listed directly as species , from Bearded Vulture to Mino . Fifteen birds are included , with no description , and despite their placement in the table of contents , they appear at the front of the volume as an ' Appendix ' .
= = Reception = =
In 1805 , the British Critic wrote that it was " superfluous to expatiate much on the merits of a work " that everyone liked because of " the aptness of its descriptions , the accuracy of its figures , the spirit of its wood engravings , and the ingenious variety of its vignettes . "
The 1829 Magazine of Natural History commented that " Montagu 's Ornithological Dictionary and Bewick 's Birds .. have rendered [ the ] department of natural history popular throughout the land " .
Ibis , reviewing the Memoir of Thomas Bewick , written by himself in 1862 , compares the effect of Bewick and Gilbert White , writing " It was the pages of Gilbert White and the woodcuts of Bewick which first beguiled the English schoolboy to the observation of our feathered friends " , and " how few of our living naturalists but must gratefully acknowledge their early debt to White 's ' History ' and to the life @-@ like woodcuts of Bewick ! " The reviewer judges that " Probably we shall not wrong the cultivated annalist of Selborne by giving the first place to Bewick . " However , comparing them as people , " Bewick has not the slightest claim to rank with Gilbert White as a naturalist . White was what Bewick never was , a man of science ; but , if no naturalist , Bewick was a lover of nature , a careful observer , and a faithful copier of her ever @-@ varying forms . In this , and in this alone , lies his charm . "
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica 's entry on Thomas Bewick describes " the British Birds " as " his great achievement , that with which his name is inseparably associated " , observing that " Bewick , from his intimate knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his constant excursions into the country , was thoroughly qualified to do justice to this great task . "
British Birds , reviewing a " lavishly illustrated " British Library book on Bewick , writes that " No ornithologist will ever regard Thomas Bewick , known primarily for The History of British Birds ( 1797 – 1804 ) , as a naturalist of the same standing as contemporaries such as Edward Donovan , John Latham and James Bolton " , noting however that Bewick helped to define " a certain English Romantic sensibility " . More directly , the review notes that " Bewick was aware that his role was to offer a modest guide to birds that the common man not only could afford but would also want to possess . " Bewick was not " a scientist , but he was a perfectionist " . The book 's text was written by " failed author " Ralph Beilby , but the text is " almost extraneous " given Bewick 's masterpiece .
The Tate Gallery writes that Bewick 's " best illustrations ... are in his natural history books . The History of British Birds ( 2 vols , Newcastle upon Tyne , 1797 – 1804 ) reveals Bewick 's gifts as a naturalist as well as an engraver ( the artist was responsible for the text as well as the illustrations in the second volume ) . " The article notes that the book makes " extensive use of narrative tailpieces : vignettes in which manifold aspects of north @-@ country life are expressed with affection , humour and a genuine love of nature . In later years these miniature scenes came to be more highly regarded than the figures they accompany . "
Dissenting from the general tone of praise for Bewick , Jacob Kainen cites claims that " many of the best tailpieces in the History of British birds were drawn by Robert Johnson " , and that " the greater number of those contained in the second volume were engraved by Clennell . Granted that the outlook and the engraving style were Bewick 's , and that these were notable contributions , the fact that the results were so close to his own points more to an effective method of illustration than to the outpourings of genius . " Kainen argues that while competent , Bewick " was no Holbein , no Botticelli — it is absurd to think of him in such terms — but he did develop a fresh method of handling wood engraving . "
The Linnean Society writes that the History " shows that he was also an excellent naturalist , a meticulous observer of birds and animals in their habitats . "
The University of Maryland writes that " The Birds is specific to those species indigenous to Britain and is incredibly accurate due to Bewick 's personal knowledge of the habits of birds in the wild acquired during his frequent bird @-@ watching expeditions . " It adds that " Bewick 's woodcarvings are considered a pinnacle example of the medium . "
Jenny Uglow , writing in The Guardian , notes that " An added delight was the way he filled the blank spaces with ' tail @-@ pieces ' , tiny , witty , vivid scenes of ordinary life . " She describes the importance of Birds in Jane Eyre , and ends " He worked with precision and insight , in a way that we associate with poets such as Clare and Wordsworth , Gerard Manley Hopkins and Elizabeth Bishop . To Bewick , nature was the source of joy , challenge and perpetual consolation . In his woodcuts of birds and animals as well as his brilliant tail @-@ pieces , we can still feel this today . " However , in her biography of Bewick , she adds that " The country might be beautiful but it also stank : in his vignettes men relieve themselves in hedges and ruins , a woman holds her nose as she walks between the cowpats , and a farmyard privy shows that men are as filthy as the pigs they despise . "
Hilary Spurling , reviewing Uglow 's biography of Bewick in The Observer , writes that when Birds appeared , people all over Britain " became his pupils " . Spurling cites Charles Kingsley 's story of his father 's hunting friends from the New Forest mocking him for buying " a book ' about dicky @-@ birds " , until , astonished , they saw the book and discovered " things they had known all their lives and never even noticed " .
John Brewer , writing in the London Review of Books , says that for his Birds , " Bewick had acquired national renown as the artist who most truthfully depicted the flora and fauna of the British countryside . " He adds that " Bewick 's achievement was both technical and aesthetic . " In his view , Bewick " reconciled nature , science and art . His engravings of British birds , which represent his work at its finest , are almost all rendered with the precision of the ornithologist : but they also portray the animals in their natural habitat – the grouse shelters in his covert , the green woodpecker perches on a gnarled branch , waders strut by streams ... " He observes that " Most of the best engravings include a figure , incident or building which draws the viewer 's eye beyond and behind the animal profile in the foreground . Thus the ploughboy in the distant field pulls our gaze past the yellow wagtail ... "
= = In culture = =
The History is repeatedly mentioned in Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel Jane Eyre . John Reed throws the History of British Birds at Jane when she is ten ; Jane uses the book as a place to which to escape , away from the painful Reed household ; and Jane also bases her artwork on Bewick 's illustrations . Jane and Mr Rochester use bird names for each other , including linnet , dove , skylark , eagle , and falcon . Brontë has Jane Eyre explain and quote Bewick :
I returned to my book--Bewick 's History of British Birds : the letterpress thereof I cared little for , generally speaking ; and yet there were certain introductory pages that , child as I was , I could not pass quite as a blank . They were those which treat of the haunts of sea @-@ fowl ; of ' the solitary rocks and promontories ' by them only inhabited ; of the coast of Norway , studded with isles from its southern extremity , the Lindeness , or Naze , to the North Cape--
The English romantic poet William Wordsworth began his 1800 poem The Two Thieves ; or , the Last Stage of Avarice with the lines
Peter Hall 's 1974 film Akenfield ( from the 1969 book by Ronald Blythe ) contains a scene where the grandfather as a young man is reaping a cornfield . He weeps when he accidentally crushes a bird 's egg , an image derived from Bewick 's tail @-@ piece woodcut for the partridge . The woodcut shows a reaper with a scythe , a dead bird and its nest of a dozen eggs on the ground under the scythe , which has just lifted . George Ewart Evans used the image on the title page of his 1956 book about Blaxhall ( near Charsfield , on which ' Akenfield ' is probably partly based ) .
= = Tail @-@ pieces = =
A selection of tail @-@ pieces from the book , where they have no captions .
= = Principal editions = =
Volume 1 first appeared in 1797 , and was reprinted several times in 1797 , then again in 1798 and 1800 . Volume 1 was priced 13s. in boards . Volume 2 first appeared in 1804 ( price 11 . 4s. in boards ) . The first imprint was " Newcastle : Printed by Sol . Hodgson , for Beilby & Bewick ; London : Sold by them , and G.C. and J. Robinson , 1797 – 1804 . " The book was reprinted in 1805 , 1809 , 1816 , and 1817 .
In 1821 a new edition appeared with supplements to both volumes and additional figures , with the imprint " Printed by Edward Walker , Pilgrim @-@ Street , for T. Bewick : sold by him , and E. Charnley , Newcastle ; and Longman and co . , London , 1821 . " The book was reprinted in many subsequent versions with a 6th edition in 1826 , another in 1832 , an 8th edition in 1847 , and a royal octavo ' Memorial Edition ' in 1885 .
A History of British Birds . First Edition .
--- Bewick , Thomas ; Beilby , Ralph ( 1797 ) . Volume 1 , Land Birds .
--- Bewick , Thomas ( 1804 ) . Volume 2 , Water Birds .
= = = Selected modern versions = = =
Bewick 's British Birds ( 2010 ) , Arcturus . ( hardback ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84837 @-@ 647 @-@ 2
Bewick , Thomas ; Aesop ; Bewick , Jane ( 2012 ) . Memorial Edition Of Thomas Bewick 's Works : A History Of British Birds . ( reproduced in original format ) Ulan Press .
= Western Front ( World War I ) =
The Western Front was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914 , the German Army opened the Western Front first by invading Luxembourg and Belgium , then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France . The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne . Following the race to the sea , both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches , stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France . This line remained essentially unchanged for most of the war .
Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front . The attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances . However , a combination of entrenchments , machine gun nests , barbed wire , and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties on the attackers and counter @-@ attacking defenders . As a result , no significant advances were made . Among the most costly of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun , in 1916 , with a combined 700 @,@ 000 casualties ( estimated ) , the Battle of the Somme , also in 1916 , with more than a million casualties ( estimated ) , and the Battle of Passchendaele , in 1917 , with roughly 600 @,@ 000 casualties ( estimated ) .
In an effort to break the deadlock , this front saw the introduction of new military technology , including poison gas , aircraft and tanks . But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored . The German Army 's Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front . Using the recently introduced infiltration tactics , the German armies advanced nearly 100 kilometres ( 60 miles ) to the west , which marked the deepest advance by either side since 1914 and very nearly succeeded in forcing a breakthrough .
In spite of the generally stagnant nature of this front , this theatre would prove decisive . The inexorable advance of the Allied armies during the second half of 1918 persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable , and the government was forced to sue for conditions of an armistice . The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 .
= = 1914 — German invasion of France and Belgium = =
At the outbreak of the First World War , the German Army ( consisting in the West of seven field armies ) executed a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan , designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border . Belgium 's neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London ; this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August . Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914 . Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August . The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège , which lasted from 5 – 16 August . Liège was well fortified and surprised the German army under von Bülow with its level of resistance . However , German heavy artillery was able to ruin the key forts within a few days . Following the fall of Liège , most of the Belgian army retreated to Antwerp and Namur , with the Belgian capital , Brussels , falling to the Germans on 20 August . Although the German army bypassed Antwerp , it remained a threat to their flank . Another siege followed at Namur , lasting from about 20 – 23 August .
For their part , the French had five Armies deployed on their borders . The pre @-@ war French offensive plan , Plan XVII , was intended to capture Alsace @-@ Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities . On 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar . The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg @-@ Morhange in Lorraine . In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan , the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French . The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg , attacking Briey and Neufchateau , before being driven back . The French VII Corps captured Mulhouse after a brief engagement on 7 August , but German reserve forces engaged them in the Battle of Mulhouse and forced a French retreat .
The German army swept through Belgium , executing civilians and razing villages . The application of " collective responsibility " against a civilian population further galvanised the allies , and newspapers condemned the German invasion and the army 's violence against civilians and property , together called the " Rape of Belgium " . ( A modern author uses the term only in the narrower sense of describing the war crimes committed by the German army during this period . ) After marching through Belgium , Luxembourg and the Ardennes , the German Army advanced , in the latter half of August , into northern France where they met both the French army , under Joseph Joffre , and the initial six divisions of the British Expeditionary Force , under Sir John French . A series of engagements known as the Battle of the Frontiers ensued . Key battles included the Battle of Charleroi and the Battle of Mons . In the former battle the French 5th Army was almost destroyed by the German 2nd and 3rd Armies and the latter delayed the German advance by a day . A general Allied retreat followed , resulting in more clashes such as the Battle of Le Cateau , the Siege of Maubeuge and the Battle of St. Quentin ( Guise ) .
The German army came within 70 km ( 43 mi ) of Paris , but at the First Battle of the Marne ( 6 – 12 September ) , French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap which appeared between the 1st and 2nd Armies , ending the German advance into France . The German army retreated north of the Aisne River and dug in there , establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years . Following this German setback , the opposing forces tried to outflank each other in the Race for the Sea , and quickly extended their trench systems from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier . The resulting German @-@ occupied territory held 64 % of France 's pig @-@ iron production , 24 % of its steel manufacturing and 40 % of the total coal mining capacity , dealing a serious , but not crippling setback to French industry .
On the Entente side , the final lines were occupied by the armies of the Allied countries , with each nation defending a part of the front . From the coast in the north , the primary forces were from Belgium , the British Empire and France . Following the Battle of the Yser in October , the Belgian forces controlled a 35 km length of Belgium 's Flanders territory along the coast , known as the Yser Front , along the Yser river and the Yperlee canal , from Nieuwpoort to Boesinghe . Stationed to the south was the sector of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . Here , from 19 October until 22 November , the German forces made their final breakthrough attempt of 1914 during the First Battle of Ypres . Heavy casualties were suffered on both sides but no breakthrough occurred . After the battle Erich von Falkenhayn reasoned that it was no longer possible for Germany to win the war , and on 18 November 1914 he called for a diplomatic solution , but Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg , Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff disagreed . By Christmas , the BEF guarded a continual line from the La Bassée Canal to south of St. Eloi in the Somme valley . The greater part of the front , south to the border with Switzerland , was manned by French forces .
= = 1915 — Stalemate = =
Between the coast and the Vosges was a westward bulge in the trench line , named the Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near Compiègne . Joffre 's plan for 1915 was to attack this German salient on both flanks to cut it off . The British would form the northern attack force by pressing eastward in Artois , while the French attacked in Champagne .
On 10 March , as part of what was intended as a larger offensive in the Artois region , the British army attacked at Neuve Chapelle in an effort to capture the Aubers Ridge . The assault was made by four divisions along a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) front . Preceded by a concentrated bombardment lasting 35 minutes , the initial assault made rapid progress and the village was captured within four hours . The advance then slowed because of problems with logistics and communications . The Germans then brought up reserves and counter @-@ attacked , forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge . Since the British had used about one @-@ third of their supply of artillery shells , General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of shells , despite the success of the initial attack .
= = = Gas warfare = = =
All sides signed treaties ( the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 ) which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare before World War I. In spite of this , World War I saw large @-@ scale chemical warfare .
In 1914 , there had been small @-@ scale attempts by both the French and Germans to use of various tear gases , which were not strictly prohibited by the early treaties , but which were also largely ineffective . The first use of more lethal chemical weapons was against the British near Belgian town of Ypres .
Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British , German commanders planned an offensive at Ypres , which the British had defended in November 1914 . This Second Battle of Ypres , April 1915 , was intended to divert attention from offensives in the Eastern Front and disrupt Franco @-@ British planning . After a two @-@ day bombardment , the Germans released 168 tons of chlorine gas onto the battlefield . Though primarily a powerful irritant , it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure . Being heavier than air , the gas crept across no man 's land and drifted into the British trenches . The green @-@ yellow cloud started killing some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic , creating an undefended 6 @-@ kilometre @-@ wide ( 4 mi ) gap in the Allied line . The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening . Canadian troops quickly arrived and drove back the German advance .
The gas attack was repeated two days later and caused a 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 mi ) withdrawal of the Franco @-@ British line , but the opportunity had been lost . The success of this attack would not be repeated , as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures . An example of the success of these measures came a year later , on 27 April at Hulluch 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the south of Ypres , where the 16th ( Irish ) Division withstood several German gas attacks .
The British retaliated , developing their own chlorine gas , and using it at the Battle of Loos in September , 1915 . Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German .
French , British , and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war , developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915 , then the infamous mustard gas in 1917 , which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully . Countermeasures also improved , however , and the stalemate continued .
= = = Air warfare = = =
Aeroplanes specifically modified for aerial combat were introduced in 1915 . While planes had already been used in the war for scouting , on 1 April the French pilot Roland Garros became the first to shoot down an enemy plane by using a machine gun that shot forward through the propeller blades . This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades so bullets which hit them were deflected away .
Several weeks later Garros was forced to land behind German lines . His plane was captured and sent to Dutch engineer Anthony Fokker , who soon produced a significant improvement , the interrupter gear , in which the machine gun is synchronised with the propeller so it fires in the intervals when the blades of the propeller are out of the line of fire . This advance was quickly ushered into service , in the Fokker E.I ( Eindecker , or monoplane , Mark 1 ) , the first single seat fighter aircraft to combine a reasonable maximum speed with an effective armament ; Max Immelmann scored the first confirmed kill in an Eindecker on 1 August .
This started a back @-@ and @-@ forth arms race , as both sides developed improved weapons , engines , airframes and materials , which continued until the end of the war . It also inaugurated the cult of the ace , the most famous being the Red Baron . Contrary to the myth , antiaircraft fire claimed more kills than fighters .
= = = Continued Entente attacks = = =
The final Entente offensive of the spring was fought at Artois , with the goal of trying to capture Vimy Ridge . The French 10th Army attacked on 9 May after a six @-@ day bombardment and advanced 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) . However , they retreated as they had come into sights of machine gun nests and the German reinforcements fired artillery at the attackers . By 15 May the advance had been stopped , although the fighting continued until 18 June .
In May the German army captured a French document at La Ville @-@ aux @-@ Bois describing a new system of defence . Rather than relying on a heavily fortified front line , the defence is arranged in a series of echelons . The front line would be a thinly manned series of outposts , reinforced by a series of strongpoints and a sheltered reserve . If a slope was available , troops were deployed along the rear side for protection . The defence became fully integrated with command of artillery at the divisional level . Members of the German high command viewed this new scheme with some favour and it later became the basis of an elastic defence in depth doctrine against Entente attacks .
During autumn of 1915 , the " Fokker Scourge " began to have an effect on the battlefront as Allied spotter planes were nearly driven from the skies . These reconnaissance planes were used to direct gunnery and photograph enemy fortifications but now the Allies were nearly blinded by German fighters . However , the impact of German air superiority was diminished by their doctrinal reluctance to risk their pilots capture by fighting over Allied held territory .
In September 1915 the Entente allies launched another offensive , with the French attacking at Champagne and the British at Loos . The French had spent the summer preparing for this action , with the British assuming control of more of the front to release French troops for the attack . The bombardment , which had been carefully targeted by means of aerial photography , began on 22 September . The main French assault was launched on 25 September and at first made good progress , in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts . Rather than retreating , the Germans adopted a new defence @-@ in @-@ depth scheme that consisted of a series of defensive zones and positions with a depth of up to 8 @.@ 0 km ( 5 mi ) .
On 25 September , the British began their assault at Loos , which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack . The attack was preceded by a four @-@ day artillery bombardment of 250 @,@ 000 shells and a release of 5 @,@ 100 cylinders of chlorine gas . The attack involved two corps in the main assault and two more corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres . The British suffered heavy losses , especially due to machine gun fire , during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells . A renewal of the attack on 13 October fared little better . In December , British Field Marshal Sir John French was replaced by General Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces .
= = 1916 — Artillery duels and attrition = =
The German Chief of Staff , Erich von Falkenhayn , believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible , and instead focused on forcing a French capitulation by inflicting massive casualties . His new goal was to " bleed France white " .
As such , he adopted two new strategies . The first was the use of unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas . The second would be targeted , high @-@ casualty attacks against the French ground troops . To inflict the maximum possible casualties , he planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat for reason of both strategic positions and national pride and thus trap the French . The town of Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold , surrounded by a ring of forts , that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to Paris . The operation was codenamed Gericht , German for " court " , but meant " place of execution " .
Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 5 to 6 kilometres ( 3 to 4 mi ) to concentrate their firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counteroffensive . He also kept tight control of the main reserve , feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going . In preparation for their attack , the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress . In the opening phase , they swept the air space of enemy spotters which allowed the accurate German artillery spotters and bombers to operate without interference . However , by May , the French countered by deploying escadrilles de chasse with superior Nieuport fighters . The tight air space over Verdun turned into an aerial battlefield , and illustrated the value of tactical air superiority , as each side sought to dominate air reconnaissance .
= = = Battle of Verdun = = =
The Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine @-@ day delay due to snow and blizzards . After a massive eight @-@ hour artillery bombardment , the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts . However , heavy French resistance was encountered . The French lost control of Fort Douaumont . Nonetheless , French reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February .
The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme to the north from which the French were successfully shelling them . After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign , the hill was taken by the Germans in late May . After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive @-@ minded Philippe Pétain to the offensive @-@ minded Robert Nivelle the French attempted to re @-@ capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed . The Germans captured Fort Vaux on 7 June and , with the aid of the gas diphosgene , came within 1 kilometre ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) of the last ridge over Verdun before stopping on 23 June .
Over the summer , the French slowly advanced . With the development of the rolling barrage , the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November , and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 2 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) from Fort Douaumont , in the process rotating 42 divisions through the battle . The Battle of Verdun — also known as the ' Mincing Machine of Verdun ' or ' Meuse Mill ' — became a symbol of French determination and self @-@ sacrifice .
= = = Battle of the Somme = = =
In the spring Allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun . The original plans for an attack around the river Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort . This would serve to relieve pressure on the French , as well as the Russians who had also suffered great losses . On 1 July , after a week of heavy rain , British divisions in Picardy launched an attack around the river Somme , supported by five French divisions on their right flank . The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment . The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire , nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned . They suffered the greatest number of casualties ( killed , wounded , and missing ) in a single day in the history of the British army , about 57 @,@ 000 .
Having assessed the air combat over Verdun , the Allies had new aircraft designed by Citroën engineer Andrew Sywy , for the attack in the Somme valley . The Verdun lesson learnt , the Allies ' tactical aim became the achievement of air superiority and the German planes were , indeed , largely swept from the skies over the Somme . The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganisation of the German air arm , and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat .
After regrouping , the battle continued throughout July and August , with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines . By August General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely , and instead switched tactics to a series of small unit actions . The effect was to straighten out the front line , which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push .
The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the tank on the battlefield . The Allies prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps . The attack made early progress , advancing 3 @,@ 200 to 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 500 to 4 @,@ 500 yd ) in places , but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability . The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November , again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life . All told , the Somme battle had made penetrations of only 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) , and failed to reach the original objectives . The British had suffered about 420 @,@ 000 casualties and the French around 200 @,@ 000 . It is estimated that the Germans lost 465 @,@ 000 , although this figure is controversial .
The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organisation and tactics ; despite the terrible losses of 1 July , some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties . In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements , the British , and the Colonial contingents , reintroduced the concept of the infantry platoon , following in the footsteps of the French and German armies who were already groping their way towards the use of small tactical units . At the time of the Somme , British senior commanders insisted that the company ( 120 men ) was the smallest unit of manoeuvre ; less than a year later , the section of 10 men would be so .
= = = Hindenburg line = = =
In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Generals Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff . The new leaders soon recognised that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German army . They decided that the German army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917 , while the Central powers would attack elsewhere .
During the Somme battle and through the winter months , the Germans created a prepared defensive position behind a section of their front that would be called the Hindenburg Line using the defensive principles elaborated since the defensive battles of 1915 , including the use of Eingreif divisions . This was intended to shorten the German front , freeing 10 divisions for other duties . This line of fortifications ran from Arras south to St Quentin and shortened the front by about 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) . British long @-@ range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916 .
= = 1917 — British offensives = =
The Hindenburg Line was built between two and 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) behind the German front line . On 9 February German forces retreated to the line and the withdrawal was completed 5 April , leaving behind a devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies . This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient , as it no longer existed . However , offensive advances by the British continued as the High Command claimed , with some justice , that this withdrawal resulted from the casualties the Germans received during the Battles of the Somme and Verdun , despite the Allies suffering greater losses .
Meanwhile , on 6 April the United States declared war on Germany . In early 1915 , following the sinking of the Lusitania , Germany had stopped its unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict . With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages , however , the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 . They had calculated that a successful submarine and warship siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months , while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the Western Front . The submarine and surface ships had a long period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system , bringing a large reduction in shipping losses .
By 1916 – 17 , the size of the British Army on the Western Front had grown to two @-@ thirds the total numbers in the French forces . In April 1917 the British Empire forces launched an attack starting the Battle of Arras . The Canadian Corps and the British 5th Division , attacked German lines at Vimy Ridge , capturing the heights . However , the rest of the offensive was halted with heavy losses . The Allied attack ended with the refusal to provide reinforcements to the region .
During the winter of 1916 – 17 , German air tactics had been improved , a fighter training school was opened at Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced . The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power , particularly for the British , Portuguese , Belgians , and Australians who were struggling with outmoded aircraft , poor training and weak tactics . As a result , the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated , and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans . During their attack at Arras , the British lost 316 air crews and the Canadians lost 114 compared to 44 lost by the Germans . This became known to the RFC as Bloody April .
= = = French mutinies = = =
The same month , French General Robert Nivelle ordered a new offensive against the German trenches , promising that it would end the war within 48 hours . The 16 April attack , dubbed the Nivelle Offensive ( also known as Chemin des Dames , after the area where the offensive took place ) , would be 1 @.@ 2 million men strong , to be preceded by a week @-@ long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks . However , the operation proceeded poorly as the French troops , with the help of two Russian brigades , had to negotiate rough , upward @-@ sloping terrain . In addition , detailed planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line , secrecy had been compromised , and German planes gained control of the sky making reconnaissance difficult . This allowed the creeping barrage to move too far ahead of the advancing troops . Within a week 100 @,@ 000 French troops were dead . Despite the heavy casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough , Nivelle ordered the attack continued into May .
On 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division , veterans of the Battle of Verdun , refused their orders , arriving drunk and without their weapons . Lacking the means to punish an entire division , the officers of the division did not immediately implement harsh measures against the mutineers . Thereupon mutinies afflicted 54 French divisions and saw 20 @,@ 000 men desert . Other Allied forces attacked but suffered massive casualties . Appeals to patriotism and duty followed , as did mass arrests and trials . The French soldiers returned to defend their trenches , but refused to participate in further offensive action . On 15 May Nivelle was removed from command , replaced by General Philippe Pétain who immediately suspended large @-@ scale attacks . The French would go on the defensive for the following months to avoid high casualties and to restore confidence in the French High Command .
= = = British offensives , American troops arrive = = =
On 7 June a British offensive was launched on Messines Ridge , south of Ypres , to retake the ground lost in the First and Second Battles of Ypres in 1914 . Since 1915 specialist Royal Engineer tunnelling companies had been digging tunnels under the ridge , and about 500 tonnes ( roughly 500 @,@ 000 kg ) of explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the enemy lines . Following four days of heavy bombardment , the explosives in 19 of these mines were detonated , resulting in the deaths of 10 @,@ 000 Germans . The offensive that followed again relied on heavy bombardment which allowed the British infantry to capture the ridge in one day . The limited offensive was a great success , all German counter @-@ attacks were defeated and the southern flank of the Gheluvelt plateau protected from German observation .
On 11 July 1917 during this battle , the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired gas shells delivered by artillery . The limited size of an artillery shell required that a more potent gas be deployed , and so the Germans employed mustard gas , a powerful blistering agent . The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets . Mustard gas was also a persistent agent , which could linger for up to several days at a site , an additional demoralising factor for their opponents . Along with phosgene , mustard gas would be used extensively by both German and Allied forces in later battles , as the Allies also began to increase production of gas for chemical warfare .
On 25 June the first US troops began to arrive in France , forming the American Expeditionary Force . However , the American units did not enter the trenches in divisional strength until October . The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort , and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts . In spite of this , however , their presence provided a much @-@ needed boost to Allied morale .
Beginning on 31 July and continuing to 10 November the struggle around Ypres was renewed with the Battle of Passchendaele ( technically the Third Battle of Ypres , of which Passchendaele was the final phase ) . The battle had the original aim of capturing the ridges east of Ypres then advancing to Roulers and Thourout to close the main rail line supplying the German garrisons of the Western front and the Belgian coast then capturing the German submarine bases on the Belgian coast , but was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto the ridges around Ypres , as the unusually wet weather slowed British progress . Canadian veterans from the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the Battle of Hill 70 relieved the two ANZAC Corps and other British forces and took the village of Passchendaele on 6 November , despite extremely heavy rain and casualties . The offensive produced large numbers of casualties on both sides for relatively little gain of ground against dogged German resistance , yet that captured was of great tactical importance and the British made inexorable gains during periods of drier weather . The ground was generally muddy and pocked by shell craters , making supply missions and further advancement very difficult .
Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive . The battle has become a byword among some British historians for bloody and futile slaughter , whilst the Germans called Passchendaele " the greatest martyrdom of the War " . It is one of the two battles ( the other is the Battle of the Somme ) which have done most to earn British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig his controversial reputation .
= = = Battle of Cambrai = = =
On 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack during the Battle of Cambrai . The Allies attacked with 324 tanks , with one @-@ third held in reserve , and twelve divisions , against two German divisions . To maintain surprise , there was no preparatory bombardment ; only a curtain of smoke was laid down before the tanks . The machines carried fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and 4 @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 13 ft ) German tank traps . Special " grapnel tanks " towed hooks to pull away the German barbed wire . The initial attack was a success for the British . The British forces penetrated further in six hours than had been achieved at the Third Ypres in four months , and at a cost of only 4 @,@ 000 British casualties .
However , the advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counteroffensive on 30 November drove the British back to their starting lines . Despite the reversal , the attack had been seen as a success by the Allies and Germans as it proved that tanks could overcome trench defences . The battle had also seen the first massed use of German stosstruppen on the Western front , who used infantry infiltration tactics to successfully penetrate the Allied lines , bypassing resistance and quickly advancing into the enemy 's rear .
= = 1918 — Final offensives = =
Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai , Ludendorff and Hindenburg determined that the only opportunity for German victory now lay in a decisive attack along the Western front during the spring , before American manpower became a significant presence . On 3 March 1918 , the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk was signed , and Russia withdrew from the war . This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 33 divisions were now released from the Eastern Front for deployment to the West . However , the Germans occupied almost as much Russian territory under the provisions of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk as they did in the Second World War : this considerably restricted their troop redeployment . Nonetheless , they still had an advantage of 192 divisions to the Allied 178 divisions , which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as sturmtruppen . In contrast , the Allies still lacked a unified command and suffered from morale and manpower problems : the British and French armies were sorely depleted , and American troops had not yet transitioned into a combat role .
Ludendorff 's strategy would be to launch a massive offensive against the British and Commonwealth designed to separate them from the French and her allies , then drive them back to the channel ports . The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with ground attack aircraft , tanks , and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks .
= = = German spring offensives = = =
Operation Michael , the first of the German Spring Offensives , very nearly succeeded in driving the Allied armies apart , advancing about 60 kilometres ( 40 mi ) during the first eight days and moving the front lines more than 100 kilometres ( 60 mi ) west , within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914 .
As a result of the battle , the Allies finally agreed on a unified system of command . General Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France . The unified Allies were now better able to respond to each of the German drives , and the offensive turned into a battle of attrition .
In May , the American divisions also began to play an increasing role , winning their first victory in the Battle of Cantigny . By summer , 300 @,@ 000 American soldiers were arriving every month . A total of 2 @.@ 1 million American troops would be deployed on this front before the war came to an end . The rapidly increasing American presence served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German forces .
= = = Final allied counter @-@ offensives = = =
In July , Foch initiated a counter @-@ offensive against the Marne salient produced during the German attacks , eliminating the salient by August . A second major offensive was launched two days after the first , ending at Amiens to the north . This attack included Franco @-@ British forces , and was spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops , along with 600 tanks and supported by 800 aircraft . The assault proved highly successful , leading Hindenburg to name 8 August as the " Black Day of the German Army " . The Italian 2nd Army Corps , commanded by general Alberico Albricci , also participated in the operations around Reims .
The German army 's manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war , and its economy and society were under great internal strain . The Entente now fielded a total of 216 divisions against 197 understrength German divisions . The Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August proved the final straw , and following this string of military defeats , German troops began to surrender in large numbers . As the Allied forces broke the German lines , Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed as Chancellor of Germany in October to negotiate an armistice . Because of his opposition to the peace feelers , Ludendorff was forced to step aside and he fled to Sweden . Fighting was still continuing , but the German armies were in retreat when the German Revolution put a new government in power . An armistice was quickly signed , that stopped all fighting on the Western Front on Armistice Day ( 11 November 1918 ) . The German Imperial Monarchy collapsed as General Groener ( Ludendorff 's successor ) backed the moderate Social Democratic Government under Friedrich Ebert , rather than face the possibility of a revolution like that in Russia the previous year .
= = Consequences = =
The war along the Western Front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere . As a result , the terms of the peace were dictated by France , Britain and the United States , during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference . The result was the Treaty of Versailles , signed in June 1919 by a delegation of the new German government .
The terms of the treaty would effectively cripple Germany as an economic and military power . The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace @-@ Lorraine to France , thus limiting the coal required by German industry . The Saar , which formed the west bank of the Rhine , would be demilitarised and controlled by Britain and France , while the Kiel Canal opened to international traffic . The treaty also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe . It severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100 @,@ 000 and disallowing a navy or air force . The navy was sailed to Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later scuttled , under the order of German admirals , as a reaction to the treaty .
Germany in 1919 was bankrupt , the people living in a state of semi @-@ starvation and having no commerce with the remainder of the world . The Allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne , Koblenz and Mainz , with restoration dependent on payment of reparations . Among the German populace , the myth arose — openly cultivated by the Army Chief of Staff Hindenburg — that the defeat was not the fault of the ' good core ' of the army but due to certain left @-@ wing groups within Germany ; this would later be exploited by Nazi party propaganda to partly justify the overthrow of the Weimar Republic . See Stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back legend .
France suffered heavy damage in the war . In addition to losing more casualties relative to its population than any other great power , the industrial north @-@ east of the country had been devastated by the war . The provinces overrun by Germany had produced 40 % of the nation 's coal and 58 percent of its steel output . Once it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated , Ludendorff had ordered the destruction of the mines in France and Belgium . His goal was to cripple the industries of Germany 's main European rival . To prevent similar German attacks in the future , France later built a massive series of fortifications along the German border known as the Maginot Line .
The war in the trenches of the Western Front had left a generation of maimed soldiers and war widows . The unprecedented loss of life had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war , resulting later in an Allied reluctance to pursue an aggressive policy toward Adolf Hitler ( a decorated veteran of the war ) .
= = Dramatisations = =
= Monmouth Rebellion =
The Monmouth Rebellion , also known as The Revolt of the West or The West Country rebellion , was an attempt to overthrow James II , the Duke of York who had become King of England , Scotland , and Ireland upon the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685 . James II was a Roman Catholic , and some Protestants under his rule opposed his kingship . James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth , an illegitimate son of Charles II , claimed to be rightful heir to the throne and attempted to displace James II .
Plans were discussed for several different actions to overthrow the monarch , following the failure of the Rye House Plot to assassinate Charles II and James , in 1683 , while Monmouth was in self @-@ imposed exile in the Dutch Republic . The Monmouth rebellion was coordinated with a rebellion in Scotland , where Archibald Campbell , the Earl of Argyll , landed with a small force . The Duke of Monmouth had been popular in the South West of England , so he planned to recruit troops locally and take control of the area before marching on London .
Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis on 11 June 1685 . In the following few weeks , his growing army of nonconformists , artisans , and farm workers fought a series of skirmishes with local militias and regular soldiers commanded by Louis de Duras , 2nd Earl of Feversham , and John Churchill , who later became the Duke of Marlborough . Monmouth 's forces were unable to compete with the regular army and failed to capture the key city of Bristol . The rebellion ended with the defeat of Monmouth 's army at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 by forces led by Feversham and Churchill .
Monmouth was executed for treason on 15 July 1685 . Many of his supporters were tried during the Bloody Assizes , led by Judge Jeffreys , and were condemned to death or transportation . James II was then able to consolidate his power . He reigned until 1688 , when he was overthrown in a coup d 'état by William of Orange in the Glorious Revolution .
= = Duke of Monmouth = =
Monmouth was an illegitimate son of Charles II . There had been rumours that Charles had married Monmouth 's mother , Lucy Walter , but no evidence was forthcoming , and Charles always said that he only had one wife , Catherine of Braganza .
Monmouth had been appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the English Army by his father in 1672 and Captain general in 1678 , enjoying some successes in the Netherlands in the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
= = Context = =
The English Civil War had left resentment among some of the population about the monarchy and the penalties which had been imposed on the supporters of the Commonwealth . The South West of England contained several towns where opposition remained strong . Fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted , intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife to produce any children . A defrocked Anglican clergyman , Titus Oates , spoke of a " Popish Plot " to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne . The Earl of Shaftesbury , a former government minister and a leading opponent of Catholicism , attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession . Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles 's illegitimate son , James Scott , who became the Duke of Monmouth . In 1679 , with the Exclusion Bill - which would exclude the King 's brother and heir presumptive , James , Duke of York , from the line of succession - in danger of passing , Charles II dissolved Parliament . Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681 , but were dissolved for the same reason .
After the Rye House Plot of 1683 , an attempt to assassinate both Charles and James , Monmouth went into self @-@ imposed exile in the Netherlands , and gathered supporters in The Hague . Monmouth was a Protestant and had toured the South West of England in 1680 , where he had been greeted amicably by crowds in towns such as Chard and Taunton . So long as Charles II remained on the throne , Monmouth was content to live a life of pleasure in Holland , while still hoping to accede peaceably to the throne . The accession of James II and coronation at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 put an end to these hopes .
= = Plan = =
The Monmouth rebellion was planned in Holland and coordinated with another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell , the Earl of Argyll . Several areas of England were considered as potential locations for rebellion , including Cheshire and Lancashire along with the South West , as these were seen as having the highest number of opponents of the monarchy . Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland , where James 's nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law , William of Orange , had not detained them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts . Argyll sailed to Scotland and , on arriving there , raised recruits mainly from his own clan , the Campbells , as part of the Scottish revolt . He had previously been involved in the Rye House Plot of 1683 .
Another important member of the rebellion was Robert Ferguson , a fanatical Scottish Presbyterian minister . He was also known as " the plotter " . It was Ferguson who drew up Monmouth 's proclamation , and he who was most in favour of Monmouth being crowned King . Thomas Hayward Dare was a goldsmith from Taunton and a Whig politician , a man of considerable wealth and influence who had been jailed during a political campaign calling for a new parliament . He was also fined the huge sum of £ 5 @,@ 000 for uttering " seditious " words . After his release from jail , he fled to Holland and became the paymaster general to the Rebellion .
To raise the funds for ships and weaponry , Monmouth pawned many of his belongings . His wife Anne Scott , 1st Duchess of Buccleuch , and her mother also pawned their jewellery to hire the Dutch warship Heldevenberg .
= = From Lyme Regis to Sedgemoor = =
On 30 May 1685 Monmouth set sail for South West England , a strongly Protestant region , with three small ships , four light field guns , and 1500 muskets . He landed on 11 June with 82 supporters , including Lord Grey of Warke , Nathaniel Wade , and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun . They gathered about 300 men on the first day at Lyme Regis in Dorset , where a long statement prepared by Ferguson denounced the king .
King James had previously received intelligence about the impending plot , and the ships leaving Holland ten days before . He was warned of Monmouth 's arrival soon after the first landing . The mayor of the town , Gregory Alford , informed the local militias while Samuel Damsell and another customs officer rode from Lyme to London , arriving on 13 June , having ridden 200 miles ( 322 km ) . To face Monmouth 's rebels , John Churchill was given command of the regular foot in the King 's army , and the honour of leading the campaign passed to Earl of Feversham . It would take a few days to assemble the army and travel from London to the west country , therefore initial defence was left to local militias .
Over the next couple of days volunteers arrived in Lyme offering to serve under Monmouth . By 15 June he had a force in excess of 1 @,@ 000 men . On 13 June he lost two of his leading supporters when Dare and Fletcher disputed who should ride one of the best horses provided by local supporters . Fletcher shot and killed Dare and was then put under arrest and sent back to the frigate Helderenberg . The next day , 40 cavalry and 400 foot soldiers , under the command of Lord Grey and Wade , moved on to the nearby town of Bridport , where they encountered 1 @,@ 200 men from the local royalist Dorset militia . The skirmish ended with the retreat of Grey and the cavalry followed by Wade with the foot soldiers . Many of the militiamen deserted and joined Monmouth 's army . Following this confrontation , Lord Albermarle led a royalist force from Exeter towards the forces of the Duke of Somerset , who were approaching Lyme Regis from the opposite direction .
Monmouth learned of the approach of royalist reinforcements and departed , but instead of marching to London , he headed north with his force towards the county of Somerset . On 15 June he fought with the militia at Axminster , taking the town before the militias could join up . More recruits joined his disorganised force , which was now around 6 @,@ 000 , consisting mostly of nonconformists , artisans , and farm workers armed with farm tools ( such as pitchforks ) . One famous supporter was the young Daniel Defoe .
Monmouth again denounced the king in Chard and was the subject of a coronation in Taunton on 20 June 1685 , against the wishes of some of his republican supporters such as Wade . The Taunton Corporation was forced to witness the event at sword point outside the White Hart Inn , to encourage the support of the country gentry . In Taunton , Monmouth was joined by many new supporters and formed a new regiment of 800 men . The king 's force of Dragoons under Churchill continued to close on Monmouth , arriving in Chard on 19 June . With the assistance of the local militias they attempted to stop new recruits arriving in Taunton to join Monmouth . Feversham meanwhile moved with his forces into Bristol , on the assumption that this would be Monmouth 's next target , and took overall charge of the campaign .
Monmouth and his growing force then continued north via Bridgwater , where he took up residence at Bridgwater Castle ( 21 June ) , Glastonbury ( 22 June ) and Shepton Mallet ( 23 June ) in worsening weather . Meanwhile , the Royal Navy captured Monmouth 's ships , cutting off any hope of an escape back to the continent . The Royalist forces of Churchill , who was now in Chard , and of Feversham , in Bristol , also received reinforcements who had marched from London .
On 24 June , Monmouth 's army encamped at Pensford , and a small force skirmished with the Gloucester Militia to take control of Keynsham , a vital crossing point over the River Avon . Monmouth intended to attack the city of Bristol ( the largest and most important city after London at that time ) . However , he heard the city had been occupied by Henry Somerset , 1st Duke of Beaufort . There were inconclusive skirmishes with a force of Life Guards commanded by Feversham . These attacks gave the impression that there was a much larger royalist force in the vicinity then there actually was . Several historians have speculated that if Monmouth had marched as quickly as possible for Bristol at this point , when it was only protected by the Gloucestershire militia , he would probably have been able to take the city and the final outcome of the rebellion might have been very different . Once Bristol had been taken , more recruits would have been attracted to the Rebellion and a later march on London would have been possible .
Monmouth left his headquarters at Keynsham Abbey and moved towards Bath , which had also been occupied by royalist troops , making entry into the city impossible . Monmouth camped in Philips Norton ( now Norton St Philip ) , where his forces were attacked on 27 June by the leading elements of Feversham 's forces , which had now combined into a larger force , but were still awaiting their artillery . The Duke of Grafton led some cavalry , dragoons , and 500 musketeers into the village , where they were surrounded by the rebels and had to hack through hedges to escape . They were rescued by Churchill and withdrew with approximately 20 losses on each side ; however each side believed that the other had taken greater losses .
Monmouth then marched overnight to Frome arriving on 28 June . The morale of Monmouth 's forces started to collapse as news of the failure of the rebellion in Scotland arrived that day , while the makeshift army was camped in Frome . Argyll 's small force had been involved in minor skirmishes at Greenock and Ellangreig . He took Ardkinglass castle , but after disagreements with key supporters about when and where to fight the royalists commanded by Rosse and William Cleland , his supporters dwindled away and the Scottish rebellion failed .
The rebels , heading for Warminster got as far as Trowbridge , but royalist forces cut off the route and Monmouth turned back towards Somerset through Shepton Mallet , arriving in Wells on 1 July . The soldiers damaged the Bishop 's Palace and west front of Wells Cathedral , tearing lead from the roof to make bullets , breaking the windows , smashing the organ and the furnishings , and for a time stabling their horses in the nave .
Feversham aimed to contain the rebels in the South West until the rest of his forces , including three battalions from Holland arrived . In the light of propaganda suggesting the rebels had an army of 40 @,@ 000 and that 500 royalist troops had been lost at Norton St Philip , Feversham was ordered to engage Monmouth 's forces . On 30 June the final parts of Feversham 's army , including his artillery , arrived and eventually Monmouth was pushed back via Shepton Mallet to the Somerset Levels , where Alfred the Great had found refuge in his conflicts with the Vikings . Becoming hemmed in at Bridgwater on 3 July , he ordered his troops to fortify the town .
= = Battle of Sedgemoor = =
Monmouth was finally defeated by Feversham with John Churchill , his second in command , on 6 July at the Battle of Sedgemoor .
Once Monmouth 's force had entered and started to fortify Bridgwater , he sent some of his cavalry to collect six cannon from Minehead . He planned to stay in Bridgwater until they returned and then break out and head for Bristol . Feversham and his army of 500 horse and 1 @,@ 500 militiamen camped on the edge of Sedgemoor at the village of Westonzoyland . Monmouth could view them from the tower of Church of St Mary and may have inspected them more closely from the Church of St Mary in Chedzoy , before deciding to attack them .
The Duke eventually led his untrained and ill @-@ equipped troops out of Bridgwater at around 10 : 00 pm to undertake a night @-@ time attack on the King 's army . They were guided by Richard Godfrey , the servant of a local farmer , along the old Bristol road towards Bawdrip . With their limited cavalry in the vanguard , they turned south along Bradney Lane and Marsh Lane and came to the open moor with its deep and dangerous rhynes ( drainage ditches ) .
There was a delay while the rhyne was crossed and the first men across startled a royalist patrol . A shot was fired and a horseman from the patrol galloped off to report to Feversham . Lord Grey of Warke led the rebel cavalry forward and they were engaged by the King 's Regiment of Horse which alerted the rest of the royalist forces . The superior training of the regular army and their horses routed the rebel forces by outflanking them . His untrained supporters were quickly defeated by the professionals , and hundreds were cut down by cannon- and musket @-@ fire .
The death count on the rebel side has variously been given as between 727 and 2 @,@ 700 , with royalist losses of 27 who were buried in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary the Virgin in Westonzoyland , which was used as a prison for rebel soldiers .
= = After Sedgemoor = =
Monmouth fled from the field of battle , but was captured in a ditch on 8 July ( either at Ringwood in the New Forest , or at Horton in Dorset ) . Parliament had passed an Act of Attainder , on 13 June sentencing Monmouth to death as a traitor , Therefore , no trial was needed before his execution . Despite begging for mercy and claims of conversion to Roman Catholicism , he was beheaded at Tower Hill by Jack Ketch on 15 July 1685 . It is said that it took multiple blows of the axe to sever his head . ( Though some sources say it took eight blows , the official Tower of London website says it took five blows , while Charles Spencer , in his book Blenheim , claims it was seven . ) His dukedoms of Monmouth and Buccleuch were forfeited , but the subsidiary titles of the dukedom of Monmouth were restored to the Duke of Buccleuch .
The subsequent Bloody Assizes of Judge Jeffreys were a series of trials of Monmouth 's supporters in which 320 people were condemned to death and around 800 sentenced to be transported to the West Indies .
James II took advantage of the suppression of the rebellion to consolidate his power . He asked Parliament to repeal the Test Act and the Habeas Corpus Act , used his dispensing power to appoint Roman Catholics to senior posts , and raised the strength of the standing army . Parliament opposed many of these moves , and on 20 November 1685 James dismissed it . In 1688 , when the birth of James Francis Edward Stuart heralded a Catholic succession , James II was overthrown in a coup d 'état by William of Orange in the Glorious Revolution at the invitation of the disaffected Protestant Establishment .
= = Literary references = =
The Monmouth Rebellion and the events surrounding it have formed the basis for several works of fiction . John Dryden 's work Absalom and Achitophel is a satire partially concerned with equating biblical events with the Monmouth Rebellion . The Monmouth Rebellion plays a key role in Peter S. Beagle 's novel Tamsin , about a 300 @-@ year @-@ old ghost who is befriended by the protagonist . Arthur Conan Doyle 's historical novel Micah Clarke deals directly with Monmouth 's landing in England , the raising of his army , its defeat at Sedgemoor , and the reprisals which followed . Several characters in Neal Stephenson 's trilogy The Baroque Cycle , particularly Quicksilver and The Confusion , play a role in the Monmouth Rebellion and its aftermath .
Dr. Peter Blood , main hero of Rafael Sabatini 's novel Captain Blood , was sentenced by Judge Jeffreys for aiding wounded Monmouth rebels . Transported to the Caribbean , he started his career as a pirate there . John Masefield 's 1910 novel Martin Hyde : The Duke 's Messenger tells the story of a boy who plays a central part in the Monmouth Rebellion , from the meeting with Argyll in Holland to the failed rebellion itself . The Royal Changeling , ( 1998 ) , by John Whitbourn , describes the rebellion with some fantasy elements added , from the viewpoint of Sir Theophilus Oglethorpe . See also Lorna Doone , Richard Doddridge Blackmore 's romantic novel of 1869 . Farmer John Ridd rescues his brother @-@ in @-@ law Tom Faggus from the battlefield of Sedgwick , but is captured as a rebel , and is brought before Judge Jefferies . The events immediately before and after the Battle of Sedgemoor , and leading up to James II 's exile following The Glorious Revolution provide the setting for Robert Neill 's historical novel Lilliburlero .
= Jamie Stuart =
Jamie Christopher Stuart ( born 15 October 1976 ) is an English footballer who is player / manager of Isthmian League Premier Division club Grays Athletic , and plays as a defender . He started his career in The Football League with Charlton Athletic , Millwall , Bury and Southend United , before dropping into non @-@ League football with Hornchurch , Grays Athletic and Rushden & Diamonds . Stuart went on to gain promotion back into The Football League with AFC Wimbledon , before dropping back into non @-@ League with Sutton United and Margate - where he went on to become player / assistant manager .
He has also once acted as manager for Grays in the Essex Senior Cup in 2006 and later captained the side , before returning in May 2016 as permanent manager .
In 1997 , Stuart was sacked by Charlton and served a six @-@ month ban from football for failing a doping test . He was also charged with grievous bodily harm following an incident with Chris Beardsley , in a match with York City in September 2007 . He was acquitted of the charges in September 2008 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Charlton Athletic = = =
Stuart started his career at Charlton Athletic , where he rose through the youth system and signed his first professional contract in January 1995 . He made his first team debut for Charlton in the 2 – 0 defeat against Huddersfield Town in the First Division on 17 August 1996 . He went on to make 50 appearances in the Football League , scoring three goals for the " Addicks " .
During his time with Charlton Athletic , he earned four international caps playing for the England under @-@ 21 team in the Toulon Tournament against France , Brazil , Nigeria and Italy 's under @-@ 21 teams .
He was sacked by Charlton and banned for six months by The Football Association in November 1997 for testing positive for cocaine and cannabis . He denied the charge , claiming that a cigarette he smoked had been laced with the cocaine .
= = = Millwall = = =
After serving his suspension , he signed for Millwall and made his debut on 8 August 1998 , in the 1 – 0 away win at Wigan Athletic . Stuart picked up seven yellow cards and two reds in his first season with Millwall . The following season , 1999 – 2000 , Stuart turned out a further seven times for Millwall before being released .
= = = Bury = = =
At the start of the 2001 – 02 season , he had an unsuccessful trial with Cambridge United . He was then set to sign for Northampton Town , however , Kevin Wilson was sacked and the club 's plans to sign the defender were halted . Stuart eventually joined Bury in October 2001 on a short @-@ term contract , which was later extended to a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal in February 2002 . He made his debut for the club in the 1 – 0 away win at Hartlepool United in the Football League Trophy on 16 October 2001 . He was sent @-@ off in his third game for Bury in the 5 – 1 defeat to Brentford . Stuart scored his only goal for Bury on 22 December 2001 , in the 1 – 1 draw at home to Blackpool . Bury went 1 – 0 down in the first @-@ half , before Stuart equalised in the 53rd minute , with a shot that went in off the post . During his 18 @-@ month spell with Bury , Stuart was a first @-@ team regular , making 61 appearances in the Third Division , scoring once . Bury finished seventh in the league during the 2002 – 03 season , qualifying for the play @-@ offs . He also gained a total of four red cards and four yellows in the 18 @-@ months he was with Bury , including a red card in the 2002 – 03 play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg against Bournemouth . Stuart was allegedly elbowed in the face by Wade Elliott , which resulted in his nose being broken and Stuart reacting by grabbing Elliott 's shirt . Referee , Jeff Winter , adjudged Stuart had thrown a punch , whilst Andy Preece criticised Stuart for raising his arms to another player , defended him saying " I can 't see why he thinks Jamie has punched him in the face ... the explanation from the ref doesn 't add up with what you see on the video . "
= = = Southend United = = =
In June 2003 , Stuart then joined fellow Third Division side Southend United for the upcoming 2003 – 04 season , saying he wanted to move nearer his family in London . He made his debut in the 3 – 0 home defeat against Mansfield Town in League Two on 23 August 2003 . He was released from Southend United in May 2004 at the end of the season by manager Steve Tilson , having made 26 appearances in the Third Division for Southend United , collecting five yellow cards and failing to score .
= = = Non @-@ League career = = =
= = = = Hornchurch & Grays Athletic = = = =
Stuart dropped down into non @-@ League football with now defunct Hornchurch of the Conference South . He made fourteen appearances in the Conference South and seventeen in all competitions for Hornchurch , before a financial crisis at the club in November 2004 forced a number of players , including Stuart , to leave . He joined Grays Athletic , alongside Steve West and Lee Matthews , later being joined by former Hornchurch team mates Ashley Bayes , and John Martin . Stuart went on to win the Conference South and FA Trophy double with Grays that season , making 23 appearances in the league . The follow season , 2005 – 06 season , he made 34 appearances in the Conference National , reaching the play @-@ offs finishing 3rd place , to be knocked out by Halifax Town 5 – 4 on aggregate . He also helped Grays Athletic retain the FA Trophy , defeating Woking 2 – 0 at Upton Park in the final . During the season he received two red cards , the first against Exeter City on 19 November 2005 following a fight in the tunnel at half time with Exeter 's Lee Phillips . The second red card came against Canvey Island on 2 January 2006 , when Stuart was sent off in the 60th minute for punching team @-@ mate John Nutter .
The 2006 – 07 season saw Stuart compete in all Grays ' 46 Conference National matches , scoring two goals . On 31 October 2006 , Stuart managed Grays Athletic in the Essex Senior Cup , defeating Concord Rangers 1 – 0 . In May 2007 , Stuart was called up to the England National Game XI by Paul Fairclough for the Four Nations Tournament . He won the Players ' , Supporters ' and Manager 's player of the year awards for the 2006 – 07 season .
In October 2007 , Stuart was held in custody by Essex Police on suspicion of assault , in relation to an incident involving Chris Beardsley which resulted in Beardsley 's jaw being broken in two places . The incident occurred during a match with York City on 22 September 2007 . He was charged with grievous bodily harm in December 2007 . He made a further 43 appearances for Grays during the season , failing to score . Following the departure of Stuart Thurgood to Gillingham in November 2007 , Stuart was handed the captaincy for the remainder of the season , having previous served as vice @-@ captain . At the end of the 2007 – 08 season , Stuart was named as the Management player of the year . Stuart carried on his captain duties for the 2008 – 09 season . In February 2008 , he pleaded not guilty to the charges of grievous bodily harm to Chris Beardsley . He went on trial on 2 September 2008 , denying the allegations of intent and insisted it was an accident , trying to release himself of Beardsley 's hold . On 5 September 2008 , the jury acquitted Stuart of the charges causing Beardsley grievous bodily harm .
Stuart scored his first goal of the 2008 – 09 season in the 2 – 1 home defeat to Stevenage Borough on 25 September . Stevenage 's goalkeeper , Chris Day , parried a header from Barry Cogan which dropped at Stuart 's feet who hit a low hard shot from ten yards out . Grays faced League One outfit Carlisle United away in the FA Cup first round on 8 November . In the 1 – 1 stalemate , Stuart scored Grays ' only goal in the 52nd minute , with a ten @-@ yard volley . In the New Year 's Day fixture of 2009 , Stuart scored with a header from a free @-@ kick taken by Sam Sloma , to hand Grays a 3 – 1 victory over Ebbsfleet United . Following the departure of manager Wayne Burnett , Stuart took the role of assistant manager at Grays , alongside Stuart Elliott in late January 2009 .
= = = = Rushden & Diamonds = = = =
He signed for Rushden & Diamonds in June 2009 , reuniting with former Grays manager Justin Edinburgh , who described him as " a great leader " . Stuart was named as captain for the upcoming 2009 – 10 season . He won the 2009 – 10 fans ' player of the season award , and was included in the Conference National team of the year 2009 – 10 .
= = = AFC Wimbledon = = =
In January 2011 , Stuart signed for AFC Wimbledon for an undisclosed nominal fee . He made 21 appearances , scoring once for Wimbledon in the 2010 – 11 Football Conference season . The team finished second , qualifying for the play @-@ offs for promotion to League Two , which they eventually won with Stuart playing in all three games . In July 2011 Stuart was named as the captain of the newly promoted team ; on 6 August he scored AFC Wimbledon 's first @-@ ever Football League goal in the first game of the season . Stuart played his last game for AFC Wimbledon on 5 May 2012 , in the 3 – 1 win over Shrewsbury Town . In May 2012 , Stuart was released from the club due to the expiry of his contract .
= = = Sutton United and Margate = = =
After being named club captain Stuart scored his first competitive goal for the club on 5 March 2013 against Bromley in a 4 – 3 win for Sutton United . In 2014 , he moved to Margate earning promotion into the Conference South . Following Terry Brown 's departure from the club , Nikki Bull was appointed as player / manager with Stuart named as his assistant .
= = Management career = =
= = = Return to Grays Athletic = = =
On 10 May 2016 , Stuart returned to Grays Athletic as player / manager of the Isthmian League Premier Division club .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Southwark , London , Stuart is a father of two children and lives in Sidcup , Greater London .
= = Managerial record = =
= = Honours = =
Grays Athletic
Conference South : 2004 – 05
FA Trophy : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06
AFC Wimbledon
Conference National play @-@ offs : 2010 – 11
= Tiridates I of Armenia =
Tiridates I ( Armenian : Տրդատ Ա , Trdat A ; Parthian : 𐭕𐭉𐭓𐭉𐭃𐭕 , Tīridāt ; Greek : Τιριδάτης , Tiridátes ) was King of Armenia beginning
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15th most ranked record in critics ' all @-@ time lists . In 1978 , it was voted the 22nd best album of all time in Paul Gambaccini 's poll of 50 prominent American and English rock critics . It was also ranked second greatest by Mojo in 1995 , 19th by Rolling Stone in 2003 , and 3rd by The Times . In 1998 , it was voted the 9th greatest album of all time in a " Music of the Millennium " poll conducted by HMV , Channel 4 and The Guardian . In 2000 , Q placed the record at number 6 on its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever . Time included Astral Weeks in its 2006 list of the " All @-@ TIME 100 Albums " . When Astral Weeks was voted the best Irish album of all time in 2009 , Niall Stokes wrote in Hot Press , " It 's an extraordinary work , packed with marvelously evocative songs that are rooted in Belfast but which deliver a powerful and lasting universal poetic resonance . "
= = Legacy and influence = =
Astral Weeks had an impact on future releases of other musicians such as Bono and Bruce Springsteen . Mike Ragogna with The Huffington Post wrote that Astral Weeks influenced Springsteen 's 1973 first album Greetings from Asbury Park , N.J. and two of the songs from his second . Steven Van Zandt , from Springsteen 's E Street Band , has said : " Astral Weeks was like a religion to us . " According to writer Steve Turner , the album also became popular with travelers of the hippie trail , " from Europe through to Kathmandu and there were even reports of vans painted in psychedelic colours being renamed ' the Van Morrison ' . " In his 1975 book , Ritchie Yorke wrote " It was almost as if Van Morrison , elusive at any time , had deliberately created an album of music which would indefinitely withstand the vulgarity of music industry image @-@ making . Later they might say that other albums were reminiscent of Astral Weeks , but they could never claim that Astral Weeks was like anything else . "
According to Greil Marcus , Martin Scorsese said that the first fifteen minutes of his 1976 film Taxi Driver was based on Astral Weeks . Marcus referred to the impact of the album , calling it a " common language " and relates that : " I was so shocked when I was teaching a seminar at Princeton just a couple years ago , and out of 16 students , four of them said their favorite album was Astral Weeks . " Marcus goes on to say , " Now , how did it enter their lives ? We 're talking about an album that was recorded well before they were born , and yet it spoke to them . They understood its language as soon as they heard it . " Elvis Costello described Astral Weeks as " still the most adventurous record made in the rock medium , and there hasn 't been a record with that amount of daring made since " . Johnny Depp , in a Rolling Stone interview in 2008 , recalled how when he was a preteen his older brother ( by ten years ) tiring of Johnny 's favourite music of the time said , " ' Try this . ' And he put on Van Morrison 's Astral Weeks . And it stirred me . I 'd never heard anything like it . " Joan Armatrading has said that Astral Weeks was the first album she purchased as a teenager and that it opened her up musically . In August 2010 , director and choreographer , Jessica Wallenfels , staged a production in Portland , Oregon of a rock opera / story ballet of Astral Weeks called " Find me Beside You " .
= = Packaging = =
According to Steve Turner , one of Van Morrison 's biographers , Irish painter Cecil McCartney influenced the titling of Astral Weeks . Morrison related how " A friend of mine had drawings in his flat of astral projection . I was at his house when I was working on a song which began , ' If I venture down the slipstream ' and that 's why I called it ' Astral Weeks ' . " " It was a painting , " McCartney corrects . " There were several paintings in the studio at the time . Van looked at the painting and it suggested astral travelling to him . " The album cover photograph of Van Morrison was taken by Joel Brodsky , best known for his " Young Lions " photoshoot with Jim Morrison . The squared circle in the cover photo is described as portraying " the mystic symbol of the union of opposites ; the sacred marriage of heaven and earth " .
= = Astral Weeks revisited = =
In November 2008 , Van Morrison performed two concerts at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California playing the entire Astral Weeks album . The band featured Jay Berliner who played on the original album . Morrison toured performing the album live throughout most of 2009 , with Rolling Stone calling these concerts " some of the most inspired performances of his whole career " .
A live album entitled Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl was released by Morrison 's record label , Listen to the Lion , on 24 February 2009 . It was also issued as a double vinyl LP album released the same date . A DVD featuring the Hollywood Bowl performances and entitled Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl : The Concert Film was released on 19 May 2009 .
When asked by Rolling Stone editor , David Wild why he was performing the album again live after forty years , Morrison replied : " It received no promotion , from Warner Bros. — that 's why I never got to play the songs live . I had always wanted to play the record live and fully orchestrated — that is what this is all about . I always like live recording and I like listening to live records too . I 'm not too fond of being in a studio — it 's too contrived and too confining . I like the freedom of live , in @-@ the @-@ moment sound . "
As for the songs on the original album , Morrison told Los Angeles Times columnist Randy Lewis : " The songs are poetic stories , so the meaning is the same as always — timeless and unchanging . The songs are works of fiction that will inherently have a different meaning for different people . People take from it whatever their disposition to take from it is . "
On October 30 , 2015 , the album remastered was reissued by Warner Bros. Records with four session bonus tracks , including the full @-@ length versions of both " Ballerina " and " Slim Slow Slider . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Van Morrison .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Van Morrison — vocals , acoustic guitar
John Payne — flute ; soprano saxophone on " Slim Slow Slider "
Jay Berliner — classical and steel @-@ string acoustic guitars
Richard Davis — double bass
Warren Smith , Jr . — percussion , vibraphone
Connie Kay — drums
Larry Fallon — string arrangements and conductor ; harpsichord on " Cyprus Avenue "
Barry Kornfeld — acoustic guitar on " The Way Young Lovers Do "
= = = Production = = =
Lewis Merenstein — producer
Brooks Arthur — engineer
Ed Thrasher — art director
Joel Brodsky — photography
Steve Woolard — reissue production
Kevin Gray — reissue remastering
= Rock with U =
" Rock with U " is a song by American recording artist Janet Jackson , from her tenth studio album , Discipline ( 2008 ) . It was written by Ne @-@ Yo , Jermaine Dupri , and Eric Stamile , and produced by the last two . The song was released as the album 's second single on February 5 , 2008 , by Island Records . " Rock with U " is a pop song that was created for the gay community , as Jackson felt the necessity to do something for its members .
" Rock with U " received positive reviews from music critics , with the majority lauding its retro , but futuristic sound , and commending the song 's elements of house music . The song had minimal success , only being able to reach the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles and the top @-@ twenty of the Hot Dance Club Songs , Although it did manage to make the Top 5 of the UK R & B Chart . Saam Farahmand directed the long take music video , which features Jackson having a party inside a club , with red and white rays of light entering the room . " Rock with U " served as the title for Jackson 's Rock Witchu Tour the same year , where the song was also performed .
= = Background and writing = =
In July 2007 , it was announced that Jackson had signed a recording contract with Island Records , after her five @-@ album deal with Virgin Records was fulfilled with the release of her album 20 Y.O. ( 2006 ) . Jackson 's tenth studio album , Discipline , which was an acknowledgment of Jackson 's commitment , focus and dedication to her career , was released on February 26 , 2008 under the supervision of label head L. A. Reid . She did not write or co @-@ write any songs on the album , a departure from her usual practice of co @-@ writing and producing all of the songs on her albums . " Rock With U " was written by Shaffer Smith , Jermaine Dupri and Eric Stamile , with Dupri producing it , while Stamile co @-@ produced it . In an interview for NewNowNext , Jackson explained that the song was created for the gay community , saying ,
" Honestly the song was created for the gay community . I kept stressing to Jermaine [ Dupri , the song 's co @-@ writer ] , ‘ I got to do something for the kids . ’ I had talked about it on the last album – and there was a song that I had , and it wasn ’ t quite completed . And I talked about it to the papers , gay magazines , and it didn 't wind up on the album with the cut @-@ off date . I felt really badly about that . So he just handed me a CD and said , ‘ Here are 10 tracks for the kids ; tell me which one you like the best . ’ I fell in love with ' Rock With U ' . "
After the song was released , Jackson was awarded the Vanguard Award at the 19th annual GLAAD Media Awards , honoring her contributions in promoting equal rights among the gay community . The organization 's president commented , " Ms. Jackson has a tremendous following inside the LGBT community and out , and having her stand with us against the defamation that LGBT people still face in our country is extremely significant . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Rock with U " is a " digitized form " of pop song which draws influence from Euro disco . According to Jackson , it still reminiscent of " Together Again " or " Throb " from The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) and janet . ( 1993 ) , respectively . " It 's still classic me but with a different twist to it – a modern twist " , she said . Jim Farber from New York Daily News noted the song 's riffs , which he considered greater when they first appeared in Madonna 's 1985 song " Into the Groove " . The song was compared to Michael Jackson 's " Rock With You " ( 1979 ) , due to its disco themes .
" Rock with U " also contains vocodered whispers and murmured vocals . The song opens with the line , " Strobe lights make everything sexier , " while it talks about an erotic proposition which was reportedly dedicated to the gay community .
= = Release and reception = =
" Rock with U " was made available for sale through the US iTunes Store on February 5 , 2008 along with a pre @-@ order offer for her tenth studio album , Discipline . The song was serviced to rhythmic crossover radio stations on February 11 , 2008 and was released to Top 40 radio stations on February 26 , 2008 .
" Rock with U " was met with general critical acclaim from most music critics , with most praising its style and retro vibe . Picking the song as one of the album 's best tracks , Andy Kellman of Allmusic named it " an irresistible , grade @-@ A dancefloor track , " calling it " swift and swooning . " Bryan Borzykowski of Now newspaper called it a " bouncy house track , " while Nick Levine from Digital Spy called it " cosmic , sleek , catchy and bracingly modern " , writing that " it wouldn 't disgrace itself as a Kylie [ Minogue ] single . " Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music was extremely positive , writing that the song marries Jackson 's sweet and stomping side for an 1980s influenced song , which we called both genuinely exciting and " sounds 100 per cent like Janet Jackson " .
Ann Powers from Los Angeles Times enjoyed the track , calling it " the gentlest time travel ever accomplished . " Powers also wrote , " Playing on memory and melancholia , Janet 's ' Rock With U ' is nowhere as great as the original , but as a bit of intimate meta @-@ pop it 's utterly poignant . Jackson has long been the bearer of her brother 's secrets , and on this song she shows that she can still crave something other than sexual fulfillment . Something like innocence . " Michael Arceneaux of PopMatters praised the track , calling it " a sensual gem " and " almost euphoric " , effectively complimenting Jackson 's " whispery delivery . " Arceneaux added , " It ’ s a digitized form of pop music Janet should look into for future recordings . " Tom Young from BBC was negative in his review , saying that its lyrics would not seduce anybody .
= = Promotion = =
The accompanying music video for " Rock with U " was directed by Saam Farahmand and choreographed by Gil Duldulao . It premiered on Access Granted on March 5 , 2008 . Jackson described Farahmand as an excited , passionated and creative person . He wanted to make the video as a long take video , like the music video for previous single " Feedback " , which he also directed . According to the singer , the makeup looks and fashion of the video were a " futuristic version of the Blitz Kids from the 80 's " . Dulduao commented " I just wanted sort of bring Janet into the visionary style she 's had in the past and I wanted to bring to like , video , and bring it back " . He also mentioned that it took him at least a day and a half to finish its choreography .
The long take video begins with many people dancing on a hallway , until a girl comes and opens a door which leads to a room . There , other dancers are dancing to the song in midway of white rays of light , until the camera shows Jackson in the corner of the room and they start performing a dance routine . While the singer disappears from vision , people dance until she appears again dancing to the song . Then she goes to a hallway and enters a red @-@ lighted room , accompanied by dancers , where entertainer Mimi Marks is seen . There she dances another routine along with her dancers . After dancing , she enters in another hallway where she gets alone with a man , until they share a kiss . Then , people who were in the previous room enter to the hallway to connect to another room , with Marks taking Jackson with her . The video ends with people coming closer to Jackson .
Jackson included the song on her similarly titled Rock Witchu Tour in 2008 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Janet Jackson – vocals
Shaffer Smith – songwriter
Jermaine Dupri – songwriter , producer , vocal production , mixing
Eric Stamile – songwriter , co @-@ producer
Manuel Seal – vocal production
Ian Cross – vocal production , mixing assistant , vocal recording
John Horesco IV – guitar , recording
Josh Houghkirk – engineer
Steven Barlow – assistant engineer
Chris Soper – assistant engineer
Angie Teo – assistant engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from Discipline album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Portrait painting in Scotland =
Portrait painting in Scotland includes all forms of painted portraiture in Scotland , from its beginnings in the early sixteenth century until the present day . The origins of the tradition of portrait painting in Scotland are in the Renaissance , particularly through contacts with the Netherlands . The first portrait of a named person that survives is that of Archbishop William Elphinstone , probably painted by a Scottish artist using Flemish techniques around 1505 . Around the same period Scottish monarchs turned to the recording of royal likenesses in panel portraits , painted in oils on wood . The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century . It began to flourish after the Reformation , with paintings of royal figures and nobles by Netherlands artists Hans Eworth , Arnold Bronckorst and Adrian Vanson . A specific type of Scottish picture from this era was the " vendetta portrait " , designed to keep alive the memory of an atrocity . The Union of Crowns in 1603 removed a major source of artistic patronage in Scotland as James VI and his court moved to London . The result has been seen as a shift " from crown to castle " , as the nobility and local lairds became the major sources of patronage .
The first significant Scottish portrait artist was George Jameson , who became one of the most successful painters of the reign of Charles I. He trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright . In this period the full @-@ length portrait in Highland dress became a common form of painting . William Aikman emerged as the leading Scottish portrait @-@ painter of the next generation . He , like most Scottish painters of note before the late eighteenth century , migrated to London . John Alexander and William Mossman painted many of the figures of early @-@ Enlightenment Edinburgh . Allan Ramsay established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment . He later focused on royal portraits , anticipating the grand manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women , are less formal and more intimate . The leading portrait painter of the second half of the century was Henry Raeburn , the first significant artist to pursue his entire career in Scotland , his subjects went beyond the nobility to the middle classes . His pupils included the brothers William ( Alexander ) , Archibald and Andrew Robertson . The former two brothers founded the Columbian Academy of Painting in New York , and Andrew was the leading Scottish miniaturist of his day .
The generation of painters that followed Raeburn included David Watson , John Watson Gordon and David Wilkie who became one of the most influential British artists of the century . From the mid @-@ nineteenth century , portrait painting , particularity the miniature , declined as an art , photography also began to influence painting . Major figures who worked in portraiture and came to prominence in the second half of the century included Francis Grant , Robert Scott Lauder , William Quiller Orchardson and John Pettie . In the twentieth century the move away from figurative painting to impressionism and abstraction , speeded the decline of portrait painting . Artists who continued to pursue portraiture included Francis Cadell , Cecile Walton , Dorothy Johnstone and James Cowie . The second half of the twentieth century saw a general movement back towards figurative representation . Alexander Moffat was among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . The artists associated with Moffat known as the " new Glasgow Boys " included Steven Campbell , Peter Howson , Ken Currie and Adrian Wisniewski . A parallel movement in Edinburgh , focused around the 369 Gallery in the city , included Caroline McNairn , Robert MacLaurin and Gwen Hardie .
= = Sixteenth century = =
The origins of the tradition of portrait painting in Scotland are in the Renaissance , which began to reach Scotland in the fifteenth century . Portraits were given an important role in Renaissance society , valued as objects , and as depictions of earthly success and status . In Scotland this was particularly through contacts with the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone ( 1431 – 1514 ) , Lord Chancellor , Bishop of Aberdeen and founder of the university there . Painted around 1505 , it is one of the earliest representations of a named Scottish subject to survive and was probably painted by a Scots artist using Flemish techniques of oil on wood . Around the same time , Scottish monarchs , like those in England , turned to the recording of royal likenesses in panel portraits , painted in oils on wood , perhaps as a form of political expression . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards . In 1502 James IV paid for delivery of portraits of the Tudor household , perhaps by the " Inglishe payntour " named " Mynours , " who stayed in Scotland to paint the king and his new bride Margaret Tudor the following year . " Mynours " was Maynard Wewyck , a Flemish painter who usually worked for Henry VII in London . Another Flemish painter , called " Piers " , and perhaps Peeken Bovelant , an apprentice of an Antwerp painter Goswijn van der Weyden , was brought to Scotland by Andrew Halyburton , the trading agent in Middelburg , in September 1505 . No details are known of his work , except his assistance in painting costumes and heraldry for tournaments , but the king gave him a salary and accommodation , and it is likely that Piers made portraits for the court . Piers returned to Flanders from Inverkeithing in July 1508 . Some references in the royal accounts call him a " Frenchman " .
The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century . In his majority James V was probably more concerned with architectural expressions of royal identity . Mary Queen of Scots had been brought up in the French court , where she was drawn and painted by major European artists , but she did not commission any adult portraits , with the exception of the joint portrait with her second husband Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley . This may have reflected an historic Scottish pattern , where heraldic display , or an elaborate tomb were considered more important than a portrait .
Portraiture began to flourish after the Reformation in the mid @-@ sixteenth century . There were anonymously painted portraits of important individuals , including one of James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell ( 1556 ) . Artists from the Low Countries remained important . Hans Eworth , who had been court painter to Mary I of England , painted a number of Scottish subjects in the 1560s . His 1561 wedding portraits were miniatures commemorating the brief marriage of the earl of Bothwell and Jean Gordon . He also painted James Stewart , 1st Earl of Moray in 1561 and two years later he painted a joint portrait of the young Darnley and his brother Charles Stuart . Lord Seton , Master of the Royal Household , commissioned two portraits in the Netherlands in the 1570s , one of himself and one a family portrait . A specific type of Scottish picture from this era was the " vendetta portrait " , designed to keep alive the memory of an atrocity . Examples include the Darnley memorial portrait , which shows the young James VI kneeling at his murdered father 's tomb , and the life @-@ size portrait of the corpse of The Bonnie Earl of Moray , vividly showing the wounds received by James Stewart , 2nd Earl of Moray when he was killed by George Gordon , 1st Marquess of Huntly in 1591 .
There was an attempt to produce a series of portraits of Scottish kings in panel portraits , probably for the royal entry of the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old James VI in 1579 , which are Medieval in form . In James VI 's personal reign , Renaissance forms of portraiture began to dominate . He employed two Flemish artists , Arnold Bronckorst in the early 1580s and Adrian Vanson from around 1584 to 1602 , who have left a visual record of the king and major figures at the court . However , the Union of Crowns in 1603 removed a major source of artistic patronage in Scotland as James VI and his court moved to London . The result has been seen as a shift " from crown to castle " , as the nobility and local lairds became the major sources of patronage .
= = Seventeenth century = =
By the seventeenth century the fashion for portraiture had spread down the social order to lairds such as Colin Campbell of Glenorchy and John Napier of Merchiston . Adam de Colone , perhaps the son of Adrian Vanson and probably trained in the Netherlands , was working in England in the 1620s . In 1623 he painted his portrait of George Seaton , 3rd Earl of Winton and his sons and another of Seaton 's wife Anne Hay with her two daughters .
The first significant native artist was George Jamesone of Aberdeen ( 1589 / 90 @-@ 1644 ) , who , having trained in the Netherlands , became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I. He trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright ( 1617 – 94 ) , who also studied in Rome with Poussin and Velázquez . Wright painted both Scottish and English subjects , including his sensitive portrait of the architect William Bruce ( 1664 ) and styled himself as " king 's painter " . His full @-@ length painting of Lord Mungo Murray in Highland dress ( c . 1680 ) is an early example of what became a standard format of Scottish portrait . The Commonwealth period saw the emergence of David Scougal ( 1598 – 1661 ) , mainly noted for his portrait of the Covenanter leader Archibald Campbell . Also important was the miniaturist David Paton ( fl . 1668 – 1708 ) , who worked mainly in plumbago , but also painted portraits in oil . Visiting artists included Jacob de Wett ( c . 1610 – c . 1691 ) , who was commissioned in 1684 to paint images of 110 kings for Holyroodhouse and similar work at Glamis Castle .
After the Glorious Revolution , Wright , a Jacobite , fell out of favour at the royal court . The Flemish @-@ Spanish painter John Baptist Medina ( 1659 – 1710 ) came to Scotland in 1693 and became the leading Scottish portrait painter of his generation . Among his best known works are a group of about 30 oval bust @-@ lengths , including a self @-@ portrait , in Surgeons ' Hall , Edinburgh . He trained his son , also John , and William Aikman ( 1682 – 1731 ) , who became the leading Scottish portrait @-@ painter of the next generation . Aikman migrated to London in 1723 , and from this point until the late eighteenth century , most Scottish painters of note followed him .
= = Eighteenth century = =
John Alexander was born in Aberdeen and was a great grandson of portrait painter George Jamesone . He studied in London and Rome , returning to Scotland about 1720 . His younger contemporary William Mossman ( 1700 – 71 ) was also from Aberdeen and studied in Rome . Both worked predominately in the north @-@ east around their home city , but also painted many of the figures of early @-@ Enlightenment Edinburgh . Alexander 's best known work included the portrait of George Drummond the Lord Provost of Edinburgh ( 1756 ) , who had been responsible for the creation of the New Town in Edinburgh and the Royal Infirmary , which is shown in the background of the painting . Mosman 's work included his portrait of John Campbell of the Bank ( 1749 ) , who was chief cashier of the Royal Bank of Scotland and a Whig , but who is depicted in the recently forbidden Highland dress . Because of his Jacobite sympathies Alexander was forced to leave for the continent after the rebellion of 1745 , and in Rome he made a living painting the Jacobite expatriates who congregated there , before his return a few years later .
Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh , where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility . He undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment , including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . After a second visit to Italy he moved to London in 1757 and from 1761 he was Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III . He now focused on royal portraits , often presented by the king to ambassadors and colonial governors , but also more intimate works like that of Queen Charlotte and her Children ( c . 1755 ) . His work has been seen as anticipating the Grand Manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women , are less formal and more intimate studies .
The leading portrait painter of the second half of the century was Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) . He was the first significant artist to pursue his entire career in Scotland . Born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 , he is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the Grand Manner tradition . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's painter and limner in 1823 , marking a return to the post being associated with the production of art . His pupils included the brothers William ( Alexander ) ( 1772 – 1841 ) , Archibald ( 1765 – 1835 ) and Andrew Robertson ( 1777 – 1845 ) . William and Archibald went on to found the Columbian Academy of Painting in New York , and Andrew to be the leading Scottish miniaturist of his day . Also associated with Raeburn towards the end of his career were John Syme ( 1795 – 1861 ) and Colvin Smith ( 1795 – 1875 ) .
= = Nineteenth century = =
Of the generation of painters that followed Raeburn , David Watson ( 1767 – 1837 ) trained with Reynolds in London before returning home to become the first president of the Scottish Academy in 1826 . The influence of both Reynolds and Raeburn can be seen in his work , including A Girl Drawing ( 1813 ) and the large group portrait The Children of the Earl of Elgin with their Nurse ( c . 1805 ) . He was followed as president of the academy by his nephew John Watson Gordon ( 1788 – 1864 ) , who also studied with Raeburn . He painted portraits of leading cultural figures James Hogg and Lady Nairne as part of a series of portraits commissioned by William Blackwood . David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) worked mainly in London , and produced the flattering painting of the King George IV in Highland dress commemorating the royal visit to Scotland in 1823 that set off the international fashion for the kilt . He succeeding Raeburn as Royal Limner in 1823 and would emerge of one of the most influential British artists of the century . Andrew Geddes ( 1783 – 1844 ) produced some landscapes , but also portraits of Scottish subjects , including Walter Scott , before he finally moved to London in 1831 . John Graham @-@ Gilbert ( 1794 – 1866 ) was born in Glasgow and worked in the city from 1834 , playing an important part in the professionalisation of painting there . Other figures to pursue their careers largely in portraiture based in Glasgow included Daniel Macnee ( 1806 – 82 ) , who only moved to Edinburgh after his election of President of the Academy in 1876 .
From the mid @-@ nineteenth century portrait painting declined as an art . This was partly due to the advent of photography , which could record the human face with greater ease . While grander commissions were still made , the miniature in particular , which had often been in an intimate locket or broach , was largely replaced . David Octavius Hill ( 1802 – 70 ) originally took an interest in photography as a means of being able to record the figures of Great Disruption of 1843 for a composite painted portrait , but as part of Hill & Adamson he was one of the founding fathers of art photography . Just as portrait photography inherited many of the conventions of painting , photography also began to influence painting . From the 1840s John Watson Gordon 's work began to be influenced by early photography , with cool light and muted colours , as can be seen in his full @-@ length portrait of Principal Lee ( 1847 ) . Major figures who worked in portraiture and came to prominence in the second half of the century included Francis Grant , who became the first Scottish president of the Royal Academy in London , Robert Scott Lauder ( 1803 – 69 ) , William Quiller Orchardson ( 1832 – 1910 ) and John Pettie ( 1839 – 93 ) . John Zephaniah Bell ( 1794 – 1883 ) was educated in London and was a forerunner of the trend of Parisian education that would become common among Scottish artists from the later nineteenth century . The most significant grouping in late nineteenth @-@ century Scotland , the Glasgow Boys , mainly focused on landscape . They were influenced by the leading continental artists of the day and broke with Victorian convention . A number of artists identified with the group came to support themselves through portrait painting , including James Guthrie ( 1859 – 1930 ) and Belfast @-@ born John Lavery ( 1856 – 1944 ) .
= = Twentieth century to the present = =
In the twentieth century the move away from figurative painting to impressionism and abstraction , continued the decline of portrait painting . The first significant group of Scottish artists to emerge in the twentieth century were the four members of the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s . They have been described as the first Scottish modern artists and were the major mechanism by which post @-@ impressionism reached Scotland . Of their number Francis Cadell ( 1883 – 1937 ) , emerged as a significant painter of still lives and single figure compositions , particularly with interior backdrops , before moving closer to abstraction . Of the next significant movement , known as The Edinburgh School , Cecile Walton ( 1891 – 1956 ) referenced classical forms , particularly in her ironic self @-@ portrait Romance ( 1920 ) , which draws on Titian 's Venus of Urbino and Manet 's Olympia . Her close friend Dorothy Johnstone 's portraits , such as the young girl in September Sunlight ( 1916 ) , made use of interior natural light . The work of James Cowie ( 1886 – 1956 ) , who painted a number of girls in interior settings , is similar in theme to that of Johnstone , but had a more distant and elegiac feel that can be seen in Falling Leaves ( 1934 ) , which has been read as a commentary as a commentary on the transition from childhood to adolescence .
The second half of the twentieth century saw a general movement back towards figurative representation in European art . Alexander Moffat ( b . 1943 ) , who concentrated on portraiture , labelled with the description of " Scottish realism " , was among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . His work included the allegorical Poet 's Pub ( 1980 ) , which shows leading figures in Scottish twentieth @-@ century intellectual life grouped around the poet Hugh MacDiarmid . The artists associated with Moffat and the Glasgow School of Art who came to prominence in the 1980s are sometimes known as the " new Glasgow Boys " , or " Glasgow pups " and included Steven Campbell ( 1953 – 2007 ) , Peter Howson ( b . 1958 ) , Ken Currie ( b . 1960 ) and Adrian Wisniewski ( b . 1958 ) . Strongly influenced by New Image painting that came to prominence in the early 1980s , they have combined figurative art with social commentary . A parallel movement in Edinburgh , focused around the 369 Gallery in the city , included Caroline McNairn ( 1955 – 2010 ) , Robert MacLaurin ( b . 1965 ) and Gwen Hardie ( b . 1962 ) .
= I Am Legend ( film ) =
I Am Legend is a 2007 American post @-@ apocalyptic horror film directed by Francis Lawrence and starring Will Smith , who plays US Army virologist Robert Neville . The story is set in New York City after a virus has wiped out most of mankind , leaving Neville as the last human in New York , other than nocturnal mutants . Neville is immune to the virus , which was originally created to cure cancer . He works to create a remedy while defending himself against the hostile mutants .
Warner Bros. began developing I Am Legend in 1994 , and various actors and directors were attached to the project , though production was delayed due to budgetary concerns related to the script . Production began in 2006 in New York City , filming mainly on location in the city , including a $ 5 million scene at the Brooklyn Bridge . It is the third feature @-@ film adaptation of Richard Matheson 's 1954 I Am Legend novel , following 1964 's The Last Man on Earth and 1971 's The Omega Man .
I Am Legend was released on December 14 , 2007 , in the United States and Canada , and opened to the largest ever box office ( not adjusted for inflation ) for a non @-@ Christmas film released in the U.S. in December . The film was the seventh @-@ highest grossing film of 2007 , earning $ 256 million domestically and $ 329 million internationally , for a total of $ 585 million .
= = Plot = =
In 2009 , a genetically re @-@ engineered measles virus , originally created as a cure for cancer , turns into a lethal strain which kills 90 % of those it infects , mutates 9 % into predatory , nocturnal mutants called " Darkseekers " who are extremely vulnerable to sunlight and other sources of UV , with only the remaining 1 % immune . Three years after the outbreak , US Army virologist Lieutenant Colonel Robert Neville ( Will Smith ) lives an isolated life in the ruins of New York City , which is now deserted , unsure if any other uninfected humans are left in the world .
The effects of the virus vary in other species , animals that coexist with humans like rats and domestic dogs are infected but wild animals like deer and lions are unaffected . The city has fallen into ruins and overgrown vegetation covers crumbling buildings and wild deer roam the streets while being preyed upon by lions that have escaped Central Park Zoo . Neville 's daily routine includes experimentation on infected rats to find a cure for the virus and trips through Manhattan to hunt for food and supplies . He also waits each day for a response to his continuous recorded radio broadcasts , which instruct any uninfected survivors to meet him at midday at the South Street Seaport . Flashbacks reveal that his wife ( Salli Richardson ) and daughter ( Willow Smith ) died in a helicopter accident during the chaotic evacuation of Manhattan , prior to the military @-@ enforced quarantine of the island in 2009 , in which Neville stays behind on the island as military personnel . Neville 's loneliness is mitigated by the companionship of his German Shepherd Sam ( given to him by his daughter Marley as a puppy to protect him before she died in the helicopter crash ) , interaction with mannequins he has set up as patrons at a video store , and recordings of old television broadcasts . At night , he barricades himself and Sam inside his heavily fortified Washington Square Park home to hide from the Darkseekers . One day while waiting for survivors , Sam follows a deer into a dark building . Neville cautiously goes in after her and finds the deer 's corpse along with Sam , but the building is infested by a colony of Darkseekers , both manage to escape unharmed and the attacking Darkseekers are killed by the sunlight .
Neville finds a promising treatment derived from his own blood , so he sets a snare trap and captures a female Darkseeker from a rundown building being used as a hive for the Darkseekers , while a male Darkseeker ( termed " Alpha Male " in the script , and played by Dash Mihok ) angrily tries to go after them , but is blocked by the sunlight and returns to the shadows . Back in his laboratory in the basement of his house , Neville treats the female without success . The next day , he is ensnared in a trap similar to the one he used to capture the female , and by the time he manages to escape , the sun is setting and he is attacked by infected dogs . Neville and Sam manage to kill them , but Sam is bitten in the fight . Neville brings Sam home and injects her with a strand of his serum , but when she shows signs of infection and tries to attack him , Neville is forced to strangle her to death . Heartbroken and driven over the edge by loneliness by his dog 's death , he ventures out and suicidally attacks a group of Darkseekers the next night . He kills a large number of Darkseekers but the rest overwhelm him and he is nearly killed , but is rescued by a pair of immune survivors , Anna ( Alice Braga ) and a young boy named Ethan ( Charlie Tahan ) , who have traveled from Maryland after hearing one of his broadcasts . They take the injured Neville back to his home , where Anna explains that they survived the outbreak aboard a Red Cross evacuation ship from São Paulo and are making their way to a survivors ' camp in Bethel , Vermont . Neville angrily argues that no such survivors ' camp exists .
Neville once again attempts to administer a potential cure to the infected woman in his laboratory , but the next night , a group of Darkseekers , who had followed Anna and Neville back the night before , attacks the house and overruns its defenses . Neville , Anna , and Ethan retreat into the basement laboratory , sealing themselves in with the female Darkseeker on which Neville has been experimenting . Discovering that the last treatment was successful , Neville draws a vial of her blood and gives it to Anna , before shutting Ethan and her inside a coal chute in the back of the lab . He then takes a grenade and kills the Darkseekers and himself , saving the cure . The next day , before the crack of dusk , Anna and Ethan discover that her theory is right as they arrive at the survivors ' camp in Vermont . They are greeted by some military officers and Anna hands the cure to one of them .
= = = Alternative ending = = =
The alpha male suddenly ceases its attack and makes a butterfly @-@ shaped smear on the glass . Neville realizes that the alpha male is identifying the female upon which he was experimenting by a butterfly tattoo , and the alpha male wants her back . Neville puts his gun down and returns the female . Neville and the alpha male both stare each other down ; then Neville apologizes to the Darkseekers ; the alpha male accepts his apology , keeping the other Darkseekers back and they leave . Shocked by the ordeal , Neville sits down for a moment in his laboratory . Looking over the pictures of his numerous test subjects , the implications of his research methods begin to dawn on him . The final shot follows Neville , Anna , and Ethan as they drive away towards the survivors ' camp in Vermont with the antidote .
= = Cast = =
Will Smith as Dr. Robert Neville : A former U.S. Army medical doctor and scientist before the worldwide plague , he loses his wife and daughter in a helicopter crash shortly after Manhattan is quarantined , and spends the next three years trying to find a cure while defending himself against the Darkseekers . He is immune to the virus and uses vials of his blood to try to create a cure .
Alice Braga as Anna Montez : A survivor from Brazil , she spent days harbored on a Red Cross ship in Philadelphia ; after the city was overrun , she stayed with Ethan and several other survivors on the ship , but eventually , only Ethan and she survived , since they were immune and the others were either infected or killed . She followed Neville 's broadcasts to track him .
Charlie Tahan as Ethan : A boy from Philadelphia , he spent days on the ship with Anna and accompanied her when the ship was overrun .
Dash Mihok as the Darkseekers ' alpha male
Abbey and Kona as " Sam " Samantha : Neville 's dog and only companion for three years
Emma Thompson as Dr. Alice Krippin : The doctor who creates the cancer cure , she inadvertently brings mankind to the brink of extinction ; Neville dubs the virus " the Krippin virus " .
Salli Richardson as Zoe Neville , Robert 's wife
Willow Smith as Marley Neville , Robert 's daughter
Lauren Haley as Darkseekers ' alpha female
Darrell Foster as Mike
Pat Fraley as voice of the President of the United States
Mike Patton as voices of the Darkseekers
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The late 1990s brought a reemergence of the science @-@ fiction horror genre . In 1995 , Warner Bros. began developing the film project , having owned the rights to Richard Matheson 's 1954 novel I Am Legend since 1970 and having already made the 1971 adaptation The Omega Man . Mark Protosevich was hired to write the script after the studio was impressed with his spec script of The Cell . Protosevich 's first draft took place in 2000 in San Francisco , and contained many similarities with the finished film , though the Darkseekers ( called ' Hemocytes ' ) were civilized to the point of the creatures in The Omega Man and Anna was a lone morphine addict , as well as the fact that a Hemocyte character named Christopher joined forces with Neville . Warner Bros. immediately put the film on the fast track , attaching Neal H. Moritz as producer .
Actors Tom Cruise , Michael Douglas , and Mel Gibson had been considered to star in the film , using a script by Protosevich and with Ridley Scott as director ; however , by June 1997 , the studio 's preference was for actor Arnold Schwarzenegger . In July , Scott and Schwarzenegger finalized negotiations , with production slated to begin the coming September , using Houston as a stand @-@ in for the film 's setting of Los Angeles . Scott had Protosevich replaced by a screenwriter of his own choosing , John Logan , with whom he spent months of intensive work on a number of different drafts . The Scott / Logan version of I Am Legend was a mix of sci @-@ fi and psychological thriller , without dialogue in the first hour and with a sombre ending . The creatures in Logan 's version were similar to the Darkseekers of the finished film in their animalistic , barbaric nature . The studio , fearing its lack of commercial appeal and merchandising potential , began to worry about the liberties they had given Scott – then on a negative streak of box office disappointments – and urged the production team to reconsider the lack of action in the screenplay . After an " esoteric " draft by writer Neal Jimenez , Warner Bros. reassigned Protosevich to the project , reluctantly working with Scott again .
In December 1997 , the project was called into question when the projected budget escalated to $ 108 million due to media and shareholder scrutiny of the studio in financing a big @-@ budget film . Scott rewrote the script in an attempt to reduce the film 's budget by $ 20 million , but in March 1998 , the studio canceled the project due to continued budgetary concerns , and quite possibly to the box office disappointment of Scott 's last three films , 1492 : Conquest of Paradise , White Squall , and G.I. Jane . Likewise , Schwarzenegger 's recent films at the time ( Eraser and Warner Bros. own Batman & Robin ) also underperformed , and the studio 's latest experiences with big budget sci @-@ fi movies Sphere and The Postman were negative , as well . In August 1998 , director Rob Bowman was attached to the project , with Protosevich hired to write a third all @-@ new draft , far more action @-@ oriented than his previous versions , but the director ( who reportedly wished for Nicolas Cage to play the lead ) moved on to direct Reign of Fire and the project did not get off the ground .
In March 2002 , Schwarzenegger became the producer of I Am Legend , commencing negotiations with Michael Bay to direct and Will Smith to star in the film . Bay and Smith were attracted to the project based on a redraft that would reduce its budget . However , the project was shelved due to Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn 's dislike of the script . In 2004 , Akiva Goldsman was asked by head of production Jeff Robinov to produce the film . In September 2005 , director Francis Lawrence signed on to helm the project , with production slated to begin in 2006 . Guillermo del Toro was originally approached to direct by Smith , but turned it down to direct Hellboy II : The Golden Army . Lawrence , whose film Constantine was produced by Goldsman , was fascinated by empty urban environments . He said , " Something 's always really excited me about that ... to have experienced that much loss , to be without people or any kind of social interaction for that long . "
Goldsman took on the project as he admired the second I Am Legend film adaptation , The Omega Man . A rewrite was done to distance the project from the other zombie films inspired by the novel , as well as from the recently released 28 Days Later , although Goldsman was inspired by the scenes of a deserted London in the British horror film to create the scenes of a deserted New York City . A 40 @-@ page scene @-@ by @-@ scene outline of the film was developed by May 2006 . When delays occurred on Smith 's film Hancock , which was scheduled for 2007 , it was proposed to switch the actor 's films . This meant filming would have to begin in 16 weeks : production was given a green light , using Goldsman 's script and the outline . Elements from Protosevich 's script were introduced , while the crew consulted with experts on infectious diseases and solitary confinement . Rewrites continued throughout filming , because of Smith 's improvisational skills and Lawrence 's preference to keep various scenes silent . The director had watched Jane Campion ’ s film The Piano with a low volume so as to not disturb his newborn son , and realized that silence could be very effective cinema .
= = = Casting = = =
Will Smith signed on to play Robert Neville in April 2006 . He said he took on I Am Legend because he felt it could be like " Gladiator [ or ] Forrest Gump — these are movies with wonderful , audience @-@ pleasing elements , but also uncompromised artistic value . [ This ] always felt like it had those possibilities to me . " The actor found Neville to be his toughest acting challenge since portraying Muhammad Ali in Ali ( 2001 ) . He said that " when you 're on your own , it is kind of hard to find conflict . " The film 's dark tone and exploration of whether Neville has gone insane during his isolation meant Smith had to restrain himself from falling into a humorous routine during takes . To prepare for his role , Smith visited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Georgia . He also met with a person who had been in solitary confinement and a former prisoner of war . Smith compared Neville to Job , who lost his children , livelihood , and health . Like the Book of Job , I Am Legend studies the questions , " Can he find a reason to continue ? Can he find the hope or desire to excel and advance in life ? Or does the death of everything around him create imminent death for himself ? " He also cited an influence in Tom Hanks ' performance in Cast Away ( 2000 ) .
Abbey and Kona , both three @-@ year @-@ old German Shepherd dogs , played Neville 's dog Sam . The rest of the supporting cast consists of Salli Richardson as Zoe , Robert 's wife , and Alice Braga as a survivor named Anna . Willow Smith , Will Smith 's daughter , makes her film debut as Marley , Neville 's daughter . Emma Thompson has an uncredited role as Dr. Alice Krippin , who appears on television explaining her vaccine for cancer that mutates into the virus . Singer Mike Patton provided the guttural screams of the infected " hemocytes " , and Dash Mihok provided the character animation for the infected " alpha male " . Several filler characters with uncredited roles were in old news broadcasts and flashbacks , such as the unnamed President 's voice ( Pat Fraley ) , and the cast of The Today Show .
= = = Filming = = =
Akiva Goldsman decided to move the story from Los Angeles to New York City to take advantage of locations that would more easily show emptiness . Goldsman explained , " L.A. looks empty at three o 'clock in the afternoon , [ but ] New York is never empty . . . it was a much more interesting way of showing the windswept emptiness of the world . " Warner Bros. initially rejected this idea because of the logistics , but Francis Lawrence was determined to shoot on location , to give the film a natural feel that would benefit from not shooting on soundstages . Lawrence went to the city with a camcorder , and filmed areas filled with crowds . Then , a special effects test was conducted to remove all those people . The test had a powerful effect on studio executives . Michael Tadross convinced authorities to close busy areas such as the Grand Central Terminal viaduct , several blocks of Fifth Avenue , and Washington Square Park . The film was shot primarily in the anamorphic format , with flashback scenes shot in Super 35 .
Filming began on September 23 , 2006 . The Marcy Avenue Armory in Williamsburg was used for the interior of Neville 's home , while Greenwich Village was used for the exterior . Other locations include the Tribeca section of lower Manhattan , the aircraft carrier Intrepid , the Kingsbridge Armory in the Bronx , and St. Patrick 's Cathedral . Weeds were imported from Florida and were strewn across locations to make the city look like it had been overgrown with them . The closure of major streets was controversial with New Yorkers . Will Smith said , " I don 't think anyone 's going to be able to do that in New York again anytime soon . People were not happy . That 's the most middle fingers I 've ever gotten in my career . "
A bridge scene was filmed for six consecutive nights in January on the Brooklyn Bridge to serve as a flashback scene in which New York 's citizens evacuate the city . Shooting the scene consumed $ 5 million of the film 's reported $ 150 million budget , which was likely the most expensive shoot in the city to date . The scene , which had to meet requirements from 14 government agencies , involved 250 crew members and 1 @,@ 000 extras , including 160 National Guard members . Also present were several Humvees , three Strykers , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) cutter , a 41 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) utility boat , and two 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) response boat small craft , as well as other vehicles including taxis , police cars , fire trucks , and ambulances . Filming concluded on March 31 , 2007 . Computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) was used to depict the main spans of the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge collapsing as missiles from passing military jets blew them up to quarantine Manhattan island .
Reshoots were conducted around November 2007 . Lawrence noted , " We weren 't seeing fully rendered shots until about a month ago . The movie starts to take on a whole other life . It 's not until later that you can judge a movie as a whole and go , ' Huh , maybe we should shoot this little piece in the middle , or tweak this a little bit . ' It just so happened that our re @-@ shoots revolved around the end of the movie . "
= = = Effects = = =
A week into filming , Francis felt the infected ( referred to as " Darkseekers " or " hemocytes " in the script ) , who were being portrayed by actors wearing prosthetics , were not convincing . His decision to use CGI resulted in an increased budget and extended post @-@ production , although the end results were not always well received . The concept behind the infected was that their adrenal glands were open all of the time and Lawrence explained , " They needed to have an abandon in their performance that you just can ’ t get out of people in the middle of the night when they ’ re barefoot . And their metabolisms are really spiked , so they ’ re constantly hyperventilating , which you can ’ t really get actors to do for a long time or they pass out . " The actors remained on set to provide motion capture . " The film 's producers and sound people wanted the creatures in the movie to sound somewhat human , but not the standard " , so Mike Patton , lead singer of Faith No More , was engaged to provide the screams and howls of the infected .
In addition , CGI was used for the lions and deer in the film , and to erase pedestrians in shots of New York . Workers visible in windows , spectators , and moving cars in the distance were all removed . In his vision of an empty New York , Lawrence cited John Ford as his influence : " We didn 't want to make an apocalyptic movie where the landscape felt apocalyptic . A lot of the movie takes place on a beautiful day . There 's something magical about the empty city as opposed to dark and scary that was the ideal that the cast and crew wanted . "
= = Release = =
I Am Legend was originally slated for a November 21 , 2007 , release in the United States and Canada , but was delayed to December 14 . The film opened on December 26 , 2007 , in the United Kingdom , and Ireland , having been originally scheduled for January 4 , 2008 .
In December 2007 , China temporarily suspended the release of all American films in the country , which is believed to have delayed the release of I Am Legend . Will Smith spoke to the chairman of China Film Group about securing a release date , later explaining , " We struggled very , very hard to try to get it to work out , but there are only a certain amount of foreign films that are allowed in . "
Premieres were held in Tokyo , New York , and London . At the London premiere in Leicester Square , British comedian and actor Neg Dupree was arrested after pushing his way onto the red carpet and running around shouting " I am Legend ! " . The stunt was part of his " Neg 's Urban Sports " section of comedy game show Balls of Steel .
= = = Marketing = = =
A tie @-@ in comic from DC Comics and Vertigo Comics has been created , I Am Legend : Awakening . The project draws upon collaboration from Bill Sienkiewicz , screenwriter Mark Protosevich , and author Orson Scott Card . The son of the original book 's author , Richard Christian Matheson , also collaborated on the project . The project will advance from the comic to an online format in which animated featurettes ( created by the team from Broken Saints ) will be shown on the official website .
In October 2007 , Warner Bros. Pictures , in conjunction with the Electric Sheep Company , launched the online multiplayer game I Am Legend : Survival in the virtual world Second Life . The game is the largest launched in the virtual world in support of a film release , permitting people to play against each other as the infected or the uninfected across a replicated 60 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) of New York City . The studio also hired the ad agency Crew Creative to develop a website that would be specifically viewable on the iPhone .
= = = Box office = = =
I Am Legend grossed $ 77 @,@ 211 @,@ 321 on its opening weekend in 3 @,@ 606 theaters , averaging $ 21 @,@ 412 per venue , and placing it at the top of the box office . This set a record for highest @-@ grossing opening for a film for December . The film grossed $ 256 @,@ 393 @,@ 010 in North America and a total of $ 585 @,@ 349 @,@ 010 worldwide . The film was the sixth @-@ highest grossing film of 2007 in North America , and as of April 2014 , it still stands among the top 100 all @-@ time highest @-@ grossing films both domestically and worldwide ( unadjusted for ticket price inflation ) .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD on March 18 , 2008 , in two editions : a one @-@ disc release , including the movie with four animated comics ( " Death As a Gift " , " Isolation " , " Sacrificing the Few for the Many " , and " Shelter " ) , and other DVD @-@ ROM features , and a two @-@ disc special edition that includes all these extras , an alternative theatrical version of the movie with an alternative ending , and a digital copy of the film . On the high @-@ definition end , the movie has been released on the Blu @-@ ray Disc format and HD DVD format along with the DVD release , with the HD @-@ DVD version being released later on April 8 , 2008 . Both HD releases include all the features available in the two @-@ disc DVD edition . A three @-@ disk Ultimate Collector 's Edition was also released on December 9 , 2008 .
The film has sold 7 @.@ 04 million DVDs and earned $ 126 @.@ 2 million in revenue , making it the sixth @-@ best @-@ selling DVD of 2008 . However , Warner Bros. was reportedly " a little disappointed " with the film 's performance on the DVD market .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack for I Am Legend was released on January 15 , 2008 , under the record label Varèse Sarabande . The music was composed by James Newton Howard .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Most critics were favorable towards the film . The consensus among favorable reviews was that Will Smith 's performance and slow pace overcame questionable special effects . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 70 % , based on 207 reviews . At the similar website Metacritic , which assigns a rating out of 100 to each review , the film has received an average score of 65 , based on 37 reviews .
A. O. Scott wrote that Will Smith gave a " graceful and effortless performance " and also noted the " third @-@ act collapse " . He felt that the movie " does ponder some pretty deep questions about the collapse and persistence of human civilization " . Dana Stevens of Slate wrote that the movie lost its way around the hour mark , noting that " the Infected just aren 't that scary . " NPR critic Bob Mondello noted the film 's subtext concerning global terrorism and that this aspect made the film fit in perfectly with other , more direct cinematic explorations of the subject . Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review on the television program At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper , commending Will Smith as being in " prime form " , also saying there are " some amazing sequences " and that there was " a pretty heavy screenplay for an action film . " The film has been criticized for diverging from Matheson 's novel , especially in its portrayal of a specifically Christian theme . Much of the negative criticism concerned the film 's third act , with some critics favoring the alternative ending in the DVD release .
Popular Mechanics published an article on December 14 , 2007 , addressing some of the scientific issues raised by the film :
the rate of deterioration of urban structures , infrastructure , and survival of fauna and flora
the plausibility of a retrovirus spreading out of control as depicted in the film ( The measles virus depicted in the film , however , is not a retrovirus , but is in fact a part of the Paramyxovirus family . )
the mechanics of the Brooklyn Bridge 's destruction
The magazine solicited reactions from Alan Weisman , author of The World Without Us , virologist W. Ian Lipkin , MD , and Michel Bruneau , PhD , comparing their predictions with the film 's depictions . The article raised the most questions regarding the virus ' mutation and the medical results , and pointed out that a suspension bridge like the Brooklyn Bridge would likely completely collapse rather than losing only its middle span . Neville 's method of producing power using gasoline @-@ powered generators seemed the most credible : " This part of the tale is possible , if not entirely likely , " Popular Mechanics editor Roy Berendsohn says .
Philosopher Slavoj Zizek criticized the film politically as being the most regressive adaptation from the novel . He claimed that while the original novel had a progressive multicultural message where Neville became a " legend " to the new creatures and is subsequently killed by them ( much like vampires were legends to humans ) , the 2007 film finds a cure for the Darkseekers and it is delivered by a survivor through apparent divine intervention . According to Zizek , this misses the original message and " openly opt [ s ] for religious fundamentalism . "
= = = Accolades = = =
I Am Legend earned four nominations for the Visual Effects Society awards , and was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble at the Screen Actors Guild Awards , Outstanding Film and Actor at the Image Awards , and Best Sound at the Satellite Awards . In June 2008 , Will Smith won a Saturn Award for Best Actor . Will Smith also won the MTV Movie Awards for Best Male Performance .
= = Possible sequel or prequel = =
Francis Lawrence said in late 2008 that there would be a prequel and that Will Smith would be reprising his role . He stated that the film would reveal what happens to Neville before the infected take over New York . D. B. Weiss was recruited to write the script , while Lawrence would direct " if we figure out the story " . Smith stated the film would have Neville and his team going from New York City to Washington , D.C. and back again , as they made their last stand . The film would again explore the premise of what it is like to be alone , as Lawrence explained , " ... the tough thing is , how do we do that again and in a different way ? "
On May 3 , 2011 , Francis Lawrence stated that , so far as it involved him , the prequel was dead , with Lawrence stating , " I don 't think that 's ever going to happen . "
In 2012 , Warner Bros. announced that deals had been made to produce " another installment " ( not necessarily the rumored prequel ) , with the intention of having Will Smith reprise his role .
= = Reboot = =
In April 2014 , Warner Bros. bought a spec script entitled A Garden at the End of the World , described as a postapocalyptic variation of The Searchers . Studio executives found so many similarities to I Am Legend in the screenplay , they asked the writer , Gary Graham , to rewrite it so it could serve as a reboot of the earlier film , hoping to create a new franchise . Will Smith , who is known for his reluctance to appear in sequels , is not expected to appear in the new film .
= HMS Highlander ( H44 ) =
HMS Highlander was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Jaguaribe in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed . When completed in March 1940 , she was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet . The ship was assigned to convoy escort duties in June with the Western Approaches Command , sinking one German submarine in October . Highlander was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone in mid @-@ 1941 to escort convoys off West Africa , but returned to the United Kingdom in August . She became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 4 of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in early 1942 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the rest of the war . The ship became a target ship after the war ended and was sold for scrap in mid @-@ 1946 .
= = Description = =
Highlander displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Highlander carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and men .
The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Highlander had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .
Highlander was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Little data on Highlander 's modifications during the war has survived , although it is known that she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun in July 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was later augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . It is uncertain if the ship 's director @-@ control tower was installed before a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge . At some point , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted as well as a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast .
= = History = =
She was originally ordered as Jaguaribe on 16 December 1937 by the Brazilian Navy . The ship was laid down by John I. Thornycroft and Company at Woolston , Hampshire on 28 September 1938 and was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II . Renamed HMS Highlander , she was launched on 16 October and commissioned on 18 March 1940 . After working up at Portland Harbour , she was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet and began escort duty on 11 April . Six days later , the ship ran aground in the Shetland Islands and was moderately damaged . Re @-@ floated , Highlander was repaired at Hull between 20 April and 19 May . She escorted the battlecruiser Renown to Scapa Flow and arrived there on 24 May . The flotilla was transferred to the Western Approaches Command in mid @-@ June and Highlander rescued survivors of the torpedoed armed merchant cruiser Scotstoun en route to Plymouth . Later in the month , the ship escorted ships evacuating Allied troops from French ports on the Atlantic coast ( Operation Ariel ) .
Highlander then rejoined the 9th Destroyer Flotilla on convoy escort duties until January 1941 . During this time , she was briefly refitted in mid @-@ July with a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun replacing her rear set of torpedo tubes and , together with her sister Harvester , the ship sank the German submarine U @-@ 32 on 30 October . On 1 December , she escorted the torpedoed Canadian destroyer HMCS Saguenay to Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness for repairs . Highlander began a longer refit at Hawthorn Leslie 's shipyard at Hebburn from 30 January to 23 March 1941 . After its completion , the ship was briefly assigned to Force H at Gibraltar , before continuing on to Freetown to begin escort duties with the 18th Destroyer Flotilla there . She remained there until August when she was transferred to Londonderry where she was later assigned to the 28th Escort Group of Western Approaches Command .
Highlander was refitted and rearmed from 2 February – 18 March 1942 at Tilbury . She became flotilla leader for Escort Group B4 and was assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force when her refit was completed . The ship and her consorts escorted Convoy SC 122 through the largest convoy battle of the war in March 1943 ; Highlander was unsuccessfully attacked by U @-@ 441 and U @-@ 608 during the battle . The ship was given an extensive overhaul at Troon from 28 December – 12 April 1944 that was lengthened when she was damaged in a collision with a tugboat . Upon its completion , she rejoined her group and remained with them until September when she was transferred to Escort Group B2 and became its flotilla leader . Highlander crushed her bow on 15 April 1945 when she struck some ice ; she had to be towed to Bay Bulls , Newfoundland , for temporary repairs . She received permanent repairs at nearby St. John 's from 17 April to 24 July . The ship reached Portsmouth five days later and later sailed to Rosyth for service as a target ship for aircraft . Highlander was placed in Category C reserve on 19 January 1946 and was approved for scrapping on 19 February 1946 . She was sold on 27 May , but demolition did not begin until May 1947 .
= 1998 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final =
The 1998 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final was a football match that took place on 13 May 1998 at Råsunda Stadium in Stockholm , Sweden to determine the winner of the 1997 – 98 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . It was contested by Chelsea of England and Stuttgart of Germany and was the 38th final of what was then Europe 's second largest football competition , the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup .
Both clubs played a total of eight games in four stages to advance to the final . Chelsea had the upper hand in all but one of their encounters , defeating Tromsø with an accumulative score of 9 – 4 in a two @-@ legged match and edging Vicenza by one goal . Stuttgart also enjoyed an advantage in all but two of their meetings , beating ÍBV 5 – 2 on aggregate and winning over Slavia Prague and Lokomotiv Moscow by two goals .
A crowd of 30 @,@ 216 were in attendance to witness Chelsea win the match 1 – 0 , with Gianfranco Zola scoring the winning goal in the second half . As a result , the English club claimed the double , having previously won the League Cup earlier in the campaign . It was Chelsea 's second conquest of the Cup Winners ' Cup , adding to their 1971 victory . By winning the tournament , they also gained qualification for the 1998 UEFA Super Cup .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Chelsea = = =
Chelsea earned automatic qualification as the 1996 – 97 season winners of England 's yearly competition , the FA Cup . In the first round of the event , they were drawn against Slovan Bratislava . Both matches resulted in 2 – 0 wins for the English outfit ; the first leg took place at Stamford Bridge , and the second at Tehelné pole , as they won 4 – 0 in total .
Chelsea then faced Tromsø in the second round . They lost the first leg by 2 – 3 which took place at Alfheim Stadion , with Gianluca Vialli registering a brace . In the home leg , Chelsea thrashed Tromsø with a 7 – 1 victory , during which Vialli scored a hat @-@ trick ; the other goals were scored by Dan Petrescu , who contributed with a double , Gianfranco Zola and Frank Leboeuf to ensure an amassed score of 9 – 4 .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Chelsea clashed with Real Betis . The opening game at Estadio Manuel Ruíz de Lopera was won with 2 – 1 after a Tore André Flo double , before a 3 – 1 win at home with goals signed by Frank Sinclair , Roberto Di Matteo and Zola were enough to hand Chelsea an overall 5 – 2 victory . The final opposition in the semi @-@ finals was Vicenza . Chelsea lost the away fixture 0 – 1 , at Stadio Romeo Menti . They ended the round with a 3 – 1 home victory , following goals by Gus Poyet , Zola and Mark Hughes to send them through to their second final .
= = = Stuttgart = = =
Stuttgart received a place in the tournament , following their celebrations in the 1996 – 97 campaign , of the German Cup , Germany 's annually contest . Starting in the round of 32 , the Germans were pitted against ÍBV . They rounded off the first tie , by completing a 3 – 1 win at Hásteinsvöllur , before a 2 – 1 victory at the Gottlieb @-@ Daimler @-@ Stadion was enough to see them through with 5 – 2 .
As Stuttgart entered the second round , they were up against Germinal Ekeren . They won the first leg 4 – 0 at Veltwijckstadion with Fredi Bobic and Jonathan Akpoborie each scoring twice . In the return game , Stuttgart suffered a 2 – 4 loss , but regardless of this , goals from Frank Verlaat and Gerhard Poschner ensured they won the stage 6 – 4 .
In the quarter @-@ finals , Slavia Prague were Stuttgart 's next opponents . The away leg at Stadion Evžena Rošického ended in a 1 – 1 draw following a Poschner goal . Back on German soil , Stuttgart won 2 – 0 after Krasimir Balakov scored two goals , giving them a 3 – 1 overall win . In the semi @-@ finals , Stuttgart were drawn against Lokomotiv Moscow . The first home leg ended 2 – 1 to the German side , with Bobic finding the winning goal late ; the first was netted by Akpoborie . At Lokomotiv Stadium , Bobic once again managed to score , during the first half , which proved to be decisive as Stuttgart won 1 – 0 and the concluding tie 3 – 1 to proceed to the final .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
= = = Background = = =
Both Chelsea and Stuttgart ended their seasons in fourth place of their respective leagues , the FA Premier League and the Bundesliga . Chelsea beat Bolton Wanderers 2 – 0 on the last matchday , while Stuttgart oversaw a 1 – 0 win over Werder Bremen . Both sides also progressed in their cup competitions – Chelsea lost against Manchester United with three to five in the 1997 – 98 FA Cup third round , but found success with a 2 – 0 victory over Middlesbrough in the 1998 Football League Cup Final . Stuttgart saw themselves overrun 0 – 2 by Bayern Munich in the 1997 German League Cup Final , only to succumb to Bayern again with a 0 – 3 deficit in the 1997 – 98 German Cup semi @-@ final .
Chelsea and Stuttgart faced each other for the first time in European football . The English side were appearing in their second Cup Winners ' Cup final , having won the tournament in 1971 , while Stuttgart made their debut . Chelsea had met German clubs once , in the 1965 – 66 season of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup against 1860 Munich — Chelsea advanced to the next round after managing a 2 – 2 stalemate at the Grünwalder Stadion , and a 1 – 0 home win .
Stuttgart had been pitted against English clubs on two meetings of the same competition , the former over Burnley in the following season . The Germans were knocked out in the opening stage , after being held 1 – 1 , in the first game at Neckarstadion , before following up with a 0 – 2 loss at Turf Moor . The latter was opposite Leeds United , in the 1992 – 93 season of the UEFA Champions League ; the club saw themselves be eliminated in the same fashion , as they won 3 – 0 at home , before losing the second leg 4 – 1 . However , Leeds were awarded an automatic 3 – 0 win , after Stuttgart were found to have fielded an ineligible player . A play @-@ off in Camp Nou was required to decide the round , which Stuttgart fell with 1 – 2 .
= = = Ticketing = = =
Both teams were each given 12 @,@ 000 tickets – the remaining 6 @,@ 000 tickets were released , for purchase to the Swedish people . However , Stuttgart decided to send 11 @,@ 000 of their 12 @,@ 000 tickets back to UEFA , due to the German club 's supporters finding it difficult to make their way to the country , as well as the absence of air flights available . Subsequently , none of the unsold tickets were granted for Chelsea and its followers ; the consequences proved worse , when the side announced that they had issued tickets alone for those , who had ordered the more higher @-@ priced package .
= = = Venue = = =
Råsunda Stadium was revealed as the official venue of the final in December 1997 . Located in Solna , Stockholm , the stadium opened its doors to the public in 1937 , and was used by the Sweden national team for their games in the 1958 FIFA World Cup , including the final , as well as most of their general ties . Råsunda also held four of the national team 's fixtures , in the 1992 European Championship , and the 1995 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final ; it was also the home base of AIK 's matches , until demolishment plans began in 2012 . For the final , Råsunda had a capacity of generally 35 @,@ 000 .
= = = Match ball = = =
Adidas Tricolore was the match ball of the final . It was the sixteenth edition in the Adidas football series ; the name " Tricolore " translates to " three @-@ coloured " and contains a tricolour crest and a cockerel , along with French classic themes which were used as influences , for the ball 's construction , to illustrate the nation 's flag . The Tricolore became the first ball available in different colours and was later introduced at that year 's World Cup . It was the last ball to carry the vintage Tango layout .
= = = Match officials = = =
Stefano Braschi from the Italian Football Federation , was appointed to officiate the final , making it his first time to decide a closing match in a European contest . He was regonised as a professional Serie A referee in 1992 . The Italian took charge of his first European fixture in a 1996 UEFA Intertoto Cup group stage meeting between Lierse and Groningen . The same year , Braschi made FIFA 's international referees list ; he debuted in February 1997 in a Israel – Germany friendly . Before the final , he had been the match official in four Champions League and two UEFA Cup matches ( including one qualifier ) , as well as four international friendlies . Braschi was accompanied by an all @-@ Italian team , which was made up of assistant referees Gennaro Mazzei and Pietro Contente – the reserve referee was unveiled as Livio Bazzoli .
= = Broadcasting = =
The final was screened in 144 countries worldwide , with over 250 million viewers expected to follow the game . In the United Kingdom , the event was covered by BBC One , after winning the television rights over Channel 5 . In German television , ARD were committed to the final ; viewer figures were reported to be an estimate 8 @.@ 9 million . In Sweden , SVT1 and SVT2 , the two channels of the television network Sveriges Television , jointly televised the match .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Chelsea centre back Frank Sinclair and left back Graeme Le Saux were both sidelined for the final due to their calf injuries , causing player @-@ manager Vialli to swap them with Michael Duberry , and Danny Granville , who had recovered from an abscess pain . Central midfielder Poyet was also included in the starting line @-@ up to join captain Dennis Wise , after returning from a damaged cruciate ligament . Together with forward and lead goalscorer Vialli , Flo began in the attack , instead of Zola , who was named as a substitute , despite making an improvement from his damaged groin , sustained in a league fixture against Liverpool in April .
Stuttgart suffered from no player injuries , but defenders Frank Verlaat and Martin Spanring 's bans , prevented them from taking part in the game , leading to manager Joachim Löw to replace Verlaat , with midfielder Murat Yakin as libero , and Thomas Berthold taking over Spanring 's role in the middle .
= = = Summary = = =
= = = = First half = = = =
Chelsea 's goalscoring chance came in the fifth minute when Poyet found Di Matteo , who fumbled his opportunity as it went over the goal . Stuttgart almost took the lead through Bobic , who took advantage of Steve Clarke 's poor clearance but Bobic 's attempt went just past the right goalpost . The Germans continued to push forward , as Balakov had a chance on goal , after being found by Poschner , but his shot was kept out by Ed de
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course of his escape . He is killed in a fall from a window when confronted by Peter .
Elizabeth Banks as Betty Brant
As seen in past Spider @-@ Man comics , Betty Brant is Jameson 's secretary who has a bit of a soft spot for Peter .
Ron Perkins as Dr. Mendel Stromm
A scientist employed by Oscorp that assists Norman Osborn in developing the Human Performance Enhancers that eventually transforms Osborn in the Green Goblin which kills him .
Randy Savage as Bonesaw McGraw
A wrestler whom Spider @-@ Man defeats in the cage match at the wrestling tournament .
Octavia Spencer as the check @-@ in girl who signs Peter Parker into the wrestling match and warns him that they are not liable for the injuries he will sustain .
Lucy Lawless as Punk Rock girl
Bruce Campbell , a long @-@ time colleague of director Sam Raimi , has a cameo as the announcer at the wrestling ring Peter takes part in . Years later , Jeffrey Henderson who worked on the storyboards for the cancelled Spider @-@ Man 4 movie , released information regarding which villains would appear within the movie . One of those included Bruce Campbell 's character 's progression into Quentin Beck / Mysterio . Ted Raimi , Sam Raimi 's actor brother , plays a small role as editor 's assistant " Hoffman " . Sam Raimi himself appeared off @-@ screen , throwing popcorn at Peter as he enters the arena to wrestle Bonesaw McGraw . Spider @-@ Man co @-@ creator Stan Lee also has a cameo , in which he asks Peter , " Hey kid , would you like a pair of these glasses ? They 're the kind they wore in X @-@ Men . " The scene was cut , and Lee only briefly appears in the film to grab a young girl from falling debris during the battle between Spider @-@ Man and the Green Goblin in Times Square . R & B / soul singer Macy Gray appears as herself . One of the stunt performers in the film is actor Johnny Tri Nguyen . Robert Kerman , best known for his performances in pornographic and exploitation films , has a bit part as a tugboat captain . It was also intended for Hugh Jackman to make an appearance in the film as Wolverine , reprising the role from 2000 's X @-@ Men , but a dispute between Sony and 20th Century Fox over the characters ' film rights prevented it from happening .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 1999 , although Sony Pictures optioned from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer all preceding script versions of Spider @-@ Man , it only exercised the options on " the Cameron material , " which contractually included a multi @-@ author screenplay and a forty @-@ five page " scriptment " credited only to James Cameron . The studio announced they were not hiring Cameron himself to direct the film nor would they be using his script . The studio lined up Roland Emmerich , Tony Scott , Chris Columbus , Ang Lee , David Fincher , Jan de Bont and M. Night Shyamalan as potential directors . Fincher did not want to depict the origin story , pitching the film as being based on The Night Gwen Stacy Died storyline , but the studio disagreed . Sam Raimi was attached to direct in January 2000 , for a summer 2001 release . He had been a big fan of the comic book during his youth , and his passion for Spider @-@ Man earned him the job .
Cameron 's work became the basis of David Koepp 's first draft screenplay , often word for word . Cameron 's versions of the Marvel villains Electro and Sandman remained the antagonists . Koepp 's rewrite substituted the Green Goblin as the main antagonist and added Doctor Octopus as the secondary antagonist . Raimi felt the Green Goblin and the surrogate father @-@ son theme between Norman Osborn and Peter Parker would be more interesting , thus , he dropped out Doctor Octopus from the film . In June , Columbia hired Scott Rosenberg to rewrite Koepp 's material . Remaining a constant in all the rewrites was the " organic webshooter " idea from the Cameron " scriptment " . Raimi felt he would stretch the audience 's suspension of disbelief too far to have Peter invent mechanical webshooters .
Rosenberg removed Doctor Octopus and created several new action sequences . Raimi felt adding a third origin story would make the film too complex . Sequences removed from the final film had Spider @-@ Man protecting Fargas , the wheelchair @-@ using Oscorp executive from the Goblin , and Spider @-@ Man defusing a hostage situation on a train . As production neared , producer Laura Ziskin hired her husband , award @-@ winning writer Alvin Sargent , to polish the dialogue , primarily between Peter and Mary Jane . Columbia offered David Koepp 's name to the WGA as sole screenwriter , despite the fact that it had acquired Cameron 's script and hired two subsequent writers . Without reading and comparing any of the material , the Writers Guild approved sole credit to Koepp .
= = = Filming = = =
With Spider @-@ Man cast , filming was set to begin the following November in New York City and on Sony soundstages . The film was set for release a year later , but when the film was postponed to be released on May 3 , 2002 , filming officially began on January 8 , 2001 in Culver City , California . After the terrorist attacks on September 11 , 2001 , certain sequences were re @-@ filmed , and images of the Twin Towers were digitally erased from the film . Sony 's Stage 29 was used for Peter 's Forest Hills home , and Stage 27 was used for the wrestling sequence where Peter takes on Bonesaw McGraw ( Randy Savage ) . Stage 27 was also used for the complex Times Square sequence where Spider @-@ Man and the Goblin battle for the first time , where a three @-@ story set with a breakaway balcony piece was built . The scene also required shooting in Downey , California . On March 6 , forty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old construction worker Tim Holcombe was killed when a forklift modified as a construction crane crashed into a construction basket that he was in . The following court case led to the California Division of Occupational Safety and Health to fine Sony $ 58 @,@ 805 .
In Los Angeles , locations included the Natural History Museum ( for the Columbia University lab where Peter is bitten and receives his powers ) , the Pacific Electricity Building ( the Daily Bugle offices ) and Greystone Mansion ( for the interiors of Norman Osborn 's home ) . In April , 4 of the Spider @-@ Man costumes were stolen , and Sony put up a $ 25 @,@ 000 reward for their return . They were recovered after 18 months and a former movie studio security guard and an accomplice were arrested . Production moved to New York City for two weeks , taking in locations such as the Queensboro Bridge , the exteriors of Columbia University 's Low Memorial Library and the New York Public Library , and a rooftop garden in the Rockefeller Center . The crew returned to Los Angeles where production and filming ended in June . The Flatiron Building was used for the Daily Bugle .
= = = Design = = =
Although it wound up being faithful to the comics , many designs were made for Spider @-@ Man 's costumes : one concept costume designer James Acheson became fond of the idea of having a red emblem over a black costume . To create Spider @-@ Man 's costume , Maguire was fitted for the skintight suit , being covered with layers of substance to create the suit 's shape . It was designed as a single piece , except for the mask . The webbing , which accented the costume , was cut by computer . The mask eye lenses were designed to have a mirror look .
= = = Effects = = =
Visual effects supervisor John Dykstra was hired to produce the film 's visual effects in May 2000 . He convinced Raimi to make many of the stunts computer generated , as they would have been physically impossible . Raimi had used more traditional special effects in his previous films and learned a lot about using computers during production . Raimi worked hard to plan all the sequences of Spider @-@ Man swinging from buildings , which he described as , " ballet in the sky . " The complexity of such sequences meant the budget rose from an initially planned $ 70 million to around $ 100 million . Shots were made more complicated because of the main characters ' individual color schemes , so Spider @-@ Man and the Green Goblin had to be shot separately for effects shots : Spider @-@ Man was shot in front of a greenscreen , while the Green Goblin was shot against bluescreen . Shooting them together would have resulted in one character being erased from a shot .
Saki said the biggest difficulty of creating Spider @-@ Man was that as the character was masked , it immediately lost a lot of characterization . Without the context of eyes or mouth , a lot of body language had to be put in so that there would be emotional content . Raimi wanted to convey the essence of Spider @-@ Man as being , " the transition that occurs between him being a young man going through puberty and being a superhero . " Dykstra said his crew of animators had never reached such a level of sophistication to give subtle hints of still making Spider @-@ Man feel like a human being . When two studio executives were shown shots of the computer generated character , they believed it was actually Maguire performing stunts . In addition , Dykstra 's crew had to composite areas of New York City and replaced every car in shots with digital models . Raimi did not want it to feel entirely like animation , so none of the shots were 100 % computer generated .
= = Release = =
After the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11 , 2001 , Sony recalled teaser posters which showed a close @-@ up of Spider @-@ Man 's face with the New York skyline ( including , prominently , the World Trade Center towers ) reflected in his eyes . The film 's original teaser trailer , released in 2001 and shown before Atlantis : The Lost Empire , American Pie 2 , Planet of the Apes and Jurassic Park III , was featured a mini @-@ film plot involving a group of bank robbers escaping in a Eurocopter AS355 Twin Squirrel helicopter , which gets caught from behind and propelled backward into what at first appears to be a net , then is shown to be a gigantic spider web spun between the World Trade Center towers . According to Sony , the trailer did not contain any actual footage from the film itself and is consequently one of the most popular " Special Shoot " trailers since Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . The trailer and poster were pulled after the events of the attacks , but can be found on the internet on websites such as YouTube .
Before the film 's British theatrical release in June 2002 , the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) gave the film a " 12 " certificate . Due to Spider @-@ Man 's popularity with younger children , this prompted much controversy . The BBFC defended their decision , arguing that the film could have been given a " 15 " . Despite this , North Norfolk and Breckland District Councils , in East Anglia , changed it to a " PG " , and Tameside council , Manchester , denoted it a " PG @-@ 12 " . The U.S. rated it " PG @-@ 13 " for " stylized violence and action " . In late August , the BBFC relaxed their policy to " 12A " , leading Sony to re @-@ release the film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
Spider @-@ Man became the first film to pass the $ 100 million mark in a single weekend . With the release in the United States and Canada on May 3 , 2002 on 7 @,@ 500 screens at 3 @,@ 615 theaters , the film earned $ 39 @,@ 406 @,@ 872 on its opening day , averaging $ 10 @,@ 901 per theater ( $ 5 @,@ 524 @.@ 25 per screen ) . This was the highest opening day at the time until it was surpassed by its sequel Spider @-@ Man 2 in 2004 . Spider @-@ Man also set an all @-@ time record for the highest earnings in a single day with $ 43 @,@ 622 @,@ 264 on its second day , a record later surpassed by Shrek 2 in 2004 . The film earned a total of $ 114 @,@ 844 @,@ 116 during its opening weekend , averaging $ 31 @,@ 769 per theater ( $ 15 @,@ 312 @.@ 55 per screen ) and became the fastest theatrical release to reach $ 100 million at the time , crossing the milestone in three days . Spider @-@ Man also had the highest opening week in North America box office film for a non @-@ sequel with $ 114 million , which was surpassed eight years later by Alice in Wonderland . The film 's three @-@ day record was later surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest four years later . The film stayed at the top position in its second weekend , dropping only 38 % , grossing another $ 71 @,@ 417 @,@ 527 , averaging $ 19 @,@ 755 @.@ 89 per theater ( $ 9 @,@ 522 @.@ 34 per screen ) , and bringing the 10 @-@ day total to $ 223 @,@ 040 @,@ 031 . The film dropped to the second position in its third weekend , behind Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones , but still made $ 45 @,@ 036 @,@ 912 , dropping only 37 % , averaging $ 12 @,@ 458 per theater , and bringing the 17 @-@ day tally to $ 285 @,@ 573 @,@ 668 . It stayed at the second position in its fourth weekend , grossing $ 35 @,@ 814 @,@ 844 over the four @-@ day Memorial Day frame , dropping only 21 % while expanding to 3 @,@ 876 theaters , averaging $ 9 @,@ 240 over four days , and bringing the 25 @-@ day gross to $ 333 @,@ 641 @,@ 492 . In the box office , Spider @-@ Man became 2002 's highest @-@ grossing film with $ 403 @,@ 706 @,@ 375 in the U.S. and Canada , defeating The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers and Star Wars Episode II : Attack of the Clones . Spider @-@ Man currently ranks as the 21st highest @-@ grossing film of all time in the U.S. and Canada , not adjusted for inflation . The film also grossed $ 821 @,@ 708 @,@ 551 worldwide , making it 2002 's third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film behind The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets and the 54th highest @-@ grossing film of all time . The film sold an estimated 69 @,@ 484 @,@ 700 tickets in the US .
International markets which generated grosses in excess of $ 10 million include Australia ( $ 16 @.@ 9 million ) , Brazil ( $ 17 @.@ 4 million ) , France , Algeria , Monaco , Morocco and Tunisia ( $ 32 @.@ 9 million ) , Germany ( $ 30 @.@ 7 million ) , Italy ( $ 20 @.@ 8 million ) , Japan ( $ 56 @.@ 2 million ) , Mexico ( $ 31 @.@ 2 million ) , South Korea ( $ 16 @.@ 98 million ) , Spain ( $ 23 @.@ 7 million ) , and the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 45 @.@ 8 million ) .
Spider @-@ Man became the highest @-@ grossing superhero film of all time at the time of its release . It was eventually outgrossed in 2007 by Spider @-@ Man 3 . In 2008 , Spider @-@ Man 3 was outgrossed by The Dark Knight . In 2012 , The Dark Knight was outgrossed by The Avengers .
The film 's U.S. television rights ( Fox , TBS / TNT ) were sold for $ 60 million . Related gross toy sales were $ 109 million . Its U.S. DVD revenue as of July 2004 stands at $ 338 @.@ 8 million . Its U.S. VHS revenue as of July 2004 is $ 89 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Spider @-@ Man was a critical success . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes calculated an 89 % overall approval based on 216 reviews , with the site 's consensus stating : " Not only does Spider @-@ Man provide a good dose of web @-@ swinging fun , it also has a heart , thanks to the combined charms of director Sam Raimi and star Tobey Maguire . " The casting , mainly Tobey Maguire , is often cited as one of the film 's high points . Eric Harrison , of the Houston Chronicle , was initially skeptical of the casting of Tobey Maguire , but , after seeing the film , he stated , " within seconds , however , it becomes hard to imagine anyone else in the role . " USA Today critic Mike Clark believed the casting rivaled that of Christopher Reeve as 1978 's Superman . Owen Gleiberman , of Entertainment Weekly , had mixed feelings about the casting , particularly Tobey Maguire . " Maguire , winning as he is , never quite gets the chance to bring the two sides of Spidey – the boy and the man , the romantic and the avenger – together . " The Hollywood Reporter 's Kirk Honeycutt thought , " the filmmakers ' imaginations work in overdrive from the clever design of the cobwebby opening credits and Spider @-@ Man and M.J. ' s upside down kiss – after one of his many rescues of her – to a finale that leaves character relationships open ended for future adventures . "
Conversely , LA Weekly 's Manohla Dargis wrote , " It isn 't that Spider @-@ Man is inherently unsuited for live @-@ action translation ; it 's just that he 's not particularly interesting or , well , animated . " Giving it 2 @.@ 5 / 4 stars , Roger Ebert felt the film lacked a decent action element ; " Consider the scene where Spider @-@ Man is given a cruel choice between saving Mary Jane or a cable car full of school kids . He tries to save both , so that everyone dangles from webbing that seems about to pull loose . The visuals here could have given an impression of the enormous weights and tensions involved , but instead the scene seems more like a bloodless storyboard of the idea . " Stylistically , there was heavy criticism of the Green Goblin 's costume , which led IGN 's Richard George to comment years later , " We 're not saying the comic book costume is exactly thrilling , but the Goblin armor ( the helmet in particular ) from Spider @-@ Man is almost comically bad ... Not only is it not frightening , it prohibits expression . "
Entertainment Weekly put " the kiss in Spider @-@ Man " on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , saying , " There 's a fine line between romantic and corny . And the rain @-@ soaked smooch between Spider @-@ Man and Mary Jane from 2002 tap @-@ dances right on that line . The reason it works ? Even if she suspects he 's Peter Parker , she doesn 't try to find out . And that 's sexy . " Empire magazine ranked Spider @-@ Man 437 in its 500 Greatest Movies of All Time list the following year .
= = = Awards = = =
The film won several awards ranging from Teen Choice Awards to the Saturn Awards , and was also nominated for two Academy Awards ( " Best Visual Effects " and " Best Sound Mixing " ( Kevin O 'Connell , Greg P. Russell and Ed Novick ) , but lost to The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers and Chicago , respectively . While only Danny Elfman brought home a Saturn Award , Raimi , Maguire , and Dunst were all nominated for their respective positions . It also took home the People 's Choice Award for " Favorite Motion Picture . " The film was nominated for Favorite Movie at the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards , but lost to Austin Powers in Goldmember .
= = Sequels = =
In January 2003 , Sony revealed that a sequel to Spider @-@ Man was in development , and would be produced and directed by Sam Raimi . On March 15 , 2003 , a trailer revealed that the film , Spider @-@ Man 2 , would be released in June 30 , 2004 . Spider @-@ Man 3 , the second sequel to Spider @-@ Man and the final film in the series to be directed by Raimi , was released on May 4 , 2007 . Then the series picked up with The Amazing Spider @-@ Man with Andrew Garfield in the role , and returned in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 . In the MCU series has rebooted with Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming with Tom Holland in the role that he also appeared in Captain America : Civil War
= Transit of Venus , 1639 =
The first known observations and recording of a transit of Venus were made in 1639 by the English astronomers Jeremiah Horrocks and his friend and correspondent William Crabtree . The pair made their observations independently on 4 December that year ( 24 November under the Julian calendar then used in England ) ; Horrocks from Carr House , then in the village of Much Hoole , Lancashire , and Crabtree from his home in Broughton , near Manchester .
The friends , followers of the new astronomy of Johannes Kepler , were self @-@ taught mathematical astronomers who had worked methodically to correct and improve Kepler 's Rudolphine tables by observation and measurement . In 1639 , Horrocks was the only astronomer to realise that a transit of Venus was imminent ; others became aware of it only after the event when Horrocks 's report of it was circulated . Although the friends both died within five years of making their observations , their ground @-@ breaking work was influential in establishing the size of the Solar System ; for this and their other achievements Horrocks and Crabtree , along with their correspondent William Gascoigne , are considered to be the founding fathers of British research astronomy .
= = Background = =
By the 17th century , two developments allowed for the transits of planets across the face of the Sun to be predicted and observed : the telescope and the new astronomy of Johannes Kepler , which assumed elliptical , rather than circular , planetary orbits .
In 1627 , Kepler published his Rudolphine Tables . Two years later he published extracts from the tables in his pamphlet De raris mirisque Anni 1631 which included an admonitio ad astronomos ( warning to astronomers ) concerning a transit of Mercury in 1631 and transits of Venus in 1631 and 1761 . The Mercury transit occurred as predicted and was observed by Johann Baptist Cysat in Innsbruck , Johannes Remus Quietanus in Rouffach and Pierre Gassendi in Paris , vindicating the Keplerian approach . But their observations threw into question previous theories about the Solar System as Mercury was shown to be much smaller than expected .
Although Kepler 's calculations indicated that the 1631 transit of Venus would best be visible from the American continent , he was not fully confident of his prediction , and advised that European astronomers should be prepared to observe the event . Gassendi and others in Europe watched for it but , as predicted , the Sun was below the horizon during the transit . According to modern calculations , observers in much of Italy and along the eastern Mediterranean should have been able to view the last stage of the transit , but no such observations were recorded . Kepler had predicted a near miss for a Venus transit in 1639 and , as the next full transit was not expected for another 121 years , Gassendi and the other astronomers concentrated their efforts in other areas .
= = = Jeremiah Horrocks = = =
Jeremiah Horrocks ( 1618 – 3 January 1641 ) was born in Lower Lodge , Toxteth Park , now part of Liverpool ; his father , James was a watchmaker , and his mother Mary ( née Aspinwall ) was from a notable Toxteth Park family . Several members of the Aspinwall family were also in the watchmaking trade , and it is said that a watchmaker uncle first interested Jeremiah in astronomy . Jeremiah joined Emmanuel College on 11 May 1632 and matriculated as a member of the University of Cambridge on 5 July 1632 as a sizar , which meant he did not have the means to fully support himself and was given specific duties to compensate for a reduction in fees . At Cambridge , he would have studied the arts , classical languages , a little geometry , and some traditional astronomy , but not the latest work of Galileo , Tycho Brahe and Kepler . He used his spare time to teach himself the more demanding mathematical astronomy and familiarise himself with the latest thinking . Horrocks read most of the astronomical treatises of his day , found the weaknesses in them , and was suggesting new lines of research by the age of 17 . In 1635 , he left Cambridge without formally graduating , presumably owing to the cost of graduation .
After leaving Cambridge , Horrocks returned to his home in Lancashire and began collecting books and instruments in order to pursue his main interest , the study of astronomy . In the summer of 1639 , he left home and moved about 18 miles along the coast to the village of Much Hoole , where it is thought he took up a post as a tutor for the children of the Stones family , who were prosperous haberdashers living at Carr House , within the Bank Hall Estate , Bretherton .
Horrocks was the first to demonstrate that the Moon moved in an elliptical path around the Earth . He also wrote a treatise on Keplerian astronomy and began to explore mathematically the properties of the force that became known as gravity ; Isaac Newton in the Principia acknowledged Horrocks 's work in relation to his theory of the Moon .
= = = William Crabtree = = =
William Crabtree ( 1610 – 1644 ) was a cloth merchant from Broughton Spout , a hamlet in the township of Broughton near Manchester , which is now part of Salford . The son of John Crabtree , a Lancashire farmer of comfortable means , and Isabel Crabtree ( née Pendleton ) , he was educated at a grammar school in Manchester – probably the forerunner of Manchester Grammar School , which was then situated between the Collegiate Church and what is now Chetham 's School of Music . He worked in Manchester , married into a wealthy family and in his spare time studied mathematics and astronomy . He carefully measured the movements of the planets , undertook precise astronomical calculations and rewrote the existing Rudolphine Tables with improved accuracy . He maintained an active correspondence , much of it now lost , with Horrocks , two other young astronomers – William Gascoigne and Christopher Towneley – and Samuel Foster , Professor of astronomy at Gresham College , London and alumnus of Emmanuel College . It is not known whether Horrocks and Crabtree ever met in person but from 1636 they corresponded regularly , and , because of their shared interest in the work of Johannes Kepler , referred to themselves , along with William Gascoigne , as nos Keplari ( we Keplarians ) .
Crabtree ’ s observations had convinced him that , despite their errors , Kepler ’ s Rudolphine Tables were superior to the commonly used Lansberg 's tables , and he became one of the first converts to Kepler ’ s new astronomy . By 1637 , he had convinced Horrocks of the superiority of the Keplerian system , and , using their own planetary observations , both men made many corrections to Kepler 's tables , which Crabtree converted to decimal form .
= = = Transit of Mercury = = =
On 29 September 1638 , Horrocks wrote to Crabtree about a likely forthcoming transit of Mercury on 21 October 1638 ( Old Style ) which Kepler had not predicted . He explained that he intended to construct what would later be called a helioscope by attaching his telescope to an " oblong stick , carrying a plane surface at right angles to itself on which to receive the Sun ’ s image " , and that he would draw a circle with numerical markings on a sheet of paper on which to project the image of the Sun . In the event , no such transit took place as Mercury passed over the Sun well outside the limit for a transit , but the exercise proved to be an important dry @-@ run for the later observation of the transit of Venus .
In October 1639 , Horrocks had calculated that transits of Venus occur not singly , but in pairs eight years apart , and realised that the second transit would occur in less than four weeks . He was convinced that a measurement could be made of the apparent diameter of the planet to within a fraction of a second of arc when it was seen as a dull black disk on the face of the Sun , compared to an accuracy of around one minute of arc when seen in its normal position as the bright morning star close to the Sun . He wrote to his younger brother and to Crabtree in Broughton , advising them to observe the event on Sunday , 24 November ( 4 December New Style ) . To quote Horrocks : " The more accurate calculations of Rudolphi very much confirmed my expectations ; and I rejoiced exceedingly in the prospect of seeing Venus " .
= = Observation of the transit = =
Horrocks was concerned that the weather would be unfavourable for the transit as he believed the rare planetary conjunction would produce severe weather :
The chance of a clouded atmosphere caused me much anxiety ; for Jupiter and Mercury were in conjunction with the Sun almost at the same time as Venus . This remarkable assemblage of the planets ( as if they were desirous of beholding , in common with ourselves , the wonders of the heavens , and of adding to the splendour of the scene ) , seemed to forebode great severity of weather . Mercury , whose conjunction with the Sun is invariably attended with storm and tempest , was especially to be feared . In this apprehension I coincide with the opinion of the astrologers , because it is confirmed by experience ; but in other respects I cannot help despising their more puerile vanities .
At around midday on 23 November Horrocks darkened his room and focused the rays of sunlight coming through the window onto the paper where the image could be observed safely . At his location in Much Hoole ( the latitude of which he determined to be 53 ° 35 ' ) , he calculated that the transit should begin at about 3 : 00 pm on Sunday the 24th , but he began his observations the previous day fearing that he might miss the event if his calculations proved to be inaccurate . On the Sunday he began observing at sunrise , the weather was cloudy , but he first saw the tiny black shadow of Venus crossing the Sun at about 3 : 15 pm , and observed for half an hour until sunset at 3 : 53 pm .
When the time of the observation approached , I retired to my apartment , and having closed the windows against the light , I directed my telescope , previously adjusted to a focus , through the aperture towards the Sun and received his rays at right angles upon the paper ... I watched carefully on the 24th from sunrise to nine o 'clock , and from a little before ten until noon , and at one in the afternoon , being called away in the intervals by business of the highest importance which , for these ornamental pursuits , I could not with propriety neglect ... About fifteen minutes past three in the afternoon , when I was again at liberty to continue my labours , the clouds , as if by divine interposition , were entirely dispersed ... I then beheld a most agreeable spectacle , the object of my sanguine wishes , a spot of unusual magnitude and of a perfectly circular shape , which had already fully entered upon the Sun 's disk on the left ... Not doubting that this was really the shadow of the planet , I immediately applied myself sedulously to observe it ... although Venus continued on the disk for several hours , she was not visible to me longer than half @-@ an @-@ hour , on account of [ the Sun ] so quickly setting ... The inclination was the only point upon which I failed to attain the utmost precision ; for , owing to the rapid motion of the Sun , it was difficult to observe with certainty to a single degree ... But all the rest is sufficiently accurate , and as exact as I could desire .
Crabtree made his observations using a similar set @-@ up but had insufficient time to make any measurements , as it was cloudy in Broughton , and thus he only saw the transit briefly . According to Horrocks : " Rapt in contemplation he stood for some time , scarcely trusting his own senses , through excess of joy ... In a little while , the clouds again obscured the face of the Sun , so that he could observe nothing more than that Venus was certainly on the disc at the time . " Afterwards , he made " so rapid a sketch " of Venus as it had passed across the Sun 's disc , allowing Crabtree to estimate the angular size of Venus to be 1 ' 3 " , accurate to within 1 second of arc of its actual size ; Horrocks 's estimate of 1 ' 12 " was less accurate .
= = Results = =
Kepler had found that the distance between the planets increased in proportion to their distance from the Sun , and this led him to assume that the universe was created with a divine harmony , and that the size of the planets would increase in the same way . He had written in 1618 , " Nothing is more in concord with nature than that the order of magnitude should be the same as the order of the spheres " . When Horrocks 's measurements of Venus , coupled with some erroneous measurements by Kepler and Gassendi , seemed to confirm this , Horrocks tentatively proposed a law which stated that all planets ( with the exception of Mars ) would be the same angular size when viewed from the Sun , this being 28 arc seconds . This meant that the assumption Kepler had made about the sizes of the planets held true , and led Horrocks to the false conclusion that the distance between each planet and the Sun was about 15 @,@ 000 times its radius . Thus he estimated the average distance from the Earth to the Sun to be approximately 60 million miles ( 97 million km ) , suggesting that the Solar System was ten times larger than traditionally believed . His figure was much lower than the 93 million miles ( 150 million km ) that the Astronomical Unit is known to be today , but , despite being based on a false premise , was more accurate than any suggested up to that time .
By 1640 , Gascoigne had developed a reticle and a micrometer for his telescope , both of which would have been invaluable to Horrocks . He showed them to Crabtree , who told Horrocks about them , and reported back to Gascoigne saying : " My friend Mr Horrox professeth , that little Touch I gave him , hath ravished his mind quite from itself , and left him in an Exstasie between Admiration and Amazement . I beseech you , Sir , slack not your Intentions for the Perfection of your begun Wonders . "
Horrocks produced several drafts of a Latin treatise Venus in sole visa ( Venus seen on the Sun ) based on his observations , which he presumably intended to publish , but he died suddenly from unknown causes on 3 January 1641 , aged 22 .
= = Legacy = =
Some of the drafts of Venus in Sole Visa were kept by Crabtree , who died in 1644 , three years after Horrocks . Their other correspondent , William Gascoigne , died the same year in the Battle of Marston Moor . Horrocks 's papers remained with his family for a short time ; some were destroyed during the civil war , some were taken to Ireland by a brother , Jonas , and never seen again , and others passed into the collection of antiquarian and astronomer , Christopher Towneley , where they were consulted by Jeremy Shakerley , who wrote three books on astronomy in the mid @-@ 17th century . Others were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 . The manuscripts were widely circulated from the late 1650s although they remained unpublished for many years .
The coronation of King Charles II took place on 23 April 1661 ( 3 May , New Style ) , the day of a Mercury transit across the Sun . Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens attended the coronation , during which he heard about the Horrocks 's manuscript , found in 1659 by John Worthington ( Master of Jesus College , Cambridge and alumnus of Emmanuel College , where he was a contemporary of Horrocks ) , together with some fragments of correspondence with Crabtree . Huygens knew the eminent Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius , and gave him the manuscript copy . Hevelius appended it to his report on the Mercury transit , Mercurius in sole visus Gedani , published in 1662 . The publication of Venus in Sole Visa by Hevelius caused great consternation at the newly founded Royal Society when it was realised that such an elegant and important paper by an Englishman had been neglected in his own country for so long . The mathematician John Wallis , who was a friend of Horrocks at Emmanuel College , and a founder member and leading light of the society , summed up the view of its members when he wrote :
I cannot help being displeased , that this valuable observation , purchasable with no money , elegantly described and prepared for the press , should have laid for two @-@ and @-@ twenty years , and that no @-@ one should have been found to take charge of so fair an offspring at its father 's death , to bring to light a treatise of such importance to astronomy and to preserve a work for our country 's credit and for the advantage of mankind .
The Royal Society assumed responsibility for publication of most of the remainder of Horrocks 's work as Jeremiae Horroccii Opera Posthuma in 1672 – 73 .
The recording of the transit is seen by many as the birth of modern astronomy in Britain . John Flamsteed later said he regarded Horrocks , Crabtree and Gascoigne as the founding fathers of British research astronomy and the intellectual heirs to Galileo and Kepler. and began his three folio volume , Historia Coelestis Britannica ( 1745 ) by printing five pages of their letters and observations made between 1638 and 1643 .
= = Commemorations = =
During the 19th century there was a revival of interest in Horrocks 's and Crabtree 's achievement . Rev. A. B. Whatton , who translated Venus in sole visa from Latin , assumed that Horrocks 's comment about " business of the highest importance which , for these ornamental pursuits , I could not with propriety neglect " must have referred to the duties of a curate . It seems more probable they were his duties as tutor at the house , or perhaps his " business " was merely to attend the church . The notion of the impoverished curate gained popular traction and in 1874 , after much lobbying , a memorial was mounted in Westminster Abbey opposite to that of Newton which reads :
In memory of Jeremiah Horrocks , Curate of Hoole in Lancashire who died on 3rd of Jan , 1641 in or near his 22nd year .
Having in so short a life detected the long inequality in the mean motion of Jupiter and Saturn discovered the orbit of the moon to be an ellipse determined the motion of the lunar apse suggested the physical cause of its revolution and of Venus which was seen by himself and his friend William Crabtree on Sunday the 24th of November ( O.S. ) 1639 . This tablet facing the monument of Newton was raised after the lapse of more than two centuries . Dec. 9 , 1874 .
The Rev. Robert Brickel , Rector of St. Michael 's Church , Hoole from 1848 – 1881 , raised money by public subscription in Lancashire , Oxford and Cambridge to fund the creation of a new chancel and sanctuary to the church to be named " The Horrocks Chapel " . The chancel was completed by 1824 , and the sanctuary by 1858 . The vestry was extended in 1998 – 1999 , and the first window in the north wall , originally installed in 1872 , has stained glass roundels commemorating the transits of Venus of 1874 and 2004 . There is also a marble tablet commemorating Horrocks . The church clock , contributed by the parishioners as their commemoration of Horrocks , was installed in 1859 ; the sundial , installed in 1875 , has a quotation from Horrocks ( " Sine Sole Sileo " ) that translates as " Without the sun I am silent " .
In 1903 the artist Ford Madox Brown was commissioned to produce the murals known as The Manchester Murals for Manchester Town Hall . The painting entitled Crabtree watching the transit of Venus AD 1639 is a romanticised depiction of Crabtree 's observation of the event .
On 9 June 2004 , the day after the first of a 21st @-@ century pair of Venus transits occurred as predicted by Horrocks , a commemorative street nameplate in memory of William Crabtree was unveiled at the junction of Lower Broughton Road and Priory Grove , which marks the northern boundary of Crabtree Croft . In December 2005 , a commemorative plaque was unveiled a few yards away near Ivy Cottage on Lower Broughton Road , which is thought to have been the home of Crabtree and his family at the time he was collaborating with Horrocks . The second transit of the pair occurred on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was marked by a celebration held in the church at Much Hoole , which was streamed live worldwide on the NASA website . A celebration was also held at Crabtree 's former home in Broughton when NASA broadcast a re @-@ creation of the observation at Ivy Cottage , inspired by the Ford Madox Brown mural , to millions of viewers , and projected a live video stream of the transit from Hawaii onto the side of the house .
= Anomaly ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Anomaly " is the 54th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the second episode of the third season . The episode was written by co @-@ producer Mike Sussman and directed by David Straiton , his fifth for the show .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , the Enterprise is attacked by an Osaarian vessel , and in pursuit they discover that the aliens have information on the Xindi which they must retrieve to help them on their mission .
The guest cast included Robert Rusler , who had previously appeared in Babylon 5 , and Julia Rose , who wore a costume originally created for Hilary Swank in the 2003 film The Core . The episode received ratings of 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent according to Nielsen Media Research , which was the same as previous episode " The Xindi " . It was watched by 4 @.@ 29 million viewers which was an increase and the fourth highest so far in 2003 . The actions of Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) received criticism in this episode , but the special effects and action sequences were praised .
= = Plot = =
As Enterprise travels through the Delphic Expanse , the ship is damaged by destructive spatial anomalies . With most of the primary systems off @-@ line , Ensign Mayweather notices another ship nearby but no life @-@ signs are detected . Captain Archer leads Lieutenant Reed and several MACOs on an away mission , and discover the crew are all dead . Taking what they can , they return and resume their mission .
Soon another vessel approaches Enterprise , and a group of aliens beam on board , stealing weapons , food and equipment . The crew finally prevails , and one of the aliens , an Osaarian called Orgoth , is captured . Archer hopes to recover the stolen items , but the Osaarians have masked their ion trail . He then confronts Orgoth in the brig . He explains they were traders attempting to find new trade routes , but after being hit by the spatial anomalies they were unable to leave and resorted to piracy .
The crew are able to track the Osaarian vessel , finding a large 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old sphere constructed out of a single alloy . Archer and his away team discover a series of habitat modules containing most of the stolen items . The crew also finds a cargo manifest , and Ensign Sato soon learns they had also recently attacked a Xindi ship . Archer once again confronts Orgoth , demanding to know everything about the Xindi . He then drags the Osaarian to an airlock , initiating the decompression cycle . Orgoth soon relents , revealing they downloaded the Xindi database , while providing the access codes to their computer . When the alien ship returns , Mayweather maneuvers Enterprise close enough for Sato to download the bulk of it . Archer sends Orgoth back to his people .
= = Production = =
Writer and co @-@ producer Mike Sussman , wrote the script the episode , originally intending for it to show the origins of the Orion species . But this was changed to a new species , the Osaarians , during rewrites . The episode was shot over seven days , with the majority of filming taking place on standing ship sets for the Enterprise . The Command Centre set was used for the second time , having previously appeared in the first episode of the season . It had been introduced as a new set for the third season as an area on the Enterprise where the crew would plan their next move in the mission against the Xindi . A new set was created for the brig , where the Osaarian Orgoth was held prisoner . One day of filming was on sets to represent the Osaarian base , with the majority of those made up using green screens that would allow the sets to be digitally inserted in post production .
Julia Rose made her debut as MACO Corporal McKenzie , having beaten between 25 to 40 other actors to get the part . The spacesuit costume that she wore in the episode was reused , having been created originally for the 2003 Paramount Pictures film The Core where it was worn by Hilary Swank . Rose was a fan of Bakula from his time on Quantum Leap and described him as the " Dad " on set . Nathan Anderson returned as Sergeant Kemper for the second time . Robert Rusler , who appeared as Orgoth , had previously appeared in the cast of the second season of Babylon 5 as Warren Keffer . " Anomaly " was the fifth episode to be directed by David Straiton .
= = Reception = =
" Anomaly " was first aired in the United States on UPN on September 17 , 2003 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received a 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent share among adults . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all households , and 5 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was estimated that " Anomaly " was watched by 4 @.@ 29 million viewers , which was the highest since " Future Tense " in February 2003 was watched by 4 @.@ 62 million and the fourth highest of 2003 so far .
Michelle Erica Green , writing for TrekNation , compared the actions of Archer in this episode to those of Kathryn Janeway in the second part of the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Equinox , but felt that here it came across as " callous and horrific " . She felt that Archer 's actions were typical of a " Hollywood fantasy ( or nightmare ) post @-@ 9 / 11 leader " but thought that they were realistic . She also praised other elements such as the special effects such as the derelict ship , calling it " creepy , vivid , [ and ] entirely believable . " Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , called the episode " proof that action @-@ centric Trek can indeed work , and work well . " He thought it was a vast improvement on the previous episode and found the stronger version of Archer interesting . He praised the soundtrack by Jay Chattaway which he felt suggested that the typical Star Trek music was being revised . He gave the episode a score of three and a half out of four .
The only home media release of " Anomaly " has been as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was announced in early 2013 and season three is expected to be released in January 2014 .
= French cruiser Latouche @-@ Tréville =
Latouche @-@ Tréville was one of four Amiral Charner @-@ class armored cruisers built for the French Navy in the 1890s . The ship spent the bulk of her career in the Mediterranean and was assigned to the International Squadron off the island of Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 , to protect French interests and citizens . Latouche @-@ Tréville spent most of the first decade of the 20th century as a training ship or in reserve . The ship was recommissioned before World War I began in 1914 , and escorted convoys for several months before she was assigned to the eastern Mediterranean to support Allied operations and bombard the Ottoman @-@ controlled coast . She was lightly damaged in 1915 by an Ottoman shell while providing naval gunfire support during the Gallipoli Campaign . Latouche @-@ Tréville became a training ship in late 1917 and was decommissioned in 1919 . She was stricken from the navy list the following year and was sold for scrap in 1926 .
= = Design and description = =
The Amiral Charner @-@ class ships were designed to be smaller and cheaper than the preceding armored cruiser design , the Dupuy de Lôme . Like the older ship , they were intended to fill the commerce @-@ raiding strategy of the Jeune École .
The ship measured 110 @.@ 2 meters ( 361 ft 7 in ) long overall , with a beam of 14 @.@ 04 meters ( 46 ft 1 in ) . Latouche @-@ Tréville had a forward draft of 5 @.@ 55 meters ( 18 ft 3 in ) and drew 6 @.@ 06 meters ( 19 ft 11 in ) aft . She displaced 4 @,@ 748 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 673 long tons ) at normal load and 4 @,@ 990 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 910 long tons ) at deep load .
The Amiral Charner class had two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 16 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 8 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 100 kW ) using forced draught . Latouche @-@ Tréville had a designed speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but during sea trials on 28 December 1894 the engines produced 8 @,@ 276 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 087 kW ) , although the ship only reached a maximum speed of 18 @.@ 16 knots ( 33 @.@ 63 km / h ; 20 @.@ 90 mph ) . She carried up to 535 metric tons ( 527 long tons ; 590 short tons ) of coal and could steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ships of the Amiral Charner class had a main armament that consisted of two Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1887 guns that were mounted in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Their secondary armament comprised six Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1887 guns , each in single gun turrets on each broadside . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , they carried four 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns , four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns . They were also armed with four 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) pivoting torpedo tubes ; two mounted on each broadside above water .
Unlike her sister ships , Latouche @-@ Tréville 's gun turrets were electrically powered by two dynamos , each rated at 20 @.@ 8 kilowatts ( 27 @.@ 9 hp ) . While they performed well during trials , the electrical installation proved to be unreliable in service . The electromagnetically operated friction clutch tended to burn out at normal operating voltages , the direct current components often caused arcing and the mechanical components wore out more quickly than anticipated . In addition the system was not water resistant and often malfunctioned when water entered the turrets , a not uncommon occurrence . It was replaced by a more reliable system in 1905 .
The side of the Amiral Charner class was generally protected by 92 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) of steel armor , from 1 @.@ 3 meters ( 4 ft 3 in ) below the waterline to 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 ft 2 in ) above it . The bottom 20 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tapered in thickness and the armor at the ends of the ships thinned to 60 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The curved protective deck of mild steel had a thickness of 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) along its centerline that increased to 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) at its outer edges . Protecting the boiler rooms , engine rooms , and magazines below it was a thin splinter deck . A watertight internal cofferdam , filled with cellulose , ran the length of the ship from the protective deck to a height of 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 4 ft ) above the waterline . Below the protective deck the ship was divided by 13 watertight transverse bulkheads , with five more above it . The ship 's conning tower and turrets were protected by 92 millimeters of armor .
= = Construction and career = =
Latouche @-@ Tréville , named in honor of Vice Admiral comte de Latouche @-@ Tréville , was laid down on 26 April 1890 at the Granville shipyard of Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée . She was launched on 5 November 1893 and commissioned for sea trials on 16 October . While initial trials were successful , further testing revealed multiple problems that required over a year and a half of work before she was commissioned for service on 6 May 1895 .
Latouche @-@ Tréville was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron ( Escadre du Nord ) , and participated in a fleet review by President Félix Faure on 6 August 1895 , before she was transferred to the 2nd Light Division of the Mediterranean Squadron on 11 January 1896 . The ship was briefly assigned to the Higher Naval War College ( École supérieure de guerre de la marine ) , with her sister Amiral Charner and the protected cruiser Suchet until she was transferred to the Reserve Squadron on 20 October . Latouche @-@ Tréville was sent to Souda Bay , Crete , on 17 March 1897 , at the outbreak of the Greco @-@ Turkish War , and stayed there until 24 June . On 18 October the ship rejoined the light division and remained with the Mediterranean Fleet until 22 July 1904 . During this time , she participated in a fleet review by King Umberto I of Italy at Cagliari , Sardinia , in April 1899 , the combined fleet maneuvers with the Northern Squadron during June – July 1900 and another Presidential fleet review on 19 July . During gunnery training on 24 January 1901 , her forward turret was damaged . While under repair from 1 February to 1 May , bilge keels were installed . In October 1901 , Latouche @-@ Tréville was one of the ships ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene . After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November , Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks .
During a gale on 18 December 1902 in Toulon , the small cargo liner SS Médoc was blown onto the ram of Latouche @-@ Tréville and had to be run aground lest she sink , although the cruiser was barely damaged in the incident . The ship was based at Syra in the Cyclades for duty in the eastern Mediterranean from 7 May to 16 December 1903 , and then visited Naples in April 1904 together with the entire Mediterranean Squadron . Latouche @-@ Tréville participated in the spring cruise to the eastern Mediterranean shortly thereafter , before she was placed in reserve on 22 July when the new armored cruiser Kléber replaced her in the light division . During this time , all of her 37 mm guns were removed and the number of her 47 mm guns was increased from four to eight . In addition , the electrical system for her turrets was upgraded and various other minor modifications were made .
Latouche @-@ Tréville was recommissioned on 15 February 1907 and assigned to the gunnery school . The following month , her torpedo tubes were removed . On 22 September 1908 , her aft turret was badly damaged when one of her loaded guns misfired when the breech was opened . The ignition of the propellant blew the breechblock through the turret door and threw the sighting hood onto the ship 's deck . The ship was saved from being lost by a crewman who closed the door between the magazine and the ammunition hoist . Fourteen crewmen were killed and five were wounded in the incident . Repairs took until the end of the year to complete , and she resumed her duties until she was again placed in reserve on 1 January 1912 . Latouche @-@ Tréville was recommissioned on 20 November for service in the Levant ; she departed Toulon on 10 December and arrived in Port Said , Egypt on 16 December . The ship was refitted in Bizerta , Tunisia , from 8 November 1913 to 26 December , during which time her military masts were replaced by light pole masts . She arrived back in Egypt on 30 December and resumed her duties .
Latouche @-@ Tréville was recalled to Bizerta on 29 July 1914 , where she unloaded surplus equipment as tensions rose shortly before the outbreak of the First World War . The ship was assigned to escort convoys between Morocco and France together with her sisters Amiral Charner and Bruix , and then blockaded the Strait of Otranto until 5 February 1915 , when she was transferred to the Dardanelles . She was then transferred to the Syrian squadron on 20 March , and later bombarded Ottoman installations at Gaza and a railroad bridge at Acre in Palestine . Latouche @-@ Tréville rejoined the Dardanelles squadron on 25 April and was providing fire support there on 4 June when her aft turret was struck by a 210 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) shell . It killed two men and wounded five others . She was transferred to the Aegean to conduct anti @-@ submarine patrols from 17 June to 20 August before repairs were made at Toulon from 27 August to 21 September . The ship was then returned to the Aegean to support Allied forces near Salonica , Greece until she was ordered home on 5 January 1916 to be disinfected and refitted . After its completion on 9 February , Latouche @-@ Tréville spent most of the next year and a half in the central and eastern Mediterranean performing a variety of missions . The ship was placed in reserve on 18 December 1917 , and served as a gunnery training ship until she returned to Toulon on 31 December 1918 . Latouche @-@ Tréville was decommissioned on 1 May 1919 and condemned on 21 June 1920 . Her hulk was used by the company salvaging the wreck of the battleship Liberté as accommodations and a workshop from 4 September 1920 to 1925 . She was sold for scrap in 1926 .
= = See Also = =
Russian Expeditionary Force in France
= Winston tastes good like a cigarette should =
" Winston tastes good like a cigarette should " is an enduring slogan that appeared in newspaper , magazine , radio , and television advertisements for Winston cigarettes from the brand 's introduction in 1954 until 1972 . It is one of the best @-@ known American tobacco advertising campaigns . In 1999 , Advertising Age ranked the jingle eighth @-@ best out of all the radio and television jingles that aired in the United States in the 20th century .
The deliberate use of " like " rather than " as " was provided by advertising agency William Esty Co . , and the overall campaign was directed by Esty executives Wendell Adams and Arline Lunny , Lunny serving as producer / director of most of the visual and recording production related to the campaign in its initial years . Adams was a classically trained musician in his own right , but singer / model / pianist Margaret Johnson ghost wrote the jingle and , along with her husband , Travis Johnson , recorded it with their group , the Song Spinners . Johnson 's insertion of the two quick hand claps before the word " cigarette " caught America 's ear by surprise and had much to do with the jingle 's success . ( A second Winston jingle by Johnson , using the folk tune " Skip to My Lou " , has faded into obscurity . )
In a departure for the time , the advertising campaign was also used to target distinct niche groups apart from its core clientele of " WASP " smokers , such as American Jews and African Americans .
A catchy jingle and ad campaign , it has come to embody a piece of Americana , and has even seeped into the consciousness of people who were too young ( or not even alive ) to remember the campaign when it occurred . The slogan was so well @-@ remembered that it was added to Simpson 's Contemporary Quotations in 1988 .
= = Beginnings = =
Future R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company president Bowman Gray Jr. was in charge of marketing Winstons , which were a new addition to the R.J. Reynolds line in 1954 . Gray listened to advertising employees from the William Esty Co . , and the slogan " Winston tastes good like a cigarette ought to " was considered , then replaced by the more succinct " Winston tastes good like a cigarette should . "
The first print ad appeared in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette in September 1954 , with an ad in Life following the next month . In 1955 , Winston would take over as the sponsor of Walter Cronkite 's news show , as well as Garry Moore 's variety show ; it was at this time that the first television advertisements aired .
= = Radio and television = =
In the radio and television advertisements , the slogan is presented in a singsong fashion with a noticeable two @-@ beat clap near the end , so the jingle would sound like Win @-@ ston tastes good like a ( clap clap ) cigarette should . The " clap " noise was sometimes substituted for actors in the commercials knocking twice against a truck carrying Winston cigarettes , or an actor flicking his lighter twice to the same conceit .
Winston cigarettes were sponsors of such television series as The Beverly Hillbillies and The Flintstones . The former series would show stars Buddy Ebsen , Irene Ryan , and Nancy Kulp extolling the virtues of Winstons while smoking them and reciting the jingle . The latter series would later come under fire for advertising cigarettes on an animated series watched by many children , but Winston pulled their involvement with the series after the Pebbles Flintstone character was born in 1963 .
= = Grammar controversy = =
During the campaign 's long run in the media , many criticized the slogan as grammatically incorrect and that it should say , " Winston tastes good as a cigarette should . " Ogden Nash , in The New Yorker , published a poem that ran " Like goes Madison Avenue , like so goes the nation . " Walter Cronkite , then hosting The Morning Show , refused to say the line as written , and an announcer was used instead .
Malcolm Gladwell , in The Tipping Point , says that this " ungrammatical and somehow provocative use of ' like ' instead of ' as ' created a minor sensation " in 1954 and implies that the phrase itself was responsible for vaulting the brand to second place in the U.S. market . Winston overtook Pall Mall cigarettes as the # 1 cigarette in the United States in 1966 , while the advertising campaign continued to make an impression on the mass media .
In the fall of 1961 , a small furor enveloped the literary and journalistic communities in the United States when Merriam @-@ Webster published its Third New International Dictionary . In the dictionary , the editors refused to condemn the use of " like " as a conjunction , and cited " Winston tastes good like a cigarette should " as an example of popular colloquial use . After publication of Webster 's Third , The New York Times called the edition " bolshevik , " and the Chicago Daily News wrote that the transgression signified " a general decay in values . "
When the players in The Beverly Hillbillies spoke the line , they stretched the grammatical boundaries further :
Jed : Winston tastes good ...
Granny : Like a cigarette had ought @-@ a !
In 1970 and 1971 , Winston sought to revamp its image and chose to respond to many grammarians ' qualms with the slogan , " What do you want , good grammar or good taste ? " Mad magazine published a parody of this on the back cover of its January 1971 issue ; set in a cemetery , it featured four tombstones with epitaphs written in the past tense ( " Winston tasted good like a cigarette should 've " " You mean ' as a cigarette should 've ' " " What did you want , good grammar or good taste ? " " I wanted to live a lot longer than this ! " ) . With the new slogan in wide use , " Winston tastes good like a cigarette should " was retired permanently in 1972 .
In 1981 , actor James Garner claimed responsibility for the wording of the slogan during an interview with Playboy magazine . Garner , who narrated the original commercial , stated that his first action ever to be captured on film was to misread the line that had been provided to him . However , as noted above , the advertisements first appeared in print before their debut on television , which would cast doubt on Garner 's claim .
= Manganese =
Manganese is a chemical element with symbol Mn and atomic number 25 . It is not found as a free element in nature ; it is often found in minerals in combination with iron . Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses , particularly in stainless steels .
Historically , manganese is named for various black minerals ( such as pyrolusite ) from the same region of Magnesia in Greece which gave names to similar @-@ sounding magnesium , Mg , and magnetite , an ore of the element iron , Fe . By the mid @-@ 18th century , Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had used pyrolusite to produce chlorine . Scheele and others were aware that pyrolusite ( now known to be manganese dioxide ) contained a new element , but they were unable to isolate it . Johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774 , which he did by reducing the dioxide with carbon .
Manganese phosphating is used for rust and corrosion prevention on steel . Ionized manganese is used industrially as pigments of various colors , which depend on the oxidation state of the ions . The permanganates of alkali and alkaline earth metals are powerful oxidizers . Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode ( electron acceptor ) material in zinc @-@ carbon and alkaline batteries .
In biology , manganese ( II ) ions function as cofactors for a large variety of enzymes with many functions . Manganese enzymes are particularly essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals in organisms that must deal with elemental oxygen . Manganese also functions in the oxygen @-@ evolving complex of photosynthetic plants . The element is a required trace mineral for all known living organisms but is a neurotoxin . In larger amounts , and apparently with far greater effectiveness through inhalation , it can cause a poisoning in mammals with neurological damage that is sometimes irreversible .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Manganese is a silvery @-@ gray metal that resembles iron . It is hard and very brittle , difficult to fuse , but easy to oxidize . Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic . Manganese tarnishes slowly in air and oxidizes ( " rusts " ) like iron in water containing dissolved oxygen .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring manganese is composed of one stable isotope , 55Mn . Eighteen radioisotopes have been isolated and described , the most stable being 53Mn with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 7 million years , 54Mn with a half @-@ life of 312 @.@ 3 days , and 52Mn with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 591 days . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives of less than three hours , and the majority of less than one minute .
Manganese also has three meta states . Manganese is part of the iron group of elements , which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion . 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 7 million years . Because of its relatively short half @-@ life , 53Mn is relatively rare , produced by cosmic rays impact on iron . Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating . Mn – Cr isotopic ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar system . Variations in 53Cr / 52Cr and Mn / Cr ratios from several meteorites suggest an initial 53Mn / 55Mn ratio , which indicates that Mn – Cr isotopic composition must result from in situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies . Hence , 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system . The isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from 46 u ( 46Mn ) to 65 u ( 65Mn ) . The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope , 55Mn , is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
The most common oxidation states of manganese are + 2 , + 3 , + 4 , + 6 , and + 7 , though all oxidation states from − 3 to + 7 have been observed . Mn2 + often competes with Mg2 + in biological systems . Manganese compounds where manganese is in oxidation state + 7 , which are restricted to the unstable oxide Mn2O7 and compounds of the intensely purple permanganate anion MnO4 − , are powerful oxidizing agents . Compounds with oxidation states + 5 ( blue ) and + 6 ( green ) are strong oxidizing agents and are vulnerable to disproportionation .
The most stable oxidation state for manganese is + 2 , which has a pale pink color , and many manganese ( II ) compounds are known , such as manganese ( II ) sulfate ( MnSO4 ) and manganese ( II ) chloride ( MnCl2 ) . This oxidation state is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite ( manganese ( II ) carbonate ) . Manganese ( II ) most commonly exists with a high spin , S
= 5 / 2 ground state because of the high pairing energy for manganese ( II ) . However , there are a few examples of low @-@ spin , S =
1 / 2 manganese ( II ) . There are no spin @-@ allowed d – d transitions in manganese ( II ) , explaining why manganese ( II ) compounds are typically pale to colorless .
The + 3 oxidation state is known in compounds like manganese ( III ) acetate , but these are quite powerful oxidizing agents and also prone to disproportionation in solution , forming manganese ( II ) and manganese ( IV ) . Solid compounds of manganese ( III ) are characterized by its strong purple @-@ red color and a preference for distorted octahedral coordination resulting from the Jahn @-@ Teller effect .
The oxidation state 5 + can be produced by dissolving manganese dioxide in molten sodium nitrite . Manganate ( VI ) salts can be produced by dissolving Mn compounds , such as manganese dioxide , in molten alkali while exposed to air . Permanganate ( + 7 oxidation state ) compounds are purple , and can give glass a violet color . Potassium permanganate , sodium permanganate , and barium permanganate are all potent oxidizers . Potassium permanganate , also called Condy 's crystals , is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties ; it is used as a topical medicine ( for example , in the treatment of fish diseases ) . Solutions of potassium permanganate were among the first stains and fixatives to be used in the preparation of biological cells and tissues for electron microscopy .
= = History = =
The origin of the name manganese is complex . In ancient times , two black minerals from Magnesia ( located within modern Greece ) were both called magnes from their place of origin , but were thought to differ in gender . The male magnes attracted iron , and was the iron ore now known as lodestone or magnetite , and which probably gave us the term magnet . The female magnes ore did not attract iron , but was used to decolorize glass . This feminine magnes was later called magnesia , known now in modern times as pyrolusite or manganese dioxide . Neither this mineral nor elemental manganese is magnetic . In the 16th century , manganese dioxide was called manganesum ( note the two n 's instead of one ) by glassmakers , possibly as a corruption and concatenation of two words , since alchemists and glassmakers eventually had to differentiate a magnesia negra ( the black ore ) from magnesia alba ( a white ore , also from Magnesia , also useful in glassmaking ) . Michele Mercati called magnesia negra manganesa , and finally the metal isolated from it became known as manganese ( German : Mangan ) . The name magnesia eventually was then used to refer only to the white magnesia alba ( magnesium oxide ) , which provided the name magnesium for the free element when it was isolated much later .
Several colorful oxides of manganese , for example manganese dioxide , are abundant in nature have been used as pigments since the Stone Age . The cave paintings in Gargas that 30 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 years old contain manganese pigments .
Manganese compounds were used by Egyptian and Roman glassmakers , either to add to , or remove color from glass . Use as " glassmakers soap " continued through the Middle Ages until modern times and is evident in 14th @-@ century glass from Venice .
Because it was used in glassmaking , manganese dioxide was available for experiments by alchemists , the first chemists . Ignatius Gottfried Kaim ( 1770 ) and Johann Glauber ( 17th century ) discovered that manganese dioxide could be converted to permanganate , a useful laboratory reagent . By the mid @-@ 18th century , the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele used manganese dioxide to produce chlorine . First , hydrochloric acid , or a mixture of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium chloride was made to react with manganese dioxide , later hydrochloric acid from the Leblanc process was used and the manganese dioxide was recycled by the Weldon process . The production of chlorine and hypochlorite bleaching agents was a large consumer of manganese ores .
Scheele and other chemists were aware that manganese dioxide contained a new element , but they were not able to isolate it . Johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774 , by reducing the dioxide with carbon .
The manganese content of some iron ores used in Greece led to speculations that steel produced from that ore contains additional manganese , making the Spartan steel exceptionally hard . Around the beginning of the 19th century , manganese was used in steelmaking and several patents were granted . In 1816 , it was documented that iron alloyed with manganese was harder but not more brittle . In 1837 , British academic James Couper noted an association between miners ' heavy exposure to manganese with a form of Parkinson 's disease . In 1912 , United States patents were granted for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion with manganese phosphate electrochemical conversion coatings , and the process has seen widespread use ever since .
The invention of the Leclanché cell in 1866 and the subsequent improvement of the batteries containing manganese dioxide as cathodic depolarizer increased the demand of manganese dioxide . Until the development batteries with nickel @-@ cadmium and lithium , most batteries contained manganese . The zinc @-@ carbon battery and the alkaline battery normally use industrially produced manganese dioxide because natural occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities . In the 20th century , manganese dioxide was widely used as the cathodic for commercial disposable dry batteries of both the standard ( zinc @-@ carbon ) and alkaline types .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Manganese comprises about 1000 ppm ( 1 % ) of the Earth 's crust , the 12th most abundant of the crust 's elements . Soil contains 7 – 9000 ppm of manganese with an average of 440 ppm . Seawater has only 10 ppm manganese and the atmosphere contains 0 @.@ 01 µg / m3 . Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite ( MnO2 ) , braunite , ( Mn2 + Mn3 + 6 ) ( SiO12 ) , psilomelane ( Ba , H2O ) 2Mn5O10 , and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite ( MnCO3 ) .
The most important manganese ore is pyrolusite ( MnO2 ) . Other economically important manganese ores usually show a close spatial relation to the iron ores . Land @-@ based resources are large but irregularly distributed . About 80 % of the known world manganese resources are in South Africa ; other important manganese deposits are in Ukraine , Australia , India , China , Gabon and Brazil . According to 1978 estimate , the ocean floor has 500 billion tons of manganese nodules . Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s .
In South Africa , most identified deposits are located near Hotazel in the Northern Cape Province , with a 2011 estimate of 15 billion tons . In 2011 South Africa produced 3 @.@ 4 million tons , topping all other nations .
Manganese is mined in South Africa , Australia , China , Brazil , Gabon , Ukraine , India , Fiji and Ghana and Kazakhstan . US Import Sources ( 1998 – 2001 ) : Manganese ore : Gabon , 70 % ; South Africa , 10 % ; Australia , 9 % ; Mexico , 5 % ; and other , 6 % . Ferromanganese : South Africa , 47 % ; France , 22 % ; Mexico , 8 % ; Australia , 8 % ; and other , 15 % . Manganese contained in all manganese imports : South Africa , 31 % ; Gabon , 21 % ; Australia , 13 % ; Mexico , 8 % ; and other , 27 % .
For the production of ferromanganese , the manganese ore is mixed with iron ore and carbon , and then reduced either in a blast furnace or in an electric arc furnace . The resulting ferromanganese has a manganese content of 30 to 80 % . Pure manganese used for the production of iron @-@ free alloys is produced by leaching manganese ore with sulfuric acid and a subsequent electrowinning process .
A more progressive extraction process involves directly reducing manganese ore in a heap leach . This is done by percolating natural gas through the bottom of the heap ; the natural gas provides the heat ( needs to be at least 850 ° C ) and the reducing agent ( carbon monoxide ) . This reduces all of the manganese ore to manganese oxide ( MnO ) , which is a leachable form . The ore then travels through a grinding circuit to reduce the particle size of the ore to between 150 – 250 μm , increasing the surface area to aid leaching . The ore is then added to a leach tank of sulfuric acid and ferrous iron ( Fe2 + ) in a 1 @.@ 6 : 1 ratio . The iron reacts with the manganese dioxide to form iron hydroxide and elemental manganese . This process yields approximately 92 % recovery of the manganese . For further purification , the manganese can then be sent to an electrowinning facility .
In 1972 the CIA 's Project Azorian , through billionaire Howard Hughes , commissioned the ship Hughes Glomar Explorer with the cover story of harvesting manganese nodules from the sea floor . That triggered a rush of activity to collect manganese nodules , which was not actually practical . The real mission of Hughes Glomar Explorer was to raise a sunken Soviet submarine , the K @-@ 129 , with the goal of retrieving Soviet code books .
= = Applications = =
Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications in metallurgy . In minor applications , ( e.g. , manganese phosphating ) , zinc and sometimes vanadium are viable substitutes .
= = = Steel = = =
Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur @-@ fixing , deoxidizing , and alloying properties . Steelmaking , including its ironmaking component , has accounted for most manganese demand , presently in the range of 85 % to 90 % of the total demand. other uses , manganese is a key component of low @-@ cost stainless steel .
Small amounts of manganese improve the workability of steel at high temperatures by forming a high @-@ melting sulfide and preventing the formation of a liquid iron sulfide at the grain boundaries . If the manganese content reaches 4 % , the embrittlement of the steel becomes a dominant feature . The embrittlement decreases at higher manganese concentrations and reaches an acceptable level at 8 % . Steel containing 8 to 15 % of manganese has a high tensile strength of up to 863 MPa . Steel with 12 % manganese was discovered in 1882 by Robert Hadfield and is still known as Hadfield steel . It was used for British military steel helmets and later by the U.S. military .
= = = Aluminium alloys = = =
The second largest application for manganese is in aluminum alloys . Aluminium with roughly 1 @.@ 5 % manganese has increased resistance to corrosion through grains that absorb impurities which would lead to galvanic corrosion . The corrosion @-@ resistant aluminium alloys 3004 and 3104 ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 5 % manganese ) are used for most beverage cans . Before year 2000 , more than 1 @.@ 6 million tonnes of those alloys were used ; at 1 % manganese , this consumed 16 @,@ 000 tonnes of manganese .
= = = Other uses = = =
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl is used as an additive in unleaded gasoline to boost octane rating and reduce engine knocking . The manganese in this unusual organometallic compound is in the + 1 oxidation state .
Manganese ( IV ) oxide ( manganese dioxide , MnO2 ) is used as a reagent in organic chemistry for the oxidation of benzylic alcohols ( where the hydroxyl group is adjacent to an aromatic ring ) . Manganese dioxide has been used since antiquity to oxidize and neutralize the greenish tinge in glass from trace amounts of iron contamination . MnO2 is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine and in drying black paints . In some preparations , it is a brown pigment for paint and is a constituent of natural umber .
Manganese ( IV ) oxide was used in the original type of dry cell battery as an electron acceptor from zinc , and is the blackish material in carbon – zinc type flashlight cells . The manganese dioxide is reduced to the manganese oxide @-@ hydroxide MnO ( OH ) during discharging , preventing the formation of hydrogen at the anode of the battery .
MnO2 + H2O + e − → MnO ( OH ) + OH −
The same material also functions in newer alkaline batteries ( usually battery cells ) , which use the same basic reaction , but a different electrolyte mixture . In 2002 , more than 230 @,@ 000 tons of manganese dioxide was used for this purpose .
The metal is occasionally used in coins ; until 2000 , the only United States coin to use manganese was the " wartime " nickel from 1942 to 1945 . An alloy of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel was traditionally used for the production of nickel coins . However , because of shortage of nickel metal during the war , it was substituted by more available silver and manganese , thus resulting in an alloy of 56 % copper , 35 % silver and 9 % manganese . Since 2000 , dollar coins , for example the Sacagawea dollar and the Presidential $ 1 coins , are made from a brass containing 7 % of manganese with a pure copper core . In both cases of nickel and dollar , the use of manganese in the coin was to duplicate the electromagnetic properties of a previous identically sized and valued coin in the mechanisms of vending machines . In the case of the later U.S. dollar coins , the manganese alloy was intended to duplicate the properties of the copper / nickel alloy used in the previous Susan B. Anthony dollar .
Manganese compounds have been used as pigments and for the coloring of ceramics and glass . The brown color of ceramic is sometimes the result of manganese compounds . In the glass industry , manganese compounds are used for two effects . Manganese ( III ) reacts with iron ( II ) to induce a strong green color in glass by forming less @-@ colored iron ( III ) and slightly pink manganese ( II ) , compensating for the residual color of the iron ( III ) . Larger quantities of manganese are used to produce pink colored glass .
= = Biological role = =
Manganese is an important element for human health , essential for development , metabolism , and the antioxidant system . Nevertheless , excessive exposure or intake may lead to a condition known as manganism , a neurodegenerative disorder that causes dopaminergic neuronal death and symptoms similar to Parkinson 's disease . The classes of enzymes that have manganese cofactors is large and includes oxidoreductases , transferases , hydrolases , lyases , isomerases , ligases , lectins , and integrins . The reverse transcriptases of many retroviruses ( though not lentiviruses such as HIV ) contain manganese . The best @-@ known manganese @-@ containing polypeptides may be arginase , the diphtheria toxin , and Mn @-@ containing superoxide dismutase ( Mn @-@ SOD ) .
Mn @-@ SOD is the type of SOD present in eukaryotic mitochondria , and also in most bacteria ( this fact is in keeping with the bacterial @-@ origin theory of mitochondria ) . The Mn @-@ SOD enzyme is probably one of the most ancient , for nearly all organisms living in the presence of oxygen use it to deal with the toxic effects of superoxide ( O −
2 ) , formed from the 1 @-@ electron reduction of dioxygen . The exceptions , which are all bacteria , include Lactobacillus plantarum and related lactobacilli , which use a different nonenzymatic mechanism with manganese ( Mn2 + ) ions complexed with polyphosphate , suggesting a path of evolution for this function in aerobic life .
The manganese dietary reference intake for a 44 year old human male is 2 @.@ 3 mg per day from food , with 11 mg estimated as the tolerable upper limit for daily intake to avoid toxicity . Estimates for females and children are generally less . The essential minimum intake is unknown since manganese deficiency is so rare . The human body contains about 12 mg of manganese , mostly in the bones . The soft tissue remainder is concentrated in the liver and kidneys . In the human brain , the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins , most notably glutamine synthetase in astrocytes .
Manganese is also important in photosynthetic oxygen evolution in chloroplasts in plants . The oxygen @-@ evolving complex ( OEC ) is a part of photosystem II contained in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts ; it is responsible for the terminal photooxidation of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis , and has a metalloenzyme core containing four atoms of manganese . To fulfill this requirement , most broad @-@ spectrum plant fertilizers contain manganese .
= = Precautions = =
Manganese compounds are less toxic than those of other widespread metals , such as nickel and copper . However , exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the ceiling value of 5 mg / m3 even for short periods because of its toxicity level . Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills and cognitive disorders .
The permanganate exhibits a higher toxicity than the manganese ( II ) compounds . The fatal dose is about 10 g , and several fatal intoxications have occurred . The strong oxidative effect leads to necrosis of the mucous membrane . For example , the esophagus is affected if the permanganate is swallowed . Only a limited amount is absorbed by the intestines , but this small amount shows severe effects on the kidneys and on the liver .
In 2005 , a study suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central nervous system toxicity in rats .
Manganese exposure in United States is regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) . People can be exposed to manganese in the workplace by breathing it in or swallowing it . OSHA has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for manganese exposure in the workplace as 5 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday and a short term limit of 3 mg / m3 . At levels of 500 mg / m3 , manganese is immediately dangerous to life and health .
Generally , exposure to ambient Mn air concentrations in excess of 5 μg Mn / m3 can lead to Mn @-@ induced symptoms . Increased ferroportin protein expression in human embryonic kidney ( HEK293 ) cells is associated with decreased intracellular Mn concentration and attenuated cytotoxicity , characterized by the reversal of Mn @-@ reduced glutamate uptake and diminished lactate dehydrogenase leakage .
= = Environmental health concerns = =
= = = Manganese in drinking water = = =
Waterborne manganese has a greater bioavailability than dietary manganese . According to results from a 2010 study , higher levels of exposure to manganese in drinking water are associated with increased intellectual impairment and reduced intelligence quotients in school @-@ age children . It is hypothesized that long @-@ term exposure to the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8 @.@ 7 million Americans at risk . However , data indicates that the human body can recover from certain adverse effects of overexposure to manganese if the exposure is stopped and the body can clear the excess .
= = = Manganese in gasoline = = =
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl ( MMT ) is a gasoline additive used to replace lead compounds for unleaded gasolines to improve the octane rating of low octane petroleum distillates . It reduces engine knock agent through the action of the carbonyl groups . Fuels containing manganese tend to form manganese carbides , which damage exhaust valves . The need for lead or manganese additives is merely historic because the modern reformation processes create fuels with an increased octane ratings . Such fuels , directly or in mixture with non @-@ reformed distillates , are universal in developed countries ( 0EU , Japan , etc . ) . In the USA , the imperative to provide the lowest price per volume on motor fuels and the lowest taxation rate , combined with lax legislation of fuel content before the year 2000 , encouraged refineries to use MMT . Compared to 1953 , levels of manganese in air have dropped . Many racing competitions specifically ban manganese compounds in racing fuel for carts and minibikes . MMT contains 24 @.@ 4 – 25 @.@ 2 % manganese . Elevated atmospheric manganese concentrations are strongly correlated with automobile traffic density .
= = Role in neurological disorders = =
= = = Manganism = = =
Manganese overexposure is most frequently associated with manganism , a rare neurological disorder associated with excessive manganese ingestion or inhalation . Historically , persons employed in the production or processing of manganese alloys have been at risk for developing manganism ; however , current health and safety regulations protect workers in developed nations . The disorder was first described in 1837 by British academic John Couper , who studied two patients who were manganese grinders .
Manganism is a biphasic disorder . In its early stages , an intoxicated person may experience depression , mood swings , compulsive behaviors , and psychosis . Early neurological symptoms give way to late @-@ stage manganism , which resembles Parkinson 's disease . Symptoms include weakness , monotone and slowed speech , an expressionless face , tremor , forward @-@ leaning gait , inability to walk backwards without falling , rigidity , and general problems with dexterity , gait and balance . Unlike Parkinson 's disease , manganism is not associated with loss of smell and patients are typically unresponsive to treatment with L @-@ DOPA . Symptoms of late @-@ stage manganism become more severe over time even if the source of exposure is removed and brain manganese levels return to normal .
= = = Childhood developmental disorders = = =
Several recent studies attempt to examine the effects of chronic low @-@ dose manganese overexposure on child development . The earliest study was conducted in the Chinese province of Shanxi . Drinking water there had been contaminated through improper sewage irrigation and contained 240 – 350 µg Mn / L. Although Mn concentrations at or below 300 µg Mn / L were considered safe at the time of the study by the US EPA and 400 µg Mn / L by the World Health Organization , the 92 children sampled ( between 11 and 13 years of age ) from this province displayed lower performance on tests of manual dexterity and rapidity , short @-@ term memory , and visual identification , compared to children from an uncontaminated area . More recently , a study of 10 @-@ year @-@ old children in Bangladesh showed a relationship between Mn concentration in well water and diminished IQ scores . A third study conducted in Quebec examined school children between the ages of 6 and 15 living in homes that received water from a well containing 610 µg Mn / L ; controls lived in homes that received water from a 160 µg Mn / L well . Children in the experimental group showed increased hyperactive and oppositional behavior .
The current maximum safe concentration under EPA rules is 50 µg Mn / L.
= = = Neurodegenerative diseases = = =
A protein called DMT1 is the major transporter in manganese absorption from the intestine , and may be the major transporter of manganese across the blood – brain barrier . DMT1 also transports inhaled manganese across the nasal epithelium . The proposed mechanism for manganese toxicity is that dysregulation leads to oxidative stress , mitochondrial dysfunction , glutamate @-@ mediated excitoxicity , and aggregation of proteins .
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After a political debate , public money was used to fund PNC Park . Originally , a sales tax increase was proposed to fund three projects : PNC Park , Heinz Field , and an expansion of the David L. Lawrence Convention Center . However , after the proposal was soundly rejected in a referendum , the city developed Plan B. Similarly controversial , the alternative proposal was labeled Scam B by opponents . Some members of the Allegheny Regional Asset District felt that the Pirates ' pledge of $ 40 million toward the new stadium was too little , while others criticized the amount of public money allocated for Plan B. One member of the Allegheny Regional Asset District board called the use of tax dollars " corporate welfare " . The plan , totaling $ 809 million , was approved by the Allegheny Regional Asset District board on July 9 , 1998 — with $ 228 million allotted for PNC Park . Shortly after Plan B was approved , the Pirates made a deal with Pittsburgh city officials to remain in the city until at least 2031 .
There was popular sentiment by fans for the Pirates to name the stadium after former outfielder Roberto Clemente . However , locally based PNC Financial Services purchased the stadium 's naming rights in August 1998 . As per the agreement , PNC Bank will pay the Pirates approximately $ 2 million each year through 2020 , and also has a full @-@ service PNC branch at the stadium . The total cost of PNC Park was $ 216 million . Shortly after the naming rights deal was announced , the city of Pittsburgh renamed the 6th Street Bridge near the southeast corner of the site of the park the Roberto Clemente Bridge as a compromise to fans who had wanted the park named after Clemente .
= = = Design and construction = = =
Kansas City @-@ based Populous ( then HOK Sport ) , which designed many other major league ballparks of the late 20th and early 21st century , designed the ballpark . The design and construction management team consisted of the Dick Corporation and Barton Malow . An effort was made in the design of PNC Park to salute other " classic style " ballparks , such as Fenway Park , Wrigley Field , and Pittsburgh 's Forbes Field ; the design of the ballpark 's archways , steel truss work , and light standards are results of this goal . PNC Park was the first two @-@ deck ballpark to be built in the United States since Milwaukee County Stadium opened in 1953 . The park features a 24 by 42 foot ( 7 @.@ 3 by 12 @.@ 8 m ) Sony JumboTron , which is accompanied by the first @-@ ever LED video boards in an outdoor MLB stadium . PNC Park is the first stadium to feature an out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard with the score , inning , number of outs , and base runners for every other game being played around the league .
Ground was broken for PNC Park on April 7 , 1999 , after a ceremony to rename the Sixth Street Bridge as the " Roberto Clemente Bridge " in honor of the late Pirate Roberto Clemente . As part of original plans to create an enjoyable experience for fans , the bridge is closed to vehicular traffic on game days to allow spectators to park in Pittsburgh 's Golden Triangle and walk across the bridge to the stadium . PNC Park was built with Kasota limestone shipped from a Minnesota river valley , to contrast the brick bases of other modern stadiums . The stadium was constructed over a 24 @-@ month span — at the time of construction , three months faster than any other modern major league ballpark — and the Pirates played their first game less than two years after groundbreaking . The quick construction was accomplished with the use of special computers , which relayed building plans to builders 24 hours per day . In addition , all 23 labor unions involved in the construction signed a pact that they would not strike during the building process . As a result of union involvement and attention to safety regulations , the construction manager , the Dick Corporation , received a merit award for its safety practices from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration .
Statues of Pirates ' Hall of Famers Honus Wagner , Roberto Clemente , Willie Stargell and Bill Mazeroski are positioned at various points outside of PNC Park . Wagner and Clemente 's statues were previously located outside of Three Rivers Stadium , and after the venue was imploded , the two statues were removed from their locations , refurbished , and relocated outside PNC Park . Wagner 's statue was originally unveiled at Forbes Field in 1955 . The base of Clemente 's statue is shaped like a baseball diamond , with dirt from three of the fields Clemente played at — Santurce Field in Carolina , Puerto Rico , Forbes Field , and Three Rivers Stadium — at each base . On October 1 , 2000 , after the final game at Three Rivers Stadium , Stargell threw out the ceremonial last pitch . He was presented with a model of a statue that was to be erected in his honor outside of PNC Park . The statue was officially unveiled on April 7 , 2001 ; however , Stargell did not attend due to health problems and died of a stroke two days later . A statue for Bill Mazeroski was added at the right field entrance , at the south end of Mazeroski Way , during the 2010 season . This was the 50th anniversary of the Pirates ' 1960 World Series championship , which Mazeroski clinched with a Game 7 walk @-@ off home run at Forbes Field . The statue itself was designed based on that event .
= = = Opening and reception = = =
The Pirates opened PNC Park with two exhibition games against the New York Mets — the first of which was played on March 31 , 2001 . The first official baseball game played in PNC Park was between the Cincinnati Reds and the Pirates , on April 9 , 2001 . The Reds won the game by the final score of 8 – 2 . The first pitch — a ball — was thrown from Pittsburgh 's Todd Ritchie to Barry Larkin . In the top of the first inning , Pittsburgh native Sean Casey 's two @-@ run home run was the first hit in the park . The first Pirates ' batter , Adrian Brown , struck out ; however , later in the inning Jason Kendall singled — the first hit by a Pirate in their new stadium .
PNC Park had an average attendance of 30 @,@ 742 people per game throughout its inaugural season , though it would drop approximately 27 % the following season to 22 @,@ 594 spectators per game . Throughout the 2001 season , businesses in downtown and on the Northside of Pittsburgh showed a 20 – 25 % increase in business on Pirate game days .
Pirates ' vice @-@ president Steve Greenberg said , " We said when construction began that we would build the best ballpark in baseball , and we believe we 've done that . " Major League Baseball executive Paul Beeston said the park was " the best he 's seen so far in baseball " . Many of the workers who built the park said that it was the nicest that they had seen . Jason Kendall , Pittsburgh 's catcher at the opening of the park , called PNC Park " the most beautiful ballpark in the game " . Different elements of PNC Park were used in the design of New York 's Citi Field .
Upon opening in 2001 , PNC Park was praised by fans and media alike . ESPN.com writer Jim Caple ranked PNC Park as the best stadium in Major League Baseball , with a score of 95 out of 100 . Caple compared the park to Frank Lloyd Wright 's Fallingwater , calling the stadium itself " perfect " , and citing high ticket prices as the only negative aspect of visiting the park . Jay Ahjua , author of Fields of Dreams : A Guide to Visiting and Enjoying All 30 Major League Ballparks , called PNC Park one of the " top ten places to watch the game " . Eric Enders , author of Ballparks Then and Now and co @-@ author of Big League Ballparks : The Complete Illustrated History , said it was " everything a baseball stadium could hope to be " and " an immediate contender for the title of best baseball park ever built " . In 2008 , Men 's Fitness named the park one of " 10 big league parks worth seeing this summer " . A 2010 unranked list of " America 's 7 Best Ballparks " published by ABC News noted that PNC Park " combines the best features of yesterday 's ballparks — rhythmic archways , steel trusswork and a natural grass playing field — with the latest in fan and player amenities and comfort " .
= = = Alterations = = =
An exhibit honoring Pittsburgh 's Negro league baseball teams was introduced in 2006 . Located by the stadium 's left field entrance , the display features statues of seven players who competed for the city 's Homestead Grays and Pittsburgh Crawfords , including Josh Gibson and Satchel Paige . The exhibit also includes the Legacy Theatre , a 25 @-@ seat facility that plays a film about Pittsburgh 's history with the Negro leagues .
In 2007 , Allegheny County passed a ban on smoking in most public places , thus making PNC Park completely smoke @-@ free . Prior to the 2008 season , the Pirates made multiple alterations to PNC Park . The biggest change was removing the Outback Steakhouse located underneath the scoreboard , and adding a new restaurant known as The Hall of Fame Club . Unlike its predecessor , The Hall of Fame Club is open to all ticket @-@ holders on game days ; it includes an outdoor patio with a bar and seats with a view of the field . The Pirates feature bands in The Hall of Fame Club after the completion of select games — the first performance was by Joe Grushecky and the Houserockers . The Pirates also announced a program to make the park more environmentally friendly , by integrating " greening initiatives , sustainable business practices and educational outreach " . In addition , club and suite sections were outfitted with high @-@ definition televisions . In 2012 , the " Budweiser Bow Tie " , a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square foot bar and lounge located in the right field corner of the ballpark , was added . The section includes ticketed seats along with areas for groups and the general public . This addition was expected to cost about $ 1 million . For the 2015 season , many additions to the park took place for better fan experience . One of the additions to the park is the left field terrace . It has 2 levels for standing room , with 250 feet of drink rails . The terrace fills the gap between the left field bleachers and the Rivertowne Brewing Hall of Fame Club and is open to any fan with a ticket . Another addition includes a new outdoor patio that overlooks center field , right next to the terraces . The patio is now known as " The Porch . " The Porch features bar tables and outdoor sofa @-@ style seating , and accommodates groups of 25 people . Among the other additions for the 2015 season are : The Corner , which is a full @-@ service bar at the very base of the left field rotunda with 9 flat screen TVs ; Terrace Bar , which is a fully operating bar for fans in the upper concourse ; and Pirates Outfitters , an additional merchandise shop located next to the home @-@ plate entrance . The Pirates paid all costs for the additions to the park .
= = = Baseball = = =
PNC Park hosted the 77th Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game on July 11 , 2006 . The American League defeated the National League 3 – 2 , with 38 @,@ 904 spectators in attendance . The first All @-@ Star Game in PNC Park , it was the 5th All @-@ Star Game hosted in Pittsburgh , and the first since 1994 . During the game , late Pirate Roberto Clemente was honored with the Commissioner 's Historic Achievement Award ; his wife , Vera , accepted on his behalf . The stadium hosted the Century 21 Home Run Derby the previous evening ; Ryan Howard , of the Philadelphia Phillies , won the title . During the Derby , Howard and David Ortiz hit home runs into the Allegheny River .
On September 28 , 2012 PNC Park saw its first no @-@ hitter when Reds pitcher Homer Bailey no @-@ hit the Pirates , 1 – 0 . PNC Park has yet to see a no @-@ hitter or perfect game thrown by a Pirate .
On October 1 , 2013 , the Pirates hosted the Cincinnati Reds in the 2013 National League Wild Card Game . This marked the first time a playoff game was played at PNC Park . The Pirates won 6 @-@ 2 , their first postseason victory since 1992 , in front of a record crowd of 40 @,@ 629 .
= = = College baseball = = =
The first collegiate baseball game at PNC Park was played on May 6 , 2003 , between the Pitt Panthers and the Duquesne Dukes , a rivalry that was referred to as the City Game . Duquesne won 2 – 1 . However , due to Duquesne 's decision to disband their baseball program following the 2010 season , the series between the two schools came to an end . The PNC Park City Game series ended in Pitt 's favor , four games to two , with the 2007 game canceled because of poor field conditions .
= = = Concerts = = =
PNC Park has also hosted various concerts , including Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band on August 6 , 2003 , The Rolling Stones and Pearl Jam on September 28 , 2005 , Jimmy Buffett on June 26 , 2005 and Me First and the Gimme Gimmes on August 24 , 2006 and Dave Matthews Band with opening act , Zac Brown Band , on July 10 , 2010 . Jason Aldean 's Burn It Down Tour With Miranda Lambert , Florida Georgia Line & Tyler Farr as openers on July 26 , 2014 .
= = = Other events = = =
PNC Park has hosted various evacuation and response drills , which would be used in the event of a terrorist attack . Members of the United States Department of Homeland Security laid out the groundwork for the initial drill in February 2004 . In May 2005 , 5 @,@ 000 volunteers participated in the $ 1 million evacuation drill , which included mock explosions . A goal of the drill was to test the response of 49 western Pennsylvania emergency agencies . In April 2006 , the Department of Homeland Security worked in conjunction with the United States Coast Guard to develop a plan of response for the 2006 All @-@ Star Game . Similar exercises were conducted on the Allegheny River in 2007 . The park also served as one of the locations for the 2010 film She 's Out of My League and the 2011 film Abduction .
= = Features = =
= = = Playing surface and dimensions = = =
The playing surface of PNC Park is Tuckahoe Bluegrass , which is a mixture of various types of Kentucky Bluegrass . Installed prior to the 2009 season , the grass surface was selected for its " high quality pedigree that is ideal for Northern cities such as Pittsburgh " . The infield dirt is a mixture known as " Dura Edge All @-@ Star Infield Mix " and was designed solely for PNC Park . The 18 @-@ foot warning track is crushed lava rock . The drainage system underneath the field is capable of handling 14 inches ( 36 cm ) of rain per hour . The original playing surface consisted of sand @-@ based natural grass , and was replaced prior to the 2006 season . Unlike most ballparks , PNC Park 's home dugout is located along the third base line instead of the first base line ; giving the home team a view of the city skyline . The outfield fence ranges from a height of 6 feet ( 2 m ) in left field to 10 feet ( 3 m ) in center field and 21 feet ( 6 m ) in right field , a tribute to former Pirate right fielder Roberto Clemente , who wore number 21 . The distance from home plate to the outfield fence ranges from 320 feet ( 98 m ) in right field to 410 feet ( 125 m ) in left center ; the straightaway center field fence is set at 399 feet ( 122 m ) . At its closest point , the Allegheny River is 443 feet ( 135 m ) and 4 inches ( 10 cm ) from home plate . On July 6 , 2002 , Daryle Ward became the first player to hit the river " on the fly " . On June 2 , 2013 , Garrett Jones became only the second player to accomplish the feat , and was the first Pirate to do so . On May 19 , 2015 , Pirates first baseman Pedro Alvarez became the third person to do this , although the ball actually landed in a boat on the river rather than in the water . The longest home run in PNC Park history was 484 feet hit to left @-@ center field by Sammy Sosa on April 12 , 2002 .
= = = Seating and ticket prices = = =
During its opening season , PNC Park 's seating capacity of 38 @,@ 496 was the second @-@ smallest of any major league stadium — the smallest being Fenway Park . Seats are angled toward the field and aisles are lowered to give spectators improved views of the field . The majority of the seats , 26 @,@ 000 , are on the first level , and the highest seat in the stadium is 88 feet ( 27 m ) above the playing surface . At 51 feet ( 16 m ) , the batter is closer to the seats behind home plate than to the pitcher . At their closest point , seating along the baselines is 45 feet ( 14 m ) from the bases . The four @-@ level steel rotunda and a section above the out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard offer standing @-@ room only space . With the exception of the bleacher sections , all seats in the park offer a view of Pittsburgh 's skyline .
In its opening season , PNC Park 's tickets were priced between $ 9 and $ 35 for general admission . For the 2014 season , prices range from $ 20 to $ 62 , depending on the location and game . The stadium includes 69 luxury suites and 5 @,@ 558 suite and club seats , with prices ranging from $ 55 to $ 250 per ticket throughout the 2014 season . One of only two teams not to increase ticket prices entering the 2009 season , PNC Park ranked as having the third @-@ cheapest average ticket prices in the league . The stadium 's average ticket price for 2013 was $ 17 @.@ 21 , again third from the bottom of MLB . Attendance throughout the 2013 season averaged 28 @,@ 210 spectators per game , 19th in the 30 @-@ team league . In previous years , attendance had been lower ; in the stadium 's first decade , average attendance dipped under 20 @,@ 000 fans per game four times . The low attendance has come as a result of the Pirates ' play ; as of 2013 , the Pirates have only had one winning record since 1992 . Through 2004 , 5 % of games played at PNC Park were sold out . The number of sellouts increased in 2012 and 2013 ; after filling PNC Park 17 times in 2012 , the team played to capacity crowds at 23 games in 2013 .
= = = Eateries = = =
As with its predecessor , PNC Park 's concessions service provider is Aramark , while the premium seating areas ( The Lexus Club , PBC Level and Suites Level ) are serviced by Levy Restaurants . The main eating concourse , known as " Tastes of Pittsburgh " , features a wide range of options including traditional ballpark foods , hometown specialties , and more exotic fare like sushi . Pittsburgh 's hometown specialties include Primanti Brothers sandwiches , whose signature item consists of meat , cheese , hand @-@ cut French fries , tomatoes , and coleslaw between two slices of Italian bread . Other local eateries offered include Mrs. T 's Pierogies , Quaker Steak & Lube , Augustine 's Pizza , and Benkovitz Seafood . Located behind center field seating is Manny 's BBQ , which offers various barbecue meals . It is named for former Pirates ' catcher Manny Sanguillén , who has been known to sign autographs for fans waiting in line . For the 2008 season , the Pirates created an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat section in the right field corner . Fans seated in the section are allowed " unlimited hotdogs , hamburgers , nachos , salads , popcorn , peanuts , ice cream and pop " for an entire game . In addition to the food offered , fans are free to bring their own food into the stadium , a rarity among the league 's ballparks .
For its first 13 years , PNC Park sold Pepsi products , a stark contrast from its predecessor Three Rivers Stadium , which sold Coca @-@ Cola products , as well as Heinz Field and Mellon Arena . This was shown in right field , where several versions of the Pepsi Globe as well as a Pepsi bottle were shown on posts behind the stands and lit up every time the Pirates hit a home run . In 2014 , the Pirates switched to Coca @-@ Cola . With Heinz Field having switched to Pepsi in 2012 and Consol Energy Center ( which opened in 2010 to replace the Mellon Arena ) having a contract with Dr Pepper Snapple Group , this marked the first time since 2012 that all three of Pittsburgh 's major sporting venues sold different soft drinks . There were initially conflicting reports as to whether or not Coke would replace the Pepsi signage in right field after it is taken down . The posts were converted into advertising by locally based health insurance company Highmark .
= = Transportation access = =
PNC Park is located at exit 1B of Interstate 279 and within 1 mile of both Interstate 376 and Interstate 579 . The park is also served by the North Side transit station of the Pittsburgh subway system .
= = Fictional portrayals = =
PNC Park has been featured in the following big budget films and TV series :
Smith ( 2006 )
Chasing 3000 ( 2008 )
Abduction ( 2011 )
Jack Reacher ( 2012 )
= Barrett ( album ) =
Barrett is the second and final studio album of new material released by former Pink Floyd frontman Syd Barrett . Recording began at Abbey Road Studios on 26 February 1970 , and lasted for 15 sessions until 21 July . The album was produced by Pink Floyd 's guitarist David Gilmour and keyboardist Richard Wright , who also contributed on bass guitar and keyboards respectively , along with previous Madcap contributor Jerry Shirley on drums .
Barrett was released in November 1970 on Harvest in the United Kingdom and Capitol in the United States , but failed to chart in both markets ; it was re @-@ released in 1974 as part of Syd Barrett . No singles were issued from the album . It was remastered and reissued in 1993 , along with Barrett 's other albums − The Madcap Laughs ( 1970 ) and Opel ( 1988 ) − independently and as part of the Crazy Diamond box set . A newly remastered version was released in 2010 .
= = Background = =
Initial sales and reaction of Barrett 's first solo album , The Madcap Laughs , were deemed sufficient by EMI to sanction a second solo album . On 24 February 1970 , a month after releasing Madcap , Barrett appeared on John Peel 's Top Gear radio show , where he performed only one song from the newly released album ( " Terrapin " ) , three that would later be recorded for Barrett ( " Gigolo Aunt " , " Baby Lemonade " and " Effervescing Elephant " ) and a one @-@ off ( " Two of a Kind " , possibly written by Richard Wright ) . The session producers had no verbal contact with Barrett , having only communication to him via Gilmour . For the radio session , Gilmour and Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley accompanied Barrett on bass and bongos , respectively . The version of " Gigolo Aunt " recorded for the radio session ( and later released on 1988 's The Peel Session ) was unfinished , as Barrett had sung the opening verse three times . Barrett played slide guitar on the radio version of " Baby Lemonade " , with Gilmour on organ .
Two days later , he began working on his second album in Abbey Road Studios , with Gilmour as producer , and a trio of musicians : Richard Wright , Shirley and Gilmour himself . The main aim for the Barrett sessions was to give Barrett the structure and focus many felt was missing during the long and unwieldy sessions for The Madcap Laughs . Thus , the sessions were more efficiently run and the album was finished in considerably less time than The Madcap Laughs ( six months , compared to Madcap 's one year ) . On 6 June 1970 , Barrett gave his one and only official solo performance , at the Olympia in Kensington , backed once more by Gilmour and Shirley . At the end of " Octopus " , the fourth number of the set , Barrett baffled the audience and his backing musicians by abruptly taking off his guitar and walking off stage .
= = Recording = =
The first session was on 26 February , three of the first songs — fully recorded — attempted during the session were " Baby Lemonade " , " Maisie " and " Gigolo Aunt " . However , Gilmour thought they were losing the " Barrett @-@ ness " . After " Baby Lemonade " was attempted , 2 takes of " Maisie " were recorded before Barrett went into 15 takes of " Gigolo Aunt " . The next day , two @-@ track demos of " Wolfpack " , " Waving My Arms in the Air " , " Living Alone " and " Bob Dylan Blues " , were recorded . The former two made it to the album ; the latter two didn 't . On the recording sheet , it lists Gilmour as having taken home a copy of the latter two , Gilmour later returned and took the master tapes too . Gilmour has since said " Those sessions were done so quickly . We were rushing to gigs every day and had to fit recording sessions in between . I probably took it away to have a listen and simply forgot to take it back . It wasn 't intended to be a final mix . Syd knocked it off , I took a tape home . " Despite some minor work made to " Gigolo Aunt " , Barrett wouldn 't return to Abbey Road Studios until 1 April , due to Pink Floyd working on their 1970 album , Atom Heart Mother . On various occasions , Barrett would " spy " on the band as they recorded the album . Again , Barrett recorded some work to a song , " Wolfpack , " on the 3rd , before the sessions were postponed until 5 June , this time due to Gilmour and Wright going on tour in the US with Pink Floyd .
On the session of 5 June , Barrett managed to record an unknown number of two @-@ track demos for three songs : " Rats " , " Wined and Dined " , and " Birdie Hop " . The " Rats " demo recorded here , became the basis for the album master , and would later be overdubbed by musicians , despite the changing tempos . Two days later , on the 7th , Barrett recorded " Milky Way " , " Millionaire " , before being rounded off with overdubs for " Rats " . " Millionaire " was originally titled " She Was a Millionaire " , and was originally recorded by Pink Floyd . Barrett recorded two attempts at a backing track before abandoning it , and adding vocals . Yet another break in recording occurred , until 14 July , where Barrett recorded several takes of " Effervescing Elephant " , while numerous overdubs were added to Barrett 's " Wined and Dined " demo by Gilmour . Three takes of " Dominoes " ensued , with an unknown number of takes of " Love Song " , " Dolly Rocker " and " Let 's Split " were recorded . " Love Song " and " Dolly Rocker " were both overdubbed , the former being overdubbed from 17 to 21 July , but overdubs for the latter were wiped . On 21 July , Barrett worked on another Untitled track ( later to be titled as " Word Song " ) , recording only one take , before recording 5 takes of the last new song to be recorded for Barrett : " It Is Obvious " . Barrett worked on remakes of two tracks : " Maisie " , and " Waving My Arms in the Air " ( the latter now seguing into a new track , " I Never Lied to You " ) .
We really had basically three alternatives at that point , working with Syd . One , we could actually work with him in the studio , playing along as he put down his tracks – which was almost impossible , though we succeeded on ' Gigolo Aunt ' . The second was laying down some kind of track before and then having him play over it . The third was him putting his basic ideas down with just guitar and vocals and then we 'd try and make something out of it .
Shirley said of Barrett 's playing : " He would never play the same tune twice . Sometimes Syd couldn 't play anything that made sense ; other times what he 'd play was absolute magic . " Barrett 's direction to the other musicians were limited to pronouncements like " Perhaps we could make the middle darker and maybe the end a bit middle afternoonish . At the moment it 's too windy and icy " .
= = Songs = =
= = = Side one = = =
" Baby Lemonade " is a blues folk tune , reminiscent of the Byrds . The intro was actually Barrett simply warming @-@ up on guitar , that Gilmour had managed to record and placed it at the start of the album , making it seem like an intro to the song . The lyrics that describe the way for a person to kill time ( such as the line " In the clock they sent / Through a washing machine " ) . The solo was performed by Barrett , not Gilmour as is often noted . A recurring theme in the album , starting with " Baby Lemonade " , is the weather . Barrett performed the song twice , both times for the BBC ( previously recorded on 24 February 1970 , for John Peel 's Top Gear , and later for Bob Harris ' show on 16 February 1971 ) .
" Love Song " tells the story of an ex @-@ girlfriend fondly remembered ( " I knew a girl and I like her still " ) . It is the first of two songs which feature dreamlike @-@ senses in the lyrics ( " I 'll lay my head down and see what I see " ) . Barrett performed the song for Bob Harris ' show in 1971 .
" Dominoes " features imagery of regret and recollection in the lyrics . The song features a backwards guitar solo by Barrett , and organ and Rhodes by Wright . The song 's " You and I " lyric hints to the Turtles ' " Happy Together " , which refers to the tail end relationship Barrett had with Lindsay . The first of three songs on the album which lyrics point to anguish ( " In my tears , my dreams " ) . Animals are also a recurring item in not only the album , but Barrett 's entire solo output , in " Dominoes " though , larks are mentioned ( " Overhead a lark today " ) . Barrett performed the song for Bob Harris ' show in 1971 .
" It Is Obvious " is the second of two songs which feature dreamlike @-@ senses in the lyrics ( " Creep into bed when your head 's on the ground " ) . It is also the second of three songs on the album which lyrics point to anguish ( " Remember those times I could call / Through the clear day time / And you would be there " ) . The theme of weather is referenced again ( " The softness , the warmth and the weather in suspense " ) . The song also references the Cambridge quarry pits , and the landscape . Animals are also a recurring item throughout the album , in " It Is Obvious " though , sparrows are mentioned .
" Rats " started off as a jam , but eventually evolved into a structured song . It contains taunting and maniacal lyrics ( " Rats rats lay down flat / We don 't need you we act like that " ) . Animals are also a recurring item throughout the album , in " Rats " though , rats and spiders are mentioned .
" Maisie " is a blues jam , with Barrett muttering the lyrics . The song was influenced by Howlin ' Wolf 's " Spoonful " . Animals are also a recurring item throughout the album ; in " Maisie " , bulls are mentioned ( " Bad luck , bride of a bull " ) .
= = = Side two = = =
" Gigolo Aunt " is based on Jeff Beck 's " Hi Ho Silver Lining " . Barrett performed the song for Top Gear in 1970 . For Barrett 's only solo performance , at the Kensington Olympia in 1970 , he played four songs , one of them being " Gigolo Aunt " .
" Waving My Arms in the Air " hints to the then @-@ recently released Rolling Stones song , " Midnight Rambler " . The song contains an echo of " Octopus " ( " Waving my arms in the air / Pressing my feet to the ground " ) . The lyrics refer to a hard @-@ learned experience . The song features a childlike section ( " No care / No no " ) . Animals are also a recurring item throughout the album , in " Waving My Arms in the Air " though , cats and dogs are mentioned . The song segues into " I Never Lied to You " with the aid of Wright 's organ .
" I Never Lied to You " is the final of three songs on the album which lyrics point to anguish ( " It 's been so hard to bear with you not there " ) .
" Wined and Dined " dated from Barrett 's Cambridge days , and is about the relationship between Barrett and his then @-@ girlfriend , Gayla Pinion , a model from Cambridge . The song reflects on about Mediterranean evenings ( " Musk winds blow " ) , and haunting 's of Barrett 's childhood ( " Chalk underfoot / Light ash of blue " ) .
" Wolfpack " had been mentioned by Barrett in an interview , he said the song was one of favourites , out of all his material . Animals are also a recurring item throughout the album , in " Wolfpack " though , wolves are mentioned .
" Effervescing Elephant " was pastiche of the verse form of Hilaire Belloc 's Cautionary Tales for Children . In contrast to " Dominoes " , " It Is Obvious " , " Rats " , " Waving My Arms in the Air " , and " Wolfpack " previously mentioning one or two animals , " Effervescing Elephant " contains references to a whole jungle full of animals . Barrett performed the song for Top Gear in 1970 . For Barrett 's only solo performance , at the Kensington Olympia in 1970 , he played four songs , one of them being " Effervescing Elephant " .
= = Release and aftermath = =
The cover of the album was designed by Barrett ; it was originally one of many drawings Barrett had done in Cambridge , years earlier . Barrett was released in November 1970 to less interest than had greeted The Madcap Laughs earlier in the year , and as a result , failed to reach the chart . Talks of more singles and a third album were rumoured over the following months . Barrett dismissed the album and Madcap , saying : " They 've got to reach a certain standard and that 's probably reached in Madcap once or twice and on the other one only a little – just an echo of that . Neither of them are much more than that . " Allmusic reviewer Ritchie Unterberger called the album " a bit fuller and smoother than the first album " , referring to " Baby Lemonade " , " Gigolo Aunt " , and " Effervescing Elephant " as " among his peppiest and best @-@ loved tunes " ; however , " the tone is darker and more meandering " in the rest of the album . In an overview of Barrett 's career , Rolling Stone referred to both Barrett 's solo albums as " entrancing " .
On 16 February 1971 , Barrett recorded a short set for BBC Radio 1 's Sound of the Seventies radio show ; in contrast to 1970s radio appearance where Barrett performed new material , this time he played songs from Barrett : " Baby Lemonade " , " Dominoes " and " Love Song " . Bored and directionless , Barrett headed back to his hometown of Cambridge and – but for a brief dalliance with a band called Stars in 1972 , and some abortive recording sessions in 1974 — left his music career behind for good .
Doing Syd 's record was interesting , but extremely difficult . Dave [ Gilmour ] and Roger [ Waters ] did the first one ( The Madcap Laughs ) and Dave and myself did the second one . But by then it was just trying to help Syd any way we could , rather than worrying about getting the best guitar sound . You could forget about that ! It was just going into the studio and trying to get him to sing .
The album was reissued in late 1974 with his first solo album The Madcap Laughs as record two of the two @-@ record set Syd Barrett in Harvest 's series of Harvest Heritage reissues . In 1993 , Barrett ( along with The Madcap Laughs and Opel ) was reissued both independently and as part of the Crazy Diamond Barrett box set , on 26 April 1993 . " Bob Dylan Blues " would later turn up on 2001 's The Best of Syd Barrett : Wouldn 't You Miss Me ? . A newly remastered version was released in 2010 . For release on An Introduction to Syd Barrett in 2010 , Gilmour laid down a new bass track to four songs , only one from Barrett : " Dominoes " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Syd Barrett . All track info taken from album booklet .
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 1993 reissue = = =
This reissue splits " Waving My Arms in the Air " and " I Never Lied to You " into tracks 8 and 9 respectively .
= = Personnel = =
Syd Barrett – guitars , lead and backing vocals
David Gilmour – production , bass guitar , organ ( second organ on " It Is Obvious " and " Gigolo Aunt " , " Wined and Dined " ) , drums ( " Dominoes " ) , 12 @-@ string guitar
Richard Wright – piano , harmonium , Hammond organ
Vic Saywell – tuba
Jerry Shirley – drums and percussion
John " Willie " Wilson – drums , percussion
Peter Bown – engineering
Gareth Cousins – mixed Crazy Diamond bonus tracks
= James B. Weaver =
James Baird Weaver ( June 12 , 1833 – February 6 , 1912 ) was a member of the United States House of Representatives and two @-@ time candidate for President of the United States . Born in Ohio , he moved to Iowa as a boy when his family claimed a homestead on the frontier . He became politically active as a young man and was an advocate for farmers and laborers . He joined and quit several political parties in the furtherance of the progressive causes in which he believed . After serving in the Union Army in the American Civil War , Weaver returned to Iowa and worked for the election of Republican candidates . After several unsuccessful attempts at Republican nominations to various offices , and growing dissatisfied with the conservative wing of the party , in 1877 Weaver switched to the Greenback Party , which supported increasing the money supply and regulating big business . As a Greenbacker with Democratic support , Weaver won election to the House in 1878 .
The Greenbackers nominated Weaver for president in 1880 , but he received only 3 @.@ 3 percent of the popular vote . After several more attempts at elected office , he was again elected to the House in 1884 and 1886 . In Congress , he worked for expansion of the money supply and for the opening of Indian Territory to white settlement . As the Greenback Party fell apart , a new left @-@ wing third party , the Populists , arose . Weaver helped to organize the party and was their nominee for president in 1892 . This time he was more successful and gained 8 @.@ 5 percent of the popular vote and won five states , but still fell far short of victory . The Populists merged with the Democrats by the end of the 19th century , and Weaver went with them , promoting the candidacy of William Jennings Bryan for president in 1896 , 1900 , and 1908 . After serving as mayor of his home town , Colfax , Iowa , Weaver retired from his pursuit of elective office . He died in Iowa in 1912 . Most of Weaver 's political goals remained unfulfilled at his death , but many came to pass in the following decades .
= = Early years = =
James Baird Weaver was born in Dayton , Ohio , on June 12 , 1833 , the fifth of thirteen children of Abram Weaver and Susan Imlay Weaver . Weaver 's father was a farmer , also born in Ohio , and a descendant of Revolutionary War veterans . He married Weaver 's mother , who was from New Jersey , in 1824 . Shortly after Weaver 's birth , in 1835 , the family moved to a farm nine miles north of Cassopolis , Michigan . In 1842 , the family moved again to the Iowa Territory to await the opening of former Sac and Fox land to white settlement the following year . They claimed a homestead along the Chequest Creek in Davis County . Abram Weaver built a house and farmed his new land until 1848 , when the family moved to Bloomfield , the county seat .
Abram Weaver , a Democrat involved in local politics , was elected clerk of the district court in 1848 ; he often vied for election to other offices , usually unsuccessfully . Weaver 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Hosea Horn , a Whig , was appointed postmaster the following year , and through him James Weaver secured his first job , delivering mail to neighboring Jefferson County . In 1851 , Weaver quit the mail route to read law with Samuel G. McAchran , a local lawyer . Two years later , Weaver interrupted his legal career to accompany another brother @-@ in @-@ law , Dr. Calvin Phelps , on a cattle drive overland from Bloomfield to Sacramento , California . Weaver initially intended to stay and prospect for gold , but instead booked passage on a ship for Panama . He crossed the isthmus , boarded another ship to New York , and returned home to Iowa .
Upon his return , Weaver worked briefly as a store clerk before resuming the study of law . He enrolled at the Cincinnati Law School in 1855 , where he studied under Bellamy Storer . While in Cincinnati , Weaver began to question his support for the institution of slavery , a change biographers attribute to Storer 's influence . After graduating in 1856 , Weaver returned to Bloomfield and was admitted to the Iowa bar . By 1857 , he broke with the Democratic party of his father to join the growing coalition that opposed the expansion of slavery , which became the Republican Party .
Weaver traveled around southern Iowa in 1858 , giving speeches on behalf of his new party 's candidates . That summer , he married Clarrisa ( Clara ) Vinson , a schoolteacher from nearby Keosauqua , Iowa , whom he had courted since he returned from Cincinnati . The marriage lasted until Weaver 's death in 1912 and the couple had eight children . After the wedding , Weaver started a law firm with Hosea Horn and continued his involvement in Republican politics . He gave several speeches on behalf of Samuel J. Kirkwood for governor in 1859 in a campaign that focused heavily on the slavery debate ; although the Republicans lost Weaver 's Davis County , Kirkwood narrowly won the election . The next year , Weaver served as a delegate to the state convention and , although not a national delegate , traveled with the Iowa delegation to the 1860 Republican National Convention , where Abraham Lincoln was nominated . Lincoln carried Iowa and won the election , but Southern states responded to the Republican victory by seceding from the Union . By April 1861 , the American Civil War had begun .
= = Civil War = =
After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter , Lincoln called for 75 @,@ 000 men to join the Union Army . Weaver enlisted in what became Company G of the 2nd Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment , and was elected the company 's first lieutenant . The 2nd Iowa , commanded by Colonel Samuel Ryan Curtis , a former Congressman , was ordered to Missouri in June 1861 to secure railroad lines in that border state . Weaver 's unit spent that summer in northern Missouri and did not see action . In the meantime , Clara gave birth to the couple 's second child and first son , named James Bellamy Weaver after his father and Bellamy Storer .
Weaver 's first chance at action came in February 1862 , when the 2nd Iowa joined Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant 's army outside the Confederate Fort Donelson in Tennessee . Weaver 's company was in the thick of the fight , which he described as a " holocaust to the demon of battles " , and he took a minor wound in the arm . The rebels surrendered the next day , the most important Union victory of the war to date . The 2nd Iowa next joined other units in the area at Pittsburg Landing , Tennessee , to mass for a major assault deeper into the South . Confederate forces met them there , in the Battle of Shiloh . Weaver 's regiment was in the center of the Union lines , in the area later known as the " hornets ' nest " , and were forced to retreat amid fierce fighting . The next day , the Union forces turned the tide and forced the rebels off the field in what Weaver called a " perfect rout " . The carnage at Shiloh — 20 @,@ 000 killed and wounded — was on a scale never before seen in American warfare , and both sides learned that the war would end neither quickly nor easily .
After Shiloh , Weaver and the 2nd Iowa slowly advanced to Corinth , Mississippi , where he was promoted to major . Rebel forces attacked the Union armies there in the Second Battle of Corinth , where Weaver 's courage in that Union victory convinced his superiors to promote him to colonel after the regiment 's commanding officer was killed . After Corinth , Weaver 's unit took up garrison duty in northern Mississippi . In the summer of 1863 , they were redeployed to the Tennessee – Alabama border , again on occupation duty around Pulaski , Tennessee . They rejoined the action at the Battle of Resaca , a part of the Atlanta Campaign , then continued with Major General William Tecumseh Sherman 's march through Georgia to the sea in 1864 . Weaver 's enlistment ended in May 1864 , and he returned to his family in Iowa . After the war ended , Weaver received a promotion to brevet brigadier general , backdated to March 13 , 1865 .
= = Republican politics = =
Soon after returning from the war , Weaver became editor of a pro @-@ Republican Bloomfield newspaper , the Weekly Union Guard . At the 1865 Iowa Republican State Convention , he placed second for the nomination for lieutenant governor . The following year , Weaver was elected district attorney for the second judicial district , covering six counties in southern Iowa . In 1867 , President Andrew Johnson appointed him assessor of internal revenue in the first Congressional district , which extended across southeastern Iowa . The job came with a $ 1500 salary , plus a percentage of taxes collected over $ 100 @,@ 000 . Weaver held that lucrative position until 1872 , when Congress abolished it . He also became involved in the Methodist Episcopal Church , serving as a delegate to a church convention in Baltimore in 1876 . Membership in the Methodist church coincided with Weaver 's interest in the growing movement for prohibition of the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages . His income and prestige grew along with his family , which included seven children by 1877 . Weaver 's success allowed him to build a large new home for his family , which still stands .
Weaver 's work for the party led many to support his nomination to represent Iowa 's 6th congressional district in the federal House of Representatives in 1874 . Many party insiders , however , were wary of Weaver 's association with the Prohibition movement and preferred to remain uncommitted on the divisive issue . At the convention , Weaver led on the first ballot , but ultimately lost the nomination by one vote to Ezekiel S. Sampson , a local judge . Weaver 's allies attributed his loss to " the meanest kind of wire pulling " , but Weaver shrugged off the defeat and aimed instead at the gubernatorial nomination in 1875 . He launched a vigorous effort , courted delegates around the state , and explicitly endorsed Prohibition and greater state control of railroad rates . Weaver attracted many delegates ' support , but alienated those who were friendly to the railroads and wished to avoid the liquor issue . Opposition was scattered among several lesser @-@ known candidates , mostly members of Senator William B. Allison 's conservative wing of the party . They united at the convention when a delegate unexpectedly nominated former governor Kirkwood . The nomination carried easily and , after Allison 's associates persuaded him to accept it , Kirkwood was nominated , and went on to win the election . In a further defeat , the delegates refused to endorse Prohibition in the party platform . Weaver had small consolation in a nomination to the state Senate , but he lost to his Democratic opponent in the election that fall .
= = Switch to the Greenback Party = =
After his defeats in 1875 , Weaver grew disenchanted with the Republican party , not only because it had spurned him , but also because of the policy choices of the dominant Allison faction . In May 1876 , he traveled to Indianapolis to attend the national convention of the newly formed Greenback Party . The new party had arisen , mostly in the West , as a response to the economic depression that followed the Panic of 1873 . During the Civil War , Congress had authorized " greenbacks " , a new form of fiat money that was redeemable not in gold but in government bonds . The greenbacks had helped to finance the war when the government 's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies . When the crisis had passed , many in both parties , especially in the East , wanted to place the nation 's currency on a gold standard as soon as possible . The Specie Payment Resumption Act , passed in 1875 , ordered that greenbacks be gradually withdrawn and replaced with gold @-@ backed currency beginning in 1879 . At the same time , the depression had made it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable . Beyond their support for a larger money supply , Greenbackers also favored an eight @-@ hour work day , safety regulations in factories , and an end to child labor . As historian Herbert Clancy put it , they " anticipated by almost fifty years the progressive legislation of the first quarter of the twentieth century " .
In the 1876 presidential campaign , the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats chose Samuel J. Tilden . Both candidates opposed the issuance of more greenbacks ( candidates who favored the gold @-@ backed currency were called " hard money " supporters , while the Greenbackers ' policy of encouraging inflation was known as " soft money " . ) Weaver was impressed with the Greenbackers and their candidate , Peter Cooper , but while he advocated some soft @-@ money policies , he declined the Greenback nomination for Congress and remained a Republican ; he campaigned for Hayes in the election that year . In 1877 , Weaver attended the Republican state convention and saw the state party adopt a soft @-@ money platform that also favored Prohibition . The gubernatorial nominee , however , was John H. Gear , an opponent of Prohibition who had worked to defeat Weaver in his quest for the governorship two years earlier . After initially supporting Gear , Weaver joined the Greenback party in August . He gave speeches on behalf of his new party , debated former allies across the state , and establishing himself as a prominent advocate for the Greenback cause .
= = Congress = =
In May 1878 , Weaver accepted the Greenback nomination for the House of Representatives in the 6th district . Although Weaver 's political career up to then had been as a staunch Republican , Democrats in the 6th district thought that endorsing him was likely the only way to defeat Sampson , the incumbent Republican . Since the start of the Civil War , Democrats had been in the minority across Iowa ; electoral fusion with Greenbackers represented their best chance to get their candidates into office . Hard @-@ money Democrats objected to the idea , but some were reassured when Henry H. Trimble , a prominent Bloomfield Democrat , assured them that if elected Weaver would align with House Democrats on all issues other than the money question . Democrats declined to endorse any candidate at the 6th district convention , but soft @-@ money leaders in the party circulated their own slate of candidates that included Democrats and Greenbackers . The Greenback – Democrat ticket prevailed , and Weaver was elected with 16 @,@ 366 votes to Sampson 's 14 @,@ 307 .
Weaver entered the 46th Congress in March 1879 , one of thirteen Greenbackers elected in 1878 . Although the House was closely divided , neither major party included the Greenbackers in their caucus , leaving them few committee assignments and little input on legislation . Weaver gave his first speech in April 1879 , criticizing the use of the army to police Southern polling stations , while also decrying the violence against black Southerners that made such protection necessary ; he then described the Greenback platform , which he said would put an end to the sectional and economic strife . The next month , he spoke in favor of a bill calling for an increase in the money supply by allowing the unlimited coinage of silver , but the bill was easily defeated . Weaver 's oratorical skill drew praise , but he had no luck in advancing Greenback policy ideas .
In 1880 , Weaver prepared a resolution stating that the government , not banks , should issue currency and determine its volume , and that the federal debt should be repaid in whatever currency the government chose , not just gold as the law then required . The proposed resolution would never be allowed to emerge from committees dominated by Democrats and Republicans , so Weaver planned to introduce it directly to the whole House for debate , as members were permitted to do every Monday . Rather than debate a proposition that would expose the monetary divide in the Democratic Party , Speaker Samuel J. Randall refused to recognize Weaver when he rose to propose the resolution . Weaver returned to the floor each succeeding Monday , with the same result , and the press took notice of Randall 's obstruction . Eventually , Republican James A. Garfield of Ohio interceded with Randall to recognize Weaver , which he reluctantly did on April 5 , 1880 . The Republicans , mostly united behind hard money , largely voted against the measure , while many Democrats joined the Greenbackers voting in favor . Despite support by the soft @-@ money Democrats , the resolution was defeated 84 – 117 with many members abstaining . Although he lost the vote , Weaver had promoted the monetary issue in the national consciousness .
= = Presidential election of 1880 = =
By 1879 , the Greenback coalition had divided , with the faction most prominent in the South and West , led by Marcus M. " Brick " Pomeroy , splitting from the main party . Pomeroy 's faction , called the " Union Greenback Labor Party " , was more radical and emphasized its independence , and suggested that Eastern Greenbackers were likely to " sell out the party at any time to the Democrats " . Weaver remained with the rump Greenback party , often called the " National Greenback Party " , and the national reputation he had earned in Congress made him one of the party 's leading presidential hopefuls .
The Union Greenbackers held their convention first and nominated Stephen D. Dillaye of New Jersey for president and Barzillai J. Chambers of Texas for vice president , but also sent a delegation to the National Greenback convention in Chicago that June , with an eye toward reuniting the party . The two factions agreed to reunify , and also to admit a delegation from the Socialist Labor Party . Thus united , the convention turned to nominations . Weaver led on the first ballot , and on the second he secured a majority . Chambers won the convention 's vote for vice president .
In a departure from the political traditions of the day , Weaver himself campaigned , making speeches across the South in July and August . As the Greenbackers had the only ticket that included a Southerner , Weaver and Chambers hoped to make inroads in the South . As the campaign progressed , however , Weaver 's message of racial inclusion drew violent protests in the South , as the Greenbackers faced the same obstacles the Republicans did in the face of increasing black disenfranchisement . In the autumn , Weaver campaigned in the North , but the Greenbackers ' lack of support was compounded by Weaver 's refusal to run a fusion ticket in states where Democratic and Greenbacker strength might have combined to outvote the Republicans .
Weaver received 305 @,@ 997 votes and no electoral votes , compared to 4 @,@ 446 @,@ 158 for the winner , Republican James A. Garfield , and 4 @,@ 444 @,@ 260 for Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock . The party was strongest in the West and South , but in no state did Weaver receive more than 12 percent of the vote ( his best state was Texas , with 11 @.@ 7 percent ) ; his nationwide total was just 3 percent . That figure represented an improvement over the Greenback vote of 1876 , but to Weaver , who expected twice as many votes as he received , it was a disappointment .
= = Office @-@ seeker and party promoter = =
After the election , Weaver returned to the lame @-@ duck session of Congress and proposed an unsuccessful constitutional amendment that would have provided for the direct election of Senators . After his term expired in March , he resumed his speaking tour , promoting the Greenback Party across the nation . He and Edward H. Gillette , another Iowa Greenback Congressman , bought the Iowa Tribune in 1882 to help spread the Greenback message . That same year , Weaver ran for his old 6th district seat in the House against the incumbent Republican , Marsena E. Cutts . This time the Democrats and Greenbackers ran separate candidates , and Weaver finished a distant second . Cutts died before taking office , and the Republicans offered to let Weaver run unopposed in the special election if he rejoined their party ; he declined , and John C. Cook , a Democrat , won the seat .
In 1883 , Weaver was the Greenback nominee for governor of Iowa . Again , the Democrats ran a separate candidate and the incumbent Republican , Buren R. Sherman , was re @-@ elected with a plurality . Weaver was a delegate to the 1884 Greenback National Convention in Indianapolis and supported the eventual nominee , Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts . Back in Iowa , Weaver again ran for the House , this time with the Democrats ' support . Greenback fortunes declined nationally , as Butler received just over half as many votes for president as Weaver had four years earlier . Weaver 's House race bucked the trend : he defeated Republican Frank T. Campbell by just 67 votes .
= = Return to Congress = =
Unlike in his previous congressional term , when Weaver entered the 49th United States Congress , he was the only Greenback member . The new president , Democrat Grover Cleveland , was friendly to Weaver , and asked his advice on Iowa patronage . As it had been for years , Weaver 's chief concern was with the nation 's money and finance , and the relationship between labor and capital .
In 1885 , he proposed the creation of a Department of Labor , which he suggested would find a solution to disputes between labor and management . Labor tensions increased the following year as the Knights of Labor went on strike against Jay Gould 's rail empire , and a strike against the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company ended in the bloody Haymarket riot . Weaver believed the nation 's hard @-@ money policies were responsible for labor unrest , calling it " purely a question of money , and nothing else " and declaring , " If this Congress will not protect labor , it must protect itself " . He saw the triumph of one plank of the Greenback platform when Congress established the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate the railroads . Weaver thought the bill should have given the government more power , including the ability to set rates directly , but he voted for the final bill .
Weaver also took up the issue of white settlement in Indian Territory . For several years , white settlers had been claiming homesteads in the Unassigned Lands in what is now Oklahoma . After the Civil War , the Five Civilized Tribes had been forced to cede their unused western lands to the federal government . The settlers , known as Boomers , believed that federal ownership made the lands open to settlement under the Homestead Acts . The federal government disagreed , as did the Cherokee Nation , which leased its neighboring Cherokee Outlet to Kansas cattle ranchers , and many Easterners , who believed the Boomers to be the tools of railroad interests . Weaver saw the issue as one between the landless poor homesteaders and wealthy cattlemen , and took the side of the former . He introduced a bill in December 1885 to organize Indian Territory and the neighboring Neutral Strip into a new Oklahoma Territory . The bill died in committee , but Weaver reintroduced it in February 1886 and gave a speech calling for the Indian reservations to be broken up into homesteads for individual Natives and the remaining land to be open to white settlement .
The Committee on Territories again rejected Weaver 's bill , but approved a compromise measure that opened the Unassigned Lands , Cherokee Outlet , and Neutral Strip to settlement . Congress debated the bill over several months , while the tribes announced their resistance to their lands becoming a territory ; according to an 1884 Supreme Court decision , Elk v. Wilkins , Native Americans were not citizens , and thus would have no voting rights in the new territory . When Weaver returned to Iowa to campaign for re @-@ election , the bill was still in limbo . Running again on a Democratic – Greenback fusion ticket , Weaver was re @-@ elected to the House in 1886 with a 618 @-@ vote majority .
In the lame @-@ duck session of 1887 , Congress passed the Dawes Act , which allowed the president to terminate tribal governments , and broke up Indian reservations into homesteads for individual natives . Although the Five Civilized Tribes were exempt from the Act , the spirit of the law encouraged Weaver and the Boomers to continue their own efforts to open western Indian Territory to white settlement . Weaver reintroduced his Oklahoma bill in the new Congress the following year , but again it stalled in committee . He returned to Iowa for another re @-@ election campaign in September 1888 , but the Greenback party had fallen apart , replaced by a new left @-@ wing third party , the Union Labor Party . In Iowa 's 6th district , the new party agreed to fuse with Democrats to nominate Weaver , but this time the Republicans were stronger . Their candidate , John F. Lacey , was elected with an 828 @-@ vote margin . The Union Laborites and their presidential candidate , Alson Streeter , fared poorly nationally as well , and the new party soon dissolved . Weaver returned to Congress for the lame @-@ duck session and once more pushed to organize the Oklahoma Territory . This time he prevailed , as the House voted 147 – 102 to open the Unassigned Lands to homesteaders . The Senate followed suit and President Cleveland , who was about to leave office , signed the bill into law .
= = Farmers ' Alliance and a new party = =
The new president , Republican Benjamin Harrison , set April 22 , 1889 , as the date when the rush for the Unassigned Lands would begin . Weaver arrived at a railroad station in the territory in March with an eye toward relocating there . The would @-@ be homesteaders welcomed him with great acclaim . Although settlers were not allowed to stake claims before noon on April 22 , many scouted out the land ahead of time , and even marked off informal claims ; Weaver was among them . After the rush , settlers who had waited challenged the claims of the " Sooners " who had entered early . Weaver 's identification with the group harmed his popularity in the territory . His claim was ultimately denied , and he returned to Iowa in 1890 .
Weaver and his wife moved their household in 1890 from Bloomfield to Colfax , near Des Moines , as the former Congressman took up more active management of the Iowa Tribune . The Greenback and Union Labor parties were defunct , but he still proselytized for their ideals . In August 1890 , Weaver addressed a convention in Des Moines where former Greenbackers and Laborites gathered , although he declined their nomination for Congress . The economic conditions that had created the Greenback party had not gone away ; many farmers and laborers believed their situation had gotten worse since the Long Depression began in 1873 . Many farmers had joined the Farmers ' Alliance , which sought to promote soft @-@ money ideas on a non @-@ partisan basis ; rather than create a third party , they endorsed major party candidates who supported their ideas and hired speakers to educate the public . Alliance @-@ backed candidates did well in the 1890 elections , especially in the South , where Democrats endorsed by the Alliance won 44 seats .
Alliance members gathered that December in Ocala , Florida , and formulated a platform , later called the Ocala Demands , that called for looser money , government control of the railroads , a graduated income tax , and the direct election of senators . Weaver endorsed the message in the Tribune and corresponded with the group 's leader , Leonidas L. Polk . Weaver attended the group 's convention in Cincinnati in May 1891 , where he and Polk argued against forming a third party . Another delegate , Ignatius L. Donnelly , argued forcefully for a break from the two major parties , and his argument carried the day , although Weaver and Polk kept many of Donnelly 's more radical proposals out of the convention 's statement of principles .
= = Presidential election of 1892 = =
The following year , Weaver accepted the decision to form a new party ( called the People 's Party or Populist Party ) and published a book , A Call to Action , detailing the party 's principles and castigating the " few haughty millionaires who are gathering up the riches of the new world " . He attended their convention in Omaha , Nebraska , in July 1892 . After Polk 's sudden death in June , Weaver was considered the front @-@ runner for the nomination . He was nominated on the first ballot , easily besting his closest rival , Senator James H. Kyle of South Dakota . Weaver accepted the nomination and promised to " visit every state in the Union and carry the banner of the people into the enemy 's camp " . The vice presidential nomination went to James G. Field , a Confederate veteran and former Attorney General of Virginia .
The platform adopted in Omaha was ambitious for its time , calling for a graduated income tax , public ownership of the railroads , telegraph , and telephone systems , government @-@ issued currency , and the unlimited coinage of silver ( the idea that the United States would buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins ) at a favorable 16 @-@ to @-@ 1 ratio with gold . The Republicans nominated Harrison for re @-@ election , and the Democrats put forward ex @-@ President Cleveland ; as in 1880 , Weaver was confident of a good showing for the new party against their opponents . Harrison had shown some favor to the free silver cause , but his party largely supported the hard @-@ money gold standard ; Cleveland was solidly for gold , but his running mate , Adlai Stevenson of Illinois , was a silverite . Against these , the Populist Party stood alone as undisputed partisans of soft money , which Weaver hoped would lead to success in rural areas . Further , as labor disturbances broke out in Homestead , Pennsylvania , and elsewhere , Weaver hoped urban laborers would rally to the Populist cause .
Weaver embarked on a speaking tour across the northern plains and Pacific coast states . In late August , he turned South , hoping to break the Democrats ' grip on those states . As in 1880 , the issue of race hurt Weaver among white Southern voters , as he sought to attract black voters by urging cooperation between white and black farmers and calling for an end to lynchings . Weaver drew good crowds in the South , but he and his wife were also subjected to abuse from hecklers . Southern Democrats depicted Weaver as a threat to the conservative Democrats in power there ; with the increasing disenfranchisement of black voters , this was to prove fatal to the Populists ' hopes in the South .
On election day , Cleveland triumphed , carrying the entire South and many Northern states . Weaver 's performance was better than that of any post @-@ Civil War third party candidate to date , as he won over a million votes — 8 @.@ 5 percent of the total cast nationwide . In four states , he won a plurality , giving the Populists the electoral votes of Colorado , Idaho , Kansas , and Nevada along with two more votes from North Dakota and Oregon : twenty @-@ two in total . Weaver believed the performance " a surprising success " , and thought it portended good results in future elections . " Unaided by money , " he said afterward , " our grand young party has made an enviable record and achieved a surprising success at the polls . "
= = Populist elder statesman = =
Weaver believed that the Populists ' embrace of free silver would be the main issue to attract new members to the party . After the election , he attended a meeting of the American Bimetallic League , a pro @-@ silver group , and gave speeches advocating an inflationist monetary policy . In the meantime , the Panic of 1893 caused bank failures , factory closures , and general economic upheaval . As the federal gold reserves dwindled , President Cleveland convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which ensured the government would purchase less silver for coining and which further disconcerted free silver supporters . While depletion of gold reserves slowed after the repeal , the country 's economy still floundered .
The next year , 1894 , saw pay cuts and labor disturbances , including a massive strike by the workers at the Pullman Company . A group of unemployed workers , known as Coxey 's Army , marched on Washington that spring . Weaver met with them in Iowa and expressed sympathy with the movement , so long as they refrained from lawbreaking . He then returned to the campaign trail , stumping for Populist candidates in the 1894 midterm elections . The election proved disastrous for the Democrats , but most of the gains went to the Republicans rather than to the Populists , who gained a few seats in the South but lost ground in the West . During the election , Weaver became friendly with William Jennings Bryan , a Democratic Congressman from Nebraska and a charismatic supporter of free silver . Bryan had lost his bid for the Senate in the election , but his reputation as an exciting speaker made him a presidential possibility in 1896 .
Weaver privately supported Bryan 's quest for the Democratic nomination in 1896 , which their convention awarded him on the fifth ballot . When the Populist convention gathered the next month in Chicago , they divided between endorsing the silverite Democrat and preserving their new party 's independence . Weaver backed the former course , holding the issues the party stood for to be of more importance than the party itself . A majority of delegates agreed , but without the enthusiasm that had marked their convention of four years earlier . At the same time , Weaver joined with anti @-@ fusionists to keep the Populist platform from deviating from the party 's ideological principles . Against the fusion candidate stood Republican William McKinley of Ohio , a hard @-@ money conservative . Bryan succeeded in uniting the South and West , Weaver 's longtime dream , but with the more populous North solidly behind McKinley , Bryan lost the election .
Despite the loss , Weaver still believed the Populist cause would triumph . He agreed to be nominated one last time for his old 6th district House seat on a Democratic @-@ Populist fusion ticket . As he had ten years earlier , Republican John Lacey defeated Weaver . In 1900 , Weaver attended a convention of fusionist Populists in Sioux Falls , South Dakota , the party having split on the issue of cooperation with the Democrats . The fusionists backed Bryan , the Democratic nominee , but he lost again to McKinley , this time by a greater margin . The following year , Weaver was elected to office for the last time as the mayor of his hometown , Colfax , Iowa .
= = Later years , death , and legacy = =
The Republican Party 's popularity after the victory in the Spanish – American War led Weaver , for the first time , to doubt that populist values would eventually prevail . With the demise of the Populist Party , Weaver became a Democrat and was a delegate to the 1904 Democratic National Convention . He was displeased at the party 's nominee , Alton B. Parker , whom he thought " plutocratic " , but Weaver supported his unsuccessful campaign nevertheless . He gave serious consideration to running for the House again that year , but decided against it . In 1908 , he supported Bryan 's third campaign as the Democratic nominee for president , but it , too , was unsuccessful .
That same year , Weaver and his wife , Clara , celebrated their fiftieth wedding anniversary , surrounded by six of their children . The Iowa legislature honored him in 1909 , and hung a portrait of him in the Iowa State Historical Building . He wrote a history of Jasper County , Iowa , where he lived , which was published in 1912 . Weaver planned to campaign on behalf of Democratic candidates that year , but did not have the chance . On February 6 , while visiting his daughter in Des Moines , he died . After a funeral at the First Methodist Church in Des Moines , Weaver was buried in that city 's Woodland Cemetery .
Many of Iowa 's leading statesmen , including Weaver 's former adversaries , praised him at his funeral and in the years thereafter . Fusion with the Democrats had brought Populist policy into the mainstream , and several of the policies for which Weaver fought became law after his death , including the direct election of Senators , a graduated income tax , and a monetary policy not based on the gold standard ; others , such as public ownership of the railroads and telephone companies , were never enacted . In a 2008 biography , Robert B. Mitchell wrote that " Weaver 's legacy cannot be assessed using conventional measures " as much of what he fought for did not come to pass until after his death . Even so , Mitchell credits Weaver for beginning the political effort that led to those changes : " Weaver 's most important legacy in national politics is not what he advocated , or how subsequent reforms worked , but his effect on America 's continuing political conversation . "
= Hear My Train A Comin ' =
" Hear My Train A Comin ' " ( alternatively titled " Get My Heart Back Together " ) is a blues @-@ inspired song written by Jimi Hendrix . It has been called " a powerful blues prayer based on the salvation @-@ train metaphor " of American folklore by biographer John McDermott . Hendrix recorded the song in live , studio , and impromptu settings several times between 1967 and 1970 , but never completed it to his satisfaction .
The documentary film Experience ( 1968 ) features the only version released during Hendrix 's lifetime . Hendrix played the song solo as an acoustic guitar country @-@ style blues and it is considered one of his most memorable performances . In 1973 , it was included in the film Jimi Hendrix and the accompanying soundtrack album . The song was also released as a single in the UK .
Hendrix often played " Hear My Train A Comin ' " in concert using a blues rock arrangement with accompaniment . He developed it into an extended improvisational guitar piece comparable to " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " . There are several live performances in release ; according to music critics , the 1970 recording from the Berkeley Community Theatre is considered the definitive version . Recent Hendrix compilation albums , such as People , Hell and Angels and the Miami Pop Festival , include additional studio demo versions along with other live recordings .
= = Background and lyrics = =
" Hear My Train A Comin ' " is one of several blues @-@ oriented songs that were in Hendrix 's repertoire throughout his career . One of his earliest recordings with the Experience was his composition " Red House " , a blues song inspired by Albert King , which is included on the 1967 UK Are You Experienced debut album . In their early years , the Experience adapted and frequently performed other blues songs , including Howlin ' Wolf 's " Killing Floor " , B.B. King 's " Rock Me Baby " , Elmore James ' " Bleeding Heart " , and " Catfish Blues " , a medley of songs by Muddy Waters . They also played Muddy Waters ' " Hoochie Coochie Man " in 1967 with BBC Rhythm and Blues radio show host Alexis Korner accompanying the group on slide guitar .
Hendrix biographer Harry Shapiro describes " Hear My Train A Comin ' " as " delv [ ing ] deep into the well of blues history , recalling one of the classic motifs of the genre " and compares it to " Jim Crow Blues " and " Make My Getaway " , two earlier blues songs about " escap [ ing ] trouble , be it political , social or personal " . " Jim Crow Blues " , recorded in 1929 by Cow Cow Davenport , deals with getting away from racial segregation in an American town :
In " Make My Getaway " , recorded in 1951 , Big Bill Broonzy sings of leaving Arkansas to get over a broken relationship :
Biographer Steven Roby sees a parallel in Hendrix 's early life that is reflected in the lyrics for " Hear My Train A Comin ' " . When he left home at 18 , Hendrix departed by train for U.S. Army basic training in California . " Jimi 's confusion about leaving those he cared about coexisted with his eagerness to put his nightmarish existence in Seattle behind him " , writes Roby . Biographer John McDermott describes his lyrics as " a powerful blues prayer based on the salvation @-@ train metaphor running through American folklore of every color and faith " . Hendrix 's earliest recorded version in 1967 includes the verses
After an energetic guitar solo , Hendrix announces " Can you dig that , you see me gettin ' it together , I 'm tryin ' to get my heart together that 's all " and concludes by singing
He nearly always introduced the song as " Getting My Heart Back Together Again " or " Get My Heart Back Together " , the latter of which was used for the first release of the song in 1971 . In his August 1970 handwritten notes for the track listing of his proposed fourth studio album , Hendrix listed the song as " Getting My Heart Back Together " . It is unclear why it was renamed " Hear My Train A Comin ' " for subsequent releases , although Hendrix sometimes introduced songs in concert using alternate names . Occasionally he added a train reference to the song title , such as " Lonesome Train " , " I See My Train " , and " Waitin ' Down at the Train Station " . As Hendrix developed the song , he added to the lyrics and included " I 'm gonna be a voodoo child " , a reference to his 1968 composition " Voodoo Child ( Slight Return ) " . However , he stayed with the same theme and often prefaced his performances with a short commentary , such as at one of his best @-@ known performances in Berkeley , California , in 1970 :
Here 's a story that a lot of us have been through ... About a cat runnin ' around town and his old lady , she don 't want him around and a whole lot of people from across the tracks are puttin ' him down . And nobody don 't want to face up to it but the cat might have somethin ' , only everybody 's against him because the cat might be a little different . So he goes on the road to be a Voodoo Child , come back to be a Magic Boy .
= = Composition and early live releases = =
" Hear My Train A Comin ' " was usually performed at a slow to andante tempo ( 65 to 80 beats per minute ) centered on one chord with breaks . The first known recordings were made by the BBC on December 15 , 1967 , with Noel Redding on bass and Mitch Mitchell on drums . Redding and / or Mitchell also provide backing vocals during Hendrix 's vocal . In contrast to the subdued vocal sections , the middle section features highly charged guitar soloing and accompaniment . Two takes were recorded , both lasting about five minutes . The second take was broadcast on December 24 , 1967 , for the Top Gear radio program . The first take recorded was released in 1988 on the Radio One album ; both are included on BBC Sessions .
Around the same time , Peter Neal was making a short film documentary about the Experience , titled Experience ( also known as See My Music Talking ) . On December 19 , 1967 , he captured Hendrix playing an impromptu solo version of " Hear My Train A Comin ' " . The filming took place during a publicity photo session at the London studio of photographer Bruce Fleming , who had photographed the British album cover for Are You Experienced . For the shoot , a twelve @-@ string Zemaitis acoustic guitar restrung for a left @-@ handed player was conveniently on hand . Hendrix , seated on a stool against a white backdrop , sang while playing the guitar . After a false start , he settles into the song , which biographer Keith Shadwick describes as " 100 percent country blues ... s [ ung ] with great feeling , however artificial the circumstances of the session may have been " . Hendrix 's acoustic guitar playing shows familiarity with the styles of Lead Belly , Robert Johnson , and Skip James . Music writer Michael Fairchild compares some of his guitar techniques to those found in 1928 recordings by Tommy Johnson , such as " Big Fat Mama " and " Big Road Blues " . The guitar was tuned down two whole steps ( C – F – B ♭ – E ♭ – G – C ) , perhaps influenced by Lead Belly 's twelve @-@ string style . At the end of the 3 : 05 performance , Hendrix laughs it off with " Did you think I could do that ? " In addition to the 1968 documentary , the " Hear My Train A Comin ' " performance is included in the 1973 film Jimi Hendrix and accompanying soundtrack album ( re @-@ released on Blues ) . In the UK , it was released by Reprise Records as a single in 1973 with the Experience 's adaptation of B.B. King 's " Rock Me Baby " recorded at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 as the B @-@ side .
In March 1968 , Hendrix recorded another impromptu performance of the song with Paul Caruso on harmonica , a friend from Hendrix 's Greenwich Village days . It was recorded at Hendrix 's suite at the Drake Hotel in New York City , where he lived for a while during the recording of Electric Ladyland at the Record Plant . Caruso described it as " very simple , pure , like Lightnin ' Hopkins ' earlier work . " It is included on West Coast Seattle Boy : The Jimi Hendrix Anthology released in 2010 . For subsequent versions , Hendrix gradually developed " Hear My Train A Comin ' " from a shorter , blues @-@ oriented number into a longer , improvisational piece with extended guitar soloing as he had done with " Voodoo Child " . The transformation is apparent in three live recordings which were released in 1971 , which range from over nine to twelve minutes . Hendrix performed a nine @-@ minute version with the Gypsy Sun and Rainbows band at the Woodstock Festival on August 19 , 1969 . Shadwick describes Hendrix 's guitar solos as " fluently spectacular , stringing long , arching phrases together " . It was released on the Woodstock soundtrack follow @-@ up album Woodstock 2 , with the title " Get My Heart Back Together " ( reissued on Woodstock and Live at Woodstock ) . On May 30 , 1970 , during the Cry of Love tour , Hendrix with Mitchell and bassist Billy Cox were filmed performing the song at the Berkeley Community Theatre . Several writers consider this rendition to be definitive , including Shadwick :
He solos with a distinctive flavour , for the most part entirely melodic rather than the usual fusion of chords , melody and outright sonic manipulation . As with every great improviser he had his own distinctive melodic shapes , and a lot of them crop up here . But he makes them fresh by placing them in new contexts , either by using different registers or one of his electronic effects ( here wah @-@ wah or Uni @-@ Vibe ) to alter the timbre and texture , or by reordering them to create different continuities of phrasing .
His performance , edited down to over four minutes , appears in the film Jimi Plays Berkeley by Peter Pilafian . The complete audio recording from Berkeley with different lengths of Hendrix 's introduction is included on the Rainbow Bridge album , Blues , and Voodoo Child : The Jimi Hendrix Collection . On July 30 , 1970 , Hendrix , Mitchell , and Cox performed outdoors in the upcountry region on the island of Maui , Hawaii . Manager Michael Jeffery had arranged for their concert as a contribution to another film , Rainbow Bridge , directed by Andy Warhol associate Chuck Wein . Due to technical problems , little of the concert footage was usable , although an edited " Hear My Train A Comin ' " is included in the movie ( although none of the performances from the film appear on the so @-@ called Rainbow Bridge soundtrack album ) . The complete audio recording is included on several bootleg albums of the Maui concerts .
= = Studio recordings = =
Hendrix recorded several studio demo versions of " Hear My Train A Comin ' " and some have appeared on various compilations over the years . Producer Alan Douglas issued the first version in 1975 on the second of his controversial albums , Midnight Lightning . It was fashioned from a demo recorded by the Experience on April 2 or 9 , 1969 . Douglas erased Redding 's bass part and overdubbed new bass , guitar , and percussion parts by musicians who had never recorded with Hendrix . Shadwick describes it as " painfully out of tune " and its release as " unfortunate " ; it has not been reissued .
At a February 17 , 1969 , rehearsal at the Olympic Studios before their upcoming London concerts , multiple takes of " Hear My Train A Comin ' " were recorded by the Experience . The first take was later included on the 2000 The Jimi Hendrix Experience box set ( re @-@ released on Martin Scorsese Presents the Blues : Jimi Hendrix ) . During their following appearances at the Royal Albert Hall on February 18 and 24 ( which turned out to be their last UK shows ) , the Experience were filmed and recorded performing the song . These have not been officially released because of contract disputes , but are frequently bootlegged . Two additional demos were recorded at the Record Plant in New York City in 1969 . One , recorded on April 7 by the Experience , is included on 2010s Valleys of Neptune . On May 21 , a second demo was recorded during Hendrix 's first recording session with Billy Cox on bass and Buddy Miles on drums , who later performed on the live Band of Gypsys album . It was issued on People , Hell and Angels in 2013 .
= = Additional live recordings = =
Previously unreleased recordings of " Hear My Train A Comin ' " continue to be issued along with re @-@ releases . Several amateur concert recordings are also free to stream from the Experience Hendrix official website .
5 / 18 / 68 Miami Pop Festival , Hallandale , Florida ( 7 : 58 ) – Miami Pop Festival ( released 2013 )
10 / 10 / 68 Winterland Ballroom second show , San Francisco ( 11 : 33 ) – The Jimi Hendrix Concerts ( released 1982 , re @-@ released 2011 Winterland )
4 / 27 / 69 Oakland Coliseum , Oakland , California ( 10 : 25 ) – Live at the Oakland Coliseum ( released 1998 )
7 / 7 / 69 The Dick Cavett Show , New York City ( 2 : 26 ) – Jimi Hendrix : The Dick Cavett Show ( Hendrix is backed by the show 's Bob Rosengarden Orchestra , DVD released 2002 )
12 / 31 / 69 Fillmore East first show , New York City ( 9 : 01 ) – Band of Gypsys 2 ( an early contender for the original Band of Gypsys album , released 1986 , re @-@ released 1999 Live at the Fillmore East )
7 / 4 / 70 Atlanta International Pop Festival , Byron , Georgia ( 5 : 25 ) – Stages ( released 1991 )
= 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion was a battalion of the Australian Army that was raised for service during World War II as part of the 6th Division . When it was formed on 14 December 1939 , its component companies were spread across several Australian states , but it was later concentrated at Ingleburn , New South Wales , where it completed basic training in the early months of the war . In mid @-@ 1940 , the battalion embarked for overseas , bound initially for the Middle East , but following the Fall of France it was diverted to the United Kingdom . Along with a larger contingent of Australians , it helped to bolster the island 's garrison , undertaking defensive duties during a period when it was expected that the Germans might launch a cross @-@ Channel invasion .
The battalion was transferred to the Middle East in late 1940 , after the threat of invasion had passed . It underwent further training in Egypt , before taking part in fighting against the Germans in Greece and on Crete in mid @-@ 1941 . Having lost most of its equipment and suffering heavy casualties , the 2 / 1st was rebuilt in Palestine before undertaking garrison duties in Syria in 1941 – 42 . The battalion was withdrawn to Australia as a result of Japan 's entry into the war in December 1941 . During 1943 , the 2 / 1st fought a defensive role in the New Guinea campaign . Following its withdrawal to Australia in early 1944 , the battalion was re @-@ organised on the Atherton Tablelands and reassigned to the 7th Division . It was committed to its final campaign in mid @-@ 1945 , during the Borneo campaign . After the war , the battalion was disbanded in early 1946 . One of its mascots , Horrie the Wog Dog , became the subject of a book by Ion Idriess .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion was formed on 14 December 1939 , as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . It was raised following a reorganisation of the 6th Division 's infantry battalions , which saw the removal of the machine gun platoons that had previously existed within each battalion and their centralisation in a single unit . Three other machine gun battalions were subsequently raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war to support its four infantry divisions . Developed by the British Army , the concept within the Australian Army had its genesis during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions – initially two and then , later , four – had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . Over the course of the war on the Western Front , the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 to the establishment of machine gun battalions in 1918 . Similar formations had also been established amongst the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . When the Army was reorganised in 1921 , they were not re @-@ raised , but in 1937 , when the Army looked to expand as fears of war in Europe loomed , four such units were raised within the part @-@ time Militia by converting light horse units and motorising them . When the Second World War broke out , the decision was made to raise several machine gun battalions within the 2nd AIF , one allocated to each division .
Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Claude Prior , the 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion was formed with four machine gun companies , a headquarters company – consisting of an anti @-@ aircraft platoon , a signals platoon and a transport platoon – and a battalion headquarters . Australian machine gun battalions were established with an authorised strength of around 800 to 900 personnel , and like the others , the 2 / 1st was a motorised infantry unit with both wheeled motor vehicles and tracked carriers . Equipped with 48 Vickers medium machine guns , the battalion 's four machine gun companies – designated ' A ' to ' D ' and each consisting of three four @-@ gun platoons – were initially formed separately , with ' A ' Company forming at Ingleburn , in New South Wales , ' B ' Company forming at Puckapunyal , in Victoria , ' C ' in South Australia , and ' D ' at Rutherford , in New South Wales . At the end of the month , ' B ' and ' C ' Companies concentrated at Rutherford , before moving to Ingleburn with ' D ' Company in January 1940 . An intense period of training followed , with range shoots at Liverpool , and field exercises in the Green Hills and Wallacia areas , the latter being conducted in conjunction with the infantry battalions of the 18th Brigade . This period concluded in early May 1940 , when the battalion was moved by train to Darling Harbour and embarked upon the Queen Mary .
= = = Defence of Britain = = =
The men aboard Queen Mary were originally destined for the Middle East but a decision was made mid @-@ voyage to divert them to the United Kingdom , as part of a larger contingent of Australians that were sent to help bolster the garrison there . After making the long passage via Fremantle , Cape Town , and Freetown , the battalion landed in Gourock , Scotland , in mid @-@ June . France had just fallen , and Britain was preparing for a potential cross @-@ Channel invasion . The Australian troops from the 18th Brigade and , eventually , the 25th Brigade , along with various supporting arms , had been despatched to help bolster the island 's defences . From Gourock , they entrained and moved south to Tidworth Camp on Salisbury Plain . They remained in Britain throughout the rest of the year , undertaking training , mounting guard , conducting patrols and exercises . A move to Colchester took place in October to afford the Australians a more permanent barracks for the coming winter , as they were mainly under canvas at Tidworth . The following month , as the threat of invasion seemingly passed , they received orders to move to Glasgow to embark on the transport Otrango , bound for the Middle East where they were to rejoin the rest of the 6th Division .
= = = Middle East , Greece , and Crete = = =
Sailing around the west coast of Africa to avoid the threat of air attack in the Mediterranean , the Otrango carried the battalion to Egypt , which was reached at the end of December , following stops at Freetown and Durban . After docking at Kantara , the battalion moved by rail over 225 miles ( 362 km ) to Ikingi Maryut , west of Alexandria in the Western Desert . There they received a new commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gooch , after Prior was promoted and transferred to divisional headquarters , and they began training to acclimatise to the new conditions . The rest of the 6th Division had gone into action in the Western Desert but the 2 / 1st , still waiting on the majority of its equipment to arrive , was not committed , its place being taken by a British machine gun battalion from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers . The Australian battalion remained at Ikingi Maryut until late March and early April , when it was despatched , along with the rest of the 6th Division , to Greece , where a German invasion was expected .
Spread across several different transport vessels , after completing the crossing – during which the battalion ’ s machine guns were employed for anti @-@ aircraft defence – the 2 / 1st 's companies were split up : ' A ' Company , supported the Australian 2 / 4th Battalion , while two companies – ' B ' and ' C ' – supported the New Zealand 4th Brigade , and another – ' D ' Company – was assigned to the Australian 17th Brigade . The campaign proved to be short @-@ lived , as the Allies were quickly pushed back by the advancing Germans , and the battalion was subsequently withdrawn around the end of April and early May , having fought major actions around the Aliakmon River , Servia Pass , Lamia and Mount Olympus . During the evacuation , elements of three companies were taken aboard the transport Costa Rica , which was later attacked by German aircraft . As the vessel was sinking , the troops on board were evacuated by Royal Navy destroyers and landed on Crete , minus the majority of their equipment which was lost at sea .
On Crete , the battalion 's companies were once again separated ; ' D ' Company , the only company in possession of all of its equipment , was assigned to support the Australian 19th Brigade around Georgioupolis , while the other three companies went into camp around Suda . A single platoon from ' B ' Company was later sent to reinforce ' D ' Company ; however , on 14 May , the remainder of the battalion – a total of 432 personnel – was evacuated from the island on the transport Lossiebank , sailing back to Egypt and subsequently missing the German invasion of Crete , which was launched a week later . A short but sharp campaign followed , which saw the machine gunners that remained – 170 personnel , including six officers – take part in fighting around Canea and Retimo before the island 's garrison was finally defeated at the end of May . By the end of the fighting , the 2 / 1st had lost 104 men killed , wounded or captured in either Greece or on Crete ; of these , two later escaped , while one died in captivity .
After arriving in Egypt , the remainder of the battalion was transported to Palestine , where it was subsequently rebuilt . The 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion remained stationed around Gaza until October , when it was sent to Syria to bolster the garrison that had been established there following the defeat of Vichy French forces . At this time , the 2 / 1st effectively became assigned to the 7th Division , and received a new commanding officer , as Lieutenant Colonel Cyril Fidock , a World War I veteran , replaced Gooch . The battalion was subsequently stationed in Damascus and at Zaboud , remaining there until early 1942 , when it was moved back to Gaza as part of the draw @-@ down of Australian forces in the Middle East and their return to Australia in response to Japan 's entry into the war . The battalion embarked upon an American troop transport , USS West Point , in mid @-@ March 1942 , completing the voyage to Port Adelaide , via Fremantle , in just 19 days .
= = = New Guinea and Borneo = = =
Following the battalion 's arrival in Adelaide , the men were billeted by locals in the city 's suburbs while leave drafts were despatched throughout April . In early May , the 2 / 1st was reconstituted at Ingleburn , where it remained until June 1942 , when the order came to move to Queensland . Moving up the coast via train , the battalion established a camp near Peachester , in the Sunshine Coast hinterland . Jungle training was undertaken there until September , when the 2 / 1st moved to another camp closer to the coast at Deception Bay . At the end of October , ' A ' and ' B ' Companies embarked in Brisbane , bound for New Guinea , to reinforce the troops fighting around Buna ; en route they were diverted to Townsville , where they were unloaded . ' B ' Company later re @-@ embarked and arrived in Port Moresby in late November on the transport Both , before moving to Oro Bay , where it was deployed defensively around the US base and the mission at Eroro . ' A ' Company also deployed in December , and the following month also moved to Oro Bay . The rest of the battalion remained at Deception Bay in Queensland and did not link up with the other companies until May 1943 , landing in Port Moresby from the Duntroon . In the intervening period , the two deployed companies were temporarily detached to the Militia 7th Machine Gun Battalion , and ' A ' Company went into action in the Pacific for the first time , fighting around Wau , before marching to Nassau Bay to support the 3rd Division during the Salamaua – Lae campaign .
The battalion was withdrawn back to Australia in early 1944 for rest and reorganisation . During this period it was stationed at Tenterfield , where the soldiers experienced a bitterly cold winter , before moving to Petrie and then Kiari on the Atherton Tablelands . The battalion was reorganised to conform with the requirements of the jungle divisional establishment , and as a result its vehicles were changed to include jeeps and trailers , instead of trucks , which were considered impractical in the jungle . A change of commanding officer also took place in this time , with Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Haupt – who had previously served as battalion second @-@ in @-@ command before leaving to take over command of the 62nd Battalion in January 1943 – returning to take over from Fidock . A long period of training , which included courses in amphibious warfare and various jungle exercises followed , as the focus of the fighting in the Pacific shifted away from Australian forces towards the US military . Consequently , it was not until close to the end of the war that the battalion went into action again . Before this , the battalion contributed to an Australian contingent that was sent to India to lecture British Army officers on the lessons of jungle warfare .
In May 1945 , the battalion was transported to Morotai Island in preparation for Operation Oboe , the recapture of Borneo and the Netherlands East Indies . The 2 / 1st was assigned to support the 7th Division 's landing on Balikpapan in July . Now largely being used as a divisional asset , the battalion provided a company to each of the division 's component brigades – the 18th , 21st and 25th – while one company remained in reserve with the headquarters . Coming ashore aboard several landing craft , the two companies taking part in the initial assault – ' B ' and ' D ' – helped to secure the high ground overlooking the beachhead , while ' C ' Company remained a floating reserve along with the 25th Brigade . The battalion 's reserve company , ' A ' Company , and headquarters element came ashore in a later wave to set up a secure base . During the subsequent advance inland , the battalion 's main focus was progressing through what the Australians dubbed the " Vasey Highway " , which ran east – west along the island 's southern shore , as the Australians fought to take the oil pipeline and the airfield at Manggar , and the " Milford Highway " , which ran north – south through the centre into the more mountainous hinterland . During the fighting on Borneo , the 2 / 1st lost 17 men killed or wounded .
Following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion 's personnel were returned to Australia in small drafts , as the 2 / 1st undertook garrison duties in the Balikpapan area . The longer @-@ serving men were repatriated and discharged early , while volunteers were transferred to other units that were being raised as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force that would be deployed to Japan . In November , a batch of men were transferred to the 21st Brigade for occupation duties in the Celebes as the Australian forces began preparing to hand over the territories to Dutch authorities . By December , the battalion consisted of less than fifty personnel , and at the end of the month this cadre embarked upon the transport Kings Point Victory to make the journey back to Australia . The battalion was subsequently disbanded on 26 January 1946 .
When they had been formed , it was intended that the machine gun battalions would provide highly mobile fire support ; however , Phillip Hocking , author of The Long Carry , highlights that throughout the war the utility of the machine gun battalions was largely misunderstood by commanders , particularly after the focus of the Australian Army 's operations shifted to the Pacific . Some commanders used the machine guns largely in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets , rather than as offensive fire support weapons that could be employed to provide long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely utilised in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle , and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . After their disbandment , the machine gun battalion concept was not used in the post @-@ war Australian Army , as the function became nested within the structure of a standard infantry battalion .
One of the 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion 's mascots , Horrie the Wog Dog , was the subject of a book by Ion Idriess ; the book was based on stories recounted by the dog 's owner , Jim Moody , who served as a machine gunner in the 2 / 1st . Over 2 @,@ 000 personnel served in the 2 / 1st throughout the war , and 34 members of the battalion were killed in action , died of wounds or died from accident . Decorations awarded included two Military Crosses , four Military Medals , one British Empire Medal and 16 Mentions in Despatches .
= = Commanders = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2 / 1st Machine Gun Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Claude Esdaile Prior ( 1939 – 40 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Neil Gooch ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Cyril Henwood Fidock ( 1941 – 44 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Graham Keith Haupt ( 1944 – 45 ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 1st received the following battle honours for their involvement in the war :
Greece 1941 , Mount Olympus , Servia Pass , Middle East 1941 , Crete , South West Pacific 1945 , Borneo , Balikpapan , and Milford Highway .
= Sucker Punch ( soundtrack ) =
Sucker Punch is the soundtrack for the film of the same name . It was released on March 22 , 2011 by WaterTower Music . The album consists of covered songs , mainly by the film 's stars . Emily Browning sings three songs , and Carla Gugino and Oscar Isaac performs a cover of " Love Is the Drug " as a duet . Recording artists Björk , Skunk Anansie , Emilíana Torrini , Queen , Carla Azar , Alison Mosshart and Yoav also have songs on the soundtrack .
All of the covers on the album were produced by Marius de Vries and Tyler Bates , who utilized orchestral and rock sounds . Director Zack Snyder wanted the songs to add depth , dimension and meaning to the fantasy aspects of the film . The recording sessions began in September 2009 . Part of Browning 's audition for her role in the film included recording herself while singing . Snyder liked her voice and offered her to sing The Smiths ' song " Asleep " . The crew and Smiths ' frontman Morrissey were happy with the result , and Browning recorded two more songs for the soundtrack , including the Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " which is played during the film 's opening sequence .
The album received generally positive reviews and critics considered it one of the best soundtracks of the year , especially when compared to their panning of the film . Browning was praised for her performance throughout the album , mainly on " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " . Sucker Punch reached number twenty @-@ two on the Billboard 200 , and the top of the Top Soundtracks chart . Internationally , the album reached the top fifty in Australia , New Zealand , Austria and Germany .
= = Background and development = =
As with the soundtrack for Watchmen , director Zack Snyder decided to go with covers instead of original songs , saying " If you go with the original song , you just get the moment . But if you go with covers you also get all of the baggage you bring to it , [ ... ] I like the baggage . It kind of resonates and rings across time , it 's not just of the moment . " The soundtrack was produced by composer Tyler Bates and musical producer Marius de Vries . While Bates ' job was initially only writing a musical score and helping the song transitions , the composer ended working closely with de Vries as " the songs and the score just began bleeding into one another " - the only track in which de Vries worked alone was the remix of " Army of Me " .
Snyder wanted the songs to add depth , dimension and " meaning to the sequences they exist within " , as the film includes " multiple levels of reality " . de Vries noted the director tried to use songs instead of an original score " so that the lyrics could help navigate the way through the complex scenes and illuminate Baby
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doll ’ s state of mind . " Bates said " the songs serve as the link to the conscious world of Babydoll " while the score " was designed to simply underscore the sense of reality in the various alternate realities / action " . On the song selection , Snyder said that the tracks were chosen to " resonate " and give the viewer " sort of a nostalgic feeling " , and de Vries added that the compositions had to fit the film 's " themes of escape and hope , and redemption through the imagination . "
The original script of the film included parts where the characters sang , but it did not make the final cut , and de Vries said , " It was never going to be an opera , or even going to be a musical . It was very unlikely even to have any ' break into song ' moments within it , but the fact that we designed it so that it could I think gives it that sort of strange , music @-@ driven resonance . " References to both Roxy Music 's " Love is the Drug " and Jefferson Airplane 's " White Rabbit " were seen in the original script , with the former being used in a musical sequence performed by actors Carla Gugino and Oscar Isaac " in the style of a Bob Fosse / Moulin Rouge kind of vibe " , and the latter being picked by Snyder for his belief that it was " perfect for our World War I [ action sequence ] " . Bates considers Emilíana Torrini 's cover of " White Rabbit " to be the soundtrack 's standout . Nine songs are featured in the soundtrack , with Bates saying others were considered and discarded for among other reasons , veto from the original artists and " lyrics too on the nose " .
Carla Gugino revealed in August 2009 that she had begun taking singing lessons for her part in the film . One month later , Jamie Chung announced in an interview with E ! Entertainment that recording for the soundtrack had begun . When Emily Browning auditioned for her role as Babydoll , Snyder asked her to sing because of the musical element in the film . He told her to record herself while singing , and the actress did a version of " Killing Me Softly with His Song " . Browning later said , " I was terrified , of course . But he liked it . I have no idea why , but he thought me capable of carrying a tune on the screen . " The crew liked the result and offered her to sing more songs . At first it was just a cover of " Where Is My Mind ? " by Pixies , which ended up becoming a duet with Yoav , but the producers extended to three songs . One , a version by " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " by Eurythmics , is used to open the movie , and Bates noted that " [ Emily 's ] first line of dialogue is actually 27 minutes into the film so it is an interesting way to introduce her character . " The other came up when during a discussion on her favorite music with Snyder , Browning said that The Smiths was her favorite band . Several weeks later , Snyder informed her that he had acquired the rights to The Smiths ' song " Asleep " , and asked her if she would like to perform the lead vocals . At first , she hesitated , saying that " The offer was flattering , but there was so much pressure " . However , she recorded the song and according to Snyder , The Smiths ' frontman Morrissey was happy with the result . Regarding Browning 's performance , de Vries considered that " having Emily sing — essentially commenting in song on her character ’ s situation in the film — provided an interesting texture , real resonance and depth , and tied the music to the visuals in a way that might otherwise not have been so clearly defined " , and Snyder found the actress ' " emotional delivery " to " make the songs even more poignant " . To work with Browning between takes , de Vries used a portable recording rig on a room with a piano - " a very distressed , out @-@ of @-@ tune , almost @-@ unusable instrument ( ... ) which turned out to have real charm in it . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , the songs on Sucker Punch are highlighted with orchestrations and a rock edge . De Vries said that during the songs ' production " there was a substantial amount of reinvention , in several different directions " , helped by Snyder giving the composers free reins . Bates added that there was an attempt to " expand the scope of the songs in a way they were never heard before " , with " crazy electronic " and " alternative guitar work " - " it 's a bit over the top , but so is everything on screen . " The versions of the songs tried to match the action on @-@ screen : Bates detailed that " White Rabbit " " starts out very ethereal , getting [ Baby Doll ] into the mindset of the dance , and once the girls have their assignment , once they delve in with machineguns and other weapons , the song starts to bloom into this epic , rich , full orchestral choral fanfare . " This correspondence lead to the tracks getting longer and alternating between the songs themselves and " a score that is reminiscent of songs sometimes " , which Bates described as " playing in the consciousness of the characters [ i.e. in the same way most people sometimes keep a song ‘ playing ’ in their heads for an extended period of time ] . " For instance , " White Rabbit " features a choir of 150 voices playing the vocal melody of the first verse of the song , and tracks such as " Search & Destroy " have " moments where Zach really wanted to blow it up into [ a ] huge orchestra " .
Heather Phares of Allmusic noted that " The setting for [ the film ] may be a ‘ 50s mental institution , but the film ’ s soundtrack feels like it ’ s straight out of the ‘ 90s . " The writer also noted that " Nearly every track here [ ... ] pits female vocals against massive , mechanical instrumentation , underscoring the plight from which the film ’ s characters must rescue themselves . " The fourth track , a mash @-@ up of Queen 's " I Want It All " and " We Will Rock You " , includes rap verses by Armageddon , formerly a member of Terror Squad . Torrini 's take on " White Rabbit " includes a Middle Eastern @-@ style outro with guitars and an orchestral pomp . According to Rick Florino of Artistdirect , the " Sucker Punch Remix " of Björk 's " Army of Me " is based upon a trip hop production and " repeatedly pummels via the psychedelic vocal delivery and careening , crushing guitars " . de Vries considered emblematic of the film 's theme of female empowerment having women covering songs originally performed by male singers - " Search & Destroy " , and " Tomorrow Never Knows " - during the action scenes for the concept of " the female voice telling the story through song ( ... ) where the iconic original performance is a very strong male performance ” . The artists who would perform the covers were chosen for having " female voices with enough authority and panache and just cultural presence to come out from under the shadow of those performances , and to make this about songs which both comment on the tone of the scene and also help navigate us across the sort of boundaries of these individual worlds which are part of Emily ’ s imagination . "
= = Critical reception = =
The album received generally positive reviews from critics . Rick Florino of Artistdirect was very positive on the album , writing that the film " hearkens back to the good old days , and the film 's soundtrack is not only one of the best soundtracks this year , it 's also bound to be remembered as a classic . " The writer praised Browning 's take on " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " , writing that it " adds a lush darkness and vibrant vulnerability to the song reminiscent of Portishead 's Beth Gibbons but with a flair all her own . " Florino awarded the album four and a half stars out of five , and concluded his review , writing , " This is the kind of soundtrack that needs to be listened to from front to back , and if it 's any indication , the film is destined to be one of the most mind @-@ blowing and magnificent screen event this year , perhaps even the decade . " Allmusic 's Heather Phares reviewed the album positively , praising Browning for " deliver [ ing ] the soundtrack ’ s most affecting performances " . Phares concluded her review with " Sucker Punch is elaborate and sometimes overwrought , but it ’ s absolutely true to the film ’ s aesthetic . " Billboard reviewer Phil Gallo described the soundtrack as " a rush of male @-@ targeted female power " which de Vries and Bates scored with " dark , eerie and violent soundscapes " . Gallo found Yoav 's contribution to " Where Is My Mind " to be " the soundtrack 's most tender moment " . Writing for Empire , Danny Graydon highlighted Browning 's songs as " seductive takes " , and praised both Gugino and Isaac for " an exuberant version of Roxy Music ’ s ' Love Is The Drug ' " and considering Björk 's collaboration " magnificently reversions ' Army Of Me ' with Skunk Anansie " . Jon M. Gilbertson of Milwaukee Journal Sentinel was not very fond of the album , writing that " Maybe these covers make more sense in filmic context , but on their own they exude an air of pointlessness . They are , like Snyder 's movies , stylish but curiously hollow . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Sucker Punch sold 16 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the United States , debuting at number thirty @-@ six on the Billboard 200 on the issue dated April 9 , 2011 . In its second week , the album rose nine positions to number twenty @-@ two , with sales of 20 @,@ 000 copies . The same week , it reached the summit of the Top Soundtracks chart , having debuted at number two one week earlier . In Australia , the album debuted at number eighteen and spent two weeks on the chart . With over 117 @,@ 000 units sold in the United States , Sucker Punch finished the year as the best @-@ selling 2011 film soundtrack . In France , it debuted at number eighty @-@ nine and reached its peak of seventy @-@ nine the following week . In New Zealand , the album entered the chart at number thirty @-@ six and managed to reach thirty @-@ three the next week . Sucker Punch also reached number thirty @-@ seven in Austria , forty @-@ two in Germany and fifty @-@ seven in Switzerland .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Serpin =
Serpins are a superfamily of proteins with similar structures that were first identified for their protease inhibition activity and are found in all kingdoms of life . The acronym serpin was originally coined because the first serpins to be identified act on chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases ( serine protease inhibitors ) . They are notable for their unusual mechanism of action , in which they irreversibly inhibit their target protease by undergoing a large conformational change to disrupt its active site . This contrasts with the more common competitive mechanism for protease inhibitors that bind to and block access to the protease active site .
Protease inhibition by serpins controls an array of biological processes , including coagulation and inflammation , and consequently these proteins are the target of medical research . Their unique conformational change also makes them of interest to the structural biology and protein folding research communities . The conformational @-@ change mechanism confers certain advantages , but it also has drawbacks : serpins are vulnerable to mutations that can result in serpinopathies such as protein misfolding and the formation of inactive long @-@ chain polymers . Serpin polymerisation not only reduces the amount of active inhibitor , but also leads to accumulation of the polymers , causing cell death and organ failure .
Although most serpins control proteolytic cascades , some proteins with a serpin structure are not enzyme inhibitors , but instead perform diverse functions such as storage ( as in egg white — ovalbumin ) , transport as in hormone carriage proteins ( thyroxine @-@ binding globulin , cortisol @-@ binding globulin ) and molecular chaperoning ( HSP47 ) . The term serpin is used to describe these members as well , despite their non @-@ inhibitory function , since they are evolutionarily related .
= = History = =
Protease inhibitory activity in blood plasma was first reported in the late 1800s , but it was not until the 1950s that the serpins antithrombin and alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin were isolated . Initial research focused on their role in human disease : alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency is one of the most common genetic disorders , causing emphysema , and antithrombin deficiency results in thrombosis .
In the 1980s , it became clear that these inhibitors were part of superfamily of related proteins that included both protease inhibitors ( e.g. alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin ) and non @-@ inhibitory members ( e.g. ovalbumin ) . The name " serpin " was coined based on the most common activity of the superfamily ( serine protease inhibitors ) . Around the same time , the first structures were solved for serpin proteins ( first in the relaxed , and later in the stressed conformation ) . The structures indicated that the inhibitory mechanism involved an unusual conformational change and prompted the subsequent structural focus of serpin studies .
Over 1000 serpins have now been identified , including 36 human proteins , as well as molecules in all kingdoms of life — animals , plants , fungi , bacteria , and archaea — and some viruses . In the 2000s , a systematic nomenclature was introduced in order to categorise members of the serpin superfamily based on their evolutionary relationships . Serpins are therefore the largest and most diverse superfamily of protease inhibitors .
= = Activity = =
Most serpins are protease inhibitors , targeting extracellular , chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases . These proteases possess a nucleophilic serine residue in a catalytic triad in their active site . Examples include thrombin , trypsin , and human neutrophil elastase . Serpins act as irreversible , suicide inhibitors by trapping an intermediate of the protease 's catalytic mechanism .
Some serpins inhibit other protease classes , typically cysteine proteases , and are termed " cross @-@ class inhibitors " . These enzymes differ from serineproteases in that they use a nucleophilic cysteine residue , rather than a serine , in their active site . Nonetheless , the enzymatic chemistry is similar , and the mechanism of inhibition by serpins is the same for both classes of protease . Examples of cross @-@ class inhibitory serpins include serpin B4 a squamous cell carcinoma antigen 1 ( SCCA @-@ 1 ) and the avian serpin myeloid and erythroid nuclear termination stage @-@ specific protein ( MENT ) , which both inhibit papain @-@ like cysteine proteases .
= = Biological function and localization = =
= = = Protease inhibition = = =
Approximately two @-@ thirds of human serpins perform extracellular roles , inhibiting proteases in the bloodstream in order to modulate their activities . For example , extracellular serpins regulate the proteolytic cascades central to blood clotting ( antithrombin ) , the inflammatory and immune responses ( antitrypsin , antichymotrypsin , and C1 @-@ inhibitor ) and tissue remodelling ( PAI @-@ 1 ) . By inhibiting signalling cascade proteases , they can also affect development . The table of human serpins ( below ) provides examples of the range of functions performed by human serpin , as well as some of the diseases that result from serpin deficiency .
The protease targets of intracellular inhibitory serpins have been difficult to identify , since many of these molecules appear to perform overlapping roles . Further , many human serpins lack precise functional equivalents in model organisms such as the mouse . Nevertheless , an important function of intracellular serpins may be to protect against the inappropriate activity of proteases inside the cell . For example , one of the best @-@ characterised human intracellular serpins is Serpin B9 , which inhibits the cytotoxic granule protease granzyme B. In doing so , Serpin B9 may protect against inadvertent release of granzyme B and premature or unwanted activation of cell death pathways .
Some viruses use serpins to disrupt protease functions in their host . The cowpox viral serpin CrmA ( cytokine response modifier A ) is used in order to avoid inflammatory and apoptotic responses of infected host cells . CrmA increases infectivity by suppressing its host 's inflammatory response through inhibition of IL @-@ 1 and L @-@ 18 processing by the cysteine protease caspase @-@ 1 . In eukaryotes , a plant serpin inhibits both metacaspases and a papain @-@ like cysteine protease .
= = = Non @-@ inhibitory roles = = =
Non @-@ inhibitory extracellular serpins also perform a wide array of important roles . Thyroxine @-@ binding globulin and transcortin transport the hormones thyroxine and cortisol , respectively . The non @-@ inhibitory serpin ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in egg white . Its exact function is unknown , but it is thought to be a storage protein for the developing foetus . Heat shock serpin 47 is a chaperone , essential for proper folding of collagen . It acts by stabilising collagen 's triple helix whilst it is being processed in the endoplasmic reticulum .
Some serpins are both protease inhibitors and perform additional roles . For example , the nuclear cysteine protease inhibitor MENT , in birds also acts as a chromatin remodelling molecule in a bird 's red blood cells .
= = Structure = =
All serpins share a common structure ( or fold ) , despite their varied functions . All typically have three β @-@ sheets ( named A , B and C ) and eight or nine α @-@ helices ( named hA – hI ) . The most significant regions to serpin function are the A @-@ sheet and the reactive centre loop ( RCL ) . The A @-@ sheet includes two β @-@ strands that are in a parallel orientation with a region between them called the ' shutter ' , and upper region called the ' breach ' . The RCL forms the initial interaction with the target protease in inhibitory molecules . Structures have been solved showing the RCL either fully exposed or partially inserted into the A @-@ sheet , and serpins are thought to be in dynamic equilibrium between these two states . The RCL also only makes temporary interactions with the rest of the structure , and is therefore highly flexible and exposed to the solvent .
The serpin structures that have been determined cover several different conformations , which has been necessary for the understanding of their multiple @-@ step mechanism of action . Structural biology has therefore played a central role in the understanding of serpin function and biology .
= = Conformational change and inhibitory mechanism = =
Inhibitory serpins do not inhibit their target proteases by the typical competitive ( lock @-@ and @-@ key ) mechanism used by most small protease inhibitors ( e.g. Kunitz @-@ type inhibitors ) . Instead , serpins use an unusual conformational change , which disrupts the structure of the protease and prevents it from completing catalysis . The conformational change involves the RCL moving to the opposite end of the protein and inserting into β @-@ sheet A , forming an extra antiparallel β @-@ strand . This converts the serpin from a stressed state , to a lower @-@ energy relaxed state ( S to R transition ) .
Serine and cysteine proteases catalyse peptide bond cleavage by a two @-@ step process . Initially , the catalytic residue of the active site triad performs a nucleophilic attack on the peptide bond of the substrate . This releases the new N @-@ terminus and forms a covalent ester @-@ bond between the enzyme and the substrate . This covalent complex between enzyme and substrate is called an acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate . For standard substrates , the ester bond is hydrolysed and the new C @-@ terminus is released to complete catalysis . However , when a serpin is cleaved by a protease , it rapidly undergoes the S to R transition before the acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate is hydrolysed . The efficiency of inhibition depends on fact that the relative kinetic rate of the conformational change is several orders of magnitude faster than hydrolysis by the protease .
Since the RCL is still covalently attached to the protease via the ester bond , the S to R transition pulls protease from the top to the bottom of the serpin and distorts the catalytic triad . The distorted protease can only hydrolyse the acyl enzyme intermediate extremely slowly and so the protease remains covalently attached for days to weeks . Serpins are classed as irreversible inhibitors and as suicide inhibitors since each serpin protein permanently inactivates a single protease , and can only function once .
= = = Allosteric activation = = =
The conformational mobility of serpins provides a key advantage over static lock @-@ and @-@ key protease inhibitors . In particular , the function of inhibitory serpins can be regulated by allosteric interactions with specific cofactors . The X @-@ ray crystal structures of antithrombin , heparin cofactor II , MENT and murine antichymotrypsin reveal that these serpins adopt a conformation wherein the first two amino acids of the RCL are inserted into the top of the A β @-@ sheet . The partially inserted conformation is important because co @-@ factors are able to conformationally switch certain partially inserted serpins into a fully expelled form . This conformational rearrangement makes the serpin a more effective inhibitor .
The archetypal example of this situation is antithrombin , which circulates in plasma in a partially inserted relatively inactive state . The primary specificity determining residue ( the P1 arginine ) points toward the body of the serpin and is unavailable to the protease . Upon binding a high @-@ affinity pentasaccharide sequence within long @-@ chain heparin , antithrombin undergoes a conformational change , RCL expulsion , and exposure of the P1 arginine . The heparin pentasaccharide @-@ bound form of antithrombin is , thus , a more effective inhibitor of thrombin and factor Xa . Furthermore , both of these coagulation proteases also contain binding sites ( called exosites ) for heparin . Heparin , therefore , also acts as a template for binding of both protease and serpin , further dramatically accelerating the interaction between the two parties . After the initial interaction , the final serpin complex is formed and the heparin moiety is released . This interaction is physiologically important . For example , after injury to the blood vessel wall , heparin is exposed , and antithrombin is activated to control the clotting response . Understanding of the molecular basis of this interaction enabled the development of Fondaparinux , a synthetic form of Heparin pentasaccharide used as an anti @-@ clotting drug .
= = = Latent conformation = = =
Certain serpins spontaneously undergo the S to R transition without having been cleaved by a protease , to form a conformation termed the latent state . Latent serpins are unable to interact with proteases and so are no longer protease inhibitors . The conformational change to latency is not exactly the same as the S to R transition of a cleaved serpin . Since the RCL is still intact , the first strand of the C @-@ sheet has to peel off to allow full RCL insertion .
Regulation of the latency transition can act as a control mechanism in some serpins , such as PAI @-@ 1 . Although PAI @-@ 1 is produced in the inhibitory S conformation , it " auto @-@ inactivates " by changing to the latent state unless it is bound to the cofactor vitronectin . Similarly , antithrombin can also spontaneously convert to the latent state , as an additional modulation mechanism to its allosteric activation by heparin . Finally , the N @-@ terminus of tengpin , a serpin from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis , is required to lock the molecule in the native inhibitory state . Disruption of interactions made by the N @-@ terminal region results in spontaneous conformational change of this serpin to the latent conformation .
= = = Conformational change in non @-@ inhibitory functions = = =
Certain non @-@ inhibitory serpins also use the serpin conformational change as part of their function . For example , the native ( S ) form of thyroxine @-@ binding globulin has high affinity for thyroxine , whereas the cleaved ( R ) form has low affinity . Similarly , transcortin has higher affinity for cortisol when in its native ( S ) state , than its cleaved ( R ) state . Thus , in these serpins , RCL cleavage and the S to R transition has been commandeered to allow for ligand release , rather than protease inhibition .
In some serpins , the S to R transition can activate cell signalling events . In these cases , a serpin that has formed a complex with its target protease , is then recognised by a receptor . The binding event then leads to downstream signalling by the receptor . The S to R transition is therefore used to alert cells to the presence of protease activity . This differs from the usual mechanism whereby serpins affect signalling simply by inhibiting proteases involved in a signalling cascade .
= = Degradation = =
When a serpin inhibits a target protease , it forms a permanent complex , which needs to be disposed of . For extracellular serpins , the final serpin @-@ enzyme complexes are rapidly cleared from circulation . One mechanism by which this occurs in mammals is via the low @-@ density lipoprotein receptor @-@ related protein ( LRP ) , which binds to inhibitory complexes made by antithrombin , PA1 @-@ 1 , and neuroserpin , causing cellular uptake . Similarly , the Drosophila serpin , necrotic , is degraded in the lysosome after being trafficked into the cell by the Lipophorin Receptor @-@ 1 ( homologous to the mammalian LDL receptor family ) .
= = Disease and serpinopathies = =
Serpins are involved in a wide array of physiological functions , and so mutations in genes encoding them can cause a range of diseases . Mutations that change the activity , specificity or aggregation properties of serpins all affect how they function . The majority of serpin @-@ related diseases are the result of serpin polymerisation into aggregates , though several other types of disease @-@ linked mutations also occur . The disorder α @-@ Antitrypsin deficiency is one of the most common hereditary diseases .
= = = Inactivity or absence = = =
Since the stressed serpin fold is high @-@ energy , mutations can cause them to incorrectly change into their lower @-@ energy conformations ( e.g. relaxed or latent ) before they have correctly performed their inhibitory role .
Mutations that affect the rate or the extent of RCL insertion into the A @-@ sheet can cause the serpin to undergo its S to R conformational change before having engaged a protease . Since a serpin can only make this conformational change once , the resulting misfired serpin is inactive and unable to properly control its target protease . Similarly , mutations that promote inappropriate transition to the monomeric latent state cause disease by reducing the amount of active inhibitory serpin . For example , the disease @-@ linked antithrombin variants wibble and wobble , both promote formation of the latent state .
The structure of the disease @-@ linked mutant of antichymotrypsin ( L55P ) revealed another , inactive " δ @-@ conformation " . In the δ @-@ conformation , four residues of the RCL are inserted into the top of β @-@ sheet A. The bottom half of the sheet is filled as a result of one of the α @-@ helices ( the F @-@ helix ) partially switching to a β @-@ strand conformation , completing the β @-@ sheet hydrogen bonding . It is unclear whether other serpins can adopt this conformer , and whether this conformation has a functional role , but it is speculated that the δ @-@ conformation may be adopted by Thyroxine @-@ binding globulin during thyroxine release . The non @-@ inhibitory proteins related to serpins can also cause diseases when mutated . For example , mutations in SERPINF1 cause osteogenesis imperfecta type VI in humans .
In the absence of a required serpin , the protease that it normally would regulate is over @-@ active , leading to pathologies . Consequently , simple deficiency of a serpin ( e.g. a null mutation ) can result in disease . Gene knockouts , particularly in mice , are used experimentally to determine the normal functions of serpins by the effect of their absence .
= = = Specificity change = = =
In some rare cases , a single amino acid change in a serpin 's RCL alters its specificity to target the wrong protease . For example , the Antitrypsin @-@ Pittsburgh mutation ( M358R ) causes the α1 @-@ antitrypsin serpin to inhibit thrombin , causing a bleeding disorder .
= = = Polymerisation and aggregation = = =
The majority of serpin diseases are due to protein aggregation and are termed " serpinopathies " . Serpins are vulnerable to disease @-@ causing mutations that promote formation of misfolded polymers due to their inherently unstable structures . Well @-@ characterised serpinopathies include α1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency ( alpha @-@ 1 ) , which may cause familial emphysema and sometimes liver cirrhosis , certain familial forms of thrombosis related to antithrombin deficiency , types 1 and 2 hereditary angioedema ( HAE ) related to deficiency of C1 @-@ inhibitor , and familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies ( FENIB ; a rare type of dementia caused by neuroserpin polymerisation ) .
Each monomer of the serpin aggregate exists in the inactive , relaxed conformation ( with the RCL inserted into the A @-@ sheet ) . The polymers are therefore hyperstable to temperature and unable to inhibit proteases . Serpinopathies therefore cause pathologies similarly to other proteopathies ( e.g. prion diseases ) via two main mechanisms . First , the lack of active serpin results in uncontrolled protease activity and tissue destruction . Second , the hyperstable polymers themselves clog up the endoplasmic reticulum of cells that synthesize serpins , eventually resulting in cell death and tissue damage . In the case of antitrypsin deficiency , antitrypsin polymers cause the death of liver cells , sometimes resulting in liver damage and cirrhosis . Within the cell , serpin polymers are slowly removed via degradation in the endoplasmic reticulum . However , the details of how serpin polymers cause cell death remains to be fully understood .
Physiological serpin polymers are thought to form via domain swapping events , where a segment of one serpin protein inserts into another . Domain @-@ swaps occur when mutations or environmental factors interfere with the final stages of serpin folding to the native state , causing high @-@ energy intermediates to misfold . Both dimer and trimer domain @-@ swap structures have been solved . In the dimer ( of antithrombin ) , the RCL and part of the A @-@ sheet incorporates into the A @-@ sheet of another serpin molecule . The domain @-@ swapped trimer ( of antitrypsin ) forms via the exchange of an entirely different region of the structure , the B @-@ sheet ( with each molecule 's RCL inserted into its own A @-@ sheet ) . It has also been proposed that serpins may form domain @-@ swaps by inserting the RCL of one protein into the A @-@ sheet of another ( A @-@ sheet polymerisation ) . These domain @-@ swapped dimer and trimer structures are though to be the building blocks of the disease @-@ causing polymer aggregates , but the exact mechanism is still unclear .
= = = = Therapeutic strategies = = = =
Several therapeutic approaches are in use or under investigation to treat the most common serpinopathy : antitrypsin deficiency . Antitrypsin augmentation therapy is approved for severe antitrypsin deficiency @-@ related pulmonary emphysema . In this therapy , antitrypsin is purified from the plasma of blood donors and administered intravenously ( first marketed as Prolastin ) . To treat severe antitrypsin deficiency @-@ related disease , lung and liver transplantation has proven effective . In animal models , gene targeting in induced pluripotent stem cells has been successfully used to correct an antitrypsin polymerisation defect and to restore the ability of the mammalian liver to secrete active antitrypsin . Small molecules have also been developed that block antitrypsin polymerisation in vitro .
= = Evolution = =
Serpins are the most widely distributed and largest superfamily of protease inhibitors . They were initially believed to be restricted to eukaryote organisms , but have since been found in bacteria , archaea and some viruses . It remains unclear whether prokaryote genes are the descendants of an ancestral prokaryotic serpin or the product of horizontal gene transfer from eukaryotes . Most intracellular serpins belong to a single phylogenetic clade , whether they come from plants or animals , indicating that the intracellular and extracellular serpins may have diverged before the plants and animals . Exceptions include the intracellular heat shock serpin HSP47 , which is a chaperone essential for proper folding of collagen , and cycles between the cis @-@ Golgi and the endoplasmic reticulum .
Protease @-@ inhibition is thought to be the ancestral function , with non @-@ inhibitory members the results of evolutionary neofunctionalisation of the structure . The S to R conformational change has also been adapted by some binding serpins to regulate affinity for their targets .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Animal = = =
= = = = Human = = = =
The human genome encodes 16 serpin clades , termed serpinA through serpinP , including 29 inhibitory and 7 non @-@ inhibitory serpin proteins . The human serpin naming system is based upon a phylogenetic analysis of approximately 500 serpins from 2001 , with proteins named serpinXY , where X is the clade of the protein and Y the number of the protein within that clade . The functions of human serpins have been determined by a combination of biochemical studies , human genetic disorders , and knockout mouse models .
= = = = Specialised mammalian serpins = = = =
Many mammalian serpins have been identified that share no obvious orthology with a human serpin counterpart . Examples include numerous rodent serpins ( particularly some of the murine intracellular serpins ) as well as the uterine serpins . The term uterine serpin refers to members of the serpin A clade that are encoded by the SERPINA14 gene . Uterine serpins are produced by the endometrium of a restricted group of mammals in the Laurasiatheria clade under the influence of progesterone or estrogen . They are probably not functional proteinase inhibitors and may function during pregnancy to inhibit maternal immune responses against the conceptus or to participate in transplacental transport .
= = = Insect = = =
The Drosophila melanogaster genome contains 29 serpin encoding genes . Amino acid sequence analysis has placed 14 of these serpins in serpin clade Q and three in serpin clade K with the remaining twelve classified as orphan serpins not belonging to any clade . The clade classification system is difficult to use for Drosophila serpins and instead a nomenclature system has been adopted that is based on the position of serpin genes on the Drosophila chromosomes . Thirteen of the Drosophila serpins occur as isolated genes in the genome ( including Serpin @-@ 27A , see below ) , with the remaining 16 organised into five gene clusters that occur at chromosome positions 28D ( 2 serpins ) , 42D ( 5 serpins ) , 43A ( 4 serpins ) , 77B ( 3 serpins ) and 88E ( 2 serpins ) .
Studies on Drosophila serpins reveal that Serpin @-@ 27A inhibits the Easter protease ( the final protease in the Nudel , Gastrulation Defective , Snake and Easter proteolytic cascade ) and thus controls dorsoventral patterning . Easter functions to cleave Spätzle ( a chemokine @-@ type ligand ) , which results in toll @-@ mediated signaling . As well as its central role in embryonic patterning , toll signaling is also important for the innate immune response in insects . Accordingly , serpin @-@ 27A also functions to control the insect immune response . In Tenebrio molitor ( a large beetle ) , a protein ( SPN93 ) comprising two discrete tandem serpin domains functions to regulate the toll proteolytic cascade .
= = = Nematode = = =
The genome of the nematode worm C. elegans contains 9 serpins , all of which lack signal sequences and so are likely intracellular . However , only 5 of these serpins appear to function as protease inhibitors . One , SRP @-@ 6 , performs a protective function and guards against stress @-@ induced calpain @-@ associated lysosomal disruption . Further , SRP @-@ 6 inhibits lysosomal cysteine proteases released after lysosomal rupture . Accordingly , worms lacking SRP @-@ 6 are sensitive to stress . Most notably , SRP @-@ 6 knockout worms die when placed in water ( the hypo @-@ osmotic stress lethal phenotype or Osl ) . It has therefore been suggested that lysosomes play a general and controllable role in determining cell fate .
= = = Plant = = =
Plant serpins were amongst the first members of the superfamily that were identified . The serpin barley protein Z is highly abundant in barley grain , and one of the major protein components in beer . The genome of the model plant , Arabidopsis thaliana contain 18 serpin @-@ like genes , although only 8 of these are full @-@ length serpin sequences .
Plant serpins are potent inhibitors of mammalian chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases in vitro , the best @-@ studied example being barley serpin Zx ( BSZx ) , which is able to inhibit trypsin and chymotrypsin as well as several blood coagulation factors . However , close relatives of chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases are absent in plants . The RCL of several serpins from wheat grain and rye contain poly @-@ Q repeat sequences similar to those present in the prolamin storage proteins of the endosperm . It has therefore been suggested that plant serpins may function to inhibit proteases from insects or microbes that would otherwise digest grain storage proteins . In support of this hypothesis , specific plant serpins have been identified in the phloem sap of pumpkin ( CmPS @-@ 1 ) and cucumber plants . Although an inverse correlation between up @-@ regulation of CmPS @-@ 1 expression and aphid survival was observed , in vitro feeding experiments revealed that recombinant CmPS @-@ 1 did not appear to affect insect survival .
Alternative roles and protease targets for plant serpins have been proposed . The Arabidopsis serpin , AtSerpin1 ( At1g47710 ; 3LE2 ) , mediates set @-@ point control over programmed cell death by targeting the ' Responsive to Desiccation @-@ 21 ' ( RD21 ) papain @-@ like cysteine protease . AtSerpin1 also inhibits metacaspase @-@ like proteases in vitro . Two other Arabidopsis serpins , AtSRP2 ( At2g14540 ) and AtSRP3 ( At1g64030 ) appear to be involved in responses to DNA damage .
= = = Fungal = = =
A single fungal serpin has been characterized to date : celpin from Piromyces spp. strain E2 . Piromyces is a genus of anaerobic fungi found in the gut of ruminants and is important for digesting plant material . Celpin is predicted to be inhibitory and contains two N @-@ terminal dockerin domains in addition to its serpin domain . Dockerins are commonly found in proteins that localise to the fungal cellulosome , a large extracellular multiprotein complex that breaks down cellulose . It is therefore suggested that celpin may protect the cellulosome against plant proteases . Certain bacterial serpins similarly localize to the cellulosome .
= = = Prokaryotic = = =
Predicted serpin genes are sporadically distributed in prokaryotes . In vitro studies on some of these molecules have revealed that they are able to inhibit proteases , and it is suggested that they function as inhibitors in vivo . Several prokaryote serpins are found in extremophiles . Accordingly , and in contrast to mammalian serpins , these molecules possess elevated resistance to heat denaturation . The precise role of most bacterial serpins remains obscure , although Clostridium thermocellum serpin localises to the cellulosome . It is suggested that the role of cellulosome @-@ associated serpins may be to prevent unwanted protease activity against the cellulosome .
= = = Viral = = =
Serpins are also expressed by viruses as a way to evade the host 's immune defense . In particular , serpins expressed by pox viruses , including cow pox ( vaccinia ) and rabbit pox ( myxoma ) , are of interest because of their potential use as novel therapeutics for immune and inflammatory disorders as well as transplant therapy . Serp1 suppresses the TLR @-@ mediated innate immune response and allows indefinite cardiac allograft survival in rats . Crma and Serp2 are both cross @-@ class inhibitors and target both serine ( granzyme B ; albeit weakly ) and cysteine proteases ( caspase 1 and caspase 8 ) . In comparison to their mammalian counterparts , viral serpins contain significant deletions of elements of secondary structure . Specifically , crmA lacks the D @-@ helix as well as significant portions of the A- and E @-@ helices .
= Crown Duel =
Crown Duel is a 2002 young adult fantasy novel written by American author Sherwood Smith , originally published as two separate books , Crown Duel ( 1997 ) and Court Duel ( 1998 ) . Both stories take place in the fictional land of Sartorias @-@ deles , a fantasy world Smith has written about since her youth . The first book follows the adventures of young Countess Meliara " Mel " Astiar of Tlanth as she and her small group of forces rebel against the greed of King Galdran ; along the way the mysterious Marquis of Shevraeth aids her , though she distrusts him . With the king now dead , the second part focuses on Mel 's journey to the court in Remalna @-@ city , where she must navigate court intrigues surrounding Shevraeth 's rise to power as king . In 2008 Smith also published a prequel about Shevraeth : A Stranger to Command .
Smith invented Sartorias @-@ deles as a fantasy world that gradually became populated by humans over a number of centuries ; these new arrivals were influenced by the world 's indigenous beings enough to better themselves , largely eradicating societal problems like disease and overpopulation . She originally wrote Crown Duel as a twenty @-@ year @-@ old , and when she returned to rewrite the story later in life , she sought to maintain the story from Mel 's young perspective . As a result , the novel 's intended audience are young adults . As Smith 's most popular YA novel , both parts of Crown Duel received generally positive reviews . Reviews of the 1997 publication of Crown Duel highlight the character of Mel and Smith 's worldbuilding as positive elements . Critics assessed Court Duel as generally the lesser of the two .
= = Background and development = =
While Sherwood Smith originally wrote Crown Duel as two separate books entitled Crown Duel ( 1997 ) and Court Duel ( 1998 ) , she considered them as " one story . " Both novels explore the fictional land of Sartorias @-@ deles , the world she has been writing about since her youth . Smith grew up wondering why " [ her surroundings were ] the way [ they were ] " for instance observing , " Why were the cities so clean , I wondered when I was a kid . I knew about sewers , etc . Why is it safe to drink from a stream there , and not here ? " . She conceived Sartorias @-@ deles as a world where , over the course of several centuries , humans of many different races entered through " worldgates " and were influenced by the culture of its indigenous beings . According to Smith , while her invented world was not perfect , it contains fewer problems than Earth has endured , such as disease and overpopulation . She wrote ,
" basically , the indigenous life forms , appalled by these things that came through and started multiplying and spreading out , carrying their diseases and wars , tried to fix things for the humans ... Their history is not all happy , it 's very strange , and humans still have many human problems , but in other ways they are somewhat different from [ Earth ] . "
According to Smith , Sartorias @-@ deles most resembles New Zealand . Smith 's stories set in the world of Sartorias @-@ deles have " focuse [ d on ] a generation of kids with remarkable abilities who are born into extraordinary times . " Meliara ( " Mel " ) is the protagonist of Crown Duel , which is set in the fictional country of Remalna . Remalna 's human population lives alongside the mysterious Hill Folk , sentient beings that reside in the land 's forests and with whom Mel has a special affinity . Smith wrote the first part as a twenty @-@ year @-@ old , and sought to keep it set in Mel 's teenage point of view when typing it out as someone older than forty . Smith describes the stories ' primary audience as " middle grade or YA , because I was young and writing from the kid 's eye view . " At the same time , she made some changes to the original story based on her experience , such as providing motivations for the adult characters and " nail [ ing ] down place and time more thoroughly than I did . " When Smith learned as a teenager that " anyone could write a book , " she tried to write stories that would please potential publishers , as she assumed that they would never approve of " real stuff " like Crown Duel . Several decades before Crown Duel 's release , Smith " began the laborious process of consolidating " her notes on Sartorias @-@ deles . As part of her development of the novel , she drew inspiration from European history ; for example , details like the novel 's fan language and changing fashions were inspired by the fashions at the Palace of Versailles court of Louis XIV of France .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Part One – Crown Duel = = =
The novel begins in the fictional country of Remalna in Sartorias @-@ deles , where seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Countess Meliara " Mel " Astiar of Tlanth makes an oath to her dying father . She swears in that oath that she and her older brother Count Branaric " Bran " ( 21 ) will defend their people from the growing greed of King Galdran . Galdran covets the Tlanth lands for his cruel cousin , Baron Nenthar Debegri , and also seeks to break the Covenant – an ancient pact between humans and the Hill Folk – by resuming the harvest of their valuable " colorwoods " . When Mel and Bran learn of these plans , they feel compelled to fulfill their promise and enter into a war ill @-@ prepared and severely outnumbered .
Debegri attempts to subdue Tlanth under the pretense of unpaid taxes and for conspiring to break the Covenant . Mel and Bran and their small group of forces – mostly farmers and tradespeople – initially succeed at foiling Debegari with guerilla tactics , such as blockading a stream to flood the enemy 's camp . However , the war changes for the worse when the capable Marquis of Shevraeth ( 25 ) , the heir to the nearby principality of Renselaeus , takes command from Debegari . Shevraeth soon captures Mel and takes her to the capitol of Remalna @-@ city , imprisoning her . Shevraeth tells her that the king orders her to surrender Tlanth 's forces or face execution . Mel refuses , and soon escapes imprisonment with the help of their family spy , Azmus .
Mel tries to return to Tlanth , with Debegri , Shevraeth and ( ostensibly ) his cousin the Duke of Savona in pursuit . Along the way people of the countryside assist her , but Debegri eventually captures Mel , furious about the months of trouble she caused . Taken to Debegri 's nearby fortress , Shevraeth unexpectedly frees her and takes her to Renselaeus where she finds Bran . Shevraeth and his father reveal that they had been secretly fighting Galdran for years , wish to form an alliance with the Astiars , and plan for Shevraeth to take the throne . However , Mel refuses their help still deeply distrustful of Shevraeth and thinking of the promise made by Bran herself to their father : to become Remalna 's rulers . Mel also thinks of Shevraeth as insincere , having been taught by her father to distrust of anyone who resides at court .
On the journey back to Tlanth , unknown forces assault Mel and Bran , and , believing her brother dead , Mel escapes to continue on alone . She thinks that Shevraeth betrayed her , and begins rallying her forces to attack him . Recognizing the misunderstanding , Shevraeth responds by using hostages to force Mel to surrender and brings her to her brother , injured but alive . Soon Shevraeth openly opposes King Galdran , and accompanies the Astiars to fight the royal forces . They kill Galdran , ending the war and creating opportunity for a change in power in Remalna . Bran , who has gradually befriended Shevraeth , goes to court with him while Mel returns to Tlanth .
= = = Part Two – Court Duel = = =
Victorious after defeating the King in the war , Meliara returns to Tlanth to improve its dilapidated castle with the family 's new riches . One day , Bran visits her , accompanied by his new fiance Lady Nimiar Argaliar and the Marquis of Shevraeth , who is preparing to take the throne of Remalna . Now accustomed to the fine fashions of court , Bran expresses dismay at finding Mel dressed in old clothes - she never before cared about her appearance . Mel becomes shy and embarrassed about her lack of courtly finesse and grace , and avoids the visitors , especially Shevraeth , who she fears looks down on her . Nimiar convinces Mel to return with them to court , and begins to teach her the essential of life there , including its customs , clothing styles , and hand fan language .
Once in Remalna @-@ city , Mel finds herself popular in part because of her now legendary rebellion against the unpopular King Galdran . She acquires many male admirers , and is friendly but dismissive towards their romantic attentions . Mel avoids Shevraeth when possible , though when she often unexpectedly encounters him , Mel fights to remain cordial while he remains inscrutable but polite . Meanwhile , Galdran 's sister , the Marquise of Merindar , attempts to manipulate Mel into distracting Shevraeth from her covert plans to take the throne for herself , though this is largely unsuccessful .
While at court , Mel begins exchanging letters and tokens with a secret admirer . She gradually opens up her feelings of ignorance and being out of her depth at court ; they also discuss court politics and academic subjects , with her admirer offering advice and encouragement about her growing knowledge . Meanwhile , Mel meets Merindar 's reclusive son Flauvic and pursues a brief relationship with him before realizing that she has no real feelings for him . Through this relationship experience , she begins to realize her exchange of letters has become a courtship , though she does not know her admirer 's identity .
Mel learns from her spy Azmus that northern mercenaries have been seen near the border – allies of the Marquise of Merindar – and that other allied forces are planning on eradicating the Hill Folk to take their colorwoods for payment . Mel sends Azmus to tell Shevraeth and rides out to warn the Hill Folk , but is shocked to encounter Shevraeth already on the road . Initially , he assumes she is plotting with Merindar against him , but lets her go when she tells him about the plans against the Hill Folk . An outnumbered Mel bravely tries to stop a group of mercenaries marching towards nearby forests , and is only saved by forces sent by Shevraeth . The Hill Folk now safe , Mel returns to Shevraeth , where she learns that he successfully put down Merindar 's revolt . She also learns that he has been her secret admirer . After finally calling him by his first name , Vidanric , they kiss . The two return to Remalna @-@ city , and find that Flauvic has secretly bewitched the entire capitol . As Flauvic prepares to complete his victory , the Hill Folk come to Mel 's rescue and turn him into a tree . With the realm now secure , Shevraeth and Mel marry and are crowned as king and queen .
= = Style and genre = =
Crown Duel has been labeled a coming @-@ of @-@ age story . According to The ALAN Review , Mel 's " journey from captivity to freedom parallels her coming of age , " in which she " comes to realize that she has led a very sheltered life and that people are often not what they seem . " This teenage perspective affects how the reader views the novel 's events – Smith has commented that if she " see [ s ] a story from a kid 's eye view , then what shapes that story is how kids look at the world . " In Brigham Young University 's Children 's Book and Play Review , Leah Hanson wrote that as a result , " we view the happenings at court with her same confusion and suspicion . " Writing for the same publication , Lillian H. Heil added that " the reader learns to expect that she will plunge into every situation with minimal thought about the consequences . "
Crown Duel deviates from the typical rebellion story by treating its success as another problem to be dealt with . Comparing this to the George Orwell story Animal Farm , Leigh Kimmel wrote that by defeating " the wicked king at midpoint , the second half involv [ es ] court intrigues of the provisional government as the next king is decided upon , " thus increasing the challenges for the protagonist . Rather than face armies and weapons , Mel must contend with a court where " war is just as intense and bewildering as on the battlefield--except swords have been traded for fans and armor discarded for elaborate dresses . "
= = Publication = =
In the United States , Harcourt published Crown Duel in April 1997 , and followed it with a sequel , Court Duel , in March of the following year . According to Smith , this split was made because her original novel was " already ' too long ' for production costs . " Firebird Books combined the two into one edition , also entitled Crown Duel , in 2002 . Rich Horton , writing in Locus magazine , attributes this republication to the growing popularity of YA fantasy , as writers and publishers observed the success of Harry Potter and other fantasy stories .
In 2008 , Smith released a prequel to Crown Duel entitled A Stranger to Command , which follows the Marquis of Shevraeth 's early life learning military command . In 2010 , Book View Cafe released another edition of Crown Duel as an e @-@ book , which combined the two main stories in tandem with a new short story entitled " Vidanric 's Birthday Surprise , " in addition to six scenes from Vidanric 's point of view .
= = Reception = =
Jim C. Hines , co @-@ editor of the fantasy anthology Heroes in Training , considers the combined volume of Crown Duel to be Smith 's most popular YA book . Reviews for the first 1997 edition of Crown Duel have been generally positive , with reviewers highlighting Smith 's worldbuilding ability and Mel 's worthiness as a protagonist . Booklist reviewer Carolyn Phelan stated that Smith " tells a fast @-@ moving tale of adventure , intrigue , and honor , with Mel a likable heroine and a lively narrator . " Phelan added that " characters and setting are well realized , but the novel seems plot driven from its midpoint almost to the book 's end . " Lillian H. Heil of Brigham Young University also found favor with the novel 's heroine , noting in her review that Mel 's " fortitude in the face of enormous difficulties , her willingness to admit her mistakes , and her concern for others make her an appealing , if stubborn , young woman . " Author Jo Walton , contributing to Tor.com , wrote that the first book " has a fairly predictable plot , " but a " terrific YA heroine " redeems its flaws . Walton thought that the story drew strength from its teenage perspective , because " we get immersed in the world and the problems of the world and see [ Mel ] grow up from the inside , in the best traditions of YA fiction . "
In another review of the first book , Publishers Weekly noted that Smith " create [ s ] a fantasy world fit for the most discriminating medieval partisan . It cleverly walks just this side of parody , getting away with lines like , ' I wished I could personally flout him and his busy searchers , and make him look the fool he was . ' " In a similar vein , Kirkus Reviews praised the first novel as " Smith 's lush descriptions evoke a fantastic yet credible world , where magic spells and enchanted stones are everyday facts of life . " M. Jean Greenlaw , contributing to The ALAN Review , lauded Smith for her " language and imagery " as well as " her deft plotting [ to ] keep the reader glued to the pages . " Writing for the School Library Journal , Patricia Lothrop @-@ Green , however , gave a largely negative review to the first part , highlighting " huge logical leaps , " an " utterly predictable plot , " and a heroine whom " many readers will be thoroughly tired of " by the end of the story .
Reviewers generally have found less to favor in Smith 's second book , Court Duel , though reviews have still been mainly positive . It was noted by Carolyn Phelan of Booklist to be " different in setting , structure , and tone " from its predecessor , who added that " readers who loved Crown Duel for its strongly realized fantasy world , adventurous characters , and scenes of action may find the sequel disappointing , " though she found Meliara to be " as compelling as ever . " Ruth Cox of Emergency Librarian observed " a flicker of the love / hate relationship often found in adult romance novels between Meliara and Shevraeth . " Contributing to Brigham Young 's Children 's Book and Play Review , Leah Hanson called the second part " fast paced and intriguing , " and said it could " stand on its own as an enthralling story . " Jo Walton believed that the second story 's changing fashions and fan customs were " done very well , " and added that the court 's culture of terror felt real . She opined that " Mel 's eruption into their midst has in it something of the stranger coming to Versailles , and it 's fascinating , " but called " Mel 's continued obliviousness to the identity of her mysterious Unknown correspondent " " slightly implausible . " Walton concluded that the combined volume Crown Duel is " a charming book with a solid background and a great first person voice . Give it to your twelve year old friends , and read it with your inner twelve @-@ year @-@ old eyes . " The publication Voice of Youth Advocates included Crown Duel in its list of " fantasy for people who don 't like fantasy , " and wrote that the novel " ha [ s ] few fantastical creatures , and readers will relate easily to the main characters . "
= British airborne operations in North Africa =
The British airborne operations in North Africa were conducted by British paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Brigade , commanded by Brigadier Edwin Flavell , as part of the Tunisia Campaign of World War II , over the period between November 1942 and April 1943 .
When planning began for Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa in 1942 , it was decided to attach the 1st Parachute Brigade , part of the 1st Airborne Division , to the Allied forces taking part , as an American airborne unit , the 2nd Battalion , 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment , was also to be used during the invasion . After a short period of training and being brought up to operational strength , mainly with men from the 2nd Parachute Brigade , the brigade was deployed to North Africa in November 1942 .
Units from the brigade dropped near Bône on 12 November , then near Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja on 13 November , and at Pont Du Fahs on 29 November , seizing airfields , fighting as infantry after each action and linking up with an Allied armoured force , supporting it until December . Due to the inability of units of the British First Army to link up with the Pont Du Fahs force , the 2nd Parachute Battalion , under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost , was forced to retreat over fifty miles towards the nearest Allied units ; it was attacked several times during the retreat , and although it reached Allied lines safely it had taken more than 250 casualties .
For the next four months the 1st Parachute Brigade was used in a ground role , serving under several formations and advancing with Allied ground forces ; it suffered heavy casualties on several occasions but also took large numbers of Axis prisoners . The brigade was transferred out of the front in mid @-@ April 1943 and left to rejoin the rest of the 1st Airborne Division to train for Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily .
= = Background = =
= = = Formation = = =
The German military was one of the pioneers of the use of airborne formations , conducting several successful airborne operations during the Battle of France in 1940 , including the Battle of Fort Eben @-@ Emael . Impressed by the success of German airborne operations , the Allied governments decided to form their own airborne formations . This decision would eventually lead to the creation of two British airborne divisions , as well as a number of smaller units . The British airborne establishment began development on 22 June 1940 , when the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office in a memorandum to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . Despite the Prime Minister 's desire to have 5 @,@ 000 airborne troops within a short period , a number of problems were rapidly encountered by the War Office . Very few military gliders existed in Britain in 1940 , and these were too light for military purposes , and there was also a shortage of suitable transport aircraft to tow gliders and carry paratroopers . On 10 August , Churchill was informed that although 3 @,@ 500 volunteers had been selected to train as airborne troops , only 500 could currently begin training because of limitations in equipment and aircraft . The War Office stated in a memorandum to the Prime Minister in December 1940 that 500 parachute troops could probably be trained and be ready for operations by the spring of 1941 , but this figure was purely arbitrary ; the actual number that could be trained and prepared by that period would rely entirely on the creation of a training establishment and the provision of required equipment .
A training establishment for parachute troops was set up at RAF Ringway , near Manchester , on 21 June 1940 and named the Central Landing Establishment , and the initial 500 volunteers began training for airborne operations . A number of gliders were being designed and constructed by the Royal Air Force , which had also provided a number of Armstrong Whitworth Whitley medium bombers for conversion into transport aircraft . Organizational plans were also being laid down , with the War Office calling for two parachute brigades to be operational by 1943 . However , the immediate development of any further airborne formations , as well as the initial 500 volunteers already training , was hampered by three problems . With the threat of invasion in 1940 , many War Office officials and senior British Army officers did not believe that sufficient men could be spared from the effort to the rebuild the Army after the Battle of France to create an effective airborne force ; many believed that such a force would only have a nuisance raiding value and would not affect the conflict in any useful way . There were also material problems ; all three of the armed services were expanding and rebuilding , particularly the Army , and British industry had not yet been organised to a sufficient war footing to support all three services as well as the fledgling airborne force . Finally , the airborne forces lacked a single , coherent policy , with no clear idea as to how they should be organised , or whether they should come under the command of the Army or the RAF ; inter organizational rivalry between the War Office and the Air Ministry , in charge of the RAF , was a major factor in delaying the further expansion of British airborne forces .
= = = Expansion = = =
However , despite these difficulties , by mid 1941 the fledgling airborne establishment was able to form the first British airborne unit . This was No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion , which numbered approximately 350 officers and other ranks , and had been formed by converting and retraining No. 2 Commando . On 10 February 1941 thirty eight men from the battalion conducted the first British airborne operation , Operation Colossus , a raid against an aqueduct in southern Italy ; it was hoped that the destruction of the aqueduct would deprive Italian civilian and military installations of their water supply , damage Italian morale and the Italian war effort in North Africa . The raid was a failure , with all but one of the airborne troops being captured by Italian military forces , but it did help provide the British airborne establishment with vital lessons for future operations . Shortly after the operation had been conducted , a memorandum was circulated through the War Office by the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Royal Air Force requiring that No. 11 Special Air Service Battalion be expanded into a Parachute Brigade . In July , after a period of discussion about the problems of creating such a formation , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff authorised the raising of a brigade headquarters , 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th Parachute Battalions and an air troop of sappers from the Royal Engineers . Given the title of 1st Parachute Brigade , volunteers from infantry units were recruited for the new formation from 31 August . Initially commanded by Brigadier Richard Nelson Gale , who was replaced in mid 1942 by Brigadier Edwin Flavell , the brigade began an extensive training regime , which included conducting trials and tests of new airborne equipment . On 10 October it was joined by 1 Airlanding Brigade , which had been formed from 31 Independent Brigade Group , a formation recently returned from India . This was shortly followed , on 29 October , by the formation of Headquarters 1st Airborne Division under the command of Brigadier F.A.M. Browning , who would have under his control 1st Parachute Brigade , 1st Airlanding Brigade , and the glider units currently training with the two brigades .
Browning was shortly after promoted to the rank of Major General , and he then supervised the newly formed division as it underwent a prolonged of expansion and intensive training , with new brigades being raised and then assigned to the division and even more new equipment being tested . By mid April 1942 the division was able to conduct a small scale airborne exercise for the benefit of the Prime Minister , in which twenty one transport aircraft and nine gliders participated , and by late December the division had been brought up to full strength . In mid September , as the division was coming close to reaching full strength , Browning was informed that Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , would take place in November . After being informed that the 2nd Battalion of the American 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment was to take part in the campaign , he argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised during the invasion , as the large distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations . The War Office and Commander in Chief , Home Forces were won over by the argument , and agreed to detach 1st Parachute Brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion . The Air Ministry was unable to provide transport aircraft or aircrews to operate with the brigade , so the United States Army Air Forces took over this responsibility , providing 60 Group of 51 Wing which flew Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . A practice drop was conducted with a unit from the brigade on 9 October , although a lack of American familiarity with British airborne equipment and parachuting technique , as well a lack of British familiarity with the Dakota , led to three men being killed ; this meant a delay in training whilst new techniques were developed , which in turn resulted in the majority of the brigade 's personnel travelling to North Africa without having conducted a training drop from a Dakota . After it had been brought to full operational strength , partly by cross posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade , and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources , the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November .
= = Bône = =
As an insufficient number of transport aircraft were allocated to the brigade , it was only possible to transport 3rd Parachute Battalion by air , with the battalion 's strength consisting of its headquarters staff and ' B ' and ' C ' companies . The battalion landed at Gibraltar at dawn on 10 November , and its commander , Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Pine Coffin , was informed that the battalion was scheduled to conduct an airborne operation the next day . Pine Coffin was briefed by Lt. Gen. Kenneth Anderson , commander of the British First Army , on the mission ; it was to take off from the airfield at Maison Blanche and conduct a parachute drop to capture an airfield near the port of Bône , which bordered both Tunisia and Algeria . It was known by Allied intelligence that a battalion of German Fallschirmjaeger were currently stationed at Tunis , and that they were likely to be given the same task ; as such , it was vital that the two companies capture the airfield first . Once this had been achieved , it would then hold the airfield until relieved by No. 6 Commando , which would conduct an amphibious landing , capture Bône itself and link up with the battalion . This was a challenging task for Pine Coffin , as the battalion had arrived in fewer Dakotas than it would need to conduct a parachute drop , and two aircraft had failed to arrive at Gibraltar ; however , sufficient aircraft were found and at 04 : 30 on 11 November they took off from Gibraltar , landing at Maison Blanche at 09 : 00 . However , since the American pilots flying the Dakotas had no experience with night drops , and locating drop zones in darkness was extremely difficult , it was decided to delay the mission until dawn on 12 November .
The day before the operation , Pine Coffin and his staff began to plan for the mission . The twenty nine Dakotas that were to transport the battalion would take off from Maison Blanche and follow the coast until they reached the harbour at Bône . The leading Dakota would then turn south east and fly low over the airfield to ascertain its status . If it was unoccupied the paratroopers would be dropped onto the airfield , but if the Fallschirmjaeger were present then the Dakotas would drop the companies a mile away ; there they would form up and launch an attack on the airfield . The planning was completed by 16 : 30 , and at 20 : 00 the American pilots were briefed on the operation , which was briefly interrupted when a German aircraft flew over the area and dropped a stick of bombs . The aircraft took off at 08 : 30 the next day and experienced an uneventful flight to the airfield , although two aircraft experienced mechanical problems and ditched into the ocean , causing three casualties . The lead Dakota flew over the airfield , and after observing the airfield to be unoccupied , dropped its paratroopers , followed in succession by the remaining transport aircraft . The drop was reasonably accurate , with a few containers and paratroopers being dropped three miles from the airfield . Thirteen men were injured during the drop , primarily when they landed , and one was killed when he accidentally shot himself with his Sten gun . One officer was knocked unconscious during landing and remained so for the next four days , on occasion being heard to murmur " I 'll have a little more of the turbot , waiter ! " . Unknown to the British force , their drop had been observed by a flight of German Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft , carrying the battalion of Fallschirmjaegers ; having seen that the airfield was already occupied , the aircraft turned back towards Tunis . When it had secured the airfield , the battalion came under attack from Stuka divebombers , and was initially defenceless . However , once No.6 Commando had secured Bône a number of Oerlikon anti aircraft guns were salvaged from sunken vessels in the port 's harbour and these , in combination with a squadron of Spitfires that arrived on the evening of 11 November , were used to fend off future attacks . The battalion held the airfield in conjunction with No.6 Commando until 15 November , when it withdrew and linked up with ' A ' Company and the rest of 1st Parachute Brigade at Maison Blanche .
= = Béja and Souk el Arba = =
1st Parachute Brigade , less 3rd Parachute Battalion , arrived at Algiers on 12 November , with some of its stores arriving slightly later . By the evening , reconnaissance parties had travelled to the airfield at Maison Blanche , with the remainder of the brigade following on the morning of 13 November ; it was quartered in Maison Blanche , Maison @-@ Carrée and Rouiba . On the same day , the brigade was joined by 2nd Battalion of the American 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment , which was forthwith attached to the brigade ; the battalion had arrived in North Africa on 8 November , and been supporting the advance of the United States Fifth Army . The original intentions of Lieutenant General Kenneth Anderson , commander of the British First Army , had been to have the brigade , minus 3rd Parachute Battalion , conduct a parachute drop against the port of Tunis , approximately five hundred miles behind German lines . The brigade had been issued with briefing materials for the operation , which it studied as it sailed to North Africa , but the plan had been abandoned by the time it arrived ; Allied intelligence reported that between 7 @,@ 000 10 @,@ 000 German troops had recently been airlanded in Tunis , which ensured that an airborne operation out of the question . With this ambitious plan cancelled , on 14 November First Army directed that a single parachute battalion would be dropped the next day near Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja ; the battalion was to contact French forces at Beja to ascertain whether they would remain neutral , or support the Allies ; secure and guard the cross roads and airfield at Soul el Arba ; and patrol eastwards to harass German forces . The 2nd Battalion of the 509th PIR would drop at the same time , with the objective of capturing the airfields at Tebessa and Youks el @-@ Bain . 1st Parachute Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Hill , was selected for the task , to which Hill objected . The battalion had been forced to unload the vessel carrying its supplies and equipment itself , and had also to arrange its own transportation to Maison Blanche as no drivers were provided at Algiers ; when it had arrived at Maison Blanche , it had been subjected to several Luftwaffe air raids that targeted the airfield . Hill argued that as a result his men were exhausted , and he did not believe all of the battalion 's equipment could be sorted out within twenty four hours ; as such he asked for the operation to be postponed for a short period , but this was denied .
Hill faced further problems as he planned for the operation . The American pilots of the Dakota transport aircraft that would transport the battalion were inexperienced and had never conducted a parachute drop before , and there was no time for any training or exercises . There was also no photos of the airfield or the surrounding areas , and only a single , small scale map available for navigation . To ensure that the aircraft found the drop zone and delivered the battalion accurately , Hill decided that he would sit in the cockpit of the leading Dakota and assist the pilot . Despite the battalion 's parachutes only arriving at 16 : 30 on 14 November , and were packed twelve to a container which meant they had to be removed and individually repacked , the battalion was prepared by 15 November and took off at 07 : 30 . The Dakotas were escorted by four American P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters , which engaged and drove off two roving German fighters , but as the Dakotas approached the Tunisian border , they encountered thick clouds and were forced to turn back , landing at Maison Blanche at 11 : 00 . It was decided that the battalion would conduct the operation the next day , which allowed the paratroopers to rest for a night . At the same time , 2nd Battalion of the 509th PIR successfully conducted a drop at Tebessa , capturing its objectives and securing the area ; it then passed from the control of 1st Parachute Brigade and remained in the area for some time . 1st Parachute Battalion took off on the morning of 16 November , and encountered excellent weather which allowed the transport aircraft to drop the battalion accurately around the airfield at Souk el Arba . Most of the paratroopers landed successfully , but one man was killed when his rigging line twisted around his neck mid drop , throttling him ; one officer broke his leg on landing , and four men were wounded when a Sten gun was accidentally fired . The battalion 's second in command , Major Pearson , remained at the airfield with a small detachment which collected airborne equipment and supervised the burial of the casualty .
Meanwhile , Lieutenant Colonel Hill led the rest of the battalion , approximately 525 strong , in some commandeered trucks towards the town of Béja , an important road and railway centre approximately forty miles from the airfield . The battalion arrived around 18 : 00 and was welcomed by the local French garrison , 3 @,@ 000 strong , which Hill managed to persuaded to cooperate with the paratroopers ; in order to give the garrison and any German observers the impression that he possessed a larger force than he actually did , Hill arranged for the battalion to march through the town several times , wearing different headgear and holding different equipment each time . A short time after the battalion entered Béja , several German aircraft arrived and bombed the town , although they caused little damage and no casualties . The next day , ' S ' Company was sent with a detachment of engineers to the village of Sidi N 'Sir , about twenty miles away ; they were to contact the local French forces , believed to be pro British , and harass German forces . The detachment found the village and made contact with the French , who allowed them to pass through towards the town of Mateur ; by nightfall the force had not reached the town , and decided to encamp for the night . At dawn a German convoy of armoured cars passed the detachment , and it was decided to set an ambush for the convoy if it returned , with anti @-@ tank mines being laid on the road and a mortar and Bren guns being set up in concealed positions . When the convoy returned at approximately 10 : 00 the leading vehicle struck a mine and exploded , blocking the road , and the other vehicles were disabled with mortar fire , Gammon bombs and the remaining anti tank mines . A number of Germans were killed and the rest taken prisoner , with two paratroopers being slightly wounded . The detachment returned to Béja with prisoners and several slightly damaged armoured cars . After the success of the ambush , Hill sent a second patrol to harass local German forces , but it was withdrawn after it encountered a larger German force that inflicted several British casualties ; Béja was also bombed by Stuka divebombers , inflicting civilian casualties and destroying a number of houses .
On 19 November , Hill visited the commanding officer of the French forces guarding a vital bridge at Medjez el Bab , and warned him that any attempt by German forces to cross the bridge would be opposed by the battalion . Hill attached ' R ' Company to the French forces to ensure the bridge was not captured . German forces soon arrived at the bridge , and their commanding officer demanded that they be allowed to take control of the bridge and cross it to attack the British positions . The French rejected the German demands , and in conjunction with ' R ' Company repelled subsequent German attacks that lasted several hours . The battalion was reinforced with the American 175th Field Artillery Battalion and elements of the Derbyshire Yeomanry , but despite fierce resistance the German forces proved to be too strong , and by 04 : 30 on 20 November the Allied forces had yielded the bridge and the surrounding area to the Germans . Two days later , Hill received information that a strong Italian force , which included a number of tanks , was stationed at Gue Hill . Hill decided to attack the force and attempt to disable the tanks , and the following night moved the battalion , less a small guard detachment which remained at Béja , to Sidi N 'Sir where it linked up with a force of French Senegalese infantry . Hill decided that the battalion 's section of 3 inch mortars would cover ' R ' and ' S ' Companies as they advanced up Gue Hill and attacked the Italian force , while a small force of sappers would mine the road at the rear of the hill to ensure the Italian tanks could not retreat .
The battalion arrived at the hill without incident and began to prepare for the attack ; however , just prior to the beginning of the attack there were several loud explosions from the rear of the hill . The anti tank grenades carried by the sappers had accidentally detonated , killing all but two of them . The battalion lost the element of surprise , and Hill immediately ordered the two companies to advance up the hill . The force reached the top of the hill and engaged a mixed force of German and Italian soldiers , who were assisted by three Italian light tanks . Hill drew his revolver , and with his adjutant and a small group of paratroopers advanced on the tanks , firing shots through their observation ports in an attempt to persuade the crews to surrender . The tactic worked on two tanks , but upon reaching the third tank Hill and his men were fired upon by the tanks crew ; Hill was shot three times in the chest and his adjutant wounded , and the tank crew swiftly dispatched with small arms fire . Hill survived because of prompt medical treatment , and was replaced as commander of the battalion by Major Pearson , who supervised the routing of the rest of the German and Italian soldiers . Two days later the battalion moved from Beja to an area south of Mateur , where it linked up with Allied ground forces and came under the command of an armoured regimental group known as ' Blade Force ' ; the battalion remained in the area in conjunction with ' Blade Force ' until it was withdrawn on 11 December .
= = Depienne and Oudna = =
On 18 November , 1st Parachute Brigade was ordered by British First Army to prepare 2nd Parachute Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Frost , to drop near the coastal city of Sousse in order to deny the nearby port and airfield to the Axis . There being a limited number of transport aircraft available to the brigade , it was decided that two companies would take off from Maison Blanche at 11 : 00 on 19 November , with the remainder of the battalion following the next day ; the length of the operation was estimated to be ten days . However , the operation was delayed for twenty four hours on 18 November , and again on 19 November for a further period ; during this period , 3rd Parachute Battalion arrived at Maison Blanche , which was itself subjected to several Axis air raids which inflicted several casualties on the airborne troops and damaged several aircraft . Finally on 27 November the brigade was ordered to prepare 2nd Parachute Battalion for a parachute drop near the town of Pont du Fahs , in order to deny its use to the Axis ; it would also raid airfields at Depienne and Oudna in order to destroy any enemy aircraft stationed there . The battalion would then link up with ground forces from the British First Army , who would be advancing towards the battalion 's position at the time of the parachute drop . At 23 : 00 on 27 November the operation was delayed for 48 hours , and on the night of 28 November the brigade was informed that Pont du Fahs had been occupied by advance elements of 78th Infantry Division . Despite this , and difficulties in procuring aerial photographs of the proposed landing zones , the brigade was ordered to have 2nd Battalion drop at the airfield at Depienne ; the battalion was to destroy all aircraft stationed there and at the Oudna airfield , spread ' fear and despondency ' amongst nearby Axis troops , and then link up with ground forces from British First Army advancing towards Tunis .
On the morning of 29 November , the 530 strong battalion boarded 44 transport aircraft and took off , bound for Oudna . Because there had been insufficient time to conduct an aerial reconnaissance of the airfield , Lieutenant Colonel Frost was forced to choose a landing zone for the battalion from his position in the lead aircraft , fortunately locating a clear , open space near the airfield . The airfield had been abandoned by the Germans , and the landing for the battalion was scattered but unopposed , although it incurred seven casualties during the drop , one of which was fatal . The airfield was secured after the battalion had rallied ; a platoon from ' C ' Company remained at the airfield to guard the wounded and the discarded parachutes , and at midnight the rest of the battalion moved out towards Oudna . As the battalion advanced the only transport available to it were a few hand drawn mule carts , which made the unit look , in the words of one paratrooper , " like a fucking travelling circus rather than a parachute battalion . " By 11 : 00 on 30 November the battalion had reached a position that allowed it to overlook the Oudna airfield , and at 14 : 30 it began to advance and reached the airfield , only to find that it , too , had been abandoned . The battalion was then counter attacked by a number of German tanks supported by fighters and Stuka divebombers . The Germans were repelled , but at dusk Frost pulled the battalion back westwards to a more defensible position , hoping to await the arrival of advance units from British First Army . These , however , were not to arrive ; in a wireless message received at dawn on 1 December , Frost was informed that the Allied drive towards Tunis had been postponed .
A short while later a German armoured column was seen advancing from Oudna , and Frost decided to set an ambush to try to destroy it ; the leading elements of the column , however , surprised a group of paratroopers filling water bottles at a nearby well , the ambush was sprung too early , inflicting only a single casualty . The battalion was understrength , having taken casualties at Oudna , and was running low on ammunition , but it managed to drive off the column with mortar fire ; however , this was only a brief respite . Two armoured cars and a tank was seen to be moving towards the battalion from a different direction , reportedly sporting recognition signals of British First Army ; Frost sent a party out to greet the vehicles , only for them to be taken prisoner and it to be revealed that the vehicles were German with captured equipment . The German commander sent one of the captured paratroopers with a message demanding Frost surrender , but he refused to comply ; instead he ordered that the radios and mortars were to be destroyed and the battalion would evacuate westwards towards Allied lines , approximately fifty miles away . The battalion managed to withdraw to higher ground , but suffered a number of casualties from the German armour as it did so . Now positioned on the high ground , which consisted of a ridge crowned by two small hills , the paratroopers were attacked by tanks and infantry supported by heavy mortar fire . The battalion suffered a number of casualties but was saved by the unexpected intervention of German aircraft ; mistaking their troops for the paratroopers , they knocked out several tanks and inflicted heavy casualties .
The battalion had by now suffered approximately 150 casualties , and as such Frost took the decision for the battalion to retreat westwards again , with the wounded to be left behind and guarded by a small detachment ; at nightfall each company would attempt to make its way to the village of Massicault . On the night of 31 November / 1 December , the battalion began its retreat , moving as quickly as possible , but a number of paratroopers became disorientated and were captured by German forces pursuing the battalion . By 2 December Battalion Headquarters , the Support Company and attached sappers , commanded by Frost , had reached an Arab farm , where they linked up with ' A ' Company and formed a group about 200 strong ; however , a large number of paratroopers were still missing . German forces soon located and surrounded Frost and his men and a fierce battle began ; because the paratroopers were so low on ammunition Frost realised the farm could not be held , and during the night he led a charge through the weakest part of the German defences . Once they had broken through , Frost used his hunting horn to rally the remaining paratroopers , and they then marched for the Allied held town of Medjez el Bab ; after stopping at one last farm for supplies , the group reached the town on 3 December and linked up with American patrols . Stragglers continued to reach Allied lines over the next few days , aided by units from the 56th Reconnaissance Regiment , but the battalion ultimately suffered sixteen officers and 250 other ranks killed , captured or wounded during the mission . Several historians have commented on the operation . Rick Atkinson has labelled the mission " a foolish , wanton mistake " let down by inadequate intelligence ; and Peter Harclerode makes a similar argument , writing that the mission was " a disastrous episode , badly planned and based on faulty intelligence . " For Otway , the mission " suffered from a lack of information , and from a lack of adequate arrangements for a link up between the ground forces and too lightly armed and comparatively immobile airborne troops . "
= = Ground role = =
Reinforcements for 2nd Parachute Battalion arrived from Britain to make good the battalion 's losses , and on 11 December it moved to Souk el Khemis , linking up with the rest of the Brigade . As Frost and his men retreated from Oudna , the Brigade had been informed it would be used in an infantry role , and on 11 December it came under the operational control of British V Corps and moved to positions near Beda ; when it arrived No. 1 Commando and a French unit , 2e Bataillon 9e Regiment de Tirailleurs Algeriennes , were assigned to its command . The brigade took up defensive positions around Beda and deployed patrols around the immediate vicinity , but remained in a static role ; on 21 December it was placed under the command of 78th Infantry Division to participate in an attack towards Tunis , but heavy rain caused this operation to be cancelled . When it was decided that continuing poor weather made any further assault towards Tunis impractical , Brigadier Flavell asked that the brigade be transferred to the rear so that it could be used in an airborne role . His request was denied , however , as V Corps stated that there were insufficient troops to replace the brigade ; as such it remained in its positions , defending the entire Beda area .
The brigade subsequently became heavily involved in fighting throughout the front it occupied , especially 3rd Parachute Battalion , which launched several attacks on a geographical feature known as ' Green Hill ' ; during multiple attacks , several companies from the battalion were able to gain the crest of the hill , only to be driven back by enemy counter attacks . On the night of 7 8 January the brigade was relieved from the frontline and transported to Algiers , with the exception of 2nd Parachute Battalion , which remained under the command of 78th Infantry Division because of a lack of troops to replace it . Plans were made to use the brigade in conjunction with US II Corps to cut Axis lines of communications around Sfax and Gabes , but these were never finalised . On 24 January it was transferred back to V Corps and came under the command of 6th Armoured Division , but did not remain there for long ; two days later it came under the command of XIX French Corps , located in area around Bou Araba . There it was given command of several French units and stationed between 36th Infantry Brigade and 1st Guards Brigade . On 2 February 1 Parachute Battalion was ordered to mount an attack on the massifs of Djebel Mansour and Djebel Alliliga , supported by a company belonging to the French Foreign Legion . The battalion launched its attack during the night and by the next morning had captured both features against fierce opposition ; however , heavy casualties meant that the battalion was forced to retreat from Djebel Alligila and concentrate on Djebel Mansour . There they were cut off from supplies and almost all reinforcements , and counter attacks by 6th Armoured Division failed to reach the battalion . A battalion from the Grenadier Guards was able to capture most of Djebel Alliliga on 4 February , but both battalions came under increasingly heavy attack , and by 11 : 00 the next day it was decided to withdraw both battalions .
On 8 February 2 Parachute Battalion was transferred back to 1st Parachute Brigade , and the entire formation came under the command of 6th Armoured Division and then British Y Division , an ad hoc division which relieved 6th Armoured Division in the middle of February . The brigade remained in static positions for the rest of February , repelling several minor enemy attacks and then a major offensive which took place on 26 February , during which it inflicted some 400 casualties and took 200 prisoners at a cost of 18 killed and 54 wounded paratroopers . On 3 March the brigade was relieved by 26 US Regimental Combat Team and marched to new positions located astride the road that ran between Tamara and Sedjenane . The brigade then held those positions against several attacks that took place between 8 9 March , taking almost 200 prisoners . On 10 March Brigadier Flavell was given command of all forces in the brigade 's sector including 139th Brigade and No. 1 Commando and the entire force repelled several more attacks . On the night of 17 March , however , the entire force was compelled to retreat several miles to new positions after a particularly strong attack broke through the positions held by 139th Brigade and several French battalions . These new positions were held against several more enemy attacks , and secured by 19 March . 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions were placed in reserve on 20 March on the request of Brigadier Flavell , who argued that the brigade as a whole was exhausted and required rest . However , 3rd Parachute Battalion was ordered back to the front on 21 March and tasked with attacking a feature known as ' The Pimple ' after a previous attack had failed with heavy casualties . It launched an attack on the feature that night , but was forced to withdraw by dawn the next day after exhausting its ammunition and taking numerous casualties . Because ' The Pimple ' was regarded as a vital position from which a general Allied offensive could be launched , however , the brigade was ordered to attack it again . 1st Parachute Battalion did so on the night of 23 March and successfully seized it after several hours of fighting .
On 27 March , the entire brigade participated in a general Allied offensive aimed at taking control of the area around Tamera . 1st and 2nd Parachute Battalions launched an attack at 23 : 00 the same day , taking numerous prisoners and securing their objectives and then repulsed a German counterattack , albeit with heavy losses . Further heavy and often confusing fighting continued , with several companies of 3rd Parachute Battalion having to be attached to 2nd Parachute Battalion to reinforce it . 1st Parachute Battalion also seized its own objectives , and by the end of 29 March the brigade had secured all of its objectives and taken 770 German and Italian troops as prisoners . On 31 March the brigade then took up positions covering the left flank of 46th Division , and for the next two weeks it remained in the area , conducting numerous patrols but encountering little opposition . On 15 March the brigade was relieved by 39 US Regimental Combat Team and moved to the rear . It then travelled to Algiers on 18 April and remained there ; Brigadier Flavell left for England to take up a new command , and was replaced by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury . Shortly afterwards the brigade rejoined 1st Airborne Division and began training for the airborne landings that would take place during Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily .
= = Aftermath = =
During its time in North Africa , the 1st Para Brigade had captured more than 3 @,@ 500 enemies as prisoners of war and suffered 1 @,@ 700 casualties . To take the 2nd Parachute Battalion as an example , it had entered North Africa with 24 officers and 588 other ranks , absorbed some 230 replacements in January 1943 , and left in April with 14 officers and 346 other ranks , an overall casualty percentage of eighty percent . In 1st Parachute Battalion , only four officers had remained with the battalion throughout the entire Tunisia Campaign without being killed or sufficiently wounded to be sent to the rear . The brigade had also been given the title of ' Rote Teufel ' or ' Red Devils ' by the German troops they had fought ; this was a distinct honour as the 1st Airborne Division commander , Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague Browning , pointed out in a signal to the brigade , as " Such distinctions given by the enemy are seldom won in battle except by the finest fighting troops . " This title was later officially confirmed by General Sir Harold Alexander , commanding 18th Army Group , and applied henceforth to all British airborne troops . Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway , who compiled the official history of the British Army 's airborne forces during the Second World War , analysed the brigades ' actions throughout the campaign . In terms of the brigades airborne operations , he stated that the missions conducted by 1st and 2nd Parachute Battalions were " severely handicapped " by a lack of aerial photography and a shortage of maps , as well as the lack of experience on the part of the American air crews who dropped both battalions at the beginning of their missions , causing highly inaccurate and dispersed drops . He also believed that a " lack of an expert in airborne matters at either Allied Forces Headquarters or First Army " ensured that the brigade was not used as efficiently as they might have been , and that this lack of expertise meant that logistical and planning arrangements before each mission could have been better .
He also argued that the brigade suffered from a lack of light anti tank weapons , as well as there being no fourth company in a battalion ; the absence of the latter was a " serious handicap " to each battalion , especially when surrounded by enemy forces . In terms of the brigade 's ground role , Otway considered it to have done well in terms of patrolling and night patrols , but was unaccustomed to cooperating with other arms , particularly artillery and armour , because of a lack of training and was forced to learn these skills during combat . It also suffered from a lack of reinforcements , as high physical and mental standards during airborne training led to a small pool of reinforcements that was easily depleted , as well as the absence of its own transport , forcing the brigade to rely on captured enemy vehicles and pack animals . Finally , Otway argued that " it was most uneconomical and inefficient to employ a parachute brigade in ground operations " unless it was expanded with sufficient transport and extra personnel , as well as possessing a superior officer who understood the specialised role the brigade played and could advise on how to effectively use it .
= Flag of Armenia =
The national flag of Armenia , the Armenian Tricolour ( Armenian : Եռագույն , Yeřaguyn ) , consists of three horizontal bands of equal width , red on the top , blue in the middle , and orange ( also described as " colour of apricot " ) on the bottom . The Armenian Supreme Soviet adopted the current flag on 24 August 1990 . On 15 June 2006 , the Law on the National Flag of Armenia , governing its usage , was passed by the National Assembly of Armenia .
Throughout history , there have been many variations of the Armenian flag . In ancient times , Armenian dynasties were represented by different symbolic animals displayed on their flags . In the twentieth century , various Soviet flags represented the Armenian SSR .
The meanings of the colors are interpreted in many different ways . For example , red stands for the blood of the 1 @.@ 5 million Armenians killed in the Armenian Genocide , blue is for the Armenian pure sky , and orange represents the country 's courage .
The official definition of the colors , as stated in the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia , is :
The red emblematizes the Armenian Highland , the Armenian people 's continued struggle for survival , maintenance of the Christian faith , Armenia 's independence and freedom . The blue emblematizes the will of the people of Armenia to live beneath peaceful skies . The orange emblematizes the creative talent and hard @-@ working nature of the people of Armenia .
= = Design = =
In 2012 , the Armenian National Institute of Standards ( SARM ) issued specifications about the construction and colors on the national flag . :
= = History = =
Today 's tricolor flag bears little resemblance to the earliest Armenian ' flags ' . In ancient times , armies went into battle behind carvings mounted on poles . The carvings might represent a dragon , an eagle , a lion or " some mysterious object of the gods " . With the advent of Christianity , the Armenian empire adopted many different flags representing various dynasties . The Artaxiad Dynasty 's flag , for instance , consisted of a red cloth displaying two eagles gazing at each other , separated by a flower .
= = = 19th century = = =
After Armenia was split between the Persian and the Ottoman Empires , the idea of an Armenian flag ceased to exist for some time . The Armenian Catholic priest Father Ghevont Alishan created a new flag for Armenia in 1885 , after the Armenian Students Association of Paris requested one for the funeral of the French writer Victor Hugo . Alishan 's first design was very similar to today 's Armenian flag : a horizontal tricolor . However , it looked more like an upside @-@ down variation of the current flag of Bulgaria . The top band was red , symbolizing the first Sunday of Easter ( called " Red " Sunday ) , followed by a green band to represent the " Green " Sunday of Easter , and finally an arbitrary color , white , was chosen to complete the combination . While in France , Alishan also designed a second flag , identified today as the " Nationalist Armenian Flag " . It too was a tricolor , but unlike the previous design , this one was a vertical tricolor similar to the French flag . Its colors were red , green , and blue , from left to right , representing the rainbow that Noah saw after landing on Mount Ararat .
= = = Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic = = =
In 1828 , Persian Armenia was annexed to the Russian Empire after the last Russo @-@ Persian War , and became known as Russian Armenia . When the Russian Empire collapsed , Russian Armenia declared its independence and joined the short @-@ lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic , together with Georgia and Azerbaijan . This unified state hardly lasted a year and was soon dissolved . Since the Republic was short @-@ lived , it did not use any flags or symbols . Nevertheless , some historians consider a horizontal gold , black , and red tricolor , similar to that of the German flag but arranged differently , to have been the flag of Transcaucasia . The federation was dissolved on May 26 , 1918 , when Georgia declared its independence as the Democratic Republic of Georgia . Both Armenia and Azerbaijan declared their independence two days later , on May 28 , 1918 , as the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic , respectively .
= = = First Republic of Armenia = = =
After gaining independence , the First Republic of Armenia adopted the modern Armenian tricolor . Upon Stepan Malkhasyants 's appearance in the Armenian National Council , the independent Armenian government selected the colors used during the Lusignan period : red , blue and yellow . An earlier prototype , which was eventually rejected , was the rainbow flag . This prototype can be seen at the Martiros Saryan House Museum in Yerevan , Armenia . They chose to replace the yellow with orange " because it merged better with the other two colors , presenting a more pleasing composition " . The flag of independent Armenia then had a ratio of 2 : 3 , but on August 24 , 1990 , when the Armenian Supreme Soviet adopted it as the flag of the Republic of Armenia , the ratio was changed to 1 : 2 .
= = = Early Soviet Armenia and the Transcaucasian SFSR = = =
On November 29 , 1920 Bolsheviks established the Armenian SSR . A new flag was introduced and fixed in the Constitution , accepted on February 2 , 1922 by the First Congress of Soviets of the Armenian SSR . That flag existed only for a month , because on March 12 the Armenian SSR united with the Georgian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR under the Transcaucasian SFSR ( TSFSR ) . On December 30 , 1922 the Transcaucasian SFSR became one of the four Soviet republics that united to form the USSR . The flag of the republic had a hammer and sickle inserted into a star with initials " ЗСФСР " ( ZSFSR ) written in Russian sans @-@ serif script . These letters stand for Закавказская Советская Федеративная Социалистическая Республика ( Zakavkazskaya Sovetskaya Federativnaya Socialisticheskaya Respublika , " Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic " ) . In 1936 , the TSFSR was broken up into its three constituent regions , which were named the Georgian SSR , the Armenian SSR , and the Azerbaijan SSR .
= = = Armenian SSR = = =
As a republic of the USSR , the Armenian SSR introduced its first flag in 1936 . Very similar to the flag of the Soviet Union , it was red and featured a yellow hammer and sickle in the corner . Underneath that , there were " H @-@ Kh @-@ S @-@ H " initials written in Armenian serif script . These initials , in the Western Armenian language , stand for Haygagan Khorhurtayin Sodzialistakan Hanrabedutyun , or the " Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic " . In the 1940s , the flag was altered to use the Eastern Armenian language spoken in the Republic . The initials were changed to " H @-@ S @-@ S @-@ R " meaning " Hayastani Sovetakan Sotsialistikakan Respublika " in the Eastern Armenian pronunciation . In 1952 , a new flag was introduced . The initials were removed completely and in their place a horizontal blue stripe was added .
In late May 1988 , amid rising nationalist tensions , Armenia 's new Communist party leader allowed the banned tricolour of the DRA to fly in Yerevan for the first time in over sixty years . A year later , following a Nagorno @-@ Karabakh @-@ themed mass demonstration where the tricolour was flown , he urged its official recognition . This came on August 24 , 1990 , a day after the Armenian Supreme Soviet declared the republic 's sovereignty and renamed the country the Republic of Armenia . At that point , just over a year before Armenia declared its formal independence from the USSR , the tricolour replaced the 1952 flag .
= = Usage = =
The 2006 law on the National Flag of Armenia states that the flag has to be raised on the following public buildings :
Residence of the President
Parliament
Government
Constitutional Court
Office of Public Prosecutor
Central Bank of Armenia
Other governmental buildings
The law requires the lowering of the flag to the midpoint of the flagpole on the days of mourning or during mourning ceremonies . A black ribbon needs to be placed at the top of the flag ; the length of the ribbon should be equal to the length of the flag . The flying flag has to be raised in its entirety , clean , and unfaded ; moreover , the lower part of the flag should be at least 2 @.@ 5 m off the ground .
= = = National flag days = = =
The day of the National Flag of Armenia is marked on 15 June every year . The day is chosen for the reason that the Armenian law on the National Flag of Armenia was passed on 15 June 2006 . The day of the Armenian tricolour was celebrated for the first time on 15 June 2010 in Yerevan .
The daily display of the Armenian flag is encouraged , but legally required only on the following days :
January 1 , January 2 – New Year
January 6 – Christmas
March 8 – International Women 's Day
April 7 – Motherhood and Beauty Day
May 1 – International Worker 's Solidarity Day
May 9 – Victory and Peace Day
May 28 – First Armenian Republic Day , 1918
July 5 – Constitution Day , 1995
September 21 – Independence Day , 1991
December 7 – Spitak Earthquake Memorial Day , 1988
= = Influence = =
The national flag is also mentioned in the song " Mer Hayrenik " ( Our Fatherland ) , the national anthem of Armenia . Specifically , the second and third stanzas sing about the creation of the national flag :
= = = Flag of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh = = =
On June 2 , 1992 , the self @-@ proclaimed Republic of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , a de facto independent republic in South Caucasus claimed by Azerbaijan , adopted a flag derived from the flag of Armenia , with only a white pattern added . A white , five @-@ toothed , stepped carpet pattern was added to the flag , beginning at the two verges of the cloth 's right side and connecting at a point equal to one @-@ third of the distance from that side . The white pattern symbolizes the current separation of Artsakh ( Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ) from Armenia proper and its aspiration for eventual union with " the Fatherland " . This symbolises the Armenian heritage , culture and population of the area and represents Nagorno @-@ Karabakh as being a separated region of Armenia by the triangular shape and the zigzag cutting through the flag . The pattern is also similar to the designs used on rugs . The ratio of the flag 's breadth to its length is 1 : 2 , same as the Armenian Tricolor .
= = = Flag of the Pan @-@ Armenian Games = = =
In addition to the flag of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , the Armenian flag colors influenced the design of the Pan @-@ Armenian Games flag . In the center of the light blue flag are six interlocking rings , derived from the Olympic rings . The sixth , orange @-@ colored ring , interlocks with the blue and red rings , which symbolize Armenia . Above the rings is a flame in the colors of the Armenian flag .
= Cow Tower , Norwich =
The Cow Tower is an artillery tower by the River Wensum in Norwich , Norfolk , England . Built between 1398 and 1399 by the city authorities in response to the threat from France and indigenous English rebels , the tower was intended to defend the north @-@ eastern approach to Norwich with hand cannons and bombards . It stood apart from the main city walls , close to the river where its height would have allowed it to fire onto the higher ground opposite the city . The tower was designed to hold a garrison when required and was well furnished , probably using different floors for dining and sleeping .
It was maintained throughout the 15th century , and played a role in Kett 's Rebellion of 1549 , when the rebels attacked Norwich , deploying artillery and damaging the tower 's parapets . Repairs to the tower 's walls in the late 19th century inadvertently caused long @-@ term damage , and in 1953 it was taken into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works , who stabilised its condition in a five @-@ year conservation project . In the 21st century , Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council ; the tower is now only a shell , however , as the floors and the roof of the building have been lost .
The circular tower is 11 @.@ 2 metres ( 37 ft ) across , 14 @.@ 6 metres ( 48 ft ) high and divided into three storeys . Its walls are 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) thick at the base , with a core of flint stone , faced on the inside and outside with brick ; the archaeologist T. P. Smith considers it to feature some " of the finest medieval brickwork " in England . The walls have gunports for the smaller pieces of artillery and the roof would have supported the heavier bombards , with wide embrasures giving the weapons adequate firing space . The Cow Tower was specially designed to support the use of gunpowder artillery , making it a very rare structure in England for this period : the only close equivalents are God 's House Tower in Southampton , and the West Gate at Canterbury .
= = History = =
= = = 14th century = = =
Cow Tower is an artillery tower that was built in the city of Norwich , Norfolk , England , between 1398 and 1399 . Norwich was a prosperous city in the late 14th century , with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 involved in key medieval industries and forming a centre for international trade . Between 1297 and 1350 the city had erected a circuit of defensive stone walls and ditches , both to impress upon outsiders the status of Norwich as a great city , but also to defend against invasion or civil disorder .
Fears grew about the threat of French raids across England from the 1380s onward . The citizens of Norwich were particularly concerned about the potential of a French raid on the city , drawing parallels between the position of Norwich and the experience of Southampton , another trading city that had been devastated by a French attack in 1338 . This threat , combined with the recent events of the Peasant Revolt of 1381 when the rebels had looted the city , encouraged the local government to improve the city 's defences .
Gunpowder weapons had begun to be introduced into England in the early 14th century , initially being used as offensive siege weapons but rapidly being adapted for defensive purposes during the 1360s . Although they were expensive , by the 1380s their potential value in defending castles and city walls was well understood and specialised facilities had begun to be built . Norwich had acquired gunpowder weapons and a team of gunners by 1355 , and by 1385 had fifty gunpowder pieces for use along its city walls . Typically , these would have been small guns called hand cannons , rather than the heavier pieces termed bombards .
The tower was built on one of the approaches to Norwich in a bend in the River Wensum , in a meadow called Cowholme , from where it acquired its current name . When first built , however , it was initially called the Dungeon , and then the " tower in the Hospital meadows " , as the surrounding land was part of the St Giles Hospital . It was intended to function as a specialised artillery tower , housing gunpowder weaponry capable of suppressing attackers on the far side of the river . The Wensum was quite narrow at this point , however , and the tower 's defences would have been of relatively limited value if the enemy successfully crossed over .
There are fragmentary historical references to an earlier tower in the area , responsible for collecting tolls and acting as a prison , but it is unclear if this was on the same site as the Cow Tower , or refers to a different tower in the area . The Cow Tower was one of several fortifications along this stretch of the river , with the gatehouse of Bishop Bridge lying just to the south , followed by two boom towers that controlled access to the waterway a further 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) down @-@ river , and with another tower positioned 300 metres ( 980 ft ) up @-@ river to the north . Although the Cow Tower was not directly part of the city walls , a protective timber palisade linked the tower with the line of the city wall to the north @-@ west , and ran south to meet Bishop Bridge .
The city 's accounts show the details of the payments for the construction of the tower between 1398 and 1399 , including charges for 36 @,@ 850 bricks , stone , sand , lime , a hoist and various equipment . At least 170 cartloads of stone are mentioned , and the bricks may have been brought to the site along the river by boat , while some of the timber was brought from Great Yarmouth . The total cost of the building from these records , including labour , came to around £ 36 . The number of bricks used in the tower , however , was probably twice the listed number purchased , and the city may therefore already have stockpiled some bricks on the location before the build .
= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =
Cow Tower formed part of the city defences during the 15th century , with the Crown occasionally issuing instructions that it should be repaired . In 1450 St Giles Hospital formally transferred any rights they had to the tower and the immediately surrounding land to the city . The population of Norwich grew significantly from 1500 onwards and the city continued to maintain the urban defences ; like other towers and gatehouses belonging to the city , however , by this period the Cow Tower was probably leased out to a merchant or craftsman when not in military use .
In 1549 , Robert Kett led an uprising in Norfolk ; marching on Norwich , his army camped on the north @-@ east side of the river , overlooking Cow Tower . Two rebel attacks were then made across the river into the Hospital meadows , in an attempt to take Bishop Bridge , which would have given them access to the city . Kett had brought artillery , which he turned on the Cow Tower , damaging the latter 's parapets . The rebellion failed , and the tower does not seem to have required extensive repairs .
= = = 17th – 21st centuries = = =
Most of Norwich 's city walls , and all of the gatehouses , were demolished in the late 18th and 19th century as the city industrialised , but the Cow Tower avoided destruction . The tower was now owned by the Trustees of the Great Hospital , who carried out repairs to the structure in the late 19th century , and in 1904 , the British Army considered repairing the tower for use as an ammunition depot . The repairs in the 19th century had used modern concrete when patching the walls , and this , combined with erosion from the river , soon caused extensive damage : wide splits formed up and down the tower along its northern side .
The Ministry of Works took the tower into its guardianship in 1953 to address the problems , and promptly undertook an extensive sequence of repairs that lasted until 1958 . No archaeological investigation was carried out during these works , however , and a full architectural survey of the building was only carried out between 1985 and 1986 , by the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission . In the 21st century , Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council ; the tower is now only a shell , however , as the floors and the roof have been lost . The tower is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
Cow Tower is a three @-@ story circular building with a protruding turret , the main building being 11 @.@ 2 metres ( 37 ft ) across and 14 @.@ 6 metres ( 48 ft ) tall , tapering towards the top . Its walls , 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) thick at the base , are made of a core of flint stone , faced on the inside and outside with brick , and various putlog holes can still be seen in the walls . The turret , which contained a spiral staircase , would originally have been higher than the parapets , forming a look @-@ out position . The walls rest on a stone plinth and several layers of mortared flint .
The bricks were probably made at the St Benet 's Abbey in Norfolk , with the stone coming from chalk pits near Norwich 's southern Conesford Gates . The brickwork , particularly on the stairwell , is particularly well executed , and archaeologist T. P. Smith considers the tower to feature some " of the finest medieval brickwork " in England . It is the earliest known use of brick in an external load @-@ capacity in Norwich . The use of brick in this sort of fortification was both prestigious and practical , as brick absorbed the impact of artillery fire better than stone . The river bends around about 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) from the bottom of the tower , and its base may have been underpinned with timber piles during its original construction .
The Cow Tower was deliberately designed to house gunpowder artillery when it was first built , making it a very rare form of defensive structure for its time : the only equivalents in England are God 's House Tower in Southampton , and the West Gate at Canterbury . The historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham go so far as to consider the building to be unique within Britain , as God 's House was an extension of an existing building , and the West Gate part of the city 's walled circuit . The concept of an isolated artillery tower was more common in France , where they were used as temporary and permanent defensive features during the Hundred Years War between the English and the French kings .
The quatrefoil gunports in the lower levels could have been used for both hand cannons and crossbows , with overlapping fields of fire . The roof was reinforced with large timber joints , and could have supported heavier bombards , possibly on wheeled carriages ; the tower 's considerable height would have allowed the bombards to reach across the river onto the higher ground overlooking the city . Getting the bombards onto the roof may have required them to be hoisted up on a winch ; one such hoist formed part of the accounts for the tower 's construction in 1398 and 1399 .
The tower 's gun installations were intended to be used to deal with an external threat approaching from the far side of the river . The parapet of the roof was crenellated with nine wide embrasures , and the embrasures facing out across the river were constructed flush with the floor of the roof , giving the bombards plenty of room to fire . The embrasures facing away from the river , however , had sloping cills rather than open positions , and the windows in the tower facing towards the city were rectangular and relatively unprotected . The entrance to the tower itself was not fortified , as the tower was not expected to be defended from a direct attack by land .
The tower was designed to be able to maintain a garrison when required and was well furnished . The ground floor and second floor had fireplaces , with the first and second floors also having garderobes . The ground floor may have formed a dining area , with the floors above being used for military purposes and sleeping accommodation . The walls of the ground floor have chasing and sockets cut into them . It is unclear what these were : theories include that they contained timbers to support brickwork that in turn supported the first floor ; that they were held timbers that supported the joists of the first floor ; or they are the remains of an ammunition store , retrofitted in the tower in the 16th century .
= Cobra ( manga ) =
Cobra ( Japanese : コブラ , Hepburn : Kobura ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Buichi Terasawa . Set in the far future , the series tells the story of Cobra , who lives an adventurous life until his enemies begin to hunt him down . Cobra surgically alters his face and erases his own memory to hide from his foes and have a normal life . Eventually , he regains his memories and reunites with his former partner Lady Armaroid . Terasawa devised it as a mix of spaghetti western and samurai stories , and aspects of films , varying from James Bond to Disney .
The manga was originally serialized in Shueisha 's Weekly Shōnen Jump from November 1978 to November 1984 . Later , Shueisha collected the chapters and published them in 18 tankōbon volumes . The Cobra manga spawned various sequel manga series , one @-@ shots , a feature @-@ length anime film , two anime series — a 31 @-@ episode series in 1982 , and a 13 @-@ episode series in 2010 — , two original video animations ( OVAs ) , audio albums , video games , and other merchandise . In 2010 , Alexandre Aja announced that a live @-@ action film was in production .
In the United States , portions of the manga were published by Viz Media in 1990 . The feature film was licensed by Tara for its release in American theaters and by Manga Entertainment in British theaters in 1995 . Urban Vision and Discotek Media released it for home video market , while Madman Entertainment acquired it for the Australasian region 's release . The anime series was licensed in the Northern American region by Nozomi Entertainment .
In Japan , the Cobra manga has sold 40 million copies , making it one of Weekly Shōnen Jump 's best @-@ selling manga series of all time . Publications for manga , anime and other media have comparing the series to Star Wars and Barbarella , and the main character 's attitude to James Bond . Its film adaptation received mixed reviews , and the original anime series as well as Cobra the Animation has been well received by reviewers .
= = Plot = =
In the far future , an office worker named Johnson leads a dull and mundane life . One Sunday morning , his robotic servant Ben suggests that he go to the Trip Movie Corporation — a company that enables its customers to experience a dream as though it were a reality . Johnson asks to be a king of a harem , and to command a battlestar .
In his dream , however , Johnson instead becomes " Cobra " , an adventurer who explores space with his android partner Lady Armaroid . Cobra wields the Psychogun , a cybernetic arm @-@ laser gun , to fight monsters and the Pirate Guild , an organized crime syndicate of pirates . After a battle with the Guild , Cobra allows its leader Captain Vaiken to escape . Vaiken distributes Cobra 's picture to other pirates , making him a wanted man . After the dream ends , Johnson describes the fantasy to an attendant , who is surprised because Johnson 's dream should not have any reference to pirates or to Cobra .
On his way back home , Johnson crashes into a speeding car whose driver looks like Captain Vaiken . When Johnson mentions the resemblance , the driver reveals himself as Vaiken . He asks Johnson about " Cobra " and threatens to kill Johnson if he does not answer . Johnson unconsciously lifts his arm and a ray shoots out of his hand , killing Vaiken . The shot explodes Johnson 's arm , revealing the Psychogun embedded in it .
Johnson rushes home , where Ben notices the weapon on his arm . Johnson then realizes that he remembers nothing from before the last three years . After looking into a mirror , he finds a knob and turns it to reveal a secret room . There , he finds the revolver which he used in his dream . At that moment , armed intruders break into the house and address him as " Cobra " . A battle ensues , and Ben 's robot shell breaks to reveal Lady Armaroid , with whom Johnson kills the intruders .
Johnson starts to remember his previous existence as Cobra . Hunted by the Pirate Guild for meddling in their criminal enterprises and tired of life on the run , Cobra surgically altered his face and had his memories erased . Lady Armaroid tells Cobra that the Trip Movie has triggered his subconscious to regain access to the memories of his former life . Cobra and Lady Armadroid resume their adventurous life together .
= = Characters = =
Cobra ( コブラ ) is the main protagonist and eponymous character of the series . Cobra 's signature weapon is the Psychogun , which can target putative enemies without having a line @-@ of @-@ sight . Using the Psychogun drains Cobra 's mental energy , but his superhuman stamina compensates for it . He also carries a Python 77 Magnum revolver as a backup weapon . Cobra was voiced by Shigeru Matsuzaki in the film adaptation , by Nachi Nozawa in the first anime , and by Naoya Uchida in Cobra the Animation . Dan Woren voiced him in the Streamline Pictures release , while John Guerrasio voiced him in Manga Entertainment version .
Lady Armaroid ( アーマロイド ・ レディ , Āmaroido Redi , originally " Armaroid Lady " ) is Cobra 's long @-@ time partner and is the serious half of the duo . She and Cobra share a deep , unspoken trust ; in times of need they always help each other . Lady is a top @-@ class Armaroid — a mechanical cyborg — derived from advanced technology recovered from an ancient , lost civilization on Mars . She possesses superhuman strength but does not carry a weapon and is rarely involved in physical combat . When Cobra is away on an adventure , Lady supports Cobra by piloting their spaceship , the Tortuga . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Lady Armaroid is renamed Andromeda . Yoshiko Sakakibara voiced Lady in the film , in the first anime , and in Cobra the Animation . In the Streamline Pictures release , Joan @-@ Carol O 'Connell voiced her , and she was voiced by Tamsin Hollo in the Manga Entertainment dubbing .
Jane Royal ( ジェーン ・ ロイヤル , Jēn Roiyaru ) is the first of the triplet daughters of Captain Nelson that Cobra meets . Each sister has a unique tattoo on her back which , once assembled in a chromatic sequence , form a map leading to hidden gold , diamonds , and the fabled Ultimate Weapon . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Jane Royal is renamed Jane Flower . Jane was voiced by Akiko Nakamura in the film , and by Toshiko Fujita in the first anime . Barbara Goodson voiced her in the Streamline Pictures release , while Lorelei King voiced her in the Manga Entertainment version .
Catherine Royal ( キャサリン ・ ロイヤル , Kyasarin Roiyaru ) is the second of the triplets whom Cobra meets after Jane asks him to rescue Catherine from the Sidoh Penitentiary . Catherine is a timid school teacher , and is the only sister who is not involved in a violent occupation . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Catherine Royal is renamed Catherine Flower . She is voiced by Toshiko Fujita in the film , and by Yuko Sasaki in the first anime . In the Streamline Pictures release , Mari Devon voiced her , while she was voiced by Lorelei King in the Manga Entertainment dubbing .
Dominique Royal ( ドミニク ・ ロイヤル , Dominiku Roiyaru ) serves as an officer in the Milky Way patrol . Dominique possesses great strength and co @-@ operates well with Cobra , often looking the other way when her professional duties would require her to arrest him . She hires him to resolve an unpleasant matter of drug trafficking involving the Rugball Federation at the Rand Stadium . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Dominique Royal is renamed Dominique Flower . Dominique was voiced by Jun Fubuki in the film , and by Gara Takashima in the first anime . Wendee Lee voiced her in the Streamline Pictures release , while Lorelei King voiced her in Manga Entertainment version .
Crystal Boy ( クリスタル ・ ボーイ , Kurisutaru Bōi , originally " Crystal Bowie " ) is Cobra 's arch @-@ enemy who regards Cobra as the only man worthy of becoming his adversary . Crystal Boy is a humanoid cyborg with a golden skeleton and a body made from indestructible , polarizing glass . He works for the Pirate Guild led by Lord Salamander . Crystal Boy 's signature weapon is a claw which he can attach to his right hand . The claw can crush anything , and he also uses it for slitting his victims ' throats . The claw has a built @-@ in laser gun which can also be used as a grappling hook or fired as a projectile . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Crystal Boy is renamed Lord Necron . Crystal Boy was voiced by Gorō Mutsumi in the film , and by Kiyoshi Kobayashi in the two anime adaptations . In the Streamline Pictures release , Jeff Winkless voiced him , while he was voiced by David McAlister in the Manga Entertainment dubbing .
Sandra ( サンドラ , Sandora ) first serves as the ruthless and cold @-@ hearted leader of the Snow Gorillas — the local branch of the Pirate Guild on her home planet . Later , Sandra hounds Cobra and tracks him to the planet on which the Ultimate Weapon is hidden . Sandra was originally ordered to retrieve the Weapon and hand it over to the emissaries of the Guild , but she uses it for her own ends and turns against the Guild until Cobra stops her . In the Manga Entertainment dub , Sandra is renamed Nadia . Sandra was voiced by Reiko Tajima in the film and in the first anime . Catherine Battistone voiced her in the Streamline Pictures release , while Lesley Martin voiced her in Manga Entertainment version .
Lord Salamander ( ロード ・ サラマンダー , Rōdo Saramandā ) is a mysterious , deep @-@ voiced man dressed in samurai armor . After he unites the Pirate Guild under his command , Salamander 's unquenched ambitions lead him to seek absolute control over the galaxy . Lord Salamander rarely appears in person , but demonstrates a powerful telekinetic ability when he does . He can also teleport , incinerate an enemy by will alone and make his enemies think they see someone else . He uses this trick and his other powers to dispose of Doug , Pumpkin and Bud . In the final episode , he is revealed as the spirit of Adolf Hitler , which was revived 3000 years after his defeat . Lord Salamander was voiced by Hidekatsu Shibata in the anime .
= = Production = =
Cobra is Buichi Terasawa 's debut manga series . Previously he had written and illustrated between twenty and thirty science @-@ fiction shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) short stories for manga contests held by manga magazines , with one of them earning an honorable mention . Terasawa created Cobra by combining the spaghetti western subgenre and Japanese stories featuring a " wandering swordman " . The Psychogun was created before the titular character , and Terasawa wanted to create a hero who would be able to carry a concealed weapon . According to Terasawa , his concept of a hero has been greatly influenced by " spaghetti westerns with a James Bond @-@ type spin to them . " He also drew inspiration from the French actor Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo . In general , Terasawa has been influenced by films , including the James Bond film series , Akira Kurosawa 's films , and Disney films prior to The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) . For example , Jane Fonda 's performance in the cult science @-@ fiction film Barbarella ( 1968 ) served as a direct model for his character Jane , whose hairstyle was also inspired by Princess Aurora 's in the Disney animated film Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) . For his storytelling , panel layout , and narrative pacing in general , he draws influence from manga artist Osamu Tezuka , who mentored him .
= = Publication = =
Written and illustrated by Buichi Terasawa , Cobra was first published in 1977 in Shueisha 's Japanese shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump as a one @-@ shot edition . It was later serialized , running from the November 6 , 1978 issue to the November 12 , 1984 issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump , and released under the magazine 's Jump Comics line in eighteen tankōbon volumes between August 15 , 1979 and August 15 , 1985 . Cobra was re @-@ published from February 10 , 1988 to November 10 , 1998 in a ten @-@ volume aizōban edition under Jump Comics Deluxe entitled Space Adventure Cobra .
The manga series was only partially released in the United States by Viz Communications in 1990 in a series of twelve books . This English @-@ language publication covered the origin story and the Royal Sisters ' saga , with dialogue adapted by the American comic book writer Marv Wolfman and published under Viz Communications ' Viz Select Comics line . The complete manga was published in several other countries . In France , the manga was first published by Dynamic Visions , and later reprinted by Taifu Comics . Its first volume was released in the 1990s Brazil by Dealer , being one of the first manga to be published in the country . The manga was also published in Italy by Play Press , in Taiwan by Tong Li , in Hong Kong by Culturecom , and in Thailand by Vibulkij .
Shueisha released Cobra in kanzenban form with the title Space Adventure Cobra : Handy Edition — which included volumes one through ten — from October 19 , 2001 to February 4 , 2002 . Shueisha later created three kanzenban magazine series based on the Cobra manga under their Shueisha Jump Remix line . Irezumi no Onna Hen , , which spanned two volumes , was published on October 7 , 2002 , and on October 21 , 2002 ; Rugball Hen , which spanned two volumes , was published on November 2 , 2002 , and on November 18 , 2002 ; and Shido no Megami Hen , which spanned three volumes , was published from June 9 , 2003 to July 7 , 2003 . Media Factory also published Cobra in a kanzenban edition ; it was simply called Cobra Kanzenban , and spawned twelve volumes released between August 23 , 2005 , and June 23 , 2006 . Cobra was also sold as an e @-@ book , Space Adventure Cobra : Galaxy Knights for a limited time .
= = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = =
The seinen manga magazine Super Jump published several Cobra sequel or spin @-@ off series . The first was titled Cobra : Legend of the Holy Knight , , which was serialized in 1986 in a special issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump . It was then published in a single tankōbon by Shueisha in 1988 under the magazine 's Jump Comics Deluxe line . Space Adventure Cobra : The Psychogun , a fully colored " computer graphics " manga , was serialized in Super Jump in 1995 . A " computer graphics " sequel called Space Adventure Cobra : Magic Doll was serialized in Super Jump from 2000 to 2002 . Along with several other series serialized in Super Jump , they were published from 1995 to 2002 in Jump Comics Deluxe under the title Space Adventure Cobra .
Space Adventure Cobra : Magic Doll was re @-@ serialized in the Monthly Comic Flapper magazine by Media Factory , and was published under its MF Comics line as Cobra the Space Pirate : Magic Doll Zenpen and Cobra the Space Pirate : Magic Doll Kōhen on February 23 , 2006 , and September 22 , 2006 , respectively . In addition , Media Factory published six Cobra one @-@ shots ; the first one , Cobra the Space Pirate : Kokuryū Ō , on March 23 , 2006 , and the last one , Cobra the Space Pirate : Time Drive , on April 23 , 2009 , all of which were also under MF Comics . To celebrate the series ' 30th anniversary , sixteen manga were reprinted and released by Media Factory ; on May 23 , 2008 , Cobra Fukkatsu and Irezumi no Sanshimai were released , and Magic Doll concluded it , with its release on July 7 , 2009 . From October 25 , 2014 to June 13 , 2015 , Media Factory is republishing Cobra the Space Pirate through its MFR Series .
= = Anime adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
TMS Entertainment adapted the manga into a film titled Space Adventure Cobra , which was released on July 23 , 1982 , in Japan . It was directed by Osamu Dezaki , with screenplay by Terasawa and Haruya Yamazaki , and retold the Cobra involvement with the Royal Sisters , and his fight against Crystal Boy . Manga Entertainment released the film in British theaters in 1995 . An American dub was created by Carl Macek 's Streamline Pictures , and was released in American theaters on August 20 , 1995 , by Tara , and was later distributed by Urban Vision on VHS format on June 16 , 1998 .
= = = Space Cobra = = =
Cobra was adapted into an anime series titled Space Cobra directed by Dezaki that aired on Fuji Television between October 7 , 1982 , and May 19 , 1983 . The episodes were released in eight DVDs and a DVD box set on October 25 , 2000 by Digital Site in Japan . The series was released in Northern America by Nozomi Entertainment in two parts ; the first was released on March 4 , 2014 , and the second one is available since May 6 , 2014 . In November 2015 , the series was added to the Crunchyroll streaming service to be broadcast in the United States and Canada with English substitles .
= = = Cobra the Animation = = =
Cobra was adapted into two OVAs and a television series that were created by Guild Project and animated by Magic Bus under the Cobra the Animation line for the series ' 30th anniversary . The first of the series was The Psychogun , which was released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD between August 29 , 2008 , and February 27 , 2009 . It was written , storyboarded , and directed by Terasawa . Its sequel OVA , Time Drive , was released between April 24 , 2009 , and June 26 , 2009 . It was co @-@ directed by Terasawa and Kenichi Maejima . Both OVA series were later released in Blu @-@ ray box set on February 19 , 2010 . The anime television series Rokunin no Yūshi , directed by Keizo Shimizu , aired on BS 11 between January 2 , 2010 and March 27 , 2010 . Crunchyroll streamed the first OVA series between December 18 , 2009 to on January 8 , 2010 . The two episodes of Time Drive were uploaded on January 1 , 2008 , and Rokunin no Yūshi was simulcasted as it aired
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in Japan . During the 2016 Anime Boston , the series was licensed by Sentai Filmworks to be released in the North American home video market .
= = = Cobra : Return of Joe Gillian = = =
Monaco @-@ based Shibuya Productions will adapt the Rugball arc of the series into an " original animated series " called Cobra : Return of Joe Gillian . In collaboration with Terasawa 's A @-@ Girl Rights , the series will be directed by Hervé Trouillet , produced by Cédric Biscay and Rinko Itoh , and written by Trouillet and Biscay . The announcement of the series was through a promotional teaser released on February 27 , 2016 . The arc choice was based on the fact that it is a favorite of Cobra fans and it will incorporate classic characters and elements of the Cobra universe and " a rendering that will not disappoint fans of Cobra " , according to Biscay . However , they hope to attract more people because of economic reasons ; as such , it will have a new story and modern style of animation . The target audience of the series is primarily adolescents of over 12 years and it is slated to premiere in 2018 .
= = = Audio = = =
The soundtrack of the film was composed by Osamu Shōji . It used a single opening theme and a single ending theme , and its lyrics were written by Tetsuya Chiaki and composed by Saburo Suzuki . " Daydream Romance " by Shigeru Matsuzaki was used as the opening music and " Stay " by Eve was used at the end . The subsequent anime 's music was scored by Kentarō Haneda . The lyrics for " Cobra " and " Secret Desire " , the opening and the ending themes respectively , were written by Kayoko Fuyomori and composed by Yuji Ohno ; both were sung by Yoko Maeno . The anime 's music was compiled into two albums ; Space Cobra : Original Soundtrack and Space Cobra : Complete Soundtrack were released by Nippon Columbia on September 25 , 2003 , and April 21 , 2004 , respectively .
The musical score for Cobra the Animation was composed by Yoshihiro Ike . The opening theme from The Psychogun is " Kizudarake no Yume " by Yoko Takahashi and it ending theme is " Wanderer " by Shigeru Matsuzaki . Both were released as singles on August 27 , 2008 , by Nippon Columbia . The second OVA used " Time Drive " by Sasja Antheunis as its opening theme and " Kimi ga bi Waraunara " by Shigeru Matsuzaki as its closing theme . " Cobra the Space Pirate " by Sasja Antheunis and " Kimi no Uta " respectively were used as opening theme and closing theme for Rokunin no Yūshi . On March 24 , 2010 , both were released as singles by Nippon Columbia . A soundtrack containing music from both OVAs and a compilation of music from the anime series were released on January 20 , 2010 , and April 14 , 2010 , respectively . Cobra Song Collection , which encompassed music from the soundtracks of the film , two OVAs and two anime series was released on March 31 , 2010 by Nippon Columbia .
= = Live @-@ action film = =
In 2008 , Buichi Terasawa said he received a Hollywood offer to purchase the rights to a live @-@ action film adaptation of the series . He stated it was " off @-@ the @-@ record " , and that if it happened it would be partly standalone and separate from his original manga . However , in 2010 , Alexandre Aja announced he had purchased its rights , and that he planned to direct a live @-@ action film adaptation of Cobra . Aja was inspired to create this film adaptation because the original manga was one of his childhood favorites . Aja said he wanted to create a " tent pole @-@ sized live action franchise " .
In 2011 , Aja wrote a script with Gregory Levasseur , and production was held by Aton Soumache and Dimitri Rassom under Onyx Films and Studio 37 with a budget of more than $ 100 million . Later , a teaser poster depicting promotional concept art for Cobra : The Space Pirate , along with a release date scheduled for mid @-@ 2013 , was unveiled . In September 2013 , however , Aja admitted that making the film will be " very hard " since " to do a new kind of Star Wars , [ is ] expensive " though he stated " we are trying everything , we will make it . " In July 2014 , Aja revealed it was estimated that the project would require a budget of over $ 150 million , and that he was seeking to have an A @-@ list actor to help attract a funder . One of his main difficulties , Aja said in 2015 , was to decide who would star the film : " When I think ' who the heck is going to play that Cobra ? ' , I become unable to move forward . " After the release of Guardians of the Galaxy in 2014 , Aja had to change several aspects of the film to differentiate it .
= = Related media = =
The Cobra manga has become the basis of two artbooks ; the first focusing on the female characters of the series was released as Cobra Girls on February 1 , 1988 . Concept designs of the manga were added to a Cobra artbook titled Cobra Wonder : Concept Design Arts of Cobra World , which was released in July 17 , 1997 , and included two Cobra 's side stories — Bara and Mahō no Fune — first published in Super Jump in 1988 . Popy and Bandai included Cobra 's ground vehicle , the Psychoroid , in the Japanese Machine Robo toyline , where it gained the ability to transform into a robot . Japan later exported this idea to the United States as part of the Super Gobots toyline under the name " Psycho " , designed by Murakami Katsushi . In Japan , action figures , T @-@ shirts , kewpie dolls , Cobra 's Psychogun and Crystal Boy 's claw replicas , stamps , and limited @-@ edition whiskey bottles were sold as merchandise for the series .
= = = Video games = = =
In 1982 , Popy Electronics created the hand @-@ held games Space Cobra Professional and Space Cobra the Psychogun . It was followed by Cobra : Kokuryū Ō no Densetsu , released in 1989 for the PC Engine , and Cobra 2 : Densetsu no Otoko , released for the PC Engine in 1990 , which was released in North America and Europe for the Sega CD as The Space Adventure - Cobra : The Legendary Bandit .
= = Reception = =
Approximately 40 million copies on Cobra have been sold , making it one of Weekly Shōnen Jump 's best @-@ selling manga series of all time . Cobra made Terasawa , who at the time was 22 and was little known , famous . The English version of Cobra was named as one of the " The Top 25 Translated @-@ To @-@ English Manga of All Time " by Wizard magazine . Ivevei Upatkoon of EX online magazine praised it as a " rich fantasy " that was unmatched by any other . She said the main character took " after James Bond , albeit somewhat on the silly side , and the costumes and bizarre worlds are but a shade shy of plagiarizing Barbarella " . She was impressed that the series " is surprisingly devoid of the sexual innuendo and exploitation that anime fans have come to associate with decorative female characters " ; it avoids the stereotypical , beautiful women , and instead creates its own " extreme " world . Upatkoon also said that modern readers might find the manga dated and would be discouraged from reading it , despite the improvement in artistic quality as the series progresses . Writing for Anime News Network ( ANN ) , Jason Thompson described Cobra as " a significant piece of manga history " . Thompson wrote that the women of the series have a " realistic physique and not some moe jailbait or grotesque bakunyu explosion " . Thompson deemed Cobra as a parody of both Western action heroes and Star Wars and 1970s shōjo science fiction and its concept of beauty " . The titular character also inspired video game designer Hideki Kamiya to create the character of Dante from the Devil May Cry series .
The anime television series received mostly praise . Pedro Cortes from Japanator asserted , " Space Adventure Cobra is interesting in that it takes a shard of an idea from a classic and then spins it out into its own epic . " Cortes praised its " charming " designs , while criticized the main character lack of development as " the only negative thing . " He added , " There isn 't a ton of depth , but the show doesn 't pretend to be anything but a fun , sci @-@ fi romp around the galaxy . " ANN 's Theron Martin praised its " surprisingly solid " art " for a series of its era " and affirmed , " it does stand up well as high @-@ spirited , fun @-@ loving action fare with occasional darker overtones . " Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post said , " It 's simple but full of adventure , interesting characters and locations and a sense of fun that definitely makes it work in a very good way " and has " a solid visual design . " Washington , in a review for Otaku USA , commended that it " is entertaining overall " and has " an overall fun vibe " because of it " smooth " art ; he , however , criticized what he called " serious misogynistic tendencies . "
Cobra the Animation : The Psychogun and Rokunin no Yūshi have been well received by fans ; the OVA was among the best @-@ selling for two weeks , and the sixth volume of the anime series was one of the best @-@ selling DVDs for one week . Chris Beveridge from Mania.com praised the anime series and its visual design , comparing to the The Psychogun ones , but said it is not for those who are unaware the original series . He said the anime has " a healthy dose of action , the kind of sexuality that 's a trademark of the series ... as well as a good bit of silly fun " . In the second episode review , Beveridge said it " seems to be following much the same kind of pace and structure " as the OVAs . Its animation was compared with the Darkside Blues ; ANN 's Erin Finnegan said it was a " gritty " animation , but that from episode five , the animation quality looks more modern and much less gritty . Beveridge said the anime 's idea is simple , but added it is " also not a show you see often since it doesn 't center around teenagers , schools or the harem concept " . He said it is not " a great show " , but that " it gives us something different than the usual " — the reason it is " enjoyable " .
= The Lord of the Rings ( 1978 film ) =
The Lord of the Rings is a 1978 American high fantasy animated film directed by Ralph Bakshi . It is an adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien 's high fantasy epic The Lord of the Rings , comprising The Fellowship of the Ring and the first half of The Two Towers . Set in Middle @-@ earth , the film follows a group of hobbits , elves , men , dwarves , and wizards who form a fellowship . They embark on a quest to destroy the One Ring made by the Dark Lord Sauron , and ensure his destruction .
Ralph Bakshi encountered Tolkien 's writing early in his career , and had made several attempts to produce The Lord of the Rings as an animated film before being given funding by producer Saul Zaentz and distributor United Artists . The film is notable for its extensive use of rotoscoping , a technique in which scenes are first shot in live @-@ action , then traced onto animation cels . It uses a hybrid of traditional cel animation and rotoscoped live action footage . The film features the voices of William Squire , John Hurt , Michael Graham Cox , and Anthony Daniels , and was one of the first animated films to be presented theatrically in the Dolby Stereo sound system . The screenplay was written by Peter S. Beagle , based on an earlier draft by Chris Conkling .
Although Bakshi 's The Lord of the Rings was a financial success , it received mixed reactions from critics , and there was no official sequel to cover the remainder of the story . Nonetheless , the film instantly became a cult classic that continued to run as matinees and midnight movies for nearly two decades , and was an undeniable influence on Peter Jackson 's trilogy as was detailed in the DVD extras of The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring .
= = Plot = =
Early in the Second Age of Middle @-@ earth , elven smiths forge nine Rings of Power for mortal men , seven for the Dwarf @-@ Lords , and three for the Elf @-@ Kings . Soon after , the Dark Lord Sauron makes the One Ring , and uses it to attempt to conquer Middle @-@ earth . Following the Last Alliance of Elves and Men 's fall , the Ring is seized by Prince Isildur ; and after Isildur was killed by orcs , the Ring lies at the bottom of the river Anduin for over 2500 years . Over time , Sauron captures the Nine Rings and creates the Ringwraiths . The One Ring is discovered by Déagol , whose friend , Sméagol , kills him and takes the Ring for himself . The Ring twists his body and mind , and he becomes the creature Gollum ( Peter Woodthorpe ) . Hundreds of years later , Bilbo Baggins ( Norman Bird ) finds the Ring in Gollum 's cave and takes it back to the Shire .
Years later , during Bilbo 's birthday celebration , the wizard Gandalf ( William Squire ) tells him to leave the Ring for his relative Frodo ( Christopher Guard ) . Bilbo reluctantly agrees , and leaves the Shire . Seventeen years pass , during which Gandalf learns that evil forces have discovered that the Ring is in the possession of a Baggins . Gandalf meets with Frodo to explain the Ring 's history and the danger it poses ; and Frodo leaves his home , taking the Ring with him . He is accompanied by three hobbit friends , Pippin ( Dominic Guard ) , Merry ( Simon Chandler ) , and Sam ( Michael Scholes ) . After a narrow escape from the Ringwraiths , the hobbits eventually come to Bree , from which Aragorn ( John Hurt ) leads them to Rivendell . Frodo is stabbed atop Weathertop mountain by the chief of the Ringwraiths , and becomes sickened as the journey progresses . The Ringwraiths catch up with them shortly after they meet the elf Legolas ( Anthony Daniels ) ; and at a standoff at the ford of Rivendell , the Ringwraiths are swept away by the river .
At Rivendell , Frodo is healed by Elrond ( André Morell ) . He meets Gandalf again , after the latter escapes Saruman ( Fraser Kerr ) , who plans to ally with Sauron but also wants the Ring for himself . At a council , Bilbo , Gandalf , and others debate the One Ring , and Frodo volunteers to go to Mordor , where the Ring can be destroyed . Thereafter Frodo sets off from Rivendell with eight companions : Gandalf ; Aragorn ; Boromir ( Michael Graham Cox ) , son of the Steward of Gondor ; Legolas ; Gimli ( David Buck ) the dwarf ; and Frodo 's three hobbit companions .
Their attempt to cross the Misty Mountains is foiled by heavy snow , and they are forced into Moria . There , they are attacked by orcs , and Gandalf falls into an abyss while battling a balrog . The remaining Fellowship continue through the elf @-@ haven Lothlórien , where they meet the elf queen Galadriel ( Annette Crosbie ) . Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo , and Frodo continue his quest alone ; but Sam insists on accompanying him . Boromir is killed by orcs while trying to defend Merry and Pippin . They are captured by the orcs , who intend to take them to Isengard through the land of Rohan . The hobbits escape and flee into Fangorn Forest , where they meet Treebeard ( John Westbrook ) . Aragorn , Gimli , and Legolas track Merrry and Pippin into the forest , where they are re @-@ united with Gandalf , who was reborn after destroying the balrog .
The four then ride to Rohan 's capital , Edoras , where Gandalf persuades King Théoden ( Philip Stone ) that his people are in danger . Aragorn , Gimli , and Legolas then travel to the Helm 's Deep . Frodo and Sam discover Gollum stalking them in an attempt to reclaim the ring , and capture him ; but spare his life in return for guidance to Mount Doom . Gollum eventually begins plotting against them , and wonders if " she " might help . At Helm 's Deep , Théoden 's forces resist the orcs sent by Saruman , until Gandalf arrives with the absent Riders of Rohan , destroying the orc army .
= = Voice cast = =
Christopher Guard – Frodo
William Squire – Gandalf
Michael Scholes – Sam
John Hurt – Aragorn
Simon Chandler – Merry
Dominic Guard – Pippin
Norman Bird – Bilbo
Michael Graham Cox – Boromir
Anthony Daniels – Legolas
David Buck – Gimli
Peter Woodthorpe – Gollum
Fraser Kerr – Saruman
Philip Stone – Théoden
Michael Deacon – Wormtongue
André Morell – Elrond
Alan Tilvern – Innkeeper
Annette Crosbie – Galadriel
John Westbrook – Treebeard
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Ralph Bakshi was introduced to The Lord of the Rings during the mid @-@ 1950s while working as an animator for Terrytoons . In 1957 , the young animator started trying to convince people that the story could be told in animation . In 1969 , the rights were passed to United Artists , where filmmakers Stanley Kubrick and John Boorman each tried to adapt the story . ( Contrary to an urban legend , Disney never owned the rights to The Lord of the Rings . )
In the mid @-@ 1970s , Bakshi , who had since achieved box office success producing adult @-@ oriented animated films such as Fritz the Cat , learned of UA and Boorman 's attempts to adapt the story . He was told that Boorman had planned to produce all three parts of The Lord of the Rings as a single film , and commented , " I thought that was madness , certainly a lack of character on Boorman 's part . Why would you want to tamper with anything Tolkien did ? " When Boorman 's proposed adaptation fell apart , Bakshi approached the studio and proposed that he direct a three @-@ part animated film adaptation of the book :
" They said fine , because Boorman handed in this 700 @-@ page script , and do I want to read it ? I said , ' Well , is it all three books in one ? ' They said , ' Yes , but he 's changed a lot of the characters , and he 's added characters . He 's got some sneakers he 's merchandising in the middle . ' I said , ' No , I 'd rather not read it . I 'd rather do the books as close as we can , using Tolkien 's exact dialogue and scenes . ' They said , ' Fine , ' which knocked me down , ' because we don 't understand a word Boorman wrote . We never read the books . [ ... ] We ain 't got time to read it . You understand it , Ralph , so go do it . ' "
The Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer office was located in the same building , and Bakshi spoke to then @-@ president Dan Melnick . " I thought he would understand what The Rings meant , because UA did not . " Bakshi and Melnick made a deal with Mike Medavoy at United Artists to buy the Boorman script . " The Boorman script cost $ 3 million , so Boorman was happy by the pool , screaming and laughing and drinking , ' cause he got $ 3 million for his script to be thrown out . " However , after Melnick was fired from MGM , the deal fell through . Bakshi then contacted Saul Zaentz ( who had helped finance Fritz the Cat ) to ask him to produce The Lord of the Rings , and Zaentz agreed . Before the production started , the original three @-@ part adaptation was negotiated down to two parts at United Artists , and Bakshi met with Tolkien 's daughter Priscilla to discuss how the film would be made . She showed him the room where her father did his writing and drawing . Bakshi says , " My promise to Tolkien 's daughter was to be pure to the book . I wasn 't going to say , ' Hey , throw out Gollum and change these two characters . ' My job was to say , ' This is what the genius said . ' "
= = = Directing = = =
Bakshi said that one of the problems with the production was that the film was an epic , because " epics tend to drag . The biggest challenge was to be true to the book . " When asked what he was trying to accomplish with the film , Bakshi stated " The goal was to bring as much quality as possible to the work . I wanted real illustration as opposed to cartoons . " Bakshi said that descriptions of the characters were not included because they are seen in the film :
" It 's not that important to me how a hobbit looks . Everyone has their own idea of what the characters look like . It 's important to me that the energy of Tolkien survives . It 's important that the quality of animation matches the quality of Tolkien . Who cares how big Gandalf 's nose is ? The tendency of animation is just to worry about the drawing . If the movie works , whether you agree about Bilbo 's face or not , the rest becomes inconsequential . "
Bakshi 's major artistic influences on the film were classical illustrators such as Howard Pyle and N. C. Wyeth ; he stated that no contemporary illustrators were an influence on the style of the film .
" The film is a clash of a lot of styles like in all my films . I like moody backgrounds . I like drama . I like a lot of saturated color . Of course , a big problem was controlling the artists so they drew alike . How do you have 600 people draw one character alike ? The tendency is to want to let the artist have some freedom but then someone would leave off a hat or horn on a hat on a character . [ ... ] I think we 've achieved real illustration as opposed to cartoons . Artistically , we can do anything we want . "
= = = Screenwriting and development = = =
An early draft of the screenplay was written by Chris Conkling , who told the bulk of the story in flashback , from Merry Brandybuck 's point of view . After Bakshi and Zaentz saw Conkling 's first draft , fantasy author Peter S. Beagle was called in for a rewrite . According to the website of publisher Conlan Press , Beagle wrote multiple drafts of the script for only $ 5 @,@ 000 , on the strength of promises from Saul Zaentz to hire him for other , better @-@ paying projects afterward . Zaentz later reneged on these promises .
= = = Differences from the book = = =
The film makes some deviations from the book , but overall follows Tolkien 's narrative quite closely . Of the adaptation process , Bakshi stated that elements of the story " had to be left out but nothing in the story was really altered . " The film greatly condenses Frodo 's journey from Bag End to Bree . Stop @-@ overs at Farmer Maggot 's house , Frodo 's home in Buckland , and the house of the mysterious Tom Bombadil deep in the Old Forest are omitted . Maggot and his family and Bombadil and his wife Goldberry are thus all omitted , along with Fatty Bolger , a hobbit who accompanied Frodo at the beginning . According to Bakshi , the character of Tom Bombadil was " dropped " because " he didn 't move the story along . "
= = = Animation = = =
Publicity for the film announced that Bakshi had created " the first movie painting " by utilizing " an entirely new technique in filmmaking . " Much of the film used live @-@ action footage which was then rotoscoped to produce an animated look . This saved production costs and gave the animated characters a more realistic look . In animation historian Jerry Beck 's The Animated Movie Guide , reviewer Marea Boylan writes that " up to that point , animated films had not depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters . By using the rotoscope , Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live @-@ action footage and transform them into animation , thereby taking advantage of the complexity live @-@ action film can capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live @-@ action film . "
" I was told that at Disney the actor was told to play it like a cartoon with all that exaggeration . In Lord of the Rings , I had the actors play it straight . The rotoscope in the past has been used in scenes and then exaggerated . The action becomes cartoony . The question then comes up that if you 're not going to be cartoony , why animate ? [ ... ] It is the traditional method of rotoscoping but the approach is untraditional . It 's a rotoscope realism unlike anything that 's been seen . It really is a unique thing for animation . The number of characters moving in a scene is staggering . In The Lord of the Rings , you have hundreds of people in the scene . We have cels with a thousand people on them . It was so complex sometimes we 'd only get one cel a week from an artist . It turned out that the simple shots were the ones that only had four people in them . "
For the live @-@ action portion of the production , Bakshi and his cast and crew went to Spain , where the rotoscope models acted out their parts in costume . During the middle of a large shoot , union bosses called for a lunch break , and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table , and used the footage in the film . Many of the actors who contributed voices to this production also acted out their parts for rotoscoped scenes . The actions of Bilbo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee were performed by Billy Barty , while Sharon Baird served as the performance model for Frodo Baggins . Other performers used on the rotoscoping session included John A. Neris as Gandalf , Walt Robles as Aragorn , Felix Silla as Gollum , Jeri Lea Ray as Galadriel and Aesop Aquarian as Gimli . Although some cel animation was produced and shot for the film , very little of it appears in the final film . Most of the film 's crowd and battle scenes use a different technique , in which live @-@ action footage is solarized ( per an interview with the film 's cinematographer , Timothy Galfas , in the documentary Forging Through the Darkness : the Ralph Bakshi Vision for The Lord of the Rings ) to produce a more three @-@ dimensional look . In a few shots the two techniques are combined .
Bakshi claimed he " didn 't start thinking about shooting the film totally in live action until I saw it really start to work so well . I learned lots of things about the process , like rippling . One scene , some figures were standing on a hill and a big gust of wind came up and the shadows moved back and forth on the clothes and it was unbelievable in animation . I don 't think I could get the feeling of cold on the screen without showing snow or an icicle on some guy 's nose . The characters have weight and they move correctly . " After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines , helicopters , and cars could be seen in the footage Bakshi had shot , they tried to incinerate the footage , telling Bakshi 's first assistant director that " if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out , no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again . "
Following the live @-@ action shoot , each frame of the live footage was printed out , and placed behind an animation cel . The details of each frame were copied and painted onto the cel . Both the live @-@ action and animated sequences were storyboarded . Of the production , Bakshi is quoted as saying ,
" Making two pictures [ The live action reference and the actual animated feature . ] in two years is crazy . Most directors when they finish editing , they are finished ; we were just starting . I got more than I expected . The crew is young . The crew loves it . If the crew loves it , it 's usually a great sign . They aren 't older animators trying to snow me for jobs next year . "
Although he continued to use rotoscoping in American Pop , Hey Good Lookin ' , and Fire and Ice , Bakshi later regretted his use of rotoscoping , stating that he felt that it was a mistake to trace the source footage rather than using it as a guide .
Mike Ploog ( co @-@ creator of Werewolf by Night ) was one of numerous staff taking a role in animation on this film . Ploog also was involved in other Ralph Bakshi animations , notably Wizards and Hey Good Lookin ' .
= = = Music = = =
The film score was composed by Leonard Rosenman . Bakshi wanted to include music by Led Zeppelin but producer Saul Zaentz insisted upon an orchestral score because he would not be able to release the band 's music on his Fantasy Records label . Bakshi later stated that he hated Rosenman 's score , which he found to be too cliché . In Lord of the Rings : Popular Culture in Global Context , Ernest Mathijs writes that Rosenman 's score " is a middle ground between his more sonorous but dissonant earlier scores and his more traditional ( and less challenging ) sounding music [ ... ] In the final analysis , Rosenman 's score has little that marks it out as distinctively about Middle Earth , relying on traditions of music ( including film music ) more than any specific attempt to paint a musical picture of the different lands and peoples of Tolkien 's imagination . " The film 's score was issued as a double @-@ LP soundtrack album in 1978 . A limited collector edition was created by Fantasy Records as a picture disc double LP featuring four scenes : The Hobbits leaving Hobbiton , The Ringwraiths at Bree , Gandalf and the Balrog , Journey with the Orcs . In 2001 , the album was reissued on compact disc , with bonus tracks .
= = Sequel = =
The film was originally intended to be distributed as The Lord of the Rings Part I. According to Bakshi , when he completed the film , United Artists executives told him that they were planning to release the film without indicating that a sequel would follow , because they felt that audiences would not pay to see half of a film :
" I told them they can 't drop the Part One , because people are going to come in thinking they 'll see the whole film , and it 's not there . We had a huge fight , and they released it as Lord of the Rings . So when it came to the end , people were stunned in the theater , even worse than I ever realized they would be , because they were expecting to see the whole film . People keep telling me I never finished the film . And I keep saying , ' That 's right ! ' "
" Had it said ' Part One , ' I think everyone would have respected it . But because it didn 't say ' Part One , ' everyone came in expecting to see the entire three books , and that 's where the confusion comes in . "
The Film Book of J.R.R. Tolkien 's the Lord of the Rings , published by Ballantine Books on October 12 , 1978 , still referred to the sequel in the book 's inside cover jacket . Bakshi states that he would never have made the film if he had known what would happen during the production . He is quoted as saying that the reason he made the film was " to save it for Tolkien , because I loved the Rings very much . "
Bakshi also stated that he felt that the film " took more out of me than I got back . "
" [ The film ] made me realize that I 'm not interested in [ adapting another writer 's story ] . That the thing that seemed to interest me the most was shooting off my big mouth , or sitting in a room and thinking about how do you feel about this issue or that issue and how do you get that over to an audience , was the most exciting part of my life . "
Eventually , the Rankin @-@ Bass studio , the company behind the 1977 animated adaptation of The Hobbit , released The Return of the King in 1980 as a sequel to The Hobbit , but also completing the story begun in Bakshi 's film by adapting the final novel , though the Rankin @-@ Bass production offers no stylistic continuation from the earlier film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Lord of the Rings was a financial success . The film grossed $ 30 @.@ 5 million at the box office , based on a $ 4 million budget .
The film 's distribution rights were transferred to Warner Bros. in 2001 .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The film was nominated for both the Hugo and Saturn Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation and Best Fantasy Film , respectively . Leonard Rosenman 's score was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Motion Picture Score , and Bakshi won a Golden Gryphon award for the film at the Giffoni Film Festival .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics were generally mixed in their responses to the film , but generally considered it to be a " flawed but inspired interpretation " . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the film a score of 50 % .
Frank Barrow of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film was " daring and unusual in concept . " Joseph Gelmis of Newsday wrote that " the film 's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment . " Roger Ebert called Bakshi 's effort a " mixed blessing " and " an entirely respectable , occasionally impressive job ... [ which ] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story . " Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film " both numbing and impressive . "
David Denby of New York magazine felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not previously read the book . Denby wrote that the film was too dark and lacked humor , concluding that " The lurid , meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end . " Michael Barrier , an animation historian , described The Lord of The Rings as one of two films that demonstrated " that Bakshi was utterly lacking in the artistic self @-@ discipline that might have permitted him to outgrow his limitations . "
= = = Recognition = = =
The film has been cited as an influence on director Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . After initially denying having seen Bakshi 's film , Jackson admitted to having first encountered The Lord of the Rings via Bakshi 's film , stating that the film was a " brave and ambitious attempt . " In another interview , Jackson stated that he " enjoyed [ the film ] and wanted to know more . " Bakshi is quoted as saying " Peter Jackson did say that the first film inspired him to go on and do the series , but that happened after I was bitching and moaning to a lot of interviewers that he said at the beginning that he never saw the movie . I thought that was kind of fucked up . " On the audio commentary for the DVD release of The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , Jackson acknowledges one shot , a low angle of a hobbit at Bilbo 's birthday party shouting " Proudfeet ! " , as an intentional homage to Bakshi 's film .
Bakshi is quoted as saying that he had " mixed feeling [ s ] " about Jackson 's adaptations , although he had not seen the films . " In some respects I feel good that Peter Jackson continued and went on , and in some respects I feel bad that Saul Zaentz , the producer , and various people never called me , thanked me , or asked my permission to do the movie . [ ... ] [ Nor ] has anyone sent me a bottle of wine , on the tremendous success . [ ... ] But I have more feelings on the business side of that than I do on the creative side . I 'm glad Peter Jackson had a movie to look at — I never did . And certainly there 's a lot to learn from watching any movie , both its mistakes and when it works . So he had a little easier time than I did , and a lot better budget . "
= = Legacy = =
The film was adapted into comic book form with artwork by Spanish artist Luis Bermejo , under license from Tolkien Enterprises . Three issues were published for the European market , starting in 1979 , and were not published in the United States or translated into English due to copyright problems .
Bakshi 's film sparked enough interest in Tolkien 's work to provoke not only an animated TV special produced by the Rankin @-@ Bass animation studio based on The Return of the King , but a complete adaptation of The Lord of the Rings on BBC Radio . For this broadcast , Michael Graham Cox and Peter Woodthorpe reprised their roles of Boromir and Gollum , respectively .
Warner Bros. ( the rights holder to the post @-@ 1973 Rankin @-@ Bass library and the pre @-@ 1990 Saul Zaentz theatrical library ) has released The Hobbit , The Lord of the Rings and The Return of the King on VHS and DVD , both packaged separately and as a boxed @-@ set " trilogy " of films . While the VHS version ends with the narrator saying " Here ends the first part of the history of the War of the Ring . " , the DVD version has an alternate narration : " The forces of darkness were driven forever from the face of Middle @-@ Earth by the valiant friends of Frodo . As their gallant battle ended , so , too , ends the first great tale of The Lord of the Rings . " The Lord of the Rings was released in a deluxe edition on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on April 6 , 2010 . The Lord of the Rings was selected as the 36th greatest animated film by Time Out magazine , and ranked as the 90th greatest animated film of all time by the Online Film Critics Society .
= South Bend , Indiana =
South Bend is a city in and the county seat of St. Joseph County , Indiana , United States , on the St. Joseph River near its southernmost bend , from which it derives its name . As of the 2010 census , the city had a total of 101 @,@ 168 residents ; its Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 318 @,@ 586 and Combined Statistical Area of 721 @,@ 296 . It is the fourth @-@ largest city in Indiana , serving as the economic and cultural hub of Northern Indiana . The highly ranked University of Notre Dame is located just to the north in unincorporated Notre Dame , Indiana and is an integral contributor to the region 's economy .
The area was originally settled in the early 19th century by fur traders and was established as a city in 1865 . The St. Joseph River shaped South Bend 's economy through the mid @-@ 20th century . River access assisted heavy industrial development such as that of the Studebaker Corporation , the Oliver Chilled Plow Company , and other large corporations .
The population of South Bend declined after 1960 , when it had a peak population of 132 @,@ 445 . This was chiefly due to migration to suburban areas as well as the demise of Studebaker and other heavy industry . Today , the largest industries in South Bend are health care , education , small business , and tourism . Remaining large corporations include Crowe Horwath , Honeywell , and AM General .
Recently , the city population has started to grow for the first time in nearly fifty years . The old Studebaker plant and surrounding area , now called Ignition Park , is being redeveloped as a technology center to attract new industry .
The city has also been featured in national news coverage for Mayor Pete Buttigieg , who has achieved recognition for his various economic development projects within the city , his position as the youngest mayor to be elected in a city of more than 100 @,@ 000 residents , and his essay in which he came out as the first openly gay executive in the state of Indiana .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The St. Joseph Valley was long occupied by Native Americans . One of the earliest known groups to occupy what would later become northern Indiana was the Miami tribe . Later , the Potawatomi moved into the region , utilizing the rich food and natural resources found along the river . The Potawatomi occupied this region of Indiana until most of them were forcibly removed in the 1840s . The South Bend area was so popular because its portage was the shortest overland route from the St. Joseph River to the Kankakee River . This route was used for centuries , first by the Native Americans , then by French explorers , missionaries and traders . The French explorer René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle , the first white European to set foot in what is now South Bend , used this portage between the St. Joseph River and the Kankakee River in December 1679 .
= = = First settlements = = =
The first permanent white settlers of South Bend were fur traders who established trading posts in the area . In 1820 , Pierre Frieschutz Navarre arrived , representing the American Fur Company ( AFC ) of John Jacob Astor . He settled near what is now downtown South Bend . Alexis Coquillard , another agent of the AFC , established a trading post known as the Big St. Joseph Station . In 1827 , Lathrop Minor Taylor established a post for Samuel Hanna and Company , in whose records the name St. Joseph 's , Indiana was used . By 1829 , the town was growing , with Coquillard and Taylor emerging as leaders . They applied for a post office . Taylor was appointed postmaster , and the post office was designated as Southold , Allen County , Indiana . The following year , the name was changed to South Bend , probably to ease confusion , as several other communities were named Southold at the time .
In 1831 , South Bend was laid out as the county seat and as one of the four original townships of St. Joseph County with 128 residents . Soon after , design began on what would become the town of South Bend . The town was formally established in 1835 and rapidly grew . In 1856 , attorney Andrew Anderson founded May Oberfell Lorber , the oldest business in St. Joseph County . He compiled a complete index of South Bend ’ s real estate records .
In 1841 , Schuyler Colfax was appointed St. Joseph County deputy auditor . Colfax purchased the South Bend Free Press and then turned it into the pro @-@ Whig newspaper , the St. Joseph Valley Register . He was a member of the state constitutional convention of 1850 where he opposed the barring of African American migration to Indiana . He joined the Republican party , like many Whigs of his day , and was elected to Congress in 1855 and became Speaker of the House in 1863 under Abraham Lincoln . In 1868 , he was elected Vice President under Ulysses S. Grant . Colfax returned to South Bend after his stint in Washington and was buried in the City Cemetery .
= = = Early business = = =
During the late 1830s through the 1850s , much of South Bend 's development centered on the industrial complex of factories located on the two races ( man @-@ made canals along the St. Joseph River in South Bend ) . Several dams were created , and factories were built on each side of the river . On October 4 , 1851 , the first steam locomotive entered South Bend . This led to a general shift of businesses from the river toward the railroad . In 1852 , Henry Studebaker set up Studebaker wagon shop , later becoming the world 's largest wagon builder and the only one to later succeed as an automobile manufacturer . The Singer Sewing Company and the Oliver Chilled Plow Company were among other companies that made manufacturing the driving force in the South Bend economy until the mid @-@ 20th century . Another important economic act was the dredging of the Kankakee River in 1884 to create farmland . During this time period there was a great immigration of Europeans , such as Polish , Hungarian , Irish , German , Italian , and Swedish people to South Bend because the rise of area factories .
South Bend benefited from its location on the Michigan Road , the main north – south artery of northern Indiana in the 19th century . Another significant development occurred near South Bend in 1842 , when Father Edward Sorin founded the University of Notre Dame just north of the town . It became a major factor in the area 's economy and culture .
= = = Establishment and Early History = = =
On May 22 , 1865 , South Bend was incorporated as a city , and its first elections were held on June 5 , 1865 , with William G.George elected as its first mayor
Olivet AME was founded in South Bend in March 1870 , making it the first African @-@ American church in the city . Olivet AME is still an active African Methodist Episcopal Church , and celebrated its 145th anniversary in 2015 .
A sergeant from South Bend fired the first American shells against Germany in World War I.
= = = = History with Ku Klux Klan = = = =
In 1923 , the African @-@ American owner of a soda fountain received a letter signed KKK threatening to kill an African @-@ American man held in the city 's jail and harm the rest of the city 's African @-@ American population . Within a few days over a thousand African @-@ Americans fled the city .
In 1924 , the Ku Klux Klan held a conference and planned a parade from its local headquarters at 230 S. Michigan St. In preparation , Klan members were posted around town to direct traffic . Notre Dame students , well aware of the anti @-@ Catholic nature of the Klan , did not take kindly to this state of affairs , and before noon all of the Klansmen @-@ cum @-@ traffic directors had been " unmasked and unrobed . " Notre Dame students continued the fight , with several hundred gathering outside of the Klan headquarters , throwing rocks and smashing windows in protest . Local police as well as Notre Dame officials eventually managed to convince them to return to campus . Apparently even legendary football coach Knute Rockne became involved in the struggle to calm down the students .
= = = Later business = = =
Other industries developed in South Bend in the early 20th century , including Birdsell Manufacturing Company , the Bendix Corporation , Honeywell , AlliedSignal , South Bend Lathe Works , the O 'Brien Paint Corp. , the South Bend Toy Company , South Bend Range , South Bend Bait Company , and South Bend Watch Company . Workers at the Bendix Corporation actually staged the first sit @-@ in strike in American history in 1936 . Fast development led to the creation of electric rail transportation throughout the area and , in 1925 , the South Shore interurban streetcar service was established from downtown South Bend to downtown Chicago . South Bend was the first community in the United States to have an electrified trolley system ( even though it was a few years before it was usable and profitable ) .
On June 30 , 1934 , the Merchants National Bank in South Bend was the last bank to be robbed by the notorious " Dillinger gang " .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1949 , legendary percussionist Lionel Hampton was informed that his concert at South Bend 's Palais du Royale would be a blacks only event ; he threatened to call for a boycott of the venue , and the affair proceeded as an integrated evening , which newspapers said led to all attendees breaking out in " paroxysms of ecstasy . "
By 1950 , more than half of all employment was in the manufacturing sector . Due to economic difficulties , Studebaker closed its automotive manufacturing plants in South Bend in December 1963 . A general decline in manufacturing soon followed as industry was being restructured nationwide . By the year 2000 , manufacturing was only 16 percent of the local economy . Due to the severe loss of jobs , the city 's population decreased by nearly 30 @,@ 000 people during that period .
In 1984 , South Bend community leaders began seeking a minor @-@ league baseball team for the city . A stadium was constructed in 1986 and a 10 @-@ year player @-@ development contract was signed with the Chicago White Sox . The team would be known as the South Bend White Sox . In 1994 , the team 's name was changed to the South Bend Silver Hawks . The Silver Hawks changed their name to The South Bend Cubs in 2015 . They are a Class A minor league affiliate of the Chicago Cubs in the Midwest League .
In 2015 , the City of South Bend celebrated its 150th birthday . The celebration , lasting a year long , culminated with a celebration along the St. Joseph River with the lighting of the first River Lights . Mayor Pete Buttigieg welcomed the coming of the next 150 years of South Bend ’ s heritage accompanied by five previous South Bend mayors : Steve Luecke , Joe Kernan , Roger Parent , Peter Nemeth and Jerry Miller .
As of 2015 , the city began seeing modest population growth of 286 for the first time in nearly fifty years . The old Studebaker plant in South Bend is currently a new tech center , as the city is trying to attract the new industry . The area where the plants were abandoned is now called Ignition Park and is attracting new businesses .
= = Geography = =
South Bend is located at 41 ° 40 ′ 21 ″ N 86 ° 15 ′ 19 ″ W ( 41 @.@ 672597 , − 86 @.@ 255157 ) , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the Michigan border and approximately equidistant from Illinois and Ohio . The city is 93 mi ( 150 km ) from Chicago . The nearest shore of Lake Michigan is 20 mi ( 32 km ) away .
According to the 2010 census , South Bend has a total area of 41 @.@ 877 square miles ( 108 @.@ 46 km2 ) , of which 41 @.@ 46 square miles ( 107 @.@ 38 km2 ) ( or 99 % ) is land and 0 @.@ 417 square miles ( 1 @.@ 08 km2 ) ( or 1 % ) is water .
= = = Cityscape = = =
The St. Joseph River flows from the east end of the city turning north near the city center , giving South Bend its name at the bend in the river . South Bend is located on the North @-@ South continental divide , and the river flows northwest into Lake Michigan . The downtown area is located in the north @-@ central part of the city along the St. Joseph River . Notre Dame , Indiana , is directly adjacent to the north . The city extends further north on the west side , mainly with manufacturing and distribution facilities near the South Bend International Airport . Mishawaka , Indiana , is adjacent to South Bend 's east side .
= = = Climate = = =
South Bend has a humid continental climate , with a Köppen climate classification of Dfa . Lake Michigan exerts a great influence on the climate of South Bend , including lake effect snow in winter and a tendency to moderate temperatures year round . June through August are the warmest months , with average temperatures above 69 ° F ( 21 ° C ) . Normally , 42 days with thunderstorms occur each year . The snowiest month is usually January , with snow fall normally recorded from October through April . On average , South Bend receives 81 @.@ 8 inches ( 208 cm ) of snow per year . Spring and fall can be mild and overcast , but also severely stormy at times with 293 partly cloudy to cloudy days each year .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 101 @,@ 168 people , 39 @,@ 760 households , and 23 @,@ 526 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 440 @.@ 1 inhabitants per square mile ( 942 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . There were 46 @,@ 324 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 117 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 431 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 60 @.@ 5 % White , 26 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 5 % Native American , 1 @.@ 3 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 6 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 4 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 39 @,@ 760 households of which 33 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 34 @.@ 9 % were married couples living together , 18 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , 5 @.@ 4 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 40 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 33 @.@ 3 % Of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 48 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 19 .
The median age in the city was 33 @.@ 3 years . 27 @.@ 3 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 10 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 27 @.@ 1 % were from 25 to 44 ; 23 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 12 @.@ 5 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 4 % male and 51 @.@ 6 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the 2000 census , there were 107 @,@ 789 people , 42 @,@ 908 households , and 25 @,@ 959 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 786 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 075 @.@ 9 / km ² ) . There were 46 @,@ 349 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 198 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 462 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 66 @.@ 1 % White , 24 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 4 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8 @.@ 5 % of the population .
Major ancestry groups reported by residents : Black or African American - 25 % , German - 17 % , Polish - 10 % , Irish - 10 % , Mexican - 7 % , English - 6 % , " United States / American " - 4 % , Hungarian - 3 % , Italian - 3 % , French ( except Basque ) - 2 % .
There were 42 @,@ 908 households out of which 30 @.@ 5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 39 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 17 @.@ 0 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 5 % were non @-@ families . Of all households , 32 @.@ 5 % were made up of individuals and 12 @.@ 7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 12 .
The city 's population was distributed across all age groups , with 27 @.@ 3 % under the age of 18 , 10 @.@ 4 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 33 years . For every 100 females there were 91 @.@ 1 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 86 @.@ 7 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 32 @,@ 439 , and the median income for a family was $ 39 @,@ 046 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 958 versus $ 23 @,@ 744 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 121 . About 13 @.@ 6 % of families and 16 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 24 @.@ 0 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
Per the 2013 American Community Survey of the U.S. Census Bureau , the following ancestries were reported : African @-@ American - 26 % , German - 14 @.@ 8 % , Irish - 10 @.@ 4 % , Polish - 8 @.@ 2 % , English - 5 @.@ 0 % , American - 3 @.@ 3 % , Italian - 2 @.@ 6 % , Hungarian - 2 @.@ 4 % , French - 2 @.@ 0 % , Dutch - 1 @.@ 4 % , Swedish - 1 @.@ 1 % , Belgian - 0 @.@ 9 % .
= = Economy = =
South Bend 's location on the St. Joseph River led to an industrial @-@ based economy in the late 19th century and early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 20th century . In 1923 , industrialist and entrepreneur Vincent H. Bendix selected South Bend as the site of his new manufacturing plant for automotive parts . He chose South Bend primarily because it was on a rail line midway between Chicago and Detroit , the two automotive manufacturing centers of the United States at the time . Eventually , the Bendix corporation built a vast manufacturing complex on its South Bend acreage served by the major railroads , including a huge shipping and receiving building where railroad cars could enter at one end , unload , and depart at the opposite end .
By the end of World War II , manufacturing began to diminish . The Studebaker plant , which had at one time employed 45 @,@ 000 citizens , closed in 1963 ; its engine block plant shuttered the following year . Parts of the Bendix factory complex were later acquired and subdivided between Honeywell Corporation and Bosch Corporation respectively . Honeywell Aerospace continues to manufacture aviation products at its former Bendix facility . In 2010 , Bosch announced that it would cease all operations at its Bendix plant location in South Bend by the end of 2011 . Bosch vacated the building entirely in October 2012 . Curtis Products of South Bend moved into the building in May 2013 .
= = = Employers = = =
Since the 1960s , education , health care , and small business have come to the forefront of South Bend 's economy , though the city has never regained the level of prosperity it enjoyed before that time . Nearby University of Notre Dame is a large contributor to the local economy . The university is the largest employer in St. Joseph County , employing 5 @,@ 590 people .
Health care is another major contributor to the South Bend economy . In 2012 , Memorial Health System announced that it was merging with Elkhart General Hospital , located in Elkhart County , to form Beacon Health System . Beacon is the second largest employer in the city , employing 3 @,@ 450 people . Other notable businesses include Honeywell , Bosch , and PEI Genesis . AM General , Crowe Horwath , Martin 's Super Markets , and Schurz Communications all have corporate headquarters in South Bend .
According to the 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the city 's top employers are :
= = = Technology = = =
Efforts are under way to spur economic growth in South Bend . The St. Joe Valley Metronet is a 50 @-@ mile dark , fiber optic network that encircles South Bend and Mishawaka that allows for strong telecommunications connectivity . The South Bend Metronet , named Zing , is bringing more high @-@ tech firms to the city and surrounding area . This telecommunications network has allowed for the advent of various data centers in South Bend , which serves as a hub between Chicago , Indianapolis , Detroit , and Cincinnati . The City of South Bend recently announced it will provide free wireless internet access via the Metronet in the city 's downtown and East Bank areas .
The Union Station Technology Center was bought from the city in 1979 and is currently Northern Indiana 's largest data center . It is also home to enFocus , a fellowship program that began in 2012 which employs local graduates who work on local projects with a focus on innovation and social entrepreneurship . There are currently plans to extend the data center into a fully operating high tech data hub in the old Studebaker " Ivy Tower " assembly plant next door , creating what will be called the Renaissance District . This project is set to break ground in 2015 and could take more than a decade to fully complete .
= = = = Innovation park and Ignition park = = = =
Innovation Park and Ignition Park , dual @-@ certified technology parks , have already attracted technology businesses to South Bend . Located across the street from the University of Notre Dame , Innovation Park was completed in 2009 and houses innovative researchers from companies and the university . Ignition Park , located just south of the downtown area , is planned to become home to 3 million square feet of high tech space on 140 acres of land previously owned by the Studebaker Corporation . The first tenant , Data Realty , moved into the location in the fall of 2012 . The second building in the new park will be used as a research and testing facility for massive turbo machinery as part of a partnership between the city , General Electric , Great Lakes Capital , Indiana Michigan Power , University of Notre Dame , and the state of Indiana . This project began construction in 2015 and is expected to have an economic impact of $ 15 million annually .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
Redevelopment is underway for some of the abandoned industrial facilities , with the abandoned Oliver Corporation buildings being the most recent example of reclaimed property . The city also faced programs with large swaths of vacant housing after the decline of the manufacturing industry . In 2013 , 1 @,@ 347 homes were vacant or abandoned . However , the city created the Vacant and Abandoned Properties Initiative in February 2013 , which aimed to take care of 1 @,@ 000 vacant or abandoned homes in 1 @,@ 000 days , either through demolition , repairing , or some other satisfactory means . As of June 2015 , 828 homes have been demolished , repaired , or handed off to partners .
The Smart Street Initiative , a 20 @-@ year plan to make the city safer for pedestrians , bicyclists , and motorists , began in 2013 with the conversion of one @-@ way streets to two @-@ way streets . The hope is to bring more businesses to the area , create shorter travel routes , and a reduce in speeding . This phase of the project is expected to be completed in 2016 . The other part of the initiative is the West Side Main Streets Plan , which is a revitalization plan for the Lincoln Way West and Western Avenue corridor focusing on guiding business owners , residents , and developers to improve the street front by offering a reimbursement on exterior improvements from the city and the Urban Enterprise Association .
= = = Recognition = = =
In 2012 , Kiplinger 's Personal Finance ranked South Bend eighth in the " Ten Best Cities for Cheapskates " . South Bend was also ranked among the 40 hottest real estate markets for business by Expansion Management magazine , and Smart + Connected Communities Institute featured South Bend as one of the top ten cities worldwide that is reinventing themselves through technology .
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Culture = = =
South Bend was influenced by a large influx of Polish Catholic immigrants in the late 19th century . Dyngus Day is widely celebrated on the Monday after Easter and is the beginning of the city elections campaign season . Fat Tuesday is also celebrated in South Bend , with paczkis being a staple food product in the city for the day . The city and surrounding county have 23 Catholic churches , 11 Catholic schools and three Catholic universities ( the University of Notre Dame , Holy Cross College , and Saint Mary 's College , all located in the adjacent city of Notre Dame ) .
= = = Music Festivals = = =
The city has several annual festivals . The South Bend International Festival began ten years ago as the South Bend Reggae Festival and now features local and international musical artists who perform in African , Latino , and American cultural styles . Proceeds from the festival are given to the Pangani Foundation of South Bend , which provides medical supplies to hospitals in Malawi .
WBYT FM - B100 ( Country Station ) hosts an Annual All Day Country Concert , with over 37 @,@ 000 free tickets in early September .
The World Pulse Festival , broadcast by LeSEA Broadcasting network , is held annually in South Bend . It is hosted by Pulse FM , a local Christian music radio station . The event is an annual Contemporary Christian music festival , attracting more than 50 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
In 2013 , a new annual festival began in South Bend called South by South Bend , named after the famous South By Southwest of Austin , TX . The festival is a celebration of the local music scene , with local bands and artists performing on the park grounds and other public venues around the city . The goals of the festival include strengthening the bond between the communities of South Bend and Notre Dame , supporting local artistic expression , and promoting local business . In 2015 , the festival was renamed Sounds by South Bend , to avoid confusion with the Austin festival and more accurately represent the purpose of the event .
= = = Museums , arts and entertainment = = =
The South Bend Museum of Art is located in Century Center in downtown South Bend . The museum was opened to the public in March 1996 , and features a variety of artists from South Bend and the Michiana region . Currently , over 850 works are featured in the permanent collection . The museum also offers several classes and workshops for adults and children .
= = = = The History Museum = = = =
The History Museum is the public name of the Northern Indiana Historical Society , the second @-@ oldest historical society in Indiana , which was established in 1867 to collect and interpret the history of the northern Indiana region by St. Joseph County 's leading citizens . The Oliver Mansion ( also known by its original name , Copshaholm ) is one of the central features of the museum . The 38 @-@ room mansion was built in 1895 and is currently listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The home was built by Joseph Doty Oliver , the son of James Oliver , the founder of the Oliver Farm Equipment Company , once the largest plow manufacturer in the United States . In addition to the Oliver Mansion and the Workers Home ( a 1920s Polish @-@ American family home ) , and museum includes areas dedicated to the history of the St. Joseph River Valley , the University of Notre Dame , the All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League , and the Kidsfirst Children 's Museum .
= = = = Studebaker National Museum = = = =
The Studebaker National Museum holds a large collection of wagons and automobiles from the 150 @-@ year history of the Studebaker Corporation . The museum began as a collection of wagons and automobiles produced by Studebaker , including the presidential carriages of Lincoln , McKinley , Harrison , and Grant . The company donated the collection to the city of South Bend in 1966 . The collection was housed in various locations from Century Center to its current location in downtown South Bend , adjacent to The History Museum . The two museums share one campus , and together form The Museums at Washington and Chapin . The former South Bend mansion of Clement Studebaker , named Tippecanoe Place , is now a restaurant .
= = = = Theatric buildings = = = =
The Morris Performing Arts Center , built in 1922 , included the Palace Theater , a venue for vaudeville . The theatre 's heyday was in 1940 with the premiere of Knute Rockne , All American , starring Ronald Reagan . A crowd estimated at 24 @,@ 000 gathered outside . The theater was scheduled for demolition in 1959 , when E. M. Morris purchased the facility and sold it to the city for one dollar , after which it was renamed the Morris Civic Auditorium . A total renovation was completed in 2000 . The Morris Performing Arts Center also includes the Palais Royale Ballroom , on which restoration was recently completed.The center houses the Broadway Theater League and the South Bend Symphony Orchestra . The orchestra 's Shanghai @-@ born conductor , Tsung Yeh , was the first conductor ever to hold music directorships of both a western symphony orchestra and a major Chinese orchestra . Marian High School holds its graduation ceremony at the theater .
South Bend is also home to The South Bend Hot Patooties , a group that performs a shadowcast of The Rocky Horror Picture Show . The group has performed at various South Bend venues including the State Theater , Legends of Notre Dame , The Potawatomi Conservatories , and the historic Birdsell Mansion .
The South Bend Civic Theatre , founded in 1957 , was for many years located at The Firehouse , 701 Portage Avenue . In 2007 , a new theatre opened at 403 North Main Street , in what was formerly the Scottish Rite Building . The new facility includes a 209 @-@ seat main @-@ stage auditorium and a 90 @-@ seat " black @-@ box " studio theatre . The South Bend Civic Theatre produces more than a dozen plays per year , including several productions in its Family Series .
= = = = Other = = = =
The Fischoff National Chamber Music Association , sponsor of the world 's largest chamber music competition , was founded in South Bend in 1973 . The annual Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition is held on the campus of the University of Notre Dame .
Schuyler Colfax , the 17th Vice President of the United States , is interred in South Bend City Cemetery .
= = Sports = =
= = = South Bend Cubs = = =
The city is home to the South Bend Cubs , a Class A Minor League Baseball team , which plays at Four Winds Field at Coveleski Stadium in downtown South Bend . In 2014 , the franchise changed its name and logo to the South Bend Cubs and became affiliated with the Chicago Cubs ; prior to this , it had been known as the South Bend Silver Hawks and affiliated with the Arizona Diamondbacks . In 2005 , the franchise nearly moved to Marion , Illinois , but a group of investors , led by former Indiana Governor and South Bend Mayor Joe Kernan , bought the Silver Hawks in order to ensure the team stayed in South Bend .
= = = = Buildings and stadium = = = =
The Ballpark Synagogue is a 1901 synagogue building on the grounds of the ballpark , which serves as the team 's Fan store . It is the Nation 's only Ballpark Synagogue and it is available for weddings and other events . The stadium is also used for multiple community events . In 2015 , the South Bend Cubs broke their previous ticket sales record , with a total of 347 @,@ 678 tickets sold .
= = = South Bend Roller Girls = = =
The city also hosts the South Bend Roller Girls , the city 's non @-@ profit flat @-@ track roller derby league . Founded in March 2010 , the league has worked to support fundraising for local charities , such as the Salvation Army 's Adopt @-@ A @-@ Family program , the American Cancer Society 's Making Strides Against Breast Cancer , and the St. Joe County Humane Society . The South Bend Roller Girls traveling / competitive team , The Studebreakers , is named after the historic Studebaker Corporation . The team is a member of the Women 's Flat Track Derby Association .
= = = East Race Waterway = = =
South Bend is home to the first artificial whitewater center in North America , the East Race Waterway , which is adjacent to Century Center . The East Race Waterway is one of only four operating artificial whitewater facilities in the United States , the others being Dickerson Whitewater Course ( in Dickerson , Maryland ) , U.S. National Whitewater Center ( in Charlotte , North Carolina ) , Adventure Sports Center International ( in McHenry , Maryland ) , and Riversports Rapids ( in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma ) . The East Race Waterway is one of only six such facilities to have ever been operated in the US , the others being the four aforementioned courses and the now @-@ defunct Ocoee Whitewater Center ( in Ducktown , Tennessee ) . Prior to the opening of Riversports Rapids , the East Race had long been the only such US facility not located in an East Coast state .
= = = Other sports = = =
During World War II , the South Bend Blue Sox All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League team was formed in the city . The team participated in all the league 's seasons from 1943 to 1954 .
High @-@ school sports are also a big draw in South Bend .
The Notre Dame Fighting Irish provide much of the sports action for the South Bend locale . Football Saturdays have become a major event for the city , attracting fans who come to watch the game and have tailgate parties . Notre Dame basketball games are also popular , along with other university sports . The College Football Hall of Fame was moved from Kings Mills , Ohio , to downtown South Bend in 1995 , though the Hall of Fame relocated to Atlanta , Georgia in 2014 .
The Blackthorn Golf Course in South Bend is home to the Four Winds Invitational of the Symetra Tour .
Along with Notre Dame , South Bend was the site of the VII Special Olympics Summer World Games in 1987 . Notre Dame also hosted the 1983 AAU Junior Olympics .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The Potawatomi Zoo opened in 1902 and is the oldest in the state . It was originally founded in Leeper Park and was moved to its current location in Potawatomi Park in 1912 . It features more than 400 animals in its 23 acres ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The zoo is run by the South Bend Parks and Recreation Department . Along with the zoo , the South Bend Parks and Recreation department operates over 50 parks , golf courses , and recreational areas throughout the city . Notable parks include Rum Village Park , which has a disc golf course , mountain bike trails , hiking trails , and a nature center , and Potawatomi Park , which has the region 's largest Universally Accessible Playground and an outdoors Performance Arts Pavilion and viewing area .
Near the Potawatomi Zoo are the Potawatomi Greenhouses and the Ella Morris and Muessel @-@ Ellison Botanical Conservatories . The greenhouses were originally constructed in the 1920s , with the conservatories added in the 1960s . In 2007 , the greenhouses and conservatories were in danger of closing due to increased operating costs , but a campaign by the Botanical Society of South Bend was able to raise funds to keep the facilities operating .
The city is home to the East Race Waterway , which is used for boating and water sports ( see above ) .
While developing the 2006 City Plan , the city 's 20 @-@ year comprehensive plan , citizens said the encouragement of bicycling as a form of alternative transportation was a top priority . In 2010 , South Bend became one of 303 communities in the United States to be recognized as a " Bicycle @-@ Friendly Community " by the League of American Bicyclists due to the city 's " remarkable commitments to bicycling . The city has developed a long @-@ term plan for building a 116 @-@ mile South Bend Bikeway network . As of late 2014 , 66 @.@ 8 miles of bicycle routes have been established : 17 @.@ 4 miles of multipurpose paths separated from streets , 17 @.@ 0 miles of striped bike lanes , and 32 @.@ 4 other designated on @-@ street routes . The area is also served by the St. Joseph County Parks Dept , which maintains eight different parks and recreation areas . The Parks department serves the metro area and is headed by a permanent staff ( Director- Evie Kirkwood ) and an appointed Board ( Larry Catanzarite - President )
= = Law and government = =
South Bend government follows the mayor @-@ council representative model of municipal government and , along with the St. Joseph county government , occupies the County @-@ City Building in downtown South Bend .
The government of South Bend is led by the office of the mayor , who is elected to a four @-@ year term and acts as chief executive for the city government . The current mayor is Pete Buttigieg .
The legislative branch of the South Bend government is the Common Council . The council is composed of nine members , each elected to a four @-@ year term . South Bend is divided into six districts , with each district electing one council member . The final three members are elected at @-@ large . Under Indiana law , the council may pass resolutions and ordinances.Resolutions relate to internal council procedures , while ordinances address municipal codes .
The final elected member of the South Bend government is the City Clerk , who is responsible for maintaining official city records and providing general clerical assistance to the City Council .
Michael A. Dvorak is the Prosecuting Attorney for the 60th Judicial Circuit , which consists of St. Joseph County . He was first elected in 2002 .
= = = State and national representation = = =
South Bend is represented in the Indiana House of Representatives by B. Patrick Bauer , David L. Niezgodski , and Ryan Dvorak , and in the Indiana State Senate by John Broden . All members of the Indiana General Assembly representing South Bend are Democrats .
South Bend is part of Indiana ’ s 2nd Congressional District , represented by Republican Jackie Walorski .
= = = Politics = = =
The Democratic Party is very successful in South Bend . Every South Bend mayor since 1972 has been a Democrat . As of July 2015 , all but one City Council member are Democrats .
On March 26 , 2012 , South Bend passed the Human Rights Ordinance , outlawing discrimination in employment , housing , or other areas against citizens based on “ race , religion , color , sex , disability , national origin , ancestry , sexual orientation or gender identity , or familial status . ” It is one of only 6 cities in Indiana to offer legal protections for citizens based on sexual orientation and gender identity . The protections are enforced by the city ’ s Human Rights Commission , which oversees investigation and legal recourse in cases of discrimination .
In July 2014 , South Bend Common Council member Henry Davis Jr. was arrested on an OWI charge . Davis was previously subject to a formal complaint about a Facebook post involving bestiality .
On June 16 , 2015 , incumbent Mayor Pete Buttigieg announced in a South Bend Tribune editorial that he is gay , becoming the first openly @-@ gay executive in the state of Indiana .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
The police force in South Bend has undergone many changes and expansions in its history , starting in 1831 when the first constables were appointed . Law enforcement was reorganized and renamed multiple times throughout its history , until the department became officially known as the South Bend Police Department in 1903 . The current Chief of Police is Scott Ruszkowski .
= = Education = =
= = = Colleges = = =
The South Bend area is home to several institutions of higher learning , the most famous of which is the University of Notre Dame . Located to the north of South Bend in Notre Dame , Indiana , the University of Notre Dame was founded in 1842 by Father Edward Sorin , a French priest , before South Bend was incorporated as a city in 1865 . It has been an intrinsic part of the South Bend area and continues to have a great effect on South Bend 's culture and economy . Saint Mary 's College and Holy Cross College are also located in nearby Notre Dame , IN .
Indiana University South Bend is the third @-@ largest campus in the Indiana University system . Its total enrollment during the 2014 @-@ 15 school year was 7 @,@ 859 students . Other universities with campuses in South Bend include The Purdue Polytechnic Institute , Brown Mackie College , Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana , and ITT Technical Institute .
= = = K @-@ 12 schools = = =
Public schools in South Bend are operated by the South Bend Community School Corporation . The corporation runs 18 primary centers ( grades K @-@ 4 ) , ten intermediate centers ( grades 5 @-@ 8 ) , and six high schools ( grades 9 @-@ 12 ) , serving 19 @,@ 308 students during the 2014 @-@ 15 school year .
South Bend is also home to Veritas Academy , Indiana 's first charter school . Two other charter schools , Xavier School of Excellence and Career Academy South Bend , opened in 2009 and 2011 , respectively .
There are also several private schools : namely , Trinity School at Greenlawn , recipient of four Blue Ribbon Awards from the U.S. Department of Education , and The Stanley Clark School . Additionally , the Diocese of Fort Wayne @-@ South Bend operates eleven parochial grade schools and one high school in South Bend .
= = Places of worship = =
South Bend is home to over 100 places of worship , including mostly Christian churches , three synagogues , and one mosque .
Christian churches
Non @-@ Christian places of worship
Hebrew Orthodox Congregation
Islamic Society of Michiana
Sinai Synagogue ( Conservative Judaism )
Temple Beth @-@ El ( Reform Judaism )
= = = Former places of worship = = =
B 'nai Israel Synagogue ( Reconstructionist ; formerly Orthodox ) , closed in 1990
First Presbyterian Church , congregation moved to new building
= = Media = =
= = = Newspaper = = =
One major daily newspaper serves the South Bend Metro area , the South Bend Tribune . It is distributed throughout the Michiana region and publishes five editions including a Metro edition , a Mishawaka edition , a Michigan edition , a Penn @-@ Harris @-@ Madison East edition , and a Marshall edition . The South Bend Tribune is owned by Schurz Communications , a South Bend corporation that owns and operates 42 newspaper publications nationwide .
= = = Radio = = =
South Bend 's radio stations ' formats include public radio , classical music , religious , country , classic rock , and urban contemporary , among others . For more information , see List of radio stations in Indiana .
= = = Television = = =
As of the 2015 @-@ 2016 rankings , the South Bend @-@ Elkhart designated market area is the 96th largest market in the United States , with 310 @,@ 170 homes ( 0 @.@ 27 % of the U.S. population ) . Most of the major television networks have affiliates in the Michiana area .
Television stations located in South Bend include WNDU @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WNIT @-@ TV ( PBS ) , WHME @-@ TV ( LeSEA ) , WBND @-@ LD ( ABC ) , WCWW @-@ LD ( CW ) and WMYS @-@ LD ( My Network TV ) . WSBT @-@ TV ( CBS ) is located in nearby Mishawaka . WSJV ( Fox ) also broadcasts in the greater South Bend region from Elkhart . MATV is the local Public Access Television station serving St. Joseph County in Indiana , and functions at the WNIT @-@ TV ( PBS ) station .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Roads = = = =
South Bend 's location around the St. Joseph River has influenced the development of its streets . While city streets mainly follow a grid layout , road development also adapted to the river 's path . South Bend is connected to state and national highway systems by State Roads 2 , 23 , and 933 ; U.S. Route 20 and 31 ; and Interstate 80 and 90 , the Indiana Toll Road . Original routes of both the Lincoln Highway and the Dixie Highway also pass through South Bend . The headquarters for the Lincoln Highway Association are in South Bend .
For transportation around the South Bend metro area , the St. Joseph Valley Parkway , constructed between 1960 and 1990 , connects Benton Harbor , Michigan , to South Bend , Mishawaka , and Elkhart , Indiana . While segments are designated as U.S. 20 , U.S. 31 , and State Road 331 , it is simply referred to locally as " the bypass " . The Indiana Toll Road ( Interstates 80 and 90 ) passes through northern South Bend .
= = = = Local public transportation = = = =
Public transportation in South Bend is controlled by TRANSPO ( South Bend Public Transportation Corporation ) . TRANSPO operates bus routes between stations located in South Bend and Mishawaka and provides services to the towns of Osceola and Roseland , from Monday through Saturday . In 2006 , the TRANSPO fleet switched to bio @-@ diesel fuel . In 2015 , TRANSPO added 16 new buses powered by compressed natural gas . The TRANSPO facility is also the first LEED Platinum transit facility in the country .
= = = = Regional and national transportation = = = =
South Bend serves as the transportation hub for Michiana . The South Bend International Airport lies off of U.S. 31 and the Indiana Toll Road in the northwest corner of South Bend . The airport connects South Bend to larger hubs including Atlanta , Chicago , Detroit , Las Vegas , Minneapolis , New York City , Orlando , Phoenix , and St. Petersburg , Florida . Over one million passengers are served annually , making it the second busiest airport in Indiana . In April 2014 , the airport changed its name from " South Bend Regional Airport " to the current " South Bend International " after receiving International designation from U.S. Customs and Border Protection . Final design plans are being approved for a Federal Inspection Station and General Aviation Facility . Construction is expected to begin in the fall of 2015 .
The South Shore Line , an electric commuter railroad , connects the South Bend International Airport to Millennium Station in downtown Chicago . Due to increased ridership since 2005 between Chicago and South Bend , more cars are being added .
Amtrak , the national passenger rail system , provides service to South Bend Station via two trains , the Lake Shore Limited to Chicago , New York City , and Boston , and the Capitol Limited to Chicago and Washington , D.C. A bus line connects Notre Dame and the South Bend airport to Chicago 's O 'Hare and Midway airports , with several northwest Indiana stops .
= = = Utilities = = =
Electricity in South Bend is provided by Indiana Michigan Power , a subsidiary of American Electric Power . Natural gas is supplied by the Northern Indiana Public Service Company ( NIPSCO ) .
The South Bend Water Works delivers water to residents of South Bend . The water is collected from 32 deep wells and runs through 545 miles ( 877 km ) of water main to be distributed to South Bend residents . In 2008 , in order to increase the efficiency of its sewer system , South Bend began the installation of an array of intelligent sensors and valves allowing it to become the first city to migrate its sewer system management to the cloud . When a section of the system is under heavy use , this system can divert flow to other , less busy , sections . Via more efficient sewage management this system has helped to save the city an estimated 100 million dollars in new sewage pipes .
= = = Environmental Initiatives = = =
South Bend has recently engaged in a partnership with the University of Notre Dame to revitalize the Bowman Creek ecosystem . Bowman Creek is a tributary of the St. Joseph River in South Bend , Indiana that has recently suffered from contamination . The Bowman Creek initiative included partners from local high schools , colleges , and business leaders focused on improvements to both the creek and the neighborhoods . The vision for the collaboration is to institute a unique water quality monitoring system , similar to South Bend 's combined sewer overflow system .
= = Notable people = =
Michael Alig , socialite , co @-@ founding member of the Club Kids , co @-@ murderer of Angel Melendez
Elijah Anderson , sociologist and author of Code of the Street
Brett Banasiewicz , BMX rider
Ollie Bejma , baseball player
John Bromfield , actor
Frank Bykowski , NFL player
Brendan Bayliss , guitarist , Umphrey 's McGee
Skylar Diggins , basketball player
Schuyler Colfax , 17th Vice President of the United States
Dick Durock , stuntman and actor
Debra Elmegreen , astronomer
Chad Everett , actor
Vivica Fox , actress
Josh Garrels , musician
Mary Lou Graham , AAGPBL player for the South Bend Blue Sox
Nathan Gunn , operatic baritone
Mark Hazinski , 2004 USA Olympian in table tennis
Frances Janssen , AAGPBL player and Northern Indiana Historical Society researcher
Luther Johnson , Indy car driver
Kenn Kaufman , naturalist and author
Glenna Sue Kidd , AAGPBL player for the South Bend Blue Sox
Bernard Kilgore , journalist , Wall Street Journal
Sneaky Pete Kleinow , musician
Marie Kruckel , AAGPBL player for the South Bend Blue Sox and a 38 @-@ year teacher at Clay High School
J. C. McDonald , Indy car driver
Steve Nemeth , American player of gridiron football
Ryan Newman , NASCAR Sprint Cup Series driver
Dean Norris , actor
James Oliver , inventor and industrialist best known for creating South Bend Iron Works , which was reincorporated as Oliver Farm Equipment Company after his death
Alex Penkala , WWII veteran , part of the US Army 101st Airborne Division 506th PIR made famous by the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers , he along with friend Warren Muck were killed by German artillery outside the Belgian town of Foy on January 10 , 1945 during the Battle of the Bulge
Kenneth Rexroth , poet , translator of the classical Chinese poets , essayist , intellectual , anarchist .
George Rickey , kinetic sculptor
Mike Salay , Indy car driver
Paul Smith ( clergy ) , First African American minister at historic First Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn , New York ; multicultural consultant , civil rights activist , university administrator , teacher , author
Emerson Spartz , media mogul
Jules C. Stein , music industry executive
David Stremme , NASCAR driver
Studebaker Brothers , founders of Studebaker Corporation
Alexander Toradze , pianist
Betty Wagoner , AAGPBL player for the South Bend Blue Sox
Michael Warren , actor
Janet Wiley , AAGPBL player for the South Bend Blue Sox
Ernie Zalejski , American football player
Gary Fromm , Key to the City of South Bend recipient and inaugural Memorial " Trauma Hero " award winner
= = Sister cities = =
South Bend has three sister cities :
Częstochowa ( Poland )
Arzberg ( Germany )
Guanajuato ( Mexico )
= Horses in warfare =
The first use of horses in warfare occurred over 5 @,@ 000 years ago . The earliest evidence of horses ridden in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC . A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons . By 1600 BC , improved harness and chariot designs made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East , and the earliest written training manual for war horses was a guide for training chariot horses written about 1350 BC . As formal cavalry tactics replaced the chariot , so did new training methods , and by 360 BC , the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon had written an extensive treatise on horsemanship . The effectiveness of horses in battle was also revolutionized by improvements in technology , including the invention of the saddle , the stirrup , and later , the horse collar .
Many different types and sizes of horse were used in war , depending on the form of warfare . The type used varied with whether the horse was being ridden or driven , and whether they were being used for reconnaissance , cavalry charges , raiding , communication , or supply . Throughout history , mules and donkeys as well as horses played a crucial role in providing support to armies in the field .
Horses were well suited to the warfare tactics of the nomadic cultures from the steppes of Central Asia . Several East Asian cultures made extensive use of cavalry and chariots . Muslim warriors relied upon light cavalry in their campaigns throughout North Africa , Asia , and Europe beginning in the 7th and 8th centuries AD . Europeans used several types of war horses in the Middle Ages , and the best @-@ known heavy cavalry warrior of the period was the armored knight . With the decline of the knight and rise of gunpowder in warfare , light cavalry again rose to prominence , used in both European warfare
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" ( 1983 ) not to reach the top 40 . If " Bedtime Story " would have been able to reach the top 40 , Madonna could have become the third woman in the " rock era " with the most top 40 hits , behind Aretha Franklin and Connie Francis . She would have achieved a consecutive string of 33 top 40 hits , starting from her single " Holiday " ( 1983 ) . Fred Bronson from Billboard explained that the song 's loss of radio airplay and sales prevented it from peaking within the US top 40 . " Bedtime Story " spent a total of seven weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 . However , it was successful on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it peaked at number one and spent 16 weeks on the charts . Furthermore , it also charted on various Billboard genre charts , including the Rhythmic Top 40 at number 40 , and the Top 40 Mainstream at number 38 . On the Canadian RPM Top Singles chart , it reached a peak of number 46 .
In the United Kingdom , the song entered the charts at its peak of number four on the week of February 25 , 1995 . It left the top 20 two weeks later , eventually spending nine weeks on the charts . In other European countries , the song also found some success . It peaked at number 38 in Belgium for one week only . On the Dutch Single Top 100 chart , it entered and peaked at number 46 on April 15 , 1995 , and stayed on the same position the next week , with a total run of two weeks . " Bedtime Story " debuted at number nine in Finland , and peaked at number four the next week . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number five on April 9 , 1995 , where it stayed in that position for three weeks . It fell out of the top ten in the fifth week , and eventually exited the charts after a total run of nine weeks , falling to 44 on its last week in the charts . In New Zealand , it debuted at number 40 on May 7 , 1995 , moving up two positions to 38 which was its peak , and leaving the charts the next week .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The music video for " Bedtime Story " was directed by Mark Romanek over a course of six days at Universal Studios , Universal City , California . Madonna had first approached Romanek to direct the music video of her Erotica single , " Bad Girl " ( 1993 ) . Romanek recalled in the DVD , The Work of Director Mark Romanek , that " Bad Girl " was ultimately directed by David Fincher , but he got later approached by the singer 's team for " Bedtime Story " . Romanek contacted storyboard artist Grant Shaffer to create the storyboards for the video . He met with Romanek the next day , who played " Bedtime Story " for Shaffer and also showed him some photographs of Madonna , which were supposed to be used as the album cover . The surrealism inspired images portrayed a mystical looking Madonna , with white hair billowing behind her . Romanek wanted to have the music video capture the same look . Madonna called from Florida and together with Romanek they described to Shaffer every aspect of the video , including budget and their concepts . For the next few days , Shaffer sketched the storyboards and faxed them to Romanek for review . About 20 days later , Shaffer dropped the final sketches at Propaganda Films , who were producing the video .
Production started from December 5 , 1994 , at Universal Studios . When Shaffer arrived there , he found that his storyboards were glued on a giant blackboard along with the schedule for each shot . He also observed that many of his storyboard ideas had evolved , but they retained the core concepts . The preliminary shots used a Madonna body double and the singer arrived afterwards , proceeding with the shots in a water tank . Filming stopped for few hours when a minor earthquake shook the film studio . Few complications were encountered like Madonna getting dyed in blue color from sitting in the water tank , as well as technical difficulties leading to cancellation of a storyboard showing the singer opening her chest cavity . One shot involving Madonna laying in the lap of a skeleton had to be postponed since the skeleton was too small for the singer , and had to be rebuilt from scratch . The last scene filmed was the one involving the laboratory where Madonna was shown sleeping in a futuristic dress . At a reputed cost of $ 5 million ( $ 7 @.@ 76 million in 2016 dollars ) , " Bedtime Story " became one of the most expensive music videos of all time , and the most expensive at that time alongside the music video for her single " Express Yourself " ( 1989 ) , which was also reported to have cost $ 5 million . Tom Foden was the video 's production designer and it was shot by cinematographer Harris Savides , on 35 mm film lens . Due to the vast number of digital effects required for the video , post @-@ production lasted for weeks . In an interview with Aperture magazine , Madonna revealed the inspiration for the music video :
My " Bedtime Story " video was completely inspired by all the female surrealist painters like Leonora Carrington and Remedios Varo . There 's that one shot where my hands are up in the air and stars are spinning around me . And me flying through the hallway with my hair trailing behind me , the birds flying out of my open robe – all of those images were an homage to female surrealist painters ; there 's a little bit of Frida Kahlo in there , too .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
On March 10 , 1995 , the video was given a cinematic release at three different Odeon Cineplex film theaters ; in Santa Monica , California at the Broadway Cinemas , in Manhattan , New York at the Chelsea Theater , and in Chicago , Illinois at the Biograph Theater . In order to promote the video , Madonna did a special known as Madonna 's Pajama Party on March 18 , 1995 @.@ where the singer could be seen reading a bedtime story in Webster Hall in New York City . Unlike most of Madonna 's videos which debuted on either MTV or VH1 television channels , " Bedtime Story " was first put into circulation on radio station Z100 following the singer 's " pajama party " on March 18 . According to Maverick GM Abbey Konowitch , they first aligned with Odeon Cineplex so that they could assure that the music video would be viewed in an innovative way . However , Konowitch and his team were aware that such an event could not be organized for every release because it would cause problems with investments . Odeon VP Freeman Fisher explained that since it was a slow theatrical season , allowing the video 's release enabled them to sell more tickets , " for four minutes the audience sees astounding cinematic images in a first class feature @-@ like production . It 's not just another artist lip @-@ syncing to a track . "
The music video starts off with a blue monitor screen with an eye showing the inscription " Welcome " . The video progresses inside a blue space ship @-@ style room with Madonna lying prostrate in what seems to be a scientific experiment . The imagery cast in this section of the video have drawn comparisons to hermeticism . The video progresses into a sequence of dreams , containing varied surrealistic , mystic , new age , Sufi and Egyptian imagery and symbolism . Such include a scene in which Madonna lies on a rotating sunflower , and images of a woman with long hair , an alchemist @-@ type man holding a cube with Madonna 's face on each side as well as rotating Sufi dancers . The dream sequence progresses with unusual clips , including Madonna in a pool with half @-@ visible skulls . A scene in which Madonna , dressed in a light dressing gown , gives birth to doves , can also be seen ; the image has been compared to the work of René Magritte and Kahlo 's 1932 painting My Birth . Suddenly , she floats down a corridor in a white gown and appears in a black @-@ and @-@ white projection in a cinema @-@ like room . As the music gets more dramatic , the dream grows intense , with images of skulls and scars appearing , and the singer can be seen wading through space . A scene in which Madonna 's eyes are replaced with her mouth and her mouth with an eye precedes the ending , influenced by the work of Kahlo ; the final shots show Madonna waking up and looking out .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
The music video for " Bedtime Story " has received generally positive reviews from critics ever since its release . It was exhibited and permanently kept in different art galleries and museums , including the Museum of Modern Art as well the School of Visual Arts in New York City . O 'Brien praised the video , calling it " one of [ Madonna ] ' s most experimental " music videos and a " Dali @-@ esque epic " , causing it to enter " the portals of high art " . MTV News ' James Montgomery , while writing an article on the pop culture references of Britney Spears ' " Hold It Against Me " music video ( 2011 ) , claimed that " Bedtime Story " was an ultra artistic video , influencing Spears ' one . Corinna Herr wrote in the book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds that " Visual references to surreal paintings seem to be a key to Madonna 's world of images " and listed " Bedtime Story " as one of these videos . In the same book , author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández added that videos like Bedtime Story " included alchemical and hermeticist traditions , in particular the concepts of androgyny and masquerade . Herr also wrote regarding the video 's new age influences and concept of an idealised world , one " which she is not necessarily a part , but to which she nevertheless seems to be attracted " . Rettenmund commented that the video was rife with mystical and Sufi traditions , and described it as a " singular creation in Madonna 's oeuvre " .
The music video has also drawn comparisons to Tarsem Singh 's films , The Cell ( 2000 ) and The Fall ( 2006 ) , in the sense that they both incorporate elements of Islamic mystic imagery , such as in the scene where the Sufi dance is executed , as well as the floating cube . According to writer Brad Brevet , who observed the similarities , deduced that both the video and the films deal with tapping into the subconscious of the human mind and hence the resulting strange visuals were directly an influence from " Bedtime Story " . James Steffen , author of The Cinema of Sergei Parajanov , found that some of the imagery in the video were directly lifted from the 1969 Soviet film , The Color of Pomegranates , including the scenes showing a bare foot crushing grapes over a slab inscribed with Arabic , and a scene showing a bishop 's croziers falling into hand . Steffen also noted that Romanek 's influences for the video included the works of Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky , including Stalker ( 1979 ) and Nostalghia ( 1983 ) . Jake Hall from Dazed declared " Bedtime story " as the blueprint for " 90s brand of futurism " , adding that the video " eschews the obvious and instead relies on undulating CGI " .
= = Live performances and legacy = =
A Junior Vasquez remix of the song was performed at the 1995 Brit Awards . Madonna wore a white Versace dress and had long hair extensions , her look being similar to the Versace advertisement campaign she was promoting . She even invited Björk to feature in the performance ; the singer turned it down , saying " I was supposed to get [ Madonna 's ] personal number and call her up , but it just didn 't feel right . I 'd love to meet her accidentally , really drunk in a bar . It 's just all that formality that confuses me " . The performance was ranked number four on Marie Claire 's " 30 Best Brit Award Moments " list . It was described by the magazine as the " best opening performance " at the Brits . A writer described that " [ Madonna ] pulled out all the stops , treating the audience to a light show and trio of satin @-@ clad male dancers " .
Madonna has only featured the song on one of her concert tours , the 2004 Re @-@ Invention World Tour , where the Orbital remix was used as a video interlude . As the video played , three acrobatic dancers dropped from the ceiling on swings . Madonna appeared in the video wearing a white costume while singing in front of a mirror and lying down on a big scanner . A white horse can be seen with her during the video riding on a white desert and running through white sheets . As the interlude ended , Madonna appeared on stage again to sing " Nothing Fails " .
" Bedtime Story " has frequently been cited as one of the songs with the most unfulfilled potential in Madonna 's career , nonetheless , the song did enjoy some success , being a club " favorite " in the mid @-@ 1990s . It has been described as the record that foreshadowed Madonna 's usage of electronic music in her later work , especiall Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , which according to Vicente , owes " its contemplative and electronic techno rave character to ' Bedtime Story ' " . O 'Brien wrote in Madonna : Like an Icon , that the song " foreshadowed [ the singer 's ] move towards electronica " and labelled it an " embryonic moment that went a lot further on the next few albums " . De Vries recalled that tackling the song " seemed to set something free in Madonna . She was straining at the leash a little bit , to find some other languages to speak , and ' Bedtime Story ' was an embryonic moment that went a lot further on to the next few albums . " In a review for the Bedtime Stories album on a whole , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the song was " the germ that would later inspire Madonna to seek out and conquer electronica with the likes of William Orbit and Mirwais " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= SM U @-@ 2 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 2 or U @-@ II was a U @-@ 1 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) . U @-@ 2 was designed by American Simon Lake 's Lake Torpedo Boat Company and built at the navy yard in Pola . She was one of two Lake @-@ designed submarines purchased as part of a competitive evaluation of three foreign submarine designs .
U @-@ 2 was launched in April 1909 and was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and displaced almost 230 tonnes ( 250 short tons ) surfaced and just under 249 tonnes ( 274 short tons ) when submerged . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy conducted trials for U @-@ 2 through 1910 . The U @-@ boat was originally powered by two gasoline engines for surface running , and two electric motors when submerged , but during her evaluation period , the gasoline engines were found to be incapable of reaching the contracted speed . U @-@ 2 was commissioned in June 1911 and served as a training boat for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy through 1914 .
At the beginning of World War I , U @-@ 2 was not operational because she was in drydock awaiting replacement diesel engines . With her new engines and a new conning tower installed by June 1915 , U @-@ 2 conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Trieste but was declared obsolete in early 1918 . U @-@ 2 remained in service as a training boat at the submarine base on Brioni , but was at Pola at the end of the war . She was ceded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and scrapped at Pola . U @-@ 2 did not sink any ships during the war .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 2 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered plans for U @-@ 2 ( and sister ship U @-@ 1 ) in 1906 from the Lake Torpedo Boat Company of Bridgeport , Connecticut . U @-@ 2 was built at the Pola Navy Yard and was launched on 3 April 1909 .
U @-@ 2 had several features typical of Lake 's designs , including a diving chamber under the bow and two variable pitch propellers . Lake 's design also called for two retractable wheels that allowed travel over the seabed . The design also placed the diving tanks above the waterline of the single , cylindrical hull , which necessitated a heavy ballast keel for vertical stability . This arrangement required mechanical pumping , a procedure that took 8 minutes . U @-@ 2 's propulsion system consisted of two gasoline engines for surface running and two electric motors for running while submerged .
The boat was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long by 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 80 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 86 m ) . As designed , her displacement was 229 @.@ 7 long tons ( 233 @.@ 4 t ) surfaced and 248 @.@ 9 long tons ( 252 @.@ 9 t ) submerged . She was outfitted with three 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes — two in the bow , one in the stern — and could carry up to five torpedoes , but typically carried three . U @-@ 2 was also armed with a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun .
= = Service career = =
Upon U @-@ 2 's completion , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy conducted trials of the submarine throughout most of 1910 . U @-@ 2 's gasoline engines were never able to meet the speed called for in the contract during the Navy evaluations , and were considered not suitable for wartime use . As a result , the Navy only paid for U @-@ 2 's hull and armament , and arranged a lease of the gasoline engines while replacement diesel engines were ordered from the Austrian firm Maschinenfabrik Leobersdorf . Despite the engine problems , U @-@ 2 and her sister ship had the best performance in diving and steering amongst the U @-@ boats under evaluation by the Navy .
U @-@ 2 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 22 June 1911 under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Klemens Ritter von Bézard . U @-@ 2 served as a training boat through 1915 , conducting up to ten training cruises per month . At the outbreak of World War I , she was in drydock awaiting the installation of her new diesel engines . To accommodate the new engines , she was lengthened by about 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . The modifications and new engines lowered her surface displacement to 223 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 245 @.@ 8 short tons ) but increased her submerged displacement to 277 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 305 @.@ 9 short tons ) .
From January to June 1915 , U @-@ 2 underwent a refit and received a new conning tower . She was stationed at Trieste in mid July and conducted reconnaissance cruises from that port . On 11 January 1918 , she was declared obsolete , but was retained as a training boat at the submarine base on Brioni . U @-@ 2 was at Pola at the war 's end , and was scrapped after her cession to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 2 did not sink any ships during the war .
= The Years of Rice and Salt =
The Years of Rice and Salt is an alternate history novel written by science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson and published in 2002 . The novel explores how subsequent world history might have been different if the Black Death plague had killed 99 % of Europe 's population , instead of a third . Divided into ten parts , the story spans hundreds of years , from the army of the Muslim conqueror Timur to the 21st century , with Europe being re @-@ populated by Muslim pioneers , the indigenous peoples of the Americas forming a league to resist Chinese and Muslim invaders , and a 67 @-@ year @-@ long world war being fought primarily between Muslim states and the Chinese and their allies . While the ten parts take place in different times and places , they are connected by a group of characters that are reincarnated into each time but are identified to the reader by the first letter of their name being consistent in each life .
The novel explores themes of history , religion , and social movements . The historical narrative is guided more by social history than political or military history . Critics found the book to be rich in detail , realistic , and thoughtful . Robinson had previously published several other science fiction novels and short stories which had won him several Nebula , Hugo and Locus Awards . The Years of Rice and Salt won the Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel in 2003 . In the same year it was nominated for the Arthur C. Clarke Award , a Hugo Award , and a British Science Fiction Award .
= = Background = =
At the time of publication , in 2002 , science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson was 49 years old and living in Davis , California . He had conceived of the premise for The Years of Rice and Salt in the 1970s while thinking about what alternate history scenario would result in " the biggest change that would still work in terms of comparison to our history " . He subsequently developed an interest in China and in Buddhism which he would study for this project . Robinson 's only other alternate history story prior to this project was the short story " The Lucky Strike " ( 1984 ) , where the Enola Gay crashes in a training exercise and the secondary crew must complete the Hiroshima bombing . Robinson also wrote an essay titled " A Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions " ( 1991 ) , comparing different theories of history and laws of science , such as the covering law model , to explain how alternate histories can be arrived at , using " The Lucky Strike " as an example . He explored the idea of non @-@ Western influences creating a new culture while working on his Mars trilogy , which involved a heavy Muslim influence in a Martian colony . The Mars trilogy gave Robinson a reputation for quality of writing and a richness of detail comparable to James Michener , as well as winning him a Nebula Award for Red Mars ( 1993 ) and two Hugo and Locus Awards for Green Mars ( 1994 ) and Blue Mars ( 1996 ) . Robinson followed the Mars trilogy with the novel Antarctica ( 1997 ) , which won an Alex Award , and two short story collections , The Martians ( 1999 ) and Vinland the Dream ( 2001 ) , before publishing The Years of Rice and Salt .
= = Plot = =
The story is divided into ten parts .
= = = Book One = = =
Book One , Awake to Emptiness , begins with Bold and Psin , scouts in Timur 's army , discovering a Magyar village where all the inhabitants have died from a plague . Timur turns his army around and orders the scouting party executed to avoid the plague , but Bold escapes and wanders through the dead lands of Eastern Europe ( encountering only one lone native ) . Upon reaching the sea he is captured by Turkish Muslim slave @-@ traders and sold into Zheng He 's Chinese treasure fleet . Bold befriends a young African slave , named Kyu , whom he cares for after the Chinese castrate him . In China , they are kept as kitchen slaves until escaping and eventually making their way north to Beijing where they find work at the palace of Zhu Gaozhi , heir to the Yongle Emperor . The vengeful Kyu hates the Chinese for what they have done to him and he incites violence between the eunuchs and the Confucian administrative officials .
= = = Book Two = = =
Book Two , The Haj in the Heart , begins in Mughal India where a Hindu girl named Kokila poisons her husband 's father and brother after discovering their plot to defraud the village . She is executed for her crime , but is reborn as a tiger that befriends a man named Bistami , a Sufi mystic of Persian origin . Bistami goes on to become a judge for Mughal Emperor Akbar , but later falls into his disfavour , being exiled to Mecca . Bistami spends one year in Mecca before travelling overland to the Maghreb and Iberia ( Al @-@ Andalus ) . Bistami then joins a caravan led by Sultan Mawji and his wife , Katima , who seek to leave Al @-@ Andalus and found a new city on the other side of the Pyrenees , beyond the control of the Caliph of Al @-@ Andalus . They build the city of Baraka ( on the abandoned former site of Bayonne , France ) and create a model society in which Sultana Katima is highly influential . Katima seeks to change the Islamic religion to create equality between men and women , by rejecting the Hadiths and relying only on her interpretation of the Quran . She rules the community after her husband dies ( something not allowed in normal Islamic practice ) , but the Caliph of Al @-@ Andalus eventually hears of their " heresy " and sends an army against them . The community flees further to the north .
= = = Book Three = = =
In Book Three , Ocean Continents , the Wanli Emperor launches an invasion against Nippon ( Japan ) but the huge fleet is swept out to sea by the Kuroshio Current and they are set adrift on the unexplored Pacific Ocean . The fleet hopes to be brought back to China eventually by the great circular currents of the Pacific , but they accidentally discover the New World . The sailors make landfall on the West coast of North America and make contact with the indigenous population ( the peaceful Miwok people ) , but quickly leave once Admiral Kheim discovers they have inadvertently infected the indigenous people with devastating diseases . They take a small girl with them ( who they have taught Chinese and named " Butterfly " ) and sail south where they meet another civilization rich in gold . There they narrowly escape being ritually sacrificed by using their flintlock firearms , something the natives have never seen before . They eventually return to China and tell the Emperor that he could easily conquer this new land and gain its great wealth .
= = = Book Four = = =
Book Four , The Alchemist , takes place in Samarkand , in the 17th century . An alchemist named Khalid , attempts to fool the Khan into believing that he has discovered the Philosopher 's stone ( which supposedly can turn Lead into Gold ) , but his fraud is uncovered and his hand is chopped off as punishment . Khalid becomes depressed and disenchanted with Alchemy ( the prevailing belief of the scholars of the time ) and decides to destroy all his Alchemical books ( which come to Samarkand via the trade routes from all over the known world ) . However , his friends Iwang ( a Tibetan Buddhist mathematician ) and Bahram ( a Sufi blacksmith ) instead convince him to test the veracity of the claims in the books and thus see if there is any true wisdom to be gained . They devote themselves to practical demonstrations and experiments that greatly improve knowledge of various aspects of physics , chemistry , mathematics , biology , and weaponry , and in the process create the scientific method . Their discoveries create interest ( and alarm ) amongst the religious madrasahs of the city , many of whom also go along with the new fashion of building and testing scientific apparatuses . But most of all , they catch the eye of the Khan 's powerful advisor , who sees in their inventions the possibility of great military technology , to fight the rising Chinese threat to the East .
= = = Book Five = = =
Book Five , Warp and Weft , describes how a former Samurai , fleeing from Japan ( which was conquered by China along with most of the rest of East Asia ) to the New World , travels all the way across the continent to meet the Iroquois people . They name him " From West " and make him a chief of their confederacy . He helps organize their society into a larger defensive alliance of all the North American tribes ( the Hodenosaunee League ) and shows them how to make their own guns with which to resist the Chinese coming from the West and the Muslims coming from the East .
= = = Book Six = = =
Book Six , Widow Kang , follows the life of Chinese widow Kang Tongbi during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor . She takes in a poor Buddhist monk , Bao Ssu , and his son whom she finds scavenging , but the monk is wrongly implicated in a series of queue cuttings and is killed by Qing magistrates . Later , Kang meets a Hui Muslim scholar named Ibrahim ibn Hasam and together they discover it is possible to remember their past lives . They marry and move to Lanzhou in western China , where they undertake work to try to reconcile Islamic and Confucian beliefs . Kang creates and collects works of proto @-@ feminist poetry and becomes a known writer . There is a Muslim rebellion in the region due to the Qing intolerance of new Islamic sects coming from the west , but the revolt is crushed with massive force .
= = = Book Seven = = =
Book Seven , The Age of Great Progress , is set during the 19th century and begins during a war between the Ottoman Empire and the Indian state of Travancore . The Indians have previously defeated the Mughals and the Safavids and have developed more modern forms of warfare , emphasising surprise and mobility , they have also invented Steam engines and Ironclad warships which they sail straight to the city of Konstantiniyye and capture it with the aid of military balloons . The Ottomans are defeated easily . A Muslim Armenian doctor named Ismail ibn Mani al @-@ Dir , who had served the Ottoman Sultan , is captured and sent to Travancore where he learns of the amazing advancements that have been made on the sub @-@ continent such as railways and factories . He happily joins the hospital of Travancore and begins work in anatomy and physiology . Ismail eventually meets their ruler , the Kerala of Travancore , who pursues scientific and philosophical advancement ( a kind of Enlightened Despot ) . The Kerala 's aim is to drive the Muslim invaders away and peacefully unify India into a kind of democratic confederation . Later , during the Xianfeng Emperor 's reign , in the Chinese colony known as Gold Mountain , major flooding in the Central Valley of California forces the evacuation of Chinese colonial towns and Japanese settlers alike . The Japanese had originally fled to the new world to escape Chinese oppression in their homeland , but find themselves once again under the Chinese yoke . A displaced Japanese slave , Kiyoaki , and a pregnant Chinese refugee , Peng @-@ ti , manage to flee to the great coastal city of Fangzhang . There Kiyoaki joins a secret Japanese freedom movement which is being aided by Travancore , with Ismail acting as a go @-@ between agent .
= = = Book Eight = = =
Book Eight , War of the Asuras , is set in the 20th century , during the " Long War " . The world has become divided into three large alliances , the Chinese Empire and its colonies , the fractured Muslim world ( Dar al @-@ Islam ) , and the democratic Indian and Hodenosaunee Leagues . At the outbreak of war the Muslim states put aside their differences and unite to flight the larger threat of China ( whom they fear will soon achieve global hegemony ) . The Indian and Hodenosaunee Leagues stay neutral at first , but eventually ally with China , as they see the Muslims as their greater enemy , however the Muslims invade northern India all the way down to Burma to stop the Indians and Chinese from linking up . The war drags on for decades causing major changes in the societies involved , with rapid industrialisation , mass conscription and mass casualties ( both sides are forced to use women in the fighting to make up for manpower losses ) . Being the first industrial war , new devastating weapons and methods are employed , such as trench warfare , poison gas and aerial bombing . The story follows Chinese officers , Kuo , Bai and Iwa as they desperately fight in the trenches of the Gansu Corridor , where the ground has been blasted down to bedrock by sixty years of bombardments ( the latest massive artillery pieces lob shells into space on ballistic trajectories ) . The new Chinese government , the " Fourth Assemblage of Military Talent " ( the Qing Dynasty having been overthrown by a military coup during the war ) orders a new offensive against the Muslim lines in Gansu . Kuo , Bai and Iwa are told to use poison gas and then frontally assault the enemy trenches . They do this successfully , but are then beaten back by the second line of Muslim defences , losing tens of thousands of soldiers and gaining nothing . However they are then told that their attack was merely a diversion for the real offensive which is being conducted by the Japanese ( who have recently been freed by China in exchange for alliance in the war ) through Siberia . The Muslims are in retreat but the Japanese get bogged down at the Ural Mountains . In the meantime , Kuo is killed by a shell which penetrates their bunker , Bai and Iwa are then ordered to move with their company south through Tibet to support their Indian allies . At a pass in the Himalayas they witness the Muslim artillery blasting the top of Mount Everest down so that the tallest mountain in the world will be in Muslim lands . After extreme difficulties they manage to breach the Muslim defences at the pass and the Chinese army pours through to meet up with the Indians , turning the course of the war in their favour . However Bai is plagued by visions of his dead friend Kuo , who tells him that none of this is happening and that he is already dead , killed by the shell earlier . Bai does not know whether he is indeed living real life or is already in the afterlife .
= = = Book Nine = = =
Book Nine , Nsara , follows the life of a young Muslim woman named Budur and her aunt Idelba in Europe , in the aftermath of the Long War . Budur 's family is highly traditional and as there are not enough men left after the war for marriage prospects , she is forced to live in seclusion with her female cousins in the family 's compound in Turi , a city in one of the Alpine Emirates . Idelba is an educated woman and was involved in physics research in Firanja before her husband 's death , she is just as unhappy in Turi as Budur and wishes to return to her former work . One night , Idelba escapes and Budur follows her . Together they leave the life of captivity in the Alps and move to the more liberal and cosmopolitan city of Nsara ( Saint @-@ Nazaire in France ) . There they stay at a zawiyya , a refuge for women , Idelba restarts her work in physics and Budur enrols in university where she studies history . The history class is presided over by Kirana , a radical feminist lecturer who questions everything about Muslim society . Budur becomes close to Kirana who opens her eyes to the injustices that women face and how they can seek emancipation and liberation ( the two have a brief affair ) . Life at the university allows for open debate about all issues and Kirana focuses on the nature of history and contemporary events , such as the Muslim defeat in the Long War , which she blames on the failure of the Islamic countries to properly mobilize women for the war effort ( something which the Chinese did almost totally ) . There is also a newfound interest in ancient history as the field of archaeology is taking off ( theories about how and why the plague killed off the Europeans centuries before are a popular topic ) .
Life in Nsara ( and all the Muslim nations ) becomes increasingly difficult as they face the effects of defeat in the war . Since casualties were so massive , there is a great shortage of men over women and many men who survived the fighting returned as disabled veterans ( Budur volunteers to help veterans blinded by gas at a hospital by reading to them ) . The Muslims were forced to pay reparations to the victorious countries and to make various humiliating concessions such as allowing Buddhist monasteries to open in their cities . There is a general depression and malaise in post @-@ war Muslim society , made worse by the economic difficulties ; hyperinflation , food shortages and strikes . In many counties this leads to governments being overthrown in coups of various kinds . In Nsara itself , order begins to break down as people are near starvation and the military attempts to overthrow the government and impose a police state . However many liberals , including Budur and Kirana start mass street protests against this reactionary dictatorship . Eventually the Hodenosaunee League ( who have become very powerful after their victory in the war ) intervene by sending a fleet ( from their naval base at Orkney ) to Nsara , insisting that the military relinquish power , which they do . After this , things slowly start to improve , but most of the Muslim states continue to suffer grave problems . Even in China , a victorious country , there is unrest which turns into a civil war .
Throughout this , Idelba has been secretly working on atomic physics and she and her fellow researchers have made some disturbing discoveries . They conclude that it would be possible to make a devastating weapon from nuclear chain reactions and fear that the military will try to create such bombs and restart the war . In order to prevent this , Idelba tries desperately to hide all evidence about her research and contacts concerned scientists in other parts of the world . The government learns of her work however and raids the Zawiyya to get hold of her papers , but Budur manages to hide them . Idelba eventually dies of radiation poisoning from the materials she was working with and leaves all her research to Budur , who keeps her secret and eventually manages to organize an international conference of scientists to discuss the nuclear issue . The meeting is held in Isfahan in Iran ( one of the few Islamic nations which has prospered since the war ) and scientists from all over the world attend . They agree that none of them will work on the creation of nuclear weapons for their respective countries , no matter what pressure they are put under by their governments and also start a new international scientific movement to break down barriers between cultures in a spirit of reconciliation and friendship ( they even create a new scientific calendar to be used by the whole world , with its year zero set from the time of the conference ) .
= = = Book Ten = = =
Book Ten , The First Years , follows Bao Xinhua who moves to the west coast of Yingzou after witnessing the assassination of his friend , and revolutionary , Kung Jianguo . He marries and raises two children before accepting a diplomatic post in Bangladesh . In his later years , he moves back to Fangzhang to teach history and the philosophy of history .
= = Style , themes and genre = =
The novel is divided into ten chapters which each act as a short story , linked by the use of a group of people who appear in each story . After spending time in bardo , the group ( or jāti ) are reincarnated into different times and places . While characters in each story are unique , they share some characteristics with their previous incarnations and are linked , for convenience , by the first letter of their name . The characters whose names begin with the letter K are " combative , imprudent and prone to getting himself ( or herself ) killed " and " striking blows against injustice that typically lead to more suffering " . The B characters are " more comfortable in the world , meliorist and optimistic " and " survivors , nurturing friends and family through bad times and patiently waiting for something better " . The I characters are " the ones who care , who follow the other two , and may be necessary if their works are to flourish , but who tend to the domestic and always find the world worth loving . " The style of writing also changes every chapter to reflect the style of writing associated with the culture being depicted . For example , the first chapter is written similarly to Monkey 's Journey to the West and a later chapter incorporates postmodernism . Also , later chapters take on metafictional elements , with characters discussing the nature of history , whether it is cyclical or linear , whether they believe in reincarnation , and feelings that some people are intrinsically linked .
Robinson incorporated utopian themes in his previous works but reviewers were divided on whether The Years of Rice and Salt qualified as a utopian story . Those that did call the world described in the story as utopian cited the story 's illustration of progress . However , those that wrote The Years of Rice and Salt was not a utopian story say that the world history presented is not necessarily better or worse than the real history , just different . Robinson calls himself a " utopian novelist " in that he claims " all science fiction has a utopian element , in that it tends to say that what we do now matters and will have consequences " . Several other themes were identified by reviewers . Robinson had previously used the theme of memory ( or identity ) and incorporates it into this story with characters who are reincarnated versions of previous characters and who only recognize each other while in the bardo , but sometimes feel a connection between themselves while on earth . The reviewer in The Globe and Mail identified feminism and " struggles over the nature of Islam " as recurring themes .
= = = Alternate history = = =
The Years of Rice and Salt belongs to the alternate history subgenre of speculative fiction . The novel starts at the point of divergence with Timur turning his army away from Europe where the Black Death killed 99 % of Europe 's population , instead of a third . Robinson explores world history from that point in AD 1405 ( 807 AH ) to about AD 2045 ( 1467 AH ) with Mughal Emperor Akbar being the last character with a real @-@ world counterpart . Robinson 's take on alternate history is that because it " is set in the same lawful universe as ours , its science must be the same [ and ] because its people have the same basic human needs , their societies resemble ours . " Therefore , despite the difference in who specifically is there , " the great majority of humanity [ is ] doing their work , and that work would tend to forge along at a certain pace as people tried to solve the problems of making themselves more comfortable in this world . " While most alternate histories use the Great Man theory of history , focusing on leaders , wars , and big events , Robinson writes more about social history , similar to the Annales School of history theory and Marxist historiography , focusing on the lives of ordinary people living in their time and place . This is reflected in the title of the novel , The Years of Rice and Salt , which refers to the everyday chores of raising a family , often performed by women , despite the politics and wars of men . Reviewers noted this allows for the " history [ to be ] experienced by readers on a human scale " and " an implicit but thorough rebuke to the kind of war @-@ gaming determinism that most alternate histories embody . " The novel has characters that explore subjects like philosophy , theology , history , and scientific theory .
= = Publication and reception = =
Released in March 2002 , the book was published in North America by Bantam Books and in the United Kingdom by HarperCollins . The paperback was released in 2003 along with a Spanish translation . In the subsequent years , other translated versions were published , in French , Polish , Chinese , and Hungarian . It won the 2003 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel and was nominated for the Hugo Award , the Arthur C. Clarke Award , and the British Science Fiction Award .
The novel was well received by critics who variously called it " thoughtful " , " realistic " , and " rich " . In Publishers Weekly , the reviewers called it a " highly realistic and credible alternate history " , and in the School Library Journal , Christine Menefee called it " an addictive , surprising , and suspenseful novel " . The Library Journal " highly recommended " it , saying that its " superb storytelling and imaginative historic speculation make [ it ] a priority choice for all SF and general fiction collections " . The critic at Kirkus Reviews found it " overlong , but blessed with moments of wry and gentle beauty " . Likewise , Roz Kaveney stated that " if there is a weakness in Robinson 's work , it is perhaps this ; his characters are so intelligent that they never shut up " . For The Globe and Mail , Sol Chrom lauded the epic scope , calling it a " magnificent achievement " , and for The Belfast News Letter , the reviewer called the novel " extraordinary , ambitious , poetic and powerful " . Science fiction critic Paul Kincaid concluded that it is " a huge , complex and highly enjoyable book " .
= Zino 's petrel =
The Zino 's petrel or freira ( Pterodroma madeira ) is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus which is endemic to the island of Madeira . This long @-@ winged petrel has a grey back and wings , with a dark " W " marking across the wings , and a grey upper tail . The undersides of the wings are blackish apart from a triangle of white at the front edge near the body , and the belly is white with grey flanks . It is very similar in appearance to the slightly larger Fea 's petrel , and separating these two Macaronesian species at sea is very challenging . Zino 's was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the soft @-@ plumaged petrel , P. mollis , but they are not closely related , and Zino 's was raised to species status because of differences in morphology , calls , breeding behaviour and mitochondrial DNA . It is Europe 's most endangered seabird , with breeding areas restricted to a few ledges high in the central mountains of Madeira .
Zino 's petrel nests in burrows which are visited only at night , to the accompaniment of their haunting calls . The single white egg is incubated by both adults , one sitting during the day while the other feeds on fish and squid at sea . Eggs , chicks and adults have been subject to predation by introduced cats and rats , and in the past have been taken for food by local shepherds . Predator control , and other measures such as the removal of grazing animals which trample the burrows , has enabled the population to recover to 65 – 80 breeding pairs ; it remains endangered on the IUCN Red List . However , conservation efforts had a major setback in August 2010 when fires killed three adults and 65 % of the chicks .
= = Taxonomy = =
The gadfly petrels in the genus Pterodroma are seabirds of temperate and tropical oceans . Many are little @-@ known , and their often similar appearance have caused the taxonomy of the group to be rather fluid . The forms breeding in Macaronesia on Madeira , Bugio in the Desertas Islands , and in the Cape Verde archipelago were long considered to be subspecies of the Southern Hemisphere soft @-@ plumaged petrel , P. mollis , but mitochondrial DNA analysis , and differences in size , vocalisations , breeding behaviour , showed that the northern birds are not closely related to P. mollis , and that the Bermuda petrel or Cahow may be the closest relative of the Macaronesian birds . Sangster recommended establishing Zino 's petrel on Madeira and Fea 's petrel on the Desertas and Cape Verde as full species , and the species split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) in 2003 .
Nunn and Zino estimated that the two Macaronesian species diverged at the end of the Early Pleistocene , 850 @,@ 000 years ago . An analysis of feather lice taken from Fea 's petrels , Pterodroma feae deserti , from Bugio Island , and from Zino 's petrels from the Madeiran mainland showed that there were marked differences between the two seabirds in terms of the parasites they carried , suggesting that they have long been isolated , since lice can normally only be transferred through physical contact in the nest . The species on Zino 's petrel are most similar to those of the Bermuda petrel , whereas Fea 's petrel 's lice are like those of Caribbean and Pacific Pterodroma species . This suggests that despite the close physical proximity of the two species of gadfly petrel found in the Madeiran archipelago , they may have arisen from separate colonisations of mainland Madeira and , later , the Desertas Islands . Although their reproductive isolation has allowed the separate evolutionary development of the two species , genetic evidence shows the three Macaronesian petrels are each other 's closest relatives .
The petrels breeding in the high central mountains of Madeira were first recorded in 1903 by German naturalist and priest Ernst Johann Schmitz , who failed to realise that they were different from the Fea 's petrels he had seen in the Desertas . The species was formally described as a race of soft @-@ plumaged petrel by Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews in 1934 . Following the recognition of the Madeiran birds as a full species , they were named after the Portuguese ornithologist , Paul Alexander Zino , who was instrumental in their conservation during the latter half of the twentieth century . The genus name Pterodroma is derived from Greek πτερον , pteron , " a wing " , and δρομος , dromos , " running " , and refers to the bird 's swift erratic flight . The specific madeira refers to the island on which it breeds . The Portuguese name Freira means " nun " ; the inhabitants of Curral das Freiras ( Nun 's Valley ) near the breeding site claimed that the nocturnal wailing of the petrels in the breeding season were the calls of the suffering souls of the nuns . The sisters had taken refuge in the valley from attacks on the island by French pirates in 1566 that lasted for 15 days .
Pterodroma petrel remains dated at between 60 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 years BP were found in two cave sites in Gibraltar . They consist of a more abundant form similar in size to Zino 's , and a larger , less common type . It is uncertain whether they represent the site of a former breeding colony , or are the result of a seabird wreck in which storms blow birds inland . They do suggest , however , that members of the genus were formerly more widespread .
= = Description = =
This long @-@ winged petrel is 32 – 34 cm ( 13 – 13 in ) long with an 80 – 86 cm ( 31 – 34 in ) wingspan , and an average weight of 290 g ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) . It has a grey back , grey wings with a dark " W " marking across them , and a grey upper tail . The undersides of the wings are blackish apart from a triangle of white at the front edge near the body , and the belly is white with grey flanks . The head has a mottled whitish @-@ brown forehead , a dark cap , and a dark spot below and behind the brown eye . The bill is black and the legs are flesh pink , the colour continuing onto the first third of the feet , the rest of the toes and webs being black @-@ brown . It gives the general impression of a small Cory 's or great shearwater , with a fast flight ; in strong winds it shears high above the surface with angled wings . Nothing is known of the fresh juvenile plumage or the moult sequence , and ageing birds is currently not feasible .
This species is very similar in appearance to the Fea 's petrel , but is smaller . The size difference and lighter flight may not be apparent at sea , especially with lone birds , but a recent study helped to clarify other useful features . Zino 's has a diagnostically small , delicate , often rather long and slender bill , which may be obvious in the most slender @-@ billed examples , which are probably mostly females , but can be difficult to determine in larger @-@ billed , probably adult male , birds . Another useful feature is a large whitish panel on the underwing . The wing panel is exclusive to Zino 's but is only shown by 15 % of the birds . Zino 's has a more rounded wing tip , but P. feae deserti sometimes shows a rounded wing tip , so this feature is not diagnostic . Previously suggested criteria such as head , upperwing and flank patterns were found to be inconclusive . Off the eastern United States and the Azores , both Macronesian petrels are easily distinguished from the larger Bermuda petrel by that species ' upperparts , which are uniformly dark but for a pale grey rump .
This species at its breeding sites gives a long mournful call like the hooting of a tawny owl , and a much less frequent sound like the whimpering of a pup . It is silent at sea . The breeding calls are very similar to those of Fea 's petrel , and Bretagnolle 's analysis of the calls of the soft @-@ plumaged petrel complex led him to suggest in 1995 only a two @-@ way species split , with the northern forms madeira , feae and deserti all as subspecies of Fea 's petrel .
= = = " Snowy @-@ winged petrel " = = =
The Hadoram Shirihai expeditions to the Madeira archipelago in 2008 , 2009 and 2010 each had sightings of a Pterodroma petrel ( possibly the same bird ) with largely white underwings , but upperwings like Zino 's or Fea 's . This plumage does not correspond to any known Pterodroma species . It may have been an unusual variant of Zino 's but this is unlikely since no similar bird has been seen amongst the more than 100 caught at the nest . It may alternatively be a single aberrant individual , a hybrid or an unknown taxon from Madeira or elsewhere . No conclusion is possible on current knowledge .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Zino 's petrel is endemic to the main island of Madeira , where it breeds on inaccessible and well @-@ vegetated ledges in the central mountains between Pico do Areeiro and Pico Ruivo . The typical ledge plants are endemic hemicryptophytess and Chamaephytes , but grasses may also be present . It nests at heights above 1 @,@ 650 m ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) . It was formerly more widespread , since subfossil remains have been found in a cave in eastern Madeira , and on nearby Porto Santo Island . The breeding ledges have to be inaccessible to introduced goats so that they remain rich in endemic flora . The vegetation ensures that there is sufficient earth on the ledges to allow the birds to burrow and make their nests , and trampling by grazing animals reduces the soil cover .
This petrel is only present in Madeiran waters during the breeding season . Its distribution at sea during the rest of the year is poorly known due to the rarity of the species and the difficulty of separating it from other Pterodroma petrels at sea . Birds identified as either Zino 's or Fea 's have been recorded from both sides of the North Atlantic , and in Ireland and Britain there has been a large increase in the number of reports , perhaps because global warming brings increasing numbers of tropical species into temperate waters . The timing of the reports , mainly in late spring and summer in the western North Atlantic , and in late summer and early autumn in the east , has suggested that birds follow a clockwise route around the North Atlantic after leaving their breeding sites . However , the few birds that have been identified with certainty have all been Fea 's . Zino 's petrel may have a similar strategy , since preliminary results from geolocation studies indicate widespread dispersal over the North Atlantic central ridge during the breeding season , and migration towards the Brazilian coast in the non @-@ breeding period . Pterodroma petrels have been recorded in the Canary Islands and the Azores on surprisingly few occasions ; a claim of possible Zino 's from South Africa is now thought to be erroneous .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Zino 's petrel breeds two months earlier than the Fea 's petrel 's on Bugio , only 50 km ( 31 mi ) away . The birds return from sea to their breeding grounds in late March or early April and courting occurs over the main breeding area during the late evening and early morning hours . The nest is a shallow burrow or old rabbit tunnel up to 140 cm ( 55 in ) long in thick soil on vegetated ledges . The length of the burrow is related to the age of the pair that uses it , young birds making shorter tunnels , which are extended in subsequent years . The oval white egg is laid from mid @-@ May to mid @-@ June in a chamber at the end of the burrow and incubated for 51 – 54 days , each parent alternating between sitting on the nest and feeding at sea . The young fledge about 85 days later in late September and October . This petrel is strictly nocturnal at the breeding sites to avoid predation by gulls . It stays 3 – 5 km ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 1 mi ) offshore during the day , coming to land in darkness . It calls from about 30 minutes after nightfall until dawn , including on moonlit nights .
This species mates for life , and pairs return to the same burrow year after year . The single egg is not replaced if lost . This is a long @-@ lived species : one bird has returned to its burrow for ten consecutive years , and the lifespan is estimated to be about 16 years . The age of first breeding is unknown , but assumed to be four or more years . Despite the proximity of the breeding sites , Zino 's and Fea 's petrels have never been found at each other 's nesting areas , and Zino 's is not known to hybridise with any other species .
= = = Feeding = = =
Zino 's petrel , like its relatives , feeds on small squid and fish . The vomited stomach contents of one bird contained cephalopods , the bioluminiscent fish Electrona risso and small crustaceans . Like other small petrels , Zino 's does not normally follow ships .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Their nocturnal approach to the breeding sites means that Zino 's petrels avoid the attentions of gulls or diurnal raptors , and the only owl on the island , the barn owl , is a rodent hunter . Other than bats , there are no native land mammals on Madeira , although there are a number of introduced species , two of which will take birds or chicks . These are brown rats and feral domestic cats . Even the high mountain nest sites of the Zino 's petrel are not safe from these adaptable predators , ten adults being killed by cats in 1990 . Feather lice found on Zino 's petrels include Trabeculus schillingi , Saemundssonia species and an unnamed species of Halipeurus .
= = Conservation status = =
Zino 's petrel has a very restricted range on the mountaintops of a single island , and is the most endangered European seabird . The birds , already confined to a limited area when discovered , were thought to be extinct by the mid @-@ twentieth century . Two freshly fledged juveniles were found within the walls of the governor 's palace in Funchal in the early 1940s , presumably attracted there by lights , but the species was not seen again until 1969 . In 1969 , Paul Zino played a tape of Fea 's petrel from Bugio to a shepherd from Curral das Freiras ; he immediately recognised the call , and led the researchers to the remaining nesting area . Predation by introduced rats meant that breeding success in the small population was low , and no young at all fledged in 1985 . The Freira Conservation Project was founded in 1986 with the aim of increasing the population of Zino 's petrel by controlling rats and human interference ; the control was extended to cats after the mass predation of 1990 .
There are now 130 – 160 known individuals ( 65 – 80 breeding pairs ) confirmed to breed on just six ledges . There may be some disturbance from visitors at night and from the construction of a NATO radar station on the summit of Mount Areeiro , and in the longer term climate change may have an adverse effect , since all nests are within 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) of the top of the highest mountain in the breeding area . Formerly , shepherds collected nestlings for food , and egg collectors have raided burrows . Currently , the main threats continue to be predation of eggs and chicks by rats , and of nesting adults by feral cats , although at much reduced levels due to trapping .
Zino 's petrel is protected under the EU 's Wild Birds Directive , and its breeding sites lie within the Parque Natural da Madeira national park . Following the purchase of about 300 hectares ( 740 acres ) of land around the main breeding site , all livestock has been removed from the breeding areas , allowing the vegetation to recover , although breeding still only occurs on ledges that were never accessible to grazing animals . The research and predator control by the Freira Conservation Project and the national park which started in 1986 was expanded in 2001 with additional EU funding . The increase in productivity ( 29 chicks fledged in 2004 ) meant that this species was downgraded from critically endangered to endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2004 . Its population appeared to be stable or increasing slightly up to the summer of 2010 .
A disaster struck the colony on 13 August 2010 , when a forest fire swept through the breeding site killing three adults and 25 of the 38 chicks . The fire destroyed the vegetation and several nesting burrows . Conservation action to protect the 13 remaining chicks included removing dead birds and burnt vegetation , reinforcing the surviving nests , and setting poison bait for rats around the now exposed nest sites . In the longer term , the action plan includes the provision of artificial burrows , seed dispersal to help the vegetation recover , and the use of anti @-@ erosion materials .
= Hong Kong Airlines =
Hong Kong Airlines Ltd ( Chinese : 香港航空公司 ) , IATA : HX is a Hong Kong @-@ based airline , with its corporate headquarters in Tung Chung and its main hub at Hong Kong International Airport . It was established in 2006 .
Based in Hong Kong , Hong Kong Airlines ’ network currently covers almost 30 cities regionally , including Beijing , Shanghai , Sanya , Bangkok , Bali , and Okinawa . The current passenger fleet has 28 aircraft , which includes five Airbus A330 @-@ 300s , nine Airbus A330 @-@ 200s and nine A320s , with up @-@ to @-@ date inflight entertainment system and an average age of around 3 years as of February 2015 . The cargo fleet consists of five Airbus A330 @-@ 200Fs .
= = History = =
Robert Yip , the chairman of China Rich Holdings , with business interests in Chinese medicine , internet portal , construction and property development , established CR Airways in Hong Kong on 28 March 2001 . The airline received its Air Operator 's Certificate ( AOC ) from the Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department ( CAD ) with a 285 kilometres per hour ( 177 mph ) 12 passenger Sikorsky S @-@ 76C + helicopter in early 2002 . It was Hong Kong 's third commercial helicopter operator and the first helicopter operator to receive an AOC since Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region of People 's Republic of China .
On 27 June 2003 , CR Airways became Hong Kong 's third passenger airline after receiving a revised AOC from the Director of Civil Aviation Albert Lam and operated its first passenger flight on the next day . It started passenger charter operations to Laoag , Philippines on 5 July 2003 , with a Bombardier CRJ200 leased from GE Capital Aviation Services . In September 2003 , the airline applied for traffic rights to operate scheduled passenger services to Laoag and Chinese cities of Jinan , Naning , Meixian and Wenzhou . In addition , Robert Yip sold 40 percent of the airline to his company , China Rich Holdings , for HK $ 180 million . By March 2004 , the airline had added Siem Reap , Cambodia to its charter network .
In April 2005 , the Hong Kong Air Transport Licensing Authority ( ATLA ) granted a five @-@ year licence to transport passengers , cargo and mail to China ; the airline was free to apply for traffic rights to 10 cities in China . On 5 July 2005 , the airline announced the purchase of two Bombardier CRJ700s from Danish carrier Maersk Air , scheduled to arrive in July and mid @-@ August , respectively . In addition , the airline had signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Boeing for the purchase of 10 Boeing 787 Dreamliners and 30 Boeing 737 – 800s on 20 December 2005 at a listed price of US $ 3 @.@ 28 billion . An executive of the airline had told reporters that some of the Boeing aircraft was from Hainan Airlines ' order .
On 27 June 2006 , Hainan Airlines purchased a 45 percent holdings of the airline and the holdings would be transferred to Grand China Air , a new holding company of Hainan Airlines . Two months later , Mr Mung Kin Keung acquired the remaining 55 percent of the airline and became the controlling shareholder on 7 August ; and its director on 13 August . On 22 September 2006 , CR Airways Limited officially changed its name to Hong Kong Airlines Limited and a launch ceremony took place on 28 November 2006 . The airline also introduced a new logo , which represents a bauhinia flower , the symbol of Hong Kong where the airline is anchored . The new logo also represents the close relationship between the airline and Hong Kong and its new era in the civil aviation industry . The airline made the biggest aircraft order in its young history on 21 June 2007 , by ordering 51 narrow- and wide @-@ body aircraft from European plane maker , Airbus , at an estimated value of US $ 5 @.@ 6 billion . The airline 's IATA code was changed from N8 to HX on 27 May 2007 .
On 24 October 2008 , the airline announced plans in preparation for the arrival of the Airbus A330 @-@ 200 wide @-@ body aircraft , which included personnel and fleet composition . The new aircraft will provide medium haul passenger and cargo services to the Middle East and Australia .
On 8 June 2010 , Hong Kong Airlines successfully completed their proving flight from Hong Kong to Beijing and return earning their Air Operating 's Certificate for the Airbus A330 operations from HKCAD .
On 28 June 2010 , schedule flight to Moscow was launched .
In September 2010 , Hong Kong Airlines introduced its first airbus A330F cargo freighter , launched the first full cargo route from Hong Kong to Hangzhou .
On 22 October 2010 , Hong Kong Airlines officially joined the IATA .
In 2011 , Hong Kong Airlines awarded 4 @-@ star rating by Skytrax . Passenger traffic exceeded one million , serving 19 destinations .
On 8 March 2012 , Hong Kong Airlines launched a daily Hong Kong – London Gatwick service with an Airbus A330 @-@ 200 aircraft . The aircraft on this route was operating as an all Club Class service , featuring 34 " Club Premier " ( business class lie @-@ flat beds ) and 82 " Club Classic " ( cradle style recliner business class ) seats . However , this route ended on September 10 . Meanwhile , Manchester City F.C. chose Hong Kong Airlines for domestic transportation as HX2871 / CRK2871 from Gatwick to Manchester
In 2013 , Hong Kong Airlines launched new passenger route between Hong Kong and Maldives , passenger traffic exceeded four million . All Hong Kong Airlines ' Boeing aircraft were replaced by homogenous Airbus fleet .
In 2014 , Hong Kong Airlines launched new passenger routes between Hong Kong and Ho Chi Minh , Tianjin and Kagoshima , and increased to four flights to Beijing and five flights to Shanghai daily . The brand new Hong Kong Airlines Lounge " Club Bauhinia " has started operations on June 27 , 2014 , replacing the existing lounge to provide our premium passengers with a more spacious and comfortable space before their flights . In July , the company was recognized the winner of " World ’ s Most Improved Airline " by SKYTRAX .
In February 2015 , Hong Kong Airlines signed an agreement for sub @-@ lease with the Airport Authority Hong Kong to develop a flight training centre on a plot of land of 0 @.@ 6 hectare located at the southeast edge of the Hong Kong International Airport .
In March 2015 , Hong Kong Airlines joined the Executive Committee of the Board of Airline Representatives in Hong Kong ( BAR HK ) , holding hands with another almost 80 airlines to improve the commercial and operational conditions for airlines active in Hong Kong .
On 28 December 2015 , Hong Kong Airlines flight HX658 bound for Okinawa became the first departure from the HKIA Midfield Concourse ( MFC ) .
= = Destinations = =
= = = Codeshare agreements = = =
Hong Kong Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines ( as of January 2013 ) :
= = Fleet = =
As of March 2016 , Hong Kong Airlines operated the following :
= = = Aircraft orders = = =
On 20 December 2005 , the airline signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) with Boeing to acquire 30 Boeing 737 – 800 aircraft and 10 Boeing 787 aircraft . However , according to the airline 's website , there is only a firm order of four Boeing 737 – 800 aircraft , with no mention of a firm order for the Boeing 787 aircraft .
On 21 June 2007 , the airline signed an MOU with Airbus to acquire 30 Airbus A320s , 20 Airbus A330 @-@ 200s powered by Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 700 engines and one Airbus Corporate Jet . The order was subsequently confirmed with the signing of a firm contract with Airbus on 12 September 2007 and it will be shared between the airline and its sister airline Hong Kong Express Airways . In December 2008 , three of the original orders for 20 A330 @-@ 200s were converted to A330 @-@ 300s and transferred to Hong Kong International Aviation Leasing . They will be operated by Hong Kong Airlines .
On 4 February 2010 , Airbus announced another MOU signed with Hong Kong Airlines to acquire 6 more Airbus A330 @-@ 200s . These will have Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines and were originally ordered by Grupo Marsans . At the same time , one of the A330 @-@ 243s on order was converted to a − 343 .
At the Farnborough Air Show in July 2010 , Airbus announced that Hong Kong Airlines had signed a MOU to convert orders for 15 A330s to A350s and place an additional order for 10 A330 @-@ 200s . The airline converted an existing order for 15 A330s to the A350 XWB which will be delivered in 2018 . No engine selection for the additional A330s was announced .
In early 2011 , there were rumours that Hong Kong Airlines had ordered 15 B747 @-@ 8 aircraft , but such an order never materialized .
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At the Paris Air Show in June 2011 , Hong Kong Airlines had announced a signed contract for 10 Airbus A380 's however due to China 's anger with the European Union over plans to force all airlines to take part in its carbon @-@ trading scheme , the Chinese government has blocked progress on Airbus ’ s sale of 10 A380s to Hong Kong Airlines . Normally , airlines in Hong Kong are not required to seek approval from the Chinese government to proceed with aircraft orders . The A380 cancellation became an issue as Hong Kong Airlines ' parent , Hainan Airlines , is registered in mainland China , not Hong Kong SAR . In early January 2012 , HKA 's corporate governance head Kenneth Thong stated in a TV interview that the order was going ahead .
In December 2012 , CEO Yang Jianhong told Bloomberg that " We won ’ t resume long haul routes in the short term . The carrier is discussing changing at least some of its 10 on @-@ order A380s for A330s , and delaying deliveries . "
= = Corporate Image and Affairs = =
= = = Corporate logo = = =
Hong Kong Airlines adopts sharp red and purple colour as the dominant colours and utilized in its uniforms and passenger cabin .
= = = Subsidiary company = = =
Hong Kong Airlines holds a number of subsidiary companies to manage its business :
Hong Kong Aviation Ground Services Limited ( HAGSL ) Provide passenger self @-@ handling services at Hong Kong International Airport
HKA Holidays Limited ( HKA Holidays ) Sell different kinds of travel products , including fixed charter flights tickets , package and hotel accommodation .
= = = Promotions = = =
Under the brand positioning of " Fresh and Very Hong Kong " , Hong Kong Airlines carried out a series of promotional campaigns :
= = = TVC = = =
2013 : TV Commercial " Bringing the Best Sky High
Under the brand positioning of " Fresh and Very Hong Kong " , the new TVC depicted flight attendants practising Wing Chun , gymnastics and cycling respectively following Rose Chan , the Aviation Service Ambassador , Teng Haibin and Zhang Nan , the Olympic Champions , and Kenji Leung , the Cycling coach. with an aim to showcase the fresh , energetic and proactive image of Hong Kong Airlines ’ flight attendants .
= = = Movie and Media = = =
The airline was the aviation sponsor for the 2013 TVB drama Triumph In The Skies 2 ( 衝上雲宵II ) .
The airline was the aviation sponsor for the 2014 Triumph in the Skies Movie ( 衝上雲宵 @-@ 電影版 ) .
= = = Sports = = =
Hong Kong Airlines is selected as the Official Carrier for Hong Kong Paralympic Committee and Sports Association for the Physically Disabled .
= = = Education and Community = = =
Hong Kong Airlines has actively engaged in community affairs , including joining the Caritas Fund Raising Bazaars for six consecutive years since 2009 and sponsored the " World Diabetes Day 2012 " Hong Kong events .
As part of an approach to nurture aviation talents and encourage students to join the aviation industry the airline has a number of student sponsorship and aviation education programmes , such as " Triumph Sky High " Junior Programme , " Embrace the World " Student Sponsorship Programme and School Sharing Workshops .
= = Loyalty programmes = =
The Fortune Wings Club is a global frequent flyer programme designed for Hong Kong Airlines and its sister airlines , including Grand China Air , Grand China Express , Hainan Airlines , Hong Kong Express Airways and Lucky Air . Membership benefits include air ticket redemption and upgrade ; VIP members have additional privileges of dedicated First or Business Class check in counters , lounge access , bonus mileage and extra baggage allowance .
= = Services = =
= = = Ground Services = = =
Hong Kong Airlines provides a wide variety of customer services at airports all over the world . At Hong Kong International Airport ( HKIA ) , the check @-@ in counter located at Aisle K of Terminal 1 .
= = = = Priority Check @-@ in = = = =
Hong Kong Airlines provides different priority check @-@ in services for its passengers . In @-@ town check @-@ in stations of Hong Kong Airlines are located at both Hong Kong and Kowloon Station of the Airport Express Line for passengers to proceed check @-@ in one day before boarding . Moreover , Hong Kong Airlines provides through check @-@ in service . Passengers with flight connections on the following carriers can obtain their boarding passes for their onward flights upon checking in on their departure city .
= = = = Electronic Check @-@ in = = = =
Hong Kong Airlines passengers can use electronic check @-@ in service at the Hong Kong International Airport , and flights depart from Taipei , Bangkok , Beijing , Shanghai Hongqiao , Shanghai Pudong and Bali prior to boarding . Electronic check @-@ in service include : Hong Kong Airlines Mobile Apps , Hong Kong Airlines Wechat , HTML5 apps and Hong Kong Airlines website .
= = = = Airport VIP Lounge = = = =
The brand new Hong Kong Airlines Lounge " Club Bauhinia " has started operations on June 27 , 2014 .
Located near Gate 23 , Terminal One at Hong Kong International Airport , the 506 square @-@ meter lounge accommodates up to 120 passengers .
= = = Cabin Service = = =
All the aircraft in the fleet are equipped with WiFi service and an AVOD in @-@ flight entertainment system . An In @-@ flight Magazine " Aspire " is available to passengers with travel and lifestyle articles.In @-@ flight shopping is provided through its SkyShop magazine that is renewed every quarter . Pre @-@ flight order can also be made on line via http : / / www.hkaskyshop.com from 72 hours prior to departure date . Members of its Fortune Wing Club ( Gold or Silver Card ) can enjoy a 5 % discount on the net purchase price of all Duty Free items .
= Passionate Journey =
Passionate Journey , or My Book of Hours ( French : Mon livre d 'heures ) , is a wordless novel of 1919 by Flemish artist Frans Masereel . The story is told in 167 captionless prints , and is the longest and best @-@ selling of the wordless novels Masereel made . It tells of the experiences of an early 20th @-@ century everyman in a modern city .
Masereel 's medium is the woodcut , and the images are in an emotional , allegorical style inspired by Expressionism . The book followed Masereel 's first wordless novel
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, 25 Images of a Man 's Passion ( 1918 ) ; both were published in Switzerland , where Masereel spent much of World War I. German publisher Kurt Wolff released an inexpensive " people 's edition " of the book in Germany with an introduction by German novelist Thomas Mann , and the book went on to sell over 100 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Its success encouraged other publishers to print wordless novels , and the genre flourished in the interwar years .
Masereel followed the book with dozens of others , beginning with The Sun later in 1919 . Masereel 's work was lauded in the art world in the earlier half of the 20th century , but has since been neglected outside of Western comics circles , where Masereel 's wordless novels are seen as anticipating the development of the graphic novel .
= = Synopsis = =
The story follows the life of a prototypical early 20th @-@ century everyman after he enters a city . It is by turns comic and tragic : a sick woman cared for by the man loses her life ; the man breaks wind at a group of businessmen ; the man is rejected by a prostitute with whom he has fallen in love . He also takes trips to different locales around the world . In the end , the man leaves the city for the woods , raises his arms in praise of nature , and dies . His spirit rises from him , stomps on the heart of his dead body , and waves to the reader as it sets off across the universe .
= = Background = =
Frans Masereel ( 1889 – 1972 ) was born into a French @-@ speaking family in Blankenberge , Belgium . At five his father died , and his mother remarried to a doctor in Ghent , whose political beliefs left an impression on the young Masereel . He often accompanied his stepfather in socialist demonstrations . After a year at the Ghent Academy of Fine Arts in 1907 , Masereel left to study art on his own in Paris . During World War I he volunteered as a translator for the Red Cross in Geneva , drew newspaper political cartoons , and copublished a magazine Les Tablettes , in which he published his first woodcut prints .
In the early 20th century there was a revival in interest in mediaeval woodcuts , particularly in religious books such as the Biblia pauperum . The woodcut is a less refined medium than the wood engraving that replaced it — artists of the time took to the rougher woodcut to express angst and frustration . From 1917 Masereel began publishing books of woodcut prints , using similar imagery to make political statements on the strife of the common people rather than to illustrate the lives of Christ and the saints . In 1918 he created the first such book to feature a narrative , 25 Images of a Man 's Passion . He followed its success in 1919 with Passionate Journey , which remained his favourite of his own works .
= = Publication history = =
The black @-@ and @-@ white woodcut images in the book were each 9 by 7 centimetres ( 3 1 ⁄ 2 in × 2 3 ⁄ 4 in ) . Masereel self @-@ published the book in Geneva on credit from Swiss printer Albert Kundig in 1919 as Mon livre d 'heures in an edition of 200 copies . It was printed directly from the original woodblocks .
German publisher Kurt Wolff sent Hans Mardersteig to Masereel to arrange German publication in 1920 . It was printed from the original woodblocks in an edition of 700 copies under the title Mein Stundenbuch : 165 Holzschnitte , Wolff thereafter continued to publish German editions of Masereel 's books , later in inexpensive " people 's editions " using electrotype reproduction . The 1926 edition had an introduction by German writer Thomas Mann :
Look at these powerful black @-@ and @-@ white figures , their features etched in light and shadow . You will be captivated from beginning to end : from the first pictured showing the train plunging through the dense smoke and bearing the hero toward life , to the very last picture showing the skeleton @-@ faced figure among the stars . Has not this passionate journey had an incomparably deeper and purer impact on you than you have ever felt before ?
The German edition was particularly popular , and went through several editions in the 1920s with sales surpassing 100 @,@ 000 copies . Its success prompted other publishers and artists to produce wordless novels .
The book won an English @-@ speaking audience after its 1922 US publication under the title My Book of Hours. printed from the original woodblocks in an edition of 600 copies with a foreword by French writer Romain Rolland . English @-@ language editions took the title Passionate Journey after publication in a popular edition in the US in 1948 . An edition did not see print in England until Redstone Press published one in the 1980s . It has also appeared in many other languages , including Chinese popular editions in 1933 and 1957 . Some editions since 1928 have cut two pages from the book : the 24th , in which the protogonist has sex with a prostitute ; and the 149th , in which the protagonist , giant @-@ sized , urinates on the city . Dover Publications restored the pages in a 1971 edition , and American editions since then have kept them .
= = Style and analysis = =
I believe that it contained the essence of what I wanted to say ; I expressed my philosophy , and perhaps My Book of Hours with its 167 woodcuts contains everything I have created since , because I have developed a number of themes from it in my later work .
Masereel uses an emotional , Expressionistic style to create a narrative replete with allegory , satire , and social criticism — a visual style he continued with throughout his career . He expresses a broad variety of emotions through understated , unexaggerated gestures . Most characters are given simple , passive expressions , which provides emphatic contrast with characters expressing more explicit emotion — love , despair , ecstasy . He considered Passionate Journey partly autobiographical , which he emphasized with a pair of self @-@ portraits that open the book — in the first , Masereel sits at his desk with his woodcutting tools , and in the second appears the protagonist , dressed in identical fashion with the first . Literature scholar Martin S. Cohen wrote that it expressed themes that were to become universal in the wordless novel genre .
The original titles of Masereel 's first two wordless novels allude to religious works : 25 Images of a Man 's Passion to the Passion of Christ , and My Book of Hours to the mediaeval devotional book of hours . These religious books made frequent use of allegory , also prominent in Masereel 's works — though Masereel replaces the religious archetypes of mediaeval morality plays with those from socialist ideology . The book derives some of its visual vocabulary — framing , sequencing , and viewpoints — from silent film . Thomas Mann named the book his favourite film .
Wordless novel scholar David Beronä saw the work as a catalogue of human activity , and in this regard compared it to Walt Whitman 's Leaves of Grass and Allen Ginsberg 's Howl . Austrian writer Stefan Zweig remarked , " If everything were to perish , all the books , monuments , photographs and memoirs , and only the woodcuts that [ Masereel ] has executed in ten years were spared , our whole present @-@ day world could be reconstructed from them . " Critic Chris Lanier attributes the protagonist 's appeal to readers to Masereel 's avoiding a preaching tone in the work ; " rather " , Lanier states , " he gives us a story as a device through which we can examine ourselves " . This openness in the images invites individual interpretation , according to Beronä .
In contrast to the works of Masereel 's imitators , the images do not form an unfolding sequence of actions but are rather like individual snapshots of events in the protagonist 's life . The book opens with a pair of literary quotations :
Behold ! I do not give lectures , or a little charity : When I give , I give myself .
... des plaisirs et des peines , des malices , facéties , expériences et folies , de la paille et du foin , des figues et du raisin , des fruits verts , des fruits doux , des roses et des gratte @-@ culs , des choses vues , et lues , et sues , et eues , vécues !
= = Reception and legacy = =
Impressed by the book , German publisher Kurt Wolff arranged for its German publication and continued to publish German editions of Masereel 's books . Wolf 's edition of Passionate Journey went through multiple printings , and the book was popular throughout Europe , where it sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . Soon other publishers also engaged in the publication of wordless novels , though none matched the success of Masereel 's , which Beronä has called " perhaps the most seminal work in the genre " .
While not as successful at first in the United States , American reviewers recognized Masereel as father of the wordless novel at least as early as the 1930s . A revival in publishing interest in wordless novels in the 1970s saw Passionate Journey the most frequently reprinted .
While the graphic narrative bears strong similarities to the comics that were proliferating in the early 20th century , Masereel 's book emerged from a fine arts environment and was aimed at such an audience . Its influence was felt not in comics but in the worlds of literature , film , music , and advertising . Masereel 's work was widely recognized with awards and exhibitions in the early 20th century , but has since been mostly forgotten outside of Western comics circles , where his wordless novels , and Passionate Journey in particular , are seen as precursors to the graphic novel .
= Shawn Lonsdale =
Shawn Lonsdale ( 1969 – February 16 , 2008 ) was a videographer and prominent critic of the Church of Scientology . He resided in Clearwater , Florida , and regularly videotaped members of Scientology coming and going from church activities in Clearwater . Lonsdale had initially intended to do a photography project on homeless people in Clearwater , but after an experience at a City Council meeting , he began to research Scientology . Lonsdale got into an argument with a Scientologist at the City Council meeting , and the Scientologist followed him home and the next day Lonsdale observed a van waiting for two hours outside his home . After researching the Church of Scientology on critical websites , he decided to expose information about the organization . He established a website , and filmed video footage of Scientologists going about activities in Clearwater , and aired edited footage on a local Public @-@ access television cable TV station . After getting into a physical altercation with a Scientologist while filming , the Scientologist was arrested and charged with misdemeanor battery , but was later released and the charges were dropped .
The Church of Scientology hired private investigators and discovered a criminal record on Lonsdale , and this was subsequently publicized by a Scientologist on fliers and on a website . Lonsdale was subpoenaed by the Church of Scientology in 2006 , and they accused him of being affiliated with the Lisa McPherson Trust , a group critical of Scientology which was restricted in where it could protest in Clearwater . In 2007 , Lonsdale appeared on the BBC Panorama program Scientology and Me and was interviewed by journalist John Sweeney . Later in the program , Sweeney lost his temper and shouted at a Scientology representative when he was accused of giving Lonsdale a " soft interview " . Lonsdale died suddenly on February 16 , 2008 , and a Clearwater police spokeswoman stated that the death appears to be due to suicide .
= = Critic of Scientology = =
Lonsdale , never a Scientologist himself , became critical of the Church of Scientology in mid @-@ 2006 , and often stood outside in downtown Clearwater near Scientology 's spiritual headquarters wearing a sandwich board sign that read " Cult Watch " . Lonsdale became interested in Scientology after getting into a fight with a Scientologist over redevelopment issues while at a City Council meeting . After the Scientologist followed Lonsdale 's car home and Lonsdale noticed a van parked in front of his home for two hours the following day , he began to research the background of Scientology on anti @-@ Scientology sites on the Internet and in the library . He taped hours of footage of Scientology staffers , security guards , and verbal confrontations with Scientologists , and edited clips into a pseudo @-@ documentary which aired on local public @-@ access television . Lonsdale dropped fliers outside downtown businesses and picked through trash from a Scientology @-@ owned business and posted documents online . He parked outside a Scientology cafeteria with posters in his car window which stated that key Scientology texts were available for free on the Internet : " OT I @-@ VIII for free at xenu.net. "
On July 8 , 2006 , Lonsdale got into a physical altercation with a Scientologist while filming the Church of Scientology in Clearwater . A spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology told Bay News 9 that Lonsdale had been harassing their staff members , and that the fight was not related to the church . Lonsdale stated " Basically , I 'm filming a pseudo @-@ documentary for one of our free @-@ access Pinellas web channels , " and said that while filming a Scientologist came out of a coffee shop and yelled that Lonsdale was a religious bigot . Lonsdale stated " I picked up the camera again and started filming him ... He went right for my face and my head , backed me up into a pole to which I had no other choice but to defend myself . " The Scientologist was arrested by Clearwater police and charged with battery , but the State Attorney 's Office of Florida decided not to pursue charges . After the incident the Clearwater police Deputy Chief viewed a videotape of the altercation , and concluded that Lonsdale was the victim and that his police officers made the right decision in arresting the Scientologist . After viewing the videotape , the Assistant State Attorney stated " it is just not going to be a prosecutable case , " and said that the video shows " pretty much mutual aggression " between Lonsdale and the Scientologist . The Assistant State Attorney stated that the video showed aggression on both sides , and that Lonsdale 's criticism of Scientology on the internet made the case " unprosecutable " . Lonsdale 's attorney Luke Lirot stated " It is another example of the State Attorney 's Office 's historical reluctance to tangle with Scientology . " Scientology spokeswoman Pat Harney said that church members had been told to avoid Lonsdale , and told the St. Petersburg Times that Scientologists had complained to police that they felt Lonsdale was stalking them . The police did not charge Lonsdale , stating that he had the right to take photos and video in public places .
= = = Response by Church of Scientology = = =
The Church of Scientology responded to Lonsdale 's activities by hiring a private investigator to investigate him . The private investigator discovered that Lonsdale had two misdemeanor convictions for lewd and lascivious conduct dating back to 1999 and 2000 , both related to public sex with men . In mid @-@ July 2006 , Posters with a mug shot of Lonsdale appeared in store windows warning that he had been arrested for sex crimes and was dangerous . The Church of Scientology told Bay News 9 that it did not hand out the fliers , but that they came from an organization calling the " Cleveland Street Safety League " . The St. Petersburg Times reported that the man behind the " Cleveland Street Safety League " is " a longtime Scientologist known for confronting critics " . The Scientologist behind the Cleveland Street Safety League created a website about Lonsdale and posted his arrest record and comments Lonsdale had made on a swinger site , and also called Lonsdale 's family in New England claiming that Lonsdale needed mental help .
Lonsdale 's employer and landlord received phone calls from Scientology representatives who claimed that he was a religious bigot and dangerous . Lonsdale was subpoenaed by the Church of Scientology for a deposition in the fall of 2006 , and the Church claimed that he belonged to an anti @-@ Scientology group which had previously been barred from protesting in certain areas in downtown Clearwater , the Lisa McPherson Trust . Luke Lirot , the lawyer who defended Lonsdale in the matter , told the St. Petersburg Times : " I found him to be quite affable and truly a very intelligent man ... I certainly hope that a very thorough investigation is conducted . " In his deposition , Lonsdale stated he was unemployed and began to educate himself about Scientology while working on a photography project on homeless people in Clearwater . After reading more about Scientology , he decided to shed light on the organization and irritate Scientologists . Of the claims Scientology made that Lonsdale was affiliated with the Lisa McPherson Trust , Lirot commented : " It was obvious to everybody he had nothing to do with the trust , and the trust had been disbanded and dissolved many years prior ... They just wanted to try to come up with a way to preclude him from exercising his right to picket in downtown Clearwater , and they were unsuccessful in doing that . "
= = Scientology and Me = =
In May 2007 , Lonsdale appeared on BBC 's Panorama program in a piece titled " Scientology and Me " , and was interviewed about his experiences as a critic of Scientology by journalist John Sweeney . When Sweeney asked Lonsdale why the Church of Scientology was publicizing derogatory things about him , Lonsdale replied : " They are trying to embarrass me . They try to paint you as crazy , so that no one will listen to you . " During their interview , Tommy Davis arrived , opened a folder , and began to read out loud Lonsdale 's criminal record . Later in the program , Sweeney was accused by Scientologist Tommy Davis of giving " convicted sexual pervert Shawn Lonsdale " a " soft interview " . Sweeney yelled at Davis and lost his temper , with both men shouting at each other back and forth . A Scientology @-@ produced video of the incident was uploaded to YouTube and viewed over 856 @,@ 000 times .
= = Death = =
In 2007 , Lonsdale let his Scientology critique website lapse , and posted less frequently on his blogs and anti @-@ Scientology message boards and chat forums . Spokeswoman Pat Harney stated that the Church had not heard from Lonsdale for months before his death . Former Scientologist Randy Payne told the St. Petersburg Times that Lonsdale " found it impossible " to make a living while spending the majority of his time as a critic of Scientology . Payne stated that in December 2007 Lonsdale had found steady work , and had planned to go back to school in order to get a private investigator 's license .
Clearwater police discovered Lonsdale 's body after they were alerted by neighbors and found a garden hose connecting the exhaust pipe of Lonsdale 's car with one of the windows of his home . Clearwater police spokeswoman Elizabeth Daly @-@ Watts stated that there were no signs of foul play involved , and that police found what they believed to be a suicide note . Daly @-@ Watts said that " It does appear to be a suicide . " Police officially ruled Lonsdale 's death as suicide on May 2 , 2008 .
Scientology spokeswoman Pat Harney called Lonsdale 's apparent suicide " awful " and stated " It 's just unfortunate anybody feels they have to go to that length ... I wouldn 't wish that on anybody . " Jerald Rowlett , a fellow Scientology critic and friend from Michigan , told The Tampa Tribune : " In many ways Shawn was a hero to me ... He had a hard life and a history he knew Scientology would use to hurt him . And yet he still felt strongly enough to try to inform the public about the actions of Scientology . " On March 1 , 2008 , John Sweeney remembered Lonsdale and spoke about him on the BBC Radio 4 program , From Our Own Correspondent . Sweeney stated : " Clearwater got that little bit more creepy recently , with the death - the police are treating it as suicide - of Shawn . When alive a Scientology spokesman said of him : ' He has no redeeming value to anyone , anywhere . ' Well , he was a bit of a hero to me ... I for one mourn the loss - of a brave and singular American " .
= Baltimore Steam Packet Company =
The Baltimore Steam Packet Company , nicknamed the Old Bay Line , was an American steamship line from 1840 to 1962 that provided overnight steamboat service on the Chesapeake Bay , primarily between Baltimore , Maryland , and Norfolk , Virginia . Called a " packet " for the mail packets carried on government mail contracts , the term in the 19th century came to mean a steamer line operating on a regular , fixed daily schedule between two or more cities . When it closed in 1962 after 122 years of existence , it was the last surviving overnight steamship passenger service in the United States .
In addition to regularly calling on Baltimore and Norfolk , the Baltimore Steam Packet Company at various times provided freight , passenger and vehicle transport to Washington , D.C. , Old Point Comfort , and Richmond , Virginia . The Old Bay Line , as it came to be known by the 1860s , was acclaimed for its genteel service and fine dining , serving Chesapeake Bay specialties . Walter Lord , famed author of A Night to Remember ( and whose grandfather had been the packet line 's president from 1893 to 1899 ) , mused that its reputation for excellent service was attributable to " ... some magical blending of the best in the North and the South , made possible by the Company 's unique role in ' bridging ' the two sections ... the North contributed its tradition of mechanical proficiency , making the ships so reliable ; while the South contributed its gracious ease " .
One of the Old Bay Line 's steamers , the former President Warfield , later became famous as the Exodus ship of book and movie fame , when Jewish refugees from war @-@ torn Europe sailed aboard her in 1947 in an unsuccessful attempt to emigrate to Palestine .
= = History = =
Just seven years after Robert Fulton proved the commercial viability of steam @-@ powered ships with his North River Steamboat ( more commonly known today as Clermont ) in 1807 , small wood @-@ burning steamers began to ply the Chesapeake Bay . Before the arrival of railroads and river steamboats in the early 19th century , overland travel was exceedingly slow and tedious . Rivers were the main means of transportation and most cities were founded on them . This was especially so in North America , where journeys over vast distances of hundreds or even thousands of miles required months of hazardous , uncomfortable travel by stagecoach or wagon on rutted , unpaved trails . In the 1830s , railroads were being built , but the technology was crude and average passenger train speed was only 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) . Perhaps more importantly , most early railroads did not connect . It would be many years before the various lines were knitted together to make intercity rail travel in the U.S. a reality . Not until 1863 , for example , was it possible to travel between New York City and Washington , D. C. , without changing trains en route .
In this period , steamships on rivers such as the Ohio and Mississippi or large inland bodies of water such as the Great Lakes and the Chesapeake Bay offered a comfortable and relatively fast mode of transportation . The first steamboat to serve Baltimore was the locally built Chesapeake , constructed in 1813 to link Baltimore with Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Operated by the Union Line , the boat connected with a stagecoach for the overland portion of the journey . Two years later , the Briscoe @-@ Partridge Line 's Eagle was the first steamboat to sail the length of Chesapeake Bay .
The direct ancestor of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company was the Maryland & Virginia Steam Boat Company formed in 1828 to link Baltimore , Richmond , and Norfolk , traversing the Chesapeake Bay and the James River . By 1839 , the Maryland & Virginia was heavily in debt from the purchase of two new , large ships the year before : the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) long Alabama and the 173 @-@ foot ( 53 m ) Jewess . The Alabama was expensive to operate and proved impractical for Chesapeake Bay operations , causing the bankruptcy of the Maryland & Virginia later that year .
= = = 1840s – 1850s = = =
When the Maryland & Virginia collapsed in late 1839 , the Maryland legislature convened to grant a charter to the Baltimore Steam Packet Company , organized in Baltimore to provide overnight steamship service on the Chesapeake Bay . The company 's incorporators were Benjamin Bush , Andrew F. Henderson ( who became the line 's first president ) , John B. Howell , Thomas Kelso ( who would become a director of the line ) , John S. McKim , Samuel McDonald , Gen. William McDonald , Robert A. Taylor , and Joel Vickers , all of Baltimore .
The company was granted a 20 @-@ year charter on March 18 , 1840 , by the Maryland legislature and then acquired three of the former Maryland & Virginia 's steamboats : Pocahontas , Georgia , and Jewess . The company began overnight paddlewheel steamship passenger and freight service daily except Sundays between Baltimore and Norfolk . By 1848 , the company 's steamship Herald was making the trip in less than 12 hours , a time which the line would maintain until the end in 1962 . An affiliate , the Powhatan Line , started service between Norfolk and Richmond in 1845 , interchanging freight and passengers with the Old Bay Line .
By the 1850s , competition was keen as steamships grew in size and efficiency to serve the fast @-@ growing nation . The Old Bay Line , in particular , served as a link between the antebellum South and northern markets , hauling large quantities of cotton north and manufactured goods south , along with a thriving passenger business between Baltimore and Norfolk . Railroads also began acquiring steamship lines in the 1850s , and the Seaboard & Roanoke Railroad , a predecessor of the Richmond , Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad ( RF & P ) , acquired a controlling interest in the Baltimore Steam Packet Company in 1851 . As competitors entered the field , each line vied to outdo its competitors in the luxurious appointments of their ships ' staterooms and dining service . The company acquired newer and larger ships in the 1850s , such as the North Carolina in 1852 and the Louisiana in 1854 , the latter at 266 feet ( 81 m ) in length being the largest wooden vessel the company would own . A passenger on the Baltimore Steam Packet Company 's Georgia , carried away by delight over his travel experience in 1853 , was effusive in his description of an overnight trip :
I know of no more delightful trip from Baltimore down the Chesapeake ... upon the broad blue waters with an exquisite breeze , which came up with invigorating freshness from the silver waves . Night came on , and her azure curtain gemmed with myriad stars was drawn over the expanse above .
The North Carolina similarly impressed a Baltimore Patriot reporter in 1852 , who described the ship 's dining saloon as " having imported Belgian carpets , velvet chairs with marble @-@ topped tables , and white panelling with gilded mouldings " .
On February 20 , 1858 , the northbound steamer Louisiana collided with a sailing vessel , the William K. Perrin , causing the sailboat to founder near the mouth of the Rappahannock River . In a case that reached all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court , Haney et al. v Baltimore Steam Packet Company , the Louisiana was found to be at fault . The high court considered the rules of the sea pertaining to steamers and sailing ships approaching one another and concluded ( with Chief Justice Roger B. Taney dissenting ) that " entire disregard of these rules of navigation by the steamer " caused the collision , reversing a Circuit Court ruling .
The North Carolina burned on January 29 , 1859 , when a fire started in a passenger stateroom . She sank the following day with the loss of two lives . The following month , the line acquired the Adelaide to replace the lost steamer .
= = = 1860s – 1910s = = =
The outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861 immediately affected the Baltimore Steam Packet Company . On April 19 , two days after Virginia 's secession , a violently pro @-@ Southern mob in Baltimore attacked Union soldiers en route to Washington , D.C. as the troops marched through the city 's streets between railroad stations . Thereafter known as the Baltimore riot of 1861 , the resulting loss of life and local unrest also threatened the USS Allegheny , a U.S. Navy ship in Baltimore at the time . Later that same day , the Baltimore Steam Packet Company declined to transport Union forces from Baltimore to the beleaguered Union naval yard facility at Portsmouth , Virginia .
Two weeks later , on May 7 , the Adelaide was chartered by the U.S. Navy and attached to the Atlantic Blockading Squadron . In that role , she was used to transport Federal troops in support of operations in North Carolina 's Outer Banks , directed against the Confederate @-@ held forts guarding Hatteras Inlet . Later that year , the Adelaide was returned to the Baltimore Steam Packet Company .
As a steamship line connecting northern cities and the south , the Old Bay Line hauled a considerable volume of freight between the two regions and their ships ' cargo holds were filled with bales of cotton , produce , and other goods . When hostilities commenced , Southern ports were blockaded by the Federal Navy and the Old Bay Line was unable to serve Norfolk for the duration of the war , going no further south than Old Point Comfort . Passenger traffic as well as cargo shipping declined significantly . The Powhatan Line discontinued operations altogether between Norfolk and Richmond until the war 's end .
As soon as the war ended in 1865 , the Leary Line of New York briefly challenged the Baltimore Steam Packet Company on the Chesapeake , starting its own Baltimore @-@ Norfolk steamship service . A fare war ensued , with one @-@ way prices reduced to $ 3 @.@ 00 . Emphasizing the longevity of its service compared to their upstart rival , the Baltimore Steam Packet Company began referring to itself as the " Old Established Bay Line " in advertising , a moniker that would soon become simply the Old Bay Line for the next century .
The Leary Line withdrew in January 1867 , selling its George Leary to the Old Bay Line . Two years later , the Norfolk Journal of August 2 , 1869 , described the vessel as having a " gorgeous style of furniture and elegant fittings ... magnificently furnished with upholstered sofas and lounges of rich red velvet ... " . Another competitor , the Chesapeake Steamship Company , began directly competing on the Baltimore @-@ Norfolk route in 1874 . Controlled by the Southern Railway , a rival of the RF & P , it would be a formidable competitor until 1941 , when the two steamship lines merged . Cargo traffic was also booming in the 1870s as the South recovered from the Civil War , resulting in the Old Bay Line 's freight revenue surpassing passenger revenue by the end of the decade .
By the time of John Moncure Robinson 's retirement as president of the company in 1893 , the Old Bay Line had upgraded its fleet with propeller @-@ driven , steel @-@ hulled steamers equipped with modern conveniences such as electric lighting and staterooms with private baths . The Georgia introduced in 1887 was the first Old Bay Line boat to have a modern screw propeller instead of old @-@ fashioned side paddlewheels and the Alabama launched in 1893 was the company 's first steel @-@ hulled vessel . Robinson served the Old Bay Line as president for 26 years ( 1867 – 1893 ) , longer than any other person in the company 's history .
The halcyon days of the 1890s were the company 's heyday , under president Richard Curzon Hoffman ( the grandfather of noted author Walter Lord ) , when the prosperous line 's gleaming steamships were heavily patronized by passengers enjoying the well @-@ appointed staterooms and Chesapeake Bay culinary delights while dining to the accompaniment of live music . The nightly menu on board included oyster fritters , diamondback terrapin , duck , and turkey .
The company built a new terminal and headquarters in Baltimore on Light Street in 1898 to accommodate the increasing traffic . Rebuilt after the Great Baltimore Fire of 1904 , the building with its four @-@ sided clocktower would be a landmark for decades on Baltimore 's Inner Harbor waterfront . ( The location of the now @-@ demolished terminal is between the present Harborplace and Maryland Science Center . )
The Richmond , Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad , which had first acquired a controlling interest in the Baltimore Steam Packet Company in 1851 , gained total control of the company 's stock on September 5 , 1901 . The Old Bay Line continued to be managed separately from the RF & P , however .
= = = = World War I and aftermath = = = =
In contrast to the Civil War , when hostilities sharply curtailed business on the Old Bay Line , World War I doubled freight and passenger business on the line to the busy ports of Norfolk and the Hampton Roads area , with 107 @,@ 664 passengers using the line in 1917 . As a result of congestion on the nation 's railroads and ports when the U.S. entered the war in April 1917 , the Federal government established the wartime U.S. Railroad Administration ( USRA ) to take charge of railroads and steamship companies , including the Baltimore Steam Packet Company . The USRA directed the operations of the Old Bay Line and the rival Chesapeake line for the duration of the war and more than a year thereafter , until March 1 , 1920 .
Baltimore @-@ native John Roberts Sherwood , who had joined the Old Bay Line as a 22 @-@ year @-@ old engineer in 1868 and became president in 1907 , retired in October 1918 after 49 years with the company . The Baltimore Sun extolled Sherwood 's distinguished half @-@ century of service to the steamer line when he retired , noting approvingly that his oft @-@ expressed philosophy was , " Stand up for your home city wherever you may go . " ( His son , John W. Sherwood , founded Baltimore 's celebrated Sherwood Gardens in the mid @-@ 1920s . ) Sherwood was succeeded by S. Davies Warfield as president ( 1918 – 1927 ) .
Catastrophe struck the Old Bay Line on May 24 , 1919 , when the Virginia II caught fire shortly after midnight in the middle of Chesapeake Bay with 156 passengers and a crew of 82 on board . The ship burned completely as many passengers jumped overboard and a lifeboat capsized . The Chesapeake Line 's City of Norfolk and other vessels came to the rescue and pulled people from the water to safety . The Virginia 's captain , Walter Lane , remained with his ship to the end and suffered burns .
= = = 1920s – 1930s = = =
The corporate ownership of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company changed again in 1922 , when the Seaboard Air Line Railroad ( SAL ) formed the Seaboard – Bay Line Company , which owned all of the outstanding shares of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company , making the steamship company a wholly owned subsidiary of the SAL on February 6 , 1922 . In addition to the infusion of capital from the SAL , the Old Bay Line also obtained a $ 4 @.@ 4 million Federal loan to build two new steamers for the Old Bay Line : the State of Maryland and the State of Virginia . The Old Bay Line 's president , S. Davies Warfield , was named president of SAL railroad as well as the Old Bay Line in 1922 .
In 1928 , the Baltimore Steam Packet Company took delivery of two more new ships – the President Warfield and the Yorktown . The President Warfield , built by Pusey and Jones Corp. in Wilmington , Delaware , was named for the Old Bay Line 's president of the time , S. Davies Warfield . She would be the last new ship built for the Old Bay Line .
As the new @-@ fangled Ford Model Ts and other early automobiles increasingly took to the roads in the 1920s , inland steamship lines in the U.S. initially resisted carrying automobiles on their boats . By the Depression @-@ ravaged 1930s , however , the Old Bay Line became one of the first inland steamship companies to promote the carriage of automobiles as a means of filling its ships ' empty cargo holds . The Depression and loss of business to improved highways took an increasing toll of many U.S. steamship lines in the 1930s , as historic companies such as the Fall River Line ceased operation in 1937 , preceded by the Lake Champlain company , which was the oldest steamboat line in the U.S. at its demise in 1932 .
Fortunately for the Old Bay Line , its freight and passenger traffic remained relatively strong in the 1930s and the company embarked on a modernization program for its main boats of the line . The President Warfield and State of Maryland were converted from coal to oil burning in 1933 and had sprinkler systems installed in 1938 . In 1939 , the State of Virginia was converted to oil burning and all three ships were equipped with radio direction finders and ship @-@ to @-@ shore telephones .
= = = 1940s = = =
As the Old Bay Line celebrated its centennial in 1940 with parades and other events in Baltimore , the company 's future seemed bright . Business was steady and the company 's facilities were in sound condition . Commemorative dinner plates in blue and pink decorated with a map of the Chesapeake Bay were introduced .
On June 14 , 1941 , the Baltimore Steam Packet Company 's owner , the Seaboard Air Line Railroad , entered into an agreement with a consortium of railroads and steamship companies to merge the Chesapeake Steamship Company into the Old Bay Line . The railroad group , consisting of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad , Southern Railway , and the SAL , together controlled the Baltimore Steam Packet Company and the Chesapeake Steamship Company . As a result , the Old Bay Line took over the Chesapeake Line 's business and assets and became the sole operator of passenger and freight steamship transportation between the important ports of Baltimore and Norfolk . As part of this agreement , half of the outstanding shares of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company was assigned to Chesapeake Steamship Company , which was one @-@ third owned by Southern Railway and two @-@ thirds owned by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad . With the amalgamation , two of the Chesapeake Line 's steamboats , the City of Norfolk and City of Richmond , were transferred to the Old Bay Line . As it turned out , these would be the last two vessels operated by the Old Bay Line when it went out of business in 1962 . Robert E. Dunn was named president of the Old Bay Line in 1941 , remaining at the helm of the company to the end of service in 1962 .
= = = = World War II = = = =
After the United States entered World War II on December 7 , 1941 , the Federal government set up the War Shipping Administration to manage the vitally important maritime shipping and Naval support needs of the U.S. and its Allies , including the power to expropriate civilian @-@ owned boats . On April 1 , 1942 , the government acquired the Old Bay Line 's State of Virginia and State of Maryland . On July 13 , the President Warfield and Yorktown were also taken over . Thus , by mid @-@ 1942 , four of the Old Bay Line 's six ships had become government property , leaving the company only the two oldest and smallest ships in its fleet for the duration of the war , the City of Norfolk and City of Richmond .
= = = = Postwar and the Exodus = = = =
After World War II , the line promoted its automobile service to Florida @-@ bound motorists , advertising the elimination of 230 miles ( 370 km ) of driving by taking the family car on an overnight cruise down the Chesapeake to Virginia , while enjoying a sumptuous dinner and relaxing stateroom aboard an Old Bay Line steamer instead of a roadside motel . In March 1946 , the Old Bay Line installed radar on the City of Richmond and City of Norfolk , the first commercial passenger ships to be equipped with radar .
After the President Warfield was expropriated in 1942 by the War Shipping Administration for national defense as a transport during World War II , it was transferred to the United Kingdom on September 21 , 1942 . Later in the war , it was returned to the U.S. Navy and commissioned as the USS President Warfield ( IX @-@ 169 ) on May 21 , 1944 . Following the end of World War II , the President Warfield was decommissioned and returned to the War Shipping Administration for disposal as surplus . After inspecting the President Warfield , Old Bay Line officials decided that the expense for reconditioning the badly deteriorated ship was excessive , and accepted a cash settlement from the War Shipping Administration instead of taking back the war surplus vessel .
The old President Warfield was eventually acquired in early 1947 by Mossad Le 'aliyah Bet , a Jewish organization helping Holocaust survivors illegally reach Palestine , then under British mandate . The former Baltimore Steam Packet and U.S. Navy steamship was renamed Exodus when she embarked from France for Palestine on July 11 , 1947 , carrying 4 @,@ 515 passengers . Two Royal Navy destroyers rammed the Exodus as she entered Palestinian waters near Haifa on July 18 . British forces boarded the damaged ship and eventually deported the passengers . The Exodus remained in Haifa harbor until 1952 , when the derelict caught fire and burned completely . The 1960 film Exodus depicted the refugees ' odyssey aboard the former President Warfield .
= = = 1950s and demise = = =
The Bay Line 's Light Street terminal and headquarters building in Baltimore , where it had been located since 1898 , were sold to the city in October 1950 for the widening of Light Street and later development as the acclaimed Inner Harbor waterfront festival marketplace . The company relocated to a pier on Pratt Street at the foot of Gay Street , where it remained until it went out of business in 1962 .
Various travel writers in the 1950s extolled the pleasures of the nightly cruises and meals on the Old Bay Line 's antique steamers . By the mid @-@ 1950s , however , improved highways and the increase in air travel meant that the Old Bay Line 's 12 @-@ hour transit time between Baltimore and Norfolk was a comparatively slow means of transportation . Old Bay Line officials hoped that the steamship line 's unique service might continue to appeal to travellers seeking the pleasures of a cruise on the scenic Chesapeake with fine dining en route and a well @-@ furnished , private stateroom . The Sunday travel section of The New York Times in 1954 featured the " long established , more leisurely water route across Chesapeake Bay " , as the writer described the Old Bay Line , recommending " the boat trip can be made comfortably and comparatively inexpensively every night between Baltimore , Old Point Comfort and Norfolk , and on alternate nights between Washington , D. C. , and the Virginia communities " .
In the end too few people opted for this leisurely form of travel and passenger volume steadily declined . As deficits rose during the 1950s , the Old Bay Line began cutting back . On September 30 , 1957 , it abandoned service to Washington , D.C. , discontinuing its Washington – Norfolk overnight service on the Potomac River . By 1960 , the Old Bay Line reduced operation of its mainstay Baltimore – Norfolk route to freight service only during the lightly travelled winter months of October – April , eliminating all passenger service on the Chesapeake Bay during those months . In October 1961 , the company announced that its passenger service was " temporarily suspended until further notice " , indicating that resumption of passenger service was expected the following summer season beginning in April 1962 . Finally , on April 14 , 1962 , the venerable Old Bay Line discontinued all operations entirely , ending one of the very last remaining overnight steamship passenger services in the United States ( The Georgian Bay Line still operated out of Georgian Bay along with Canadian Pacific and Canada Steamship Lines but those companies engaged in purely cruising and all were out of service by 1967 ) . The following month , the stockholders of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company formally voted on May 25 , 1962 to liquidate the 122 @-@ year @-@ old corporation , ending forever the melodious whistles of Old Bay Line steamboats on the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries .
= = Routes operated = =
The routes over which the Baltimore Steam Packet Company operated passenger , mail , and freight service on a scheduled basis were :
= = Old Bay Line fleet = =
The company owned 54 ships during its 122 years of existence , many being small cargo vessels . Originally , all of the line 's steamboats were of wooden construction with side paddlewheels and used wood logs for fuel . The first boat with an iron hull acquired by the Old Bay Line was the Georgeanna , in 1860 . By the late 1870s , the company had acquired its last paddlewheel steamers : Florida , Carolina , and Virginia . Later , ships would use coal for fuel until the 1930s , when oil began to be used . Beginning with the Georgia built in 1887 , their ships used the more modern propeller or " screw " design . The Georgia also was the first Old Bay Line vessel to be equipped with electric lighting and steam heating . Passenger ships of the line provided large , lavishly furnished staterooms to accommodate passengers on the overnight trip . The Alabama built in 1892 represented the inception of modern shipbuilding and design for the Old Bay Line : the first vessel to have a steel hull instead of iron or wood and propelled by a four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion reciprocating engine , the same type engine that all of the line 's later steamers would have . Notable Old Bay Line passenger vessels used in scheduled overnight service , with dates acquired and gross tonnages , were :
Key : paddlewheel propulsion ( ‡ ) steel @-@ hull construction ( ¶ )
At the time of the Old Bay Line 's dissolution in April 1962 , three ships remained docked at the Pratt Street pier : the District of Columbia , which had been kept as a spare since the Washington – Norfolk service ended in 1957 , was scrapped soon afterwards . The City of Richmond was sold for use as a floating restaurant in the Virgin Islands , but sank in the Atlantic Ocean off Georgetown , South Carolina , while under tow to her new home . The City of Norfolk was idled in Norfolk until 1966 , when it was towed to Fieldsboro , New Jersey on the Delaware River and scrapped .
= Ann Arbor , Michigan =
Ann Arbor is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County . The 2010 census recorded its population to be 113 @,@ 934 , making it the sixth largest city in Michigan . The Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) includes all of Washtenaw County , which had a population of 344 @,@ 791 as of 2010 . The city is also part of the larger Detroit – Ann Arbor – Flint , MI Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) with a population of 5 @,@ 318 @,@ 744 .
Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 , named for wives of the village 's founders and the stands of Bur Oak trees . The University of Michigan moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837 , and the city grew at a rapid rate in the early to mid @-@ 20th century . During the 1960s and 1970s , the city gained a reputation as a center for left @-@ wing politics . Ann Arbor became a focal point for political activism and served as a hub for the civil @-@ rights movement and anti @-@ Vietnam War movement , as well as various student movements .
Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan , one of the foremost research universities in the United States . The university shapes Ann Arbor 's economy significantly as it employs about 30 @,@ 000 workers , including about 12 @,@ 000 in the medical center . The city 's economy is also centered on high technology , with several companies drawn to the area by the university 's research and development money , and by its graduates .
= = History = =
Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey . On 25 May 1824 , the town plat was registered with Wayne County as " Annarbour ; " this represents the earliest known use of the town 's name . Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives , both named Ann , and for the stands of Bur Oak in the 640 acres ( 260 ha ) of land they purchased for $ 800 from the federal government at $ 1 @.@ 25 per acre . The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw @-@ goosh @-@ kaw @-@ nick , after the sound of Allen 's sawmill .
Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827 , and was incorporated as a village in 1833 . The Ann Arbor Land Company , a group of speculators , set aside 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capital , but lost the bid to Lansing . In 1837 , the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan , which moved from Detroit .
Since the university 's establishment in the city in 1837 , the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked . The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad , and a north — south railway connecting Ann Arbor to Toledo and other markets to the south was established in 1878 . Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor . While the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry , the newer settlers also consisted of Germans , Irish , and African @-@ Americans . In 1851 , Ann Arbor was chartered as a city , though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873 . It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth , with new immigrants coming from Greece , Italy , Russia , and Poland . Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing , particularly in milling . Ann Arbor 's Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century , and its first and oldest synagogue , Beth Israel Congregation , was established in 1916 .
During the 1960s and 1970s , the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics . Ann Arbor also became a locus for left @-@ wing activism and served as a hub for the civil @-@ rights movement and anti @-@ Vietnam War movement , as well as the student movement . The first major meetings of the national left @-@ wing campus group Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960 ; in 1965 , the city was home to the first U.S. teach @-@ in against the Vietnam War . During the ensuing 15 years , many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city . These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid @-@ 1970s when three members of the Human Rights Party ( HRP ) won city council seats on the strength of the student vote . During their time on the council , HRP representatives fought for measures including pioneering antidiscrimination ordinances , measures decriminalizing marijuana possession , and a rent @-@ control ordinance ; many of these remain in effect in modified form . Alongside these liberal and left @-@ wing efforts , a small group of conservative institutions were born in Ann Arbor . These include Word of God ( established in 1967 ) , a charismatic inter @-@ denominational movement ; and the Thomas More Law Center ( established in 1999 ) , a religious @-@ conservative advocacy group .
Following a 1956 @-@ vote , the city of East Ann Arbor merged with Ann Arbor to encompass the eastern sections of the city .
In the past several decades , Ann Arbor has grappled with the effects of sharply rising land values , gentrification , and urban sprawl stretching into outlying countryside . On 4 November 2003 , voters approved a greenbelt plan under which the city government bought development rights on agricultural parcels of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development . Since then , a vociferous local debate has hinged on how and whether to accommodate and guide development within city limits . Ann Arbor consistently ranks in the " top places to live " lists published by various mainstream media outlets every year . In 2008 , it was ranked by CNNMoney.com 27th out of 100 " America 's best small cities " . And in the year 2010 , Forbes listed Ann Arbor as one of the most liveable cities in the United States of America .
= = Geography and cityscape = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 28 @.@ 70 square miles ( 74 @.@ 33 km2 ) , of which , 27 @.@ 83 square miles ( 72 @.@ 08 km2 ) of it is land and 0 @.@ 87 square miles ( 2 @.@ 25 km2 ) is water , much of which is part of the Huron River . Ann Arbor is about 35 miles ( 56 km ) west of Detroit . Ann Arbor Charter Township adjoins the city 's north and east sides . Ann Arbor is situated on the Huron River in a productive agricultural and fruit @-@ growing region . The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of hills and valleys , with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River . The elevation ranges from about 750 feet ( 230 m ) along the Huron River to 1 @,@ 015 feet ( 309 m ) on the city 's west side , near the intersection of Maple Road and Pauline Blvd . Generally , the west @-@ central and northwestern parts of the city and U @-@ M 's North Campus are the highest parts of the city ; the lowest parts are along the Huron River and in the southeast . Ann Arbor Municipal Airport , which is south of the city at 42 ° 13 @.@ 38 ′ N 83 ° 44 @.@ 74 ′ W , has an elevation of 839 feet ( 256 m ) .
Ann Arbor 's " Tree Town " nickname stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas . The city contains more than 50 @,@ 000 trees along its streets and an equal number in parks . In recent years , the emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city 's approximately 10 @,@ 500 ash trees . The city contains 157 municipal parks ranging from small neighborhood green spots to large recreation areas . Several large city parks and a university park border sections of the Huron River . Fuller Recreation Area , near the University Hospital complex , contains sports fields , pedestrian and bike paths , and swimming pools . The Nichols Arboretum , owned by the University of Michigan , is a 123 @-@ acre ( 50 ha ) arboretum that contains hundreds of plant and tree species . It is on the city 's east side , near the university 's Central Campus . Located across the Huron River just beyond the university 's North Campus is the university 's Matthaei Botanical Gardens , which contains 300 acres of gardens and a large tropical conservatory .
The Kerrytown Shops , Main Street Business District , the State Street Business District , and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown Ann Arbor . Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near I @-@ 94 and Ann Arbor @-@ Saline Road , Briarwood Mall , and the South Industrial area . Other commercial areas include the Arborland / Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side , the Plymouth Road area in the northeast , and the Westgate / West Stadium areas on the west side . Downtown contains a mix of 19th- and early @-@ 20th @-@ century structures and modern @-@ style buildings , as well as a farmers ' market in the Kerrytown district . The city 's commercial districts are composed mostly of two- to four @-@ story structures , although downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high @-@ rise buildings .
Ann Arbor 's residential neighborhoods contain architectural styles ranging from classic 19th @-@ century and early @-@ 20th @-@ century designs to ranch @-@ style houses . Among these homes are a number of kit houses built in the early 20th century . Contemporary @-@ style houses are farther from the downtown district . Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters . Tower Plaza , a 26 @-@ story condominium building located between the University of Michigan campus and downtown , is the tallest building in Ann Arbor . The 19th @-@ century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact ; in 1972 , the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and it is further protected by city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group .
= = = Climate = = =
Ann Arbor has a typically Midwestern humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) , which is influenced by the Great Lakes . There are four distinct seasons : winters are the coldest time of year , with average highs around 34 ° F ( 1 ° C ) ; however , summers have average highs around 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) with slightly more precipitation . Spring and autumn are transitional between the two . The area experiences lake effect weather , primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter . The monthly daily average temperature in July is 72 @.@ 6 ° F ( 22 @.@ 6 ° C ) , while the same figure for January is 24 @.@ 5 ° F ( − 4 @.@ 2 ° C ) . Temperatures reach or exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 10 days , and drop to or below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on 4 @.@ 6 nights . Precipitation tends to be the heaviest during the summer months , but most frequent during winter . Snowfall , which normally occurs from November to April but occasionally starts in October , averages 58 inches ( 147 cm ) per season . The lowest recorded temperature was − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) on 11 February 1885 and the highest recorded temperature was 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) on 24 July 1934 .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 U.S. Census , there were 113 @,@ 394 people , 45 @,@ 634 households , and 21 @,@ 704 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 270 @.@ 33 people per square mile ( 2653 @.@ 47 / km ² ) . There were 49 @,@ 982 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 748 @.@ 0 per square mile ( 675 @.@ 0 / km ² ) , making it less densely populated than inner @-@ ring Detroit suburbs like Oak Park and Ferndale ( and than Detroit proper ) , but more densely populated than outer @-@ ring suburbs like Livonia or Troy . The racial makeup of the city was 73 @.@ 0 % White ( 70 @.@ 4 % non @-@ Hispanic White ) , 7 @.@ 7 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 14 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 0 % Pacific Islander , 1 @.@ 0 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 4 @.@ 1 % of the population .
In 2013 , Ann Arbor had the second @-@ largest community of Japanese citizens in the state of Michigan , numbering 1 @,@ 541 ; this figure trailed only that of Novi , which had 2 @,@ 666 Japanese nationals . In addition , as of 2005 , Ann Arbor has a small population of Arab Americans , including several students as well as local Lebanese and Palestinians .
In 2000 , out of 45 @,@ 693 households , 23 @.@ 0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 37 @.@ 8 % were married couples living together , 7 @.@ 5 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 52 @.@ 5 % were nonfamilies . 35 @.@ 5 % of households were made up of individuals and 6 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 22 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 90 . The age distribution was 16 @.@ 8 % under 18 , 26 @.@ 8 % from 18 to 24 , 31 @.@ 2 % from 25 to 44 , 17 @.@ 3 % from 45 to 64 , and 7 @.@ 9 % were 65 or older . The median age was 28 years . For every 100 females there were 97 @.@ 7 males ; while for every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 96 @.@ 4 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 46 @,@ 299 , and the median income for a family was $ 71 @,@ 293 ( these figures had risen to $ 51 @,@ 232 and $ 82 @,@ 293 respectively as of a 2007 estimate ) . Males had a median income of $ 48 @,@ 880 versus $ 36 @,@ 561 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 26 @,@ 419 . About 4 @.@ 6 % of families and 16 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 7 @.@ 3 % of those under age 18 and 5 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .
Ann Arbor 's crime rate was below the national average in 2000 . The violent crime rate was further below the national average than the property crime rate ; the two rates were 48 % and 11 % lower than the U.S. average , respectively .
= = Economy = =
The University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor 's economy significantly . It employs about 30 @,@ 000 workers , including about 12 @,@ 000 in the medical center . Other employers are drawn to the area by the university 's research and development money , and by its graduates . High tech , health services and biotechnology are other major components of the city 's economy ; numerous medical offices , laboratories , and associated companies are located in the city . Automobile manufacturers , such as General Motors and Visteon , also employ residents .
High tech companies have located in the area since the 1930s , when International Radio Corporation introduced the first mass @-@ produced AC / DC radio ( the Kadette , in 1931 ) as well as the first pocket radio ( the Kadette Jr . , in 1933 ) . The Argus camera company , originally a subsidiary of International Radio , manufactured cameras in Ann Arbor from 1936 to the 1960s . Current firms include Arbor Networks ( provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems ) , Arbortext ( provider of XML @-@ based publishing software ) , JSTOR ( the digital scholarly journal archive ) , MediaSpan ( provider of software and online services for the media industries ) , Truven Health Analytics , and ProQuest , which includes UMI . Ann Arbor Terminals manufactured a video @-@ display terminal called the Ann Arbor Ambassador during the 1980s . Barracuda Networks , which provides networking , security , and storage products based on network appliances and cloud services , opened an engineering office in Ann Arbor in 2008 on Depot St. and recently announced it will move downtown to occupy the building previously used as the Borders headquarters .
Websites and online media companies in or near the city include All Media Guide , the Weather Underground , and Zattoo . Ann Arbor is the home to Internet2 and the Merit Network , a not @-@ for @-@ profit research and education computer network . Both are located in the South State Commons 2 building on South State Street , which once housed the Michigan Information Technology Center Foundation . The city is also home to the headquarters of Google 's AdWords program — the company 's primary revenue stream . The recent surge in companies operating in Ann Arbor has led to a decrease in its office and flex space vacancy rates . As of 31 December 2012 , the total market vacancy rate for office and flex space is 11 @.@ 80 % , a 1 @.@ 40 % decrease in vacancy from one year previous , and the lowest overall vacancy level since 2003 . The office vacancy rate decreased to 10 @.@ 65 % in 2012 from 12 @.@ 08 % in 2011 , while the flex vacancy rate decreased slightly more , with a drop from 16 @.@ 50 % to 15 @.@ 02 % .
Pfizer , once the city 's second largest employer , operated a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of Ann Arbor . On 22 January 2007 , Pfizer announced it would close operations in Ann Arbor by the end of 2008 . The facility was previously operated by Warner @-@ Lambert and , before that , Parke @-@ Davis . In December 2008 , the University of Michigan Board of Regents approved the purchase of the facilities , and the university anticipates hiring 2 @,@ 000 researchers and staff during the next 10 years . The city is the home of other research and engineering centers , including those of Lotus Engineering , General Dynamics and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . Other research centers sited in the city are the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the Toyota Technical Center . The city is also home to National Sanitation Foundation International ( NSF International ) , the nonprofit non @-@ governmental organization that develops generally accepted standards for a variety of public health related industries and subject areas .
Borders Books , started in Ann Arbor , was opened by brothers Tom and Louis Borders in 1971 with a stock of used books . The Borders chain was based in the city , as was its flagship store until it closed in September 2011 . Domino 's Pizza 's headquarters is near Ann Arbor on Domino 's Farms , a 271 @-@ acre ( 110 ha ) Frank Lloyd Wright @-@ inspired complex just northeast of the city . Another Ann Arbor @-@ based company is Zingerman 's Delicatessen , which serves sandwiches and has developed businesses under a variety of brand names . Zingerman 's has grown into a family of companies which offers a variety of products ( bake shop , mail order , creamery , coffee ) and services ( business education ) . Flint Ink Corp. , another Ann Arbor @-@ based company , was the world 's largest privately held ink manufacturer until it was acquired by Stuttgart @-@ based XSYS Print Solutions in October 2005 . Avfuel , a global supplier of aviation fuels and services , is also headquartered in Ann Arbor . Aastrom Biosciences , a publicly traded company that develops stem cell treatments for cardiovascular diseases , is headquartered in Ann Arbor .
Many cooperative enterprises were founded in the city ; among those that remain are the People 's Food Co @-@ op and the Inter @-@ Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan , a student housing cooperative founded in 1937 . There are also three cohousing communities — Sunward , Great Oak , and Touchstone — located immediately to the west of the city limits .
= = Culture = =
Several performing arts groups and facilities are on the University of Michigan 's campus , as are museums dedicated to art , archaeology , and natural history and sciences . Founded in 1879 , the University Musical Society is an independent performing arts organization that presents over 60 events each year , bringing international artists in music , dance , and theater . Since 2001 Shakespeare in the Arb has presented one play by Shakespeare each June , in a large park near downtown . Regional and local performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre , the Arbor Opera Theater , the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra , the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater , the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet ( established in 1954 as Michigan 's first chartered ballet company ) , The Ark , and Performance Network Theatre . Another unique piece of artistic expression in Ann Arbor is the fairy doors . These small portals are examples of installation art and can be found throughout the downtown area .
The Ann Arbor Hands @-@ On Museum is located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station . Multiple art galleries exist in the city , notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus . Aside from a large restaurant scene in the Main Street , South State Street , and South University Avenue areas , Ann Arbor ranks first among U.S. cities in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita . The Ann Arbor District Library maintains four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building . The city is also home to the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library .
Several annual events — many of them centered on performing and visual arts — draw visitors to Ann Arbor . One such event is the Ann Arbor Art Fairs , a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets . Scheduled on Thursday through Sunday of the third week of July , the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors . Another is the Ann Arbor Film Festival , held during the third week of March , which receives more than 2 @,@ 500 submissions annually from more than 40 countries and serves as one of a handful of Academy Award – qualifying festivals in the United States .
Ann Arbor has a long history of openness to marijuana , given Ann Arbor 's decriminalization of cannabis , the large number of medical marijuana dispensaries in the city ( one dispensary , called People 's Co @-@ op , was directly across the street from Michigan Stadium until zoning forced it to move one mile to the west ) , the large number of pro @-@ marijuana residents , and the annual Hash Bash : an event that is held on the first Saturday of April . Until ( at least ) the successful passage of Michigan 's medical marijuana law , the event had arguably strayed from its initial intent , although for years , a number of attendees have received serious legal responses due to marijuana use on University of Michigan property , which does not fall under the City 's progressive and compassionate ticketing program .
Ann Arbor is a major scene of college sports , most notably at the University of Michigan , a member of the Big Ten Conference . Several well @-@ known college sports facilities exist in the city , including Michigan Stadium , the largest American football stadium in the world . The stadium was completed in 1927 and cost more than $ 950 @,@ 000 to build . It has a 107 @,@ 601 seating capacity after multiple renovations were made . The stadium is colloquially known as " The Big House " . Crisler Center and Yost Ice Arena play host to the school 's basketball ( both men 's and women 's ) and ice hockey teams , respectively . Concordia University , a member of the NAIA , also fields sports teams .
Ann Arbor is represented in the NPSL by semi @-@ pro soccer team AFC Ann Arbor , a club founded in 2014 who call themselves The Mighty Oak .
A person from Ann Arbor is called an " Ann Arborite " , and many long @-@ time residents call themselves " townies " . The city itself is often called " A ² " ( " A @-@ squared " ) or " A2 " ( " A two " ) or " AA " , " The Deuce " ( mainly by Chicagoans ) , and " Tree Town " . With tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek reference to the city 's liberal political leanings , some occasionally refer to Ann Arbor as " The People 's Republic of Ann Arbor " or " 25 square miles surrounded by reality " , the latter phrase being adapted from Wisconsin Governor Lee Dreyfus 's description of Madison , Wisconsin . In A Prairie Home Companion broadcast from Ann Arbor , Garrison Keillor described Ann Arbor as " a city where people discuss socialism , but only in the fanciest restaurants . " Ann Arbor sometimes appears on citation indexes as an author , instead of a location , often with the academic degree MI , a misunderstanding of the abbreviation for Michigan . Ann Arbor has become increasingly gentrified in recent years .
= = Law and government = =
Ann Arbor has a council @-@ manager form of government . The City Council has 11 voting members : the mayor and 10 city council members . The mayor and city council members serve two @-@ year terms : the mayor is elected every even @-@ numbered year , while half of the city council members are up for election annually ( five in even @-@ numbered and five in odd @-@ numbered years ) . Two council members are elected from each of the city 's five wards . The mayor is elected citywide . The mayor is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members , with the approval of the City Council . The current mayor of Ann Arbor is Christopher Taylor , a Democrat who was elected as mayor in 2014 . Day @-@ to @-@ day city operations are managed by a city administrator chosen by the city council .
In 1960 , Ann Arbor voters approved a $ 2 @.@ 3 million bond issue to build the current city hall , which was designed by architect Alden B. Dow . The City Hall opened in 1963 . In 1995 , the building was renamed the Guy C. Larcom , Jr . Municipal Building in honor of the longtime city administrator who championed the building 's construction .
Ann Arbor is part of Michigan 's 12th congressional district , represented in Congress by Representative Debbie Dingell , a Democrat . On the state level , the city is part of the 18th district in the Michigan Senate , represented by Democrat Rebekah Warren . In the Michigan House of Representatives , representation is split between the 55th district ( northern Ann Arbor , part of Ann Arbor Township , and other surrounding areas , represented by Democrat Adam Zemke ) , the 53rd district ( most of downtown and the southern half of the city , represented by Democrat Jeff Irwin ) and the 52nd district ( southwestern areas outside Ann Arbor proper and western Washtenaw County , represented by Democrat Gretchen Driskell ) .
As the county seat of Washtenaw County , the Washtenaw County Trial Court ( 22nd Circuit Court ) is located in Ann Arbor at the Washtenaw County Courthouse on Main Street . This court has countywide general jurisdiction and has two divisions : the Civil / Criminal ( criminal and civil matters ) and the Family Division ( which includes Juvenile Court , Friend of the Court , and Probate Court sections ) . Seven judges serve on the court .
Ann Arbor also has a local state district court ( 15th District Court ) , which serves only the City of Ann Arbor . In Michigan , the state district courts are limited jurisdiction courts which handle traffic violations , civil cases with claims under $ 25 @,@ 000 , landlord @-@ tenant matters , and misdemeanor crimes .
The Ann Arbor Federal Building ( attached to a post office ) on Liberty Street serves as one of the courthouses for the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan and Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit .
= = = Politics = = =
Left @-@ wing politics have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s . Voters approved charter amendments that have lessened the penalties for possession of marijuana ( 1974 ) , and that aim to protect access to abortion in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan ( 1990 ) . In 1974 , Kathy Kozachenko 's victory in an Ann Arbor city @-@ council race made her the country 's first openly homosexual candidate to win public office . In 1975 , Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use instant @-@ runoff voting for a mayoral race . Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local Human Rights Party , which feared a splintering of the liberal vote , the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election . As of May 2016 , Democrats hold the mayorship and nine out of the ten council seats . Nationally , Ann Arbor is located in Michigan 's 12th congressional district , represented by Democrat Debbie Dingell .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
Public schools are part of the Ann Arbor Public Schools ( AAPS ) district . AAPS has one of the country 's leading music programs . In September 2008 , 16 @,@ 539 students had been enrolled in the Ann Arbor Public Schools . There were 21 elementary schools , five middle schools ( Forsythe , Slauson , Tappan , Scarlett , and Clague ) three traditional high schools ( Pioneer , Huron , and Skyline ) , and three alternative high schools ( Community High , Stone School , and Roberto Clemente ) in the district . The district also operates a K @-@ 8 open school program , Ann Arbor Open School , out of the former Mack School . This program is open to all families who live within the district . Ann Arbor Public Schools also operates a preschool and family center , with programs for at @-@ risk infants and children before kindergarten . The district has a preschool center with both free and tuition @-@ based programs for preschoolers in the district .
Ann Arbor is home to several private schools , including the Rudolf Steiner School of Ann Arbor , Clonlara School , Michigan Islamic Academy , and Greenhills School , a prep school . The city is also home to several charter schools such as Central Academy ( PreK @-@ 12 ) of the Global Educational Excellence ( GEE ) charter school company , and Honey Creek Community School .
= = = Higher education = = =
The University of Michigan dominates the city of Ann Arbor , providing the city with its distinctive college @-@ town character .
Other local colleges and universities include Concordia University Ann Arbor , a Lutheran liberal @-@ arts institution ; a campus of the University of Phoenix ; and Cleary University , a private business school . Washtenaw Community College is located in neighboring Ann Arbor Township . In 2000 , the Ave Maria School of Law , a Roman Catholic law school established by Domino 's Pizza founder Tom Monaghan , opened in northeastern Ann Arbor , but the school moved to Ave Maria , Florida in 2009 , and the Thomas M. Cooley Law School acquired the former Ave Maria buildings for use as a branch campus .
= = Media = =
The Ann Arbor News , owned by the Michigan @-@ based Booth Newspapers chain , is the major daily newspaper serving Ann Arbor and the rest of Washtenaw County . The newspaper ended its 174 @-@ year print run in 2009 , due to economic difficulties . It was replaced by AnnArbor.com , but returned to a limited print publication under its former name in 2013 . Another Ann Arbor @-@ based publication that has ceased production was the Ann Arbor Paper , a free monthly . Ann Arbor has been said to be the first significant city to lose its only daily paper . The Ann Arbor Chronicle , an online newspaper , covered local news , including meetings of the library board , county commission , and DDA until September 3 , 2014 .
Current publications in the city include the Ann Arbor Journal ( A2 Journal ) , a weekly community newspaper ; the Ann Arbor Observer , a free monthly local magazine ; the Ann Arbor Independent , a locally owned , independent weekly ; and Current , a free entertainment @-@ focused alt @-@ weekly . The Ann Arbor Business Review covers local business in the area . Car and Driver magazine and Automobile Magazine are also based in Ann Arbor . The University of Michigan is served by many student publications , including the independent Michigan Daily student newspaper , which reports on local , state , and regional issues in addition to campus news .
Four major AM radio stations based in or near Ann Arbor are WAAM 1600 , a conservative news and talk station ; WLBY 1290 , a business news and talk station ; WDEO 990 , Catholic radio ; and WTKA 1050 , which is primarily a sports station . The city 's FM stations include NPR affiliate WUOM 91 @.@ 7 ; country station WWWW 102 @.@ 9 ; and adult @-@ alternative station WQKL 107 @.@ 1 . Freeform station WCBN @-@ FM 88 @.@ 3 is a local community radio / college radio station operated by the students of the University of Michigan featuring noncommercial , eclectic music and public @-@ affairs programming . The city is also served by public and commercial radio broadcasters in Ypsilanti , the Lansing / Jackson area , Detroit , Windsor , and Toledo .
WPXD channel 31 , an affiliate of the ION Television network , is licensed to the city . WHTV channel 18 , a MyNetworkTV @-@ affiliated station for the Lansing market , broadcasts from a transmitter in Lyndon Township , west of Ann Arbor . Community Television Network ( CTN ) is a city @-@ provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations . Detroit and Toledo @-@ area radio and television stations also serve Ann Arbor , and stations from Lansing and Windsor , Ontario , can be heard in parts of the area .
= = Health and utilities = =
The University of Michigan Medical Center , the only teaching hospital in the city , took the number 1 slot in U.S. News & World Report for best hospital in the state of Michigan , as of 2015 . The University of Michigan Health System ( UMHS ) includes University Hospital , C.S. Mott Children 's Hospital and Women 's Hospital in its core complex . UMHS also operates out @-@ patient clinics and facilities throughout the city . The area 's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor , and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby Superior Township .
The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services , with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources . There are two water @-@ treatment plants , one main and three outlying reservoirs , four pump stations , and two water towers . These facilities serve the city , which is divided into five water districts . The city 's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River , two of which provide hydroelectric power . The city also offers waste management services , with Recycle Ann Arbor handling recycling service . Other utilities are provided by private entities . Electrical power and gas are provided by DTE Energy . AT & T Inc. is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area . Cable TV service is primarily provided by Comcast .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Surface roads and paths = = =
The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern , though this pattern is less common in the surrounding areas . Major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city . The city is belted by three freeways : I @-@ 94 , which runs along the southern portion of the city ; U.S. Highway 23 ( US 23 ) , which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor ; and M @-@ 14 , which runs along the northern edge of the city . Other nearby highways include US 12 , M @-@ 17 , and M @-@ 153 . Several of the major surface arteries lead to the I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 14 interchange in the west , US 23 in the east , and the city 's southern areas . The city also has a system of bike routes and paths and includes the nearly complete Washtenaw County Border @-@ to @-@ Border Trail .
= = = Bus service = = =
The Ann Arbor Area Transportation Authority ( AAATA ) , which brands itself as " The Ride " , operates public bus services throughout the city and nearby Ypsilanti . A separate zero @-@ fare bus service operates within and between the University of Michigan campuses . Since April 2012 , route 787 ( the " AirRide " ) connects to Detroit Metro Airport a dozen times a day . There are also limited @-@ stop bus services between Ann Arbor and Chelsea as well as Canton . These two routes , 710 and 711 respectively , are known as the " ExpressRide " . The Michigan Flyer , a service operated by Indian Trails , cooperates with AAATA for their AirRide and additionally offers bus service to East Lansing .
Greyhound Lines provides out @-@ of @-@ town bus service from 115 E. William , across the street from the Blake Transit Center . Megabus has twice daily direct service to Chicago , Illinois , while a bus service is provided by Amtrak for rail passengers making connections to services in East Lansing and Toledo , Ohio .
= = = Airports = = =
Ann Arbor Municipal Airport is a small , city @-@ run general aviation airport located south of I @-@ 94 . Detroit Metropolitan Airport , the area 's large international airport , is about 25 miles ( 40 km ) east of the city , in Romulus . Willow Run Airport east of the city near Ypsilanti serves freight , corporate , and general aviation clients .
= = = Railroads = = =
The city was a major rail hub , notably for freight traffic between Toledo and ports north of Chicago , Illinois , from 1878 to 1982 ; however , the Ann Arbor Railroad also provided passenger service from 1878 to 1950 . The city was served by the Michigan Central Railroad starting in 1837 . The Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti Street Railway , Michigan 's first interurban , served the city from 1891 to 1929 .
Amtrak , which provides service to the city at the Ann Arbor Train Station , operates the Wolverine train between Chicago and Pontiac , via Detroit . The present @-@ day train station neighbors the city 's old Michigan Central Depot , which was renovated as a restaurant in 1970 .
= = Sister cities = =
Ann Arbor has seven sister cities :
Tübingen , Germany ( since 1965 )
Belize City , Belize ( since 1967 )
Hikone , Shiga , Japan ( since 1969 )
The schools in Ann Arbor and Hikone have regular exchanges .
Peterborough , Ontario , Canada ( since 1983 )
Juigalpa , Chontales , Nicaragua ( since 1986 )
Dakar , Senegal ( since 1997 )
Remedios , Cuba ( since 2003 )
= Sava =
The Sava ( Slovene pronunciation : [ ˈsàːʋa ] , Serbo @-@ Croatian : [ sǎːʋa ] , Serbian Cyrillic : Сава ) is a river in Central Europe , a right side tributary of the Danube . It flows through Slovenia , Croatia , along the northern border of Bosnia and Herzegovina , through Serbia , discharging into the Danube in Belgrade . Its central part is a natural border of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and Croatia . The Sava forms the northern border of the Balkan Peninsula , and southern edge of the Pannonian Plain .
The Sava is 990 kilometres ( 615 miles ) long , including the 45 @-@ kilometre ( 28 mi ) Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci , Slovenia . It is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water , and second @-@ largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area ( 97 @,@ 713 square kilometres ( 37 @,@ 727 square miles ) ) and length . It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region , through the major tributaries of Drina , Bosna , Kupa , Una , Vrbas , Lonja , Kolubara , Bosut and Krka . The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea .
The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8 @,@ 176 @,@ 000 , and it connects three national capitals — Ljubljana , Zagreb and Belgrade . The Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak , Croatia , approximately two @-@ thirds of its length .
= = Course = =
The Sava is located in Southeast Europe , flowing through Slovenia , Croatia , Serbia and along the Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina border . Its total length is 990 kilometres ( 615 miles ) , including the 45 @-@ kilometre ( 28 mi ) Sava Dolinka and the 945 @-@ kilometre ( 587 mi ) Sava proper . As a right tributary of the Danube , the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin . The Sava River is the third longest tributary of the Danube , slightly shorter than the 966 @-@ kilometre ( 600 mi ) Tisza and the 950 @-@ kilometre ( 590 mi ) Prut — the Danube 's two longest tributaries — when the Sava Dolinka headwater is excluded from its course . It is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge . The river course is sometimes used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans , and the southern border of the Central Europe . Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 , the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders and it was the longest river with its entire course within the country .
= = = From source to the Sutla = = =
The Sava Dolinka rises in the Zelenci Pools , west of Podkoren in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia at 833 metres ( 2 @,@ 733 feet ) above sea level ( a.s.l. ) , and flows east , past Kranjska Gora to Jesenice , where it turns southeast . At Žirovnica , the river enters the Ljubljana Basin and encounters the first hydroelectric dam — Moste plant — before proceeding to the east of the glacial Lake Bled towards Radovljica and confluence of the Sava Bohinjka , at 411 metres ( 1 @,@ 348 feet ) a.s.l. Downstream of Radovljica , the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj . Between Kranj and Medvode , its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs , built for the Mavčiče and the Medvode power plants .
The Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia , Ljubljana , where another reservoir is located on the river , adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course . There the river course turns east and leaves the Ljubljana Basin via Dolsko , at 261 metres ( 856 feet ) a.s.l. ( at confluence of the Ljubljanica and the Kamnik Bistrica ) . The course continues through the Sava Hills , where it passes the Litija Basin with the mining and industrial town of Litija , the Central Sava Valley with the mining towns of Zagorje ob Savi , Trbovlje , and Hrastnik , turns to the southeast and runs through the Lower Sava Valley with the towns of Radeče , Sevnica , and Krško . The course through the Sava Hills forms the boundary of traditional regions of Lower Carniola and Styria , At Radeče , the Vrhovo hydroelectric dam reservoir is located . The latter is site of the Krško Nuclear Power Plant , which uses the Sava River water to dissipate excess heat . The easternmost stretch of the Sava River course in Slovenia runs to the south of Brežice , where it is joined by the Krka , and the river ultimately becomes a border river between Slovenia and Croatia , marking 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 miles ) of their border near confluence of the Sutla ( Slovene : Sotla ) . At that point , the Sava reaches 132 metres ( 433 feet ) a.s.l. after flowing 221 kilometres ( 137 miles ) through Slovenia and along its border .
= = = From the Sutla to the Una = = =
The westernmost part of the 562 @-@ kilometre ( 349 mi ) Sava River course in Croatia , takes the river east , through the western part of the Zagreb County , between Samobor and Zaprešić . The area encompasses forests interspersed by marshes and lakes formed in gravel pits . As the Sava approaches the capital of Croatia , Zagreb , the marshes give way to urban landscape , but there are surviving examples of the gravel pit lakes , such as the Jarun , and the Bundek within the city . At the western outskirts of Zagreb , there is the western terminus of the 32 @-@ kilometre ( 20 mi ) Sava – Odra flood @-@ relief canal connecting the Sava to the Odra River plain which is intended to act as flood control retention basin . The canal has been built in response to the most destructive flooding of the river that occurred in Zagreb in 1964 , when one third of the city was flooded and 17 people were killed . The city itself marks the western extent of the Sava River basin area especially prone to flooding , spanning from Zagreb to confluence of the river in Belgrade , Serbia .
East of Zagreb , the river turns southeast again further through the Central Croatia , to the Sisak @-@ Moslavina County , the city of Sisak , reaching 91 @.@ 3 metres ( 300 feet ) a.s.l. The city of Sisak marks the westernmost extent of the Sava River navigable to larger vessels . Navigation conditions on the river are poor due to limited draft and fairway width , meandering of the river , bridge clearance restrictions , poor fairway markings as well as presence of sunken vessels and other objects , including unexploded ordnance . The ordnance is left over from various conflicts including the World War II , Croatian War of Independence , Bosnian War , and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia . Before reaching confluence of Una at Jasenovac and 86 @.@ 8 metres ( 285 feet ) a.s.l , the Sava River traces Lonjsko polje Nature Park , encompassing marshes frequently flooded by the Sava and its tributaries in the area .
= = = From the Una to the Drina = = =
Downstream of confluence of the Una River , the Sava is once again tracing an international border — between Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Its meandering course turns generally eastwards along Gradiška , and Slavonski Brod to Županja , where it turns south to Brčko . There , the river resumes its predominantly eastward course towards Sremska Rača and confluence of the Drina River . The right bank of the Sava , in this segment of its course , belongs to Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina ( with Bosnia 's all three administrative entities , Republika Srpska , Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Brčko District , having gateway to the river ) , while the opposite bank belongs to Croatia and its Sisak @-@ Moslavina , Brod @-@ Posavina and Vukovar @-@ Srijem counties , except in the area of Jamena and further downstream — which belongs to Serbia and the province of Vojvodina . No cities in this segment of the course span the river as it represents an international frontier , but there are adjacent settlements located in two different countries , divided by the Sava . Those include Gradiška , Brod and Brčko in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and Stara Gradiška , Slavonski Brod and Gunja in Croatia opposite them .
The 337 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 209 @.@ 5 mi ) segment between the Una and the Drina confluences , marking corresponding to the entire length of the Sava flowing along the border of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , exhibits small change of elevation — from 86 @.@ 8 metres ( 285 feet ) a.s.l at Jasenovac to 76 @.@ 6 metres ( 251 feet ) a.s.l. at Brčko gauges , over 287 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 178 @.@ 6 miles ) of the river between them . The entire course of the river downstream from Zagreb flows down 0 @.@ 4 ‰ slope on average , significantly less steep than the course in Slovenia , where the average slope exceeds 0 @.@ 7 ‰ — resulting in the Sava 's meandering course running through a wide plain bordered by wetlands .
= = = From the Drina to the Danube = = =
Downstream from confluence of the Drina , the Sava River changes its eastward course to northeast , until it reaches Sremska Mitrovica , from where it flows to the southeast and then south to Šabac , before finally turning east towards Belgrade . Most of the river 's course in Serbia represents a border between province of Vojvodina , on the left bank , and Central Serbia , on the right bank . Exceptions to that are in area around Sremska Mitrovica , where both banks are in Vojvodina , and downstream of Progar suburb of Belgrade where both banks are in Central Serbia . The river meanders and forms wetlands in there as well — the most significant wetland among them centering on Obedska bara oxbow lake . The Sava River forms several large islands in this segment of the course , with the largest among them — 800 @-@ hectare ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) Ada Ciganlija in Belgrade — connected to the right bank by a pair of artificial embankment dams forming Lake Sava since 1967 .
The Sava discharges into the Danube , after reaching 68 @.@ 3 metres ( 224 feet ) a.s.l. as its right tributary at the Great War Island off the easternmost tip of Syrmia in Belgrade , 1 @,@ 169 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 726 @.@ 9 miles ) away from the Danube 's confluence and the Black Sea .
= = = Settlements = = =
Population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8 @,@ 176 @,@ 000 , and it includes four capitals — Belgrade , Ljubljana , Sarajevo and Zagreb . All of them , except Sarajevo , are also located directly on the river banks and represent the three largest settlements found along the Sava River course . Belgrade , located at the confluence of the river , is the largest city in the basin with urban population of 1 @,@ 135 @,@ 502 . Ten municipalities where the city is situated have combined population of 1 @,@ 283 @,@ 783 as suburban settlements are added , while the Belgrade metropolitan area encompasses population of 1 @,@ 639 @,@ 121 . Zagreb is the second largest city on the river , comprising population of 688 @,@ 163 living in the city itself , and 790 @,@ 017 in the city @-@ administered area . Together with the Zagreb County , largely corresponding to various definitions of the city 's metropolitan area , it has a combined population of 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 517 . Ljubljana is the third @-@ largest city on the banks of the Sava , encompassing population of 258 @,@ 873 living in the city itself and 265 @,@ 881 in the city @-@ governed area .
The largest city in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina situated on the Sava River course is Brčko , whose urban population is estimated at 40 @,@ 000 . Other cities along the river , with populations of 20 @,@ 000 and larger , are Slavonski Brod ( 53 @,@ 473 ) , Šabac ( 52 @,@ 822 ) , Sremska Mitrovica ( 37 @,@ 586 ) , Kranj ( 35 @,@ 587 ) , Sisak ( 33 @,@ 049 ) , Obrenovac ( 24 @,@ 568 ) , and Gradiška ( est . 20 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Watershed = =
The Sava River basin covers a total area of 97 @,@ 713 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 37 @,@ 727 @.@ 3 square miles ) making it the second largest Danube tributary catchment by area size , surpassed only by the Tisza basin , and it encompasses 12 % of the Danube basin , draining into the Black Sea . The Sava represents the third longest tributary of the Danube and its largest tributary by discharge . The catchment area borders the remainder of the Danube basin to the north and east , and the Adriatic Sea basin to the west and south . The river basin generally consists of parts of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro , Serbia and Slovenia , with a very small part of the catchment area belonging to Albania . Topography of the basin varies significantly . Upstream portion of the basin is more rugged than downstream one , but asymmetry of the basin topography is particularly apparent when comparing right and left bank areas — the former dominated by the Alps and the Dinarides reaching elevations in excess of 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 feet ) a.s.l , while the latter is dominated by the Pannonian Plain . The mean elevation of the basin is 545 metres ( 1 @,@ 788 feet ) a.s.l.
= = = Major tributaries = = =
The most important tributaries of the Sava River found in its upper basin are characterized by relatively steep grades of flow , high flow velocities and rapids . Those are left tributaries : the Kokra , the Kamnik Bistrica and the Savinja ; and right tributaries : the Sora , the Ljubljanica and the Krka ( Sava ) . Further downstream larger rivers empty into the Sava , as the right bank of the basin grows steadily . Right tributaries in this lower segment of the basin start as fast flowing courses , only to slow down as they enter the Pannonian Basin . They include the Kupa , the Una , the Vrbas , the Ukrina , the Bosna , the Brka , the Tinja , the Drina and the Kolubara . Left tributaries in the lower segment drain plains consequently exhibiting less steep course grades , lower flow rates and meandering . They include the Sutla , the Krapina , the Lonja , the Ilova , the Orljava and the Bosut .
The 346 @-@ kilometre ( 215 mi ) Drina is the largest tributary of the Sava , flowing in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and along border of the country and Serbia . It is formed by the headwaters of the Tara and the Piva at the border of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina and Montenegro , near Šćepan Polje . Its 20 @,@ 319 @.@ 9 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 7 @,@ 845 @.@ 6 sq mi ) catchment extends across parts of four countries — reaching as far south as Albania . The Bosna and the Kupa river basins are the second and third largest catchments of the Sava tributaries , each surpassing 10 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 900 square miles ) in size .
= = Hydrology = =
The average annual flow rate of the Sava River at Radovljica , immediately downstream of the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka confluence , stands at 44 @.@ 9 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 590 cubic feet ) per second . Downstream of the Krka confluence the average flow rate reaches 317 cubic metres ( 11 @,@ 200 cubic feet ) per second , gradually increasing as tributaries discharge along the course — 340 cubic metres ( 12 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) per second downstream of the Sutla , 880 cubic metres ( 31 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) per second following discharge of the Kupa and the Una , 990 cubic metres ( 35 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) per second downstream of the Vrbas confluence , 1 @,@ 180 cubic metres ( 42 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) per second after the Bosna river empties into the Sava , and finally of 1 @,@ 564 cubic metres ( 55 @,@ 200 cubic feet ) per second at confluence of the Sava in Belgrade . The highest flow rate of 6 @,@ 007 cubic metres ( 212 @,@ 100 cubic feet ) per second was recorded by Slavonski Šamac gauging station in May 2014 .
Seven out of eight largest reservoirs in the Sava River basin are located in the Drina catchment , the largest among them being the 0 @.@ 88 @-@ cubic @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 21 cu mi ) Lake Piva on the eponymous river in Montenegro , created after construction of Mratinje Dam . Overall , there are 22 reservoirs holding more than 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 180 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ) of water in the basin , with only four of them situated directly on the Sava , including one on the Sava Dolinka . Most of the reservoirs are used primarily , or even exclusively , for electricity generation , but they are also used as supply of drinking water , industrial water source , for irrigation and food production .
Groundwater is a very important resource in the Sava River basin , generally used for public water supply of potable water , as a source of water for industrial use , but also as the mainstay of aquatic ecosystems . There are 41 identified significant groundwater bodies in the Sava River basin of basin @-@ wide importance , ranging in area size from 97 to 5 @,@ 186 square kilometres ( 37 to 2 @,@ 002 square miles ) , as well as numerous minor ground water bodies . Even though most of them are transboundary waters , eleven are considered to be largely located in Slovenia , fourteen in Croatia , seven in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , five in Serbia and four in Montenegro .
= = Geology = =
The course of the Sava River runs through several diverse geological units and orographic regions . The uppermost course of the river and its headwaters in the Karavanke area , is situated in the Southern Alps , tracing the Sava Fault — itself running parallel to the Periadriatic Seam . Mesozoic and Upper Triassic rocks are exposed in the region . The Ljubljana Basin represents the boundary of the Southern Alps and the Dinarides . Valleys of the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka are glacial valleys , carved out by the Sava Dolinka and Bohinj glaciers advancing down Karavanke range to vicinity of present @-@ day Radovljica . In the late Pleistocene , Bohinj Glacier was the largest glacier in the territory of present @-@ day Slovenia , up to 900 metres ( 3 @,@ 000 feet ) thick . Sava Folds , southeast and east of the Ljubljana Basin are thought of as a part of the Dinarides , separating the Ljubljana and Krško Basins , and forming the Sava Hills . The east – west oriented folds are younger than the Miocene and the folding is considered to had taken place in the Pliocene and the Quaternary , but it is possible that the tectonic activity continues in the present day . The Sava Folds largely exhibit Paleozoic and Triassic rocks , and clastic sediments .
The lower course of the Sava River is located in the Pannonian Basin — first reached by the Sava River in the Krško Basin on the western rim of the Pannonian Basin . The Pannonian Basin took shape through Miocenian thinning and subsidence of crust structures formed during Late Paleozoic Variscan orogeny . The Paleozoic and Mesozoic structures are visible in Papuk and other Slavonian mountains . The processes also led to the formation of a stratovolcanic chain in the basin 17 – 12 Mya ( million years ago ) and intensified subsidence observed until 5 Mya as well as flood basalts about 7 @.@ 5 Mya . Contemporary uplift of the Carpathian Mountains prevented water flowing to the Black Sea , and the Pannonian Sea formed in the basin . Sediments were transported to the basin from uplifting Carpathian and Dinaric mountains , with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in the Pleistocene during the uplift of the Transdanubian Mountains . Ultimately , up to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 feet ) of the sediment was deposited in the basin , and the Pannonian sea eventually drained through the Iron Gate gorge . In the southern Pannonian Basin , the Neogene to Quaternary sediment depth is normally lower , averaging 500 to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 to 4 @,@ 900 feet ) , except in central parts of depressions formed by subduction . A subduction zone formed in the present @-@ day Sava River valley , and approximately 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 feet ) deep sediments were deposited in the Slavonia @-@ Syrmia depression and 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 feet ) in the Sava depression . The results of those processes are large plains in the Sava River valley and the Kupa River valley . The plains are interspersed by the horst and graben structures , believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea surface as islands , which became watershed between Drava and Sava River basins extending along Ivanščica – Kalnik – Bilogora – Papuk mountain chain . The Papuk Mountain is flanked by the Krndija and the Dilj Hills on the eastern rim of the Požega Valley . The Bilogora , Papuk and Krndija Mountains consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks which are 300 – 350 million years old , while the Dilj consists of much more recent Neogene rocks , 2 – 18 million years old . Further east of the chain , the watershed runs through the Đakovo – Vinkovci and Vukovar Plateau . The loess plateau , extending eastward from Dilj and representing the watershed between the Vuka and Bosut rivers , gradually rises to the Fruška Gora south of Ilok .
= = Economy = =
= = = Electric power generation = = =
There are 18 hydroelectric power plants with power generation capacity exceeding 10 Megawatts in the Sava River basin . In Slovenia , most of them are located on the Sava itself . In other countries , the hydroelectric power plants are situated on its tributaries . Total power generation capacity of the 18 power plants , and additional smaller plants largely found in Slovenia , amounts to 41 @,@ 542 Megawatts , and their annual production capacity stands at 2 @,@ 497 Gigawatt @-@ hours . Approximately 3 @.@ 3 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 79 cubic miles ) of water per year in the river 's basin is used to cool thermoelectric and nuclear power plants . Power plant cooling represents the main type of use of the Sava River waters .
As of October 2012 , there are six existing hydroelectric power plants built along the Sava River . Upstream of Ljubljana there are
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s the hetman system has evolved into that of regular offices that would exist both in Poland and Lithuania for the next three centuries . From 1581 it became officially a lifelong appointment . Hetmans had the right to carry out summary justice in the field . Grand Crown Hetman had the right to maintain his representatives in the Ottoman Empire , which allowed him to influence Poland – Ottoman relations and also laid groundwork for the first Polish intelligence services . Hetman deputy was known as regimentarz and could replace a hetman on a temporary basis .
= = Navy = =
The Commonwealth Navy was small and played a relatively minor role in the history of the Commonwealth . Despite having access to the Baltic Sea , neither Poland nor Lithuania had any significant navy throughout their histories . In the 16th century , as Poland and Lithuania became involved in conflicts in Livonia , Polish king Zygmunt August supported the operations of privateers , but that met with opposition of the Poland 's primary port , Gdańsk ( Danzig ) , which saw them as a threat to its trade operations . This led to the development of a privateer port in Puck . At the turn of the century , Poland became ruled by the House of Vasa , and was involved in a series of wars with Sweden ( see also dominium maris baltici ) . Vasa kings attempted to create a proper fleet , and Władysław IV Waza built a dedicated port for the royal navy ( Władysławowo ) , but their attempts met with repeated failures , due to lack of funds in the royal treasury ( seeing little need for the fleet , Polish nobility refused to raise taxes for its construction , and Gdańsk continued its opposition to the idea of a royal fleet ) . Although Władysław bought 12 ships , they were sold between 1641 and 1643 , marking the end of the Commonwealth Navy .
= = Logistics and tactics = =
Due to lack of centralized logistical system , the Polish armies were encumbered by large baggage trains . To some degree , this was turned into an advantage with the development of the tabor – military horse @-@ drawn wagons , usually carrying army supplies . The wagon use for defensive formations was perfected by the Cossacks , and to a smaller extent used by other Commonwealth units . The Commonwealth army relied on cavalry , which the nobility saw as a much more respectable type of a troop than the infantry . Despite the reforms of the 17th century , it lost much of its military significance in the 18th century ; the primary reason for this was a lack of sufficient funding .
= = Problems and reforms = =
With the growing influence of foreign powers in the Commonwealth , the Russian @-@ dominated Silent Sejm of 1717 declared that the size of the Commonwealth Army should be 24 @,@ 200 ( 18 @,@ 000 from Poland and 6 @,@ 200 for Lithuania ) . Due to insufficient taxation , the military was often not paid properly , which led to a relatively small army size ; in mid @-@ 18th century , the Commonwealth had funds to field an army of around 24 @,@ 000 , whereas the Commonwealth 's neighbors ' armies were often up to 12 times larger : the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 @,@ 000 ; the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army , 150 @,@ 000 , and a few decades later , the Commonwealth could field an army of about 16 @,@ 000 , with Prussian and Austrian armies rising to 200 @,@ 000 . The stated size of the Commonwealth army was further exaggerated , as some money was lost due to corruption . The first half of the 18th century , following the 1717 Sejm , marks the nadir of the Commonwealth army , as it lacked funds and training , and was primarily used for ceremonial purposes . The only constructive reform of that time was the introduction of a stable ( if grossly insufficient ) budget for the military . Furthermore , the unpaid units of the army were known for mutinying and forming confederations , occupying the Commonwealth 's own lands until such a time that they were paid properly or pillaged enough to satisfy themselves .
The trend reversed itself following the election of the last king of Poland , Stanisław August Poniatowski , in 1765 and the introduction of the new governing body , Permanent Council , in 1775 . Its Military Department attempted to modernize the army , and increase its size ( although even the target number of 30 @,@ 000 was never achieved ) . A major military reform came with the passing of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , which stated that the Army was to be built up to 100 @,@ 000 men . ( The exact number would be settled on only on 22 May 1792 , at 25 @,@ 654 cavalry and 72 @,@ 910 infantry ) . A new conscription law was introduced , affecting all lands ( royal , noble and Church @-@ owned ) . With the days of the Commonwealth numbered , the Constitution was never fully implemented in practice , although the new Military Commission saw the Army expanded to 65 @,@ 000 before the Polish defeat in the War in Defense of the Constitution . After the Commonwealth defeat in that war and the rescinding of the Constitution , the Army was reduced to about 36 @,@ 000 . In 1794 Russians demanded a further downsizing of the army to 15 @,@ 000 . This plan was one of the sparks that led to the Army 's ( and Commonwealth 's ) final conflict , the Kościuszko Uprising .
= Italian ironclad Formidabile =
Formidabile was the lead ship of the Formidabile @-@ class ironclad warships , the first ships of that type to be built for the newly formed Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . Formidabile and her sister , Terribile , were both built in France ; Formidabile was laid down in December 1860 , was launched in October 1861 , and was completed in May 1862 . She was a broadside ironclad , equipped with four 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and sixteen 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
The ship took part in the operation off Lissa in 1866 during the Third Italian War of Independence . There , she silenced the Austrian coastal batteries protecting the main port , but she was too badly damaged to take part in the ensuing Battle of Lissa . The ship 's postwar career was limited due to a combination of drastically reduced naval budgets and the appearance of more modern ironclads . Formidabile was used as a training ship starting in 1887 ; she was discarded in 1903 and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Formidabile was 65 @.@ 8 meters ( 215 ft 11 in ) long overall ; she had a beam of 14 @.@ 44 m ( 47 ft 5 in ) and an average draft of 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 682 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 640 long tons ; 2 @,@ 956 short tons ) normally and up to 2 @,@ 807 t ( 2 @,@ 763 long tons ; 3 @,@ 094 short tons ) at full load . She had a crew of 371 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) from 1 @,@ 080 indicated horsepower ( 810 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ; 1 @,@ 500 mi ) at her top speed . To supplement her steam engine , the ship was schooner @-@ rigged .
Formidabile was a broadside ironclad , carrying all of her guns in the traditional broadside arrangement . She was armed with a main battery of four 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns and sixteen 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The ship 's wooden hull was sheathed with wrought iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 3 in ( 109 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Formidabile was laid down at the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne , France in December 1860 , originally ordered by the Navy of the Kingdom of Sardinia . She was launched on 1 October 1861 and was completed in May 1862 ; by this time , the Sardinian fleet had been reformed as the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 27 June , in attempt to draw out the Italians . Persano held a council of war aboard the ironclad Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested he capture the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . Formidabile was at that time in the 3rd Division , along with her sister Terribile , the ironclads Re di Portogallo and Regina Maria Pia , and the coastal defense ship Varese . After spending the 18th unsuccessfully bombarding the Austrian fortresses , the Italians withdrew late in the day , preparing to launch another attack the following morning . Persano ordered Formidabile to enter the harbor at Vis and attack the Madonna battery , supported by the ironclads Castelfidardo , Ancona , and Principe di Carignano .
Upon entering the small harbor , the Italians found it impossible for the four ships to attack simultaneously , and so Formidabile was left to engage the Madonna battery alone . Following the conclusion of the bombardment , the ship 's captain , Simone Antonio Saint @-@ Bon , reported to Persano that his ship had suffered over 50 casualties , and it had been significantly damaged by Austrian fire , though its armor had not been penetrated . Saint @-@ Bon took his battered ship to the west , where he transferred his wounded to a hospital ship . The following day , while Formidabile was with the hospital ship , the Austrian fleet under Tegetthoff appeared . Persano had ordered Formidabile to return to the line , but Saint @-@ Bon informed Persano that his ship was unable to fight , and instead he withdrew to Ancona . The Italians were defeated in the ensuing battle , with the ironclads Re d 'Italia and Palestro sunk .
= = = Later career = = =
After the battle , Persano was replaced by Admiral Giovanni Vacca ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out . After the end of the war , the government lost confidence in the fleet and drastically reduced the naval budget . The cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . In addition , Formidabile was rapidly surpassed , first by central battery and then turret ships , which made the first generation of ironclads like Formidabile and her sister obsolete . In 1872 – 73 , the ship received new boilers . Her armament was significantly reduced in 1878 to eight 8 @-@ inch guns . In 1887 , the ship was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and was thereafter employed as a gunnery training ship . At this time , her armament was reduced to six 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns . She served in this capacity until 1903 , when she was stricken from the naval register and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Tropical Storm Linfa ( 2015 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Linfa , known in the Philippines as Severe Tropical Storm Egay , was a tropical cyclone that affected the northern Philippines , Taiwan and southern China in early July 2015 . The tenth named storm of the annual typhoon season , Linfa developed on July 1 over in the Philippine Sea . It moved erratically westward toward the Philippines , eventually striking the island of Luzon on July 4 . Linfa weakened across the island , but reorganized over the South China Sea . It turned northward and strengthened to near typhoon intensity , or winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , but weakened as it curved to the northwest toward southern China . On July 9 , the storm made landfall along the Chinese province of Guangdong , dissipating the next day west of Hong Kong .
Interacting with the monsoon , Linfa brought heavy rainfall across much of the Philippines for several days , causing flooding and landslides that resulted in traffic accidents and power outages . Across Luzon , Linfa damaged 198 houses and destroyed another seven , causing ₱ 214 @.@ 6 million ( $ 4 @.@ 8 million USD ) in damage . The storm briefly threatened Taiwan , prompting warnings and restricted ferry travel . Over China , Linfa produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds that wrecked 288 homes . Damage in the country totaled ¥ 1 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 284 million USD ) , and there was one death .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of June , a westerly wind burst moved across the western Pacific Ocean , spawning Typhoon Chan @-@ hom as well as the storm that would become Linfa . On July 1 , a large area of convection persisted east of the Philippines , with an associated circulation exposed due to moderate wind shear . At 06 : 00 UTC that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed a low probability of tropical cyclogenesis over the subsequent 24 hours . However , the system quickly organized , prompting the JTWC to issue a tropical cyclone formation alert later that day , indicating that a storm would likely form imminently . At 18 : 00 UTC on July 1 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression developed about 500 km ( 300 mi ) east @-@ northeast of the Philippine island of Samar . Early the next day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Depression 10W , based on the organization of the rainbands about the center . PAGASA – the Philippines ' weather agency – also began monitoring the system , giving it the local name Egay .
With the subtropical ridge to the northeast , the nascent system moved northwestward initially . Despite persistent shear dislocating the convection , the JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm at 12 : 00 UTC on July 2 , naming it Linfa . The storm slowly intensified , amplified by good outflow to the south and the presence of warm water temperatures . On July 3 , Linfa 's track briefly shifted to the southwest , by which time the convective structure had evolved into a central dense overcast . There was uncertainty in the storm 's future as it approached the Philippines . This was due to potential interaction with Typhoon Chan @-@ hom to the northeast , and differences in storm models whether an approaching trough would turn Linfa to the east or the west .
After turning back to the northwest , the convection around Linfa became even more symmetrical , although the circulation became slightly elongated . At 06 : 00 UTC on July 4 , the storm reached a preliminary peak intensity , with 10 minute sustained winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) according to the JMA . As Linfa neared the northern Philippines , the bulk of the convection was shifted to the southern periphery , due to the continued wind shear . Late on July 4 , the center of Linfa made landfall over Palanan , Isabela , on the island of Luzon . Moving westward across the island , the circulation became disorganized as the core convection diminished . By late on July 5 , Linfa emerged into the South China Sea . Once over open waters , Linfa began moving to the north @-@ northwest , still moving around the subtropical ridge , and it was expected to move over Taiwan . The circulation remained well @-@ defined but exposed , with the deep convection displaced to the south . With the isolated thunderstorms and unfavorable wind shear , the JTWC noted the potential for the circulation to dissipate over open waters . By July 7 , easing wind shear allowed the convection to rebuild and for the structure to improve in organization . By that time , the future of the storm was still uncertain , although a turn to the northwest toward China was expected . Also on July 7 , PAGASA issued its final bulletin on the storm as Linfa exited their area of responsibility .
More favorable conditions allowed the storm to intensify more on July 8 . Around that time , the storm turned more to the northwest due to a ridge exiting China , bringing the storm southwest of western Taiwan . At 00 : 00 UTC on July 8 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , making it a severe tropical storm . The JTWC assessed further strengthening , upgrading Linfa to typhoon status at 18 : 00 UTC that day based on a developing well @-@ defined eye . At that time , the agency estimated peak 1 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Early on July 9 , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) sent a reconnaissance aircraft into the storm , which measured winds of near hurricane @-@ force , as well as gale force winds 100 km ( 60 mi ) from the center . As the storm approached the southern China coast , the eye expanded to a diameter of 37 km ( 23 mi ) , while the thunderstorms on the northern periphery diminished . Around 03 : 00 UTC on July 9 , Linfa made landfall east of Hong Kong near Lufeng , Guangdong , and it quickly weakened once over land . The storm turned westward , inland and parallel to the southern Chinese coastline . As the thunderstorms diminished , the surface sustained winds continued to drop . At 18 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the JTWC issued their final advisory for Linfa , and shortly after the JMA downgraded the storm to a tropical depression . The system turned to the southwest , dissipating over open waters on July 10 off the coast of Guangdong province .
= = Preparations = =
As Linfa ( locally known as Egay ) approached closer to the Philippine island of Luzon , PAGASA issued Public Storm Warning Signal ( PSWS ) # 2 , expecting gale force @-@ winds in Apayao , Aurora , Cagayan , northern Isabela , Kalinga , and Quirino , including the offshore Babuyan and Calayan islands . A lower PSWS was issued for other portions of Luzon . Ahead of the storm , 45 @,@ 336 people evacuated in the Philippines , utilizing 31 government shelters and assisted by police officers . Restricted travel by boat stranded 1 @,@ 147 people during the storm 's passage . Due to the enhancement of the southwest monsoon by the storm , all ships in the Port of Manila were ordered to remain in harbor , and 20 flights were cancelled in northern Luzon . La Union province declared a state of calamity on July 6 because of the storm . Road @-@ clearing teams were prepared ahead of the storm .
The threat of the storm prompted officials in Taiwan to issue sea warnings for the island 's southern coast , causing ferry service to two offshore islands to be canceled . A hot air balloon festival was canceled in Taitung City . On July 8 , the HKO issued a Standby Signal # 1 for Hong Kong due to the increased threat from Linfa . On the next day , the agency upgraded it to a Warning Signal # 8 , indicating that gale force winds were expected , although it was dropped in 5 @.@ 5 hours , becoming one of the shortest @-@ lasting such warning . The local government opened 22 shelters , housing 196 people during the storm . The storm caused the Hong Kong International Airport to close , causing 1 @,@ 020 flights to be canceled . The China Meteorological Administration also issued 14 warnings for the Chinese mainland , advising residents on the threat of the storm . Schools were closed in Guangdong due to the storm , while train service was canceled and 10 @,@ 400 boats returned to port . The Chinese government handled the preparations for Linfa at the same time Typhoon Chan @-@ hom was threatening the country 's east coast .
= = Impact = =
In its formative stages , Linfa brought light rainfall to Palau and Yap , causing minimal effects . The outskirts of the storm increased winds across eastern Malaysia , which knocked down trees and destroyed the roofs of eight school and several houses . In one of the damaged homes , an 18 @-@ month @-@ old baby inside was thrown into a nearby field and suffered injuries .
While moving through the Philippines , Linfa caused flooding and four separate landslides . The storm 's heavy rainfall caused water levels to rise in reservoirs , prompting officials to drain some excess waters from the Binga Dam in Benguet province . Schools were closed in Metro Manila for three days due to flooding and landslides . The storm damaged 18 sections of roads , as well as two bridges and an irrigation canal in San Gabriel , La Union . Slick roads and a fallen tree caused a bus accident in Quezon City , injuring ten people . Portions of Luzon lost power during the storm , including the entirety of La Union province , and Bacnotan briefly lost water access . In the Ilocos region , a Chinese fishing vessel docked at Currimao port ran aground after being battered by huge waves . Three days of high waves washed 30 tons of mussels ashore Valladolid , Negros Occidental , prompting officials to use trucks to bury the rotting shells to prevent the spread of disease . Rough waves also disrupted rescue efforts for an unrelated ferry disaster in the country that killed 54 . The storm interacted with the monsoon to spawn two tornadoes in Negros Occidental , as well as strong winds that knocked down trees and billboards . Across Luzon , Linfa damaged 198 houses and destroyed another seven . The storm damaged ₱ 34 million ( $ 71 @,@ 000 USD ) worth of crops , and total damage reached ₱ 214 @.@ 6 million ( $ 4 @.@ 8 million USD ) . Most of the power outages were repaired within a few days of Linfa 's passage . After the storm , officials distributed meals to affected residents .
Linfa was originally forecast to move northwards and make landfall in Taiwan . However , Linfa curved to the west and hit Southern China instead . Only heavy rains and gusty winds were felt in Southern and Central Taiwan .
Moving ashore southern China , Linfa produced wind gusts of 171 km / h ( 106 mph ) in Huilai County , while a station in Lufeng , Guangdong recorded sustained winds of 123 km / h ( 76 mph ) . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall in southern China , peaking at 269 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) in Meizhou . About 370 @,@ 000 lost power in Shanwei and Shantou . Linfa caused 288 homes to collapse in the country , while 56 @,@ 000 people were displaced . One person was killed in the country . Damage totaled ¥ 1 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 284 million USD ) . Linfa passed about 50 km ( 30 mi ) north of Hong Kong as a weakening storm , producing gusts of around 47 km / h ( 29 mph ) . During its passage , the storm produced a storm surge of 0 @.@ 48 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) along Waglan Island . Rainfall reached around 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) in the territory . The winds remained fairly weak , knocking down a few trees , both in Hong Kong and nearby Macau .
= Puthiya Paravai =
Puthiya Paravai ( English : New Bird ) is a 1964 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic thriller film directed by Dada Mirasi . The film features Sivaji Ganesan , B. Saroja Devi , M. R. Radha and Sowcar Janaki in the lead roles , with V. K. Ramasamy , Nagesh and Manorama playing supporting roles . The plot revolves around Gopal , a businessman who falls in love with a woman named Latha , but is haunted by the death of his wife Chitra .
Puthiya Paravai is the maiden Tamil production of Sivaji Films , later renamed Sivaji Productions , and the third overall production for Sivaji Films after the Hindi films Amar Deep ( 1958 ) and Rakhi ( 1962 ) . The film is a remake of the Bengali film Shesh Ankaa ( 1963 ) , which is itself inspired by the British film Chase a Crooked Shadow ( 1958 ) . The costumes featured in the film were tailored and brought from Singapore and England . The soundtrack album and background score were composed by M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan .
Puthiya Paravai was released on 12 September 1964 to positive reviews from critics , with praise directed at the innovative filmmaking , the music and the performances from the lead actors . The film was also a commercial success , and had a theatrical run of 100 days . The film was later dubbed in Telugu as Singapore CID . The film was re @-@ released on 23 July 2010 at Ganesan 's family @-@ owned theatre Shanti , and was again met with positive response and commercial success .
= = Plot = =
Gopal ( Sivaji Ganesan ) is a rich businessman en route to India from Singapore on a cruise ship . He meets Latha ( Saroja Devi ) , another traveller who has been accompanied by her father Ramadurai ( V. K. Ramasamy ) . Gopal and Latha find that they like each other , so Gopal invites them to stay at his palatial mansion in Ooty , which they accept . One day , Latha discovers that Gopal gets agitated whenever he sees an onrushing train and demands the reason for it . Gopal explains that the reason behind this is his first wife .
In a flashback , after losing his mother , Gopal , in his sorrow had been wandering aimlessly at Singapore . In a nightclub , he meets a singer named Chitra ( Sowcar Janaki ) . He gets attracted to her and they decide to marry , in the presence of Chitra 's brother Raju ( S. V. Ramadoss ) . But he is disappointed — from the very first day of their marriage , she comes home inebriated , and despite his repeated requests , has little respect for tradition and family values . Eventually , Gopal 's father ( Dada Mirasi ) dies of a heart attack after seeing Chitra 's drunken behaviour on Gopal 's birthday . Gopal tries to control Chitra , but she is always irritated by his acts . At one point , she tries to leave him . Gopal begs her to change her decision , but Chitra still leaves . The next day , he hears that Chitra had died on a railway track , and this hurts him a lot . Latha sympathises with Gopal and accepts his love .
The engagement of Gopal and Latha is fixed and while the reception is being held , a young woman arrives , claiming to be Chitra , accompanied by her uncle Rangan ( M. R. Radha ) . Gopal says the woman is an impostor , but she and her uncle produce evidence which convinces even Gopal 's police officer friend Kumar ( O. A. K. Thevar ) . Gopal 's engagement with Latha is cancelled . Chitra and Rangan become disruptive and Gopal gets frustrated , fearing that Latha might leave him because his " wife " has turned up . Several days later , Gopal reveals the truth to everyone . In a flashback , when Chitra was ready to leave Gopal , he slapped her . Chitra , suffering from a heart condition , is unable to take the insult of his slap and dies from the shock . Gopal realises that he had inadvertently killed his wife . To avoid arrest , and safeguard the honour of his family , he manipulates the murder to appear like a suicide on a railway track and fabricates the necessary evidence to show that Chitra committed suicide . Thus , Gopal escapes from the charges of murder . Not wishing to continue living in Singapore , he leaves by a ship to India .
Upon hearing this , Latha and Ramadurai reveal themselves as police officers from Singapore investigating Chitra 's death based on the complaint filed by Raju . Rangan is the local investigating officer , while the woman impersonating Chitra is actually Rangan 's aide , Saroja . Together , they staged an entrapment to get the killer 's confession , because there was no other conclusive evidence . Latha confesses to a dejected Gopal that though she initially pretended to love him , his good nature impressed her and she truly loves him ; she promises that she will wait for him till he returns after completing his jail term . Gopal is relieved , but is still arrested and imprisoned .
= = Cast = =
Sivaji Ganesan as Gopal , a businessman formerly from Singapore
B. Saroja Devi as Latha , Gopal 's love interest
M. R. Radha as Rangan , the local investigating officer who acts as Chitra 's uncle
Sowcar Janaki as Chitra , Gopal 's former wife / Saroja , Rangan 's aide
Nagesh as Sanjeev , Gopal 's servant
Manorama as Alli , Sanjeev 's wife
V. K. Ramasamy as Ramadurai , Latha 's father
O. A. K. Thevar as Kumar , a police inspector and a close friend of Gopal
S. V. Ramadoss as Raju , Chitra 's brother
Dada Mirasi as Gopal 's father
= = Production = =
The 1958 British thriller film Chase a Crooked Shadow , directed by Michael Anderson , was a global success , especially in India . It inspired the Bengali film Shesh Ankaa ( 1963 ) , which starred Uttam Kumar , Sharmila Tagore and Sabitha Chowdhary . Shesh Ankaa 's screenplay by Rajkumar Mitra was acquired by Sivaji Films ( later renamed Sivaji Productions ) to be made in Tamil as its first " in @-@ house " production . The film was titled Puthiya Paravai , meaning " New Bird " , with Dada Mirasi as its director and screenwriter . Shanmugham , a relative of Sivaji Ganesan , also made inputs to the film 's screenplay . The film was the third production for Sivaji Films after the Hindi films Amar Deep ( 1958 ) and Rakhi ( 1962 ) . Arur Doss wrote the dialogues for the film .
Sivaji Ganesan was cast as the male lead . Both the female leads – B. Saroja Devi and Sowcar Janaki – were cast in roles different from what they were earlier proposed for . According to Ganesan 's eldest son Ramkumar , " Sivaji always thought of Sowcar Janaki as classy and sophisticated , " which was why he cast her as a " modern woman " in Puthiya Paravai . " Before that Sowcar had only acted in homely roles " . Mirasi , who made a cameo appearance as the hero 's father in the film , was initially not convinced about Janaki acting in the film . But after seeing her performance in the song " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " , Mirasi decided to include her for the rest of the film . Janaki added her own subtle distinctions and inputs to her role as portraying an out @-@ and @-@ out seductive vamp , according to her , would have felt deplorable . Nagesh , S. V. Ramadoss , V. K. Ramasamy , M. R. Radha , O. A. K. Thevar and Manorama were cast in supporting roles .
Puthiya Paravai was filmed in Eastman Color . The costumes were tailored and brought from Singapore and England . K. S. Prasad was the film 's cinematographer , and N. M. Shankar served as the editor , with Ganga as art director . The tuxedo worn by Ganesan in the film was ordered from London . For the filming of the song " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " , Ganesan smoked so as to set the mood for the song 's feel . For some scenes in the film , Saroja Devi was made to walk with mincing steps and flutter her eyelashes . The final length of the film was 4 @,@ 473 metres ( 14 @,@ 675 ft ) .
= = Themes = =
In her 2002 book Cinema of Interruptions : Action Genres in Contemporary Indian Cinema , Lalitha Gopalan noted that the male protagonists in Indian films use the piano to express their desire with no regard to the consequences and cited Sivaji Ganesan in Puthiya Paravai as an example for the same .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack and score were composed by the duo Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy ( M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy ) while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan ; T. M. Soundararajan and P. Susheela are the only singers featured in the soundtrack . The soundtrack was released under the label of Saregama . The first song recorded was " Chittu Kuruvi " . " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " is inspired by Dean Martin 's version of " Sway " . Philips , an autodidact guitarist , played the guitar for " Aha Mella " . The interlude of " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " had saxophone music .
The heavily orchestrated " Engey Nimmadhi " number , at that time , had the highest number of instruments used for recording . Choir singers from the Purasawalkam and Vepery areas of Chennai were used in the song . According to film historian and actor Mohan V. Raman , " Kannadasan could not get the right words nor was there a tune ready and Sivaji came to the composing and did a pantomime of what he would like to do and thus was born the line and the song " . Cellist R. Selvaraj , whose father was a part of the orchestration for " Engey Nimmadhi " said 250 instrumentalists were used for playing different instruments in sync . Other sources state that Viswanathan used over 300 instruments for the song . The music directors tried over 100 different ways of composing the tune of " Engey Nimmadhi " before the song was recorded . It was based on the raga Bilaskhani Todi . S. S. Vasan of The Hindu Tamil compared the sombre moments in " Engey Nimmadhi " to that of the song " Mujhko Is Raat Ki Tanhai Me " from Dil Bhi Tera Hum Bhi Tere ( 1960 ) . The song " Yae Dushyanta " , composed by Bharathwaj for Asal ( 2010 ) samples " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " .
The soundtrack received positive response from critics ; all the songs were successful , especially " Engey Nimmadhi " . Film historian Randor Guy stated , " The movie has excellent music ( Viswanathan @-@ Ramamurthy ; lyrics by Kannadasan ) and many songs became hits — Paartha Gnaabakam Illayo ... ! , Unnai ondru ketpen ( P. Sushila [ sic ] ) and Engey nimmathee ( T. M. Soundararajan ) . " Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said , " Who can forget the everlasting flavour of MSV ’ s expertise that emanated through each and every number , beginning with ‘ Unnai Ondru Kaetpaen ’ ! " Film critic Baradwaj Rangan called it a " stylish musical bonanza " . According to singer Charulatha Mani , " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " was based on the Harikambhoji raaga and further wrote , " In the phrase , ‘ Ennai Pada Sonnal ’ , the notes SRGR , S S , N set the mood for the raga . " whilst also calling the song a " super @-@ hit piece " . Music director and singer Ramesh Vinayakam said " Engey Nimmadhi " was an example of " the unconscious yet natural and healthy fusion that was happening to cinema music at the hands of music directors . " The Hindu included " Engey Nimmadhi " in its list , " Immortal songs of TMS " . P. K. Ajith Kumar of The Hindu stated , " Just as [ Susheela ] does not need to know the language to sing a song perfectly , we need not know Tamil to enjoy her songs like ... Chittukkuruvi ... ( Puthiya Paravai ) " . The Times of India noted , " Think any of Sivaji Ganesan 's songs and you 'll immediately think of the film . Be it the seductive club song Partha Nyabagam Illayo ( Pudhiya Paravai ) ... the songs in his films were perfectly in sync with the sequence . "
= = = Track list = = =
All lyrics written by Kannadasan .
= = Release = =
Puthiya Paravai was released on 12 September 1964 , and was slated to be released in the theatre Shanthi , which is Sivaji Ganesan 's family @-@ held theatre . However , Sangam was already running there successfully , so Ganesan instead released in the now non @-@ existent theatre Paragon at Wallajah Road , which had to be refurbished before the film 's screening . It was his fifth release of the year . The film was also dubbed in Telugu as Singapore CID .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Puthiya Paravai received positive reviews , with praise directed at the performances of the lead actors and its innovative filmmaking , which was considered to be of " international standard " . On 4 October 1964 , Ananda Vikatan said , " We can accept the film intellectually . However , it is tough to accept it in our heart due to the climax " . G. Dhananjayan , in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema : 1931 to 1976 , called it " An innovative landmark film with international standards of direction " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said , " [ Puthiya ] Paravai is a thriller in the whodunit genre . Dada Mirasi ’ s astute adaptation saw to it that the suspense was maintained till the very end , and the denouement neatly tied up the strands of suspense . " The Times of India rated the film four out of five , praising the performances of Ganesan , Saroja Devi , Janaki and Radha , and stated , " Coupled with the stylish visuals of KV Prasad and a haunting score by the composer duo MS Viswanathan and TK Ramamurthy , the film proves to be an irresistible thriller . " The reviewer did , however , note that the first half of the film moved at a slow pace , but called the climax " riveting " .
Film historian Randor Guy stated , " Sivaji Ganesan as the hero forced into a corner is excellent . Saroja Devi exudes glamour , while Sowcar Janaki as the boozing wife acquits her role with considerable conviction " , concluding that the film would be " Remembered for the taut onscreen narration , the excellent performances by Sivaji Ganesan , Sowcar Janaki and M. R. Radha , and Saroja Devi ’ s glamour " . Film historian Film News Anandan praised it for being " the first film which had a classy , rich look right through . " T. Ramakrishnan of The Hindu called Saroja Devi 's character a " brilliant role " . Mohan V. Raman noted that Janaki was popular mainly for her " sentimental " roles , but described her " anti @-@ sentimental " role in Puthiya Paravai as one of her " exceptional performances " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film had a theatrical run of 100 days in theatres . In Chennai , it was showing for 132 days at Paragon , 76 days at the theatres Krishna and Sayani , and for eight weeks in all major centres . Due to the successful run of Puthiya Paravai at Paragon , the film Andavan Kattalai ( 1964 ) , which was also running at the same theatre , was removed after completing 70 days .
= = In popular culture = =
Puthiya Paravai is frequently screened on Tamil television channels , most notably Jaya TV . The film portrayed a new investigating technique for the police , which met with a positive response . The songs were featured in a charity concert held by M. S. Viswanathan at the Kamaraj Arangam in Chennai on 14 July 2012 . In April 2006 , P. Susheela chose " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " and " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " along with " Paal Polave " from Uyarndha Manithan ( 1968 ) as her favourite songs that she had recorded . A song from Nadigan ( 1990 ) also has the same title as the song from Puthiya Paravai — " Engey Nimmadhi " . In September 2014 , Vijay Sethupathi , in an interview with Sudhir Srinivasan of The Hindu , listed Puthiya Paravai among his favourite films alongside Ratha Kanneer ( 1954 ) , Thillana Mohanambal ( 1968 ) and Rajapart Rangadurai ( 1973 ) .
Many scenes from the film , especially those involving Sivaji Ganesan and Saroja Devi were parodied many times . One notable parody is the comedy track from Guru En Aalu ( 2009 ) , which featured Vivek and M. S. Bhaskar , who imitate Saroja Devi and Sivaji Ganesan respectively . The parody became popular and was frequently screened on comedy channels like Adithya TV and Sirippoli . In Muthu ( 1995 ) , Padmini ( Subhashri ) hums the song " Aha Mella " . In the film Thenali ( 2000 ) , Kailash ( Jayaram ) watches " Chittu Kuruvi " on television but changes the channel after imagining that Ganesan 's face morphs into Thenali ( Kamal Haasan ) . In the film Siruthai ( 2011 ) , Kaatu Poochi ( N. Santhanam ) watches the film 's climax on television before stealing the television set . Scenes from Puthiya Paravai are featured in the film Burma ( 2014 ) .
In the third season of the television show Airtel Super Singer , the show 's host Dhivyadharshini and singer Mano imitate Saroja Devi and Sivaji Ganesan 's mannerisms from the film . " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " inspired a television serial of the same name , which featured actress Kushboo . The serial aired on Kalaignar TV in March 2012 .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
Footage from Puthiya Paravai was screened at Ganesan 's 80th birthday celebrations held at Kalaignar Arangam , Chennai in 2008 . The film was re @-@ released on 23 July 2010 to commemorate the ninth anniversary of Sivaji Ganesan 's death . The negatives of the film were " cleaned up at a lab " prior to release , and the film was released at Shanthi theatre , where it could not originally be released in 1964 . Despite being a re @-@ release , the film earned public acclaim and took a good opening , running to one @-@ hundred percent theatre occupancy for three days , and became a commercial success . In 2013 , production house Sai Ganesh Films announced that the film 's digitally restored version would be released in 2014 , 50 years since the original release in 1964 , but this did not happen . The film was screened at the Russian Cultural Centre Auditorium in Alwarpet on 14 September 2014 .
= Mycena nargan =
Mycena nargan , commonly known as the Nargan 's bonnet , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family , and the sole member of the section Nargan in the genus Mycena . Reported as a new species in 1995 , it is known predominantly from Southern Australia . The saprobic fungus produces mushrooms that grow on well @-@ decayed wood , often on the underside of wood lying in litter . The dark chestnut @-@ coloured caps are covered with white , easily removed scales , and reach diameters of up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The pale , slender stems are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and have white scales at the base . On the underside of the cap , the cream @-@ coloured gills are widely spaced and bluntly attached to the stem . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
The species was first discovered in 1992 in Kuitpo Forest , South Australia , and reported as new to science in a 1995 Australian Systematic Botany publication . The species name refers to the nargan or nargun , a mythical aboriginal being – originally the mycologists Tom May and Bruce Fuhrer had called it " nargan " , as its white speckles glistened in the dark like the eyes of the nargan , and Cheryl Grgurinovic incorporated this into its specific epithet . It is commonly known as " Nargan 's bonnet " , but has also been referred to as the " spotted pixie cap " .
With respect to infrageneric classification ( i.e. , taxonomic ranking below the level of genus ) in Mycena , several characteristics suggest the mushroom fits best in Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus ' section Fragilipedes : the ellipsoidal , amyloid spores ; dextrinoid spore @-@ bearing tissue ; smooth cheilocystidia ; gills with the edge the same colour as the face ; and the non @-@ slimy , distinctly coloured cap . According to the 1986 infrageneric classification proposed by Rolf Singer , the mushroom would be classified in subgenus Mycena , subsection Ciliatae , stirps Alcalina ( roughly equivalent to section Fragilipedes of Maas Geesteranus ) because of the amyloid spores , smooth , elongated cheilocystidia , dull @-@ coloured pigment , and stem without either latex or a slimy sheath . Grgurinovic erected the new section Nargan to accommodate M. nargan , because its scales , lack of coarse fibrils at the base of the stem , and lack of pruinose coating meant it was not a good fit for section Fragilipedes .
= = Description = =
The caps of young mushrooms are initially egg @-@ shaped to conical , expanding to become bell @-@ shaped and up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . Initially , the margin of the cap is rolled inwards ; it typically assumes a lighter colour than the centre of the cap surface . Dark brown in colour , the mushroom is distinguished by the presence of white speckles or scales on the cap and stem ; these scales may disappear when they become sloughed off or washed away by rain , which can make the species hard to recognise . The thick gills have an adnate attachment to the stem ( broadly attached to the stem slightly above the bottom of the gill , with most of the gill fused to the stem ) , and are white to light grey in colour , paler toward the edge . There are about 24 – 28 gills extending completely from the cap margin to the stem , and one or two tiers of lamellulae ( shorter gills does do not extend fully from the margin to the stem ) . The thin stem is up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high and 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) wide , and does not have a ring . Young specimens will typically have whitish scales at the base ; later , these will slough off and a felt @-@ like whitish mycelium may be apparent . The mushroom have no distinctive odour . The spore print is white or cream . The edibility of the mushroom has not been reported .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores of M. nargan are roughly ellipsoid , smooth , hyaline , and measure 7 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 μm . They have a small , oblique apiculus , and lack oil droplets . In terms of staining reactions , they are acyanophilous ( not absorbing methyl blue dye ) , and amyloid ( turning blue @-@ black in Melzer 's reagent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are club @-@ shaped , have clamp connections at their bases , and measure 29 @.@ 6 – 36 @.@ 4 by 8 @.@ 2 – 10 @.@ 7 μm . They are four @-@ spored , and the spores are attached to the basidia by long slender sterigmata that are up to 7 @.@ 2 μm long . The gill edge is sterile ( without basidia ) , and has adundant cystidia . These thin @-@ walled cheilocystidia range in shape from swollen in the middle with a beak @-@ like point , to spindle @-@ shaped ( fusiform ) to club @-@ shaped . They are smooth , hyaline , and inamyloid , with dimensions of 20 @.@ 8 – 38 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 4 μm . They have a clamp connection at base . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not present in this species . The gill tissue is made of smooth , thin @-@ walled cylindrical to egg @-@ shaped cells , up to 30 @.@ 4 μm in diameter . The cells are dextrinoid ( producing a black to blue @-@ black positive reaction with Melzer 's reagent ) , and reddish @-@ brown . The surface of the cap ( the pileipellis ) is made of a layer of bent @-@ over filamentous hyphae measuring 1 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 8 μm . These loosely arranged hyphae are slightly gelatinised , smooth , thin @-@ walled , hyaline , inamyloid , and have clamp connections . The tissue layer directly under the pileipellis ( the hypodermium ) has cells containing brown pigment . The cap tissue consists of smooth , thin @-@ walled , cylindrical to broadly cylindrical or ovoid cells , up to 37 @.@ 0 μm in diameter , with clamp connections . These cells are dextrinoid and reddish orange @-@ brown in colour . The surface of the stem is made of filamentous hyphae , 2 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 0 μm in diameter , either smooth or with sparse to moderately dense short , rod @-@ like to cylindrical projections . The cells are thin @-@ walled to very slightly thick @-@ walled , hyaline , inamyloid , and have clamp connections . Caulocystidia ( cystidia on the cap surface ) are not present . The stem tissue consists of short , cylindrical cells , up to 28 @.@ 0 μm in diameter that are smooth , thin @-@ walled , and with or without brown pigment in the cytoplasm . The cells contain clamp connections and are reddish orange @-@ brown .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena nargan has a very distinct appearance , and is unlikely to be mistaken for other Mycenas . However , one noted unintentional misidentification occurred when the M. nargan on the cover photograph of Bruce A. Fuhrer 's 2005 book A Field Guide to Australian Fungi was labelled as Mycena nivalis , a species with a white cap .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
A common mushroom , Mycena nargan is found growing singly or in clusters on the underside of rotting wood in wet and shaded areas , and is especially partial to Eucalyptus and Pinus pinaster . Fruit bodies usually appear from April to June . The species has been recorded from Tasmania , Victoria and southeastern South Australia . The Australian Fungimap initiative has reported isolated collections in Western Australia , South Australia , and New South Wales , although the majority of sightings have been in Tasmania and Victoria . The fungus is saprobic , meaning it derives nutrients from dead or dying organic matter . A field study conducted in Tasmania showed that it is much more likely to be found in mature eucalypt forest ( defined as having grown at least 70 years before the last wildfire ) than young , regenerating forest that had experienced clearfelling , burning , and sowing two to three years previously .
= James Ferguson ( Scottish politician ) =
James Ferguson FRSE ( 25 May 1735 – 6 September 1820 ) was a Scottish advocate and Tory politician and the third Laird of Pitfour , a large estate in the Buchan area of north east Scotland , which is known as the ' Blenheim of the North ' .
Ferguson studied law in Edinburgh , qualifying in 1757 to gain membership of the Faculty of Advocates . He then undertook a tour of Europe throughout 1758 before following in his father 's footsteps by joining the Scottish legal profession . Later in life his interests turned to politics and he became a Scottish Tory politician .
Among the extensive work carried out by Ferguson at Pitfour , he is also credited with beginning work on a canal between the Pitfour estate and the sea at Peterhead in order to transport agricultural produce . Despite planning objections from neighbours , work began in 1797 . He is also credited with establishing the planned village of Mintlaw in 1813 .
= = Ancestry and early life = =
James Ferguson was born at Pitfour on 25 May 1735 . He was the eldest son of James Ferguson ( 1700 – 1777 ) and Ann Murray ( 1708 – 1793 ) . His parents were married on 3 February 1733 , and he was born three years later . They had five other , younger children .
Before undertaking a grand tour of Europe during 1758 , Ferguson continued the family tradition of studying law in Edinburgh . After qualifying , he gained membership of the Faculty of Advocates and Society of Writers to the Signet in July 1757 .
Ferguson spent a great deal of time at Pitfour but also had an apartment in St James Place , Westminster , Middlesex . Ferguson became the third Laird of Pitfour on the death of his father , Lord Pitfour , in 1777 .
The Third Laird was a known associate of James Boswell and together with his brother Patrick , who was the designer of the Ferguson rifle , breakfasted with Boswell in November 1762 . Other close associates were William Pitt the Younger and Henry Dundas , 1st Viscount Melville . He was the Rector at Aberdeen University from 1794 @-@ 6 .
In a confidential report titled " View of the political state of Scotland " published in 1788 , Ferguson was described as " a man of real good sense , but indolent . " The document was published in 1887 but covered the personal circumstances of those involved in county elections in Scotland during the previous century . Ferguson was not a good @-@ looking man and appeared plain , small and stocky . His mother once wrote to him :
Never expose yourself , James , to the charge of rape , for your broad shoulders will cause the jury to think it probable that you made the attempt , and your face will make it manifest that it must have been against the will .
He remained a bachelor although there was speculation he yearned for Jane Gordon , Duchess of Gordon . She was born in Edinburgh in 1749 , and was a Scottish Tory political hostess who was shrewd , sharp @-@ witted and humorous but good @-@ natured . In a riddle written by the Duchess , the last two lines refer to Ferguson and confirm that he was not an attractive man . It reads :
Around 1813 , he established the planned village of Mintlaw , and he is also credited with expanding Longside in 1801 .
Prior to his death his Edinburgh address was 30 Heriot Row in the Second New Town .
He died without issue , and on his death in St James ' Place , London , in September 1820 , the estate passed to his younger brother , George Ferguson ( 1748 – 1820 ) , who was then 72 years old and in poor health . He was said to have died " without a struggle " of " apoplexy " .
= = Political career = =
Ferguson became a Scottish Tory politician . He sat in the House of Commons of Great Britain from 1788 to 1800 , and then in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom until his death in 1820 .
He unsuccessfully contested Aberdeenshire at a by @-@ election in 1786 with the support of the Duke of Gordon . George Skene — proposed by the Earl of Fife , who held tremendous sway in the political circles of that time — defeated him . The total electorate for Aberdeenshire was 190 , and Ferguson was defeated by ten votes . Ferguson was again nominated for Aberdeenshire in July 1790 and was appointed after Skene withdrew when his alcoholism began to blight his political career .
Ferguson was elected as the Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Banffshire at a by @-@ election in 1789 , holding that seat until 1790 . He was elected at the 1790 general election as MP for Aberdeenshire , and held that seat until his death 30 years later .
The Member became a close associate and political friend of the Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger . After Pitt 's death in 1806 , Ferguson did not so easily retain his seat in Parliament . In the elections of 1806 , he retained the seat by just two votes , and his opponent General Alexander Hay demanded he be investigated for bribery and corruption . Ferguson again beat Hay in the contest for the seat in June 1807 , but this time with a more convincing majority of 54 to 39 votes . Ferguson was unopposed in the next three elections . Some records indicate that Ferguson never spoke in the Commons except to complain about a broken window behind his seat causing a draught . He is actually recorded as speaking on at least five occasions over the years .
The diarist and fellow lawyer Henry Crabb Robinson gave an indication of Ferguson 's political party affiliation when he recorded in his diary of 1826 :
Late at the Athenaeum . Hudson Gurney was there . He related with great effect the experience of Ferguson of Pitfour , which he used to repeat when an old man , for the benefit of young Members : ' I was never absent from any division I could get at . I have heard many arguments which convinced my judgement , but never one that influenced my vote . I never voted but once according to my own opinion , and that was the worst vote I ever gave . I found that the only way to be quiet in Parliament was always to vote with the ministers , and never to take a place ' .
It was not until after 1832 and the introduction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832 that control of Scottish politics was taken from the hands of landowners and a small number of merchants . The Friends of the People Society in the 1790s was opposed by those landed gentry politicians . After the Act came into effect , the constituencies were changed , and this raised the electorate from under 5 @,@ 000 to 65 @,@ 000 .
= = Pitfour = =
The Pitfour Estate beside Mintlaw in the Buchan area of north @-@ east Scotland became one of the country 's most extensive and lavish estates during the 18th and 19th centuries . The Pitfour estate is shown on old maps as Petfouir or Petfour . The estate was purchased by Ferguson 's grandfather , the first Laird , in 1700 and was developed and extended by both the Sheriff and Lord Pitfour . Covering a large area of Buchan , the policies stretched to around 50 square miles and would be valued at £ 30m at its peak in the 18th century . The third Laird is attributed with much of the development work on the mansion house which was designed by architect John Smith in 1809 . In his architectural guide to Banff and Buchan , Charles McKean describes the estate as the " Blenheim of Buchan " and " the Blenheim of Northern Scotland " .
Pitfour 's canal and lake
Ferguson was Laird of Pitfour during the period known as the Industrial Revolution in Britain . He began work on a canal between Pitfour and Peterhead in 1797 despite major opposition from adjoining landowners . The canal was proposed to cover about ten miles following the course of the River Ugie . References also refer to Pitfour 's canal as the St Fergus and River Ugie Canal . A project Ferguson had considered since 1793 , it was never completed owing to " difficulties in effecting the necessary arrangements with neighbouring heritors . " The objections were particularly raised by the Merchant Maiden Hospital , which owned the land on the south side of the Ugie . Despite being advised to take out an interdict to prevent the work , in January 1797 the Hospital did not feel it had a strong enough case . However , four months later when two miles of the canal had been dug up to where the north and south Ugie joined , the Hospital did apply for an interdict , and this was granted in July 1797 .
A few years after starting work on the canal , the Member had an artificial lake built on a flat piece of land to the front of the mansion house . The landscape gardener William S Gilpin was carrying out work on the adjacent Strichen estate at about the same time , and it is assumed he gave help with the work at Pitfour . The lake extends to almost 50 acres and was based on the artificial lake at Windsor Great Park .
Later history of the estate
After the death of the Member intestate in 1820 , the estate was inherited by his younger brother George Ferguson ( 1748 – 1820 ) , who died shortly after inheriting the estate . He was succeeded by his illegitimate son George Ferguson who , despite incurring severe debts , continued to develop the estate by adding a stable block , race course , an observation tower and other follies . He had huge gambling debts , and although the estate had been valued at £ 300 @,@ 000 when he inherited it , he sold off many of the farms and other parts of the estate to raise funds . Despite these injections of funds , when he died the estate was mortgaged to the extent of £ 250 @,@ 000 . It was further decimated by his son , George Arthur Ferguson ( 1835 – 1924 ) . George Arthur was sequestrated , and what remained of the estate was marketed in 1909 . It was eventually sold in mid @-@ 1926 , and the mansion house was knocked down .
= Benjamin Britten =
Edward Benjamin Britten , Baron Britten , OM CH ( 22 November 1913 – 4 December 1976 ) was an English composer , conductor and pianist . He was a central figure of 20th @-@ century British classical music , with a range of works including opera , other vocal music , orchestral and chamber pieces . His best @-@ known works include the opera Peter Grimes ( 1945 ) , the War Requiem ( 1962 ) and the orchestral showpiece The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra ( 1945 ) .
Born in Suffolk , the son of a dentist , Britten showed talent from an early age . He studied at the Royal College of Music in London and privately with the composer Frank Bridge . Britten first came to public attention with the a cappella choral work A Boy was Born in 1934 . With the premiere of Peter Grimes in 1945 , he leapt to international fame . Over the next 28 years , he wrote 14 more operas , establishing himself as one of the leading 20th @-@ century composers in the genre . In addition to large @-@ scale operas for Sadler 's Wells and Covent Garden , he wrote " chamber operas " for small forces , suitable for performance in venues of modest size . Among the best known of these is The Turn of the Screw ( 1954 ) . Recurring themes in the operas are the struggle of an outsider against a hostile society , and the corruption of innocence .
Britten 's other works range from orchestral to choral , solo vocal , chamber and instrumental as well as film music . He took a great interest in writing music for children and amateur performers , including the opera Noye 's Fludde , a Missa Brevis , and the song collection Friday Afternoons . He often composed with particular performers in mind . His most frequent and important muse was his personal and professional partner , the tenor Peter Pears ; others included Kathleen Ferrier , Jennifer Vyvyan , Janet Baker , Dennis Brain , Julian Bream , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau and Mstislav Rostropovich . Britten was a celebrated pianist and conductor , performing many of his own works in concert and on record . He also performed and recorded works by others , such as Bach 's Brandenburg concertos , Mozart symphonies , and song cycles by Schubert and Schumann .
Together with Pears and the librettist and producer Eric Crozier , Britten founded the annual Aldeburgh Festival in 1948 , and he was responsible for the creation of Snape Maltings concert hall in 1967 . In his last year , he was the first composer to be given a life peerage .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Britten was born in the fishing port of Lowestoft in Suffolk , on the east coast of England on 22 November 1913 , the feast day of Saint Cecilia . He was the youngest of four children of Robert Victor Britten ( 1878 – 1934 ) and his wife Edith Rhoda , née Hockey ( 1874 – 1937 ) . Robert Britten 's youthful ambition to become a farmer had been thwarted by lack of capital , and he had instead trained as a dentist , a profession he practised successfully but without pleasure . While studying at Charing Cross Hospital in London he met Edith Hockey , the daughter of a junior Home Office official . They were married in September 1901 at St John 's , Smith Square , London .
The consensus among biographers of Britten is that his father was a loving but somewhat stern and remote parent . Britten , according to his sister Beth , " got on well with him and shared his wry sense of humour , dedication to work and capacity for taking pains " . Edith Britten was a talented amateur musician and secretary of the Lowestoft Musical Society . In the English provinces of the early 20th century , distinctions of social class were taken very seriously . Britten described his family as " very ordinary middle class " , but there were aspects of the Brittens that were not ordinary : Edith 's father was illegitimate , and her mother was an alcoholic ; Robert Britten was an agnostic and refused to attend church on Sundays . Music was the principal means by which Edith Britten strove to maintain the family 's social standing , inviting the pillars of the local community to musical soirées at the house .
When Britten was three months old he contracted pneumonia and nearly died . The illness left him with a damaged heart , and doctors warned his parents that he would probably never be able to lead a normal life . He recovered more fully than expected , and as a boy was a keen tennis player and cricketer . To his mother 's great delight he was an outstandingly musical child , unlike his sisters , who inherited their father 's indifference to music , while his brother , though musically talented , was interested only in ragtime . Edith gave the young Britten his first lessons in piano and notation . He made his first attempts at composition when he was five . He started piano lessons when he was seven years old , and three years later began to play the viola . He was one of the last composers brought up on exclusively live music : his father refused to have a gramophone or , later , a radio in the house .
= = = Education = = =
= = = = Lowestoft = = = =
When he was seven Britten was sent to a dame school , run by the Misses Astle . The younger sister , Ethel , gave him piano lessons ; in later life he said that he remained grateful for the excellence of her teaching . The following year he moved on to his prep school , South Lodge , Lowestoft , as a day boy . The headmaster , Thomas Sewell , was an old @-@ fashioned disciplinarian ; the young Britten was outraged at the severe corporal punishments frequently handed out , and later he said that his lifelong pacifism probably had its roots in his reaction to the regime at the school . He himself rarely fell foul of Sewell , a mathematician , in which subject Britten was a star pupil . The school had no musical tradition , and Britten continued to study the piano with Ethel Astle . From the age of ten he took viola lessons from a friend of his mother 's , Audrey Alston , who had been a professional player before her marriage . In his spare time he composed prolifically . When his Simple Symphony , based on these juvenilia , was recorded in 1956 , Britten wrote this pen @-@ portrait of his young self for the sleeve note :
Once upon a time there was a prep @-@ school boy . ... He was quite an ordinary little boy ... he loved cricket , only quite liked football ( although he kicked a pretty " corner " ) ; he adored mathematics , got on all right with history , was scared by Latin Unseen ; he behaved fairly well , only ragged the recognised amount , so that his contacts with the cane or the slipper were happily rare ( although one nocturnal expedition to stalk ghosts left its marks behind ) ; he worked his way up the school slowly and steadily , until at the age of thirteen he reached that pinnacle of importance and grandeur never to be quite equalled in later days : the head of the Sixth , head @-@ prefect , and Victor Ludorum . But – there was one curious thing about this boy : he wrote music . His friends bore with it , his enemies kicked a bit but not for long ( he was quite tough ) , the staff couldn 't object if his work and games didn 't suffer . He wrote lots of it , reams and reams of it .
Audrey Alston encouraged Britten to go to symphony concerts in Norwich . At one of these , during the triennial Norfolk and Norwich Festival in October 1924 , he heard Frank Bridge 's orchestral poem The Sea , conducted by the composer . It was the first substantial piece of modern music he had ever encountered , and he was , in his own phrase , " knocked sideways " by it . Audrey Alston was a friend of Bridge ; when he returned to Norwich for the next festival in 1927 she brought her not quite 14 @-@ year @-@ old pupil to meet him . Bridge was impressed with the boy , and after they had gone through some of Britten 's compositions together he invited him to come to London to take lessons from him . Robert Britten , supported by Thomas Sewell , doubted the wisdom of pursuing a composing career ; a compromise was agreed by which Britten would , as planned , go on to his public school the following year but would make regular day @-@ trips to London to study composition with Bridge and piano with his colleague Harold Samuel .
Bridge impressed on Britten the importance of scrupulous attention to the technical craft of composing and the maxim that " you should find yourself and be true to what you found . " The earliest substantial works Britten composed while studying with Bridge are the String Quartet in F , completed in April 1928 , and the Quatre Chansons Françaises , a song @-@ cycle for high voice and orchestra . Authorities differ on the extent of Bridge 's influence on his pupil 's technique . Humphrey Carpenter and Michael Oliver judge that Britten 's abilities as an orchestrator were essentially self @-@ taught ; Donald Mitchell considers that Bridge had an important influence on the cycle .
= = = = Public school and Royal College of Music = = = =
In September 1928 Britten went as a boarder to Gresham 's School , in Holt , Norfolk . At the time he felt unhappy there , even writing in his diary of contemplating suicide or running away : he hated being separated from his family , most particularly from his mother ; he despised the music master ; and he was shocked at the prevalence of bullying , though he was not the target of it . He remained there for two years and in 1930 , he won a composition scholarship at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) in London ; his examiners were the composers John Ireland and Ralph Vaughan Williams and the college 's harmony and counterpoint teacher , S P Waddington .
Britten was at the RCM from 1930 to 1933 , studying composition with Ireland and piano with Arthur Benjamin . He won the Sullivan Prize for composition , the Cobbett Prize for chamber music , and was twice winner of the Ernest Farrar Prize for composition . These honours notwithstanding , he was not greatly impressed by the establishment : he found his fellow @-@ students " amateurish and folksy " and the staff " inclined to suspect technical brilliance of being superficial and insincere " . Another Ireland pupil , the composer Humphrey Searle , said that Ireland could be " an inspiring teacher to those on his own wavelength " ; Britten was not , and learned little from him . He continued to study privately with Bridge , although he later praised Ireland for " nurs [ ing ] me very gently through a very , very difficult musical adolescence " .
Britten also used his time in London to attend concerts and become better acquainted with the music of Stravinsky , Shostakovich and , most particularly , Mahler . He intended postgraduate study in Vienna with Alban Berg , Arnold Schoenberg 's student , but was eventually dissuaded by his parents , on the advice of the RCM staff .
The first of Britten 's compositions to attract wide attention were composed while at the RCM : the Sinfonietta , Op. 1 ( 1932 ) , and a set of choral variations A Boy was Born , written in 1933 for the BBC Singers , who first performed it the following year . In this same period he wrote Friday Afternoons , a collection of 12 songs for the pupils of Clive House School , Prestatyn , where his brother was headmaster .
= = = Early professional life = = =
In February 1935 , at Bridge 's instigation , Britten was invited to a job interview by the BBC 's director of music Adrian Boult and his assistant Edward Clark . Britten was not enthusiastic about the prospect of working full @-@ time in the BBC music department and was relieved when what came out of the interview was an invitation to write the score for a documentary film , The King 's Stamp , directed by Alberto Cavalcanti for the GPO Film Unit .
Britten became a member of the film unit 's small group of regular contributors , another of whom was W H Auden . Together they worked on the documentary films Coal Face and Night Mail in 1935 . They also collaborated on the song cycle Our Hunting Fathers ( 1936 ) , radical both in politics and musical treatment , and subsequently other works including Cabaret Songs , On This Island , Paul Bunyan and Hymn to St. Cecilia . Auden was a considerable influence on Britten , encouraging him to widen his aesthetic , intellectual and political horizons , and also to come to terms with his homosexuality . Auden was , as David Matthews puts it , " cheerfully and guiltlessly promiscuous " ; Britten , puritanical and conventional by nature , was sexually repressed .
In the three years from 1935 to 1937 Britten wrote nearly 40 scores for the theatre , cinema and radio . Among the film music of the late 1930s Matthews singles out Night Mail and Love from a Stranger ( 1937 ) ; from the theatre music he selects for mention The Ascent of F6 ( 1936 ) , On the Frontier ( 1938 ) and Johnson Over Jordan ( 1939 ) ; and of the music for radio , King Arthur ( 1937 ) and The Sword in the Stone ( 1939 ) .
In 1937 there were two events of huge importance in Britten 's life : his mother died , and he met the tenor Peter Pears . Although Britten was extraordinarily devoted to his mother and was devastated at her death , it also seems to have been something of a liberation for him . Only after that did he begin to engage in emotional relationships with people his own age or younger . Later in the year he got to know Pears while they were both helping to clear out the country cottage of a mutual friend who had died in an air crash . Pears quickly became Britten 's musical inspiration and close ( though for the moment platonic ) friend . Britten 's first work for him was composed within weeks of their meeting , a setting of Emily Brontë 's poem , " A thousand gleaming fires " , for tenor and strings .
During 1937 Britten composed a Pacifist March to words by Ronald Duncan for the Peace Pledge Union , of which , as a pacifist , he had become an active member ; the work was not a success and was soon withdrawn . The best known of his compositions from this period is probably Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge for string orchestra , described by Matthews as the first of Britten 's works to become a popular classic . It was a success in North America , with performances in Toronto , New York , Boston , Chicago and San Francisco , under conductors including John Barbirolli and Serge Koussevitzky .
= = = America 1939 – 42 = = =
In April 1939 Britten and Pears sailed to North America , going first to Canada and then to New York . They had several reasons for leaving England , including the difficult position of pacifists in an increasingly bellicose Europe ; the success that Frank Bridge had enjoyed in the US ; the departure of Auden and his friend Christopher Isherwood to the US from England three months previously ; hostile or belittling reviews of Britten 's music in the English press ; and under @-@ rehearsed and inadequate performances . Britten and Pears consummated their relationship and from then until Britten 's death they were partners in both their professional and personal lives . When the Second World War began , Britten and Pears turned for advice to the British embassy in Washington and were told that they should remain in the US as artistic ambassadors . Pears was inclined to disregard the advice and go back to England ; Britten also felt the urge to return , but accepted the embassy 's counsel and persuaded Pears to do the same .
Already a friend of the composer Aaron Copland , Britten encountered his latest works Billy the Kid and An Outdoor Overture , both of which influenced his own music . In 1940 Britten composed Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo , the first of many song cycles for Pears . Britten 's orchestral works from this period include the Violin Concerto and Sinfonia da Requiem . In 1941 Britten produced his first music drama , Paul Bunyan , an operetta , to a libretto by Auden . While in the US , Britten had his first encounter with Balinese gamelan music , through transcriptions for piano duo made by the Canadian composer Colin McPhee . The two met in the summer of 1939 and subsequently performed a number of McPhee 's transcriptions for a recording . This musical encounter bore fruit in several Balinese @-@ inspired works later in Britten 's career .
Moving to the US did not relieve Britten of the nuisance of hostile criticism : although Olin Downes , the doyen of New York music critics , and Irving Kolodin took to Britten 's music , Virgil Thomson was , as the music scholar Suzanne Robinson puts it , consistently " severe and spiteful " . Thomson described Les Illuminations ( 1940 ) as " little more than a series of bromidic and facile ' effects ' ... pretentious , banal and utterly disappointing " , and was equally unflattering about Pears 's voice . Robinson surmises that Thomson was motivated by " a mixture of spite , national pride , and professional jealousy " . Paul Bunyan met with wholesale critical disapproval , and the Sinfonia da Requiem ( already rejected by its Japanese sponsors because of its overtly Christian nature ) received a mixed reception when Barbirolli and the New York Philharmonic premiered it in March 1941 . The reputation of the work was much enhanced when Koussevitzky took it up shortly afterwards .
= = = Return to England = = =
In 1942 Britten read the work of the poet George Crabbe for the first time . The Borough , set on the Suffolk coast close to Britten 's homeland , awakened in him such longings for England that he knew he must return . He also knew that he must write an opera based on Crabbe 's poem about the fisherman Peter Grimes . Before Britten left the US , Koussevitzky , always generous in encouraging new talent , offered him a $ 1 @,@ 000 commission to write the opera . Britten and Pears returned to England in April 1942 . During the long transatlantic sea crossing Britten completed the choral works A Ceremony of Carols and Hymn to St Cecilia . The latter was his last large @-@ scale collaboration with Auden . Britten had grown away from him , and Auden became one of the composer 's so @-@ called " corpses " – former intimates from whom he completely cut off contact once they had outlived their usefulness to him or offended him in some way .
Having arrived in Britain , Britten and Pears applied for recognition as conscientious objectors ; Britten was initially allowed only non @-@ combatant service in the military , but on appeal he gained unconditional exemption . After the death of his mother in 1937 he had used money she bequeathed him to buy the Old Mill in Snape , Suffolk which became his country home . He spent much of his time there in 1944 working on the opera Peter Grimes . Pears joined Sadler 's Wells Opera Company , whose artistic director , the singer Joan Cross , announced her intention to re @-@ open the company 's home base in London with Britten 's opera , casting herself and Pears in the leading roles . There were complaints from company members about supposed favouritism and the " cacophony " of Britten 's score , as well as some ill @-@ suppressed homophobic remarks . Peter Grimes opened in June 1945 and was hailed by public and critics ; its box @-@ office takings matched or exceeded those for La bohème and Madame Butterfly , which were staged during the same season . The opera administrator Lord Harewood called it " the first genuinely successful British opera , Gilbert and Sullivan apart , since Purcell . " Dismayed by the in @-@ fighting among the company , Cross , Britten and Pears severed their ties with Sadler 's Wells in December 1945 , going on to found what was to become the English Opera Group .
A month after the opening of Peter Grimes , Britten and Yehudi Menuhin went to Germany to give recitals to concentration camp survivors . What they saw , at Belsen most of all , so shocked Britten that he refused to talk about it until towards the end of his life , when he told Pears that it had coloured everything he had written since . Colin Matthews comments that the next two works Britten composed after his return , the song @-@ cycle The Holy Sonnets of John Donne and the Second String Quartet , contrast strongly with earlier , lighter @-@ hearted works such as Les Illuminations . Britten recovered his joie de vivre for The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra ( 1945 ) , written for an educational film , Instruments of the Orchestra , directed by Muir Mathieson and featuring the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by Malcolm Sargent . It became , and remained , his most often played and popular work .
Britten 's next opera , The Rape of Lucretia , was presented at the first post @-@ war Glyndebourne Festival in 1946 . It was then taken on tour to provincial cities under the banner of the " Glyndebourne English Opera Company " , an uneasy alliance of Britten and his associates with John Christie , the autocratic proprietor of Glyndebourne . The tour lost money heavily , and Christie announced that he would underwrite no more tours . Britten and his associates set up the English Opera Group ; the librettist Eric Crozier and the designer John Piper joined Britten as artistic directors . The group 's express purpose was to produce and commission new English operas and other works , presenting them throughout the country . Britten wrote the comic opera Albert Herring for the group in 1947 ; while on tour in the new work Pears came up with the idea of mounting a festival in the small Suffolk seaside town of Aldeburgh , where Britten had moved from Snape earlier in the year , and which became his principal place of residence for the rest of his life .
= = = Aldeburgh ; the 1950s = = =
The Aldeburgh Festival was launched in June 1948 , with Britten , Pears and Crozier directing it . Albert Herring played at the Jubilee Hall , and Britten 's new cantata for tenor , chorus and orchestra , Saint Nicolas , was presented in the parish church . The festival was an immediate success and became an annual event that has continued into the 21st century . New works by Britten featured in almost every festival until his death in 1976 , including the premieres of his operas A Midsummer Night 's Dream at the Jubilee Hall in 1960 and Death in Venice at Snape Maltings Concert Hall in 1973 .
Unlike many leading English composers , Britten was not known as a teacher , but in 1949 he accepted his only private pupil , Arthur Oldham , who studied with him for three years . Oldham made himself useful , acting as musical assistant and arranging Variations on a Theme by Frank Bridge for full orchestra for the Frederick Ashton ballet Le Rêve de Léonor ( 1949 ) , but he later described the teacher – pupil relationship as " beneficial five per cent to [ Britten ] and ninety @-@ five per cent to me ! "
Throughout the 1950s Britten continued to write operas . Billy Budd ( 1951 ) was well received at its Covent Garden premiere and was regarded by reviewers as an advance on Peter Grimes . Gloriana ( 1953 ) , written to mark the coronation of Elizabeth II , had a cool reception at the gala premiere in the presence of the Queen and the British Establishment en masse . The downbeat story of Elizabeth I in her decline , and Britten 's score – reportedly thought by members of the premiere 's audience " too modern " for such a gala – did not overcome what Matthews calls the " ingrained philistinism " of the ruling classes . Although Gloriana did well at the box office , there were no further productions in Britain for another 13 years . It was later recognised as one of Britten 's finer operas . The Turn of the Screw the following year was an unqualified success ; together with Peter Grimes it became , and at 2013 remained , one of the two most frequently performed of Britten 's operas .
In the 1950s the " fervently anti @-@ homosexual " Home Secretary , David Maxwell Fyfe , urged the police to enforce the Victorian laws making homosexual acts illegal . Britten and Pears came under scrutiny ; Britten was visited by police officers in 1953 and was so perturbed that he discussed with his assistant Imogen Holst the possibility that Pears might have to enter a sham marriage ( with whom is unclear ) . In the end nothing was done .
An increasingly important influence on Britten was the music of the East , an interest that was fostered by a tour there with Pears in 1956 , when Britten once again encountered the music of the Balinese gamelan and saw for the first time Japanese Noh plays , which he called " some of the most wonderful drama I have ever seen . " These eastern influences were seen and heard in the ballet The Prince of the Pagodas ( 1957 ) and later in two of the three semi @-@ operatic " Parables for Church Performance " : Curlew River ( 1964 ) and The Prodigal Son ( 1968 ) .
= = = 1960s = = =
By the 1960s , the Aldeburgh Festival was outgrowing its customary venues , and plans to build a new concert hall in Aldeburgh were not progressing . When redundant Victorian maltings buildings in the village of Snape , six miles inland , became available for hire , Britten realised that the largest of them could be converted into a concert hall and opera house . The 830 @-@ seat Snape Maltings hall was opened by the Queen at the start of the twentieth Aldeburgh Festival on 2 June 1967 ; it was immediately hailed
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aders . Several pieces from St. Polyeuctus were reused in the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator ( the modern Zeyrek Mosque ) , and various pieces such as capitals were spread to places as far as Venice , Barcelona and Vienna , including the so @-@ called Pilastri Acritani ( " Pillars of Acre " ) in St Mark 's Basilica , Venice .
The site of the church , in the Saraçhane quarter ( the ancient Constantinianae ) , was gradually occupied by houses and a mosque in the Ottoman period . In 1940 , the area was leveled , and in 1960 , during construction of the intersection of the Șehzadebași Caddesi and Atatürk Bulvari roads , excavations began . Brick vaults and pieces of Proconnesian marble sculpture were discovered , among them fragments of the monumental epigram adorning the church . These fragments , in conjunction with references to the approximate location of church in Byzantine texts concerning the imperial processions on the Mese avenue , allowed a secure identification . The site was extensively excavated between 1964 and 1969 by archaeologists under the direction of Dr. Nezih Firatli from the Istanbul Archaeological Museum and Roy Michael Harrison of the Dumbarton Oaks Institute . The area , directly opposite the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality City Hall , is now a preserved archaeological site open to visitors , although the sculptures have been removed to the Istanbul Archaeological Museum .
= = Description = =
Despite its architectural prominence , very little is known of the church 's history and its precise architecture . Most of the information on the church 's original appearance is derived from the epigram in honour of Juliana and her family , which was inscribed in pieces in various parts of the church . The epigram claims that the church was laid out as a replica of the ancient Jewish Temple with the precise proportions given in the Bible for the Temple of Solomon , and using the royal cubit as a unit of measure , as in its model . Richard Martin Harrison , the site 's chief excavator , has reconstructed the church as a roughly square basilica , ca . 52 m long on the sides , with a central nave and two side aisles , fronted by a narthex and preceded by a large atrium of 26 m length . To the north of the atrium , remains of another building have been identified as either the church 's baptistery or Juliana 's palace . An oval substructure in the building 's center indicates the position of the ambon , while strong foundations throughout the building indicate , according to Harrison , the presence of a dome , bringing the estimated height of the building to over 30 m . The area of the altar was not sufficiently excavated , and its shape remains unknown . The possible presence of a dome , although not universally accepted , is of major importance , since it would mean that it was St. Polyeuctus , and not Justinian 's churches ( Saints Sergius and Bacchus and the Hagia Sophia ) , which first combined the traditional basilica with a dome . From the epigram , we know that the interior featured two storeys with colonnades and galleries . Based on the epigram and the substructures , Harrison also posited the existence of a pair of two @-@ storey exedrae , composed of three niches with a pier in between , on the northern and southern sides of the ambo . The spaces around the domed western bay would have been covered with barrel or cross @-@ vaults .
The interior decoration was extraordinarily rich . The walls were decorated with marble , the roof was gilded , while the narthex featured a depiction of the baptism of Constantine the Great . Fragments of ivory , amethyst , gold and colored glass , originally inlaid in the marble sculptures , have also been found at the site , as well as fragments of mosaics . The deliberate evocation of the Solomonic Temple was further reinforced by the preponderance of motifs such as palm trees , pomegranates and lilies in the church 's decoration . A notable characteristic , which has not been attested before in Constantinopolitan art and architecture , is the extensive use of Sassanid Persian decorative motifs such as friezes of running palmette and pomegranate leaves or symmetric geometric and vegetal patterns . Persian motifs became increasingly popular in the 6th century , and were also used in the decoration of the Hagia Sophia . Another exceptional find are ten relief plaques bearing the images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and the Apostles ; such images are very rare due to the destruction of human representations in the Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th centuries .
One of the largest decorative marble remains of the site is the niche @-@ head pieces . These massive pieces of marble consist of a concave segment with a large frontal peacock carved in the center , tail fanned out proud . The epigram runs along the semicircle of the carving . Surrounding the peacocks are the spandrels filled with grape vines and leaves . The inscription 's letters are raised 11 cm high , and surrounded by realistic grape vines . The detail involved in every individual leaf is remarkable . Each leaf has visible veins , some edges of the leaves are frayed and torn , and the artist even took the time to layer the design , pulling some leaves forward , and carving others in the background , giving the sense of depth . Martin Harrison notes that this workmanship is all done by the artist ’ s eye , and with no use of a constant measure , as indicated by the marks made by the chisel , minute irregularities , and slight bends in the lattice work . This area was originally painted in vibrant colors . The primary colors used were blues , greens , and some purples . These colors are difficult to find or make and show Anicia Juliana ’ s power in the decorative aspect of the structure . The background to vines and letters was a bright blue . The peacocks — associated with the goddess Hera and royalty in Antiquity and symbolizing renewal and rebirth for Christians — adorned with carved necklaces , were painted in blues , greens and gold . Due to the empty cavities in the eyes of the remaining bird head pieces , green glass was used for the pupils . They also held chains to suspend something . Connor suggests due to their location , a lamp is a believable use for the chains in their beaks .
= Rip Van Winkle ( 1910 film ) =
Rip Van Winkle is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is an adaptation of Washington Irving 's story of Rip Van Winkle with some differences in the plot . The film focuses on the title character whose idle life is made difficult by his cantankerous wife . Winkle heads into the mountains and encounters spirits of Henry Hudson 's men . Upon partaking of their alcohol , Winkle falls into a slumber for twenty years . He returns home and has difficulty proving his identity and must save his property from an unlawful accusation by his rival . After he proves his identity , he is reunited with his family . The title character was played by Frank H. Crane , but the production credits are largely unknown . The film was released on December 6 , 1910 , and met with positive reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from December 10 , 1910 . It states : " Rip Van Winkle , although a loving father to his little girl Meenie and a hail @-@ fellow @-@ well @-@ met with all of his fellow townsmen , is being constantly scolded by his wife for leading an idle and profitless existence . Rip is also fond of the bottle and spends a greater part of his time and money at the village tavern . Catching him entering the house late one night after a day 's carousing , his wife Gretchen becomes thoroughly angry with him and drives him from the house . In the face of a terrible storm with only his dog Schneider and his faithful rifle to protect him , Rip wanders toward the mountains . Here he comes across a band of gnomes who are supposed to be the spirits of Heinrich Hudson [ sic ] and his merry men who disappeared near the Catskill Mountains hundreds of years before , and had never been heard of since . The gnomes give Rip some magic schnapps to drink , and under its influence he goes to sleep for 20 years . When he awakes , he is an old man and in ragged clothes . His dog is dead , and his rifle has rusted away . He makes his way as best he can back to the village , and his own home . But there no one knows him . He finds his wife married to another man , his daughter grown to womanhood , and most of his old friends dead and gone . Rip , however , finally manages to prove his identity , and also to lay claim to his property , which has greatly increased in value during his sleep , in which he is just in time to save from being unlawfully confiscated by his old @-@ time enemy . Happily reunited to his family , Rip looks forward to his declining years with a spirit born of peace and solace . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Rip Van Winkle
Marie Eline
= = Production = =
The production and an adaptation of Washington Irving 's story of Rip Van Winkle . The stage adaptation was well @-@ known and the adaptation would be compared to Joseph Jefferson 's portrayal on the stage . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The adaptation differs from the original in some ways , including that Winkle 's cantankerous wife has remarried instead of died .
The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Sometimes the directional credit is given to Theodore Marston . The apparent origin of this error is from the American Film @-@ Index 1908 – 1915 . Film historian Q. David Bowers consulted one of the co @-@ authors of the book , Gunnar Lundquist , and confirmed that the credit of Marston was in error . Theodore Marston worked with Pathé , Kinemacolor , Vitagraph and other companies , but there is no record of Marston working with Thanhouser . This error has persisted in several works including The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film . The same work also credits Alphonse Ethier with a role , but this is not cited by Bowers .
The only known cast credits are for Frank H. Crane and Marie Eline . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list included G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on December 6 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters for the Thanhouser film include those in Pennsylvania , South Dakota , Kansas , and Indiana .
The film received positive reviews in trade publications . The Moving Picture World review said . " Probably the story of Rip Van Winkle as told by Washington Irving will always be a delight . Surely the Rip Van Winkle , as depicted by the late Joseph Jefferson , will linger long in the memory of those fortunate enough to have seen it . Unquestionably , however , the third in the list of delights is this film from Thanhouser which tells the story over again in much the same way that Jefferson told it . The Rip of Jefferson and the Rip of Irving are two different versions , though both do substantially the same things . ... It is a good piece of work from every standpoint . The actors have entered into the spirit of the story and have depicted it with close adherence to the facts as they are related in the original . The stage manager understood what was required to make the background appear natural , while the photographer handled the camera with full knowledge of the requirements . " The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer also agreed and commended the film by stating , " The Thanhouser Company has done very well with this old legend , paying particular attention to details . ... The acting is exceptionally good for a story representing that era of time , and the adaption is very clear to the spectator . "
= Willy Loman =
William " Willy " Loman is a fictional character and the protagonist of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman , which debuted on Broadway with Lee J. Cobb playing Loman at the Morosco Theatre on February 10 , 1949 . Loman is a 63 @-@ year @-@ old travelling salesman from Brooklyn with 34 years of experience with the same company who endures a pay cut and a firing during the play . He has difficulty dealing with his current state and has created a fantasy world to cope with his situation . This does not keep him from multiple suicide attempts .
= = Description = =
Willy Loman is an aging suburban Brooklyn , New York salesman whose less than spectacular career is on the decline . He has lost the youthful verve of his past and his camaraderie has faded away . His business knowledge is still at its peak , but without his youth and heartiness , he is no longer able to leverage his personality to get by . Time has caught up with him . The play presents Loman 's struggle " to maintain a foothold in the upward @-@ striving American middle class " while combating his own self @-@ doubt that plagues him in reminders from the past that his life rests on unsolid ground . According to Charles Isherwood , Loman is the play 's dominant character because " It is his losing battle against spiritual and economic defeat that provides the narrative spine of the play . " Loman is a symbolic representation of millions of white collar employees who outlived their corporate usefulness . He lives in a world with delusions about how popular , famous , influential and successful he is and about the prospects for the success of his sons . His wife not only allows these delusions , but also she buys into them , somewhat . His misplaced values of importance and popularity were shaken to the core by his declining ability to leverage those self @-@ perceived traits successfully as he grew older .
Loman 's world crumbles around him during the play . According to Associated Press correspondent Cynthia Lowry 's review of the drama , " we watched an aging , defeated traveling salesman move inexorably toward self @-@ destruction , clinging desperately to fantasies " . The play begins with the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Loman dealing with a recent paycut after 34 years on the job at a time when he is having difficulty meeting his financial responsibilities . In the second act , he deals with being fired . The firing was at the hands of the son of the person who had hired him 36 years prior . In the play , Loman reveals his past in scenes from his memory that the audience is challenged to judge for accuracy . Loman had succeeded in large part due to popularity , which is a value he attempted to instill in his sons .
Although the play was performed earlier in Philadelphia , the February 10 , 1949 Broadway opening is considered the debut and on February 11 , Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times said the following : " Mr. Cobb 's tragic portrait of the defeated salesman is acting of the first rank . Although it is familiar and folksy in the details , it has something of the grand manner in the big size and the deep tone . " While reviewing a touring production of Death of a Salesman , Los Angeles Times critic Laurie Winer described Loman as " ... the saddest , self @-@ centeredest soul in American drama , a character who will continue to haunt the landscape as long as there are fathers and sons . " United Press International critic Rick Du Brow described Loman as " ... the aging failure of a salesman who has wasted his life by living in a world of delusions and shallow values ... " Willie is described as a " suffering . . .middle @-@ aged man at the end of his emotional rope " . Lowry described the production as depicting " the end of a man when his dream world is shattered " .
Creator Arthur Miller described the role as one for a large character in a small physical body and noted he had difficulty finding the right actor at first . Loman 's Brooklyn accent is part of the challenge of the role . In 1950 , Miller described Loman as a man who upon hearing society 's " thundering command to succeed " found himself staring at a failure in the mirror . The Amazon.com editorial review by Ali Davis states that " Willy Loman is a salesman desperately hustling for a living even as he slides into old age . " Rovi Corporation 's Matthew Tobey describes him as an everyman who has to cope with the sudden realization that he is over the hill and does so with a fantasy world in which he remains important . The Huffington Post 's theater critic , Wilborn Hampton , describes the role as " one of the most complicated characters in dramatic literature " , making it a draw for the great actors .
The play is a statement on the idea that a man is valued by his position in life . Loman never matures enough to realize that being popular without any substance or skill is meaningless in the end and Miller uses Loman to make his point against the anti @-@ intellectualists . In the end , Loman gives way to the belief that his inability to be a successful man and father is condemning .
= = Family = =
The marriage is described as " symbolic " . Linda is a devoted wife who understands that he has issues . Linda has emotional scenes as she attempts to manage Willy 's emotional collapse and deals with her two adult sons whose lives have been wasted following the easy road of pursuing popularity as guided by their father . She breaks down as she confides in her sons about Willy 's disintegration and reveals his attempts at suicide .
Willy has always made the point to his sons that being popular and having contacts is the key to success . His older son , Biff , causes " old hopes and boiling resentments " to return by visiting home . Willy is loved by Biff , who nonetheless does not get along with him . Their relationship is the emotional lynchpin of the production . “ In fact , Willy 's logical mind becomes blind … ” Biff attempts to help his father see what has become of him . In the end , Biff decides that he must force his father to see the truth rather than his fanciful images , for his own good , regardless of its toll on his father . This is the emotional climax of the show as he bares his soul saying " Pop , I 'm nothing ! I 'm nothing , Pop ! Can 't you understand that ? There 's no spite in it any more . I 'm just what I am , that 's all . " At Willy 's funeral , Biff states that " He had the wrong dreams ... He never knew who he was . " .
Although his younger son , Happy , is self @-@ absorbed , he attempts to humor Willy . He views his Uncle Ben ( his father 's brother ) as his role model rather than his father because Ben went out to the world as a teenager and was rich by the age of 21 . He repeatedly reminds Willy of this . In the end , he is determined to not only adopt his father 's dream ( even when it killed him ) , but to surpass him as he states " It 's the only dream you can have -- to come out No. 1 man . "
= = Critical history = =
Loman is the central role of the only play that has won a Tony Award for Best Broadway Production four times ( Best Play , Best Revival and twice Best Revival of a Play ) .
Each of the four Broadway revivals has brought critical acclaim to the role . In addition , the role has been reprised in film with six English @-@ language film portrayals of this character , at least four of which received critical acclaim . Three actors have won Golden Globe Awards playing the role , two have won Drama Desk Awards playing the role and actors playing the role have also won a Primetime Emmy Award , a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Tony Award . The role has been nominated for an Oscar Award , a BAFTA Award , a Grammy Award , three Tony Awards and three Primetime Emmy Awards . At least two West End productions have earned Olivier Awards for this role .
Although Cobb did not earn critical acclaim when he originated the role , he did when he reprised it for television . Other actors who have played the role on Broadway or in English @-@ language cinema have almost all received critical acclaim . On Broadway , the role was reprised by George C. Scott ( 1975 , Tony nomination ) , Dustin Hoffman ( 1984 , Drama Desk award ) , Brian Dennehy ( 1999 , Tony and Drama Desk awards ) , and Philip Seymour Hoffman ( 2012 , Tony nomination ) . In cinema , the role has also been highly acclaimed : Fredric March ( 1951 , Golden Globe award and both Oscar and BAFTA nominations ) , Cobb ( 1966 , Emmy and Grammy nominations ) , Rod Steiger ( 1966 ) , D. Hoffman ( 1985 , Golden Globe and Emmy awards ) , Warren Mitchell ( 1996 ) and Dennehy ( 2000 , Golden Globe and SAG awards and Emmy nomination ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Fredric March won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama at the 9th Golden Globe Awards and was nominated for Academy Award for Best Actor at the 24th Academy Awards and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role ( Foreign ) at the 6th British Academy Film Awards .
Brian Dennehy won Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play at the 53rd Tony Awards in 1999 , while Philip Seymour Hoffman was nominated for the same award at the 66th Tony Awards in 2012 and George C. Scott was nominated for the award at the 30th Tony Awards in 1976 .
Dennehy also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film at the 58th Golden Globe Awards in 2001 and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie at the 7th Screen Actors Guild Awards in 2001 and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie at the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards in 2000 .
Dustin Hoffman and Brian Dennehy won Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play at the 1984 and 1999 Drama Desk Awards .
Hoffman also won both the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film at the 43rd Golden Globe Awards in 1986 and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie at the 38th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1986 .
Lee J. Cobb was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Drama at the 19th Primetime Emmy Awards as well as a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word , Documentary or Drama Recording at the 9th Grammy Awards in 1967 .
Warren Mitchell earned the Laurence Olivier Award for Actor of the Year in a Revival in 1979 for his West End theatre performance of the role . Dennehy earned a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in 2006 for his reprisal of the role in the West End .
= = = Commentary = = =
Time described Scott 's performance as " ... a performance of staggering impact .... When his head is bowed , it is not in resignation but rather like that of a bull bloodied by the picador yet ready to charge again . " Philip Seymour Hoffman 's performance came at a time when the Occupy Wall Street ongoings echoed the play while its actors could not afford the $ 120 ticket price . The March version of Loman presented him as a bit more of a lunatic than other versions .
= = Influences = =
Miller noted that although he wrote the play in 1947 and 1948 , the play grew out of his life experiences , that included his father losing everything in the 1929 stock market crash . Miller claims that the role was actually modeled on one of his uncles .
Dustin Hoffman says that the play was the first one he ever read and predated his interest in becoming an actor . He noted that the play resonated with him because his father was a travelling salesman and he had an older brother . Hoffman eventually played the role in a high @-@ school production . In 1965 , Hoffman served as the assistant director in an off @-@ Broadway revival of A View from the Bridge at the Sheridan Square Playhouse with a cast that included Robert Duvall and Jon Voight . The show 's director Ulu Grosbard suggested to Miller that Hoffman had the potential to make a great Willy Loman . Miller was unimpressed and later wrote that " My estimate of Grosbard all but collapsed as , observing Dustin Hoffman 's awkwardness and his big nose that never seemed to get unstuffy , I wondered how the poor fellow imagined himself a candidate for any kind of acting career . "
= 1979 FA Charity Shield =
The 1979 FA Charity Shield was the 57th Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League and FA Cup . It was held at Wembley Stadium on 11 August 1979 . The match was contested by Liverpool , champions of the 1978 – 79 Football League and Arsenal , who beat Manchester United in the final of the 1978 – 79 FA Cup . Watched by a crowd of 92 @,@ 800 , Liverpool won the match 3 – 1 .
This was Arsenal 's tenth Charity Shield appearance and Liverpool 's ninth . Arsenal made no changes to the first team which played in the FA Cup Final the previous season , whereas for Liverpool new signing Avi Cohen started on the bench . In the match Liverpool took the lead in the 38th minute when Terry McDermott scored past goalkeeper Pat Jennings . They extended their lead through Kenny Dalglish in the 63rd minute before McDermott added his second two minutes later . Alan Sunderland scored a consolation for Arsenal late on .
= = Background and pre @-@ match = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , and then by 1913 teams of amateur and professional players . In 1921 , it was played by the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time . This was the fifth year that Wembley Stadium played host to the Shield .
Liverpool qualified for the 1979 FA Charity Shield as winners of the previous season 's First Division . Under manager Bob Paisley , the team amassed a then @-@ record points total of 68 and conceded the fewest goals in a 42 @-@ game Football League season with 16 . The other Charity Shield place went to Arsenal who beat Manchester United to win the final of the 1978 – 79 FA Cup . Arsenal led the game 2 – 0 , but conceded twice late into the match before retaking the lead in the 89th minute ; the final score was 3 – 2 . The game is referred to as the " Five @-@ minute final " as three goals were scored in that time frame .
Liverpool had won three previous Shields outright ( 1966 , 1974 , 1976 ) , shared two with Manchester United ( 1965 and 1977 ) and one apiece with Everton ( 1986 ) and West Ham United ( 1964 ) . The club lost one Shield contest – against Leicester City in 1971 . This was Arsenal 's first appearance in the Charity Shield in 10 years ; prior to the game they had won seven Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 and 1953 ) , and lost two ( 1935 , 1936 ) . Before the match Paisley told reporters , " Basically it is a conditioning game , part of the process of getting the players fit " .
= = Match = =
Liverpool employed a traditional 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with David Johnson playing alongside Kenny Dalglish up front . Defender Avi Cohen was named on the substitutes ' bench , whereas Frank McGarvey – signed from St Mirren in the close season – was omitted from the matchday squad . Arsenal organised themselves similarly to their opponents and named an unchanged team from the one which won the FA Cup .
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool dominated the opening exchanges , but struggled to create clear @-@ cut chances . They almost went a goal behind when Frank Stapleton 's header forced goalkeeper Ray Clemence into action . Seven minutes before the interval , Terry McDermott scored for Liverpool . The midfielder collected a pass from Ray Kennedy who surged through the centre , turned left and from outside the penalty area struck the ball low into the bottom left @-@ hand corner . Arsenal began the second half with more vigour , but struggled to suppress Liverpool 's attacks . Alan Kennedy found space to shoot after a one @-@ two with Ray , but his effort went over the post . Arsenal were forced to make a substitution around the hour mark after Sammy Nelson collided with McDermott and was concussed ; Willie Young replaced him . Liverpool extended their lead minutes later . Alan Hansen intercepted an Arsenal attack , strode forward and passed the ball to Dalglish . The striker approached the penalty area , cut inside Steve Walford and curled the ball into the right @-@ hand corner . John Hollins came on for David Price , at which point Liverpool scored their third . Dalglish dispossessed Liam Brady , but tripped himself in the process . Johnson collected the ball and played it back to Dalglish , who charged forward and sprayed a pass towards McDermott , the furthest forward player on the right . The midfielder 's shot went under the legs of Pat Jennings and into the goal . Alan Sunderland scored a late goal for Arsenal having combined well with Stapleton . This did not dampen the spirits of the Liverpool spectators , who chanted , " What 's it like to be outclassed ? " and , " Why are we so great ? " during the course of the 90 minutes .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Liverpool 's performance was greeted with applause from both sets of supporters as Phil Thompson led his team up to the Royal Box to receive the Charity Shield . Paisley was delighted with the manner of his team 's win and quipped , " I am just sorry we didn 't get two points for it ! " He praised the Wembley surface and said of McDermott 's first goal " [ It ] captured what we are looking for – the run , the control and the finish were perfect . " Arsenal manager Terry Neill described the match as a " great advertisement for football " and felt his side contributed greatly in periods . Of his opponents , he said : " Liverpool are a smashing side and I don 't expect to meet anyone better this season . " Indeed , Liverpool went on to retain the First Division title , withstanding pressure from Manchester United and ending their league campaign on 60 points . Arsenal finished three places behind in fourth , and reached the finals of the FA Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , only to end the season empty @-@ handed .
= Crystal Palace F.C. =
Crystal Palace Football Club is an English professional football club based in South Norwood , London , that plays in the Premier League , the highest tier in English football .
The club was founded in 1905 at the famous Crystal Palace Exhibition building by the owners of the FA Cup Final stadium , who wanted their own team to play at the historic venue . Palace played their home games at the Cup Final venue until 1915 , but then the First World War forced them to move out and play at Herne Hill Velodrome and the Nest . In 1924 , they moved to their current home at Selhurst Park .
The club spent their early years playing in the Southern League , before joining the Football League in 1920 , and they became inaugural champions of the newly formed Third Division in 1920 @-@ 21 . Since 1964 , Palace have mostly played in the top two leagues of English football . Their best ever top flight season came in 1990 – 91 , when the club challenged for the league title , eventually finishing in third place in the top division , their highest league position to date . The club were denied a place in Europe at the end of that season due to the partial UEFA ban on English clubs caused by the Heysel Stadium disaster . Palace became founder members of the Premier League in 1992 . The club have been second tier champions twice and hold the record for the most play @-@ off wins for promotion to the top flight , winning the final four times . Palace have been FA Cup finalists twice in 1990 and 2016 , finishing as runners @-@ up to Manchester United on both occasions .
In 1973 , the club changed its original nickname from the Glaziers to the Eagles and introduced the red @-@ and @-@ blue vertical stripes now associated with the club . The club had previously played in claret and blue colours . Palace have rivalries with Brighton & Hove Albion , with whom they contest the M23 derby , and fellow South London club Millwall .
= = History = =
In 1895 , the Football Association had found a new permanent home for the FA Cup Final at the site of the famous Crystal Palace Exhibition building . Some years later the owners of the attraction , who were reliant on tourist activity for their income , sought fresh attractions for the venue , and decided to form their own football team to play at the Palace stadium . There had been an amateur Crystal Palace team as far back as 1861 , which was formed by workers from the exhibition building , but they had disappeared from historical records around 1876 . The owners of the venue wanted a professional club to play there and tap into the vast crowd potential of the area .
Crystal Palace Football Club , originally nicknamed " the Glaziers " , was formed on 10 September 1905 under the guidance of Aston Villa assistant secretary Edmund Goodman . The club applied to enter the Football League alongside Chelsea and Southampton , but was the only unsuccessful team of the three . The club instead found itself in the Southern League Second Division for the 1905 – 06 season . The club was successful in its inaugural season and was promoted to the First Division , crowned as champions . In their first season Crystal Palace also played in the mid @-@ week United Counties League , finishing runner @-@ up to Watford , and it was in this competition that the club played their first match , winning 3 – 0 away to New Brompton .
Palace remained in the Southern League up until 1914 , their one highlight the 1907 shock First Round victory over Newcastle United in the FA Cup . The outbreak of the First World War led to the Admiralty requisitioning the Crystal Palace and the club was forced to move to the home of West Norwood F.C. at Herne Hill Velodrome . Three years later the club moved again to the Nest due to the folding of Croydon Common F.C. The club joined the Football League Third Division in the 1920 – 21 season , finishing as champions and gaining promotion to the Second Division . During this period , Palace also won the London Challenge Cup three times in 1913 , 1914 , and 1921 . Palace moved to the purpose @-@ built stadium Selhurst Park in 1924 , the ground the club plays at today .
The opening fixture at Selhurst Park was against Sheffield Wednesday , Palace losing 0 – 1 in front of a crowd of 25 @,@ 000 . Finishing in twenty @-@ first position , the club was relegated to the Third Division South . Before the Second World War Palace made good efforts at promotion , never finishing outside the top half of the table and finishing second on three occasions . During the war years , the Football League was suspended , and the club won two Wartime Leagues , the South Regional League and the South ' D ' League . After the war , the club were less successful in the league , their highest position being seventh , and conversely on three occasions the club had to apply for re @-@ election . The club remained in Division Three South until 1957 – 58 . A league reorganisation would see clubs in the bottom half of the table merge with those in the bottom half of Division Three North to form a new Fourth Division . Palace finished fourteenth – just below the cut – and found itself in the basement of English football . Their stay proved brief . With Arthur Rowe appointed manager , the 1960 – 61 season saw Palace gain promotion . Palace also achieved distinction in 1962 when they played the great Real Madrid team of that era in a friendly match . This was the first time that the Spanish giants had played a match in London . Although Rowe then stepped down for health reasons towards the end of 1962 , the promotion proved a turning point in the club 's history . Dick Graham and then Bert Head guided the club to successive promotions in 1963 – 64 and 1968 – 69 , taking the club through the Second Division and into the heights of the First Division .
Palace stayed in the top flight from 1969 until 1973 , but then experienced great disappointment . Under the management of Malcolm Allison the club was relegated in consecutive seasons , finding itself back in Division Three for the 1974 – 75 season . It was under Allison that the club became nicknamed " the Eagles " and they enjoyed a run to the semi @-@ final of the 1975 @-@ 76 FA Cup , beating Leeds and Chelsea along the way . Allison was sacked at the end of the 1975 – 76 campaign , and it was under Terry Venables ' management that Palace were promoted in 1976 – 77 and again in 1978 – 79 , the latter saw the club crowned as Division Two champions . That team from 1979 was dubbed " The team of the Eighties " and were briefly top of the whole Football League in the early part of the 1979 – 1980 season , before financial difficulties suffered by the club caused the break up of that talented side , and this ultimately led to the club being unable to maintain their position in the top tier . They were relegated from the First Division in 1980 – 81 , coinciding with Ron Noades takeover of the club . Steve Coppell arrived as manager on 4 June 1984 , and under his stewardship and rebuilding the club achieved promotion via the play @-@ offs back to the First Division in 1988 – 89 . The club followed this up by reaching the 1990 FA Cup Final , drawing 3 – 3 with Manchester United in the first match but losing the replay 1 – 0 . The club built on the success of the previous season in 1990 – 91 by achieving its highest league finish of third place in the top division . Palace were denied a European place at the end of that season due to the partial UEFA ban on English clubs caused by the Heysel Stadium disaster . The club had also returned to Wembley to win the Full Members Cup . The club beat Everton 4 – 1 ( after extra time ) in the final . The following season saw star striker Ian Wright leave the club for Arsenal . Palace finished tenth , allowing the club to become a founder member of the FA Premier League in 1992 – 93 .
The club sold Mark Bright to Sheffield Wednesday the following season , but failed to rebuild the squad adequately , and Palace struggled to score throughout the season . The club found itself relegated with a total of 49 points , which is still a Premier League record for a relegated club . Steve Coppell resigned and Alan Smith , his assistant at the club , took over . His first season saw the club win the First Division title and gain promotion to the Premier League . Their stay on this occasion proved eventful . On 25 January 1995 , Palace played Manchester United at Selhurst Park in which Eric Cantona was sent off . He was taunted by Palace fan Matthew Simmons , and retaliated with a flying kick . Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in jail , reduced to 120 hours community service on appeal . Simmons was immediately banned from Selhurst Park , and found guilty on two charges of threatening Cantona . More was to follow in March , when Chris Armstrong was suspended by the FA for failing a drugs test . On the field , Alan Smith guided the club to the semi finals of both the FA Cup and the League Cup , but League form was a concern and Palace once again found itself relegated , finishing fourth from bottom as the Premier League reduced from 22 to 20 clubs .
Smith left the club and Steve Coppell returned as technical director in the summer of 1995 , and through a combination of the first @-@ team coaching of Ray Lewington and latterly Dave Bassett 's managership Palace reached the play @-@ offs . Palace lost the 1996 play off final in dramatic fashion , Steve Claridge scoring a last minute goal for Leicester City to win the tie 2 – 1 . The following season saw Coppell take charge as first @-@ team manager when Dave Bassett departed for Nottingham Forest in early 1997 The club was successful in the play @-@ offs at the second time of asking when the club defeated Sheffield United in the final at Wembley .
This stay in the Premier League was no more successful than the previous two , and in true yo @-@ yo club fashion the club was relegated back to the First Division for the 1998 – 99 season . The club competed in European competition during the summer when they played in the UEFA Intertoto Cup . Palace then went into administration in 1999 , when owner Mark Goldberg was unable to sustain his financial backing of the club . The club emerged from administration under the ownership of Simon Jordan , and Steve Coppell left the club , replaced by Alan Smith for a second time . The club were almost relegated in Jordan 's first season , in 2000 – 01 . Smith was sacked in April and Steve Kember managed to win the two remaining fixtures that would guarantee survival , Dougie Freedman scoring the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over Stockport County in the 87th minute on the final day of the season . Steve Bruce was appointed manager for the 2001 – 02 season . A good start to the season gave Palace hope for a promotion challenge , but Bruce attempted to walk out on the club after just four months at the helm to take charge of Birmingham City . After a short spell on ' gardening leave ' , Bruce was eventually allowed to join Birmingham , succeeded by Trevor Francis , who had ironically been his predecessor at the Midlands club .
Under Francis , Palace finished mid @-@ table for two successive seasons , and Francis left to be replaced by long @-@ serving coach Steve Kember . Kember guided Palace to victories in their opening three games of the 2003 – 04 First Division campaign , which put Palace at the top of the table , but he was sacked in November after a terrible loss of form saw the team slip towards the relegation zone . Iain Dowie was appointed manager and guided the club to the play @-@ offs , securing promotion with a 1 – 0 victory over West Ham . Again Palace could not maintain their footing in the top tier and were relegated on the last day of the season after drawing at local rivals Charlton Athletic .
Jordan was unable to put the club on a sound financial footing after 2008 , and in January 2010 the club was once again placed in administration , this time by a creditor . The Football League 's regulations saw the Eagles deducted ten points , and the administrators was forced to sell key players including Victor Moses and José Fonte . Neil Warnock had also departed as manager in the early part of 2010 . He had taken over as manager in 2007 , replacing Peter Taylor who had a brief spell as manager . Paul Hart took over as caretaker manager for the final weeks of the season . Survival in the Championship was only secured on the final day of the season after a memorable 2 – 2 draw at Sheffield Wednesday , which was itself relegated as a result .
During the close season CPFC 2010 , a consortium consisting of several wealthy fans successfully negotiated the purchase of the club . Led by Steve Parish , the vocal representative for a consortium of four that also included Stephen Browett , Jeremy Hosking and Martin Long . Crucially , CPFC 2010 also secured the freehold of the ground , the consortium paying tribute to a fans ' campaign which helped pressure Lloyds Bank into selling the ground back to the club . The consortium swiftly installed George Burley as the Eagles ' new manager . However a poor start to the season saw the club hovering around the bottom of the table by December . On 1 January 2011 , after a 3 – 0 defeat to Millwall , Burley was sacked and his assistant Dougie Freedman named caretaker manager . Freedman was appointed manager on a full @-@ time basis on 11 January 2011 . Palace moved up the table and by securing a 1 – 1 draw at Hull City on 30 April , the club was safe from relegation with one game of the season left . After another year and a half as manager , Freedman departed to manage Bolton Wanderers on 23 October 2012 .
In November 2012 , Ian Holloway became the club 's manager . He guided Palace to the Premier League after an 8 @-@ year absence by defeating Watford 1 – 0 in the Championship Play @-@ Off Final at the new Wembley . On 23 October 2013 , Holloway left his post as manager on mutual consent terms . This came after only managing one win in the first nine games of the 2013 – 14 season . Assistant manager Keith Millen was named caretaker manager while Palace searched for a new manager . On 23 November 2013 , former Stoke City boss Tony Pulis was confirmed as the new manager of Crystal Palace . On 19 April 2014 , Crystal Palace ensured they were mathematically safe from relegation from the Premier League for the first time in five attempts . Pulis resigned on 14 August 2014 , just two days before the start of the 2014 – 2015 season and was replaced by Neil Warnock who returned to the club for a second spell as manager . However , Warnock was sacked by the club at Christmas after a poor run of results . On 2 January 2015 , former Palace player Alan Pardew was confirmed as the new manager , signing a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with the club after a compensation package of £ 3 @.@ 5 million was agreed with Newcastle United . Two days later , in his first match in charge , Palace won 4 – 0 away to Conference club Dover Athletic in the third round of the FA Cup . Pardew then guided the club to comfortable mid @-@ table safety and a third consecutive season in the Premier League . During the following season , Pardew led Palace to their first FA Cup Final for twenty @-@ six years . Their opponents would be Manchester United again , who they lost to back in the 1990 final . But Palace would suffer disappointment again when they lost 2 @-@ 1 after extra time .
= = Colours and crest = =
When Crystal Palace were founded in 1905 , they turned to one of the biggest clubs in the country at the time , Aston Villa , to seek advice . Villa helped the club in a number of ways , not least by donating their kit . As a result , Palace 's colours were originally claret and blue shirts paired with white shorts , socks tending to be claret . They kept to this formula fairly consistently until 1938 . The 1937 – 38 strip saw them try vertical stripes of claret and blue on the jersey rather than the claret body and blue sleeves , but then in 1938 they abandoned the claret and blue and adopted white shirts and black shorts with matching socks . Although they returned to claret and blue from 1949 – 54 , the 1955 season saw them return to white and black , now using claret and blue as trim .
Variations on this theme lasted until 1963 when the club adopted the away strip of yellow jersey as the home colours . 1964 saw them adopt an all @-@ white strip modelled on Real Madrid whom the club had played recently in a friendly , before they returned to claret and blue jerseys with white shorts in 1966 . The club employed variations upon this theme up until Malcolm Allison 's arrival as manager in 1973 . Allison overhauled the club 's image , adopting red and blue vertical stripes for colours and kit , inspired by Barcelona and Levante . The club have played in variations of red and blue ever since , bar the centenary season of 2005 which saw them deploy a version of their 1971 – 72 claret , blue and white kit .
The club were relatively late in establishing a crest . Although the initials were embroidered onto the shirt from the 1935 – 36 season , a crest featuring the façade of the Crystal Palace did not appear until 1955 . This crest disappeared from the shirt in 1964 , and the team 's name appeared embroidered on shirts in 1967 – 72 . 1972 saw a round badge adopted with the club 's initials and nickname " the Glaziers " before Allison changed this too . The nickname became " the Eagles " , inspired by Portuguese club Benfica , and the badge adopted an eagle holding a ball . This emblem remained until 1987 when the club married the eagle with the Crystal Palace façade , and although updated in 1996 and again in 2013 the crest retains these features . Since mid @-@ 2010 , the club has made use of an American bald eagle , called Kayla , as the club mascot , with the bird flying from one end of the stadium to the other at every home game .
= = = Kit manufacturers and sponsors = = =
Since 2014 Crystal Palace 's kit has been manufactured by Macron . Previous manufacturers include Umbro ( 1975 – 77 ) , Admiral ( 1977 – 80 , 1987 – 88 , 2003 – 04 ) , Adidas ( 1980 – 83 , 1996 – 99 ) , Hummel ( 1984 – 87 ) , Bukta ( 1988 – 92 ) , Ribero ( 1992 – 94 ) Nutmeg ( 1994 – 96 ) , TFG Sports ( 1999 – 2001 ) Le Coq Sportif ( 2001 – 03 ) , Diadora ( 2004 – 07 ) , Errea ( 2007 – 09 ) , Nike ( 2009 – 12 ) , and Avec ( 2012 – 14 ) . The club 's shirts are currently sponsored by Mansion.com , and have previously been sponsored by Red Rose ( 1983 – 84 ) , Top Score ( 1985 – 86 ) , AVR ( 1986 – 87 ) , Andrew Copeland ( 1987 – 88 ) , Fly Virgin ( 1988 – 91 ) , Tulip Computers ( 1991 – 93 ) , TDK ( 1993 – 99 ) , Churchill Insurance ( 2000 – 06 ) , GAC Logistics ( 2006 – 14 ) , and Neteller ( 2014 – 15 ) .
= = Stadium = =
In 1905 , the owners of the FA Cup Final venue , the Crystal Palace Company wanted a professional club to play there and tap into the crowd potential of the area . A new club , Crystal Palace F.C. , was formed to use the stadium . When the First World War broke out the Palace and grounds were seized by the armed forces , and in 1915 the club were forced to move by the Admiralty . They found a temporary base at the Herne Hill Velodrome . Although other clubs had offered the use of their ground to Palace , the club felt it best to remain as close to their natural catchment area as possible . When Croydon Common F.C. were wound up in 1917 , the club took over their old stadium at the Nest , but in 1919 they began the purchase of the land on which they would build Selhurst Park , their current home .
Archibald Leitch , the renowned stadium architect , was employed to draw up plans , and the club constructed and completed the ground in time for the 1924 – 25 season . It remained relatively unchanged , with only the introduction of floodlights and maintenance and updating until 1969 when the Arthur Wait stand was constructed . The Main Stand became all @-@ seater in 1979 and more work followed in the 1980s when the Whitehorse Lane End was redeveloped to allow for a Sainsbury 's supermarket , club offices and a club shop . The Arthur Wait stand became all seater in 1990 , and in 1994 the Holmesdale Terrace was redeveloped , replaced with a two tier Stand . Selhurst 's attendance record was set in 1979 , with an official total of 51 @,@ 482 . After all the redevelopments to the ground and safety requirements due to the Taylor Report , the ground 's current capacity is 26 @,@ 309 . Proposals were put forward to move the club back to the Crystal Palace National Stadium in 2010 , but after the club gained promotion to the Premier League in 2013 there has been a renewed focus on redeveloping their current home into a 40 @,@ 000 seater stadium .
= = Support base = =
Crystal Palace have a fan base drawn predominantly from the local area which draws on South London , Kent and Surrey . The club 's original home , at the Crystal Palace , was on the boundary with Kent , while Selhurst Park was within Surrey 's borders until the London Government Act 1963 saw Greater London encompass Croydon . The club 's passionate support at home games emanates from the Holmesdale Road Stand , in which the ultras group the Holmesdale Fanatics have been based since 2005 . The fans have established at least two other supporters groups . The Palace Independent Supporters ' Association was set up to raise supporter concerns with the club , while the Crystal Palace Supporters ' Trust was originally established to enable fans to purchase the club during the administration of 2000 . The Trust remained in existence , and now lists one of its aims as building " a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art training ground to lease to the Club " .
A number of fanzines have been produced by the fans over the years . Eagle Eye launched in 1987 and ran until 1994 , with a number of contributors launching the replacement Palace Echo in 1995 , running until 2007 . The Eastern Eagles , So Glad You 're Mine and One More Point were also published by fans in the 1990s . When One More Point ceased publication , Five Year Plan launched in its place , and maintains an online presence . Supporters also congregate on two internet forums , The BBS and Holmesdale.net which the club use as channels to communicate with fans .
Being a London club means they compete against a number of other local clubs for the attention of supporters but the club does have a recognisably large catchment area of 900 @,@ 000 . When the new owners took control of the club in 2010 , they sought the fans ' input into future decisions . They consulted on a new badge design , and when their chosen designs were rejected the club instead opted for a design based on a fans ' idea from an internet forum . The club are also strengthening their ties with the local community , and through the Crystal Palace F.C. Foundation they work with local London boroughs of Croydon , Bromley and Sutton to provide sports and educational programmes . Through this work the club hope to develop their supporter base and geographical base . The Foundation 's work was recognised by the Football League in August 2009 with their Silver Standard Community Scheme Award .
The club also maintains a healthy celebrity support . Kevin Day and Jo Brand host an annual comedy night for Comic Relief and the Palace Academy , and the club also count fellow comedians Eddie Izzard , Harry Enfield , Sean Hughes , Mark Steel , Jim Piddock and Roy Hudd amongst their fans . The late Ronnie Corbett had also been a lifelong supporter of the club . The actor Neil Morrissey developed Palace Ale , a beer on sale in the ground , while actor Bill Nighy is patron of the CPSCC , a Crystal Palace @-@ based charity . Two of the stars of The Inbetweeners , James Buckley and Simon Bird are also Palace fans . Smooth Radio DJ David Kid Jensen is chairman of the Crystal Palace Vice Presidents Club and acted as spokesman for the CPFC 2010 consortium during their takeover bid for the club . Also , the heavy metal journalist Dave Ling is a passionate follower . Actor , writer and producer John Salthouse was on the books of Crystal Palace from 1968 to 1970 , and was also a mascot for the club as a child . He incorporated the club into his role as Tony in Abigail 's Party he was under the name of John Lewis at Palace . Susanna Reid revealed her love of Palace while taking part in Strictly Come Dancing , visiting Selhurst Park for inspiration . Rebecca Lowe , currently the host of Premier League coverage for NBC Sports , is also a supporter .
= = Rivalries = =
Because of their location in the capital , Crystal Palace are involved in a number of local derbies , mostly across South London . Their strongest rivalry in London is with Millwall . They also enjoy a smaller rivalry with former tenants Charlton Athletic . They have a fierce rivalry with Brighton & Hove Albion which did not develop until Palace 's relegation to the Third Division in 1974 , reaching its height when the two teams were drawn together in the first round of the 1976 – 77 FA Cup . The game went to two replays , but the controversy was based on referee Ron Challis ordering a successful Brighton penalty be retaken because of Palace player encroachment . The retake was saved , Palace won the game 1 – 0 and a fierce rivalry was born .
= = Ownership = =
Due to the Football League not wishing the owners of the FA Cup Final to also own a team , a separate company was established to found and own the team . The first chairman , Sydney Bourne , was found by club secretary Edmund Goodman after he had examined records of FA Cup Final ticket purchasers . Goodman noted his name as one that had bought a number of tickets every year , and so he met with Bourne and found him very agreeable to the idea of the new club . Bourne was invited onto the board of directors and elected chairman at the club 's first ever meeting . Bourne remained chairman until his death in 1930 .
Arthur Wait established a consortium of seven businessmen to purchase the club in 1949 , and initially they rotated the chairmanship . In 1958 Wait became the Chairman , before being replaced by Raymond Bloye in 1972 . Bloye 's ownership lasted until 26 January 1981 , when property developer Ron Noades and his small consortium took control of the club . Noades eventually sold the club to Mark Goldberg on 5 June 1998 , becoming the second longest serving chairman behind Sydney Bourne . Goldberg 's tenure of the club was not a success and the club entered administration in March 1999 . Although the fans established a group , the Crystal Palace Supporters ' Trust in a bid to gain control of the club , millionaire Simon Jordan negotiated a deal with creditors and the administrator , and a new company , CPFC 2000 took control . This company entered administration in January 2010 , leaving administration in June of that year after a takeover by a consortium of four wealthy fans , CPFC 2010 .
Crystal Palace F.C. is currently owned by CPFC 2010 Limited , a Private Limited Company registered at Company House . CPFC 2010 was established by a consortium of four businessmen , Steve Parish , Martin Long , Stephen Browett and Jeremy Hosking in 2010 , each owning a 25 % share of the company . The four successfully negotiated a take @-@ over with the administrator Brendan Guilfoyle and a company voluntary arrangement was formally accepted by company creditors on 20 August 2010 . CPFC 2010 also purchased the ground from Lloyds Bank after a demonstration by fans put pressure on the bank to agree terms .
On 18 December 2015 , it was announced that a new deal had been signed with American investors Josh Harris and David Blitzer . The club stated that Steve Parish would continue as chairman alongside Harris and Blitzer and that Browett , Long and Hosking would also retain a substantial investment .
= = Statistics and records = =
Jim Cannon holds the record for Crystal Palace appearances , having played 660 first @-@ team matches between 1973 and 1988 . He also holds the record for most League appearances , making 571 . Cannon joined the club as a trainee , and of his appearances only four of them were made as a substitute . His first appearance was made aged 19 , scoring in a home win against Chelsea on 31 March 1973 . Cannon 's last game was on 7 May 1988 , a home win against Manchester City . Peter Simpson holds the record for the most goals scored in a season , 54 in the 1930 – 31 season in Division Three ( South ) . Simpson , who signed for the club from Kettering Town , is also the top scorer over a career – 165 between 1929 and 1935 . He died in 1974 . Mile Jedinak holds the club record for most international caps , with 37 appearances for Australia while at Palace .
Crystal Palace hold a number of records and achievements . They are one of only a small group of clubs to have been inaugural champions of a Football League Division , winning the newly formed Third Division in 1920 – 21 . Their average league attendance of 19 @,@ 092 achieved in the 1960 – 61 season and the attendance of 37 @,@ 774 for the Good Friday game at Selhurst Park between Palace and Millwall the same season are Fourth Division attendance records . The club 's widest victory margin in the league was their 9 – 0 win against Barrow in the Fourth Division in 1959 , while their heaviest defeat in the league was by the same scoreline , 9 – 0 , against Liverpool in 1989 in Division One .
Palace 's record home attendance is 51 @,@ 482 for a Division Two match against Burnley , achieved on 11 May 1979 . With the introduction of regulations enforcing all @-@ seater stadiums , it is unlikely that this record will be beaten in the foreseeable future . The highest transfer fee received for a Palace player is £ 15 million , from Manchester United for Wilfried Zaha in January 2013 , while the highest transfer fee paid by the club to date was for Yohan Cabaye from Paris Saint @-@ Germain in July 2015 , thought to be around £ 13 million . The club 's highest ever league finish so far is third place in the Football League First Division which is now called the Premier League achieved in 1990 – 91 , under the management of Steve Coppell . The club have been FA Cup finalists twice in 1990 and 2016 , finishing runners @-@ up on both occasions and have also reached the semi @-@ final on two other occasions . Palace have reached the semi @-@ finals of the League Cup four times , most recently in 2012 . The club were winners of the Full Members Cup in 1990 – 91 .
Palace remain the only team ever to be relegated from the Premier League even though they finished 4th from bottom in the 1994 / 1995 season . This was because it had been decided that the following season would see the Premier League reduced from 22 teams down to the current standard of 20 . Palace also hold the record for relegations from the Premier League with a total of 4 , ( 1992 / 93 , 1994 / 95 , 1997 / 98 , 2004 / 05 ) , but conversely they also hold the record for most Play Off wins resulting in promotion to the Premier League amassing 4 Play Off victories , they also hold the record ( in any division ) for winning promotion at 4 different locations , ( Selhurst Park 1989 , Old Wembley 1997 , Millennium Stadium 2004 and New Wembley 2013 ) .
= = Players = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 1 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Development squad = = =
As of 3 June 2016 .
Crystal Palace Reserves joined the London League in the year 1906 – 07 . Crystal Palace has gained a reputation for their academy which produced players such as Wilfried Zaha , Nathaniel Clyne , Victor Moses , Wayne Routledge , Ben Watson , Clinton Morrison , Gareth Southgate etc .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Notable former players = =
Players with over 100 appearances for Crystal Palace can be found here
All past ( and present ) players who are the subjects of Wikipedia articles can be found here
= = = Crystal Palace " Centenary XI " = = =
To celebrate Crystal Palace 's centenary in 2005 , the club asked Palace fans to vote for a " Centenary XI " from a shortlist of ten players per position , provided by the club .
Nigel Martyn ( 1989 – 96 )
Paul Hinshelwood ( 1974 – 83 )
Chris Coleman ( 1991 – 95 )
Jim Cannon ( 1972 – 88 )
Kenny Sansom ( 1975 – 80 )
John Salako ( 1986 – 95 )
Geoff Thomas ( 1987 – 93 )
Andy Gray ( 1984 – 87 @,@ 1989 – 92 )
Attilio Lombardo ( 1997 – 99 )
Andrew Johnson ( 2002 – 06 , 2014 )
Ian Wright ( 1985 – 91 )
= = = Player of the Year = = =
= = Club staff = =
= = Managers = =
As of matches played 22 May 2016 . Not including caretaker managers . All competitive matches are counted .
= = Honours = =
Crystal Palace 's honours and achievements include the following ;
= = = League = = =
English top tier ( currently the Premier League )
Highest position : 3rd place 1990 – 91
English second tier ( currently the Football League Championship )
Champions ( 2 ) : 1978 – 79 , 1993 – 94
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1968 – 69
Play @-@ off winners ( 4 ) : 1988 – 89 , 1996 – 97 , 2003 – 04 , 2012 – 13
Play @-@ off runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1995 – 96
English third tier ( currently Football League One )
Champions ( 1 ) : 1920 – 21
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1928 – 29 , 1930 – 31 ( Third Division South ) , 1938 – 39 ( Third Division South ) , 1963 – 64
English fourth tier ( currently Football League Two )
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1960 – 61
= = = Cup = = =
FA Cup
Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2016
Full Members CupWinners ( 1 ) : 1990 – 91
= = = Wartime = = =
South Regional League
Champions ( 1 ) : 1940 – 41
South ' D ' Wartime League
Champions ( 1 ) : 1939 – 40
= = = Regional = = =
Southern Football League Division One
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1913 – 14
Southern Football League Division Two
Champions ( 1 ) : 1905 – 06
United LeagueChampions ( 1 ) : 1906 – 07
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1905 – 06
London Challenge CupWinners ( 3 ) : 1912 – 13 , 1913 – 14 , 1920 – 21
Surrey Senior CupWinners ( 3 ) : 1996 – 97 , 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02
= = In popular culture = =
In the 1999 Michael Winterbottom film Wonderland the scenes of the character Dan and his son at a football match were filmed at Selhurst Park , the ground of Crystal Palace in a 1 – 1 draw against Birmingham City on 6 February 1999 . In the Mike Leigh play Abigail 's Party , the character Tony mentions that he used to play professionally for Crystal Palace but it " didn 't work out " , something actor John Salthouse brought to the character in rehearsals based on his own life . Salthouse also incorporated the club into the children 's television series he wrote , Hero to Zero , in which the father of the main character once played for Palace reserves . In the first series of Only Fools and Horses a Crystal Palace scarf could be seen on the coat rack , placed there by producer Ray Butt . Headmaster Keith Blackwell , who played Crystal Palace mascot " Pete the Eagle " in the late nineties fronted a series of Coca @-@ Cola advertisements in 1996 . Blackwell spoke about his role and the embarrassment it brought to his family , and clips of him in costume were used in the campaign .
= = Crystal Palace Ladies = =
Crystal Palace Ladies is the women 's football club affiliated to Crystal Palace , founded in 1992 . They are managed by Ian Jackson . Crystal Palace LFC compete in the Women 's South East Combination League , in the third tier of English women 's football . They play their home games at the Hayes Lane , Bromley , London .
Their kits are sponsored by the insurance broker Lark ( Group ) Limited .
= Tintin in Tibet =
Tintin in Tibet ( French : Tintin au Tibet ) is the twentieth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . It was serialised weekly from September 1958 to November 1959 in Tintin magazine and published as a book in 1960 . Hergé considered it his favourite Tintin adventure and an emotional effort , as he created it while suffering from traumatic nightmares and a personal conflict while deciding to leave his wife of three decades for a younger woman . The story tells of the young reporter Tintin in search of his friend Chang Chong @-@ Chen , who the authorities claim has died in a plane crash in the Himalayas . Convinced that Chang has survived , Tintin leads his companions across the Himalayas to the plateau of Tibet , along the way encountering the mysterious Yeti .
Following The Red Sea Sharks ( 1958 ) and its large number of characters , Tintin in Tibet differs from other stories in the series in that it features only a few familiar characters and is also Hergé 's only adventure not to pit Tintin against an antagonist . Themes in Hergé 's story include extrasensory perception , the mysticism of Tibetan Buddhism , and friendship . Tintin in Tibet has been translated into 32 languages , is highly regarded by critics , and has been praised by the Dalai Lama , who awarded it the Light of Truth Award . The story was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion ; the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Tintin in Tibet was adapted for television , radio , documentary , theatre , and a video game , and has been the subject of a museum exhibition .
= = Synopsis = =
While on holiday at a resort in the French Alps with Snowy , Captain Haddock , and Professor Calculus , Tintin reads about a plane crash in the Gosain Than Massif in the Himalayas of Tibet . He then has a vision of his friend Chang Chong @-@ Chen , badly injured and calling for help from the wreckage of the crashed plane . Tintin confirms that Chang was aboard the plane and , convinced of his survival , flies to Kathmandu with Snowy and a sceptical Captain Haddock . They hire a Sherpa named Tharkey and , accompanied by porters , travel overland from Nepal towards the crash site .
The porters abandon the group in fear when mysterious tracks are found , while Tintin , Haddock and Tharkey go on and eventually reach the crash site . Tintin sets off with Snowy to trace Chang 's steps , and finds a cave where Chang has carved his name on a rock . On leaving the cave , he encounters a snowstorm and glimpses what seems to be a human silhouette . Tharkey believes that Tintin saw the Yeti and convinces him to abandon his friend and return with him to Nepal , since the area is too large to search . Tintin spots a scarf on a cliff face , concludes Chang is nearby , and continues with only the Captain . While attempting to scale a cliff face , Haddock slips and hangs out of reach , imperilling Tintin , who is tied to him . He tells Tintin to cut the rope to save himself , but Tintin refuses . Haddock tries to cut it himself , but drops his knife , alerting Tharkey , who has returned in time to rescue them . They try to camp for the night but lose their tent and must trek onwards , unable to sleep lest they freeze , arriving within sight of the Buddhist monastery of Khor @-@ Biyong before being caught in an avalanche .
Blessed Lightning , a monk at the monastery , has a vision of Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Tharkey in danger . Tintin regains consciousness and , too weak to walk , gives Snowy a note to deliver . Snowy runs to the monastery , loses the message , but is recognised as the dog from Blessed Lightning 's vision . Tintin , Haddock and Tharkey regain consciousness in the monastery and are brought before the Grand Abbot . The Abbot tells Tintin to abandon his quest , but Blessed Lightning has another vision , through which Tintin learns that Chang is still alive inside a mountain cave at the Horn of the Yak — and that the Yeti is also there . Tintin and Haddock travel on to the Horn of the Yak .
They arrive at a cave . Tintin ventures inside and finds Chang , who is feverish and shaking . The Yeti suddenly appears , revealed as a large anthropoid , reacting with anger at Tintin 's attempt to take Chang . As it lunges at Tintin , the flash bulb of Tintin 's camera accidentally goes off , and scares the Yeti away . Chang tells Tintin that the Yeti saved his life after the crash . Upon returning to inhabited lands , the friends are surprised to be met by the Grand Abbot , who presents Tintin with a silk scarf in honour of the bravery he has shown for his friend Chang . As the party travels home , Chang muses that the Yeti is not a wild animal , but has a human soul . The Yeti sadly watches their departure from a distance .
= = History = =
= = = Background and early ideas = = =
In October 1957 , Hergé sent his publisher , Casterman , the cover of his completed nineteenth Tintin adventure , The Red Sea Sharks , and for several weeks considered plot ideas for his next story . Fondly recalling the Scouting days of his youth , his first idea was to send Tintin back to the United States , as in the third adventure , Tintin in America , to help a group of Native Americans defend their land from a large corporation that wished to drill for oil ; on reflection , Hergé came to believe that retracing old ground would be a step backwards . Another idea had Tintin striving to prove that Haddock 's butler Nestor was framed for a crime committed by his old employers , the Bird brothers . He dismissed this as well , but kept the idea of an adventure with no guns or violence . This was to become the only Tintin story without an antagonist . A third idea sent Tintin and Professor Calculus to a snow @-@ covered polar region , where a stranded group of explorers need Calculus to save them from food poisoning . He abandoned this plot as well , but kept the setting in a snowy environment and decided to focus , not on Calculus , but on his main character Tintin .
A collaborator of Hergé 's , Jacques Van Melkebeke , had suggested in 1954 having a story set in Tibet , likely influenced by the play he adapted for Hergé in the 1940s , M. Boullock a disparu ( Mr. Boullock 's Disappearance ) . Bernard Heuvelmans , a cryptozoologist who had helped Hergé envision lunar exploration for the two @-@ part Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon , had given him a copy of his book Sur la piste des bêtes ignorées ( On the Trail of Unknown Animals ) in 1955 , inscribing on the inside the suggestion that one day Tintin should meet the Yeti . By 1958 , Hergé decided that Tibet would be the setting of Tintin 's next Adventure . Initial ideas for the title were Le museau de la vache ( The Cow 's Snout ) , Le museau de l 'ours ( The Bear 's Snout ) , and Le museau du yak ( The Yak 's Snout ) , all of which refer to the mountain in the latter part of the story . Although it was initially claimed that " market research " chose the title Tintin in Tibet suggesting sales would be better if the book used Tintin 's name in the title , entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson suggested " the title reflected the solo nature of [ Tintin 's ] undertaking . "
= = = Hergé 's psychological issues = = =
Hergé reached a particularly traumatic period in his life and suffered a mental breakdown . In 1956 , he realised that he had fallen out of love with his wife Germaine , whom he had married in 1932 , and by 1958 , he and Fanny Vlaminck , a colourist at Studios Hergé twenty @-@ eight years his junior , had developed a deep mutual attraction . They began courting ; Hergé 's new companion lifted his morale and shared many of his interests . Germaine soon began interfering with the courtship , causing Hergé to admit his desire had been to maintain a relationship with both women . When he failed to please either , he began to contemplate divorcing Germaine to marry Fanny . His Catholic upbringing and Boy Scout ethic caused him to feel tremendous guilt . As he later related to interviewer Numa Sadoul :
" It meant turning upside down all my values — what a shock ! This was a serious moral crisis : I was married , and I loved someone else ; life seemed impossible with my wife , but on the other hand I had this scout @-@ like idea of giving my word for ever . It was a real catastrophe . I was completely torn up . "
During this period , Hergé had recurrent nightmares where he faced images of what he described as " the beauty and cruelty of white " — visions of white and snow that he could not explain . As he later told Sadoul :
" At the time , I was going through a time of real crisis and my dreams were nearly always white dreams . And they were extremely distressing . I took note of them and remember one where I was in a kind of tower made up of a series of ramps . Dead leaves were falling and covering everything . At a particular moment , in an immaculately white alcove , a white skeleton appeared that tried to catch me . And then instantly everything around me became white . "
At the advice of his former editor Raymond de Becker , Hergé travelled to Zürich to consult the Swiss psychoanalyst Franz Riklin , a student of Carl Jung , to decipher his disturbing dreams . Riklin latched on to the " quest for purity " that featured so prominently in Hergé 's dreams , and ultimately in Tintin in Tibet . He told the author that he must destroy " the demon of purity " in his mind as soon as possible : " I do not want to discourage you , but you will never reach the goal of your work . It comes to one or the other : you must overcome your crisis , or continue your work . But , in your place , I would stop immediately ! "
Although Hergé was tempted to abandon Tintin at Riklin 's suggestion , devoting himself instead to his hobby of abstract art , he felt that doing so would be an acceptance of failure . In the end , he left his wife so that he could marry Fanny Vlaminck , and continued work on Tintin in Tibet , trusting that completing the book would exorcise the demons he felt possessed him . " It was a brave decision , and a good one " , said reporter and British Tintin expert Michael Farr . " Few problems , psychological included , are solved by abandoning them . " Thompson noted , " It was ironic , but not perhaps unpredictable , that faced with the moral dilemma posed by Riklin , Hergé chose to keep his Scout 's word of honour to Tintin , but not to Germaine . " Belgian Tintin expert Philippe Goddin summarised : " [ Hergé ] sought to regain a lost equilibrium , that he imposes on his hero a desire to seek purity ... considering it necessary for Tintin to go through the intimate experience of distress and loneliness ... and discover himself . "
= = = Influences = = =
In creating Tintin in Tibet , Hergé drew upon a range of influences . Setting it in the Himalayas , a snow @-@ covered environment , followed his recurring dreams of whiteness and his need to create an adventure that " must be a solo voyage of redemption " from the " whiteness of guilt " . The idea of a solo voyage led to Tintin being accompanied only by Snowy , their guide , and a reluctant Haddock — who supplies the needed counterpoint and humour .
While considering the character of Chang , absent since The Blue Lotus , Hergé thought of his artistic Chinese friend Zhang Chongren , whom he had not seen since the days of their friendship over twenty years earlier . Hergé and Zhang used to spend every Sunday together , during which Hergé learned much about Chinese culture for his work on The Blue Lotus . Later , Zhang moved back to his homeland and Hergé lost contact with his friend after the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 . Hergé felt Chang and Tintin must be reunited , just as he hoped to see his friend again some day .
Hergé read a variety of books about Tibet for this project : Fosco Maraini 's Secret Tibet , Heinrich Harrer 's Seven Years in Tibet , Tsewang Pemba 's Tibet my Homeland , Maurice Herzog 's Annapurna , discredited author Lobsang Rampa 's The Third Eye , and the books of Belgian explorer and spiritualist Alexandra David @-@ Néel . Hergé visited the Belgian Alpine Society to examine their photographic collection of the Himalayas , and they sent him photographer Richard Lannoy 's work on India . Models for drawings such as of monks with musical instruments , Sherpas with backpacks , and the aircraft wreckage came from clippings Hergé had collected from sources such as National Geographic . Members of the Studios helped him gather other source material ; for instance , collaborator Jacques Martin researched and drew the story 's costumes .
To learn about the Yeti , which he depicted as a benevolent creature , Hergé contacted his friend Bernard Heuvelmans , the author of On the Trail of Unknown Animals . After re @-@ reading Heuvelmans ' description of the Yeti , Hergé went on to research the cryptid species as much as possible . Hergé interviewed mountaineers , including Herzog , who had spotted the tracks of what he believed was an enormous biped that stopped at the foot of a rock face on Annapurna . The creature 's care for the starving Chang derives from a Sherpa account of a Yeti that rescued a little girl in similar circumstances . Another influence came from Fanny Vlaminck , who was interested in extrasensory perception and the mysticism of Tibetan Buddhism , prominent themes in the story that also fascinated Hergé .
= = = Publication = = =
Studios Hergé serialised Tintin in Tibet weekly from September 1958 to November 1959 , two pages per week , in Tintin magazine . Because of his desire for accuracy , Hergé added the logo of Air India to the airliner crash debris . A representative of Air India complained to Hergé about the adverse publicity the airline might suffer , arguing , " It 's scandalous , none of our aircraft has ever crashed ; you have done us a considerable wrong . " Air India had cooperated with Hergé , aiding his research by providing him reading material , contemporary photographs , and film footage of India and Nepal , particularly Delhi and Kathmandu . While the crashed aircraft 's tail number remained " VT " , the country code for Indian aircraft , Hergé agreed to change the airline logo in the published edition to the fictional Sari @-@ Airways , dryly noting that there were so many Indian airlines it was possible that there really was a Sari @-@ Airways .
While developing the story , members of the Studios confronted Hergé with concerns about elements of Tintin in Tibet . Bob de Moor feared the scene in which Haddock crashes into a stupa was disrespectful to Buddhists . Jacques van Melkebeke suggested that the Yeti not be depicted to create a sense of enigma ; Hergé disagreed , believing that it would disappoint his child readers .
After the serial concluded , Hergé worked with his publisher , Casterman , to produce the work in book form . Hergé 's original design for the front cover featured Tintin and his expedition standing on a backdrop of pure white . Casterman deemed it too abstract , so Hergé added a mountain range at the top ; biographer Benoît Peeters expressed that in doing so , the image was deprived of some of its " strength and originality " .
During production , Hergé kept abreast of the turbulent political developments in Tibet . In March 1959 , Tibet 's foremost political and spiritual leader , the Dalai Lama , fled the region into self @-@ imposed exile in India following disagreements with China 's governing Communist Party . In May 2001 , when Tintin in Tibet was published in the People 's Republic of China , state authorities renamed it Tintin in Chinese Tibet . When Casterman and the Hergé Foundation protested , the authorities restored the book 's original title .
= = Reception = =
Hergé came to see Tintin in Tibet as his favourite volume in The Adventures of Tintin . He thought it an ode to friendship , composed " under the double sign of tenacity and friendship " . " It 's a story of friendship " , Hergé said about his book years later , " the way people say , ' It 's a love story . ' "
= = = Critical analysis = = =
Tintin in Tibet is well received by critics from the comics and literary fields . Farr calls it " exceptional in many respects , standing out among the twenty @-@ three completed Tintin adventures ... an assertion of the incorruptible value of bonds of friendship . " Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier laud it as " the ultimate Tintin book " , reaching " a degree of perfection , both in its story and in its stunning art , that has rarely been equaled , before or since " and " arguably the best book in the series " . They detail the story 's many emotional moments : Haddock 's willingness to sacrifice his life for Tintin 's , Tharkey 's return , the tearful reunion of Tintin and his starving friend Chang , the reverence paid to Tintin by the Grand Abbot and the monks , and the Yeti 's sadness while watching the departure of his only friend . " For a comic book to handle such powerful emotions , convey them to the readers , and make them feel what the characters are feeling is a rare and precious achievement . " Thompson calls it " a book of overwhelming whiteness and purity " , saying that the " intensely personal nature of the story made this Hergé 's favourite Tintin adventure " , adding that if readers wonder whether " the enormous weight [ was ] lifted from Hergé 's shoulders , [ this ] can be seen in his next book , The Castafiore Emerald , a masterpiece of relaxation . " As Tintin in Tibet was translated into 32 languages , Donald Lopez , professor of Buddhist and Tibetan studies , calls it the " largest selling book about Tibet . "
Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès , in a psychoanalytical analysis of Tintin in Tibet , observes that Tintin is more firmly in control of the plot than he was in earlier adventures . Apostolidès notes that the character displays worry and emotion not present previously , something he suggested showed Tintin sorting out the problems that he faced in life . In his analysis , he calls Tintin a " foundling " and his friend Chang " the lost child " and " Tintin 's twin ... the heroes have to struggle to great heights to escape the temporality and pervasive values of [ the ] universe . " He saw the Yeti , who " internalises certain human characteristics " , as more complex than Hergé 's previous bestial character , Ranko in The Black Island : " The monster loves Chang with a love as unconditional as Tintin 's love for his friend . "
The literary analysis of Tom McCarthy compares Tintin 's quest to Hergé 's conquest of his own fear and guilt , writing , " this is the moira of Hergé 's own white mythology , his anaemic destiny : to become Sarrasine to Tintin 's la Zambinella . " McCarthy suggested the " icy , white expanses of Hergé 's nightmares [ may ] really have their analogue in his own hero " , especially as " Tintin represents an unattainable goal of goodness , cleanness , authenticity . "
Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline opines that the work is " a portrait of the artist at a turning point " in his life . He believes that it " stands alone " in The Adventures of Tintin due to its lack of antagonist and few characters , describing it as " a spiritual quest " where the " only conflict is between man and nature ... [ Hergé ] put the best of himself into Tintin in Tibet . " Referring to its " stripped @-@ bare story and archetypal clarity " , Benoît Peeters believes Tintin in Tibet to be one of the two " pivotal " books in the series , alongside The Blue Lotus , and deems it poignant that Chang features in both . He also suggests that Hergé included the benevolent Yeti to " make up for the interminable massacre " of animals in the second Tintin adventure , Tintin in the Congo , and that the sadness the Yeti experienced at the story 's end reflected Hergé 's feelings about his separation from Germaine . Peeters concluded , " Even more than Art Spiegelman 's Maus , Tintin in Tibet is perhaps the most moving book in the history of the comic strip . "
= = = Awards = = =
At a ceremony in Brussels on 1 June 2006 , the Dalai Lama bestowed the International Campaign for Tibet ( ICT ) ' s Light of Truth Award upon the Hergé Foundation in recognition of Tintin in Tibet , which introduced the region to audiences across the globe . ICT executive director Tsering Jampa said , " For many , Hergé 's depiction of Tibet was their introduction to the awe @-@ inspiring landscape and culture of Tibet . " During the ceremony , copies of Tintin in Tibet in the Esperanto language ( Tinĉjo en Tibeto ) were distributed . Accepting the award for the foundation , Hergé 's widow Fanny Rodwell said , " We never thought that this story of friendship would have a resonance more than 40 years later " .
= = Adaptations = =
Eight years after Hergé 's death , Tintin in Tibet was adapted into an episode of The Adventures of Tintin ( 1991 – 92 ) , a television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . The episode was directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , with Thierry Wermuth voicing Tintin . Tintin in Tibet was also a 1992 episode of the BBC Radio 4 series The Adventures of Tintin , in which Richard Pearce voiced Tintin . The book became a video game for the PC and Game Boy in 1995 .
Tintin and I ( 2003 ) , a documentary by Danish director Anders Høgsbro Østergaard based on Numa Sadoul 's 1971 interview with Hergé , includes restored portions of the interview that Hergé had heavily edited and rewritten in Sadoul 's book . With full access to the audio recordings , the filmmaker explored the personal issues that the author had
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( 76 m ) . The only exception to this was a " Discovery " claim , the first to be made on a creek , which could be 500 feet ( 150 m ) long . The exact lengths of claims were often challenged and when the government surveyor William Ogilvie conducted surveys to settle disputes , he found some claims exceeded the official limit . The excess fractions of land then became available as claims and were sometimes quite valuable .
Claims could be bought , however , their price depended on whether they had been yet proved to contain gold . A prospector with capital might consider taking a risk on an " unproved " claim on one of the better creeks for $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) ; a wealthier miner could buy a " proved " mine for $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 40 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . The well known claim eight on Eldorado Creek was sold for as much as $ 350 @,@ 000 ( $ 280 million ) . Prospectors were also allowed to hire others to work for them , either on their first claim or on later purchases . Enterprising miners such as Alex McDonald set about amassing mines and employees . Leveraging his acquisitions with short term loans , by the autumn of 1897 McDonald had purchased 28 claims , estimated to be worth millions . Swiftwater Bill Gates famously borrowed heavily against his claim on the Eldorado creek , relying on hired hands to mine the gold to keep up his interest payments .
The less fortunate or less well funded prospectors rapidly found themselves destitute . Some chose to sell their equipment and return south . Others took jobs as manual workers , either in mines or in Dawson ; the typical daily pay of $ 15 ( $ 410 ) was high by external standards , but low compared to the cost of living in the Klondike . The possibility that a new creek might suddenly produce gold , however , continued to tempt poorer prospectors . Smaller stampedes around the Klondike continued throughout the gold rush , when rumours of new strikes would cause a small mob to descend on fresh sites , hoping to be able to stake out a high value claim .
= = Life in the Klondike = =
The massive influx of prospectors drove the formation of boom towns along the routes of the stampede , with Dawson City in the Klondike the largest . The new towns were crowded , often chaotic and many disappeared just as soon as they came . Most stampeders were men but women also travelled to the region , typically as the wife of a prospector . Some women entertained in gambling and dance halls built by business men and women who were encouraged by the lavish spending of successful miners .
Dawson remained relatively lawful , protected by the Canadian NWMP , which meant that gambling and prostitution were accepted while robbery and murder were kept low . By contrast , especially the port of Skagway under US jurisdiction in Southeast Alaska became infamous for its criminal underworld . The extreme climate and remoteness of the region in general meant that supplies and communication with the outside world including news and mail were scarce .
= = = Boom towns = = =
The ports of Dyea and Skagway , through which most of the prospectors entered , were tiny settlements before the gold rush , each consisting of only one log cabin . Because there were no docking facilities , ships had to unload their cargo directly onto the beach , where people tried to move their goods before high tide . Inevitably cargos were smashed , stolen or lost in the process . Some travellers had arrived intending to supply goods and services to the would @-@ be miners ; some of these in turn , realizing how difficult it would be to reach Dawson , chose to do the same . Within weeks , storehouses , saloons , and offices lined the muddy streets of Dyea and Skagway , surrounded by tents and hovels .
Skagway became famous in international media ; the author John Muir described the town as " a nest of ants taken into a strange country and stirred up by a stick " . While Dyea remained a transit point throughout the winter , Skagway began to take on a more permanent character . Skagway also built wharves out into the bay in order to attract a greater share of the prospectors . The town was effectively lawless , dominated by drinking , gunfire and prostitution . The visiting NWMP Superintendent Sam Steele noted that it was " little better than a hell on earth ... about the roughest place in the world " . Nonetheless , by the summer of 1898 , with a population — including migrants — of between 15 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 , Skagway was the largest city in Alaska .
In late summer 1897 Skagway and Dyea fell under the control of Jefferson Randolph " Soapy " Smith and his men , who arrived from Seattle shortly after Skagway began to expand . He was an American confidence man whose gang , 200 to 300 strong , cheated and stole from the prospectors travelling through the region . He maintained the illusion of being an upstanding member of the community , opening three saloons as well as creating fake businesses to assist in his operations . One of his scams was a fake telegraph office charging to send messages all over the US and Canada , often pretending to receive a reply . Opposition to Smith steadily grew and , after weeks of vigilante activity , he was killed in Skagway during the shootout on Juneau Wharf on July 8 , 1898 .
Other towns also boomed . Wrangell , port of the Stikine route and boom town from earlier gold rushes , increased in size again , with robberies , gambling and nude female dancing commonplace . Valdez , formed on the Gulf of Alaska during the attempt to create the " All @-@ American " route to the Klondike during the winter of 1897 – 1898 , became a tent city of people who stayed behind to supply the ill @-@ fated attempts to reach the interior . Edmonton in Canada increased from a population of 1 @,@ 200 before the gold rush to 4 @,@ 000 during 1898 . Beyond the immediate region , cities such as San Francisco , Seattle , Tacoma , Portland , Vancouver and Victoria all saw their populations soar as a result of the stampede and the trade it brought along .
= = = Dawson City = = =
Dawson City was created in the early days of the Klondike gold rush , when prospector Joe Ladue and shopkeeper Arthur Harper decided to make a profit from the influx to the Klondike . The two men bought 178 acres ( 72 ha ) of the mudflats at the junction of the Klondike and Yukon rivers from the government and laid out the street plan for a new town , bringing in timber and other supplies to sell to the migrants . The Hän village of Tr 'ochëk along Deer Creek was considered to be too close to the new town , and the NWMP Superintendent Charles Constantine moved its inhabitants 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) down @-@ river to a small reserve . The town , in the beginning simply known as " Harper and Ladue town site " , was named Dawson City after the director of Canada 's Geographical Survey . It grew rapidly to hold 500 people by the winter of 1896 , with plots of land selling for $ 500 ( $ 400 @,@ 000 ) each .
In the spring of 1898 , Dawson 's population rose further to 30 @,@ 000 as stampeders arrived over the passes . The centre of the town , Front Street , was lined with hastily built buildings and warehouses , together with log cabins and tents spreading out across the rest of the settlement . There was no running water or sewerage , and only two springs for drinking water to supplement the increasingly polluted river . In spring , the unpaved streets were churned into thick mud and in summer the settlement reeked of human effluent and was plagued by flies and mosquitoes . Land in Dawson was now scarce , and plots sold for up to $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 million ) each ; prime locations on Front Street could reach $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 16 million ) while a small log cabin might rent for $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 700 ) a month . As a result , Dawson 's population spread south into the empty Hän village , renaming it Klondike City . Other communities emerged closer to the mines , such as Granville on Dominion Creek and Grand Forks on Bonanza Creek .
The newly built town proved highly vulnerable to fire . Houses were made of wood , heated with stoves and lit by candles and oil lamps ; water for emergencies was wanting , especially in the frozen winters . The first major fire occurred on November 25 , 1897 , started accidentally by dance @-@ hall girl Belle Mitchell . She also accidentally started a second major fire on October 14 , 1898 which , in the absence of a fire brigade in Dawson , destroyed two major saloons , the post @-@ office building and the Bank of British North America at a cost of $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 400 million ) . The worst fire occurred on April 26 , 1899 when a saloon caught fire in the middle of a strike by the newly established fire brigade . Most of the major landmarks in the town were burned to the ground : 117 buildings were destroyed , with the damage estimated at over $ 1 million ( $ 810 million ) .
= = = = Logistics = = = =
The remoteness of Dawson proved an ongoing problem for the supply of food and as the population grew to 5 @,@ 000 in 1897 this became critical . When the rivers iced over , it became clear that there would not be enough food for that winter . The NWMP evacuated some prospectors without supplies to Fort Yukon in Alaska from September 30 onwards , while others made their way out of the Klondike in search of food and shelter for the winter .
Prices remained high in Dawson and supply fluctuated according to the season . During the winter of 1897 salt became worth its weight in gold , while nails , vital for construction work , rose in price to $ 28 ( $ 760 ) per lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) . Cans of butter sold for $ 5 ( $ 140 ) each . The only eight horses in Dawson were slaughtered for dog food as they could not be kept alive over the winter . The first fresh goods arriving in the spring of 1898 sold for record prices , eggs reaching $ 3 ( $ 81 ) each and apples $ 1 ( $ 27 ) .
Under these conditions scurvy , a potentially fatal illness caused by the lack of vitamin C , proved a major problem in Dawson City , particularly during the winter where supply of fresh food was not available . English prospectors gave it the local name of " Canadian black leg " , on account of the unpleasant effects of the condition . It struck , among others , writer Jack London and , although not fatal in his case , brought an end to his mining career . Dysentery and malaria were also common in Dawson , and an epidemic of typhoid broke out in July and ran rampant throughout the summer . Up to 140 patients were taken into the newly constructed St Mary 's Hospital and thousands were affected . Measures were taken by the following year to prevent further outbreaks , including the introduction of better sewage management and the piping in of water from further upstream . These gave improvements in 1899 , although typhoid remained a problem . The new Hän reserve , however , lay downstream from Dawson City , and here the badly contaminated river continued to contribute to epidemics of typhoid and diphtheria throughout the gold rush .
= = = = Conspicuous consumption = = = =
Despite these challenges , the huge quantities of gold coming through Dawson City encouraged a lavish lifestyle amongst the richer prospectors . Saloons were typically open 24 hours a day , with whiskey the standard drink . Gambling was popular , with the major saloons each running their own rooms ; a culture of high stakes evolved , with rich prospectors routinely betting $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 27 @,@ 000 ) at dice or playing for a $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 140 @,@ 000 ) poker pot . The establishments around Front Street had grand facades in a Parisian style , mirrors and plate @-@ glass windows and , from late 1898 , were lit by electric light . The dance halls in Dawson were particularly prestigious and major status symbols , both for customers and their owners . Wealthy prospectors were expected to drink champagne at $ 60 ( $ 1 @,@ 600 ) a bottle , and the Pavilion dancehall cost its owner , Charlie Kimball , as much as $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 80 million ) to construct and decorate . Elaborate opera houses were built , bringing singers and specialty acts to Dawson .
Tales abounded of prospectors spending huge sums on entertainment — Jimmy McMahon once spent $ 28 @,@ 000 ( $ 760 @,@ 000 ) in a single evening , for example . Most payments were made in gold dust and in places like saloons , there was so much spilled gold that a profit could be made just by sweeping the floor . Some of the richest prospectors lived flamboyantly in Dawson . Swiftwater Bill Gates , a gambler and ladies man who rarely went anywhere without wearing silk and diamonds , was one of them . To impress a woman who liked eggs — then an expensive luxury — he was alleged to have bought all the eggs in Dawson , had them boiled and fed them to dogs . Another miner , Frank Conrad , threw a sequence of gold objects onto the ship when his favourite singer left Dawson City as tokens of his esteem . The wealthiest dance @-@ hall girls followed suit : Daisy D 'Avara had a belt made for herself from $ 340 ( $ 9 @,@ 200 ) in gold dollar coins ; another , Gertie Lovejoy , had a diamond inserted between her two front teeth . The miner and businessman Alex McDonald , despite being styled the " King of the Klondike " , was unusual amongst his peers for his lack of grandiose spending .
= = = = Law and order = = = =
Unlike its American equivalents , Dawson City was a law @-@ abiding town . By 1897 , 96 members of the NWMP had been sent to the district and by 1898 this had increased to 288 , an expensive commitment by the Canadian government . By June 1898 the force was headed by Colonel Sam Steele , an officer with a reputation for firm discipline . In 1898 , there were no murders and only a few major thefts ; in all , only about 150 arrests were made in the Yukon for serious offenses that year . Of these arrests , over half were for prostitution and resulted from an attempt by the NWMP to regulate the sex industry in Dawson : regular monthly arrests , $ 50 ( $ 1 @,@ 400 ) fines and medical inspections were imposed , with the proceeds being used to fund the local hospitals . The so @-@ called blue laws were strictly enforced . Saloons and other establishments closed promptly at midnight on Saturday , and anyone caught working on Sunday was liable to be fined or set to chopping firewood for the NWMP . The NWMP are generally regarded by historians to have been an efficient and honest force during the period , although their task was helped by the geography of the Klondike which made it relatively easy to bar entry to undesirables or prevent suspects from leaving the region .
In contrast to the NWMP , the early civil authorities were criticized by the prospectors for being inept and potentially corrupt . Thomas Fawcett was the gold commissioner and temporary head of the Klondike administration at the start of the gold rush ; he was accused of keeping the details of new claims secret and allowing what historian Kathryn Winslow termed " carelessness , ignorance and partiality " to reign in the mine recorder 's office . Following campaigns against him by prospectors , who were backed by the local press , Fawcett was relieved by the Canadian government . His successor , Major James Walsh , was considered a stronger character and arrived in May 1898 but fell ill and returned east in July . It was left to his replacement , William Ogilvie , supported by a Royal Commission , to conduct reforms . The Commission , in lack of evidence , cleared Fawcett of all charges , which meant that he was not punished further than being relieved . Ogilvie proved a much stronger administrator and subsequently revisited many of the mining surveys of his predecessors .
= = = News and mail = = =
In the remote Klondike , there was a great demand for news and contact with the world outside . During the first months of the stampede in 1897 , it was said that no news was too old to be read . In the lack of newspapers , some prospectors would read can labels until they knew them by heart . The following year , two teams fought their way over the passes to reach Dawson City first , complete with printing @-@ presses , with the aim of gaining control of the newspaper market . Gene Kelly , the editor of the Klondike Nugget arrived first , but without his equipment , and it was the team behind the Midnight Sun who produced the first daily newspaper in Dawson . The Dawson Miner followed shortly after , bringing the number of daily newspapers in the town during the gold rush up to three . The Nugget sold for $ 24 ( $ 680 ) as an annual subscription , and became well known for championing popular causes associated with miners and for its lucid coverage of scandals . Paper was often hard to find and during the winter of 1898 – 99 , the Nugget had to be printed on butcher 's wrapping paper . In the lack of paper , news could be told . In June , 1898 , a prospector bought an edition of the Seattle Post @-@ Intellinger at an auction and charged spectators a dollar each to have it read aloud in one of Dawson 's halls .
The mail service was chaotic and ill @-@ organised , not at least because government had not anticipated the stampede of prospectors from the United States to the region . Two major problems stood in the way of an effective system . To begin with , any mail from America to Dawson City was sent to Juneau in South @-@ east Alaska before being sent through Dawson and then down the Yukon to Circle City . From here it was then distributed by the US Post Office back up to Dawson . The huge distances involved resulted in delays of several months and frequently the loss of protective envelopes and their addresses . The second problem was in Dawson itself , which initially lacked a post office and therefore relied on two stores and a saloon to act as informal delivery points . The NWMP were tasked to run the mail system by October 1897 , but they were ill @-@ trained to do so . Up to 5 @,@ 700 letters might arrive in a single shipment , all of which had to be collected in person from the post office . This resulted in huge queues , with claimants lining up outside the office for up to three days . Those who had no time and could afford it would pay others to stand in line for them , preferably a woman since they were allowed to get ahead in line out of politeness . Postage stamps , like paper in general , were scarce and rationed to two per customer . By 1899 , trained postal staff took over mail delivery and relieved the NWMP of this task .
= = = Role of women = = =
In 1898 eight percent of those living in the Klondike territory were women , and in towns like Dawson this rose to 12 percent . Many women arrived with their husbands or families , but others travelled alone . Most came to the Klondike for similar economic and social reasons as male prospectors , but they attracted particular media interest . The gender imbalance in the Klondike encouraged business proposals to ship young , single women into the region to marry newly wealthy miners ; few , if any , of these marriages ever took place , but some single women appear to have travelled on their own in the hope of finding prosperous husbands . Guidebooks gave recommendations for what practical clothes women should take to the Klondike : the female dress code of the time was formal , emphasising long skirts and corsets , but most women adapted this for the conditions of the trails . Regardless of experience , women in a party were typically expected to cook for the group . Few mothers brought their children with them to the Klondike , due to the risks of the travel and the remote location .
Once in the Klondike , very few women — less than one percent — actually worked as miners . Many were married to miners ; however , their lives as partners on the gold fields were still hard and often lonely . They had extensive domestic duties , including thawing ice and snow for water , breaking up frozen food , chopping wood and collecting wild foods . In Dawson and other towns , some women took in laundry to make money . This was a physically demanding job , but could be relatively easily combined with child care duties . Others took jobs in the service industry , for example as waitresses or seamstresses , which could pay well , but were often punctuated by periods of unemployment . Both men and women opened roadhouses , but women were considered to be better at running them . A few women worked in the packing trade , carrying goods on their backs , or became domestic servants .
Wealthier women with capital might invest in mines and other businesses . One of the most prominent businesswomen in the Klondike , was Belinda Mulrooney . She brought a consignment of cloth and hot water bottles with her when she arrived in the Klondike in early 1897 and with the proceeds of those sales she first built a roadhouse at Grand Forks and later a grand hotel in Dawson . She invested widely , including acquiring her own mining company , and was reputed to be the richest woman of the Klondike . The wealthy Martha Black was abandoned by her husband early in the journey to the Klondike , but continued on without him , reaching Dawson City where she became a prominent citizen , investing in various mining and business ventures with her brother .
A relatively small number of women worked in the entertainment and sex industries . The elite of these women were the highly paid actresses and courtesans of Dawson ; beneath them were chorus line dancers , who usually doubled as hostesses , and other dance hall workers . While still better paid than white @-@ collar male workers , these women worked very long hours and had significant expenses . The entertainment industry merged into the sex industry , where women made a living as prostitutes . The sex industry in the Klondike was concentrated on Klondike City and in a backstreet area of Dawson . A hierarchy of sexual employment existed , with brothels and parlour houses at the top , small independent " cigar shops " in the middle , and , at the bottom , the prostitutes who worked out of small huts called " hutches " . Life for these workers was a continual struggle and the suicide rate was high .
The degree of involvement between Native women and the stampeders varied . Many Tlingit women worked as packers for the prospectors , for example , carrying supplies and equipment , sometimes also transporting their babies as well . Hän women had relatively little contact with the white immigrants , however , and there was a significant social divide between local Hän women and white women . Although before 1897 there had been a number of Native women who married western men , including Kate Carmack , the Tagish wife of one of the discoverers , this practice did not survive into the stampede . Very few stampeders married Hän women , and very few Hän women worked as prostitutes . " Respectable " white women would avoid associating with Native women or prostitutes : those that did could cause scandal .
= = End of the gold rush = =
By 1899 telegraphy stretched from Skagway , Alaska to Dawson City , Yukon , allowing instant international contact . In 1898 , the White Pass and Yukon Route railway began to be built between Skagway and the head of navigation on the Yukon . When it was completed in 1900 , the Chilkoot trail and its tramways were obsolete . Despite these improvements in communication and transport , the rush faltered from 1898 on . It began in summer 1898 when many of the prospectors arriving in Dawson City found themselves unable to make a living and left for home . For those who stayed , the wages of casual work , depressed by the number of men , fell to $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 700 ) a month by 1899 . The world 's newspapers began to turn against the Klondike gold rush as well . In the spring of 1898 the Spanish – American War removed Klondike from the headlines . " Ah , go to the Klondike ! " became a popular phrase to express disgust with an idea . Unsold , Klondike @-@ branded goods had to be disposed of at special rates in Seattle .
Another factor in the decline was the change in Dawson City , which had developed throughout 1898 , metamorphosing from a ramshackle , if wealthy , boom town into a more sedate , conservative municipality . Modern luxuries were introduced , including the " zinc bath tubs and pianos , billiard tables , Brussels carpets in the hotel dining rooms , menus printed in French and invitational balls " noted by historian Kathryn Winslow . The visiting Senator Jerry Lynch likened the newly paved streets with their smartly dressed inhabitants to the Strand in London . It was no longer as attractive a location for many prospectors , used to a wilder way of living . Even the formerly lawless town of Skagway had become a stable and respectable community by 1899 .
The final trigger , however , was the discovery of gold elsewhere in Canada and Alaska , prompting a new stampede , this time away from the Klondike . In August 1898 , gold had been found at Atlin Lake at the head of the Yukon River , generating a flurry of interest , but during the winter of 1898 – 99 much larger quantities were found at Nome at the mouth of the Yukon . In 1899 , a flood of prospectors from across the region left for Nome , 8 @,@ 000 from Dawson alone during a single week in August . The Klondike gold rush was over .
= = Legacy = =
= = = People = = =
Only a handful of the 100 @,@ 000 people who left for the Klondike during the gold rush became rich . They typically spent $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 27 @,@ 000 ) each reaching the region , which when combined exceeded what was produced from the gold fields between 1897 and 1901 . At the same time , most of those who did find gold lost their fortunes in the subsequent years . They often died penniless , attempting to reproduce their earlier good fortune in fresh mining opportunities . Businessman and miner Alex McDonald , for example , continued to accumulate land after the boom until his money ran out ; he died in poverty , still prospecting . Antoine Stander , who discovered gold on Eldorado Creek , abused alcohol , dissipated his fortune and ended working in a ship 's kitchen to pay his way . The three discoverers had mixed fates . George Carmack left his wife Kate — who had found it difficult to adapt to their new lifestyle — remarried and lived in relative prosperity ; Skookum Jim had a huge income from his mining royalties but refused to settle and continued to prospect until his death in 1916 ; Dawson Charlie spent lavishly and died in an alcohol @-@ related accident .
The richest of the Klondike saloon owners , businessmen and gamblers also typically lost their fortunes and died in poverty . Gene Allen , for example , the editor of the Klondike Nugget , became bankrupt and spent the rest of his career in smaller newspapers ; the prominent gambler and saloon owner Sam Bonnifield suffered a nervous breakdown and died in extreme poverty . Nonetheless , some of those who joined the gold rush prospered . Kate Rockwell , " Klondike Kate " , for example , became a famous dancer in Dawson and remained popular in America until her death . Dawson City was also where Alexander Pantages , her business partner and lover , started his career , going on to become one of America 's greatest theatre and movie tycoons . The businesswoman Martha Black remarried and ultimately became the second female member of the Canadian parliament .
The impact of the gold rush on the Native peoples of the region was considerable . The Tlingit and the Koyukon peoples prospered in the short term from their work as guides , packers and from selling food and supplies to the prospectors . In the longer term , however , especially the Hän people living in the Klondike region suffered from the environmental damage of the gold mining on the rivers and forests . Their population had already begun to decline after the discovery of gold along Fortymile River in the 1880s but dropped catastrophically after their move to the reserve , a result of the contaminated water supply and smallpox . The Hän found only few ways to benefit economically from the gold rush and their fishing and hunting grounds were largely destroyed ; by 1904 they needed aid from the NWMP to prevent famine .
= = = Places = = =
Dawson City declined after the gold rush . Transport improvements meant that heavier mining equipment could be brought in and larger , more modern mines established in the Klondike , revolutionising the gold industry . Gold production increased until 1903 as a result of the dredging and hydraulic mining but then declined ; by 2005 , approximately 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 pounds ( 570 @,@ 000 kg ) had been recovered from the Klondike area . When the journalist Laura Berton ( future mother of Pierre Berton ) moved to Dawson in 1907 it was still thriving , but away from Front Street , the town had become increasingly deserted , jammed , as she put it , " with the refuse of the gold rush : stoves , furniture , gold @-@ pans , sets of dishes , double @-@ belled seltzer bottles ... piles of rusting mining machinery — boilers , winches , wheelbarrows and pumps " . By 1912 , only around 2 @,@ 000 inhabitants remained compared to the 30 @,@ 000 of the boom years and the site was becoming a ghost town . By 1972 , 500 people were living in Dawson whereas the nearby settlements created during the gold rush had been entirely abandoned . In the 21st century Dawson City still has a small gold mining industry , which together with tourism , drawing on the legacy of the gold rush , plays a role in the local economy . Many buildings in the center of the town reflect the style of the era . The population has grown since the 1970s , with 1 @,@ 300 recorded in 2006 . Klondike River valley is affected by the gold rush by the heavy dredging that occurred after it .
The port of Skagway also shrank after the rush , but remains a well @-@ preserved period town , centered on the tourist industry and sight @-@ seeing trips from visiting cruise ships . Restoration work by the National Park Service began in 2010 on Jeff Smith 's Parlor , from which the famous con man " Soapy " Smith once operated . Skagway also has one of the two visitor centres forming the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park ; the other is located in Seattle , and both focus on the human interest stories behind the gold rush . By contrast , Dyea , Skagway 's neighbour and former rival , was abandoned after the gold rush and is now a ghost town . The railway built for prospectors through White Pass in the last year of the rush reopened in 1988 and is today only used by tourists , closely linked to the Chilkoot trail which is a popular hiking route .
= = = Culture = = =
The events of the Klondike gold rush rapidly became embedded in North American culture , being captured in poems , stories , photographs and promotional campaigns long after the end of the stampede . In the Yukon , Discovery Day is celebrated on the third Monday in August as a holiday , and the events of the gold rush are promoted by the regional tourist industries . The events of the gold rush were frequently exaggerated at the time and modern works on the subject similarly often focus on the most dramatic and exciting events of the stampede , not always accurately . Historian Ken Coates describes the gold rush as " a resilient , pliable myth " , which continues to fascinate and appeal .
Several novels , books and poems were generated as a consequence of the Klondike gold rush . The writer Jack London incorporated scenes from the gold rush into his novels set in the Klondike , including The Call of the Wild , a novel about a sledge dog . His colleague , poet Robert W. Service , did not join the rush himself , although he made his home in Dawson City in 1908 . Service created well @-@ known poems about the gold rush , among them Songs of a Sourdough , one of the bestselling books of poetry in the first decade of the 20th century , along with his novel , The Trail of ' 98 , which was written by hand on wallpaper in one of Dawson 's log cabins . The Canadian historian Pierre Berton grew up in Dawson where his father had been a prospector , and wrote several historical books about the gold rush , such as The Last Great Gold Rush . The experiences of the Irish Micí Mac Gabhann resulted the posthumous work Rotha Mór an tSaoil ( translated into English as The Hard Road to Klondike in 1962 ) , a vivid description of the period .
Some terminology from the stampede made its way into North American English like " Cheechakos " , referring to newly arrived miners , and " Sourdoughs " , experienced miners . The photographs taken during the Klondike gold rush heavily influenced later cultural approaches to the stampede . The gold rush was vividly recorded by several early photographers , for instance Eric Hegg ; these stark , black @-@ and @-@ white photographs showing the ascent of the Chilkoot pass rapidly became iconic images and were widely distributed . These pictures in turn inspired Charlie Chaplin to make the The Gold Rush , a silent movie , which uses the background of the Klondike to combine physical comedy with its character 's desperate battle for survival in the harsh conditions of the stampede . The photographs reappear in the documentary City of Gold from 1957 which , narrated by Pierre Berton , won prizes for pioneering the incorporation of still images into documentary film @-@ making . The Klondike gold rush , however , has not been widely covered in later fictional films ; even The Far Country , a Western from 1955 set in the Klondike , largely ignores the unique features of the gold rush in favour of a traditional Western plot . Indeed , much of the popular literature on the gold rush approaches the stampede simply as a final phase of the expansion of the American West , a perception critiqued by modern historians such as Charlene Porsild .
= = Appendix = =
= = = Archives = = =
Library and Archives Canada , images
University of Washington Library , Digital Collections ; Alaska and Western Canada Collection
University of Washington Library , Eric A. Hegg Gold Rush Photography Collection
University of Washington Library , Frank La Roche Photography ; including images of the Klondike Gold Rush
University of Washington Library , William E. Meed Photography
University of Washington Library . Henry M. Sarvant Photography - Documents his adventures in the Klondike Gold Rush from August 1897 to November 1901
Alaska Digital Archives
= = = Private collections = = =
Photo of Klondike River valley from 1983 showing traces of dredging
= Tropical Depression One ( 1992 ) =
Tropical Depression One in June 1992 produced 100 @-@ year floods in portions of southwestern Florida . The first tropical depression and second tropical cyclone of the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season , the depression developed on June 25 from a tropical wave . Located in an environment of strong wind shear , much of the convection in the system was located well to the southeast of the poorly defined center of circulation . The depression moved northeastward and made landfall near Tampa , Florida on June 26 shortly before dissipating over land .
The depression , in combination with an upper @-@ level trough to its west , produced heavy rainfall to the east of its path , peaking at 33 @.@ 43 inches ( 849 mm ) in Cuba and 25 inches ( 635 mm ) in Florida . In Cuba , the rainfall destroyed hundreds of homes and caused two fatalities . In Florida , particularly in Sarasota and Manatee counties , the rainfall caused severe flooding . 4 @,@ 000 houses were affected , forcing thousands to evacuate . The flooding killed two in the state and was indirectly responsible for a traffic causality . Damage in Florida totaled over $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 1992 USD , $ 4 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on June 12 . It tracked westward across the tropical Atlantic Ocean with minimal convection , and subsequent to moving through the southern Windward Islands it crossed northern Central America . Convection increased on June 20 as the wave entered the southwestern Caribbean . Under the influence of southeasterly flow from developing Hurricane Celia in the eastern Pacific Ocean and the south @-@ southwesterly flow from a mid- to upper @-@ level trough over the Gulf of Mexico , the area of disturbed weather tracked generally north @-@ northwestward through the Caribbean Sea while spreading across Cuba and southern Florida . On June 24 , a mid @-@ level circulation developed near the Yucatán Channel , and shortly thereafter satellite image loops indicated deep convection with some cyclonic rotation near the western tip of Cuba . A reconnaissance aircraft flight was dispatched late on June 24 into the system to determine if it developed into a tropical cyclone , though the flight did not observe evidence of a closed low @-@ level circulation . Subsequent to the flight , satellite imagery indicated a low @-@ level circulation was forming , and on June 25 ship and buoy data confirmed the system developed into Tropical Depression One while located about 235 miles ( 375 km ) west @-@ southwest of Key West , Florida . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center incorrectly classified the system as Tropical Depression Two due to an earlier subtropical storm .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was poorly organized , with much of the convection located well to the southeast of the broad center due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear . The shearing environment was caused by a trough in the Gulf of Mexico and from the outflow from Pacific Hurricane Celia . This was reflected in forecasts , with the National Hurricane Center predicting no significant change in intensity or structure . The depression moved northward before turning to the northeast , and on June 26 the poorly organized system made landfall just north of Tampa , Florida . The low @-@ level circulation dissipated while crossing the Florida peninsula , with the remnants continuing northeastward before being absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone over the western Atlantic .
= = Impact = =
The tropical depression , in combination with the upper @-@ level trough to its west , produced moderate precipitation across Cuba , peaking at 33 @.@ 43 inches ( 849 mm ) . This is the fifth highest known rainfall total from a tropical cyclone in the country . The rainfall primarily affected the provinces of Pinar del Río , Matanzas , and Havana . Two Cuban citizens were killed by the rainfall , with an Arab student reported missing and presumed drowned . The deluge damaged or destroyed hundreds of houses in Pinar del Río and Havana provinces .
In Florida , the depression produced moderate winds near the coast , peaking at 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in Naples . As in Cuba , the system dropped torrential rainfall , peaking at 25 inches ( 635 mm ) at Arcadia Tower . Large portions of the state reported totals in excess of 10 inches ( 255 mm ) from the depression , with much of Sarasota County receiving over 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of rain . The rainfall was classified as a 100 @-@ year flood in Sarasota and Manatee counties , where flooding reached 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep in some locations . Officials in Manatee County declared a state of emergency in response to the flooding . There , about 3 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate their homes due to the flooding , some of whom left by boat . The flooding damaged about 50 houses in and around Oneco . Due to the evacuations , no injuries were reported . The reservoir in Manatee County rose to over 39 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) , 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which resulted in officials opening floodgates to prevent flooding .
In Sarasota County , the flooding closed several roads and led to many overflown creeks and rivers , including the Horse Creek which crested at 5 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above flood level . Damage to roads and bridges totaled about $ 1 million . Due to the flat landscape of the region , the flooding persisted for several days . The depression spawned a tornado in a mobile home park in Nokomis , destroying the roofs of five homes and causing leaks in twelve others . Throughout the area , the passage of the depression left about 45 @,@ 000 customers without power , primarily due to gusty winds . The outages were fairly short @-@ lived due to power companies calling in extra workers to restore the power . Moderate winds toppled a construction crane at the northern end of the Sunshine Skyway Bridge , closing the bridge for 35 minutes before the crane was removed . In Pinellas County , a man hydroplaned while driving along a flooded roadway ; he crashed into a concrete pole and was killed . Severe crop damage to orange trees was reported in association with the flooding . Damage from the depression totaled over $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 1992 USD , $ 4 million 2008 USD ) , with about 4 @,@ 000 houses affected by the flooding and an additional 70 destroyed . Two people were killed in Florida .
On August 14 , about six weeks after the flooding , President George H. W. Bush declared a major disaster area for Charlotte , DeSoto , Manatee , and Sarasota counties . The declaration allowed for the use of federal funding to assist in the aftermath of the system .
= Newt Gingrich =
Newton Leroy " Newt " Gingrich ( / ˈnuːt ˈɡɪŋɡrɪtʃ / ; born Newton Leroy McPherson ; June 17 , 1943 ) is an American political consultant , former politician , and historian . He represented Georgia 's 6th congressional district as a Republican from 1979 until his resignation in 1999 , and served as the 50th Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1995 to 1999 . In 2012 , Gingrich was a candidate for the Republican Party presidential nomination .
In the 1970s , Gingrich taught history and geography at the University of West Georgia . During this period he ran twice ( 1974 and 1976 ) for the United States House of Representatives before winning in November 1978 . He served as House Minority Whip from 1989 to 1995 .
A co @-@ author and architect of the " Contract with America " , Gingrich was a major leader in the Republican victory in the 1994 congressional election . In 1995 , Time named him " Man of the Year " for " his role in ending the four @-@ decades @-@ long Democratic majority in the House " . While he was House Speaker , the House enacted welfare reform , passed a capital gains tax cut in 1997 , and in 1998 passed the first balanced budget since 1969 . The poor showing by Republicans in the 1998 Congressional elections , a reprimand from the House for Gingrich 's ethics violation , and pressure from Republican colleagues caused Gingrich 's resignation from the speakership on November 6 , 1998 , followed by his outright resignation from the House on January 3 , 1999 .
Since leaving the House , Gingrich has remained active in public policy debates and worked as a political consultant . He founded and chaired several policy think tanks , including American Solutions for Winning the Future and the Center for Health Transformation . He has written or co @-@ authored 27 books . In May 2011 , he announced his unsuccessful campaign for the Republican presidential nomination . On May 2 , 2012 , Gingrich ended his presidential campaign and endorsed then @-@ front @-@ runner Mitt Romney , who went on to win the nomination .
After being raised Lutheran and spending most of his adult life as a Southern Baptist , Gingrich converted to Roman Catholicism in 2009 . He has been married three times , with the first two marriages ending in affairs and divorce . He has two children from his first marriage and has been married to Callista Gingrich ( née Bisek ) since 2000 .
Currently , Gingrich serves as an advisor to the Canadian mining company Barrick Gold .
On July 12 , 2016 , it was announced that Gingrich was on Donald Trump 's three @-@ person shortlist to be the presumptive Republican nominee 's running mate in the 2016 presidential election , along with New Jersey Governor Chris Christie and Indiana Governor Mike Pence . However , on July 15 , 2016 , Trump officially announced that Pence will be Trump 's running mate .
= = Early life , family , and education = =
Newton Leroy McPherson was born at the Harrisburg Hospital in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , on June 17 , 1943 . His mother , Kathleen " Kit " ( née Daugherty ; 1925 – 2003 ) , and father , Newton Searles McPherson ( 1923 – 1970 ) , married in September 1942 , when she was 16 and McPherson was 19 . The marriage fell apart within days . He is of German , Scottish , and Irish descent .
In 1946 , his mother married Army officer Robert Gingrich ( 1925 – 1996 ) , who adopted Newt . His father , a career officer , served tours in Korea and Vietnam . In 1956 the family moved to Europe living for a period in Orleans , France and Stuttgart , Germany .
Gingrich has three younger half @-@ sisters , Candace Gingrich , Susan Gingrich , and Roberta Brown . Gingrich was raised in Hummelstown ( near Harrisburg ) and on military bases where Robert Gingrich was stationed . The family 's religion was Lutheran . He also has a half @-@ sister and half @-@ brother , Randy McPherson , from his father 's side . In 1960 the family moved to Georgia at Fort Benning during his junior year in high school .
In 1961 , Gingrich graduated from Baker High School in Columbus , Georgia . He had been interested in politics since his teen years while living in Orléans , France . He visited the site of the Battle of Verdun and learned about the sacrifices made there and the importance of political leadership .
Gingrich avoided the draft , receiving deferments for being a student and being a father , and he did not serve in the military . He expressed some regret about that decision in 1985 , saying , " Given everything I believe in , a large part of me thinks I should have gone over . "
Gingrich received a B.A. degree in history from Emory University in Atlanta in 1965 . He then proceeded to earn an M.A. ( 1968 ) and a Ph.D. in European history ( 1971 ) , both from Tulane University in New Orleans . He spent six months in Brussels in 1969 – 70 working on his dissertation , " Belgian Education Policy in the Congo 1945 – 1960 " . In 1970 , Gingrich joined the history department at West Georgia College as an assistant professor . In 1974 he moved to the geography department and was instrumental in establishing an interdisciplinary environmental studies program . Denied tenure , he left the college in 1978 as he was elected to Congress .
= = Early political career = =
Gingrich was the southern regional director for Nelson Rockefeller in 1968 .
= = = Congressional campaigns = = =
In 1974 , Gingrich made his first bid for political office as the Republican candidate in Georgia 's 6th congressional district , which stretched from the southern Atlanta suburbs to the Alabama state line . He lost to 20 @-@ year incumbent Democrat Jack Flynt by 2 @,@ 770 votes . Gingrich ran up huge margins in the more suburban areas of the district , but was unable to overcome Flynt 's lead in the more rural areas . Gingrich 's relative success came as a considerable shock on two fronts . Flynt had never faced a serious challenger — indeed , Gingrich was only the second Republican to even run against him . Additionally , 1974 was a disastrous year for Republicans nationally due to fallout from the Watergate scandal .
Gingrich sought a rematch in 1976 . While the Republicans did slightly better in the 1976 House elections than in 1974 nationally , the Democratic candidate in the 1976 presidential election was former Governor of Georgia , Jimmy Carter . Carter won over two @-@ thirds of the vote in his native Georgia . As a possible result of Carter 's coattails , Gingrich lost by 5 @,@ 100 votes .
With Gingrich priming for another run in the 1978 elections , Flynt decided not to run for re @-@ election and retired . Gingrich defeated Democratic State Senator Virginia Shapard by 7 @,@ 500 votes . Gingrich was re @-@ elected six times from this district , only facing a close general election race once — in the House elections of 1990 — when he won by 978 votes in a race against Democrat David Worley . Although the district was trending Republican at the national level , conservative Democrats continued to hold most local offices , as well as most of the area 's seats in the General Assembly , well into the 1980s .
= = In Congress = =
In 1981 , Gingrich co @-@ founded the Military Reform Caucus ( MRC ) and the Congressional Aviation and Space Caucus . During the 1983 congressional page sex scandal , Gingrich was among those calling for the expulsion of representatives Dan Crane and Gerry Studds . Gingrich supported a proposal to ban loans from the International Monetary Fund to Communist countries and he endorsed a bill to make Martin Luther King , Jr . ' s birthday a national holiday .
In 1983 , he founded the Conservative Opportunity Society ( COS ) , a group that included young conservative House Republicans . Early COS members included Robert Smith Walker , Judd Gregg , Dan Coats and Connie Mack III . The group expanded over time to comprise several dozen representatives who met each week to exchange and develop ideas .
Gingrich 's analysis of polls and public opinion identified the group 's initial focus . Ronald Reagan adopted the " opportunity society " ideas for his 1984 re @-@ election campaign , supporting the group 's conservative goals on economic growth , education , crime , and social issues , which he had not emphasized during his first term . Reagan also referenced an " opportunity " society in the first State of the Union address of his second term .
In May 1988 , Gingrich ( along with 77 other House members and Common Cause ) brought ethics charges against Democratic Speaker Jim Wright , who was alleged to have used a book deal to circumvent campaign @-@ finance laws and House ethics rules . During the investigation , it was noted Gingrich had his own unusual book deal , for Window of Opportunity , in which publicity expenses were covered by a limited partnership , which raised $ 105 @,@ 000 from Republican political supporters to promote sales of Gingrich 's book . Gingrich 's success in forcing Wright 's resignation was in part responsible for his rising influence in the Republican caucus .
In March 1989 , Gingrich became House Minority Whip in a close election against Edward Rell Madigan . This was Gingrich 's first formal position of power within the Republican party He stated his intention to " build a much more aggressive , activist party " . Early in his role as Whip , in May 1989 , Gingrich was involved in talks about the appointment of a Panamanian administrator of the Panama Canal , which was scheduled to occur in 1989 subject to U.S. government approval . Gingrich was outspoken in his opposition to giving control over the canal to an administrator appointed by the dictatorship in Panama .
Gingrich and others in the House , including the newly minted Gang of Seven , railed against what they saw as ethical lapses under Democratic control for almost 40 years . The House banking scandal and Congressional Post Office scandal were emblems of the exposed corruption . Gingrich himself was among members of the House who had engaged in check kiting ; he had overdrafts on twenty @-@ two checks , including a $ 9 @,@ 463 check to the Internal Revenue Service in 1990 .
In 1990 , after consulting focus groups with the help of pollster Frank Luntz , GOPAC distributed a memo with a cover letter signed by Gingrich titled " Language , a Key Mechanism of Control " , that encouraged Republicans to " speak like Newt " and contained lists of " contrasting words " — words with negative connotations such as " radical " , " sick , " and " traitors " — and " optimistic positive governing words " such as " opportunity " , " courage " , and " principled " , that Gingrich recommended for use in describing Democrats and Republicans , respectively .
As a result of the 1990 United States Census , Georgia picked up an additional seat for the 1992 U.S. House elections . However , the Democratic @-@ controlled Georgia General Assembly under the leadership of fiercely partisan Speaker of the House Tom Murphy specifically targeted Gingrich , eliminating the district that Gingrich represented . Gerrymandering split Gingrich 's territory among three neighboring districts . Much of the southern portion of Gingrich 's district , including his home in Carrollton , was drawn into the Columbus @-@ based 3rd District , represented by five @-@ term Democrat Richard Ray . Gingrich remarked that " The Speaker , by raising money and gerrymandering , has sincerely dedicated a part of his career to wiping me out . " At the same time , the Assembly created a new , heavily Republican 6th District in Fulton and Cobb counties in the wealthy northern suburbs of Atlanta — -an area that Gingrich had never represented . However , Gingrich sold his home in Carrollton and moved to Marietta in the new 6th . His primary opponent , State Representative Herman Clark , made an issue out of Gingrich 's 22 kited checks in the House Bank Scandal , and also criticized Gingrich for moving into the district . After a recount Gingrich prevailed by 980 votes , or a 51 % to 49 % result — all but assuring him of election in November . He was re @-@ elected three times from this district against only nominal Democratic opposition .
= = = " Republican Revolution " of 1994 = = =
In the 1994 campaign season , in an effort to offer an alternative to Democratic policies and to unite distant wings of the Republican Party , Gingrich and several other Republicans came up with a Contract with America , which laid out ten policies that Republicans promised to bring to a vote on the House floor during the first hundred days of the new Congress , if they won the election . The contract was signed by Gingrich and other Republican candidates for the House of Representatives . The contract ranged from issues such as welfare reform , term limits , tougher crime laws , and a balanced budget law , to more specialized legislation such as restrictions on American military participation in United Nations missions .
In the November 1994 elections , Republicans gained 54 seats and took control of the House for the first time since 1954 . Long @-@ time House Minority Leader Bob Michel of Illinois had not run for re @-@ election , giving Gingrich , the highest @-@ ranking Republican returning to Congress , the inside track at becoming Speaker . The midterm election that turned congressional power over to Republicans " changed the center of gravity " in the nation 's capital . Time magazine named Gingrich its 1995 " Man of the Year " for his role in the election .
= = Speaker of the House = =
The House fulfilled Gingrich 's promise to bring all ten of the Contract 's issues to a vote within the first 100 days of the session , even though most of the legislation was initially held up in the Senate by the objection of liberal / progressive interest groups and President Clinton , who called it the " Contract on America " .
Legislation proposed by the 104th United States Congress included term limits for Congressional Representatives , tax cuts , welfare reform , and a balanced budget amendment , as well as independent auditing of the finances of the House of Representatives and elimination of non @-@ essential services such as the House barbershop and shoe @-@ shine concessions . Following Gingrich 's first two years as House Speaker , the Republican majority was re @-@ elected in the 1996 election , the first time Republicans had done so in 68 years , and the first time simultaneously with a Democratic president winning re @-@ election .
= = = Legislation = = =
= = = = Welfare reform = = = =
A central pledge of President Bill Clinton 's campaign was to reform the welfare system , adding changes such as work requirements for recipients . However , by 1994 , the Clinton Administration appeared to be more concerned with pursuing a universal health care program . Gingrich accused Clinton of stalling on welfare , and proclaimed that Congress could pass a welfare reform bill in as little as 90 days . He insisted that the Republican Party would continue to apply political pressure to the President to approve their welfare legislation .
In 1996 , after constructing two welfare reform bills that Clinton vetoed , Gingrich and his supporters pushed for passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act , which was intended to reconstruct the welfare system . The act gave state governments more autonomy over welfare delivery , while also reducing the federal government 's responsibilities . It instituted the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program , which placed time limits on welfare assistance and replaced the longstanding Aid to Families with Dependent Children program . Other changes to the welfare system included stricter conditions for food stamp eligibility , reductions in immigrant welfare assistance , and work requirements for recipients . The bill was signed into law on August 22 , 1996 .
In his 1998 book Lessons Learned the Hard Way , Gingrich encouraged volunteerism and spiritual renewal , placing more importance on families , creating tax incentives and reducing regulations for businesses in poor neighborhoods , and increasing property ownership by low @-@ income families . He also praised Habitat for Humanity for sparking the movement to improve people 's lives by helping them build their own homes .
= = = = Balancing the federal budget = = = =
Although congressional Republicans had opposed Clinton 's Deficit Reduction Act of 1993 , a key aspect of the 1994 Contract with America was the promise of a balanced federal budget . After the end of the government shutdown , Gingrich and other Republican leaders acknowledged that Congress would not be able to draft a balanced budget in 1996 . Instead , they opted to approve some small reductions that were already approved by the White House and to wait until the next election season .
By May 1997 , Republican congressional leaders reached a compromise with Democrats and President Clinton on the federal budget . The agreement called for a federal spending plan designed to reduce the federal deficit and achieve a balanced budget by 2002 . The plan included a total of $ 152 billion in bipartisan tax cuts over five years . Other major parts of the spending plan called for $ 115 billion to be saved through a restructuring of Medicare , $ 24 billion set aside to extend health insurance to children of the working poor , tax credits for college tuition , and a $ 2 billion welfare @-@ to @-@ work jobs initiative .
President Clinton signed the budget legislation in August 1997 . At the signing , Gingrich gave credit to ordinary Americans stating , " It was their political will that brought the two parties together . "
In early 1998 , with the economy performing better than expected , increased tax revenues helped reduce the federal budget deficit to below $ 25 billion . Clinton submitted a balanced budget for 1999 , three years ahead of schedule originally proposed , making it the first time the federal budget had been balanced since 1969 .
= = = = Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 = = = =
In 1997 President Clinton signed into effect the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 , which included the largest capital gains tax cut in U.S. history . Under the act , the profits on the sale of a personal residence ( $ 500 @,@ 000 for married couples , $ 250 @,@ 000 for singles ) were exempted if lived in for at least 2 years over the last 5 . ( This had previously been limited to a $ 125 @,@ 000 once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime exemption for those over the age of 55 . ) There were also reductions in a number of other taxes on investment gains .
Additionally , the act raised the value of inherited estates and gifts that could be sheltered from taxation . Gingrich has been credited with creating the agenda for the reduction in capital gains tax , especially in the " Contract with America " , which set out to balance the budget and implement decreases in estate and capital gains tax . Some Republicans felt that the compromise reached with Clinton on the budget and tax act was inadequate , however Gingrich has stated that the tax cuts were a significant accomplishment for the Republican Congress in the face of opposition from the Clinton administration . Gingrich along with Bob Dole had earlier set @-@ up the Kemp Commission , headed by former US Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Jack Kemp , a tax reform commission that made several recommendations including that dividends , interest , and capital gains should be untaxed .
= = = = Other legislation = = = =
Among the first pieces of legislation passed by the new Congress under Gingrich was the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995 , which subjected members of Congress to the same laws that apply to businesses and their employees , including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . As a provision of the Contract with America , the law was symbolic of the new Republican majority 's goal to remove some of the entitlements enjoyed by Congress . The bill received near universal acceptance from the House and Senate and was signed into law on January 23 , 1995 .
Gingrich shut down the highly regarded Office of Technology Assessment , and relied instead on what the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists called " self @-@ interested lobbyists and think tanks " .
= = = Government shutdown = = =
Gingrich and the incoming Republican majority 's promise to slow the rate of government spending conflicted with the president 's agenda for Medicare , education , the environment and public health , leading to two temporary shutdowns of the federal government totaling 28 days .
Clinton said Republican amendments would strip the U.S. Treasury of its ability to dip into federal trust funds to avoid a borrowing crisis . Republican amendments would have limited appeals by death @-@ row inmates , made it harder to issue health , safety and environmental regulations , and would have committed the president to a seven @-@ year balanced budget . Clinton vetoed a second bill allowing the government to keep operating beyond the time when most spending authority expires .
A GOP amendment opposed by Clinton would have not only have increased Medicare Part B premiums , but it would also cancel a scheduled reduction . The Republicans held out for an increase in Medicare part B premiums in January 1996 to $ 53 @.@ 50 a month . Clinton favored the then current law , which was to let the premium that seniors pay drop to $ 42 @.@ 50 .
The government closed most non @-@ essential offices during the shutdown , which was the longest in U.S. history . The shutdown ended when Clinton agreed to submit a CBO @-@ approved balanced budget plan .
During the crisis , Gingrich 's public image suffered from the perception that the Republicans ' hardline budget stance was owed partly to an alleged snub of Gingrich by Clinton during a flight on Air Force One to and from Yitzhak Rabin 's funeral in Israel . That perception developed after the trip when Gingrich , while being questioned by Lars @-@ Erik Nelson at a Christian Science Monitor breakfast , said that he was dissatisfied that Clinton had not invited him to discuss the budget during the flight . He complained that he and Dole were instructed to use the plane 's rear exit to deplane , saying the snub was " part of why you ended up with us sending down a tougher continuing resolution " . In response to Gingrich 's complaint that they were " forced to use the rear door , " NBC news released their videotape footage showing both Gingrich and Dole disembarking at Tel Aviv just behind Clinton via the front stairway .
Gingrich was widely lampooned for implying that the government shutdown was a result of his personal grievances , including a widely shared editorial cartoon depicting him as a baby throwing a tantrum . Democratic leaders , including Chuck Schumer , took the opportunity to attack Gingrich 's motives for the budget standoff . In 1998 , Gingrich said that these comments were his " single most avoidable mistake " as Speaker .
Discussing the impact of the government shutdown on the Republican Party , Gingrich later commented that , " Everybody in Washington thinks that was a big mistake . They 're exactly wrong . There had been no reelected Republican majority since 1928 . Part of the reason we got reelected ... is our base thought we were serious . And they thought we were serious because when it came to a show @-@ down , we didn 't flinch . " In a 2011 op @-@ ed in The Washington Post , Gingrich said that the government shutdown led to the balanced @-@ budget deal in 1997 and the first four consecutive balanced budgets since the 1920s , as well as the first re @-@ election of a Republican majority since 1928 .
= = = Ethics charges and reprimand = = =
Eighty @-@ four ethics charges were filed by Democrats against Gingrich during his term as Speaker . All were eventually dropped except for one : claiming tax @-@ exempt status for a college course run for political purposes . The House officially reprimanded Gingrich ( in a vote of 395 in favor , 28 opposed ) and " ordered [ him ] to reimburse the House for some of the costs of the investigation in the amount of $ 300 @,@ 000 " . It was the first time a Speaker was disciplined for an ethics violation .
Additionally , the House Ethics Committee concluded that inaccurate information supplied to investigators represented " intentional or ... reckless " disregard of House rules . The Ethics Committee 's Special Counsel James M. Cole concluded that Gingrich had violated federal tax law and had lied to the ethics panel in an effort to force the committee to dismiss the complaint against him . The full committee panel did not agree whether tax law had been violated and left that issue up to the IRS . In 1999 , the IRS cleared the organizations connected with the " Renewing American Civilization " courses under investigation for possible tax violations .
Regarding the situation , Gingrich said in January 1997 , " I did not manage the effort intensely enough to thoroughly direct or review information being submitted to the committee on my behalf . In my name and over my signature , inaccurate , incomplete and unreliable statements were given to the committee , but I did not intend to mislead the committee ... I brought down on the people 's house a controversy which could weaken the faith people have in their government . "
= = = Leadership challenge = = =
In the summer of 1997 several House Republicans attempted to replace him as Speaker , claiming Gingrich 's public image was a liability . The attempted " coup " began July 9 with a meeting of Republican conference chairman John Boehner of Ohio and Republican leadership chairman Bill Paxon of New York . According to their plan , House Majority Leader Dick Armey , House Majority Whip Tom DeLay , Boehner and Paxon were to present Gingrich with an ultimatum : resign , or be voted out . However , Armey balked at the proposal to make Paxon the new Speaker , and told his chief of staff to warn Gingrich . On July 11 , Gingrich met with senior Republican leadership to assess the situation . He explained that under no circumstance would he step down . If he was voted out , there would be a new election for Speaker . This would allow for the possibility that Democrats , along with dissenting Republicans , would vote in Democrat Dick Gephardt as Speaker . On July 16 , Paxon offered to resign his post , feeling that he had not handled the situation correctly , as the only member of the leadership who had been appointed to his position — by Gingrich — instead of elected .
= = = Resignation = = =
In 1998 , Republicans lost five seats in the House — the worst midterm performance in 64 years by a party not holding the presidency . Gingrich , who won his reelection , was held largely responsible for Republican losses in the House . His private polls had given his fellow Republican Congressmen a false impression that pushing the Lewinsky scandal would damage Clinton 's popularity and result in the party winning a net total of six to thirty seats in the US House of Representatives in this election . The day after the election , a Republican caucus ready to rebel against him prompted his resignation of the speakership . He also announced his intended and eventual full departure from the House in January 1999 . When relinquishing the speakership , Gingrich said he was " not willing to preside over people who are cannibals , " and claimed that leaving the House would keep him from overshadowing his successor .
= = Post @-@ speakership = =
Gingrich has since remained involved in national politics and public policy debate , especially on issues regarding healthcare , national security , and the role of religion in American public life .
= = = Policy = = =
In 2003 he founded the Center for Health Transformation to develop a 21st @-@ century healthcare system that is centered on the individual , prevention focused , knowledge intense , and innovation rich . Gingrich supported the Medicare Prescription Drug , Improvement , and Modernization Act of 2003 , creating the Medicare Part D federal prescription drugs benefit program . Some conservatives have criticized him for favoring the plan , due to its cost . However , Gingrich has remained a supporter , stating in a 2011 interview that it was a necessary modernization of Medicare , which was created before pharmaceutical drugs became standard in medical care . He has said that the increase in cost from medication must be seen as preventive , leading to reduced need for medical procedures . In a May 15 , 2011 , interview on Meet the Press , Gingrich repeated his long @-@ held belief that " all of us have a responsibility to pay — help pay for health care " , and suggested this could be implemented by either a mandate to obtain health insurance or a requirement to post a bond ensuring coverage . In the same interview Gingrich said " I don 't think right wing social engineering is any more desirable than left wing social engineering . I don 't think imposing radical change from the right or the left is a very good way for a free society to operate . " This comment caused back @-@ lash within the Republican Party . Gingrich has also been an advocate for health information technology .
In 2005 , with Hillary Rodham Clinton , Gingrich announced the proposed 21st Century Health Information Act , a bill which aimed to replace paperwork with confidential , electronic health information networks . Gingrich also co @-@ chaired an independent congressional study group made up of health policy experts formed in 2007 to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of action taken within the U.S. to fight Alzheimer 's disease .
Gingrich has served on several commissions , including the Hart @-@ Rudman Commission , formally known as the U.S. Commission on National Security / 21st century , which examined issues affecting the armed forces , law enforcement and intelligence agencies with regards to national security . In 2005 he became the co @-@ chair of a task force for UN reform , which aimed to produce a plan for the U.S. to help strengthen the UN . For over two decades , Gingrich has taught at the United States Air Force 's Air University , where he is the longest @-@ serving teacher of the Joint Flag Officer Warfighting Course . In addition , he is an honorary Distinguished Visiting Scholar and Professor at the National Defense University and teaches officers from all of the defense services . Gingrich informally advised Defense secretary Donald Rumsfeld on strategic issues , on issues including the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and encouraging the Pentagon to not " yield " foreign policy influence to the State Department and National Security Council . Gingrich is also a guiding coalition member of the Project on National Security Reform .
In September 2007 , Gingrich founded the 527 group American Solutions for Winning the Future . The stated mission of the group is to become the " leading grassroots movement to recruit , educate , and empower citizen activists and elected officials to develop solutions to transform all levels of government " . Gingrich spoke of the group and its objectives at the CPAC conference of 2008 and currently serves as its General Chairman . Other organizations and companies founded or chaired by Gingrich include the creative production company Gingrich Productions , and religious educational organization Renewing American Leadership .
Gingrich is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations . He is also a fellow at conservative think tanks the American Enterprise Institute and Hoover Institution , focusing on U.S. politics , world history , national security policy , and environmental policy issues . He sometimes serves as a commentator , guest or panel member on cable news shows , such as the Fox News Channel . He is listed as a contributor by Fox News Channel , and frequently appears as a guest on various segments ; he has also hosted occasional specials for the Fox News Channel . Gingrich is a proponent of the Lean Six Sigma management techniques for waste reduction , and has signed the " Strong America Now " pledge committing to promoting the methods to reduce government spending .
= = = Businesses = = =
After leaving Congress in 1999 , Gingrich started a number of for @-@ profit companies : Between 2001 and 2010 , the companies he and his wife owned in full or part had revenues of almost $ 100 million .
According to financial disclosure forms released in July 2011 , Gingrich and his wife had a net worth of at least $ 6 @.@ 7 million in 2010 , compared to a maximum net worth of $ 2 @.@ 4 million in 2006 . Most of the increase in his net worth was because of payments to him from his for @-@ profit companies .
= = = = Gingrich Group and the Center for Health Transformation = = = =
The Gingrich Group was organized in 1999 as a consulting company . Over time , its non @-@ health clients were dropped , and it was renamed the Center for Health Transformation . The two companies had revenues of $ 55 million between 2001 and 2010 . The revenues came from more than 300 health @-@ insurance companies and other clients , with membership costing as much as $ 200 @,@ 000 per year in exchange for access to Gingrich and other perks . In 2011 , when Gingrich became a presidential candidate , he sold his interest in the business and said he would release the full list of his clients and the amounts he was paid , " to the extent we can " . In April 2012 , the Center for Health Transformation filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy , planning to liquidate its assets to meet debts of $ 1 – $ 10 million .
Between 2001 and 2010 , Gingrich consulted for Freddie Mac , a government @-@ sponsored secondary home mortgage company , which was concerned about new regulations under consideration by Congress . Regarding payments of $ 1 @.@ 6 million for the consulting , Gingrich said that " Freddie Mac paid Gingrich Group , which has a number of employees and a number of offices , a consulting fee , just like you would pay any other consulting firm . " In January 2012 , he said that he could not make public his contract with Freddie Mac , even though the company gave permission , until his business partners in the Center for Health Transformation also agreed to that .
= = = = Gingrich Productions = = = =
Gingrich Productions , which is headed by Gingrich 's wife Callista Gingrich , was created in 2007 . According to the company 's website , in May 2011 , it is " a performance and production company featuring the work of Newt and Callista Gingrich . Newt and Callista host and produce historical and public policy documentaries , write books , record audio books and voiceovers , produce photographic essays , and make television and radio appearances . "
Between 2008 and 2011 , the company produced three films on religion , one on energy , one on Ronald Reagan , and one on the threat of radical Islam . All were joint projects with the conservative group Citizens United . In 2011 , Newt and Callista appeared in A City Upon a Hill , on the subject of American exceptionalism .
As of May 2011 , the company had about five employees . In 2010 , it paid Gingrich more than $ 2 @.@ 4 million .
= = = = Gingrich Communications = = = =
Gingrich Communications promoted Gingrich 's public appearances , including his Fox News contract and his website , newt.org. Gingrich received as much as $ 60 @,@ 000 for a speech , and did as many as 80 in a year . One of Gingrich 's nonprofit groups , Renewing American Leadership , which was founded in March 2009 , paid Gingrich Communications $ 220 @,@ 000 over two years ; the charity shared the names of its donors with Gingrich , who could use them for his for @-@ profit companies . Gingrich Communications , which employed 15 people at its largest , closed in 2011 when Gingrich began his presidential campaign .
= = = = Other = = = =
Celebrity Leaders is a booking agency that handled Gingrich 's speaking engagements , as well as those other clients such as former Republican National Committee chair Michael Steele and former Pennsylvania Senator Rick Santorum . Kathy Lubbers , the President and CEO of the agency , who is Gingrich 's daughter , owns the agency . Gingrich has shares in the agency , and was paid more than $ 70 @,@ 000 by it in 2010 .
FGH Publications handles the production of and royalties from fiction books co @-@ authored by Gingrich .
= = = Political activity = = =
Between 2005 and 2007 , Gingrich expressed interest in running for the 2008 Republican presidential nomination . On October 13 , 2005 , Gingrich suggested he was considering a run for president , saying , " There are circumstances where I will run " , elaborating that those circumstances would be if no other candidate champions some of the platform ideas he advocates . On September 28 , 2007 , Gingrich announced that if his supporters pledged $ 30 million to his campaign by October 21 , he would seek the nomination .
However , insisting that he had " pretty strongly " considered running , on September 29 spokesman Rick Tyler said that Gingrich would not seek the presidency in 2008 because he could not continue to serve as chairman of American Solutions if he did so . Citing campaign finance law restrictions ( the McCain @-@ Feingold campaign law would have forced him to leave his American Solutions political organization if he declared his candidacy ) , Gingrich said , " I wasn 't prepared to abandon American Solutions , even to explore whether a campaign was realistic . "
During the 2009 special election in New York 's 23rd congressional district , Gingrich endorsed moderate Republican candidate Dede Scozzafava , rather than Conservative Party candidate Doug Hoffman , who had been endorsed by several nationally prominent Republicans . He was heavily criticized for this endorsement , with conservatives questioning his candidacy for President in 2012 and even comparing him to Benedict Arnold . Gingrich has since regretted his decision .
= = = 2012 presidential campaign = = =
In late 2008 several political commentators , including Marc Ambinder in The Atlantic and Robert Novak in The Washington Post , identified Gingrich as a top presidential contender in the 2012 election , with Ambinder reporting that Gingrich was " already planting some seeds in Iowa , New Hampshire " . A July 2010 poll conducted by Public Policy Polling indicated that Gingrich was the leading GOP contender for the Republican nomination with 23 % of likely Republican voters saying they would vote for him .
Describing his views as a possible candidate during an appearance on On the Record with Greta Van Susteren in March 2009 , Gingrich said , " I am very sad that a number of Republicans do not understand that this country is sick of earmarks . [ Americans ] are sick of politicians taking care of themselves . They are sick of their money being spent in a way that is absolutely indefensible ... I think you 're going to see a steady increase in the number of incumbents who have opponents because the American taxpayers are increasingly fed up . "
On March 3 , 2011 , Gingrich officially announced a website entitled " Newt Exploratory 2012 " in lieu of a formal exploratory committee for exploration of a potential presidential run . On May 11 , 2011 , Gingrich officially announced his intention to seek the GOP nomination in 2012 .
On June 9 , 2011 , a group of Gingrich 's senior campaign aides left the campaign en masse , leading to doubts about the viability of his presidential run . On June 21 , 2011 , two more senior aides left .
In response , Gingrich stated that he had not quit the race for the Republican nomination , and pointed to his experience running for 5 years to win his seat in Congress , spending 16 years helping to build a Republican majority in the house and working for decades to build a Republican majority in Georgia . Some commentators noted Gingrich 's resilience throughout his career , in particular with regards to his presidential campaign .
After then @-@ front @-@ runner Herman Cain was damaged by allegations of past sexual harassment , Gingrich gained support , and quickly became a contender in the race , especially after Cain suspended his campaign . By December 4 , 2011 , Gingrich was leading in the national polls . However , after an abundance of negative ads run by his opponents throughout December , Gingrich 's national polling lead had fallen to a tie with Mitt Romney .
On January 3 , 2012 , Gingrich finished in fourth place in the Iowa Republican caucuses , far behind Rick Santorum , Romney , and Ron Paul . On January 10 , Gingrich finished in fifth place in the New Hampshire Republican primary , far behind Romney , Santorum , Jon Huntsman , and Paul .
After the field narrowed with the withdrawal from the race of Huntsman and Rick Perry , Gingrich won the South Carolina Republican primary on January 21 , obtaining about 40 % of the vote , considerably ahead of Romney , Santorum and Paul . This surprise victory allowed Gingrich to reemerge as the frontrunner once again heading into Florida .
On January 31 , 2012 , Gingrich placed second in the Republican Florida primary , losing by a fifteen percentage point margin , 47 % to 32 % . Some factors that contributed to this outcome include two strong debate performances by Romney ( which were typically Gingrich 's strong suit ) , the wide margin by which the Gingrich campaign was outspent in television ads , and a widely criticized proposal by Gingrich to have a permanent colony on the moon by 2020 to reinvigorate the American Space Program . It was later revealed that Mitt Romney had hired a debate coach to help him perform better in the Florida debates . Gingrich did , however , significantly outvote Santorum and Paul . On February 4 , 2012 , Gingrich placed a distant second in the Nevada Republican caucuses with 21 % , losing to Romney who received over 50 % of the total votes cast .
On February 7 , 2012 , Gingrich came in last place in the Minnesota Republican caucuses with about 10 @.@ 7 % of the vote . Santorum won the caucus , followed by Paul and Romney .
On Super Tuesday Gingrich won his home state , Georgia , which has the most delegates , in " an otherwise dismal night for him " . Santorum took Tennessee and Oklahoma , where Gingrich had previously performed well in the polls , though Gingrich managed a statistical second place showing in Oklahoma .
On April 4 , the Rick Santorum campaign shifted its position and urged Gingrich to drop out of the race and support Santorum .
On April 10 , Santorum announced the suspension of his campaign . Following this announcement , The Newt 2012 campaign used a new slogan referring to Gingrich as " the last conservative standing " . Despite this , on April 19 , Gingrich told Republicans in New York that he would work to help Romney win the general election if Romney secured the nomination .
After a disappointing second place showing in the Delaware primary on April 24 , and with a campaign debt in excess of $ 4 million , Gingrich suspended his campaign and endorsed front @-@ runner Mitt Romney on May 2 , 2012 , on whose behalf he subsequently campaigned ( i.e. stump speeches and television appearances ) .
Gingrich later hosted a number of policy workshops at the GOP Convention in Tampa presented by the National Republican Committee called " Newt University " . He and his wife Calista addressed the convention on its final day with a Ronald Reagan @-@ themed introduction .
= = = 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign = = =
After having consulted Donald Trump 's 2016 campaign , Gingrich encouraged his fellow Republicans to unify behind Trump who was by then the presumptive Republican presidential nominee . Gingrich was speculated to be a possible nominee for Vice President , and is still a candidate for Chief of Staff , or simply a senior political adviser to a Trump presidential ticket , and a July 12 , 2016 NBC News report stated that Gingrich was among Trump 's final three choices to be his running mate . Had Gingrich been the vice presidential nominee and Trump been successful in his bid for the presidency , Gingrich would have become ( on January 20 , 2017 ) the oldest Vice President in American political history since Alben Barkley .
= = Political positions = =
Gingrich is most widely identified with the 1994 Contract with America . He is a founder of American Solutions for Winning the Future . More recently , Gingrich has advocated replacing the Environmental Protection Agency with a proposed " Environmental Solutions Agency " .
He favors a strong immigration border policy and a guest worker program and a flex @-@ fuel mandate for cars sold in the U.S.
Gingrich has taken a diminutive view of internationalism and the United Nations , saying in 2015 , " after several years of looking at the UN , I can report to you that it is sufficiently corrupt and sufficiently inefficient . That no reasonable person would put faith in it . "
In 2007 , Gingrich authored a book , Rediscovering God in America , arguing that the Founding Fathers actively intended the new republic to not only allow , but encourage , religious expression in the public square . Following publication of the book , he was invited by Jerry Falwell to be the speaker for the second time at Liberty University 's graduation , on May 19 , 2007 , due to Gingrich having , " dedicated much of his time to calling [ the United States of ] America back to our Christian heritage " .
Gingrich 's later books take a large @-@ scale policy focus , including Winning the Future , and the most recent , To Save America . Gingrich has identified education as " the number one factor in our future prosperity " , and has partnered with Al Sharpton and Education Secretary Arne Duncan on education issues . Although he previously opposed gay marriage , in December 2012 Gingrich suggested that Republicans should reconsider their opposition to it .
On July 14 , 2016 , Gingrich stated that he believes that Americans of Muslim backgrounds who believe in Sharia law should be deported , and that visiting websites that promote the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant or Al @-@ Qaeda should be a felony . Some observers have questioned whether these views violate the free speech and free exercise of religion clauses of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution .
On July 21 , 2016 , Gingrich argued that members of NATO " ought to worry " about a U.S. commitment to their defense . He expanded , saying , " They ought to worry about commitment under any circumstances . Every president has been saying that the NATO countries do not pay their fair share " . He also stated that , in the context of whether the United States would provide aid to Estonia ( a NATO member ) in the event of a Russian invasion , he " would think about it a great deal " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriages and children = = =
Gingrich has married three times . In 1962 , he married Jacqueline May " Jackie " Battley ( February 21 , 1936 – August 7 , 2013 ) , his former high school geometry teacher , when he was 19 years old and she was 26 . They have two daughters from their marriage : Kathy Gingrich Lubbers , married to Paul Lubbers , is president of Gingrich Communications , and Jackie Gingrich Cushman , the wife of Jimmy Cushman , Jr . , is an author , conservative columnist , and political commentator , whose books include 5 Principles for a Successful Life , co @-@ authored with Newt Gingrich .
In the spring of 1980 , Gingrich left his wife after beginning an affair with Marianne Ginther . In 1984 , Jackie Battley Gingrich told The Washington Post that the divorce was a " complete surprise " to her . According to Jackie , in September 1980 , Gingrich and their children visited her while she was in the hospital , recovering from surgery for cancer , and Gingrich wanted to discuss the terms of their divorce . Gingrich has disputed that account . In 2011 , their daughter , Jackie Gingrich Cushman , remembers that it was her mother who requested the divorce , that it happened prior to the hospital stay , and that Gingrich 's visit was for the purpose of bringing the couple 's children to see their mother , not to discuss the divorce . Although Gingrich 's presidential campaign staff continued to insist in 2011 that his wife requested the divorce , court documents obtained by CNN from Carroll County , Georgia , indicated that Jackie had asked a judge to block the process stating that although " she has adequate and ample grounds for divorce ... she does not desire one at this time [ and ] does not admit that this marriage is irretrievably broken . " The daughter of the former Linda May Clay and Wilbur Allen Battley , Jackie Gingrich was a native of Columbus , Georgia . She was a deacon and active volunteer in the First Baptist Church of Carrollton , Georgia . She died in Atlanta at the age of 77 .
According to L. H. Carter , Gingrich 's campaign treasurer , Gingrich said of his first wife : " She 's not young enough or pretty enough to be the wife of the President . And besides , she has cancer . " Gingrich has denied saying it . His supporters dismiss Carter as a disgruntled former aide who was miffed at not being asked to accompany Gingrich to Washington .
In 1981 , six months after his divorce from his first wife was final , Gingrich wed Marianne Ginther . Marianne helped control their finances to get them out of debt . She was also coauthor of his 1984 book Window of Opportunity : A Blueprint for the Future . She did not , however , want to have the public life of a politician 's wife . Gingrich 's daughter Kathy Lubbers described the marriage as " difficult " .
In 1993 , while still married to Marianne , Gingrich began an affair with House of Representatives staffer Callista Bisek , who is 23 years his junior . Gingrich and his second wife were divorced in 2000 . The marriage produced no children . On January 19 , 2012 , Marianne Ginther Gingrich alleged in an interview on ABC 's Nightline that she had declined to accept Gingrich 's suggestion of an open marriage . Asked about the allegations at the beginning of the televised South Carolina primary debate , Gingrich said the story was false and told the co @-@ ordinator that making an ex @-@ wife a significant question in a presidential campaign was " close to despicable " .
In August 2000 , Gingrich married Callista Bisek four months after his divorce from Marianne was finalized . He and Callista live in McLean , Virginia . In a 2011 interview with David Brody of the Christian Broadcasting Network , Gingrich addressed his past infidelities by saying , " There 's no question at times in my life , partially driven by how passionately I felt about this country , that I worked too hard and things happened in my life that were not appropriate . " In December 2011 , after the group Iowans for Christian Leaders in Government requested that he sign their so @-@ called " Marriage Vow " , Gingrich sent a lengthy written response . It included his pledge to " uphold personal fidelity to my spouse " .
= = = Religion = = =
Gingrich was raised a Lutheran . In graduate school , he was a Southern Baptist . He converted to Catholicism , Bisek 's faith , on March 29 , 2009 . He said " over the course of several years , I gradually became Catholic and then decided one day to accept the faith I had already come to embrace . " The moment when he decided to officially become a Catholic was when he saw Pope Benedict XVI , on his visit to the United States in 2008 : " Catching a glimpse of Pope Benedict that day , I was struck by the happiness and peacefulness he exuded . The joyful and radiating presence of the Holy Father was a moment of confirmation about the many things I had been thinking and experiencing for several years . " Gingrich has stated that he has developed a greater appreciation for the role of faith in public life following his conversion , and believes that the United States has become too secular .
At a 2011 appearance in Columbus , Ohio , he said , " In America , religious belief is being challenged by a cultural elite trying to create a secularized America , in which God is driven out of public life . "
Gingrich is allowed to receive holy communion , despite being divorced , because his two earlier marriages were annulled by the Catholic church .
= = = Other interests = = =
Gingrich has written about his interest in animals . Gingrich 's first engagement in civic affairs was speaking to the city council in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , about why the city should establish its own zoo . He wrote the introduction to America 's Best Zoos . He is also a dinosaur enthusiast . The New Yorker said of his 1995 book To Renew America : " Charmingly , he has retained his enthusiasm for the extinct giants into middle age . In addition to including breakthroughs in dinosaur research on his list of futuristic wonders , he specified ' people interested in dinosaurs ' as a prime example of who might benefit from his education proposals . "
Space exploration has been an interest since his fascination with the United States / Soviet Union Space Race during his teenage years . Gingrich wants the U.S. to pursue new achievements in space , such as sustaining civilizations beyond Earth , but advocates relying more on the private sector and less on the publicly funded NASA to drive progress . As of 2010 and to the present , Gingrich serves on the National Space Society Board of Governors .
During the 2012 election campaign , Artinfo noted that Gingrich has expressed appreciation for the work of two American painters . He has described James H. Cromartie 's painting of the U.S. Capitol as " an exceptional and truly beautiful work of art " ; in Norman Rockwell 's work , he saw the embodiment of an America circa 1965 , at odds with the prevailing sentiment of the modern day " cultural elites " .
CNN announced on June 26 , 2013 , that Gingrich would join a new version of Crossfire re @-@ launching in fall 2013 , with panelists S.E. Cupp , Stephanie Cutter , and Van Jones . Gingrich represented the right on the revamped debate program . The show is now off the air .
= = Books and film = =
= = = Nonfiction = = =
Gingrich has authored or co @-@ authored 18 non @-@ fiction books since 1982 .
= = = Fiction = = =
Gingrich co @-@ wrote the following alternate history novels and series of novels with William R. Forstchen .
1945 Baen Books , August 1995 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 87739 @-@ 2
Civil War series
Gettysburg : A Novel of the Civil War Thomas Dunne Books , June 2003 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 30935 @-@ 0
Grant Comes East Thomas Dunne Books , June 2004 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 30937 @-@ 4
Never Call Retreat : Lee and Grant : The Final Victory Thomas Dunne Books , June 2005 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 34298 @-@ 2
The Battle of the Crater : A Novel Thomas Dunne Books , November 2011 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 60710 @-@ 4
Pacific War series
Pearl Harbor : A Novel of December 8 Thomas Dunne Books , May 2007 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 36350 @-@ 5
Days of Infamy Thomas Dunne Books , April 2008 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 36351 @-@ 2
Revolutionary War series
To Try Men 's Souls : A Novel of George Washington and the Fight for American Freedom , October 2009 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 59106 @-@ 9
Valley Forge : George Washington and the Crucible of Victory , November 2010 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 59107 @-@ 6
Victory at Yorktown , November 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 60707 @-@ 4
Miscellaneous Fiction
Duplicity : A Novel Center Street Press , October 13 , 2015 , co @-@ author Pete Earley , ISBN 978 @-@ 1455530427
= = = Films = = =
Nine Days that Changed the World , Gingrich Productions , April 2010
= Kid Icarus : Uprising =
Kid Icarus : Uprising , known in Japan as New Light Mythology : Palutena 's Mirror ( Japanese : 新 ・ 光神話 パルテナの鏡 , Hepburn : Shin Hikari Shinwa : Parutena no Kagami ) is a third @-@ person shooter developed by Project Sora and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS handheld video game console . Released worldwide in March 2012 , it is the third installment in the Kid Icarus franchise and the first to be released since Kid Icarus : Of Myths and Monsters in 1991 .
Kid Icarus : Uprising takes place in a setting based loosely around Greek mythology . The main protagonist is the angel Pit , servant of the Goddess of Light Palutena . When the Goddess of Darkness Medusa returns to destroy humanity , Pit goes on missions first against her , then against the forces of Hades , Lord of the Underworld and the source behind Medusa 's return . During gameplay , players control Pit during airborne rail shooter segments and ground @-@ based third @-@ person shooter segments . In addition to the single @-@ player campaign , multiple multiplayer modes are available , with competitive modes available for up to six players .
Uprising was created by Masahiro Sakurai after receiving a request from Satoru Iwata to create a launch title for then @-@ in development 3DS . Development began in 2009 , but was faced with multiple difficulties : these included lack of access to the hardware during early stages , balancing between its many elements , and issues with the controls . Sakurai was responsible for creating the story , which retained the light @-@ hearted tone of the first Kid Icarus . The music was created by a team of composers that included Motoi Sakuraba and Yasunori Mitsuda . Since release , Uprising has sold over a million copies worldwide , and met with mainly positive reviews : while giving praise to the story , graphics , music and gameplay , the control scheme was frequently faulted .
= = Gameplay = =
Kid Icarus : Uprising is a third @-@ person shooter where players take control of the angel Pit during his missions for the Goddess of Light Palutena . Gameplay is divided into two different styles : aerial @-@ based rail shooter segments , and ground @-@ based segments that feature both linear paths and free @-@ roaming areas . The game 's difficulty , or Intensity , is determined by betting hearts in the Fiend 's Cauldron before beginning each mission . The difficulty ranges from the very @-@ easy " 0 @.@ 0 " to the highly difficult " 9 @.@ 0 " . Pit 's combat abilities are divided between long @-@ range attacks using gun @-@ like weapons , and close @-@ quarters melee attacks . During missions , defeating enemies grants the player hearts , the game 's currency . Hearts are used to increase the game 's difficulty by laying bets against the player 's own performance . As the game progresses , Pit gains access to weapons separated into nine types : bows , bracer @-@ like claws , blades ( a combination of a sword and a gun ) , clubs , orbitars ( twin orbs hovering near pit ) , staffs , arms ( a weapon that fits around Pit 's wrist ) , palms ( magical tattoos covering Pit 's arm ) , and cannons . Each weapon has different advantages and disadvantages . Once equipped , weapons can be tried out in the game 's Practice Range . Using the 3DS ' StreetPass network , players can share weapons with other players in the form of Weapon Gems . Other players can pay hearts to convert the gem into a weapon . Hearts can be spent upgrading weapons or fusing Weapon Gems , along with being gained by dismantling unwanted weapons or converting Weapon Gems .
Each chapter begins with an aerial battle , consisting of a five @-@ minute on rails shooter segment , with Pit being guided along a pre @-@ determined path . During these stages , the player moves Pit with the Circle Pad , aims with either the 3DS stylus or face buttons , and fires with the L Button . Not firing for a time allows the player to fire a powerful Charge Shot , which kills several enemies at once . Once on the ground , players have more control over Pit as he traverses through the level : Pit can either shoot enemies from a distance or attack them up close with melee attacks , while also performing various moves to dodge enemy attacks . These areas also featured more open spaces , and hidden areas unlocked when playing on certain difficulties . The main controls are carried over from aerial segments , but their assigned actions alter slightly . When an enemy strikes Pit , his health bar is depleted . This can be replenished with items scattered throughout levels . If sufficiently damaged , the health bar vanishes and Crisis Mode is activated : this will either end naturally or can be ended by fully replenishing health with a " Drink of the Gods " item . If Pit is defeated , the player is given the option of continuing , but an amount of Hearts are lost from the Fiend 's Cauldron and the difficulty is lowered . Completing a level without dying grants additional rewards . In ground @-@ based levels , Pit can also take control of various vehicles for short stretches , gaining special attacks unique to each vehicle type . Each stage ends in a ground @-@ based boss battle . Pit has the ability to sprint during ground @-@ based gameplay , but sprinting for too long uses up his stamina and leaves him vulnerable to attack .
Uprising supports both local and online multiplayer . Along with the game 's single @-@ player story mode , the game also features multiplayer for up to six players locally or via Wi @-@ Fi . Players can compete in team @-@ based cooperative matches or free @-@ for @-@ all melees using standard fighter characters . In the team @-@ based mode , named Light vs Dark , each team has a health meter that depletes when a player is defeated . The value of the player 's weapon determines how far the meter depletes after death , and the player whose death depletes the meter completely will become their team 's angel , a more powerful character who represents the team . The match ends when the other team 's angel is defeated . In addition to normal ways of playing , Uprising comes bundled with a 3DS stand for the platform for ease of play . Augmented reality ( AR ) Cards , collected by players , can be used as part of a card contest . Using the 3DS ' outer camera , the AR Cards produce " Idols " ( representations of characters from Uprising ) : by lining up the back edges of two AR Cards and selecting the " Fight " option , Idols appear from the cards and battle each other : which one wins depends on the card 's statistics .
= = Synopsis = =
Kid Icarus : Uprising takes place in a world loosely based on Greek mythology , and is set 25 years after the events of the first game . Pit , an angel serving the Goddess of Light Palutena , is sent on missions against the Goddess of Darkness Medusa , who threatens to destroy humanity . During his missions , Pit fights Medusa 's servant Twinbellows , defeats her commander Dark Lord Gaol with the help of a human mercenary named Magnus , then confronts the Goddess of Calamity Pandora so as to destroy the Mirror of Truth . In the process , the Mirror spawns a doppelgänger called Dark Pit , who absorbs the defeated Pandora 's powers and departs . With help from the God of the Sea Poseidon , Pit defeats Medura 's final commander , Thanatos . He then retrieves the Three Sacred Treasures , powerful artifacts that originally debuted in the first game , in order to use them against Medusa . When defeated , it is revealed that Medusa was merely resurrected to act as a puppet ruler in order to hide the true antagonist : Hades , Lord of the Underworld . Hades , by spreading a rumor about a " wish seed " guarded by the Phoenix , provokes war among humanity so as to claim their souls . This war prompts the Goddess of Nature Viridi to attack them and Hades ' army . Pit and Palutena work against both Viridi and Hades , during the course of which a military base called the Lunar Sanctum is destroyed , releasing an unknown creature from its depths .
The deities ' ongoing battles prompt an alien race called the Aurum to invade Earth for its resources . In response , the warring deities strike a brief ceasefire and unite alongside the self @-@ proclaimed Sun God Pyrrhon in order to fight the Aurum . However , Pyrrhon betrays the deities due to wanting to claim the Aurum 's power and prove himself as the strongest god in existence , which leads to him being mentally controlled by the Aurum Brain . After Pit defeats the fusion of Pyrrhon and the Aurum Brain , Pyrrhon briefly comes to his senses and sacrifices himself to banish the Aurum to the far side of the galaxy . Three years after the Aurum invasion , Pit is revealed to be trapped inside a ring with no clear memory of what lead to his predicament . Using hosts to make his way to a ruined city , he meets up with Magnus , who reveals that Palutena 's army has turned against humanity and that Pit 's body is attacking humans . Using Magnus ' body , Pit defeats his body and repossesses it . Viridi then flies him to Palutena 's capital of Skyworld , which has been reduced to ruins : Viridi reveals that the Lunar Sanctum was a prison holding the Chaos Kin , a soul @-@ devouring creature that escaped when Pit destroyed the base . The Chaos Kin has possessed Palutena and caused her to become deranged . After obtaining the Lightning Chariot , Pit breaks through the defensive barrier around Skyworld 's capital and defeats Palutena . The Chaos Kin then steals her soul , leading to both Pit and Dark Pit pursuing the Chaos Kin into its dimension , the Chaos Vortex , to retrieve Palutena 's soul . To save Dark Pit from a final attack from the defeated Chaos Kin , Pit overuses his Power of Flight , burning his wings and nearly dying in the process .
Feeling a sense of debt to Pit , Dark Pit takes him to the Rewind Spring so time can be reversed for Pit 's body . On his journey there , he , Palutena , and Viridi learn that Hades has been profiting off the wars against the Underworld Army , Forces of Nature , Aurum , and Chaos Kin by using the souls of slaughtered humans to add numbers to his forces . Upon arrival at the Rewind Spring , Pandora is revived due to the Spring 's effects on her stolen powers within Dark Pit . Pandora then uses the Spring to restore her health and ultimately her physical body , but is still defeated by Dark Pit . Pit is restored by the Spring , while the loss of Pandora 's powers leaves Dark Pit unable to fly on his own . Now restored , Pit attempts to destroy Hades with the Three Sacred Treasures , but Hades easily destroys them and attempts to eat Pit . After escaping from Hades ' insides with assistance from Dark Pit , Pit is guided by Palutena to the home of the God of the Forge Dyntos , who crafts the Great Sacred Treasure after Pit proves himself in multiple trials . Launching a fresh assault , Pit succeeds in injuring Hades , but the Great Sacred Treasure is badly damaged during the battle , leaving only its cannon intact . Hades attempts to launch a massive attack , but a revived Medusa injures him further , giving Palutena the chance to charge the Great Sacred Treasure 's cannon with her power . Pit then uses the cannon to obliterate Hades ' body , saving the world . In a post @-@ credits scene , Hades speaks to the player , saying he will return in 25 years .
= = Development = =
After completing work on Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii , Masahiro Sakurai was taken out for a meal by Nintendo 's then @-@ CEO Satoru Iwata in July 2008 . During their meal , Iwata asked Sakurai to develop a launch title for the Nintendo 3DS . The platform was still in early development at the time , with Sakurai being the first external staff member to learn of its existence . On his way home , Sakurai was faced with both ideas and problems : Sora Ltd . , which had developed Super Smash Bros. Brawl , had been drastically reduced in size as most of the game 's staff had been either from other Nintendo teams or outsourced . While he had the option to creating an easy @-@ to @-@ develop port for the system , Sakurai decided to create a game around the third @-@ person shooter genre , which was unpopular in Japan yet seemed suited to the planned 3D effects of the 3DS . At this point , the project was still an original game . In later conversations with Iwata , Sakurai decided to use an existing Nintendo IP as the game 's basis . This was inspired by feedback received from players of Super Smash Bros. Brawl that many members of its character roster had not been in an original game for some time . After a positive response from Iwata at the suggestion , Sakurai ran through the possible franchises and decided to use Kid Icarus due to its long absence from the gaming market and continued popularity in the West . He also decided upon him due to his involvement with the character through Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Once he had chosen a possible series , he conceived the basic sequence of five @-@ minute aerial segments , ground @-@ based combat and bosses at the end of chapters . After submitting his plan , Sakurai was given the go @-@ ahead to develop the game . One of the other franchises under consideration by Sakurai for use in the game was Star Fox , but he felt that there were some restrictions in implementing the planned gameplay features within the Star Fox setting . Uprising was the first Kid Icarus game to be developed since the Western @-@ exclusive 1991 Game Boy title Kid Icarus : Of Myths and Monsters , and the first to be planned for Japan since the original Kid Icarus in 1986 .
The game 's story and script were written by Sakurai . With video game stories , Sakurai believes that developers lack an ability to balance story @-@ based gameplay hindrances with the prerequisite of victory over enemies . To this end , he was obsessed with striking that balance with Uprising , and so wrote the entire story script himself . He did this so he could write a story that " jibed " with the flow and style of gameplay . The characters ' roles and personalities were shaped by their roles in the game and the game structure itself . He also wanted the dialogue to mesh perfect with the story and music : by writing the script himself , Sakurai was able to sidestep the necessity of explaining to another writer all the time . This also made fine tuning much easier for him . While retaining the first game 's Greek mythic influences , the mythology itself had no direct influence on the story of Uprising . Sakurai also wanted to make sure that the game 's Greek influence did not stray in the same direction as the God of War series . For the main story , Sakurai avoided portraying a simple good versus evil situation ; instead , he had the various factions coming into conflict due to clashing views rather than openly malicious intentions , with their overlapping conflicts creating escalating levels of chaos for players to experience . Rather than relying on stand @-@ alone cutscenes , the majority of story dialogue was incorporated into gameplay . What cutscenes there were made as short as possible . Events after Chapter 6 were deliberately kept secret during the run @-@ up to release so players would be taken by surprise by what they experienced . The character of Palutena , a damsel in distress in the original game , was reworked as Pit 's partner and support . The original idea was for Pit to have a mascot character as his support , but it was abandoned in favor of Palutena . Pit and Palutena 's dialogue was influenced by the traditions of Japanese double acts . Dark Pit was written as a mirror image of Pit rather than an evil twin . A key element was retaining the humorous elements from the first game , such as anachronistic elements and silly enemy designs . This attitude , as observed by Sakurai , contrasted sharply with the weighty or grim character stories present in the greater majority of video games . The story was originally three chapters longer than the final version , but these additional parts needed to be cut during early development .
= = = Design = = =
In November 2008 , after Sakurai was given the go @-@ ahead to develop Uprising , he rented out an office in Takadanobaba , a district of Tokyo . At this stage , due to the game 's platform still being in early development , there were no development tools available for Sakurai to use . Between November and March 2009 , Sakurai finalized his vision for the game . During this period , to help design the game 's settings and characters , Sakurai hired several outside illustrators to work on concept art : these artists were Toshio Noguchi , Akifumi Yamamoto and Masaki Hirooka . The art style was inspired by manga . In January 2009 , development studio Project Sora was established for Uprising 's development . At its inception , it had a staff of 30 . With the start of active recruitment in March 2009 , the game officially entered development : at the time , it was the very first game to be in development for the new platform . During this early stage , due to the lack of platform specific development tools , the team were developing the game on Wii hardware and personal computers . The changing specifications of the developing hardware resulted in multiple features undergoing major revisions . This hardware instability led to a protracted development cycle : in the event , the team managed to fully utilize the platform 's capabilities , doing detailed work on how many enemies they could show on the screen at any one time . Debugging also took a long time due to the size and variability of gameplay built into Uprising .
From the start , Uprising was meant to be distinct from the original Kid Icarus : while Kid Icarus was a platformer featuring horizontal and vertical movement from a side @-@ scrolling perspective , Uprising shifted to being a fully 3D third @-@ person shooter broken between airborne and ground @-@ based segments in each chapter . Much of the game 's depth and scale came from Sakurai 's own game design philosophy , along with the inclusion of various weapon types that opened up different strategic options . The number of weapons available in @-@ game was decided from an early stage , as Sakurai wanted solid goals for the development team so development would go smoothly . The original Kid Icarus was notorious for its high difficulty , but this was an aspect Sakurai wanted to tone down so that casual gamers could enjoy Uprising . For this reason , the Fiend 's Cauldron was created as a user @-@ controlled means of both setting difficulty and allowing players to challenge themselves by placing bets against their performances . The Fiend 's Cauldron tied into the game 's overall theme of " challenge " . The game 's difficulty was one of the three key elements decided upon by Sakurai , alongside the music and light @-@ hearted storyline . The addition of the AR Card game was based on Sakurai 's wish to fully utilize the 3DS ' planned features , and was inspired by the trophy viewing option from Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Due to the volume of cards produced , the team needed to create a special system based on a colorbit , an ID recognition code along the bottom edge of a card . After consideration , it was decided to have the " Idol " displays able to fight each other , with battles revolving around a stat @-@ based rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors mechanic . It also provided a means for players to measure the strength of characters without directly connecting their consoles .
While the game had fast @-@ paced action and a high difficulty , its control scheme was designed to be relatively simple . This was because Sakurai had observed equivalent console games using all the buttons on a console 's controller , creating a barrier for first @-@ time players . To open up the game for newcomers while keeping gameplay depth , the team took the three basic controls and combined them with the game 's structure . In later interviews , Sakurai said that the team had great difficulty properly incorporating the control scheme into the game . Their initial goal was to fully utilize the 3DS ' processing power , which left little room for incorporation of elements such as the Circle Pad Pro , which was created fairly late in the game 's own development cycle . Due to the lack of space , providing independent analogue controls for left @-@ handed players was impossible . The inclusion of a stand for the system to help players properly experience Uprising as part of the game 's package was requested by the team from an early stage . A major element of the 3DS ' design that influenced development was the touch screen , used for aiming Pit 's weapons . While similar touch @-@ based aiming had been used for first @-@ person shooters on the Nintendo DS , Sakurai was dissatisfied with the resulting experience , phrasing it as " like trying to steer with oars " . With the 3DS touch screen , the team was able to create a more responsive experience similar to a computer mouse , creating the system of flicking the 3DS stylus to change camera and character direction . The team also attempted to tackle the ingrained problem of trying to move the character and camera while 3D graphics were activated . The multiplayer functionality was decided upon from an early stage , with the main focus being on balancing it with the single @-@ playing campaign . The design for weapon usage was inspired by fighter choices in Super Smash Bros. Brawl , contrasting with weapon systems from other equivalent Western shooters .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by a large team , many of them from outside Nintendo . They were Motoi Sakuraba , Yuzo Koshiro , Masafumi Takada , Noriyuki Iwadare , in @-@ house composer Takahiro Nishi , and Yasunori Mitsuda . Nishi acted as the music director . Orchestration was handled by Mitsuda and Natsumi Kameoka . Sakurai and Nishi were in early discussions about what the style of Uprising 's music would be , and which composers to hire for it . The composers were those who had contributed most prominently to Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The music involved both live orchestral music , synthesized tracks , and tracks that combined both musical styles . The air battle themes were created to match the dialogue and action on @-@ screen , which was stated early on to be an important goal . Another aspect of the music , as noted by Koshiro , was that it should stand out while not interfering with dialogue . Sakuraba and Koshiro were brought in fairly early , and thus encountered difficulties with creating their music . Sakuraba recalled that he needed to rewrite the opening theme multiple times after his first demo clashed with the footage he saw due to his not knowing much about the game 's world . Takada came on board when there was an ample amount of footage , but was shocked when he saw gameplay from the game 's fifth chapter and tried to create suitable music within Sakurai 's guidelines .
Iwadare was asked to create memorable melodies , but found creating suitable tracks difficult as many of his initial pieces were thrown out . For Kameoka , recording the live orchestral segments proved a time @-@ consuming and difficult business : each element of a track was recorded separately , then mixed into a single track , then each orchestral element needed to be adjusted for speed and tone so they lined up correctly . According to Mitsuda , the live recording of music spanned seven full sessions , estimated by him as being the largest @-@ scale musical production for a video game to that date . He was entirely dedicated to orchestration and recording for four months . Mitsuda was tasked with creating the music for the game 's 2010 reveal trailer , which he knew was a very important task as it would have an international audience . He estimated that around 150 people worked on the score throughout its creation .
In separate commentary on selected tunes , Sakurai drew to particular tracks . Sakuraba 's main theme was made notably different from earlier themes incorporated into the soundtrack , because he wanted Uprising to have an original theme to distinguish it from its predecessors : as it played in the main menu between missions , the team treated it as Palutena 's theme tune . Koshiro composed " Magnus ' Theme " : the theme had two distinct versions based around the same motif , alongside incorporating one of Hirokazu Tanaka 's original tracks for Kid Icarus . The theme for Dark Pit was composed by Western gun duels in mind , making heavy use of the acoustic guitar to give it a " Spanish flavor " : multiple arrangements were created , including a version for use in multiplayer . Mitsuda was responsible for the " Boss Theme " , and worked to make the music positive and encouraging as opposed to the more common " oppressive " boss tunes heard in games . Iwadare 's " Space Pirate Theme " , written for a faction of the Underworld Army , combined musical elements associated with both seafaring pirates and outer space . Iwadare also composed " Hades ' Infernal Theme " , which mixed choral , circus and " violent " elements to both symbolize Hades ' contrasting attributes and distinguish him from Medusa .
Koshiro 's song , " Wrath of the Reset Bomb " , used the motif associated with Viridi , which would be reused in multiple tracks . According to Sakurai , it was only intended to be used in one level , but he liked it so much that he made it the theme for Viridi 's Forces of Nature . A track that went through multiple redrafts was " Aurum Island " , the theme associated with the titular alien invaders : while every attempt made to create a theme ended up as a " techno @-@ pop song " , the tune underwent multiple adjustments so it would not clash with the rest of the soundtrack while retaining its form . " Lightning Chariot Base " , due to the size of the level , was designed so players would notice its presence without growing tired of it . " Practice Arena " , the tune for the pre @-@ multiplayer training area , was designed by Takada to have a light , analogue feel ; it was originally composed for a different unspecified area , but it was decided that it fitted well with the build @-@ up to a multiplayer match .
Selected music from the game was originally released in a promotional single CD by Club Nintendo . A limited 3 @-@ CD official soundtrack album , New Light Mythology : Palutena 's Mirror Original Soundtrack , was released through Sleigh Bells and Procyon Studio on August 21 , 2012 under the catalog number SBPS @-@ 0016 ~ 8 . Upon release , music critics were very positive : Video Game Music Online writer Julius Acero gave the game a perfect 5 @-@ star rating , calling it " the best modern Nintendo soundtrack , beating out the likes of The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword and even Super Smash Bros. Brawl " . It also won the site 's " Best Score award in the Eastern category " . Patrick Gann , writing for Original Sound Version , called it an " epic musical score " , praising the developers for bringing together the composers to create the score . He did not review the album in detail due to its sheer size .
= = Release = =
In 2009 , Sakurai confirmed that he was working on a new game through Project Sora . Uprising was officially announced at the 2010 Electronic Entertainment Expo alongside the announcement of the 3DS . In an interview closer to release , Sakurai said that he had misgivings about Uprising being shown off at gaming expos since 2010 while it was still in an unfinished state . As announced in 2011 , the game suffered a delay that pushed its release into 2012 . In January 2012 , Sakurai announced via his Twitter feed that the game had gone gold . The game released on Japan on 22 March 2012 ; in Europe and North America on 23 March ; and in Australia on 29 March . The game 's box art was almost identical between its Japanese and English releases .
The English localization of Uprising was handled by Nintendo of America 's Nintendo Treehouse localization department . Sakurai gave the localization team " a lot of leeway " for this part of development . Much of the original script 's humor stemmed from the usage of Japanese conversational nuances , which would not have translated properly into English . Because of this , adjustments needed to be made so that it was enjoyable for English speakers . The video game references were taken almost directly from the Japanese script , with some adjustments so they resonated with the Western market . As with other localizations , the team avoided topical references so the scripts would take on a timeless feel . The casting and recording director was Ginny McSwain . Two prominent English cast members were Antony Del Rio , who voices Pit and Dark Pit , and Ali Hillis , who voices Palutena . The majority of the voice recording was done separately , but half the dialogue between Pit and Palutena was recorded by the two actors together before scheduling conflicts forced them to record their lines separately , responding to either voice clips of the other actors or the director reading lines . The European version only included the English dub , as there was no room on the 3DS cartridge to include multiple voice tracks .
To promote the game , Nintendo collaborated with multiple Japanese animation studios to create animated shorts based on the world and characters of Uprising . There were five shorts produced : the single @-@ episode Medusa 's Revenge by Studio 4 ° C , the two part Palutena 's Revolting Dinner by Shaft , and the three @-@ part Thanatos Rising by Production I.G. Sakurai supervised work on the anime shorts , but otherwise let the animators " do their own thing " . The anime shorts were streamed in Japan , Europe and North America through the 3DS ' Nintendo Video service in the week prior to the game 's release in each region . Limited packs of AR Cards were also produced by Nintendo in two series , including special packs featuring rare cards . Six random cards also came packaged with the game itself .
= = Reception = =
Uprising has garnered a positive reception since release . On aggregate site Metacritic , the game scored 83 / 100 based on 75 critic reviews . Famitsu gave the game a perfect score of 40 points . In its review , the magazine praised the attention to detail , flexibility , and general gameplay balance . It also positively noted the game 's dialogue . Marty Silva , writing for 1UP.com , said that there was " a never @-@ ending litany of things to love " about Uprising . IGN 's Richard George called Uprising " a fantastic game " despite its flaws . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer said that " Kid Icarus : Uprising is a strong , pretty game turned into an essential one by way of its surrounding infrastructure " . GameSpot 's Ashton Raze said that Uprising was a fun game when it hit its stride , calling it " a deep and satisfying shooter " despite its issues with control and character movement . Neal Ronaghan of Nintendo World Report , while commenting on control issues , called Uprising an " amazing game " packed with content .
Nintendo Power was positive overall , saying that it " was well worth the wait . " Jeff Cork of Game Informer was more critical than other reviewers , saying that most other aspects of the game were let down badly by the control scheme . Edge Magazine was positive overall , saying that fans of the original Kid Icarus would enjoy the game , praising the way it effectively combined elements from multiple genres . Steve Hogarty of Official Nintendo Magazine recommended Uprising for hardcore rather than casual gamers , saying it felt deeper than equivalent home console games . Opinions were generally positive on the light @-@ hearted story , in @-@ game dialogue , graphics , several aspects of gameplay , and its multiplayer options . However , a unanimous criticism was the control scheme , which was variously described as difficult or potentially damaging to players ' hands , while also creating issues with moving Pit . There were also negative comments about the game 's linear structure .
During its first week on sale in Japan , Uprising reached the top of gaming charts with sales of 132 @,@ 526 units . It also boosted sales of the 3DS to just over 67 @,@ 000 from just under 26 @,@ 000 the previous week . By April , the game remained in the top five best @-@ selling games with over 205 @,@
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000 units sold . Going into May , it was cited by Nintendo as a reason for increased profits , alongside other titles such as Fire Emblem Awakening . As of December 2012 , Uprising had sold just over 316 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , becoming the 28th best @-@ selling game of the year . In North America , the game sold over 135 @,@ 000 units , becoming one of the better @-@ selling Nintendo products of the month . In the UK , the game came in seventh place in the all @-@ format gaming charts . As of April 2013 , the game has sold 1 @.@ 18 million units , being the 10th best @-@ selling title for the system at that time .
= = Legacy = =
Despite speculation about a sequel being developed to Uprising , Sakurai confirmed that there was no sequel planned for the game . Uprising was the only game Project Sora ever produced : just four months after the game 's release , it was announced that the studio had closed down , while Sakurai and Sora Ltd. were working on the next entry in the Smash Bros series . No explanation was given for the closure . Pit returned from Super Smash Bros. Brawl as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , while fellow Kid Icarus characters Dark Pit and Palutena were also introduced as newcomers . The games ' Classic Mode also incorporate a difficulty slider similar to the Fiend 's Cauldron in Uprising .
= Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones =
Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones is a 2002 American epic space opera film directed by George Lucas and written by Lucas and Jonathan Hales . It is the second installment of the Star Wars prequel trilogy , and stars Ewan McGregor , Natalie Portman , Hayden Christensen , Ian McDiarmid , Samuel L. Jackson , Christopher Lee , Temuera Morrison , Anthony Daniels , Kenny Baker , and Frank Oz .
The film is set ten years after the events in Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . The galaxy is on the brink of civil war . Led by a former Jedi named Count Dooku , thousands of planetary systems threaten to secede from the Galactic Republic . After Senator Padmé Amidala evades assassination , Jedi apprentice Anakin Skywalker becomes her protector , while his mentor Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi investigates the attempt on Padmé 's life . Soon Anakin , Padmé , and Obi @-@ Wan witness the onset of a new threat to the galaxy , the Clone Wars .
Development of Attack of the Clones began in March 2000 , after the release of The Phantom Menace . By June 2000 , Lucas and Hales completed a draft of the script and principal photography took place from June to September 2000 . The film crew primarily shot at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney , Australia , with additional footage filmed in Tunisia , Spain and Italy . It was one of the first motion pictures shot completely on a high definition digital 24 @-@ frame system .
The film premiered on May 16 , 2002 . Critics praised the visual effects , costume design , musical score , and Ewan McGregor ’ s performance as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi . Despite this , critics lambasted the romance of Anakin and Padmé , the dialogue , most of the acting , and the film 's long runtime . Nevertheless , the film was a financial success ; however , it also became the first Star Wars film to be out @-@ grossed in its year of release , placing only third domestically and fourth internationally . The film came out on DVD and VHS on November 12 , 2002 and was later released on Blu @-@ ray on September 16 , 2011 . Following Attack of the Clones , the third and final film of the prequel trilogy , Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith , premiered in 2005 .
= = Plot = =
Ten years after the Trade Federation 's invasion of Naboo , the Galactic Republic is threatened by a Separatist movement organized by former Jedi Master Count Dooku . Senator Padmé Amidala comes to Coruscant to vote on a motion to create an army to assist the Jedi against this threat . Narrowly avoiding an assassination attempt upon arrival , she is placed under the protection of Jedi Knight Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi and his apprentice , Anakin Skywalker . The two Jedi thwart a second attempt on her life and subdue the assassin , Zam Wesell , a shape @-@ shifter who is soon killed by her bounty hunter client before she can reveal his identity . The Jedi Council assigns Obi @-@ Wan to identify and capture the bounty hunter , while Anakin is assigned to escort Padmé back to Naboo , where the two fall in love .
Obi @-@ Wan 's investigation leads him to the remote ocean planet Kamino , where he discovers an army of clones is being produced for the Republic , with bounty hunter Jango Fett serving as their genetic template . Obi @-@ Wan deduces Jango to be the bounty hunter he is seeking , and follows him and his clone son , Boba , to the desert planet Geonosis via a homing beacon placed on their ship , the Slave I. Meanwhile , Anakin becomes troubled by premonitions of his mother , Shmi , in pain , and travels to Tatooine with Padmé to save her . They meet Owen Lars , Anakin 's stepbrother and the son of Shmi 's new husband , Cliegg Lars . Cliegg tells Anakin that Shmi was abducted by Tusken Raiders weeks earlier and is likely dead . Determined to find her , Anakin ventures out and , finding the Tusken campsite , locates Shmi , dying from torture at the hands of the Tuskens . She dies in Anakin 's arms . Anakin , enraged , massacres the Tuskens and returns to the Lars homestead with Shmi 's body . After revealing his deed to Padmé , Anakin says that he wants to prevent death .
On Geonosis , Obi @-@ Wan discovers a Separatist gathering led by Count Dooku , who Obi @-@ Wan learns had authorized Padmé 's assassination and is developing a battle droid army with Trade Federation Viceroy Nute Gunray . Obi @-@ Wan transmits his findings to Anakin to relay to the Jedi Council , but is captured mid @-@ transmission . With knowledge of the droid army , Supreme Chancellor Palpatine is voted emergency powers to send the clones into battle . Anakin and Padmé journey to Geonosis to rescue Obi @-@ Wan , but are also captured . The three are sentenced to death , but are eventually saved by a battalion of Jedi and clone troopers led by Mace Windu and Yoda ; Jango Fett is killed by Mace during the rescue . As the clone and droid armies battle , Obi @-@ Wan and Anakin intercept Dooku , and the three engage in a lightsaber battle . Dooku overpowers Obi @-@ Wan and Anakin , but then Yoda arrives and engages the Count in a duel . Finding he is unable to defeat Yoda , Dooku flees . Arriving at Coruscant , he delivers blueprints for a superweapon to his Sith master , Darth Sidious , who confirms that everything is going as planned . As the Jedi gravely acknowledge the beginning of the Clone Wars , Anakin is fitted with a robotic arm and secretly marries Padmé on Naboo , with C @-@ 3PO and R2 @-@ D2 as their witnesses .
= = Cast = =
Ewan McGregor as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi : A Jedi Master and mentor of Anakin Skywalker .
Natalie Portman as Padmé Amidala : The former Queen of Naboo , who has recently been elected the planet 's senator .
Hayden Christensen as Anakin Skywalker : Obi @-@ Wan 's Padawan apprentice , who has grown into a powerful but arrogant Jedi .
Ian McDiarmid as Chancellor Palpatine / Darth Sidious : A former senator of Naboo who has recently been elected Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic .
Samuel L. Jackson as Mace Windu : A Jedi Master sitting on the Jedi Council who warily watches the Galactic Senate 's politics .
Christopher Lee as Count Dooku / Darth Tyranus : A former Jedi Master who now leads a Separatist movement and is Darth Sidious ' new Sith apprentice .
Anthony Daniels as C @-@ 3PO : A humanoid protocol droid built by Anakin for his mother .
Kenny Baker as R2 @-@ D2 : An astromech droid often seen on missions with Anakin and Obi @-@ Wan .
Frank Oz voices Yoda : The centuries @-@ old Jedi Grand Master of an unknown species who , in addition to sitting on the Jedi Council , is the instructor for young Jedi .
Ahmed Best , Pernilla August , Oliver Ford Davies , Andy Secombe , and Silas Carson reprise their roles as Jar Jar Binks , Shmi Skywalker , Sio Bibble , Watto , and Nute Gunray , respectively from The Phantom Menace , with Carson also portraying Ki @-@ Adi @-@ Mundi , a member of the Jedi Council . Alethea McGrath portrays Jocasta Nu , the chief librarian of the Jedi Archives . Temuera Morrison portrays Jango Fett , a Mandalorian bounty hunter who provides his DNA to use for cloning purposes in the creation of the clone army . Jimmy Smits portrays Bail Organa , a senator of the Republic , and Jay Laga 'aia portrays Captain Typho , the head of security for Padmé Amidala . Daniel Logan portrays a young Boba Fett , Jango 's son , who is created from his " father " ' s DNA . Leeanna Walsman portrays Zam Wesell , a shape @-@ shifting Clawdite bounty hunter and partner of Jango 's , who is given the task of assassinating Padmé . Jack Thompson portrays Cliegg Lars , a moisture farmer who freed and married Shmi , thus becoming the stepfather of Anakin Skywalker . Joel Edgerton and Bonnie Piesse appear as Owen Lars , the son of Cliegg Lars and stepbrother of Anakin Skywalker , and Beru Whitesun , Owen 's girlfriend . Ayesha Dharker appears as Jamillia , the Queen of Naboo , and Rose Byrne and Verónica Segura appear as Dormé and Cordé , Padmé 's handmaidens and the latter who serves as a decoy to the senator and is killed during an assassination attempt .
A large search for the new Anakin Skywalker was performed across the United States . Lucas auditioned various actors , mostly unknown , before casting Christensen . Among the many established actors who auditioned were Jonathan Brandis , Ryan Phillippe , Colin Hanks , and Paul Walker . Leonardo DiCaprio also met with Lucas for the role , but was " definitely unavailable " according to DiCaprio publicist Ken Sunshine . Co @-@ star Natalie Portman later told Time magazine that Christensen " gave a great reading . He could simultaneously be scary and really young . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
After the mixed critical response to The Phantom Menace , Lucas was hesitant to return to the writing desk . In March 2000 , just three months before the start of principal photography , Lucas finally completed his rough draft for Episode II . Lucas continued to iterate on his rough draft , producing a proper first and second draft . For help with the third draft , which would later become the shooting script , Lucas brought on Jonathan Hales , who had written several episodes of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles for him , but had limited experience writing theatrical films . The final script was completed just one week before the start of principal photography .
As an in @-@ joke , the film 's working title was Jar Jar 's Big Adventure , a sarcastic reference to the negative fan response to the Episode I character .
In writing The Empire Strikes Back , Lucas initially decided that Lando Calrissian was a clone and came from a planet of clones which caused the " Clone Wars " mentioned by Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi in A New Hope ; he later came up with an alternate concept of an army of clone shocktroopers from a remote planet which were used by the Republic as an army in the war that followed .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography occurred between June 26 , 2000 and September 20 , 2000 at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney . Location shooting took place in the Tunisian desert , at the Plaza de España in Seville , London , China , Vancouver , San Diego , and Italy ( Villa del Balbianello on Lake Como , and in the former royal Palace of Caserta ) . At his own personal request , Samuel L. Jackson 's character Mace Windu received a lightsaber that emitted an amethyst glow , as opposed to traditional blue and green for " good guys " and red for " bad guys " . Reshoots were performed in March 2001 . During this time , a new action sequence was developed featuring the droid factory after Lucas had decided that the film lacked a quick enough pace in the corresponding time @-@ frame . The sequence 's previsualization was rushed , and the live @-@ action footage was shot within four and a half hours . Because of Lucas ' method of creating shots through various departments and sources that are sometimes miles and years apart from each other , Attack of the Clones became the first film ever to be produced through what Rick McCallum called " virtual filmmaking " .
Like The Phantom Menace , Attack of the Clones furthered technological development , effectively moving Hollywood into the " digital age " with the use of the HDW @-@ F900 , developed by Sony and Panavision , a digital camera using an HD digital 24 @-@ frame system . This spawned controversy over the benefits and disadvantages of digital cinematography that continues as more filmmakers " convert " to digital filmmaking while many filmmakers oppose it . In contrast to previous installments , for which scenes were shot in the Tunisian desert in temperatures up to 125 ° F ( 51 ° C ) , the camera would still run without complications . Lucas had stated that he wished to film The Phantom Menace on this format but Sony was unable to build the cameras quickly enough . In 2002 , Attack of the Clones became the third film to be released that was shot entirely on a 24p digital camera ( preceded by 2001 's Jackpot and Vidocq ) . The cameras record in the 16 : 9 HDCAM format ( 1080p ) , although the image was cropped to a 2 @.@ 40 : 1 widescreen ratio . The area above and below the 2 @.@ 40 extraction area was available for Lucas to reframe the picture as necessary in post @-@ production . Despite Lucas ' efforts to persuade movie theaters to switch to digital projectors for viewing of Episode II , few theaters did .
= = = Visual effects = = =
The film relied almost solely on digital animatics as opposed to storyboards in order to previsualize sequences for editing early on in the film 's production . While Lucas had used other ways of producing motion @-@ based storyboards in the past , after The Phantom Menace the decision was made to take advantage of the growing digital technology . The process began with Ben Burtt 's creation of what the department dubbed as " videomatics " , so called because they were shot on a household videocamera . In these videomatics , production assistants and relatives of the department workers acted out scenes in front of greenscreen . Using computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) , the previsualization department later filled in the green screen with rough background footage . Burtt then cut together this footage and sent it off to Lucas for changes and approval . The result was a rough example of what the final product was intended to be . The previsualization department then created a finer version of the videomatic by creating an animatic , in which the videomatic actors , props , and sets were replaced by digital counterparts to give a more precise , but still rough , look at what would eventually be seen . The animatic was later brought on set and shown to the actors so that they could understand the concept of the scene they were filming in the midst of large amount of bluescreen used . Unlike most of the action sequences , the Battle of Geonosis was not storyboarded or created through videomatics but was sent straight to animatics after the department received a small vague page on the sequence . The intent was to create a number of small events that would be edited together for pacing inside the finished film . The animatics department was given a free hand regarding events to be created within the animatic ; Lucas only asked for good action shots that he could choose from and approve later .
In addition to introducing the digital camera , Attack of the Clones emphasized " digital doubles " as computer @-@ generated models that doubled for actors , in the same way that traditional stunt doubles did . It also furthered the authenticity of computer @-@ generated characters by introducing a new , completely CGI @-@ created version of the character Yoda . Rob Coleman and John Knoll prepared two tests featuring a CGI @-@ animated Yoda using audio from The Empire Strikes Back . Yoda 's appearance in Episode V also served as the reference point for the creation of the CGI Yoda ; Lucas repeatedly stated to the animation department that " the trick " to the animation of the CGI Yoda was to make him like the puppet from which he was based , in order to maintain a flow of continuity . Frank Oz ( voice and puppeteer for Yoda in the original trilogy and The Phantom Menace ) was consulted ; his main piece of advice was that Yoda should look extremely old , sore , and frigid . Coleman later explained the process of making the digital Yoda like the puppet version , by saying , " When Frank [ Oz ] would move the head , the ears would jiggle . If we hadn 't put that in , it wouldn 't look like Yoda . " Because of the acrobatics of the lightsaber fight between Count Dooku and Yoda , the then 78 @-@ year @-@ old Christopher Lee relied on a stunt double to perform the most demanding scenes instead . Lee 's face was superimposed onto the double 's body in all shots other than close @-@ ups , which he performed himself . Lucas often called the duel crucial to the animation department , as it had such potential to be humorous rather than dramatic .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack to the film was released on April 23 , 2002 by Sony Classical Records . The music was composed and conducted by John Williams , and performed by the London Voices and London Symphony Orchestra . The soundtrack recreates " The Imperial March " from the film The Empire Strikes Back for its first chronological appearance in Attack of the Clones , even though a hint of it appeared in the previous movie in one of the final scenes . A music video for the main theme " Across the Stars " was produced specifically for the DVD .
On March 15 , 2016 , a limited edition vinyl version of the soundtrack was released . Only 1 @,@ 000 copies were pressed initially .
= = Themes = =
Lucas has noted that Palpatine 's rise to power is very similar to that of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany ; as Chancellor of Germany , the latter was granted " emergency powers " , as is Palpatine . Comparisons have been made to Octavian – who became Augustus , the first emperor of Rome – and to Napoleon Bonaparte , who rose to power in France from 1796 to 1799 . Octavian was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of political opponents well before he was granted tribunician powers ; Bonaparte was appointed First Consul for life ( and later Emperor ) by the French Consulate after a failed attempt on his life and the subsequent coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 . References to the American Civil War can also be discerned .
English scholar Anne Lancashire describes Attack of the Clones as " thoroughly political in its narrative " , to the point that interpersonal relations are made subordinate to the political drama that unfolds , and " a critique of the increasing role played by economic and political appetite in contemporary First World international politics in general " . In this political drama , the Trade Federation , the former idealist Dooku and Palpatine " [ represent ] the economic and political greed and ambition ( ... ) of the political and business classes " , while the Jedi have become a force of aggression , and the cityscape of Coruscant has devolved into a dystopian environment that references 1982 's Blade Runner .
War journalism , combat films , and footage of World War II combat influenced the documentary @-@ style camera work of the Battle of Geonosis , even to the point that hand @-@ held shakes were digitally added to computer @-@ generated sequences .
The prequel trilogy films often refer to the original trilogy in order to help connect the films together . Lucas has often referred to the films as a long poem that rhymes . Such examples include the line " I have a bad feeling about this " , a phrase used in each film , and lightsaber duels which almost always occur over a pit . As with Attack of the Clones , The Empire Strikes Back was the middle film in a trilogy , and of the original trilogy films , The Empire Strikes Back is the object of the most references in Attack of the Clones . In both films , an asteroid field is the backdrop of a major star battle in the middle of the film . Obi @-@ Wan escapes Jango Fett by attaching his spacecraft to an asteroid in order to disappear from the enemy sensors ; Han Solo uses a similar tactic by attaching the Millennium Falcon to a Star Destroyer in The Empire Strikes Back . As a retcon , John Knoll confirms on the film 's DVD commentary that Boba Fett , who would later catch Solo in the act in The Empire Strikes Back , " learned his lesson " from the events of Attack of the Clones . In another scene , Obi @-@ Wan asks Anakin , " Why do I get the feeling you 're going to be the death of me ? " This is an allusion to A New Hope where Anakin , as Darth Vader , kills Obi @-@ Wan aboard the Death Star . Also , Count Dooku cuts off Anakin 's arm , similar to when Darth Vader cut off Luke Skywalker 's hand in The Empire Strikes Back .
= = Release = =
After a teaser trailer premiered with the film Monsters , Inc . , a new trailer for the film aired on the Fox Network on March 10 , 2002 between Malcolm in the Middle and The X @-@ Files , and was made available on the official Star Wars web site the same day . The outplacement firm Challenger , Gray & Christmas from Chicago predicted before the film 's release that U.S. companies could lose more than $ 319 million in productivity due to employees calling in sick and then heading to theaters to see the film .
The film premiered as part of the inaugural Tribeca Film Festival at the BMCC Performing Arts Center , 199 Chambers St. in New York City at a Sunday , May 12 set of screenings benefitting the Children 's Aid Society , a charity supported by George Lucas . Attack of the Clones was then screened out of competition at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , before getting a worldwide theatrical release on May 16 , 2002 . The film was also later released in IMAX theaters ; the film had not been filmed for IMAX but was " up converted " with the digital remastering process . Because of the technical limitations of the IMAX projector , an edited , 120 @-@ minute version of the film was presented .
Before the film 's release , there was a string of controversies regarding piracy . In 2000 , an underground organization calling itself the Atlas Group , based in Perth , Western Australia offered a copy of the screenplay , with an asking price of US $ 100 @,@ 000 , to various fan sites and media organizations , including TheForce.Net. The scheme was subsequently reported to Lucasfilm Ltd. by the fan site .
A pirate copy was allegedly made at a private showing , using a digital recorder that was pointed at the screen . This copy spread over the internet , and analysts predicted up to a million fans would have seen the film before the day of its release . In addition , authorities seized thousands of bootlegs throughout Kuala Lumpur before the film opened .
= = = Home media = = =
Star Wars Episode II : Attack of the Clones was released on DVD and VHS on November 12 , 2002 . The DVD features an audio commentary from director George Lucas , producer Rick McCallum , editor and sound designer Ben Burtt , ILM animation director Rob Coleman , and ILM visual effects supervisors Pablo Helman , John Knoll , and Ben Snow . Eight deleted scenes are included along with multiple documentaries , which include a full @-@ length documentary about the creation of digital characters and two others that focus on sound design and the animatics team . Three featurettes examine the storyline , action scenes , and love story , and a set of 12 short web documentaries cover the overall production of the film .
The Attack of the Clones DVD also features a trailer for a mockumentary @-@ style short film known as R2 @-@ D2 : Beneath the Dome . Some stores offered the full mockumentary as an exclusive bonus disc for a small extra charge . The film gives an alternate look at the " life " of the droid R2 @-@ D2 . The story , which Lucas approved , was meant to be humorous .
The DVD was re @-@ released in a prequel trilogy box set on November 4 , 2008 .
The Star Wars films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 16 , 2011 in three different editions .
On April 7 , 2015 , Walt Disney Studios , 20th Century Fox , and Lucasfilm jointly announced the digital releases of the six released Star Wars films . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Attack of the Clones through the iTunes Store , Amazon Video , Vudu , Google Play , and Disney Movies Anywhere on April 10 , 2015 .
= = = 3D re @-@ release = = =
On September 28 , 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 09 @-@ 28 ) , it was announced that all six films in the series were to be stereo @-@ converted to 3D , and re @-@ released in chronological order beginning with The Phantom Menace which was released on February 10 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 @-@ 10 ) . Attack of the Clones was originally scheduled to be re @-@ released in 3D on September 20 , 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 ) , but was postponed due to Lucasfilm 's desire to focus on Star Wars : The Force Awakens . However , the 3D presentation of the film was shown at Celebration Europe II in July 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 66 % approval rating and overall rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 for the film based on 242 reviews , with the general consensus being " Star Wars Episode II : Attack of the Clones benefits from an increased emphasis on thrilling action , although they 're once again undercut by ponderous plot points and underdeveloped characters . " On Metacritic , the film holds a score of 54 out of 100 based on 39 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " .
Numerous critics characterized the dialogue " stiff " and " flat " . The acting ( particularly by Christensen and Portman ) was also disparaged by some critics . Conversely , other critics felt fans would be pleased to see that Jar Jar Binks has only a minor role . Additionally , Jar Jar 's attempts at comic relief seen in The Phantom Menace were toned down ; instead , C @-@ 3PO reprised some of his bumbling traditions in that role . McGregor referred to the swordplay in the film as " unsatisfactory " when comparing it to the climactic duel in Revenge of the Sith as it neared release . ReelViews.net 's James Berardinelli gave a positive review , saying , " in a time when , more often than not , sequels disappoint , it 's refreshing to uncover something this high @-@ profile that fulfills the promise of its name and adds another title to a storied legacy . "
Roger Ebert , who had praised all of the previous Star Wars films , gave Episode II only two out of four stars , noting , " [ As ] someone who admired the freshness and energy of the earlier films , I was amazed , at the end of Episode II , to realize that I had not heard one line of quotable , memorable dialogue . " About Anakin and Padme 's relationship , Ebert stated , " There is not a romantic word they exchange that has not long since been reduced to cliché . " Leonard Maltin , who also liked all of the previous installments , only awarded two stars out of four to this endeavor as well , as seen in his Movie and Video Guide from the 2002 edition onward . Maltin cited an " overlong story " as reason for his dissatisfaction and added , " Wooden characterizations and dialogue don 't help . "
Following suit with the series ' previous installments , the Academy Awards nominated Attack of the Clones ' Rob Coleman , Pablo Helman , John Knoll , and Ben Snow for Best Visual Effects at the 2003 Academy Awards , but the award ultimately went to The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers . Natalie Portman was also honored at the Teen Choice Awards , and the film received an award for Best Fight at the MTV Movie Awards . In contrast , the film also received seven nominations from the Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Picture , Worst Director ( George Lucas ) , Worst Screenplay ( George Lucas ) , Worst Supporting Actor ( Hayden Christensen ) , Worst Supporting Actress ( Natalie Portman ) , Worst Screen Couple ( Hayden Christensen and Natalie Portman ) and Worst Remake or Sequel . It took home two awards for Worst Screenplay ( George Lucas ) and Worst Supporting Actor ( Hayden Christensen ) .
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed $ 310 @,@ 676 @,@ 740 in North America and $ 338 @,@ 721 @,@ 588 overseas for a worldwide total of $ 649 @,@ 398 @,@ 328 . Though a huge financial success , it was nevertheless overshadowed by the even greater box @-@ office success of The Phantom Menace three years earlier . It was not the top grossing film of the year , either in North America ( where it finished in third place ) or worldwide ( where it was fourth ) , the first time that a Star Wars film did not have this distinction . In North America it was outgrossed by Spider @-@ Man and The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers , both of which received a less favorable critical reception as well . Worldwide , it was also outgrossed by Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , though Attack of the Clones performed better than The Chamber of Secrets in North America . Adjusted for inflation , Attack of the Clones is the lowest @-@ performing live @-@ action Star Wars film at the North American box office , though is still among the 100 highest @-@ grossing films of all time when adjusted for inflation . It sold an estimated 52 @,@ 012 @,@ 300 tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run .
= = Novelizations = =
Two novels based on the movie were published , a tie @-@ in junior novel by Scholastic , and a novelization written by R. A. Salvatore , which includes some unique scenes . A four @-@ issue comic book adaptation was written by Henry Gilroy and published by Dark Horse Comics .
= Typhoon Zeb =
Typhoon Zeb , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Iliang , was a powerful typhoon that struck the island of Luzon in October 1998 . The tenth tropical storm of the season , Zeb formed on October 10 from the monsoon trough near the Caroline Islands . It moved westward initially and quickly intensified . Zeb 's inflow briefly spawned another tropical storm , which it ultimately absorbed . Developing an eye , Zeb rapidly intensified into a super typhoon , officially reaching maximum sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) ; one warning agency estimated winds as high as 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) . After reaching peak intensity , the typhoon struck northern Luzon and quickly weakened over land . Turning to the north , Zeb brushed the east coast of Taiwan at a reduced intensity , and after accelerating to the northeast it moved through Japan . It became extratropical on October 18 and moved eastward over open waters .
First affecting the Philippines , Zeb dropped torrential rainfall in Luzon , reaching 1 @,@ 116 mm ( 43 @.@ 9 in ) in one day in La Trinidad , estimated as a 1 in 1147 year event . The rains caused floods and landslides , which compounded with high winds to leave heavy crop damage . Zeb destroyed or damaged 85 @,@ 844 houses in the Philippines , and damage in the country was estimated at ₱ 5 @.@ 375 billion ( 1998 Philippine pesos , $ 126 million United States dollars ) , the fifth costliest at the time . There were also 83 deaths in the country , a number compounded upon when Typhoon Babs struck the same region a week later . High winds and rainfall from Zeb later affected Taiwan , causing NT $ 4 @.@ 15 billion ( New Taiwan dollar , $ 125 million USD ) in damage as well as 31 deaths . Gusty winds affected much of Japan , while heavy rainfall peaked at 586 mm ( 23 @.@ 1 in ) on Mount Ontake . The storm killed 14 people in the country , several related to landslides . Zeb destroyed 770 homes and flooded another 12 @,@ 548 in Japan .
= = Meteorological history = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance over the western Pacific Ocean to the east of Guam around October 7 . The system moved steadily westward , organizing enough for the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert early on October 9 . After the disturbance passed south of Guam , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Depression 18W late on October 9 , and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) followed suit the next day . While passing north of Yap in the Caroline Islands , the depression intensified into a tropical storm according to the JTWC , which gave it the name Zeb . The JMA again was delayed in upgrading by a day .
After becoming a tropical storm , Zeb proceeded to steadily intensify . Its large inflow spawned a circulation well to the east @-@ northeast , which organized into a separate tropical storm – Alex . Early on October 11 , the storm entered the area of responsibility of PAGASA – the Philippine @-@ based weather agency – which gave it the local name Iliang . Late on October 11 , the JTWC upgraded Zeb to typhoon status , or 1 minute winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . This was based on the appearance of a banding @-@ type eye on satellite imagery . On October 12 , the storm rapidly intensified as it turned more to the west @-@ northwest toward the Philippines . During this time , it caused increased wind shear over the smaller Tropical Storm Alex to the east @-@ northeast , ultimately absorbing it . At 00 : 00 UTC on October 13 , the JTWC upgraded Zeb to super typhoon status , estimating winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . Twelve hours later , the agency estimated that the typhoon strengthened further to a peak of 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) , making it the strongest storm of the season . At the same time , PAGASA also estimated peak 10 minute winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , also designating Zeb as a super typhoon . Late on October 13 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) just east of the island of Luzon . While near peak intensity , the JTWC estimated that winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) extended 95 km ( 60 mi ) , and gales extended 465 km ( 290 mi ) from the center .
Zeb 's eyewall continued to contract up until it moved ashore . Early on October 14 , Zeb made landfall on eastern Luzon just south of Palanan Bay , or east of Ilagan , near peak intensity . The typhoon weakened rapidly over land , while its track shifted more to the north around a ridge to the east . It emerged into the Luzon Strait between the eponymous island and Taiwan with a much larger eyewall , and failed to re @-@ intensify over open waters . Late on October 15 , Zeb passed within 19 km ( 11 mi ) of Taiwan 's east coast before accelerating to the northeast due to a passing trough . The JMA downgraded the typhoon to tropical storm status on October 16 , although the JTWC retained Zeb at typhoon status . Favorable upper @-@ level conditions allowed the storm to briefly re @-@ intensify after passing Taiwan , although this was short @-@ lived , and it weakened while accelerating toward Japan . At 07 : 00 UTC on October 17 , Zeb struck southern Kyushu in Kagoshima Prefecture . It continued northeastward through the country , striking Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku and later crossing central Honshu as a tropical storm . During this time , the storm was losing tropical characteristics as it swiftly entered the Sea of Japan . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 18 , the JMA declared Zeb extratropical , and shortly after the storm moved over northern Hokkaido and into the Sea of Okhotsk . The remnants moved across the southern Kamchatka Peninsula and continued eastward through the open north Pacific . It was last noted by the JMA early on October 20 .
= = Preparations = =
Ahead of the storm , PAGASA issued Public Storm Warning Signal # 4 , in which winds of over 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) were expected within 12 hours . The warning covered Batanes , Cagayan , Isabela , Quirino , and northern Aurora . Lesser warnings were issued as far south as the Visayas , and extended into the Metro Manila area . After two damaging storms in September , the government began making widespread preparations on October 13 , organizing efforts through its National Disaster Coordinating Council . Ports were closed and flights were canceled due to the storm . Before the worst of the storm struck , power companies shut off electricity to prevent accidents . About 103 @,@ 000 people evacuated their homes , including over 6 @,@ 325 staying in 114 government shelters . Evacuations extended as far south as Camarines Sur .
The Hong Kong Observatory issued a stand @-@ by warning signal # 1 due to the storm 's proximity to the South China Sea .
Before Zeb brushed the east coast of Taiwan , a typhoon warning was issued , causing schools , government buildings , and financial markets to close . Airports and ferry travel were also disrupted . 183 residents evacuated to storm shelters , including 50 from a nursing home . Hundreds of Chinese fishing boats rode out the storm in Taiwan harbors . Similarly to Taiwan , Zeb delayed ferry service in Japan , and caused 271 domestic flights to be canceled . Train service was canceled on Kyushu during the storm .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Striking the Philippines at peak intensity , Zeb largely affected the island of Luzon , including the regions of Ilocos , Cagayan Valley , and Central Luzon . Wind gusts were estimated as high as 296 km / h ( 184 mph ) in the country . The storm also dropped torrential rainfall , particularly in mountainous regions . In the municipality of Bakun , the 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) rain gauge overflowed , and in nearby La Trinidad , the rainfall was 1 @,@ 116 mm ( 43 @.@ 9 in ) on October 14 alone . The latter total was estimated as a 1 in 1147 year event , based on the history of local rainfall totals . In the city of Baguio , the precipitation reached 994 @.@ 6 mm ( 39 @.@ 16 in ) , enough to flood the town 9 m ( 30 ft ) deep . The Binga and Ambuclao dams in Benguet were unable to support the rains from the storm , forcing them to be opened and flood three towns in neighboring Pangasinan . Minor street flooding occurred along the west coast near Manila .
Across Luzon , the high rains caused flooding , landslides , and halted construction of a dam in Bakun . Considered one of the strongest typhoons to hit the area in decades , Zeb knocked down tress and power lines , which covered roads and left areas isolated . The winds were strong enough to blow over a jeepney . Along its path , the storm destroyed 26 @,@ 305 houses and damaged another 59 @,@ 539 , mostly affecting those of weaker building materials . River flooding caused heavy damage to crops , estimated at ₱ 1 @.@ 76 billion ( 1998 Philippine pesos , $ 41 @.@ 3 million United States dollars ) ; the storm destroyed 181 @,@ 630 t ( 400 @,@ 430 @,@ 000 lb ) of rice in Ilocos Region and Cagayan Valley . Most of the damage occurred in Luzon , with little impact elsewhere . The storm also marred the local infrastructure ; areas in northeastern Luzon were isolated when landslides blocked a highway , and several other roads and bridges were impassible . Overall , Zeb killed 83 people in the country , while injuring another 63 ; most of the deaths were related to the landslides , and 33 of the deaths were in Cordillera Administrative Region . Overall damage was estimated at ₱ 5 @.@ 375 billion ( PHP , $ 126 million USD ) , which as of 2011 was the 13th costliest typhoon in the Philippines and the 5th costliest at the time .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
The interaction between Zeb and the monsoon brought gusty winds to Hong Kong , reaching 88 km / h ( 55 mph ) on Cheung Chau . High tides were also recorded , although there was no reported damage in the territory .
Later , Zeb produced sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 96 mph ) in Taiwan , although gusts topped at 191 km / h ( 119 mph ) . The typhoon dropped torrential rainfall in the northern and eastern portions of the island , with peak hourly rates of 42 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 66 in ) . Several regions of Taiwan received over 400 mm ( 16 in ) of rainfall . The rains caused severe flooding along rivers , with a peak discharge of 3715 m ³ / s ( 131 @,@ 193 ft ³ / s ) . The high rainfall forced workers at the Fei @-@ tsui Dam to release water , after water levels rose by 300 mm ( 12 in ) . Landslides near Taipei wrecked homes , trapping at least two people . Landslides also covered several highways while floods washed away bridges , cutting off traffic . Flooding occurred in the suburbs of Taipei , and the winds were strong enough to cause skyscrapers to sway in the city . Zeb 's winds knocked over trees , billboards , and power lines , leaving 1 @.@ 15 million without electricity . Two @-@ story high waves killed a fisherman in Taitung City , washed a freighter ashore in Taichung , and capsized a boat in Tamsui District , killing one sailor ; five of the others on board swam two hours to reach shore . The storm left $ 57 @.@ 6 million ( USD ) in crop damage , after hundreds of acres of fields were damaged in the southern and central Taiwan . Overall damage was estimated at NT $ 4 @.@ 15 billion ( New Taiwan dollar , $ 125 million USD ) , and there were 31 confirmed deaths in Taiwan , with 19 people injured .
While moving through Japan , Zeb produced peak sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) in Kōchi Prefecture within Shikoku . The highest rainfall was 586 mm ( 23 @.@ 1 in ) on Mount Ontake on Honshu . The widespread rainfall caused 332 landslides and washed away seven bridges . Within Japan , Zeb first affected Miyako @-@ jima while passing about 180 km ( 110 mi ) to the northwest . High winds left 2 @,@ 600 houses without power and caused damage to public buildings . It later passed about 230 km ( 145 mi ) to the northwest of Okinawa . Along the island , wind gusts reached 134 km / h ( 83 mph ) , and wave heights peaked at 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) . The waves swept away two people over a sea wall , killing them both . High waves also damaged a port at Kadena Air Base as well as several houses near the coast . The storm also passed near the Yaeyama Islands with strong winds . Salt spray coated trees and ruined them , and there was scattered public building damage .
On Kyushu , Zeb damaged houses , marred crops , and flooded rivers . The storm spawned a tornado in Miyazaki Prefecture that damaged two roofs and a vehicle . In Saganoseki , a motorist died after a roadway collapse landed his vehicle in a nearby river . On Shikoku , Zeb destroyed roads and farmlands and eroded lands along waterways . Three people died due to a landslide in Matsuyama . In Okayama Prefecture along Honshu , Zeb left six people missing or killed and was the costliest typhoon since Typhoon Fran in 1976 . Landslides killed three people in Hiroshima Prefecture . Power outages and landslides affected much of Honshu , while strong winds damaged many fields . A cargo freighter washed aground amid high waves in Shizuoka Prefecture , causing oil to leak and requiring assistance from the Coast Guard ; oil recovery equipment was sent to the area to clean the spill . Lastly , Zeb affected the northern island of Hokkaido , causing one landslide , damaging 152 buildings , and knocking 152 @,@ 000 apples to the ground . Nationwide , Zeb destroyed 770 homes and flooded another 12 @,@ 548 , with thousands forced to evacuate their homes due to flooding . Overall , there were 14 deaths and 67 injuries , with damage estimated at $ 335 @.@ 5 million ( 1998 USD ) .
= = Aftermath = =
After the storm , then @-@ Philippine president Joseph Estrada declared six provinces as a state of calamity , which allocated ₱ 1 million in emergency funds for each province . The president was unable to return home from a trip to Singapore due to the storm . The military was activated to help organize relief efforts , using rubber boats and trucks to reach the hardest hit areas as floodwaters decreased . They were aided by the Philippine Red Cross and other government agencies . Most evacuees returned home after the storm passed , excluding those whose houses sustained damage . Volunteers , the military , and public workers helped clean up from the damage . Just seven days after Zeb 's damaging Philippine landfall , another typhoon – Babs – struck the same general region with a similar , but lesser intensity . After both storms , the Philippine National Electrification Administration provided ₱ 1 @.@ 78 million to the Batanes Electric Cooperative to restore damaged power lines . Power was gradually restored in northeastern Luzon , allowing communication of the damage extent . The nation 's Department of Health distributed ₱ 547 @,@ 469 worth of medicine to four provinces . The government airlifted about 3 @,@ 000 bags of supplies to Cagayan that included rice and canned goods . The back to back storm impacts caused an estimated 30 % drop in coconut exports . Food prices rose dramatically , in some instances up to 400 % , after both storms damaged crops . The storms also delayed shipments of sugar from neighboring countries , although prices were expected to fall once they arrived . By December 1998 , consumer prices had risen by 11 @.@ 2 % over the previous year due to the typhoons ' damage .
Workers in Taiwan began a search and rescue mission for missing victims once the typhoon warning was lifted . Workers immediately began repairing road damage in Japan once the storm passed .
= Weather Machine =
Weather Machine is a lumino @-@ kinetic bronze sculpture and columnar machine that serves as a weather beacon , displaying a weather prediction each day at noon . Designed and constructed by Omen Design Group Inc . , the approximately 30 @-@ foot ( 9 m ) tall sculpture was installed in 1988 in the northwest corner of Pioneer Courthouse Square in Portland , Oregon , in the United States . Two thousand people attended its dedication , which was broadcast live nationally from the square by Today weatherman Willard Scott . The machine cost $ 60 @,@ 000 .
During its daily two @-@ minute sequence , which includes a trumpet fanfare , mist , and flashing lights , the machine displays one of three metal symbols as a prediction of the weather for the following 24 @-@ hour period : a sun for clear and sunny weather , a blue heron for drizzle and transitional weather , or a dragon and mist for rainy or stormy weather . The sculpture includes two bronze wind scoops and displays the temperature via vertical colored lights along its stem . The air quality index is also displayed by a light system below the stainless steel globe . Weather predictions are made based on information obtained by employees of Pioneer Courthouse Square from the National Weather Service and the Department of Environmental Quality . Considered a tourist attraction , Weather Machine has been called " bizarre " , " playful " , " unique " , and " wacky " , and has been compared to a giant scepter .
= = Description and history = =
Weather Machine is a lumino @-@ kinetic bronze sculpture that serves as a weather beacon , designed and constructed by Omen Design Group Inc . Contributors included Jere and Ray Grimm , Dick Ponzi , who won a 40 @-@ entry international competition to design the machine for Pioneer Courthouse Square ( 1984 ) , and Roger Patrick Sheppard . The group described their efforts as " collaborative " , but Sheppard considered Ponzi the " maestro " of the project . Ponzi did the engineering and hydraulics , and the machine was assembled at his vineyard near Beaverton . The sculpture was inspired by Portland @-@ born @-@ and @-@ based writer Terence O 'Donnell , who suffered from osteomyelitis during his childhood , and his " funny Irish jig " . Weather Machine , which took five years to plan and build and cost $ 60 @,@ 000 , was installed in the square in August 1988 . Today weatherman Willard Scott broadcast live from the square to dedicate the sculpture on its August 24 opening . Two thousand people were present as early as 4 a.m. for the dedication . Financial contributors included Pete and Mary Mark , the AT & T Foundation , Alyce R. Cheatham , Alexandra MacColl , E. Kimbark MacColl , Meier & Frank , the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality , David Pugh and Standard Insurance Company . Information about the donors was included on a plaque added to the sculpture 's stem in the weeks following the dedication .
Each day at noon , the columnar machine performs a two @-@ minute sequence that begins with a trumpet fanfare of the opening bars of Aaron Copland 's Fanfare for the Common Man , and produces mist and flashing lights . It eventually reveals one of three metal symbols : a stylized golden sun ( " helia " ) for clear and sunny weather , a blue heron ( Portland 's official bird ) for drizzle and transitional weather , or mist and a " fierce , open @-@ mouthed " dragon for heavy rain or stormy weather . The fanciful symbols change at the same time every day , representing weather predictions for the following 24 @-@ hour period . " Helia " , described as " gleaming " , was designed by Jere Grimm ; her design would later be applied to one of her husband 's pots , exhibited in 1989 . The trumpets are allowed to play at noon due to a waiver of Portland 's noise ordinance for that time period . Ray Grimm constructed the blue heron symbol , and the group collaborated on the dragon symbol based on his drawings . In order for the machine to display an accurate weather prediction , as reported by The Oregonian in 1988 , employees of Pioneer Courthouse Square contacted the National Weather Service each morning at 10 : 30 a.m. for the forecast , and then entered information into the machine 's computer , located behind a nearby door .
The machine , whose height is reported to be between 25 and 33 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 and 10 @.@ 1 m ) , includes two bronze wind scoops that turn in opposite directions . It also indicates the temperature ( when 20 ° F or above ) via vertical colored lights along the sculpture 's stem . Measured by an internal gauge , the machine displays blue lights for below freezing , white lights for above freezing and red lights to mark every ten degrees ( ° F ) . Referring to an additional light system ( below the stainless steel globe ) that indicates air quality , The Oregonian reported in 1988 that a green light indicates good air quality , amber reflects " semismoggy " air and a red light indicates poor air quality . However , in 1998 one writer for The Oregonian warned : " you don 't want to breathe so much when the white light is on " . Pioneer Courthouse Square employees enter air quality information into the machine 's computer following routine checks with the Department of Environmental Quality .
In addition to its pre @-@ dawn dedication on national television , Weather Machine had a public dedication at noon on August 24 , attended by Mayor Bud Clark and other city officials . On that day , the machine displayed the sun symbol and a green light for good air quality , and indicated a temperature of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) . Following the fanfare , known officially as " Fanfare for Weather Machine with Four Trumpets " , jazz singer Shirley Nanette led the crowd in a rendition of " You Are My Sunshine " . Portland had good weather in the days following its dedication , preventing visitors from seeing all three symbols for an extended length of time ( though all three symbols are displayed briefly during the daily two @-@ minute sequence ) . This prompted the executive director of Pioneer Courthouse Square to consider altering the machine 's schedule so that the public would have a chance to see all three symbols . The sculpture maintained good health until winter 1995 , when its mechanical performance temporarily began deviating from noon and the temperature gauge had difficulties working properly . In 2012 , the machine malfunctioned and stopped operating for about a week .
= = Reception = =
In the weeks following Weather Machine 's dedication , an estimated 300 to 400 people gathered at the square daily to witness the noon sequence . Following the dedication , The Oregonian published : " It takes nothing from its fascination to know that a human on the staff of the square will be making the daily phone calls to the Weather Service and the Department of Environmental Quality , and pushing the necessary buttons to cue the pillar 's performance ... They have given Portland an attraction no other city has . We 're going to like it . "
Ponzi described the machine as " light @-@ hearted . . . active , distinctive — and fun " . O 'Donnell , who inspired the sculpture , called it a " gentle spectacle " and described the work as " a cartoon contraption , an odd little thingamajig . It has bells and whistles and other mechanized wonders that confirm rain sometime after the downpour and proudly announce sunshine in the bright light of day . " In 1994 , The Oregonian reported that O 'Donnell regarded Weather Machine with a " mixture of wonder and embarrassment " and stated that he " [ didn 't ] think it 's all that attractive " . The publication 's Vivian McInerny said of O 'Donnell and the machine : " Practical people may wonder why the square needs such a silly weather machine when a glance out the window works as well . . . And these practical people may be the very ones who make the world go ' round . But it is the less practical people , the dreamers like O 'Donnell , who make it worth going ' round . "
In 1995 , The Oregonian 's Jonathan Nicholas wrote , " To this day , nobody is exactly sure what happens when the thing sounds off each day at noon . It 's like having a governor in blue jeans . We can 't really explain it : It just happens . " Grant Butler of The Oregonian gave the machine 's trumpet fanfare as one of three examples of ways in which people could be certain it was noon in Portland .
The machine is considered a tourist attraction , recommended in visitor guides for Portland and included in walking tours . One travel contributor recommended a visit to the sculpture for people with children seeking a " perfect family day " . Weather Machine has been compared to a giant scepter and has been called " bizarre " , " eccentric " , " playful " , " unique " , " wacky " , " whimsical " , " zany " , and a " piece of wizardry " .
= Java Man =
Java Man ( Homo erectus erectus ) is the popular name given to early human fossils discovered on the island of Java ( Indonesia ) in 1891 and 1892 . Led by Eugène Dubois , the excavation team uncovered a tooth , a skullcap , and a thighbone at Trinil on the banks of the Solo River in East Java . Arguing that the fossils represented the " missing link " between apes and humans , Dubois gave the species the scientific name Anthropopithecus erectus , then later renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus .
The fossil aroused much controversy . Less than ten years after 1891 , almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois 's finds . Despite Dubois ' argument , few accepted that Java Man was a transitional form between apes and humans . Some dismissed the fossils as apes and others as modern humans , whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all . In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that Pithecanthropus was built like a " giant gibbon " , a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the " missing link " .
Eventually , similarities between Pithecanthropus erectus ( Java Man ) and Sinanthropus pekinensis ( Peking Man ) led Ernst Mayr to rename both Homo erectus in 1950 , placing them directly in the human evolutionary tree . To distinguish Java Man from other Homo erectus populations , some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies , Homo erectus erectus , in the 1970s . Other fossils found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at Sangiran and Mojokerto , all older than those found by Dubois , are also considered part of the species Homo erectus . Estimated to be between 700 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years old , at the time of their discovery the fossils of Java Man were the oldest hominin fossils ever found . The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the Naturalis in the Netherlands since 1900 .
= = History of discoveries = =
= = = Background = = =
Charles Darwin had argued that humanity evolved in Africa , because this is where great apes like gorillas and chimpanzees lived . Though Darwin 's claims have since been vindicated by the fossil record , they were proposed without any fossil evidence . Other scientific authorities disagreed with him , like Charles Lyell , a geologist , and Alfred Russel Wallace , who had thought of the theory of evolution around the same time as Darwin . Because both Lyell and Wallace believed that humans were more closely related to gibbons and orangutans , they identified Southeast Asia as the cradle of humanity because this is where these great apes lived . Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois favored the latter theory , and sought to confirm it .
= = = Trinil fossils = = =
In October 1887 , Dubois abandoned his academic career and left for the Dutch East Indies ( present @-@ day Indonesia ) to look for the fossilized ancestor of modern man . Having received no funding from the Dutch government for his eccentric endeavor – since no one at the time had ever found an early human fossil while looking for it – he joined the Dutch East Indies Army as a military surgeon . Because of his work duties , it was only in July 1888 did he begin to excavate caves in Sumatra . Having quickly found abundant fossils of large mammals , Dubois was relieved of his military duties ( March 1889 ) , and the colonial government assigned two engineers and fifty convicts to help him with his excavations . After he failed to find the fossils he was looking for on Sumatra he moved on to Java in 1890 .
Again assisted by convict laborers and two army sergeants , Dubois began searching along the Solo River near Trinil in August 1891 . His team soon excavated a molar ( Trinil 1 ) and a skullcap ( Trinil 2 ) . Its characteristics were a long cranium with a sagittal keel and heavy browridge . Dubois first gave them the name Anthropopithecus , or " man @-@ ape " , as the chimpanzee was known at the time . He chose this name because a similar tooth found in the Siwalik Hills in India in 1878 had been named Anthropopithecus , and because Dubois first assessed the cranium to have been about 700 cubic centimetres ( 43 cu in ) , closer to apes than to humans .
In August 1892 , Dubois 's team found a long femur ( thighbone ) shaped like a human one , suggesting that its owner had stood upright . Believing that the three fossils belonged to a single individual , " probably a very aged female " , Dubois renamed the specimen Anthropopithecus erectus . Only in late 1892 , when he determined that the cranium measured about 900 cubic centimetres ( 55 cu in ) , did Dubois consider that his specimen was a transitional form between apes and humans . In 1894 , he thus renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus ( " upright ape @-@ man " ) , borrowing the genus name Pithecanthropus from Ernst Haeckel , who had coined it a few years earlier to refer to a supposed " missing link " between apes and humans . This specimen has also been known as Pithecanthropus 1 .
= = = Comparisons with Peking Man = = =
In 1927 , Canadian Davidson Black identified two fossilized teeth he had found in Zhoukoudian near Beijing as belonging to an ancient human , and named his specimen Sinanthropus pekinensis , now better known as Peking Man . In December 1929 , the first of several skullcaps was found on the same site , and it appeared similar but slightly larger than Java Man . Franz Weidenreich , who replaced Black in China after the latter 's death in 1933 , argued that Sinanthropus was also a transitional fossil between apes and humans , and was in fact so similar to Java 's Pithecanthropus that they should both belong to the family Hominidae . Eugène Dubois categorically refused to entertain this possibility , dismissing Peking Man as a kind of Neanderthal , closer to humans than the Pithecanthropus , and insisting that Pithecanthropus belonged to its own family , the Pithecanthropoidae .
= = = Other discoveries on Java = = =
After the discovery of Java Man , Berlin @-@ born paleontologist G. H. R. von Koenigswald recovered several other early human fossils in Java . Between 1931 and 1933 von Koenigswald discovered fossils of Solo Man from sites along the Bengawan Solo River on Java , including several skullcaps and cranial fragments . In 1936 , von Koenigswald discovered a juvenile skullcap known as the Mojokerto child in East Java . Considering the Mojokerto child skull cap to be a closely related to humans , von Koenigswald wanted to name it Pithecanthropus modjokertensis ( after Dubois 's specimen ) , but Dubois protested that Pithecanthropus was not a human but an " ape @-@ man " .
Von Koenigswald also made several discoveries in Sangiran , Central Java , where more fossils of early humans were discovered between 1936 and 1941 . Among the discoveries was a skullcap of similar size to that found by Dubois at the Trinil 2 site . Von Koenigswald 's discovers in Sangiran convinced him that all these skulls belonged to early humans . Dubois again refused to acknowledge the similarity . Ralph von Koenigswald and Franz Weidenreich compared the fossils from Java and Zhoukoudian and concluded that Java Man and Peking Man were closely related . Dubois died in 1940 , still refusing to recognize their conclusion , and official reports remain critical of the Sangiran site 's poor presentation and interpretation .
= = Early interpretations = =
More than 50 years after Dubois 's find , Ralph von Koenigswald recollected that , " No other paleontological discovery has created such a sensation and led to such a variety of conflicting scientific opinions . " The Pithecanthropus fossils were so immediately controversial that by the end of the 1890s , almost 80 publications had already discussed them .
Until the Taung child – the 2 @.@ 8 million @-@ year @-@ old remains of an Australopithecus africanus – were discovered in South Africa in 1924 , Dubois 's and Koenigswald 's discoveries were the oldest hominid remains ever found . Some scientists of the day suggested that Dubois 's Java Man was a potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other great apes . This supposition has been confirmed , but the current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of Homo erectus ( possibly Homo ergaster ) , rather than the Asian populations of the same species exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man .
= = = Missing link theory = = =
Dubois first published his find in 1894 . Dubois 's central claim was that Pithecanthropus was a transitional form between apes and humans , a so @-@ called " missing link " . Many disagreed . Some critics claimed that the bones were those of an upright walking ape , or that they belonged to a primitive human . This judgment made sense at a time when an evolutionary view of humanity had not yet been widely accepted , and scientists tended to view hominid fossils as racial variants of modern humans rather than as ancestral forms . After Dubois let a number of scientists examine the fossils in a series of conferences held in Europe in the 1890s , they started to agree that Java Man may be a transitional form after all , but most of them thought of it as " an extinct side branch " of the human tree that had indeed descended from apes , but not evolved into humans . This interpretation eventually imposed itself and remained dominant until the 1940s .
Dubois was bitter about this and locked the fossil up in a trunk until 1923 when he showed it to Ales Hrdlicka from the Smithsonian Institution . In response to critics who refused to accept that Java Man was a " missing link " , in 1932 Dubois published a paper arguing that the Trinil bones looked like those of a " giant gibbon " . Dubois ' use of the phrase has been widely misinterpreted as a retraction , but it was intended an argument to support his claim that Pithecanthropus was a transitional form . According to Dubois , evolution occurred by leaps , and the ancestors of humanity had doubled their brain @-@ to @-@ body ratio on each leap . To prove that Java Man was the " missing link " between apes and humans , he therefore had to show that its brain @-@ to @-@ body ratio was double that of apes and half that of humans . The problem was that Java Man 's cranial capacity was 900 cubic centimeters , about two thirds of modern humans ' .
Like many scientists who believed that modern humans evolved " Out of Asia " , Dubois thought that gibbons were closest to humans among the great apes . To preserve the proportions predicted by his theory of brain evolution , Dubois argued that Java Man was shaped more like a gibbon than a human . Imagined " with longer arms and a greatly expanded chest and upper body " , the Trinil creature became a gigantic ape of about 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) , but " double cephalization of the anthropoid apes in general and half that of man " . It was therefore halfway on the path to becoming a modern human . As Dubois concluded his 1932 paper : " I still believe , now more firmly than ever , that the Pithecanthropus of Trinil is the real ' missing link . ' "
= = = Reclassification as Homo erectus = = =
Based on Weidenreich 's work and on his suggestion that Pithecanthropus erectus and Sinanthropus pekinensis were connected through a series of interbreeding populations , German biologist Ernst Mayr reclassified them both as being part of the same species : Homo erectus . Mayr presented his conclusion at the Cold Spring Harbor Symposium in 1950 , and this resulted in Dubois 's erectus species being reclassified under the genus Homo . As part of the reclassification , Mayr included not only Sinanthropus and Pithecanthropus , but also Plesianthropus , Paranthropus , Javanthropus , and several other genera as synonyms , arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus ( Homo ) , and that " never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time " . A " revolution in taxonomy " , Mayr 's single @-@ species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted . It shaped paleoanthropology in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s , when the African genus Australopithecus was accepted into the human evolutionary tree .
In the 1970s a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of H. erectus as a subspecies , Homo erectus erectus , with the Chinese variety being referred to as Homo erectus pekinensis .
= = Post @-@ discovery analysis = =
= = = Date of the fossils = = =
Dubois ' complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as the Naturalis , in Leiden in the Netherlands . The main fossil of Java Man , the skullcap cataloged as " Trinil 2 " , has been dated biostratigraphically , that is , by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals ( a " faunal assemblage " ) found nearby on the same geological horizon , which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically . Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the Trinil Fauna , a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites . He concluded that the skullcap was about 700 @,@ 000 years old , thus dating from the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene .
Though this view is still widely accepted , in the 1980s a group of Dutch paleontologists used Dubois 's collection of more than 20 @,@ 000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found . Using only fossils from Trinil , they called that new faunal assemblage the Trinil H. K. Fauna , in which H. K. stands for Haupt Knochenschicht , or " main fossil @-@ bearing layer " . This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years old . ( Work published in 2014 gives a " maximum age of 0 @.@ 54 ± 0 @.@ 10 million years and a minimum age of 0 @.@ 43 ± 0 @.@ 05 million years " for Ar @-@ Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human @-@ predated shell material from Trinil . " Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving " Joordens et al . , 2014 , Nature online publishing ; work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site . ) . Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of H. erectus in Java . Sangiran 2 ( named after its discovery site ) may be as old as 1 @.@ 66 Ma ( million years ) . The controversial Mojokerto child , which Carl C. Swisher and Garniss Curtis once dated to 1 @.@ 81 ± 0 @.@ 04 Ma , has now been convincingly re @-@ dated to a maximum age of 1 @.@ 49 ± 0 @.@ 13 Ma , that is , 1 @.@ 49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130 @,@ 000 years .
= = = Type Specimen = = =
The fossils found in Java are considered the type specimen for H. erectus . Because the fossils of Java Man were found " scattered in an alluvial deposit " – they had been laid there by the flow of a river – detractors doubted that they belonged to the same species , let alone the same individual . German pathologist Rudolf Virchow , for instance , argued in 1895 that the femur was that of a gibbon . Dubois had difficulty convincing his critics , because he had not attended the excavation , and could not explain specifically enough the exact location of the bones . Because the Trinil thighbone looks very much like that of a modern human , it might have been a " reworked fossil " , that is , a relatively young fossil that was deposited into an older layer after its own layer had been eroded . For this reason , there is still dissent about whether all the Trinil fossils represent the same species .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Java Man was about 5 feet 8 inches ( 170 cm ) tall and his thighbones show that he walked erect like modern humans . The femur is thicker than that of a modern human . The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead and no chin , as well as protruding browridges and a massive jaw . With 900 ccm , his cranial capacity was smaller than that of later H. erectus specimens . He had human teeth with large canines . Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man 's ecological role , meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet . Java Man , like other Homo erectus , was probably a rare species . There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat .
= = Material culture = =
H. erectus arrived in Eurasia approximately 1 @.@ 8 million years ago , in an event considered to be the first African exodus . There is evidence that the Java population of H. erectus lived in an ever @-@ wet forest habitat . More specifically the environment resembled a savannah , but was likely regularly inundated ( " hydromorphic savanna " ) . The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass ( poaceae ) , ferns , ficus , and indigofera , which are typical of lowland rainforest .
= = = Control of fire = = =
The control of fire by Homo erectus is generally accepted by archaeologists to have begun some 400 @,@ 000 years ago , with claims regarding earlier evidence finding increasing scientific support . Burned wood has been found in layers that carried the Java Man fossils in Trinil , dating to around from 500 @,@ 000 to 830 @,@ 000 BP . However , because Central Java is a volcanic region , the charring may have resulted from natural fires , and there is no conclusive proof that Homo erectus in Java controlled fire . It has been proposed that Java Man was aware of the use of fire , and that the frequent presence of natural fires may have allowed Java Man " opportunistic use [ ... that ] did not create an archeologically visible pattern " .
= Jedd Gyorko =
Jedd Lindon Gyorko ( / ˈdʒɜːrkoʊ / JUR @-@ koh ; born September 23 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played in MLB for the San Diego Padres .
Gyorko attended University High School in Morgantown , West Virginia . Playing for the school 's baseball team as a shortstop , he was named one of the best baseball players in the state . He then enrolled at West Virginia University , and set numerous school records for the West Virginia Mountaineers baseball program . Gyorko won the 2010 Brooks Wallace Award as the best shortstop in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's Division I.
The Padres selected Gyorko in the second round of the 2010 MLB Draft . Playing in minor league baseball , Gyorko shifted to third base , and developed into one of the best prospects in baseball . He made the Padres ' Opening Day roster as their starting second baseman , and had a strong rookie season . The Padres signed Gyorko to a contract extension worth $ 35 million early in the 2014 season , but traded him to St. Louis after the 2015 season .
= = Early life = =
Gyorko was born on September 23 , 1988 , in Morgantown , West Virginia , to Randall and Penny Gyorko . His family also had a home on Cheat Lake , where he stayed often in his youth . He was a fan of the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) .
When he was five years old , his father , Randall , and Jerry Mahoney , a former college baseball player at West Virginia University ( WVU ) and WVU employee , began to train Gyorko to become a baseball player through various instructional drills . They trained at WVU 's Shell Building , which Mahoney had access to , when the weather was too cold to train outdoors . In youth baseball , Gyorko played as a second baseman .
= = Amateur career = =
Gyorko attended University High School in Morgantown . He played for the school 's baseball , American football , and basketball teams . He was an infielder for the baseball team , but primarily played shortstop . In baseball , Gyorko was named to the All @-@ Conference team all four years of his high school career . He was also named to the All @-@ State team three times . Gyorko also played American Legion baseball for four years . He led his American Legion teams to state championships in 2004 and 2007 .
Gyorko played quarterback and wide receiver for the football team , and shooting guard and point guard for the basketball team . In basketball , Gyorko was named All @-@ Conference as a sophomore . University won the conference championship in Gyorko 's junior year , as he averaged 17 @.@ 4 points per game ( PPG ) , second best in the conference . He was named his conference 's Player of the Year and to the All @-@ State second team . In his senior year , he averaged 18 @.@ 2 PPG and was named to the All @-@ State first team .
After weighing scholarship offers to play college baseball from WVU , St. John 's University and Clemson University , Gyorko chose to remain near home , enrolling at WVU in order to play college baseball for the West Virginia Mountaineers baseball team , which competed in the Big East Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I. Gyorko shifted to second base for his freshman year to accommodate senior Tyler Kuhn , who played shortstop . He had a 21 @-@ game hitting streak to start his tenure with the Mountaineers , registering a .500 batting average during the streak . As a freshman , Gyorko finished the season with a .409 batting average with eight home runs and 63 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , winning the Big East Rookie of the Year Award . He was also named to the All @-@ Big East 's second team , and the Freshman All @-@ America teams of Louisville Slugger and the National Collegiate Baseball Writers Association . He agreed to play collegiate summer baseball for the Brewster Whitecaps of the Cape Cod Baseball League ( CCBL ) after the college season , but he required shoulder surgery and was unable to play .
Following Kuhn 's graduation , Gyorko returned to shortstop for the Mountaineers . In his sophomore season , Gyorko batted .421 with eight home runs and 58 RBIs . He set a Mountaineers single @-@ season record with 28 doubles . He was named First Team All @-@ Big East and Second Team All @-@ American by Louisville Slugger . After the season , he joined the United States national collegiate baseball team , but did not make the final roster . He joined Brewster for the CCBL season , playing second base . He was named to the CCBL All @-@ Star Team , and he competed in the home run derby , held at Fenway Park .
Prior to Gyorko 's junior season , in 2010 , he was named the preseason Big East Player of the Year and a Third Team All @-@ American by Baseball America . Continuing to play as a shortstop , Gyorko batted .381 with 19 home runs and 57 RBIs in his junior year . He won the 2010 Brooks Wallace Award as the best shortstop in NCAA Division I. By the end of his junior season , Gyorko established himself as the Mountaineers career leader in batting average ( .404 ) , doubles ( 73 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 113 ) and the single @-@ season leader in walks ( 43 ) , doubles ( 28 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 48 ) , and total bases ( 192 ) . He also tied the WVU records for career home runs ( 35 ) and single @-@ season home runs ( 19 ) . Gyorko was considered a potential first or second round pick in the MLB Draft following his junior year , Though he had one more year of eligibility remaining at West Virginia , Gyorko said " it has always been my dream to play professionally " and that he would " go and play for a living " after his junior year .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
= = = = Minor leagues = = = =
Professional teams coveted Gyorko for his hitting ability , though they did not expect him to play shortstop at the professional level . Though his throwing arm was viewed as strong enough to allow him to play at any position in the infield , analysts believed that Gyorko would not have sufficient range or speed to play shortstop professionally , and Gyorko understood he would likely change positions . Regarding his defense , Gyorko said " where I play [ on defense ] isn 't a big concern for me . I 'm just ready for this chance to live a dream and it will all work out . "
The San Diego Padres drafted Gyorko in the second round , with the 59th overall selection , of the 2010 MLB draft . They selected Gyorko as a third baseman . Gyorko signed with the Padres quickly , receiving a $ 614 @,@ 700 signing bonus , while other draft selections held out for higher signing bonuses . After signing with the Padres , Gyorko was assigned to the Eugene Emeralds of the Class A @-@ Short Season Northwest League , where he hit .330 with five home runs , 18 RBIs , and 35 hits in 26 games . He was then promoted to the Fort Wayne TinCaps of the Class A Midwest League . He hit a home run in his first at @-@ bat with the TinCaps . Gyorko batted .284 with 46 hits in 42 games .
Gyorko began the 2011 season with the Lake Elsinore Storm of the Class A @-@ Advanced California League . He split time between third base and designated hitter , as fellow third base prospect Edinson Rincon was also a member of the Storm . Gyorko appeared in the California / Carolina League All @-@ Star Game , and was named the Top Star as he batted 2 @-@ for @-@ 4 with a run scored and an RBI . Gyorko batted .365 with 18 home runs and 74 RBIs for Lake Elsinore before he was promoted to the San Antonio Missions of the Class AA Texas League , following the promotion of Missions third baseman James Darnell . In 576 at @-@ bats for Lake Elsinore and San Antonio , Gyorko had 192 hits , 25 home runs , 114 RBIs , a batting average of .333 and a .400 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) . Following the season , he competed in the Arizona Fall League . He was named the 10th best prospect in the AFL that year , after he led the league with a .437 batting average .
Gyorko began the 2012 season with San Antonio , where he batted .262 with six home runs and 17 RBIs in 34 games . He was promoted to the Tucson Padres of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) in mid @-@ May , as the Padres promoted Everth Cabrera and Alexi Amarista from Tucson , released Orlando Hudson , and placed Jason Bartlett on the disabled list . He continued to split his time between second base and third base at each level after playing third in his previous minor league seasons . Baseball America ranked Gyorko as the 50th best prospect in their midseason ranking of prospects , after ranking him 98th coming into the 2012 season . With Tucson , Gyorko hit .328 with 24 home runs and 83 RBIs . He finished the season with a combined .311 batting average , .373 OBP , and .547 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , with 30 home runs . In 410 plate appearances , he struck out only 68 times . Baseball America named Gyorko the best third baseman in Class AAA .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
The Padres invited to spring training in 2013 , giving him a chance to win a job as the starting second baseman for the 2013 Padres . Gyorko impressed Padres ' manager Bud Black with his hitting ability and defense at second base . With injuries to infielders Chase Headley and Logan Forsythe , Gyorko made the Padres ' Opening Day roster , with the opportunity to alternate between second and third base . In his MLB debut , on April 1 , 2013 , Gyorko started at second base , but later shifted to third base . He also recorded his first MLB hit , a double off of Jonathan Niese . He hit his first major league home run off of Scott Feldman of the Chicago Cubs on May 1 , 2013 . His six home runs in May tied Evan Gattis for the most among MLB rookies . Gyorko had a .280 batting average through June 10 , and missed the next 30 games due to a groin injury .
Gyorko batted .100 in July , but he improved his on @-@ base percentage and on @-@ base plus slugging in August , and passed Gattis with 16 home runs . He continued to swing at pitches outside of the strike zone and not draw enough walks . Gyorko finished the season as the team leader in both home runs ( 23 ) and RBIs ( 63 ) . He led all MLB rookies that season in OBP ( .301 ) , SLG ( .444 ) , and home runs , and his home run total was the third @-@ most ever by an MLB rookie second baseman . He broke the Padres ' record for home runs by a second baseman , passing Bret Boone 's 19 in 2000 . Gyorko was also the first MLB rookie second baseman to lead his team in RBIs . Additionally , he became just the second rookie to lead the Padres in either category since Nate Colbert in San Diego 's inaugural season in 1969 . He was named to Baseball America 's All @-@ Rookie Team , and finished sixth in NL Rookie of the Year balloting .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
Going into spring training in 2014 , Gyorko began focusing on improving his plate discipline , while maintaining his aggressiveness in swinging at hittable pitches . He also lost weight in an effort to improve his flexibility . Gyorko agreed to a $ 510 @,@ 900 salary for the 2014 season . On April 14 , Gyorko signed a five @-@ year extension with the Padres worth $ 35 million , which was the third largest for a player with only one year of service in the majors . After committing four errors in his first 25 games , Gyorko increased his infield practice with Glenn Hoffman , the Padres ' third base and infield coach .
After struggling to start the season , with a .162 batting average , the Padres placed Gyorko on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on June 6 due to plantar fasciitis in his left foot . After missing 44 games , Gyorko was activated off the disabled list on July 28 . With his 31st career home run on August 16 , Gyorko succeeded Mark Loretta for most home runs as a Padres ' second baseman . He batted .260 in his final 222 plate appearances of the year , but ended the season with disappointing numbers : a .210 batting average , .280 OBP , .333 SLG , and ten home runs .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
During the 2014 – 15 offseason , Gyorko worked to regain the muscle he lost during the previous offseason . With Matt Kemp and Justin Upton added to the Padres ' lineup , Black hoped to reduce the pressure on Gyorko to perform . By late April , with Gyorko off to a 7 @-@ for @-@ 47 ( .147 ) start to the season , he began to lose playing time to Yangervis Solarte , and to Cory Spangenberg in May and June as he continued to struggle .
On June 10 , after hitting .210 with two home runs in 46 games , the Padres demoted Gyorko to the El Paso Chihuahuas of the PCL . Gyorko hit .279 with four home runs in 16 games , before the Padres recalled him on June 30 . Gyorko made his first appearance at shortstop as a professional on August 17 , and continued to play shortstop throughout the remainder of the season . Gyorko finished the season with a .247 batting average and 16 home runs in 128 games .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =
On December 8 , 2015 , the Padres traded Gyorko to the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for Jon Jay , while also agreeing to pay $ 7 @.@ 5 million towards the remaining $ 33 million guaranteed by Gyorko 's contract . The Cardinals intend to use Gyorko as a backup for second baseman Kolten Wong , third baseman Matt Carpenter , and shortstop Jhonny Peralta . He opened the season as the Cardinals ' starting shortstop due to an injury to Peralta . While playing the Pittsburgh Pirates on April 5 , he hit his first home run for the Cardinals . Due to the emergence of Aledmys Díaz at shortstop and Wong 's struggles , Gyorko opened the season receiving most of his playing time at second base .
In his first five games against the Padres , Gyorko homered in each game , totaling six , and also had 13 hits in 21 at bats with 10 RBI .
= = Personal life = =
Gyorko is the youngest of three sons . His older brother , Scott , attended WVU and played college football for the West Virginia Mountaineers football team as a linebacker . Jedd attends all Mountaineers football games . Gyorko used the money he received in his signing bonus to build a house in Morgantown near his parents ' house . Gyorko intends on finishing his bachelor 's degree in business .
Gyorko married his wife Karley in 2011 . The couple live within walking distance of Petco Park , the home stadium of the Padres , during the season , and return to Morgantown during the offseason . Karley gave birth to twin sons on April 28 , 2014 . They were born premature , and one remained in the hospital for a few extra days for observation .
= Ernie Banks =
Ernest " Ernie " Banks ( January 31 , 1931 – January 23 , 2015 ) , nicknamed " Mr. Cub " and " Mr. Sunshine " , was an American professional baseball player who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) as a shortstop and first baseman for the Chicago Cubs between 1953 and 1971 . He was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1977 , and was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team in 1999 .
Banks is regarded by some as one of the greatest players of all time . He began playing professional baseball in 1950 with the Kansas City Monarchs in the Negro leagues . He served in the U.S. military for two years , played for the Monarchs again , and began his major league career in September 1953 . The following year , Banks was the National League Rookie of the Year runner @-@ up . Beginning in 1955 , Banks was a National League ( NL ) All @-@ Star for 11 seasons , playing in 13 of the 15 All @-@ Star Games held during those seasons . Banks was the Cubs ' main attraction in the late 1950s , the National League Most Valuable Player in 1958 and 1959 , and the Cubs ' first Gold Glove winner in 1960 .
In 1962 , Banks became a regular first baseman for the Cubs . In the mid @-@ 1960s , Cubs manager Leo Durocher became frustrated with Banks , saying the slugger 's performance was faltering . Durocher said he was unable to remove Banks from the lineup due to the star 's popularity among Cubs fans . Between 1967 and 1971 , he was a player @-@ coach . In 1969 , through a Chicago Sun @-@ Times fan poll , Cubs fans voted him the greatest Cub ever . In 1970 , Banks hit his 500th career home run at Wrigley Field . He retired from playing in 1971 , was a coach for the Cubs in 1972 , and in 1982 was the team 's first player to have his uniform number retired .
Banks was active in the Chicago community during and after his tenure with the Cubs . He founded a charitable organization , became the first black Ford Motor Company dealer in the United States , and made an unsuccessful bid for a local political office . In 2013 , Banks was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contribution to sports . Banks lived in the Los Angeles and Chicago areas .
= = Early life = =
Banks was born in Dallas , Texas , to Eddie and Essie Banks on January 31 , 1931 ; he was the second of twelve children . His father , who had worked in construction and was a warehouse loader for a grocery chain , played baseball for black , semi @-@ professional teams in Texas . As a
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so many school children . Due to the one @-@ child policy , many families lost their only child when schools in the region collapsed during the earthquake . Consequently , Sichuan provincial and local officials have lifted the restriction for families whose only child was either killed or severely injured in the disaster . So @-@ called " illegal children " under 18 years of age may be registered as legal replacements for their dead siblings ; if the dead child was illegal , no further outstanding fines would apply . Reimbursement would not , however , be offered for fines that were already levied .
On May 29 , 2008 , government officials began inspecting the ruins of thousands of schools that collapsed , searching for clues about why they crumbled . Thousands of parents around the province have accused local officials and builders of cutting corners in school construction , citing that after the quake other nearby buildings were little damaged . In the aftermath of the quake , many local governments promised to formally investigate the school collapses , but as of July 17 , 2008 across Sichuan , parents of children lost in collapsed schools complained they had yet to receive any reports . Local officials urged them not to protest but the parents demonstrated and demanded an investigation . Furthermore , censors discouraged stories of poorly built schools from being published in the media and there was an incident where police drove the protestors away .
In the China Digital Times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged Chinese construction engineer known online as “ Book Blade ” ( 书剑子 ) , who stated :
" ... because of our nation ’ s particular brand of education , our children are fed 20 years of Marxist philosophy with Chinese characteristics — a philosophy that has nothing to say about saving lives ... School construction is the worst . First , there ’ s not enough capital . Schools in poor areas have small budgets and , unlike schools in the cities , they can ’ t collect huge fees , so they ’ re pressed for money . With construction , add in exploitation by government officials , education officials , school managers , etc. and you can imagine what ’ s left over for the actual building of schools . When earthquake prevention standards are raised , government departments , major businesses , etc. will all appraise and reinforce their buildings . But these schools with their 70s @-@ era buildings , no @-@ one pays attention to them . Because of this , the older school buildings suffer from inadequate protection while the new buildings have been shoddily constructed . "
On Children 's Day , June 1 , 2008 , many parents went to the rubble of schools to mourn for their children . The surviving children , who were mostly living in relief centres , performed ceremonies marking the special day , but also acknowledging the earthquake .
Ye Zhiping , the principal of Sangzao Middle School in Sangzao , one of the largest in An County , has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2 @,@ 323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened . During a three @-@ year period that ended in 2007 , he oversaw a major overhaul of his school . During that time he obtained more than 400 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) from the county education department , money used to widen and strengthen concrete pillars and the balcony railing of all four storeys of his school , as well as secure its concrete floors .
The AP reported that " The state @-@ controlled media has largely ignored the issue , apparently under the propaganda bureau 's instructions . Parents and volunteers who have questioned authorities have been detained and threatened . "
However , Reuters reported in June that , to date , Chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during May 's devastating earthquake to gain first @-@ hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools , launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime . It was also reported that safety checks were to be carried out at schools across China after last month 's earthquake .
The New York Times reported that " government officials in Beijing and Sichuan have said they are investigating the collapses . In an acknowledgment of the weakness of building codes in the countryside , the National Development and Reform Commission said on May 27 that it had drafted an amendment to improve construction standards for primary and middle schools in rural areas . Experts are reviewing the draft , the commission said . " To limit protests , officials pushed parents to sign a document , which forbade them from holding protests , in exchange of money , but some who refused to sign were threatened . The payment amounts varied from school to school but were approximately the same . In Hanwang , parents were offered a package valued at 8 @,@ 800 USD in cash and a per @-@ parent pension of nearly 5 @,@ 600 USD . Furthermore , officials used other methods of silencing : riot police officers broke up protests by parents ; the authorities set up cordons around the schools ; and officials ordered the Chinese news media to stop reporting on school collapses .
Besides parents , Liu Shaokun ( 刘绍坤 ) , a Sichuan school teacher , was detained on June 25 , 2008 for " disseminating rumors and destroying social order " about the Sichuan earthquake . Liu ’ s family was later told that he was being investigated on suspicion of the crime of inciting subversion . Liu had travelled to the Shifang , taken photos of collapsed school buildings , and put them online . He had also expressed his anger at “ the shoddy tofu @-@ dregs buildings ” ( 豆腐渣工程 ) in a media interview . He was ordered to serve one year of re @-@ education through labor ( RTL ) . According to the organization Human Rights in China , Liu has been released to serve his RTL sentence outside of the labor camp .
On May 15 , 2008 Geoffery York of the Globeandmail.com reported that the shoddily constructed buildings are commonly called " tofu buildings " because builders cut corners by replacing steel rods with thin iron wires for concrete re @-@ inforcement ; using inferior grade cement , if any at all ; and using fewer bricks than they should . One local was quoted in the article as saying that " the supervising agencies did not check to see if it met the national standards . "
In January 2010 , Hong Kong @-@ based English newspaper The Standard reported that writer Tan Zuoren attempted to document shoddy construction that may have led to massive casualties in schools , was sentenced to in prison ostensibly for his writing an article in 2007 in support of the pro @-@ democracy movement in 1989 .
= = Foreign and domestic aid = =
Because of the magnitude of the quake , and the media attention on China , foreign nations and organizations immediately responded to the disaster by offering condolences and assistance . On May 14 , UNICEF reported that China formally requested the support of the international community to respond to the needs of affected families .
= = = Mainland China = = =
By May 14 , the Ministry of Civil Affairs stated that 10 @.@ 7 billion yuan ( approximately US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ) had been donated by the Chinese public . Houston Rockets center Yao Ming , one of the country 's most popular sports icons , gave $ 214 @,@ 000 and $ 71 @,@ 000 to the Red Cross Society of China . The association has also collected a total of $ 26 million in donations so far . Other multinational firms located in China have also announced large amounts of donations .
The Red Cross Society of China flew 557 tents and 2 @,@ 500 quilts valued at 788 @,@ 000 yuan ( US $ 113 @,@ 000 ) to Wenchuan County . The Amity Foundation already began relief work in the region and has earmarked US $ 143 @,@ 000 for disaster relief . The Sichuan Ministry of Civil Affairs said that they have provided 30 @,@ 000 tents for those left homeless .
Central State @-@ owned enterprises have accumulatively donated more than $ 48 @.@ 6 million . China National Petroleum Corp and Sinopec donated 10 million yuan each to the disaster area .
Following the earthquake , donations were made by people from all over mainland China , with booths set up in schools , at banks , and around gas stations . People also donated blood , resulting in according to Xinhua long line @-@ ups in most major Chinese cities . Many donated through text messaging on mobile phones to accounts set up by China Unicom and China Mobile By May 16 , the Chinese government had allocated a total of $ 772 million for earthquake relief so far , up sharply from $ 159 million from May 14 .
On May 16 China stated it had also received $ 457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far , including $ 83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations . Saudi Arabia was the largest aid donor to China , providing close to € 40 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in financial assistance , and an additional € 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of relief materials .
= = First anniversary = =
On May 12 , 2009 , China marked the first anniversary of the quake with a moment of silence as people across the nation remembered the dead . The government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the Beichuan county seat for three days , after which it will be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum , to remind people of the terrible disaster . There were also several concerts across the country to raise money for the survivors of the quake .
However questions still remain , as some of the corrupt government officials have still not been brought to justice , while the many families who lost their only child , are still seeking compensation and justice to what had happened . According to the Times , many parents were warned by the government not to stage a protest under the threat of arrest .
= = Completion of works = =
In 2008 , State Council established a counterpart support plan ( 《 汶川地震灾后恢复重建对口支援方案 》 ) . The plan is to arrange 19 eastern and central provinces and municipalities to help 18 counties , on " one province to one affected county " basis . The plan spanned 3 years , and cost no less than one percent of the province or municipality 's budget .
In 2012 , vice governor Wei Hong announced that the restoration and reconstruction are completed :
Wei said that 99 @.@ 5 percent of the budget , or 865 @.@ 8 billion yuan ( 137 @.@ 5 billion U.S. dollars ) , has been invested in post @-@ quake reconstruction efforts , and 99 percent of 29 @,@ 692 related projects have been completed . . . . Local governments have successfully helped more than 12 million people in rural and urban areas repair their houses , and have relocated 200 @,@ 000 farmers who lost their farmlands , the vice governor added .
= = Precursors and postmortems = =
The earthquake was the worst to strike the Sichuan area in over 30 years . Following the quake , experts and the general public sought information on whether or not the earthquake could have been predicted in advance , and whether or not studying statistics related to the quake could result in better prediction of earthquakes in the future . Earthquake prediction is not yet established science ; there was no consensus within the scientific community that earthquake " prediction " is possible .
In 2002 , Chinese geologist Chen Xuezhong published a Seismic Risk Analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003 , attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7 @.@ 0 occurring in Sichuan region . He based his study on statistical correlation . That Sichuan is a seismically active area has been discussed for years prior to the quake , though few studies point to a specific date and time .
In a press conference held by the State Council Information Office the day after the earthquake , geologist Zhang Xiaodong , deputy director of CEA 's Seismic Monitoring Network Center , restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue , in the sense that no proven methods exist , and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake . Seismologist Gary Gibson of Monash University in Australia told Deutsche Presse @-@ Agentur that he also did not see anything that could be regarded as having ' predicted ' the earthquake 's occurrence .
The earthquake also provided opportunities for researchers to retrofit data in order to model future earthquake predictions . Using data from the Intermagnet Lanzhou geomagnetic observatory , geologists Lazo Pekevski from the Ss . Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje in Macedonia and Strachimir Mavrodiev from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences attempted to establish a " time prediction method " through collecting statistics on geomagnetism with tidal gravitational potential . Using this method , they were said to have predicted the time of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake with an accuracy of ± 1 day . The same study , however , acknowledges the limitation of earthquake prediction models , and does not mention that the location of the quake could be accurately predicted .
An article in Science suggested that the construction and filling of the Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the earthquake . The chief engineer of the Sichuan Geology and Mineral Bureau said that the sudden shift of a huge quantity of water into the region could have relaxed the tension between the two sides of the fault , allowing them to move apart , and could have increased the direct pressure on it , causing a violent rupture . The effect was " 25 times more " than a year 's worth of natural stress from tectonic movement . The government had disregarded warnings about so many large @-@ scale dam projects in a seismically active area . Researchers have been denied access to seismological and geological data to examine the cause of the quake further .
Malaysia @-@ based Yazhou Zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the China Seismological Bureau Geng Qingguo ( 耿庆国 ) , in which Geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the State Seismological Bureau on April 30 , 2008 , warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in Ngawa Prefecture region of Sichuan around May 8 , with a range of 10 days before or after the quake . Geng , while acknowledging that earthquake prediction was broadly considered problematic by the scientific community , believed that " the bigger the earthquake , the easier it is to predict . " Geng had long attempted to establish a correlation between the occurrence of droughts and earthquakes ; Premier Zhou Enlai reportedly took an interest in Geng 's work . Geng 's drought @-@ earthquake correlation theory was first released in 1972 , and said to have successfully predicted the 1975 Haicheng and 1976 Tangshan earthquakes . The same Yazhou Zhoukan article pointed out the inherent difficulties associated with predicting earthquakes . In response , an official with the Seismological Bureau stated that " earthquake prediction is widely acknowledged around the world to be difficult from a scientific standpoint . " The official also denied that the Seismological Bureau had received reports predicting the earthquake .
= Moondram Pirai =
Moondram Pirai ( English : The crescent seen on the third day following new moon day ) is a 1982 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic drama film written , directed and filmed by Balu Mahendra . The film features Kamal Haasan and Sridevi in the lead roles , while Silk Smitha , Poornam Vishwanathan and Y. G. Mahendra play supporting roles . The music for the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja , with lyrics written by Kannadasan , Vairamuthu and Gangai Amaran . It also featured the last song written by Kannadasan to be recorded before his death in 1981 .
Moondram Pirai is about a school teacher , R. Srinivas , who rescues a woman , Bhagyalakshmi , who is suffering from retrograde amnesia , from a brothel , and protects her in his house located in Ketti . The rest of the film shows how Bhagyalakshmi recovers her memory with Srinivas ' help . Moondram Pirai is based on Balu Mahendra 's brief relationship with actress Shoba , who died in 1980 , shortly after their marriage . It was shot in Ketti , a small town situated close to Ooty , with further shooting also taking place in Bangalore . A total of 30 days was taken to complete the filming , using 36 @,@ 000 feet of film negative .
Moondram Pirai was released on 19 February 1982 to positive critical reception . It was a box office success and had a theatrical run of 379 days at the Sathyam Theatre , and 200 days in other multiplexes . The film won two National Film Awards : Best Actor for Haasan , and Best Cinematography for Mahendra . It also won the Best Director Award for Mahendra at the Filmfare Awards , and five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards , including Best Film ( third prize ) , Best Actor ( Haasan ) and Best Actress ( Sridevi ) . The film was dubbed in Telugu under the title Vasantha Kokila and was released on the same day as the original version . Mahendra remade the film in Hindi as Sadma , with Haasan , Sridevi and Smita reprising their roles from the original version .
= = Plot = =
Bhagyalakshmi , a young woman , has a car accident while returning from a party and is hospitalised with severe head injuries . When she recovers , she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia and she fails to recognise her own parents . She mentally regresses to the state of a child . While she is undergoing treatment , she is kidnapped and sold to the madam of a brothel . Srinivas , also known as Cheenu , comes to Chennai to meet his old friend . Together , they visit the brothel to relax . The madam sends Bhagyalakshmi , renamed Vijaya , to his room . Cheenu realises that she is mentally still a child and pities her . He learns that she is from a cultured family , and that she was kidnapped and forced into prostitution .
Cheenu returns the next day and , after paying a huge sum to the madam , takes Vijaya out , supposedly on a pleasure trip . He takes her away to Ketti , where he is working as a school teacher . He takes her to his residence , where he protects her and also pampers her like a child . Viji , as she is called by Cheenu , has completely forgotten her past and becomes very close to him . When Viji accidentally spills ink over Cheenu 's documents , angering him , their relationship is threatened , but they reconcile . Later , a local woodcutter named Nataraj lusts for Viji and nearly assaults her , but she manages to save herself . When she tells Cheenu about it , he becomes livid with rage and almost kills Nataraj , but is stopped by his neighbours who were informed of the incident by Viji . Meanwhile , the wife of Cheenu 's headmaster is attracted to Cheenu , though he does not reciprocate her feelings .
Viji 's father Vedachalam , who was searching her through the police , releases a newspaper advertisement about his lost daughter . A co @-@ passenger who had travelled with Cheenu and Viji from Chennai to Ooty by train gives them a lead . Cheenu takes Viji to an Ayurvedic medical practitioner and leaves her there for treatment for a day . In his absence , the police come to his house searching for Viji . Finally , the police learn that Viji is getting treated at the doctor 's place and reach there . Cheenu is unable to come as he is afraid of police action . The treatment goes through successfully . Viji regains her memory and completely forgets about the period between her accident and recovery . Vedachalam and his wife are happy and decide to leave . From the doctor , Vedachalam learns that the person who had brought her there had been taking good care of their daughter ; he withdraws his police complaint and they begin their journey to Chennai with Viji .
After the police leave , Cheenu comes running after the car in which Viji is travelling . He follows them to the railway station and tries to gain the attention of Viji , but she is unable to recognise him . Cheenu acts like a dancing monkey that Viji developed a liking for , but Viji , unable to comprehend , thinks that he is insane and begging for food . Cheenu continues his futile attempts to gain her attention , and the train eventually leaves with Viji not recognising him . Cheenu , who was hurt while chasing her car and trying to get her attention , is left alone , heartbroken .
= = Cast = =
Kamal Haasan as R. Srinivas " Cheenu "
Sridevi as Bhagyalaksmi / Vijaya " Viji "
Y. G. Mahendra as Srinivas 's friend
Silk Smitha as the school headmaster 's wife
Ganthimathi as the brothel owner
Poornam Vishwanathan as the school headmaster
S. R. Veeraraghavan as Vedachalam
Ramanamurthy as the Ayurveda practitioner
Nataraj as the woodcutter
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Moondram Pirai was produced by G. Thyagarajan and G. Saravanan under their production banner , Sathya Jyothi Films . A. Ramaswamy and D. Vasu were in charge of art direction and editing respectively . In an interview with Anu Hasan on the talk show Koffee with Anu , Balu Mahendra stated that Moondram Pirai was inspired by the suicide of his wife , actress Shoba ; she was 17 years old at the time of her death in 1980 . According to S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu , the climax of the film was a clear allusion to how Shoba left Mahendra without warning . A Kannada film , Maanasa Sarovara , with a similar theme was also made by director Puttanna Kanagal the same year . In C. B. Rao 's review of the film 's Hindi version , Sadma ( 1983 ) , the English translation of the film 's title , Moondram Pirai is given as " The Third Generation . " The title Moondram Pirai literally means " the crescent seen on the third day following new moon day . "
According to Kamal Haasan , when Mahendra narrated the story of Moondram Pirai to him , Haasan listened to Mahendra for about twenty minutes before accepting the role of Cheenu . The role of Bhagyalakshmi was initially offered to Sripriya , who could not accept the role due to her prior commitments , before Sridevi was chosen for it . Poornam Vishwanathan was cast as the school headmaster , while Silk Smitha , who had done around 20 films by then and was considered only for performing item numbers , was cast as the sexually excited wife of Viswanathan 's character .
= = = Filming = = =
Moondram Pirai was shot in Ketti , a small town situated close to Ooty . Shooting also took place in Bangalore . A total of 30 days was taken to complete the filming on 36 @,@ 000 feet of film negative . Mahendra did not find hiring a train expensive at that time ; as a result , he hired a train for the film 's scene where Haasan and Sridevi depart for Ketti , and another train for the film 's climax which was shot at the Ketti railway station . Although it was raining on the day the climax was shot , Mahendra decided to continue shooting the climax even though the rain was not part of the film 's script . In the post @-@ production phase , Smitha 's voice was dubbed by Anuradha . Mahendra supervised Anuradha 's dubbing session and taught her the methods to emote the dialogues for Smitha in the film .
While the film was under production the team was scoffed at for making a film about a youth falling in love with an amnesiac , and that the film would not be a box office success . The film uses intense violin music in both its opening and closing credits . In April 2006 , Mahendra said that the inclusion of the song " Ponmeni Uruguthey " in the film was " absolutely unnecessary " , stating that the sole reason for its inclusion was the presence of Smitha in the song to help promote the film . The final length of the film was 3 @,@ 918 metres ( 12 @,@ 854 ft ) .
= = Themes and influences = =
Moondram Pirai depicts a young woman whose mental state regresses to that of a child following an accident . Sexuality and the repression of desire are dominant motifs , similar to Balu Mahendra 's previous film Moodu Pani ( 1980 ) . The film also explores the possibility of unresolved sexual tension between the protagonists . Critic K. Jeshi compares Moondram Pirai to other films based on physical and mental disabilities like Sethu ... ( 1999 ) , Pithamagan ( 2003 ) , Perazhagan ( 2004 ) , Chandramukhi ( 2005 ) , Anniyan ( 2005 ) and Ghajini ( 2005 ) . When asked about the reason amnesia was chosen for a disability , Mahendra said the disorder is used as a camouflage and as an excuse to portray relationships in the film .
Film critic Baradwaj Rangan finds the sequence where Haasan 's character , Cheenu , narrates the story of The Blue Jackal to Sridevi 's character , Bhagyalakshmi , to be a distant echo of the arc negotiated by Cheenu : " He is , after all , a nobody ( like the [ jackal ] ) who , through a salubrious twist of fate , becomes the ruler of a woman 's life , until he is restored , at the end , to the nobody he was , a fraudulent claimant to her emotions . " In his book Dispatches from the wall corner : A journey through Indian cinema , Rangan says that although Haasan is inspired by Marlon Brando , the scene where Haasan burns himself while cooking and vents his anger on Sridevi , is reminiscent of the acting style of Marcel Marceau . In another book of Rangan , Conversations with Mani Ratnam , he states that in the scene where Cheenu enters Bhagyalakshmi 's room in the brothel , there was fumbling and embarrassment , whereas in another Haasan film Nayakan ( 1987 ) , Haasan 's character , Velu Nayakar , behaves as if he has visited a brothel before . Nayakan 's director Mani Ratnam replied by saying that the two scenes are very different from one another and that it " can 't be played the same way " .
Hari Narayan of The Hindu compared Moondram Pirai to another Haasan film , Guna ( 1991 ) . In both narratives , the protagonist ’ s image of an ideal dreamgirl animate his antics . Cheenu , according to Narayan , " looks like a melange of [ John ] Keats ’ tragedy and [ Sigmund ] Freud ’ s psychoanalysis . " Narayan explains the idea of Cheenu keeping Bhagyalaskhmi with him not only as an act of sympathy and love , but also with the intention to preserve her like a portrait . Narayan also states that the character , Robert Ledgard 's ( Antonio Banderas ) attraction to Vera Cruz ( Elena Anaya ) in Pedro Almodóvar 's Spanish film The Skin I Live In ( 2011 ) , is similar to Cheenu 's attraction to Bhagyalakshmi . When Bhagyalakshmi recovers her memory and forgets him , Cheenu is hesitant to come back to his quiet existence , realising that in reality , dreams feel like its antithesis .
= = Music = =
The music of the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja . The soundtrack was released through the record label Agi Music . The number " Kannae Kalaimane " , which is based on the Kapi raga , was written by Kannadasan in " about two minutes " time , after listening to the film 's story and the situation for the song . Kannadasan was present at the recording session of the song , which took place in September 1981 . It was the last recorded song which Kannadasan wrote before his death in October 1981 . " Poongatru " was based on the Sindhu Bhairavi raga .
The soundtrack received positive critical reception . " Ponmeni Uruguthey " that was picturised on Haasan and Smitha developed cult status . G. Dhananjayan , in his book The Best of Tamil Cinema called the music " outstanding " , further saying that the songs contributed significantly to the success of the film . Hari Narayan of The Hindu said , " The lullaby " Kanne Kalaimane " sees the tranquillity reach a crescendo . " Another critic from The Hindu , Shankar , called " Vaanengum Thanga " a " dream song " . On the song , " Kanne Kalaimane " , Balu Mahendra said that it " stirs you to this day " . Lyricist Na . Muthukumar labelled " Kannae Kalaimane " as his favourite song .
= = Release = =
Moondram Pirai was given an " A " ( adults only ) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification . According to Anand Mathew of The Quint , this was done so because of Smitha who " saunters into the film now and then striking Khajuraho inspired poses with Kamal . " The film was released on 19 February 1982 . The film was a box office success and had a theatrical run of 379 days at Sathyam Theatre , and 200 days in other multiplexes . According to its production company , Sathya Jyothi Films , Moondram Pirai received its highest distributor share in Chennai and Coimbatore . The film was also screened at FILCA , a Film Festival held at Thiruvananthapuram in September 2014 . Moondram Pirai was dubbed into Telugu under the title Vasantha Kokila and was released on the same day as the original version . The Hindi remake Sadma was released in 1983 , with Mahendra again directing while Haasan , Sridevi and Smitha reprised their roles .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Moondram Pirai received mostly positive reviews , with praise directed at the performances of the lead pair . Ananda Vikatan , in its original review of the film , dated 7 March 1982 , said , " The film gives an impression of reading a full novel in one go ... The lead actors Kamal and Sridevi have lived their roles and brought in the effect desired by the director and they are the best couple in Tamil Cinema ... Ilaiyaraaja 's background score and songs and Balu Mahendra 's photography have to be applauded " and gave the film 53 marks out of 100 .
Writing for The Hindu , Baradwaj Rangan called Moondram Pirai " The apotheosis of [ Balu Mahendra 's ] art " , while also opining that the film was " a superb example of how the presence of a commercially viable plot and the participation of commercially viable actors and technicians can result in art . " Another critic from The Hindu , Hari Narayan , wrote , " Throughout the narrative , a sense of uncertainty lurks in the viewer ’ s mind , the exact kind of uncertainty we get while dreaming . The knowledge that the spell would break any time . That Cheenu would be thrown back into his solitude . And that the fall from this ethereal tranquillity would be brutal , maybe even fatal . " Malathi Rangarajan described Haasan 's performance in the climax scene at the railway station as " sterling " .
Rediff considered the film to be a " beautiful and tragic love story " . In February 2013 , Kaanchan Prashanth , writing for the magazine Galatta Cinema said , " Balumahendra ’ s Moondram Pirai is a tragedy nevertheless , and that too one that had most of us bawling our eyes out . " He further stated that the scenes featuring the lead pair were " beautifully presented " , and concluded that " Sridevi and Kamal just outdid themselves in this one . "
In contrast , the magazine Aside called the film " a neon moon " and said , " There was at one time a brooding , premonitory quality about Balu Mahendra 's movies ... but ( he ) has now gone into the trade of picture postcards and pani puri . " And after a brief word of praise for Haasan 's performance in the climax ( " darkly luminescent , like a rain drenched monsoon night " ) added , " Kamal makes a very amusing monkey , but should he not rather be playing a human character ? "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Legacy = =
Moondram Pirai attained cult status in Tamil cinema and was praised for bringing out human emotions , unconditional love and sacrifice . The film had a significant impact among the audience for its style of filmmaking , performances of the lead cast and for Ilaiyaraaja 's music . The climax scene where Haasan 's character , Cheenu , runs after Sridevi 's character , Bhagyalakshmi , who has recovered her memory but forgets the incidents that occur between her accident and recovery completely , and Cheenu trying desperately to make Bhagyalakshmi remember the time he spend with him , to no effect , became popular and was parodied many times . A. P. Thiruvadi , in his obituary of Balu Mahendra , called him " The Moondram Pirai of Indian cinema " . Moondram Pirai is also the name of a drama written by Tamil poet Puviarasu . When S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu suggested to Balu Mahendra that the film 's ending lacked logic , Mahendra said , " Believe me there ’ s no logic in life . "
In March 2005 , Sneha , in an interview with Rediff , listed Moondram Pirai among her favourite films . In July 2007 , S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all @-@ time favourite Tamil films ; two of them – Mani Ratnam and Ameer – named Moondram Pirai . In September 2009 , singer Harini , in an interview with The Hindu , said that her favourite song is " Kanne Kalaimane " . In February 2010 , director R. Balki , in an interview with Forbes India , called Moondram Pirai as his favourite film . In October 2010 , actor Vijay said he prefers to watch films like Moondram Pirai and Mahanadi ( 1994 ) . In February 2015 , Moondram Pirai topped Indumathy Sukanya of The New Indian Express ' list of " Top 5 Tamil Romances " .
In July 2011 , Janani Iyer said she considered a role like Sridevi 's character , Bhagyalakshmi , as " really challenging . " In March 2013 , S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu compared the climax of Sethu ... ( 1999 ) to the climax in Moondram Pirai . In November 2013 , S. Saraswathi of Rediff included Moondram Pirai in her list of the " 10 best Films of Kamal Haasan " . In February 2014 , Arundhati said she " would love to play a role like Sridevi ’ s in Moondram Pirai " . Sridevi 's performance in the film was included in The Times of India 's 2015 list , " Sridevi : 5 times the actress bowled us with her performance " . Although no print of Moondram Pirai has survived , the film is still available on home video . Balki mentioned in an April 2016 interview with Indo @-@ Asian News Service , that Moondram Pirai " tremendously influenced " him as a filmmaker .
= = In popular culture = =
Balu Mahendra 's Telugu film Nireekshana ( 1982 ) was dubbed and released in Tamil as Kanne Kalaimane . In Pasamulla Pandiyare ( 1997 ) , Vadivelu and Senthil see Kovai Sarala , who suffers from retrograde amnesia , aboard a bus bound for another town . They try to make her remember the time they spent with her , but to no avail as she no longer remembers them . This leaves the two of them heartbroken and they sing the song " Aval Paranthu Ponale " from Paar Magaley Paar ( 1963 ) to express their sadness .
In Manadhai Thirudivittai ( 2001 ) , Valayapathi ( Vivek ) pretends to have lost both his hands . His lover then promises to take care of him . The song " Kanne Kalaimane " is heard as the background music for the scene . In a comedy scene from Run ( 2002 ) , Mohan ( Vivek ) imitates Haasan 's mannerisms from the climax scene in Moondram Pirai to make his friend Shiva ( R. Madhavan ) recognise him but fails .
Malathi Rangarajan , in her review of Deiva Thirumagal ( 2011 ) said , " Probably because the scene of action is Ooty , the main character is mentally challenged , and the story @-@ telling sequence with Vikram and the kid is familiar , at times [ Deiva Thirumagal ] reminds you of Balu Mahendra 's inimitable Moondraam Pirai . " Baradwaj Rangan compares a scene in Barfi ! ( 2012 ) , where Barfi ( Ranbir Kapoor ) goes after Shruti ( Ileana D 'Cruz ) and stumbles , to that of Moondram Pirai 's climax scene . Balu Mahendra 's defunct blog is also titled Moondram Pirai ... , named after the film .
= Stowaway ( Fringe ) =
" Stowaway " is the 17th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 60th episode overall . It followed the Fringe team 's investigation into a woman , Dana Gray ( Paula Malcomson ) , who repeatedly but unsuccessfully tries to commit suicide . Meanwhile , Olivia continues to serve as the host for William Bell , to the dismay of most of her other team members .
The episode 's story was written by Akiva Goldsman , Jeff Pinkner , and J. H. Wyman , while Danielle Dispaltro contributed its teleplay . Charles Beeson served as the director . Along with Malcomson , " Stowaway " featured a guest appearance by previous Fringe actor Seth Gabel . Though Leonard Nimoy had recently retired , the writers still had storylines involving his character , leading to their decision to have Bell possess Olivia 's body .
" Stowaway " first aired in the United States on March 18 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 3 ratings share for adults aged between 18 and 49 . This was the series ' lowest ratings share for adults up to that point . Reviews of the episode were generally positive , as multiple critics praised Anna Torv 's Nimoy impression as well as Joshua Jackson 's reaction to it .
= = Plot = =
Following from " Os " , Olivia 's ( Anna Torv ) body has been possessed by William Bell . Though he promises that no harm will come to Olivia while he seeks a suitable host for his mind , Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) demands that Bell leave Olivia in 48 hours . Bell begins searching local hospitals for a host .
They are alerted to eyewitness accounts of a woman who , after jumping with another man from a high roof and crashing onto a taxi parked below , simply walked away . As the Fringe team investigates , they are approached by another FBI agent , Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) , who identifies the woman as Dana Gray ( Paula Malcomson ) . Dana , who had been struck by lightning twice , was killed eighteen months earlier along with her family during a robbery of their home , but she apparently was able to walk away from the morgue . Since then , she has appeared to commit suicide with several others , but always managing to walk away . Walter ( John Noble ) and Bell , in studying Dana 's blood samples , find that her body may have been altered by several past lightning strikes , making her incapable of dying .
Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Lincoln find that Dana worked as a suicide hotline operator , and in investigating her belongings , find that she appears to have a strong desire to take her soul to heaven or hell . Lincoln comes to believe that Dana may be looking for way to have her soul " stow away " with that of another to join her family in the afterlife , and used the suicide hotline position to find those who are close to committing suicide .
Another man is found dead by a self @-@ inflicted bullet wound , though Dana was seen leaving his apartment . Evidence in his apartment points to the construction of a bomb , and the Fringe team suspects that Dana knows its location and may be hoping to exploit an event which will kill several people simultaneously in order to increase her own chances of death . Peter calls her , using caller ID spoofing to disguise his number as that of her late husband , and the signal allows authorities to pinpoint her location to a commuter train . The train is stopped and searched , while Dana leaves on her own with the bomb , moving it far enough away from the train . The bomb soon explodes , and when Peter and Lincoln search , they find Dana 's body nearby , finally dead , and the only fatality from the explosion .
Peter returns home where Walter has invited Bell to stay the evening . Bell explains that he believes that Dana was finally able to die after serving a purpose — saving the lives of the people on the train . When church bells go off nearby , Olivia 's personality slips through momentarily . Bell regains control , but expresses new @-@ found fear that his possession of Olivia 's body has become more complicated than he thought .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by Danielle Dispaltro , while the story was contributed by consulting producer Akiva Goldsman and co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman . Supernatural veteran Charles Beeson directed . The episode was shot in early February 2011 .
Despite previous guest actor Leonard Nimoy 's recent retirement , the writers still had plot lines concerning his character William Bell . Some months prior to the airing of " Stowaway " , Nimoy and others had noted that Bell 's character would return to Fringe . Anna Torv , who portrays Olivia , was not aware that her character would be channeling Bell until just prior to filming of the episode , and stated of the role , " This is not one I had been asking for ! " To prepare , Torv sought advice from her fellow star John Noble , as both as a friend and because Noble 's character , Walter , had spent the most time with Bell . She took further advice from the show 's dialect coach and reviewed footage of Nimoy 's previous work , though eventually she decided to jump right into the role . Noble later commented " I think the solutions she came up with – taking the essence of the man , playing with the eyebrows , simulating the voice — were really smart . We had a lot of fun doing it . "
Executive producers J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pickner were both impressed with Torv 's take on the role , with Wyman stating that it " just transcended all our expectations " , while Pinkner noted that Nimoy himself was " the most proud and most impressed " with the outcome . Actor Joshua Jackson found her performance " so creepy " . He explained , " In the episodes , you see I can barely look at her . I think it ended up being a good way to play Peter ’ s reaction to Olivia , but it was born out of the fact that when that voice came out of her , I was like : ‘ Oh , that ’ s just wrong ! ' " Pinkner confirmed in an interview with TVline that Bell 's appearance would last for " a couple " episodes , and also warned that " cohabitation is not as benign as William assumes it is " , a reference to problems Bell would soon have in Olivia 's body . The possessed state of Olivia has led viewers to refer to her as " Bellivia " .
" Stowaway " featured a guest appearance by actress Paula Malcomson , her first and only time on the show to date . Guest actor Seth Gabel had previously played just one version of character Lincoln Lee , who existed as the head of Fringe division in the parallel universe . " Stowaway " marked the first appearance of the character from the prime universe . Gabel described his prime universe character as someone who works for the FBI , " but has no idea about Fringe Division . He 's more of a desk jockey [ who ] eventually comes to believe there is much more than reality suggests " . Executive producer Jeff Pinkner described Lincoln 's introduction as " insanely fun -- the characterization Seth has created just makes you smile " . Gabel also indicated the new character would likely return for more episodes .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Stowaway " , with the intention of having " students learn about magnetism and how magnets can be created and demagnetized . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Stowaway " was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers with a 1 @.@ 3 ratings share among those 18 @-@ 49 on its first broadcast . It fell 13 percent in this ratings share from the previous week 's episode . This was the lowest viewership for the show in the 18 – 49 adult demographic , though this has been partially attributed to the onset of daylight saving time and the NCAA Tournament . For that night , Fringe helped the Fox network finish in first place among the adult demographic , but it placed in third among total viewers . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings among adults by 57 percent to a 2 @.@ 2 ratings share . This was the largest increase in time shifting viewing for the week among network shows .
= = = Reviews = = =
Television critics scribed mostly positive reviews for " Stowaway " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Ken Tucker thought Anna Torv 's Nimoy impression was " aces , very wry and amusing , " and also praised Joshua Jackson 's acting in response to it . Like Tucker , Noel Murray from The A.V. Club also praised Torv and Jackson 's performances , and graded the episode with a B + , explaining it " was an effective episode despite all its metaphysical mumbo @-@ jumbo [ because ] Dana 's predicament was a legitimately tense one ... As she stepped on the train , I didn 't know if she was planning to save the passengers or send their souls a @-@ scattering ... the suspense itself was palpable " . Murray however admitted that " if the " villain " weren 't so sympathetic , or if the action weren 't so breathless , or if I didn 't find the Bellivia material so funny , I 'd probably be annoyed by the wacky way the Fringe writers have found to bring William Bell back . " Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times noted of Torv that her " cadence of her words was dead on , and his / her interactions with everyone else in Fringe Division were pitch perfect . " He praised other facets of the episode , including how " the weekly mysteries unfold like origami " , and that introducing the prime 's version of the Lincoln character allowed the audience " to see all the weirdness of Fringe through fresh eyes " .
SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall also lauded Torv 's performance , noting that the actress " captures Nimoy 's staccato delivery , her growling voice , even his trick eyebrow . Not since Zachary Quinto played a young Spock in Star Trek a couple of years ago have I seen anyone so perfectly sound and move like Nimoy . " Stegall did express a wish that the characters not try to explain every case ( such as the one in the episode ) out of a belief that their explanations were often absurd ; this observation led Stegall to praise the new character of Lincoln however , as she believed , like Hanson , that the series has " been needing an Everyman in this mix for awhile , someone for whom immortality is not a commonplace . " Charlie Jane Anders of io9 was critical of the episode , remarking that " the whole ' soul magnets ' thing , which had seemed to be a throwaway comment a few episodes ago , is turning out to be sort of a weak plot device . And the whole bodily @-@ possession storyline is just perhaps one level of wackiness too far for me . I also had the feeling that this might finally be the acting challenge that was beyond Anna Torv 's considerable abilities , as her Leonard Nimoy impression quickly started to grate on my nerves . "
= Typhoon Kirogi ( 2000 ) =
Typhoon Kirogi , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Ditang , was a large typhoon that caused severe damage in Japan during early July 2000 . Forming out of an area of disturbed weather on June 30 , Kirogi initially tracked slowly towards the north . On July 3 , the storm underwent rapid intensification and attained Category 4 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale the next day , according to the JTWC . On July 5 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . Over the following several days , the storm tracked towards the northeast and accelerated towards Japan . Early on July 8 , Kirogi brushed eastern Japan before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
Initial news reports stated that Kirogi produced deadly flooding in the Philippines ; however , the storm was too far from the country to have any impacts . In Japan , Kirogi produced torrential rainfall and high winds , killing five people and leaving 15 billion ( 2001 JPY , $ 140 million USD ) in damages . Flooding inundated nearly 1 @,@ 300 homes around Tokyo and high winds cut power to roughly 20 @,@ 000 residences . Three homes were destroyed in a landslide on Kozushima .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Kirogi originated out of a disorganized area of showers and thunderstorms on June 30 , 2000 , associated with a weak area of low pressure , situated roughly 650 km ( 405 mi ) east of the Philippine island of Mindanao . The system remained nearly stationary for two days as it became increasingly organized . On July 1 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as they anticipated the low to develop into a significant tropical cyclone within 24 hours . Around 0600 UTC the following day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . At the same time , the JTWC also classified the system as Tropical Depression 05W and six hours later , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories on the same system , classifying it as Tropical Depression Ditang .
Throughout the day on July 2 , the depression began to take a slow northward track in response to a mid @-@ level subtropical ridge to the east and later that day , the JTWC upgraded it to a tropical storm . Early the next day , the JMA also upgraded the system to a tropical storm , at which time it received the name Kirogi . Although a broad cyclone , convection was gradually wrapping around the southern periphery of the circulation . Several hours after being named , the JMA upgraded Kirogi to a severe tropical storm and later a typhoon . At the same time , the JTWC classified the storm as a typhoon . Upon being upgraded the typhoon featured a well @-@ developed outflow and prominent banding features consolidating around the system .
Not long after attaining typhoon intensity , Kirogi began to undergo rapid intensification . Roughly 18 hours later , the JTWC reported that the storm had attained its peak intensity with winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) , equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . By this time , the typhoon was situated roughly 870 km ( 540 mi ) southeast of Okinawa . The storm featured a 59 km ( 37 mi ) wide symmetrical eye . Early on July 5 , the JMA reported that Kirogi attained its peak intensity with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . The storm was a relatively large typhoon , with a gale diameter of 520 km ( 325 mi ) .
Several hours after attaining peak intensity on July 5 , a mid @-@ level trough caused convection around the center of Kirogi to weaken and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . Later in the day , most of the convective bands were confined to the eastern periphery of the system . Around this time , the storm took a northeasterly track , which it maintained for several days . Increasing in forward motion , the storm began to weaken ; however , it also grew in size . By July 6 , the storm had a gale @-@ diameter of 925 km ( 575 mi ) . Gradual weakening took place as Kirogi tracked towards Japan , with both the JTWC and JMA reporting sustained winds at 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) by July 7 . Early on July 8 , the storm brushed the eastern coast of Japan near Chōshi , Chiba with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Several hours later , the typhoon weakened to a severe tropical storm before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone near the southeast coast of Hokkaido . By this time , the storm took a sharp eastward turn and briefly slowed before re @-@ accelerating . The remnants of the storm persisted until July 10 , at which time it dissipated to the southwest of the Aleutian Islands .
To measure wind speeds at the storm 's center , the Japan Meteorological Agency and Joint Typhoon Warning Center use 10 @-@ minute sustained winds and one @-@ minute sustained winds respectively . The conversion factor between 10 @-@ minute and one @-@ minute winds is 1.14x. The JMA 's peak intensity for Kirogi was 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Kirogi was 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
In the typhoon 's early stages , news reports stated that the outer bands of the storm produced heavy rainfall in the Philippines , resulting in 16 fatalities . However , a meteorological analysis of the storm showed that Kirogi was not responsible for the rain ; instead , a monsoon depression that later became Typhoon Kai @-@ tak caused the flooding rains . Typhoon Kirogi was never closer than 835 km ( 520 mi ) from the Philippines . However , large swells produced by the storm caused moderate damage along coastal areas of the Philippines , forcing workers in Manila to clear debris left by the damaging waves .
= = = Japan = = =
In Japan , Kirogi became the first typhoon to threaten the city of Tokyo since a storm in the 1989 Pacific typhoon season , prompting hundreds of residents to evacuate . A total of 120 flights were canceled ahead of the storm and 30 ferry services were halted due to rough seas up to 9 m ( 30 ft ) . On Kozushima , 788 residents were evacuated as heavy rain from the typhoon produced landslides . Forecasters warned that upwards of 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of rain could fall in the Tokyo region . In the city of Tokyo , Japanese officials ordered 800 residents to evacuate to shelters due to the threat of Typhoon Kirogi .
Since the storm weakened considerably from its peak intensity , damage was much less than initially anticipated . In all , damages from the storm amounted to 15 billion ( 2001 JPY , $ 140 million USD ) . Three people were killed by the storm , all of whom were found in irrigation ditches . The first fatality was an 81 @-@ year @-@ old man , the second was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old man who lost control of his car and crashed into a ditch , and the last fatality was a 3 @-@ year @-@ old boy who fell in a ditch near his home . Two 11 @-@ year @-@ old boys , initially reported as missing , were later found in a ditch after being swept away by flood waters .
About 1 @,@ 300 homes were inundated by flood waters around Tokyo and three were destroyed on Kōzushima by a landslide . Widespread power outages took place , leaving an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people without power in Kanagawa and Shizuoka prefectures as winds up to 177 km / h ( 110 mph ) knocked down trees and power lines . Rainfall from the storm fell at rates of 55 mm / h ( 2 @.@ 2 in / h ) . Total amounts reached 416 mm ( 16 @.@ 4 in ) in Tokyo , 400 mm ( 16 in ) on Izu Ōshima and 357 mm ( 14 @.@ 1 in ) in Ogatsu , Miyagi Prefecture . These rains were more than double the monthly average for July in eastern Japan .
Rainfall up to 182 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) caused flooding throughout eastern Hokkaidō , resulting in widespread agricultural losses . Throughout Aomori Prefecture , large stretches of roads were washed out by flood waters and several thousand homes were inundated . Damage from the storm in Aomori was estimated at 600 million ( 2001 JPY , $ 6 @.@ 6 million USD ) . In Obihiro , Hokkaidō , a total of 2 @,@ 957 ha ( 7 @,@ 310 acres ) of agricultural land was inundated by flood waters . The fishing industry in Urakawa District , Hokkaidō sustained severe losses , amounting to 889 million ( 2001 JPY , $ 10 million USD ) . High winds in the district resulted in moderate roof damage to several homes , some of which lost their roofs .
= Berlevåg Airport =
Berlevåg Airport ( IATA : BVG , ICAO : ENBV ) ( Norwegian : Berlevåg lufthavn ) is a regional airport serving Berlevåg Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The airport is situated 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northwest of the village of Berlevåg and is owned and operated by Avinor . The airport has a 880 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 890 ft ) runway aligned 06 / 24 . Services are provided by Widerøe using Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft to other communities in Finnmark . The airport served 6 @,@ 060 passengers in 2014 and received the most subsidies per passenger of any Avinor airport .
Construction of the airport started in 1943 by the Luftwaffe who stationed a detachment of Jagdgeschwader 5 ( JS5 ) there . Civilian operations started 1970 and were first provided by Norving . The airport was upgraded as part of a national program to establish regional airports and from 1974 services were taken over by Widerøe using de Havilland Canada Twin Otter aircraft . The current terminal building dates from 1988 ; Dash 8 aircraft were introduced in 1994 . There have been local proposals to expand the airport , but Avinor does not wish to pursue these .
= = History = =
During the German occupation of Norway during World War II , the German Wehrmacht was dependent on supplies to the town of Kirkenes which had to be shipped past Varanger Peninsula . The convoys were the target of bombardments from the Soviet Air Force , stationed close by on the Kola Peninsula . Originally the convoys were protected by the German Jagdgeschwader 5 based at Alta Airport . With an increasing number of raids , the Luftwaffe decided to build two airfields on Varangerhalvøya , Berlevåg and Vardø Airport , Svartnes
The Wehrmacht had become aware of the favorable location when two aircraft had performed an emergency landing at Storsletten in 1941 . Construction at Berlevåg started in August 1943 and the airport received a 950 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 120 ft ) mixed concrete and wooden runway . The airfield received a detachment of fighter aircraft from JS5 , including the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . A radar was installed on a hilltop close to the airport in 1944 . The airport was demolished with the German retreat from Finnmark in 1944 . The wooden runway was subsequently pillaged by locals to accumulate building materials for reconstruction .
Use of the airport area as a civilian airport was launched by Varangfly director Odd Bentzen in 1964 . After visiting Iceland he proposed a series of short and simple airports in Finnmark which could serve the airline 's air ambulance service . A different proposal was launched in 1966 by several of the larger airlines , including Scandinavian Airlines System , Braathens SAFE and Widerøe , to establish a network of short take @-@ off and landing airports in rural areas ; Berlevåg was one of six original proposals for Finnmark . A county committee was established in 1966 to look into building small airfields in Finnmark , including Berlevåg . In the following years the municipality made investments to allow the airfield to be used for air ambulance services . Part of the motivation was Berlevåg 's poor port conditions , which often forced seaplanes to land at Kongsfjord .
Norving ( previously Varangfly ) started offering flights to the closed @-@ down military airport in 1970 using their newly delivered Britten @-@ Norman Islander . The background was a landing at the airfield to transport a baby to Kirkenes Hospital . The Civil Aviation Administration stated that they were not opposed to building smaller ambulance airports , but that the state 's priority was constructing a network of regional airports . The service started off with a daily round trip ordered by the district physician ; patients had priority , but the airline would transport other passengers as well . After a month a second daily round trip was introduced .
State funding was allocated , allowing the airport to be upgraded . The regional airport opened on 1 August 1974 , the same day as four other airports in Finnmark . Both Widerøe and Norving applied to operate the subsidized regional routes in Finnmark , which included the route to Berlevåg . Widerøe was awarded the contract in 1973 . Because of the steadily more regular flights to Berlevåg , Norving applied to the government for permission to operate these as taxi routes . While the airline had been forced to operate its taxi service on the time specifications of the customer , taxi routes would allow the airline to operate feeder services with timetables . No such permission was granted . Widerøe took over operations from 1 August 1974 using the de Havilland Canada Twin Otter . On 14 November 1980 the garage and workshop burned down ; a new building was built and opened in 1982 . The passenger terminal was expanded in 1988 with a new arrivals and departure hall . Widerøe introduced the Dash 8 in 1994 . The state and the Civil Aviation Administration took over ownership and operations of the airport from 1 January 1997 , in exchange for 2 @.@ 2 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) being paid to Berlevåg Municipality . Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 .
In the mid 2000s , Berlevåg Mayor Erik Brøske launched plans for an expansion of the airport , including both an expansion of the runway to at least 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and the establishment of a helicopter base . The former was aimed at fish export to Asia while the latter was aimed at shuttle traffic to future oil fields in the Barents Sea . Avinor stated in 2012 that they saw no reason to look further into these plans .
= = Facilities = =
The terminal building is 360 square meters ( 3 @,@ 900 sq ft ) , of which 110 square meters ( 1 @,@ 200 sq ft ) is for the public , and has a capacity for 70 passengers per hour . The control tower is integrated into the terminal building . In addition there is a separate technical building with a garage . The airport lot covers an area of 44 hectares ( 110 acres ) .
Berlevåg Airport is located 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the village center , which is connected via County Road 271 . There is parking for ten cars at the airport . Taxis are available at the airport , but there is no bus service .
The runway has an asphalted area of 880 by 30 meters ( 2 @,@ 887 by 98 ft ) aligned 06 – 24 . The tarmac has parking to two Dash 8 @-@ sized aircraft . SCAT @-@ I , a Global Positioning System @-@ based landing system is under deployment .
Berlevåg Airport is located in an open flat area and therefore is among the most well @-@ suited sites for construction of a new primary airport in Finnmark . However , an expansion to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) or longer will result in an all @-@ new runway having to be built . The air distance to Båtsfjord Airport is only 39 km , so some suggested a combined airport , but the road distance is 91 km , needing 1 ½ hour , and road is prone to snow storms in winter .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Berlevåg Airport is served by Widerøe with Dash 8 @-@ 100 aircraft connecting the community with Tromsø , Kirkenes and other airports in Finnmark . The routes are operated on public service obligation with the Ministry of Transport and Communications . In 2014 the airport had 6 @,@ 060 passengers , 1 @,@ 804 aircraft movements and handled 3 tonnes of cargo , making it the second @-@ least Avinor @-@ operated airport . In 2007 there were 1 @,@ 878 aircraft movements , consisting of 1 @,@ 725 scheduled flights , 106 ambulance flights and 47 other flights . Of Avinor 's 45 airports , Berlevåg has the largest per @-@ passenger deficit , of NOK 3 @,@ 216 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 11 March 1982 Widerøe Flight 933 crashed into the Barents Sea between Berlevåg and Mehamn Airport , after having made two intermediate stops since leaving Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen . All fifteen people on board the Twin Otter were killed . The accident was caused by structural failure in the rudder and vertical stabilizer following severe clear @-@ air turbulence . A conspiracy theory arose concerning a collision with a British Harrier fighter , which resulted in four investigations — none which found any evidence of a collision .
= Aurelio López =
Aurelio Alejandro López Rios ( September 21 , 1948 – September 22 , 1992 ) was a Mexican professional baseball player . After pitching for several years in the Mexican League , he spent eleven seasons ( 1974 , 1978 – 87 ) with four teams in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He acquired the nickname " Señor Smoke " in Detroit , while he was known as " El Buitre de Tecamachalco " ( The Vulture of Tecamachalco ) in Mexico . López was discovered in his hometown by Mexican League scouts and converted from a starting pitcher to a relief pitcher .
López led the Mexico City Reds to the 1974 Mexican League World Series , then made a brief MLB debut with the Kansas City Royals before returning to the Mexican League . López was named the 1977 Mexican League Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . He returned to the major leagues with the St. Louis Cardinals in 1978 and pitched for the Detroit Tigers between 1979 and 1985 . López finished seventh in the Cy Young Award voting in 1979 . He earned a 10 – 1 record and 14 saves for Detroit 's 1984 World Series championship team .
López returned to the postseason with Houston in 1986 , but he was the losing pitcher in Game Five of that year 's National League Championship Series . By the end of his MLB career , López earned a 62 – 36 win – loss record , 93 saves and a 3 @.@ 56 earned run average ( ERA ) . After his retirement from baseball , López served as municipal president of his hometown of Tecamachalco , Puebla , Mexico from 1989 until his death . He was killed in an automobile accident in 1992 . López was inducted into the Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame the following year .
= = Early life = =
López was born on September 21 , 1948 in Tecamachalco , Puebla , Mexico , to Aurelio López Hernández of Veracruz and Félix Rios Torres of Tecamachalco . He grew up with five siblings . In his youth , López enjoyed both soccer and baseball but chose to pursue the latter , which was in its peak in Mexico ; he found it more difficult to locate practice facilities for soccer . He studied public administration at the Autonomous University of Puebla .
López caught the attention of scout Ramon " La Chita " García of the Mexico City Reds in the Mexican League . He debuted with the team 's minor @-@ league affiliate in Las Choapas in 1967 . He was promoted to the parent club the next season at the age of 19 . After starting the 1969 season with Mexico City , López joined the Minatitlán Red Devils . In 1970 , López rejoined Mexico City . During his time in the Mexican League , he was converted from starter to reliever by coach Wilfredo Calviño .
The Kansas City Royals purchased López 's contract in August 1974 , shortly after he led the Mexico City Reds to the Mexican League World Series title in four straight games . The Royals also purchased the contracts of Mexican League players Orlando Cepeda and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Germán Barranca in the same month . The Royals planned to use López in the September pennant race and throughout the next season . Lopez pitched in eight games in 1974 , and he was bought back by the Mexico City Reds in early 1975 .
During the 1977 Mexican League season , López earned a 19 – 3 win @-@ loss record , a 2 @.@ 01 ERA and 165 strikeouts over 157 innings in 73 games . Despite being a closer , he was fifth in the league in wins , and he set a new single @-@ season save record ( 30 ) . He was named the league 's MVP . For several years in the mid- to late @-@ 1970s , López pitched winter baseball in the Mexican Pacific League . He broke league records by leading the league in games pitched three times , by earning eight consecutive relief wins in 1977 – 78 , and by leading the league in relief appearances in four consecutive seasons . Among Mexican baseball fans , López became known as " El Buitre de Tecamachalco " ( The Vulture of Tecamachalco ) .
= = MLB career = =
López 's contract was purchased by the St. Louis Cardinals from Mexico City on October 26 , 1977 . He joined the Springfield Redbirds of the Class AAA American Association for 1978 , but returned to the major leagues during the 1978 season , earning a 4 – 2 record with the St. Louis Cardinals . After one season in St. Louis , López was traded to the Detroit Tigers with Jerry Morales for Jack Murphy and Bob Sykes . López posted some of his best individual statistics in the 1979 season , when he had a 10 – 5 win – loss record , 106 strikeouts , and a 2 @.@ 41 ERA ( an Adjusted ERA + of 181 ) . He was third in the AL in saves ( 21 ) and seventh in the Cy Young Award voting . López earned another 21 saves in 1980 . In the 1981 season , he shared closer responsibilities and collected only three saves before the 1981 Major League Baseball strike ended the season .
López suffered from shoulder problems during spring training in 1982 , and he was demoted to Detroit 's Class AAA minor @-@ league affiliate in Evansville by July . He was called back up to Detroit on September 1 , but later that month he shocked his teammates by announcing that he was giving up his MLB career and returning to Mexico . López said that his reasons were personal , and he cited his family , the education of his children and the Mexican economy as motivating factors for the decision . He came out of retirement and returned to Detroit in time for the 1983 season . In February 1983 , López became the first player in MLB history to receive a pay cut through salary arbitration . López had earned $ 285 @,@ 000 in 1982 , asked for $ 315 @,@ 000 for 1983 and was awarded $ 250 @,@ 000 . He finished 1983 with a 9 – 8 record , 2 @.@ 81 ERA and 18 saves .
López is perhaps best known for his role as the setup reliever for the Tigers during their 1984 championship season , when he finished with a 10 – 1 record , 14 saves , and a 2 @.@ 94 ERA . López had a 1 – 0 record in both the 1984 American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) and 1984 World Series , and he did not give up an earned run in over six innings pitched that postseason . He faced seven batters in Game Five of the 1984 World Series , retiring them all . After the pitcher got out of two extra @-@ inning jams to earn a 1984 ALCS win , Detroit manager Sparky Anderson said , " Nothing surprises me about Lopez . I 've had him for five years and believe me , there 's nothing like him . He 's got heart and there is none better . He 's one of the all @-@ time hearts . " While in Detroit , López had earned the nickname " Señor Smoke " , as he hailed from Mexico and threw a powerful fastball .
By early 1985 , López stated his intentions to enter free agency after the season . He placed his Detroit home up for sale , but appeared to soften when Detroit opened to the possibility of new contract negotiations . He said that he wanted to pitch another year or two and then enter the fast food business in Detroit . In late May , the Associated Press reported that López and Detroit reached a " gentleman 's agreement " which would allow the pitcher to finish his career in Detroit , though no contract was signed . López finished the 1985 season with a 3 – 7 record and five saves . The Tigers made López a free agent in November of that year . He temporarily retired again in early 1986 before signing with the Houston Astros .
López reached the postseason again that year with Houston . In the 1986 National League Championship Series , he pitched 1 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in Game Two , but he was the losing pitcher in Game Six when the New York Mets won the series . López pitched the fourteenth through sixteenth innings and surrendered the lead twice . During spring training before the 1987 season , López was arrested in Florida on charges of driving while intoxicated and driving with a suspended license . He earned his final major league save on May 12 , 1987 . He finished his MLB career with a 62 – 36 win @-@ loss record , 93 saves and a 3 @.@ 56 earned run average . López 's career save total was the highest among Mexican pitchers in MLB until Joakim Soria surpassed the mark in 2010 .
= = Later life and death = =
After retiring from baseball , López moved back to Tecamachalco . He was elected municipal president of the city in 1990 , a position that he held until his death . The post is equivalent to that of mayor . Early in his political service , he oversaw the installation of new water and drainage systems . Facing great opposition from the previous ruling family and even enduring shots fired at his home , he described his post as " like coming into a game with the bases loaded . " As late as 1991 , López mentioned the possibility of returning to baseball in a coaching role .
López was killed in an auto accident a day after his 44th birthday in Matehuala , San Luis Potosí . He was driving a car that overturned , and he was thrown from the vehicle . His wife Celia and another passenger were injured in the crash . López was buried in Tecamachalco Cemetery . He , Aurelio Rodríguez and Aurelio Monteagudo are the only three players in MLB history named Aurelio , and all three were killed in car accidents between the ages of 44 and 53 .
= = Legacy = =
López was inducted into the Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame in 1993 . He has been described as the pitcher with the highest velocity in Mexican baseball history . López had a reputation as a friendly player who got along well with other members of the team . Former Astros teammate Terry Puhl described López as " always upbeat , " while fellow Astro Craig Reynolds noted that López was " everybody 's friend . "
Detroit rock band Electric Six named their album Señor Smoke ( 2005 ) in López 's honor . In September 2012 , a youth sports complex in Tecamachalco was named in honor of López .
= Adrian Boult =
Sir Adrian Cedric Boult , CH ( / boʊlt / ; 8 April 1889 – 22 February 1983 ) was an English conductor . Brought up in a prosperous mercantile family , he followed musical studies in England and at Leipzig , Germany , with early conducting work in London for the Royal Opera House and Sergei Diaghilev 's ballet company . His first prominent post was conductor of the City of Birmingham Orchestra in 1924 . When the British Broadcasting Corporation appointed him director of music in 1930 , he established the BBC Symphony Orchestra and became its chief conductor . The orchestra set standards of excellence that were rivalled in Britain only by the London Philharmonic Orchestra ( LPO ) , founded two years later .
Forced to leave the BBC in 1950 on reaching retirement age , Boult took on the chief conductorship of the LPO . The orchestra had declined from its peak of the 1930s , but under his guidance its fortunes were revived . He retired as its chief conductor in 1957 , and later accepted the post of president . Although in the latter part of his career he worked with other orchestras , including the London Symphony Orchestra , the Philharmonia Orchestra , the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra , and his former orchestra , the BBC Symphony , it was the LPO with which he was primarily associated , conducting it in concerts and recordings until 1978 , in what was widely called his " Indian Summer " .
Boult was known for his championing of British music . He gave the first performance of his friend Gustav Holst 's The Planets , and introduced new works by , among others , Bliss , Britten , Delius , Tippett , Vaughan Williams and Walton . In his BBC years he introduced works by foreign composers , including Bartók , Berg , Stravinsky , Schoenberg and Webern . A modest man who disliked the limelight , Boult felt as comfortable in the recording studio as on the concert platform , making recordings throughout his career . From the mid @-@ 1960s until his retirement after his last sessions in 1978 he recorded extensively for EMI . As well as a series of recordings that have remained in the catalogue for three or four decades , Boult 's legacy includes his influence on prominent conductors of later generations , including Colin Davis and Vernon Handley .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Boult was born in Chester , Cheshire , in North West England , the second child and only son of Cedric Randal Boult ( 1853 – 1950 ) , and his wife Katharine Florence née Barman ( d . 1927 ) . Cedric Boult was a Justice of the Peace and a successful businessman connected with Liverpool shipping and the oil trade ; Cedric and his family had " a Liberal Unitarian outlook on public affairs " with a history of philanthropy . When Boult was two years old the family moved to Blundellsands , where he was given a musical upbringing . From an early age he attended concerts in Liverpool , conducted mostly by Hans Richter . He was educated at Westminster School in London , where in his free time he attended concerts conducted by , among others , Sir Henry Wood , Claude Debussy , Arthur Nikisch , Fritz Steinbach , and Richard Strauss . His biographer , Michael Kennedy , writes , " Few schoolboys can have attended as many performances by great artists as Boult heard between 1901 and October 1908 , when he went up to Christ Church , Oxford . " While still a schoolboy , Boult met the composer Edward Elgar through Frank Schuster , a family friend .
At Christ Church college at Oxford , where he was an undergraduate from 1908 to 1912 , Boult studied history but later switched to music , in which his mentor was the musical academic and conductor Hugh Allen . Among the musical friends he made at Oxford was Ralph Vaughan Williams , who became a lifelong friend . In 1909 Boult presented a paper to an Oxford musical group , the Oriana Society , entitled Some Notes on Performance , in which he laid down three precepts for an ideal performance : observance of the composer 's wishes , clarity through emphasis on balance and structure , and the effect of music made without apparent effort . These guiding principles lasted throughout his career . He was president of the University Musical Club for the year 1910 , but his interests were not wholly confined to music : he was a keen rower , stroking his college boat at Henley , and all his life he remained a member of the Leander Club .
Boult graduated in 1912 , with a basic " pass " degree . He continued his musical education at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1912 – 13 . The musician Hans Sitt was in charge of the conducting class , but Boult 's main influence was Nikisch . He later recalled , " I went to all his [ Nikisch 's ] rehearsals and concerts in the Gewandhaus . ... He had an astonishing baton technique and great command of the orchestra : everything was indicated with absolute precision . But there were others who were greater interpreters . " Boult admired Nikisch " not so much for his musicianship but his amazing power of saying what he wanted with a bit of wood . He spoke very little " . This style was in accord with Boult 's opinion that " all conductors should be clad in an invisible Tarnhelm which makes it possible to enjoy the music without seeing any of the antics that go on " . He sang in choral festivals and at the Leeds Festival of 1913 , where he watched Nikisch conduct . There he made the acquaintance of George Butterworth , and other British composers . Later that year Boult joined the musical staff of the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , where his most important work was to assist the first British production of Wagner 's Parsifal , and do " odd jobs with lighting cues " while Nikisch conducted the Ring cycle .
= = = First conducting work = = =
Boult made his début as a professional conductor on 27 February 1914 at West Kirby Public Hall , with members of the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra . His programme comprised orchestral works by Bach , Butterworth , Mozart , Schumann , Wagner and Hugo Wolf , interspersed with arias by Mozart and Verdi sung by Agnes Nicholls . Boult was declared medically unfit for active service during the First World War , and until 1916 he served as an orderly officer in a reserve unit . He was recruited by the War Office as a translator ( he spoke good French , German and Italian ) . In his spare time he organised and conducted concerts , some of which were subsidised by his father , with the aims of giving work to orchestral players and bringing music to a wider audience .
In 1918 Boult conducted the London Symphony Orchestra in a series of concerts that included important recent British works . Among them was the première of a revised version of Vaughan Williams 's A London Symphony , a performance which was " rather spoilt by a Zeppelin raid " . His best @-@ known première of this period was Holst 's The Planets . Boult conducted the first performance on 29 September 1918 to an invited audience of about 250 . Holst later wrote on his copy of the score , " This copy is the property of Adrian Boult who first caused The Planets to shine in public and thereby earned the gratitude of Gustav Holst . "
Elgar was another composer who had cause to be grateful to Boult . His Second Symphony had , since its premiere nine years earlier , received few performances . When Boult conducted it at the Queen 's Hall in March 1920 to " great applause " and " frantic enthusiasm " , the composer wrote to him : " With the sounds ringing in my ears I send a word of thanks for your splendid conducting of the Sym . ... I feel that my reputation in the future is safe in your hands . " Elgar 's friend and biographer , the violinist W. H. Reed , wrote that Boult 's performance of Elgar 's neglected work brought " the grandeur and nobility of the work " to wider public attention .
Boult took a wide variety of conducting jobs in the years following the war . In 1919 he succeeded Ernest Ansermet as musical director of Sergei Diaghilev 's ballet company . Although Ansermet gave Boult all the help he could in his preparations , there were fourteen ballets in the company 's repertory – none of which Boult knew . In only a short period , Boult was required to master such scores as Petrushka , The Firebird , Scheherazade , La Boutique fantasque and The Good @-@ Humoured Ladies . In June 1921 , Boult conducted for Theodore Komisarjevsky and Vladimir Rosing 's experimental Opera Intime week at London 's Aeolian Hall . He also took on an academic post . When Hugh Allen succeeded Sir Hubert Parry as principal of the Royal College of Music , he invited Boult to start a conducting class along the lines of Leipzig – the first such class in England . Boult ran the classes from 1919 to 1930 . In 1921 he received a Doctorate of Music .
= = = Birmingham = = =
In 1923 Boult conducted the first season of the Robert Mayer concerts for children , but his participation in the following season was prevented by his appointment in 1924 as conductor of the Birmingham Festival Choral Society . This led to his becoming musical director of the City of Birmingham Orchestra , where he remained in charge for six years , attracting widespread attention with his adventurous programmes .
The advantage of the Birmingham post was that for the first time in his life Boult had his own orchestra , and sole control of programming ; the only time in his life , he later said , when that was so . The disadvantages were that the orchestra was inadequately funded , the available venues ( including the Town Hall ) were unsatisfactory , the Birmingham Post 's music critic , A. J. Symons , was a constant thorn in Boult 's side , and the local concert @-@ going public had conservative tastes . Despite this conservatism , Boult programmed as much innovative music as was practical , including works by Mahler , Stravinsky and Bruckner . Such departures from the repertoire expected by the regular concert @-@ goers depressed the box @-@ office takings , requiring subsidies from private benefactors , including Boult 's family .
While at Birmingham Boult had the opportunity to conduct a number of operas , chiefly with the British National Opera Company , for which he conducted Die Walküre and Otello . He also conducted a diverse range of operas from such composers as Purcell , Mozart and Vaughan Williams . In 1928 he succeeded Vaughan Williams as conductor of the Bach Choir in London , a position he held until 1931 .
= = = BBC Symphony Orchestra = = =
Visits to London by the Hallé Orchestra and particularly the Berlin Philharmonic under Wilhelm Furtwängler in 1929 , had highlighted the relatively poor standards of London orchestras . Sir Thomas Beecham and the director general of the BBC Sir John Reith were keen to establish a first @-@ class symphony orchestra , and they agreed in principle to do so jointly . Only a small number of core players were recruited before negotiations foundered . Beecham withdrew , and with Malcolm Sargent soon established the rival London Philharmonic Orchestra .
In 1930 Boult returned to London to succeed Percy Pitt as director of music at the BBC . On taking up the post , Boult and his department recruited enough musicians to bring the complement of the new BBC Symphony Orchestra to 114 . A substantial number of these players performed at the 1930 Promenade Concerts under Sir Henry Wood , and the full BBC Symphony Orchestra gave its first concert on 22 October 1930 , conducted by Boult at the Queen 's Hall . The programme consisted of music by Wagner , Brahms , Saint @-@ Saëns and Ravel . Of the 21 programmes in the orchestra 's first season , Boult conducted nine and Wood five .
The reviews of the new orchestra were enthusiastic . The Times wrote of its " virtuosity " and of Boult 's " superb " conducting . The Musical Times commented , " The boast of the B.B.C. that it intended to get together a first @-@ class orchestra was not an idle one " and spoke of " exhilaration " at the playing . The Observer called the playing " altogether magnificent " and said that Boult " deserves an instrument of this fine calibre to work on , and the orchestra deserves a conductor of his efficiency and insight . " After the initial concerts Reith was told by his advisers that the orchestra had played better for Boult than anyone else . Reith asked him if he wished to take on the chief conductorship , and if so whether he would resign as director of music or occupy both posts simultaneously . Boult opted for the latter . He later said that this was a rash decision , and that he could not have sustained the two roles at once without the efforts of his staff in the music department , which included Edward Clark , Julian Herbage and Kenneth Wright .
During the 1930s , the BBC Symphony Orchestra became renowned for its high standard of playing and for Boult 's capable performances of new and unfamiliar music . Like Henry Wood before him , Boult regarded it as his duty to give the best possible performances of a wide range of composers , including those whose works were not personally congenial to him . His biographer , Michael Kennedy , writes that there was a very short list of composers whose works Boult refused to conduct , " but it would be difficult to deduce who they were . " Boult 's pioneering work with the BBC included an early performance of Schoenberg 's Variations , Op. 31 , British premières , including Alban Berg 's opera Wozzeck and Three Movements from the Lyric Suite , and world premières , including Vaughan Williams 's Symphony No. 4 in F minor and Bartók 's Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra . He introduced Mahler 's Ninth Symphony to London in 1934 , and Bartók 's Concerto for Orchestra in 1946 . Boult invited Anton Webern to conduct eight BBC concerts between 1931 and 1936 .
The excellence of Boult 's orchestra attracted leading international conductors . In its second season guest conductors included Richard Strauss , Felix Weingartner and Bruno Walter , followed , in later seasons , by Serge Koussevitzky , Beecham and Willem Mengelberg . Arturo Toscanini , widely regarded at the time as the world 's leading conductor , conducted the BBC orchestra in 1935 and said that it was the finest he had ever directed . He returned to conduct the orchestra in 1937 , 1938 and 1939 .
During this period , Boult accepted some international guest conductorships , appearing with the Vienna Philharmonic , Boston Symphony , and New York Philharmonic orchestras . In 1936 and 1937 he headed European tours with the BBC Symphony Orchestra , giving concerts in Brussels , Paris , Zurich , Budapest and Vienna , where they were especially well received . During his BBC years , Boult did not entirely lose contact with the world of opera and his performances of Die Walküre at Covent Garden in 1931 and Fidelio at Sadler 's Wells Theatre in 1930 were considered outstanding .
For many years , Boult had been a close friend of the tenor Steuart Wilson and his wife Ann , née Bowles . When , in the late 1920s , Wilson began to mistreat his wife , Boult took her side . She divorced Wilson in 1931 . In 1933 , Boult astonished those who knew his notorious shyness with women by marrying her and becoming a much @-@ loved stepfather to her four children ; the marriage lasted for the rest of his life . The enmity it provoked in Wilson had repercussions in Boult 's later career . The stigma attached to divorce in Britain in the 1930s affected Wilson 's career but not Boult 's : Wilson was barred from performing in English cathedrals at the Three Choirs Festival but Boult was invited to conduct the orchestra at Westminster Abbey for the coronation of George VI in 1937 .
During the Second World War the BBC Symphony Orchestra was evacuated first to Bristol , where it suffered from bombing , and later to Bedford . Boult strove to maintain standards and morale as he lost key players . Between 1939 and the end of the war , forty players left for active service or other activities . In 1942 Boult resigned as the BBC 's director of music , while remaining chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra . This move , made as a favour to the composer Arthur Bliss to provide a suitable war @-@ time job for him , later came to be Boult 's undoing at the BBC . Meanwhile , he made recordings of Elgar 's Second Symphony , Holst 's The Planets and Vaughan Williams 's Job , A Masque for Dancing . At the end of the war Boult " found a changed attitude to the orchestra in the upper echelons of the BBC " . Reith was no longer director general , and without his backing Boult had to fight hard to restore the orchestra to its pre @-@ war glory .
On 29 September 1946 , Boult conducted Britten 's new Festival Overture , to inaugurate the BBC Third Programme . For this innovative cultural channel , Boult was concerned in pioneering ventures including the British premiere of Mahler 's Third Symphony . The Times later said of this period , " The Third Programme could not possibly have had the scope which made it world @-@ famous musically without Boult . " Nevertheless , Boult 's BBC days were numbered . When he was appointed in 1930 , Reith had informally promised him that would be exempt from the BBC 's rule that staff must retire at age 60 . However , Reith had left the BBC in 1938 and his promise carried no weight with his successors . In 1948 Steuart Wilson was appointed head of music at the BBC , the post previously occupied by Boult and Bliss . He made it clear from the start of his appointment that he intended that Boult should be replaced as chief conductor , and he used his authority to insist on Boult 's enforced retirement . The director general of the BBC at the time , Sir William Haley , was unaware of Wilson 's animus against Boult and later acknowledged , in a broadcast tribute to Boult , that he " had listened to ill @-@ judged advice in retiring him . " By the time of his retirement in 1950 , Boult had made 1 @,@ 536 broadcasts .
= = = London Philharmonic = = =
After it became clear that Boult would have to leave the BBC , Thomas Russell , the managing director of the London Philharmonic Orchestra ( LPO ) , offered him the post of principal conductor of the LPO in succession to Eduard van Beinum . In the 1930s the LPO had flourished , but since Beecham 's departure in 1940 , it had struggled to survive . Boult was well known to the orchestra , having been among the musicians who came to its aid in 1940 . He took over as chief conductor of the LPO in June 1950 , immediately after leaving the BBC , and threw himself into the task of rebuilding it . In the early years of his conductorship , the finances of the LPO were perilous , and Boult subsidised the orchestra from his own funds for some time . The need to earn money obliged the orchestra to play many more concerts than its rivals . In the 1949 – 50 season , the LPO gave 248 concerts , compared with 55 by the BBC Symphony Orchestra , 103 by the London Symphony Orchestra , and 32 apiece by the Philharmonia and Royal Philharmonic orchestras .
Although he had worked extensively in the studio for the BBC , Boult had , up to this point , recorded only a part of his large repertoire for the gramophone . With the LPO he began a series of commercial recordings that continued at a varying rate for the rest of his working life . Their first recordings together were Elgar 's Falstaff , Mahler 's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen with the mezzo Blanche Thebom , and Beethoven 's First Symphony . The work of the new team was greeted with approval by the reviewers . Of the Elgar , The Gramophone wrote , " I have heard no other conductor approach [ Boult 's ] performance . ... His newly adopted orchestra responds admirably " . In The Manchester Guardian , Neville Cardus wrote , " Nobody is better able than Sir Adrian Boult to expound the subtly mingled contents of this master work . "
In January 1951 Boult and the LPO made a tour of Germany , described by Kennedy as " gruelling " , with 12 concerts on 12 successive days . The symphonies they played were Beethoven 's Seventh , Haydn 's London , No 104 , Brahms 's First , Schumann 's Fourth and Schubert 's Great C major . The other works were Elgar 's Introduction and Allegro , Holst 's The Perfect Fool ballet music , Richard Strauss 's Don Juan , and Stravinsky 's Firebird .
In 1952 , the LPO negotiated a five @-@ year contract with Decca Records , which was unusually rewarding for the orchestra , giving it a 10 per cent commission on most sales . On top of this , Boult always contributed his share of the recording fees to the orchestra 's funds . In the same year , the LPO survived a crisis when Russell was dismissed as its managing director . He was an avowed member of the Communist party ; when the cold war began some influential members of the LPO felt that Russell 's private political affiliations compromised the orchestra , and pressed for his dismissal . Boult , as the orchestra 's chief conductor , stood up for Russell , but when matters came to a head Boult ceased to protect him . Deprived of that crucial support , Russell was forced out . Kennedy speculates that Boult 's change of mind was due to a growing conviction that the orchestra would be " seriously jeopardized financially " if Russell remained in post . A later writer , Richard Witts , suggests that Boult sacrificed Russell because he believed doing so would enhance the LPO 's chance of being appointed resident orchestra at the Royal Festival Hall .
In 1953 Boult once again took charge of the orchestral music at a coronation , conducting an ensemble drawn from UK orchestras at the coronation of Elizabeth II . During the proceedings , he conducted the first performances of Bliss 's Processional and Walton 's march Orb and Sceptre . In the same year he returned to the Proms after a three @-@ year absence , conducting the LPO . The notices were mixed : The Times found a Brahms symphony " rather colourless , imprecise and uninspiring " , but praised Boult and the orchestra 's performance of The Planets . In the same year the orchestra celebrated its 21st birthday , giving a series of concerts at the Festival Hall and the Royal Albert Hall in which Boult was joined by guest conductors including Paul Kletzki , Jean Martinon , Hans Schmidt @-@ Isserstedt , Georg Solti , Walter Susskind and Vaughan Williams .
In 1956 Boult and the LPO visited Russia . Boult had not wished to go on the tour because flying hurt his ears , and long land journeys hurt his back . The Soviet authorities threatened to cancel the tour if he did not lead it , and he felt obliged to go . The LPO gave nine concerts in Moscow and four in Leningrad . Boult 's assistant conductors were Anatole Fistoulari and George Hurst . Boult 's four Moscow programmes included Vaughan Williams 's Fourth and Fifth Symphonies , Holst 's The Planets , Walton 's Violin Concerto ( with Alfredo Campoli as soloist ) , and Schubert 's Great C major Symphony . While in Moscow , Boult and his wife visited the Bolshoi Opera and were guests at the composer Dmitri Shostakovich 's 50th birthday party .
After the Russian tour , Boult told the LPO that he wished to step down from the principal conductorship . He continued to be the orchestra 's main conductor until his successor William Steinberg took up the post in 1959 . After the sudden resignation of Andrzej Panufnik from the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra ( CBSO ) , Boult returned as principal conductor of the CBSO for the 1959 – 60 season . That was his last chief conductorship , though he remained closely associated with the LPO as its president and a guest conductor until his retirement .
= = = Later years = = =
After stepping down from the chief conductorship of the LPO , Boult was , for a few years , less in demand in the recording studio and the concert hall . Nevertheless , he was invited to conduct in Vienna , Amsterdam and Boston . In 1964 he made no recordings , but in 1965 he began an association with Lyrita records , an independent label specialising in British music . In the same year he resumed recording for EMI after a six @-@ year break . Celebrations for his eightieth birthday in 1969 also raised his profile in the musical world . After the death of his colleague Sir John Barbirolli in 1970 , Boult was seen as " the sole survivor of a great generation " and a living link with Elgar , Vaughan Williams and Holst . In the words of The Guardian , " it was when he reached his late seventies that the final and most glorious period of his career developed . " He ceased to accept overseas invitations , but conducted in the major British cities , as well as at the Festival and Albert Halls and began what is frequently called his " Indian Summer " in the concert hall and recording studio . He was featured in a 1971 film The Point of the Stick , in which he illustrated his conducting technique with musical examples .
At a spare recording session in August 1970 Boult recorded the Third Symphony of Brahms . This was well received and led to a series of recordings of Brahms , Wagner , Schubert , Mozart and Beethoven . His repertoire in general was much wider than his discography might suggest . It was a disappointment to him that he was rarely invited to conduct in the opera house , and he relished the opportunity to record extensive excerpts from the Wagner operas in the 1970s . Having conducted several ballets at Covent Garden during the 1970s , Boult gave his last public performance conducting Elgar 's ballet The Sanguine Fan for the London Festival Ballet at the London Coliseum on 24 June 1978 . His final record , completed in December 1978 , was of music by Hubert Parry . Boult formally retired from conducting in 1981 and died in London in 1983 , aged 93 .
= = Musicianship = =
A review in The Observer of Boult 's second London concert , in 1918 , said , " Having , apparently , a thorough knowledge of the work , he was content to let it speak for itself without having recourse to those aids to success which are a constant temptation to conductors . " Sixty @-@ five years later , in an obituary tribute , Peter Heyworth wrote in the same newspaper : " From Nikisch he had early acquired an immaculate stick technique and was quietly scathing about conductors who used their anatomy to indicate their artistic requirements . ... In an occupation ridden with inflated egos and circus tricksters Boult brought a rare probity to everything he undertook . "
Boult 's biographer , Kennedy , gave this summary : " In the music he admired most , Boult was often a great conductor ; in the rest , an extremely conscientious one . ... If from behind he seemed unexciting and unemotional , the players could see the animation in his face – and he was capable of frightening outbursts of temper at rehearsals . Tall and erect , with something of the military in his appearance ... he seemed the personification of the English gentleman . But recipients of his cutting wit and occasional sarcasm knew that this was not the whole picture . " Grove 's Dictionary similarly said of him :
Of the leading British conductors of his time , Boult was the least sensational but not the least remarkable . He made no attempt to cultivate a public image . He was neither oracle , orator nor professional wit , but he expressed himself with trenchancy , and his gentlemanly self @-@ control was occasionally ruffled by storms of anger . ... [ T ] here were nights when the physical impact of his conducting was low , and there was little beyond faithfulness to the notes . There were others when precise , sensitive stick technique , loyalty to the composer , selflessness and ability to see the music as a whole , produced results equally satisfying in the classics and the British music he understood so well .
Boult , unlike many of his contemporaries , preferred the traditional orchestral layout , with first violins on the conductor 's left and the seconds on the right . Of the practice of grouping all the violins together on the left , he wrote , " The new seating is , I admit , easier for the conductor and the second violins , but I firmly maintain that the second violins themselves sound far better on the right . ... When the new fashion reached us from America somewhere about 1908 it was adopted by some conductors , but Richter , Weingartner , Walter , Toscanini and many others kept what I feel is the right balance . "
This care for balance was an important feature of Boult 's music @-@ making . Orchestral players across decades commented on his insistence that every important part should be heard without difficulty . His BBC principal violist wrote in 1938 , " If a woodwind player has to complain that he has already been blowing ' fit to burst ' there is trouble for somebody . " The trombonist Ray Premru wrote forty years later , " One of the old school , like Boult , is so refreshing because he will reduce the dynamic level – ' No , no , pianissimo , strings , let the soloist through , less from everyone else . ' That is the old idea of balance . "
As an educator , Boult influenced several generations of musicians , beginning with his conducting class at the Royal College of Music , London , which he ran from 1919 to 1930 . As no such classes had been held before in Britain , Boult " created its curriculum from out of his own experience . ... From that first small class has come all the later formal training for conductors throughout Britain . " In the 1930s Boult ran a series of " conferences for conductors " at his country house near Guildford , sometimes helped by Vaughan Williams who lived a few miles away . From 1962 to 1966 he again taught at the Royal College of Music . In later life , he made time for young conductors who sought his counsel . Among those who studied with or were influenced by Boult were Colin Davis , James Loughran , Richard Hickox and Vernon Handley . The last was not only a pupil of Boult , but acted as his musical assistant on many occasions .
= = Honours and memorials = =
Boult was knighted in 1937 and was created Companion of Honour ( CH ) in 1969 . He received the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1944 and the Harvard Glee Club medal ( jointly with Vaughan Williams ) in 1956 . He received honorary degrees and fellowships from 13 universities and conservatoires . In 1951 he was invited to be the first president of the Elgar Society . In 1959 he was made president of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music .
Boult 's old school , Westminster , has a music centre named in his honour , and the Birmingham Conservatoire , a department of the Birmingham City University includes in its home building the Adrian Boult Hall . The hall is used for classical concerts , other musical performances , and conferences .
In the June 2013 issue of Gramophone Boult was added to the magazine 's Hall of Fame which recognises musicians who have made a lasting impact on the world of recorded classical music .
= = Recordings = =
Boult was a prolific recording artist . Unlike many musicians , he felt at home in the recording studio and was happy working without an audience . His recording career stretched from the days of acoustic recording until the beginning of the digital era . His last recording of The Planets made in May 1978 was taped in experimental digital sound , although technical problems led EMI to release an analogue version .
Boult 's recordings fall into three main periods . In the first , from 1920 to the end of the 1940s , he recorded almost exclusively for HMV . In the 1950s and early 1960s , he was less in demand by the major labels , and although he made a substantial number of discs for Decca , he recorded mostly for smaller labels , chiefly Pye Nixa . His last period , from the mid @-@ 1960s , sometimes referred to as his Indian Summer , was once again with HMV . With his regular collaborators the producer Christopher Bishop and the engineer Christopher Parker he made more than sixty recordings , re @-@ recording much of his key repertoire in stereo . He also added many works to his discography that he had not recorded before .
Of the British composers , Boult extensively recorded and sometimes re @-@ recorded major works by Elgar and Vaughan Williams . He recorded all eight then @-@ existing symphonies by Vaughan Williams for Decca in the 1950s with the LPO , in the presence of the composer . The recording producer , John Culshaw , wrote that the composer " said very little during the sessions because he was totally in favour of Sir Adrian 's approach to his music . " Vaughan Williams was to have been present for the first recording of his Ninth symphony , for Everest Records in 1958 , but he died the night before the session took place ; Boult recorded a short introduction as a memorial tribute . All these recordings have been reissued on CD . In the 1960s Boult re @-@ recorded the nine symphonies for EMI .
Other British composers who feature significantly in Boult 's discography include Holst , Ireland , Parry , and Walton . Despite his reputation as a pioneer in Britain of the works of the Second Viennese School and other avant @-@ garde composers , the record companies , unlike the BBC , remained cautious about recording him in this repertory , and only a single recording of a Berg piece represents this side of Boult 's work . In the core continental orchestral repertoire , Boult 's recordings of the four symphonies of Brahms , and the Great C major Symphony of Schubert were celebrated in his lifetime and have remained in the catalogues during the three decades after his death . Late in his recording career he recorded four discs of excerpts from Wagner 's operas , which received great critical praise . The exceptional breadth of Boult 's repertoire has left some well @-@ regarded recordings of works not immediately associated with him , among which are versions of Franck 's Symphony ( recorded in 1959 ) , Dvořák 's Cello Concerto with Mstislav Rostropovich ( 1958 ) , and a pioneering recording of Mahler 's Third Symphony taped live in 1947 .
= Miranda Otto =
Miranda Otto ( born 16 December 1967 ) is an Australian actress . The daughter of actors Barry and Lindsay Otto , and the sister of actress Gracie Otto , Brisbane @-@ born Miranda began her acting career at age 18 in 1986 , and has appeared in a variety of independent and major studio films . Otto made her major film debut in Emma 's War , in which she played a teenager who moves to Australia 's bush country during World War II .
After a decade of critically acclaimed roles in Australian films , Otto gained Hollywood 's attention during the 1990s after appearing in supporting roles in the films The Thin Red Line and What Lies Beneath . She played Éowyn in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy .
= = Early life = =
Otto was raised in Newcastle and Brisbane , and briefly resided in Hong Kong following her parents ' 1974 divorce . She spent weekends and holidays with her father in Sydney and developed an interest in acting through him .
During her childhood , Otto and her friends wrote scripts and designed costumes and flyers in their spare time . She appeared in several plays at the Nimrod Theatre , which attracted the attention of casting director Faith Martin . Subsequently , Otto received a role in the 1986 World War II drama Emma 's War .
She had wanted to be a ballerina but was forced to abandon this goal due to moderate scoliosis . Otto graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art in Sydney in 1990 . Prior to graduation , she appeared in minor film roles including Initiation ( 1987 ) and The 13th Floor ( 1988 ) .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Otto 's first post @-@ graduation film role in 1991 , as Nell Tiscowitz in The Girl Who Came Late , was her breakthrough role , which brought her to the attention of the Australian film industry and the general public . In the film , directed by Kathy Mueller , she starred as a young woman who could communicate with horses . Her appearance garnered Otto her first Australian Film Institute nomination for Best Actress the following year .
Otto 's next role was in the film The Last Days of Chez Nous , which portrayed the complex relationships between the members of an Australian family . The film earned Otto her second Australian Film Institute nomination , this time for Best Supporting Actress . In 1993 , Otto co @-@ starred with Noah Taylor in the sexually provocative comedy film The Nostradamus Kid , which was based on the memories of author Bob Ellis during the 1960s . Otto was drawn to the film because she was " fascinated by the period and the people who came out of it . " A small role in the independent film Sex Is a Four Letter Word followed in 1995 .
In 1995 , she began to doubt her career choice as she failed to get the parts for which she auditioned . She fled to her home in Newcastle for almost a year , during which she painted her mother 's house . In 1996 , director Shirley Barrett cast Otto as a shy waitress in the film Love Serenade . She played Dimity Hurley , a lonely young woman , who competes with her older sister Vicki @-@ Ann for the attention of a famous DJ from Brisbane . She starred in the 1997 films The Well and Doing Time for Patsy Cline . When Otto received the film script for The Well , she refused to read it , fearing that she would not get the part . Otto believed that she could not convincingly play the role of Katherine , who is supposed to be 18 , as she was 30 at the time . The film , directed by Samantha Lang , starred Otto as a teenager involved in a claustrophobic relationship with a lonely older woman . The Well received mixed reviews ; critic Paul Fisher wrote that Otto 's performance was not " convincing " as she was " playing another repetitious character about whom little is revealed " , while Louise Keller stated that Otto had delivered " her best screen performance yet . " Otto earned her third Australian Film Institute nomination for the film . Later that year , she co @-@ starred with Richard Roxburgh in the drama Doing Time for Patsy Cline . The low @-@ budget Australian film required Otto to perform country music standards and also received mixed reviews from film critics .
Soon after the release of The Well and Doing Time for Patsy Cline , magazines and other media outlets were eager to profile the actress . In 1997 , Otto began dating her Doing Time for Patsy Cline co @-@ star Richard Roxburgh . Her involvement with Roxburgh made her a regular subject of Australian tabloid magazines and media at the time , a role to which she was unaccustomed .
Otto 's next project was the romantic comedy Dead Letter Office ( 1998 ) . The film was Otto 's first with her father , Barry , who makes a brief appearance . In the Winter Dark , directed by James Bogle , followed later that year . Otto played Ronnie , a pregnant woman recently abandoned by her boyfriend . The film was a critical success in Australia , and Otto was nominated for her fourth Australian Film Institute Award . A small role in The Thin Red Line , led to further film roles outside of Australia , such as in Italy , where she co @-@ starred as Ruth in the low @-@ budget Italian film La volpe a tre zampe ( " The Three @-@ legged Fox " ) , produced in 2001 and broadcast for the first time on Italian television in March 2009 .
= = = Hollywood = = =
Otto 's first Hollywood role was opposite Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer in the suspense thriller What Lies Beneath in 2000 . She played Mary Feur , a mysterious next @-@ door neighbor . The film was met with mixed reviews , but was an international success , grossing US $ 291 million . In 2001 , she was cast as a naturalist in the comedy Human Nature . Writer Charlie Kaufman , impressed by her audition two years earlier for his film Being John Malkovich , arranged for Otto to audition and meet with the film 's director Michel Gondry . Human Nature was both a commercial and critical disappointment . Critic Jeffrey M. Anderson criticized Otto 's French accent and wrote that she " doesn 't seem to mesh with what 's going on around her " . That same year , she also appeared in the BBC adaptation of Anthony Trollope 's The Way We Live Now , as a strong @-@ willed American Southerner determined to manipulate Cillian Murphy 's character into marrying her .
In 1999 , Otto was cast as Éowyn , a shieldmaiden of Rohan , in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . Director Peter Jackson cast her immediately after viewing the audition video she had filmed in Australia . For the role , Otto spent six weeks learning stunt choreography and horseback riding . Otto 's character was introduced in the trilogy 's second film The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers in 2002 and appeared in the third film , The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King , the following year . The Lord of the Rings trilogy was a critical and financial success , and the third film won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 2004 . Otto 's performance earned her an Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films nomination for Best Supporting Actress .
Otto 's next project was the Australian television miniseries Through My Eyes : The Lindy Chamberlain Story ( 2004 ) . The film is a drama that portrays the story of Lindy Chamberlain , who was convicted in 1982 of killing her baby daughter , Azaria , in one of Australia 's most publicized murder trials . Otto was cast as Chamberlain after her husband , Peter O 'Brien , had been cast as prosecutor Ian Barker . She was drawn to the role because it provided her with the " prospect of exploring an unconventional character . " At the 2005 Logie Awards , Otto won Most Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series for her role .
Director Steven Spielberg , impressed by Otto 's performance in The Lord of the Rings , called her to ask if she would play opposite Tom Cruise in the big @-@ budget science fiction film War of the Worlds ( 2005 ) . Otto , pregnant at the time , believed she would have to turn down the role , but the script was reworked to accommodate her . After giving birth to her daughter , she took a rest from films to concentrate on motherhood and theatre roles in Australia .
In 2007 , Otto starred as Cricket Stewart , the wife of a successful director , in the television miniseries The Starter Wife . That same year , she was cast in the American television series Cashmere Mafia . In the series she plays Juliet Draper , a successful female executive who must rely on her friends to juggle the demands of a career and family in New York City . Otto chose to star in the series because " American television at the moment is so interesting and , particularly , the characters for women are so fantastic " and she " liked the idea of having a character over a long period of time and developing it . " The series was cancelled in May 2008 .
Otto is attached to star opposite Stephanie Sigman in Annabelle 2 directed by David Sanberg . The film is scheduled to be released on May 19 , 2017 .
= = = Theatre = = =
Otto made her theatrical debut in the 1986 production of The Bitter Tears of Petra Von Kant for the Sydney Theatre Company . Three more theatrical productions for the Sydney Theatre Company followed in the late 1980s and early 1990s . In 2002 , she returned to the stage playing Nora Helmer in A Doll 's House opposite her future husband Peter O 'Brien . Otto 's performance earned her a 2003 Helpmann Award nomination and the MO Award for " Best Female Actor in a Play " .
Her next stage role was in the psychological thriller Boy Gets Girl ( 2005 ) , in which she played Theresa , a journalist for a New York magazine . Otto committed to the project days before she found out she was pregnant . Robyn Nevin , the director , rescheduled the production from December 2004 to September 2005 so Otto could appear in it . In 2005 , Nevin began pre @-@ production on a play commissioned especially for Otto .
= = Personal life = =
On 1 January 2003 , she married actor Peter O 'Brien , after the two had met while performing in A Doll 's House . Otto and O 'Brien have one child , a daughter named Darcey , who was born on 1 April 2005 . The pregnancy almost forced her to turn down her role in War of the Worlds . Since the birth of her daughter , Otto has limited her work so she can spend time with her family at their home in Australia .
In a 2004 interview , Otto stated that she hopes she would never be as famous as fellow Australian actress Nicole Kidman because she is " not sure [ she ] could ever deal with that . "
= = Filmography = =
= Lawrie Wilson =
Lawrie Robert Wilson ( born 11 September 1987 ) is an English footballer who currently plays for Bolton Wanderers .
Wilson started his career at Charlton Athletic , and played regularly for the club 's Under @-@ 18 side and reserve team until he was released in 2006 . He joined Colchester United ahead of the 2006 – 07 season , but did not make any first @-@ team appearances during his one @-@ year stay with the club . During his time at Colchester he was loaned out to Conference South side Welling United , making a handful of appearances during his one @-@ month loan spell .
Wilson signed for Hertfordshire side Stevenage in August 2007 , and featured regularly for the club for two seasons , playing in the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign in May 2009 . However , he suffered a dislocated ankle and broken leg in three places in August 2009 , ruling him out for eight months , but returned to first @-@ team action in April 2010 as Stevenage won promotion to the Football League for the first time in the club 's history . Wilson played a key part during the club 's 2010 – 11 campaign , helping Stevenage earn promotion to League One . In July 2012 , Wilson rejoined Charlton for an undisclosed fee . On 5 August 2015 he signed for Bolton Wanderers on a two @-@ year deal .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Wilson began his career as a trainee with Charlton Athletic , and was a regular in the club 's Under @-@ 18 team , where he played in defence . He progressed through the club 's youth system , and featured in Charlton 's reserve side throughout the club 's 2005 – 06 campaign , making a total of 16 appearances for the reserve side as a second @-@ year scholar . However , he failed to make any first @-@ team appearances and was subsequently allowed to search for a new club . In February 2006 , he played for Luton Town 's reserve side in a match against Stevenage Borough reserves at Kenilworth Road , although no transfer materialised . He was officially released by Charlton in April 2006 . A month later , Wilson went on trial at League Two side Shrewsbury Town , and played the whole match in Shrewsbury 's 2 – 1 pre @-@ season friendly home win against Rotherham United , although he was unsuccessful in his attempt to earn a professional contract with the club . In August 2006 , Wilson signed a one @-@ year deal with Colchester United . Similarly to his time at Charlton , Wilson featured regularly for the club 's reserve side throughout the 2006 – 07 season , but failed to make any first @-@ team appearances , making the substitute 's bench once in a 1 – 0 loss to MK Dons in the League Cup . He was loaned out to Conference South side Welling United in December 2006 . He made his debut for Welling in the club 's 1 – 0 win away at Cambridge City , but was sent @-@ off after just 27 minutes for violent conduct . He returned to first @-@ team action in Welling 's 0 – 0 draw against Basingstoke Town in the FA Trophy , and also played the whole match in Welling 's 2 – 1 away win against Thurrock . Wilson played his last game for Welling in the club 's 2 – 0 win at home to Fisher Athletic in early January 2007 . He played a total of four times for Welling during his one @-@ month loan spell at the club . On returning to his parent club , Wilson was released at the end of the 2006 – 07 season , and failed to make a first @-@ team appearance for the club . Ahead of the 2007 – 08 season , Wilson spent pre @-@ season trialling at Brentford and Stockport County respectively , training with Stockport for a number of weeks and playing in several pre @-@ season friendlies , but was ultimately not offered a contract .
= = Stevenage = =
In August 2007 , Wilson signed for Stevenage on a one @-@ year contract . He made his Stevenage debut just a day after signing for the club , coming on as an 86th @-@ minute substitute in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 win against Weymouth . Wilson played in a total of 27 games during his first season at Stevenage , with the majority of his appearances coming in the second half of 2007 – 08 season . The following season under the new management of Graham Westley , Wilson featured regularly in both the full back position and at right midfield . In August 2008 , Wilson scored his first ever professional goal in Stevenage 's 3 – 1 away win at Barrow , taking advantage of a goalkeeping error in the 75th minute of the match to seal Stevenage 's first win of the 2008 – 09 campaign . He made assists in games against Burton Albion and Forest Green Rovers respectively . He was also sent @-@ off for the first time in Stevenage colours in the club 's 3 – 1 home defeat to Histon in November 2008 , picking up the red card for " offensive language " . Wilson returned to the first team at the start of December and remained in the first @-@ team until the end of the season , assisting goals in important wins against Woking and Cambridge United as Stevenage finished in the final play @-@ off spot . He subsequently played in both of Stevenage 's Conference Premier play @-@ off games against Cambridge United in April 2009 , as the club lost 4 – 3 on aggregate . Wilson 's versatility also came into use during the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign during the same season , as he played in four different positions in six of Stevenage 's FA Trophy fixtures . He was deployed at left midfield in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 win against York City in the Final at Wembley Stadium .
Wilson started in Stevenage 's first game of the 2009 – 10 season in a 1 – 1 draw against Tamworth , adopting a much more attacking midfield role on the right wing . In the following game , Wilson 's through pass assisted Andy Drury 's goal against Hayes & Yeading , and Wilson continued his impressive start to the season by assisting Chris Beardsley 's goal against Ebbsfleet United . In the same game , Wilson scored his first goal of the season , latching onto Ronnie Henry 's ball before lashing the ball past the goalkeeper to give Stevenage a three @-@ goal lead . Two weeks later , in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 victory against Rushden & Diamonds , Wilson suffered a " career threatening injury " following a tackle from Michael Corcoran , which resulted in Wilson suffering a dislocated ankle and broken leg in three places . Wilson had a " successful operation " the following day and was expected to miss the rest of the 2009 – 10 season . Wilson returned earlier than expected , playing in a reserve match against Ipswich Town in March 2010 , and he made his return to the first @-@ team a week later against Luton Town , coming on as a 65th @-@ minute substitute . Two days later , Wilson started his first game in just over eight months against AFC Wimbledon . He scored Stevenage 's second goal , scoring on the half volley from Joel Byrom 's chipped pass in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 win at Kingsmeadow . He also played in the club 's 2 – 0 win against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough in April 2010 – the game that secured Stevenage 's place in the Football League for the first time in the club 's history . Wilson played a total of 13 matches during the season , scoring twice . At the end of the season , it was announced that Wilson had signed a contract that keeps him at the club until July 2011 .
Wilson played in Stevenage 's first fixture of the 2010 – 11 season , playing 72 minutes in the club 's 2 – 2 draw with Macclesfield Town . In September 2010 , he was sent @-@ off in a game against Cheltenham Town at Whaddon Road , receiving a red card for two bookable offences . He subsequently missed Stevenage 's 0 – 0 draw against Torquay United as a result of the suspension . Shortly after , he signed a new contract with the club , keeping him at Stevenage until 2012 . He returned to the first @-@ team in Stevenage 's win against Lincoln City , and provided two assists in Stevenage 's 4 – 1 win away at Hereford United three days later . Wilson 's fine form continued , as he was on hand to assist both of Stevenage 's goals in a 2 – 1 win over Burton Albion – firstly being fouled in the area to earn Stevenage a penalty , and secondly crossing the ball into the box for Chris Holroyd to volley home . He scored his first goal of the 2010 – 11 season in Stevenage 's 2 – 2 draw against Accrington Stanley in February 2011 . A month later , Wilson scored both of Stevenage 's goals in a 2 – 1 home win against Lincoln City , his second goal coming from 25 yards out after a neat interchange with John Mousinho . He scored his fourth goal of the season on 9 April 2011 , netting an injury @-@ time equaliser in a 2 – 2 draw at Stockport County . Wilson scored his fifth goal of the season on 25 April 2011 , scoring the only goal of the game in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 home win against Port Vale . He scored five goals in 50 appearances during the club 's 2010 – 11 campaign , a season that witnessed Stevenage earn promotion to League One for the first time in their history .
Wilson was part of the starting eleven in Stevenage 's first ever League One fixture at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , playing the whole game as the club drew 0 – 0 at home to Exeter City . In Stevenage 's next game , Wilson provided the assist for Stacy Long 's goal in a 4 – 3 extra @-@ time defeat to Peterborough United in the League Cup . He also assisted Craig Reid in the club 's 3 – 1 away win at Bournemouth on 16 August 2011 . Three days later , on 19 August , Wilson signed a contract extension at the club . He added to his two previous assists by assisting Craig Reid 's first goal in the club 's 4 – 2 home win against Rochdale on 3 September . Wilson scored his first goal of the 2011 – 12 season in a 5 – 1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday , scoring Stevenage 's fourth goal of the match just before half @-@ time . In the same game , Wilson provided the run and pass to assist Darius Charles ' second @-@ half goal , Stevenage 's fifth of the game . He added a second goal to his goal tally in Stevenage 's Football League Trophy penalty loss against League Two side AFC Wimbledon — opening the scoring after seven minutes after Brett Johnson 's clearance cannoned off of Wilson 's leg and beat the stranded Seb Brown in the AFC Wimbledon goal . His fine form for the season continued , and he was pivotal in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 home win against Sheffield United , assisting Mark Roberts ' goal , before winning a penalty late @-@ on , which was duly converted by Scott Laird . He also set @-@ up Chris Beardsley 's 38th @-@ minute strike , to open the scoring , in an eventual 2 – 1 win against Tranmere Rovers at Broadhall Way . In the club 's last game of 2011 , on 31 December , Wilson scored the only goal of the game as Stevenage defeated Wycombe Wanderers 1 – 0 at Adams Park . The goal came in the 82nd minute of the match , with Wilson powerfully beating Nikki Bull from close @-@ range following Luke Freeman 's precise cross . He was also on hand to score two of Stevenage 's five goals in a 5 – 1 victory against Rochdale at Spotland on 14 January 2012 . Both of Wilson 's goals came in the second @-@ half ; the first came shortly after the interval , when he ran onto Chris Beardsley 's rolled pass to fire the ball into the net , with his second coming after he ran onto Mark Roberts ' clearance to calmly beat Péter Kurucz in the Rochdale goal . Wilson scored one further goal during the campaign , scoring a diving header in injury @-@ time in a 1 – 0 win over Oldham Athletic at Broadhall Way . It took Wilson 's goal tally to six for the season , with the player being ever @-@ present during the campaign , playing in all 56 of the club 's games , as Stevenage narrowly lost in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals . During Wilson 's five years at Stevenage , he made 191 appearances in all competitions , scoring 15 goals .
= = Charlton Athletic = =
In the summer of 2012 , Wilson was strongly linked to Peterborough United , as well as Charlton Athletic . Stevenage confirmed that they had received two bids for the player , both of which from Championship clubs . In July 2012 , Wilson signed for Charlton , the club he began his football career with , for an undisclosed fee . He made his debut for Charlton in the club 's opening game of the 2012 – 13 season , a 1 – 1 draw with Leyton Orient in the League Cup at The Valley on 14 August 2012 , which Charlton went on to lose 4 – 3 on penalties after extra @-@ time . During the match , Wilson gave away a penalty after fouling David Mooney , although Mooney missed the subsequent spot @-@ kick . He scored his first goal for Charlton in October 2012 , during his tenth league appearance , scoring from close range to restore parity in a 1 – 1 draw with Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux . After a month out of first @-@ team action , Wilson returned for Charlton 's 2 – 2 home draw with Brighton & Hove Albion on 8 December 2012 , and scored the first goal of the match courtesy of a glancing header from Dale Stephens ' cross . It turned out to be Wilson 's last goal of the season , a campaign in which he made 32 appearances as Charlton finished in ninth position in the Championship , just three points behind the final play @-@ off place .
= = Bolton Wanderers = =
On 5 August 2015 , Wilson signed for Bolton Wanderers on a two @-@ year deal .
= = = Peterborough United = = =
On 2 January 2016 , Wilson signed on loan for League One side Peterborough United . He said that re @-@ uniting with former manager Graham Westley was a factor in the move . Wilson played just 4 times for Peterborough , starting as a substitute in their game with Sheffield United , and made his final appearance in the 2 @-@ 2 draw with West Bromwich Albion in the FA Cup .
= = International career = =
In August 2009 , Wilson was called up to play for the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ league level , in a game against Hungary C in Budapest . However , he was forced to pull out of the team after suffering a dislocated ankle and broken leg just three days later .
= = Personal life = =
Wilson attended the private co @-@ educational Millfield Preparatory School in Glastonbury , Somerset .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
FA Trophy : 2008 – 09
Conference Premier : 2009 – 10
Football League Two play @-@ offs : 2010 – 11
= = Career statistics = =
As of 5 January 2016
= Chocolate ( Kylie Minogue song ) =
" Chocolate " is a song by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , taken from her ninth studio album Body Language ( 2003 ) . It was written by its producer Johnny Douglas and Karen Poole . The song
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is a ballad which uses a chocolate simile to describe Minogue 's obsession with love . It contains elements of disco and funk and employs breathy and whispery vocals . It was released as the third and final single from the album on 28 June 2004 by Parlophone .
Critical reception towards " Chocolate " varied from favourable to mixed ; some critics favoured its commercial appeal and Minogue 's vocals , while some criticised it for being dated . In Australia , the song failed to reach the top ten and peaked at number 14 . It found more success in the United Kingdom , where it became her 27th top @-@ ten hit after it debuted at number six on the UK Singles Chart . The single also charted inside the top twenty in Hungary and Italy .
A music video for " Chocolate " was directed by Dawn Shadforth and was envisioned as a tribute to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer musicals . It chiefly features Minogue and numerous backup dancers , in a hall , performing a dance routine choreographed by Michael Rooney . The song was performed live by Minogue at the one @-@ off concert show Money Can 't Buy and TV show Top of the Pops . " Chocolate " was included on the set list of the singer 's Showgirl : The Greatest Hits and Showgirl : The Homecoming tours .
= = Background and composition = =
Following the global success of her eighth studio album Fever , Minogue began working on her ninth studio album Body Language . Aiming to create a dance @-@ pop album inspired by electronic music from the 1980s , Minogue enlisted collaborators such as Johnny Douglas ( who had previously worked with her on Light Years ) and Karen Poole . The duo wrote " Chocolate " together , while Douglas also handled the production of the song . According to Minogue 's official website , " Chocolate " was one of her favourites from the album . It was selected as the third single from Body Language and was released globally on 28 June 2004 by Parlophone . The Maxi CD version of the single contains the B @-@ side " City Games " , which was one of the first tracks recorded for the album .
" Chocolate " is a ballad that borrows influences from numerous genres including disco and funk music . Minogue 's vocals are synthesised and are delivered in a breathy and whispery manner . According to music magazine Spin , the song describes Minogue 's " addiction to love " through a chocolate simile . PopMatters critic Adrien Begrand called its lyrics " steamy , " citing the line " Hold me and control me and then / Melt me slowly down " as an example . Helen Pidd from The Guardian found the lyrics to be " packed with saccharine innuendo . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The A.V. Club critic Andy Battaglia felt the ballad was successful in terms of execution and described it as " a breeze of finger @-@ snap funk . " Adrien Begrand from PopMatters singled it out as a highlight from the second half of Body Language , commenting that it " keeps the last half of the album from being a complete waste of time . " Favouring Minogue 's vocal performance , Eric Seguy from Stylus Magazine wrote : " Kylie proves herself to be a consummate entertainer , breezing through the chill muzak of " Promises " and " Chocolate " ' s wild disco jam with equal ease . " Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani likened Minogue 's vocals to that of British electronic music duo Mono and felt the tone of the song resembled the " gauzy melancholy " of Madonna 's 1994 album Bedtime Stories . A mixed review came from The Guardian critic Helen Pidd , who acknowledged the song 's commercial appeal but felt it " sounds too dated to pack any punch in the age of Beyoncé and Missy Elliott . " Spin magazine criticised the vocals for being over @-@ processed and the lyrics for lacking substance . The magazine also felt that the theme of the song had already been covered by " minor artists " like American singer – songwriter Mandy Moore .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In Minogue 's native Australia , " Chocolate " debuted and peaked at number 14 on the ARIA Singles Chart , becoming her first single since " Your Disco Needs You " ( 2001 ) to miss the top ten . Its chart run was brief and lasted for four weeks . Similarly , it entered the top 20 of the Italian Singles Chart at number 14 and dropped out the next week . The single was more successful in the United Kingdom , entering and peaking at number six on the UK Singles Chart and spending a total of seven weeks inside the top 40 . It became Minogue 's 27th top ten hit in the country .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Chocolate " was directed by Dawn Shadforth , while the dance sequences were choreographed by Michael Rooney . Shadforth and Rooney had previously worked with Minogue on the video of her 2001 single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " . The video was conceptualised as a tribute to old musicals produced by American media company Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . It featured a 40 @-@ second long ballet routine for which Minogue was coached by Rooney for four days . She admitted that the practise sessions were exhausting , but felt the final product became " classy " as a result . The singer felt " lucky " to be able to incorporate a ballet routine in the video and opined that it was " a lot different " from the rest of her repertoire . Julie Aspinall , author of the book Kylie : Queen of the World , wrote that Minogue adopted a " Gallic chic style " for the video . Aspinall felt that Minogue " absolutely looked the part " and suggested it was due to her being influenced by then @-@ boyfriend Olivier Martinez , a French actor . At the 10th Annual American Choreography Awards in 2004 , Rooney was nominated for the " Outstanding Achievement in Choreography – Music Video " award for " Chocolate " .
The video begins with a shot of Minogue posing in a dark room , dressed in a sparkling costume on which rainbow @-@ lighting is projected . She is then shown in front of a wall wearing a flowing maroon dress . As the intro ends and the first verse commences , Minogue appears in a hall and performs various dance routine with numerous female dancers clad in nude bodysuits . The singer 's attire consists of a pleated red organza dress designed by Austrian fashion designer Helmut Lang ( in 2006 , Minogue donated this costume to the Arts Centre Melbourne museum , where it is displayed in the Kylie Minogue Collection ) . Shots of the dancers in kaleidoscopic arrangements are intercut . A few seconds later , Minogue and a man dance together alone in a hall . Their dance ends with the man slowly laying Minogue down on the floor and leaving . Twelve women in golden and pastel pink dresses are seen dancing on a dark brown floor , which is revealed to be Minogue 's hat as the camera pans out . She proceeds to wave to a distant person and then plucks the petals out of a pink rose she is holding . The rest of the video randomly intersperses all of the previous scenes .
= = Live performances = =
A one @-@ off concert show , Money Can 't Buy , was held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to promote Body Language . " Chocolate " was included on the set list of the concert and was performed during the second act " Bardello . " On 25 June 2004 , Minogue appeared on British music chart television programme Top of the Pops to perform the song live . She sang " Chocolate " for the second time on the programme on 9 July .
" Chocolate " was included on the set list of Minogue 's Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour in 2005 . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 , and " Chocolate " was again added to the set list .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Weekly charts = =
= Alan Turing =
Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS ( / ˈtjʊərɪŋ / ; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954 ) was a pioneering English computer scientist , mathematician , logician , cryptanalyst and theoretical biologist . He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science , providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine , which can be considered a model of a general purpose computer . Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence .
During the Second World War , Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School ( GC & CS ) at Bletchley Park , Britain 's codebreaking centre . For a time he led Hut 8 , the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis . He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers , including improvements to the pre @-@ war Polish bombe method and an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine . Turing played a pivotal role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Nazis in many crucial engagements , including the Battle of the Atlantic ; it has been estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by as many as four years .
After the war , he worked at the National Physical Laboratory , where he designed the ACE , among the first designs for a stored @-@ program computer . In 1948 Turing joined Max Newman 's Computing Machine Laboratory at the Victoria University of Manchester , where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology . He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis , and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov – Zhabotinsky reaction , first observed in the 1960s .
Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts , when such behaviour was still a criminal act in the UK . He accepted treatment with DES ( chemical castration ) as an alternative to prison . Turing died in 1954 , 16 days before his 42nd birthday , from cyanide poisoning . An inquest determined his death as suicide , but it has been noted that the known evidence is equally consistent with accidental poisoning . In 2009 , following an Internet campaign , British Prime Minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British government for " the appalling way he was treated . " Queen Elizabeth II granted him a posthumous pardon in 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Turing was born in Maida Vale , London , while his father , Julius Mathison Turing ( 1873 – 1947 ) , was on leave from his position with the Indian Civil Service ( ICS ) at Chhatrapur , Bihar and Orissa Province , in British India . Turing 's father was the son of a clergyman , the Rev. John Robert Turing , from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet . Turing 's mother , Julius ' wife , was Ethel Sara ( née Stoney ; 1881 – 1976 ) , daughter of Edward Waller Stoney , chief engineer of the Madras Railways . The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo @-@ Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford , while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare .
Julius ' work with the ICS brought the family to British India , where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army . However , both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain , so they moved to Maida Vale , London , where Turing was born on 23 June 1912 , as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the house of his birth , later the Colonnade Hotel . He had an elder brother , John ( the father of Sir John Dermot Turing , 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets ) .
Turing 's father 's civil service commission was still active and during Turing 's childhood years Turing 's parents travelled between Hastings in England and India , leaving their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple . At Hastings , Turing stayed at Baston Lodge , Upper Maze Hill , St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea , now marked with a blue plaque .
Very early in life , Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently . His parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927 , and Turing lived there during school holidays . The location is also marked with a blue plaque .
= = Education = =
= = = School = = =
Turing 's parents enrolled him at St Michael 's , a day school at 20 Charles Road , St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea , at the age of six . The headmistress recognised his talent early on , as did many of his subsequent educators . In 1926 , at the age of 13 , he went on to Sherborne School , an independent school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset . The first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike in Britain , but he was so determined to attend that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied 60 miles ( 97 km ) from Southampton to Sherborne , stopping overnight at an inn .
Turing 's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne , whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics . His headmaster wrote to his parents : " I hope he will not fall between two stools . If he is to stay at public school , he must aim at becoming educated . If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist , he is wasting his time at a public school " . Despite this , Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved , solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus . In 1928 , aged 16 , Turing encountered Albert Einstein 's work ; not only did he grasp it , but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein 's questioning of Newton 's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit .
= = = Christopher Morcom = = =
At Sherborne , Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Morcom , who has been described as Turing 's " first love " . Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing 's future endeavours , but it was cut short by Morcom 's death , in February 1930 , from complications of bovine tuberculosis , contracted after drinking infected cow 's milk some years previously .
The event caused Turing great sorrow . He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom . In a letter to Morcom 's mother Turing said :
I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and unconceited . I regarded my interest in my work , and in such things as astronomy ( to which he introduced me ) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive , because that is what he would like me to do .
Some have speculated that Morcom 's death was the cause of Turing 's atheism and materialism , but this seems unlikely . Apparently , at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit , independent of the body and surviving death . In a later letter , also written to Morcom 's mother , Turing said :
Personally , I believe that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and body I consider that the body [ can ] hold on to a ' spirit ' , whilst the body is alive and awake the two are firmly connected . When the body is asleep I cannot guess what happens but when the body dies , the ' mechanism ' of the body , holding the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later , perhaps immediately .
= = = University and work on computability = = =
After Sherborne , Turing studied as an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934 at King 's College , Cambridge , whence he gained first @-@ class honours in mathematics . In 1935 , at the age of 22 , he was elected a fellow of King 's on the strength of a dissertation in which he proved the central limit theorem , despite the fact that the committee had failed to identify that it had already been proven in 1922 by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg .
In 1936 , Turing published his paper " On Computable Numbers , with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem " ( 1936 ) . In this paper , Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel 's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation , replacing Gödel 's universal arithmetic @-@ based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines . Entscheidungsproblem ( decision problem ) was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928 . Turing proved that his " universal computing machine " would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm . He went on to prove that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable : It is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt .
Although Turing 's proof was published shortly after Alonzo Church 's equivalent proof using his lambda calculus , Turing 's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church 's . It also included a notion of a ' Universal Machine ' ( now known as a universal Turing machine ) , with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine ( as indeed could Church 's lambda calculus ) . According to the Church – Turing thesis , Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable . John von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing 's paper . To this day , Turing machines are a central object of study in theory of computation .
From September 1936 to July 1938 , Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University . In addition to his purely mathematical work , he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro @-@ mechanical binary multiplier . In June 1938 , he obtained his PhD from Princeton ; his dissertation , Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals , introduced the concept of ordinal logic and the notion of relative computing , where Turing machines are augmented with so @-@ called oracles , allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines .
When Turing returned to Cambridge , he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics . Remarkably , the lectures have been reconstructed verbatim , including interjections from Turing and other students , from students ' notes . Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed , with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths , but rather invents them .
= = Cryptanalysis = =
During the Second World War , Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park . The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said , " You needed exceptional talent , you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing 's was that genius . " From September 1938 , Turing had been working part @-@ time with the GC & CS , the British code breaking organisation . He concentrated on cryptanalysis of the Enigma , with Dilly Knox , a senior GC & CS codebreaker . Soon after the July 1939 Warsaw meeting at which the Polish Cipher Bureau had provided the British and French with the details of the wiring of Enigma rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma code messages , Turing and Knox started to work on a less fragile approach to the problem . The Polish method relied on an insecure indicator procedure that the Germans were likely to change , which they did in May 1940 . Turing 's approach was more general , using crib @-@ based decryption for which he produced the functional specification of the bombe ( an improvement of the Polish Bomba ) .
On 4 September 1939 , the day after the UK declared war on Germany , Turing reported to Bletchley Park , the wartime station of GC & CS . Specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war . The others were : deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy ; developing a statistical procedure for making much more efficient use of the bombes dubbed Banburismus ; developing a procedure for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40 / 42 ( Tunny ) dubbed Turingery and , towards the end of the war , the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was codenamed Delilah .
By using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process , Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject . He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches , titled The Applications of Probability to Cryptography and Paper on Statistics of Repetitions , which were of such value to GC & CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012 , shortly before the centenary of his birth . A GCHQ mathematician said at the time that the fact that the contents had been restricted for some 70 years demonstrated their importance .
Turing had something of a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park . He was known to his colleagues as ' Prof ' and his treatise on Enigma was known as ' The Prof 's Book ' . Jack Good , a cryptanalyst who worked with him , is quoted by Ronald Lewin as having said of Turing :
In the first week of June each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever , and he would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off . His bicycle had a fault : the chain would come off at regular intervals . Instead of having it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle in time to adjust the chain by hand . Another of his eccentricities is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen .
While working at Bletchley , Turing , who was a talented long @-@ distance runner , occasionally ran the 40 miles ( 64 km ) to London when he was needed for high @-@ level meetings , and he was capable of world @-@ class marathon standards . Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team , hampered by an injury . His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medalist Thomas Richards ' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes . He was Walton Athletic Club 's best runner , a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone .
In 1945 , Turing was awarded the OBE by King George VI for his wartime services , but his work remained secret for many years .
= = = Bombe = = =
Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park , Turing had specified an electromechanical machine that could help break Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna , from which its name was derived . The bombe , with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman , became one of the primary tools , and the major automated one , used to attack Enigma @-@ enciphered messages .
Jack Good opined :
Turing 's most important contribution , I think , was of part of the design of the bombe , the cryptanalytic machine . He had the idea that you could use , in effect , a theorem in logic which sounds , to the untrained ear , rather absurd ; namely that , from a contradiction , you can deduce everything .
The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message ( i.e. , rotor order , rotor settings and plugboard settings ) , using a suitable crib : a fragment of probable plaintext . For each possible setting of the rotors ( which had on the order of 1019 states , or 1022 states for the four @-@ rotor U @-@ boat variant ) , the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib , implemented electrically . The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting , moving on to the next . Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded , leaving only a few to be investigated in detail . The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940 .
By late 1941 , Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman , Hugh Alexander , and Stuart Milner @-@ Barry were frustrated . Building on the work of the Poles , they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals , but they only had a few people and a few bombes , so they did not have time to translate all the signals . In the summer , they had had considerable success , and shipping losses had fallen to under 100 @,@ 000 tons a month , but they were still on a knife @-@ edge . They badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments . They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels , but they were getting nowhere . Finally , breaking all the rules , on 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill spelling out their difficulties , with Turing as the first named . They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces .
As Andrew Hodges , biographer of Turing , later wrote , " This letter had an electric effect . " Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay , which read : " ACTION THIS DAY . Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done . " On 18 November , the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken . The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister 's response , but as Milner @-@ Barry later recalled , " All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth . " More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war .
= = = Hut 8 and the naval Enigma = = =
Turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma " because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself " . In December 1939 , Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system , which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services . That same night , he also conceived of the idea of Banburismus , a sequential statistical technique ( what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis ) to assist in breaking the naval Enigma , " though I was not sure that it would work in practice , and was not , in fact , sure until some days had actually broken . " For this , he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban . Banburismus could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors , substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes .
In 1941 , Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke , a fellow mathematician and cryptanalyst , but their engagement was short @-@ lived . After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée , who was reportedly " unfazed " by the revelation , Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage .
Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington ; he also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton , Ohio . His reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic :
It seems a pity for them to go out of their way to build a machine to do all this stopping if it is not necessary . I am now converted to the extent of thinking that , starting from scratch on the design of a bombe , this method is about as good as our own . The American bombe program was to produce 336 bombes , one for each wheel order . I used to smile inwardly at the conception of test ( of commutators ) can hardly be considered conclusive , as they were not testing for the bounce with electronic stop finding devices .
During this trip , he also assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure speech devices . He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943 . During his absence , Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8 , although Alexander had been de facto head for some time ( Turing having little interest in the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the section ) . Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park .
Alexander wrote as follows about his contribution :
There should be no question in anyone 's mind that Turing 's work was the biggest factor in Hut 8 's success . In the early days , he was the only cryptographer who thought the problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for the main theoretical work within the Hut , but he also shared with Welchman and Keen the chief credit for the invention of the bombe . It is always difficult to say that anyone is ' absolutely indispensable ' , but if anyone was indispensable to Hut 8 , it was Turing . The pioneer 's work always tends to be forgotten when experience and routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in Hut 8 felt that the magnitude of Turing 's contribution was never fully realised by the outside world .
= = = Turingery = = =
In July 1942 , Turing devised a technique termed Turingery ( or jokingly Turingismus ) for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans ' new Geheimschreiber ( secret writer ) machine . This was a teleprinter rotor cipher attachment codenamed Tunny at Bletchley Park . Turingery was a method of wheel @-@ breaking , i.e. , a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny 's wheels . He also introduced the Tunny team to Tommy Flowers who , under the guidance of Max Newman , went on to build the Colossus computer , the world 's first programmable digital electronic computer , which replaced a simpler prior machine ( the Heath Robinson ) , and whose superior speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the messages . Some have mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus computer . Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed into the thinking about cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher , but he was not directly involved in the Colossus development .
= = = Delilah = = =
Following his work at Bell Labs in the US , Turing pursued the idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system , and in the latter part of the war , he moved to work for the Secret Service 's Radio Security Service ( later HMGCC ) at Hanslope Park . There he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bayley . Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed Delilah . It was intended for different applications , lacking capability for use with long @-@ distance radio transmissions , and in any case , Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war . Though the system worked fully , with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech , Delilah was not adopted for use . Turing also consulted with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY , a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war .
= = Early computers and the Turing test = =
From 1945 to 1947 , Turing lived in Hampton , London , while he worked on the design of the ACE ( Automatic Computing Engine ) at the National Physical Laboratory ( NPL ) . He presented a paper on 19 February 1946 , which was the first detailed design of a stored @-@ program computer . Von Neumann 's incomplete First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC had predated Turing 's paper , but it was much less detailed and , according to John R. Womersley , Superintendent of the NPL Mathematics Division , it " contains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing 's own " . Although ACE was a feasible design , the secrecy surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned . In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal work on Intelligent Machinery that was not published in his lifetime . While he was at Cambridge , the Pilot ACE was being built in his absence . It executed its first program on 10 May 1950 , and a number of later computers around the world owe much to it , including the English Electric DEUCE and the American Bendix G @-@ 15 . The full version of Turing 's ACE was not built until after his death .
According to the memoirs of the German computer pioneer Heinz Billing from the Max Planck Institute for Physics , published by Genscher , Düsseldorf , there was a meeting between Alan Turing and Konrad Zuse . It took place in Göttingen in 1947 . The interrogation had the form of a colloquium . Participants were Womersley , Turing , Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse , Walther , and Billing . ( For more details see Herbert Bruderer , Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz ) .
In 1948 Turing was appointed Reader in the Mathematics Department at the Victoria University of Manchester . In 1949 , he became Deputy Director of the Computing Machine Laboratory there , working on software for one of the earliest stored @-@ programme computers — the Manchester Mark 1 . During this time he continued to do more abstract work in mathematics , and in " Computing Machinery and Intelligence " ( Mind , October 1950 ) , Turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence , and proposed an experiment that became known as the Turing test , an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called " intelligent " . The idea was that a computer could be said to " think " if a human interrogator could not tell it apart , through conversation , from a human being . In the paper , Turing suggested that rather than building a programme to simulate the adult mind , it would be better rather to produce a simpler one to simulate a child 's mind and then to subject it to a course of education . A reversed form of the Turing test is widely used on the Internet ; the CAPTCHA test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer .
In 1948 Turing , working with his former undergraduate colleague , D. G. Champernowne , began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist . By 1950 , the programme was completed and dubbed the Turochamp . In 1952 , he tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1 , but lacking enough power , the computer was unable to execute the programme . Instead , Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer , taking about half an hour per move . The game was recorded . The program lost to Turing 's colleague Alick Glennie , although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne 's wife .
His Turing test was a significant , characteristically provocative and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence , which continues after more than half a century . He also invented the LU decomposition method in 1948 , used today for solving matrix equations .
= = Pattern formation and mathematical biology = =
Towards the end of his life , Turing turned to mathematical biology , publishing the " The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis " in 1952 . He was interested in morphogenesis , the development of patterns and shapes in biological organisms . His central interest in the field was understanding Fibonacci phyllotaxis , the existence of Fibonacci numbers in plant structures . He suggested that a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space , termed a reaction @-@ diffusion system , could account for " the main phenomena of morphogenesis " . Instability in the system of partial differential equations used to model the system allows for small random perturbations to homogeneous initial state to drive the development of patterns . Though published before even the structure or role of DNA was understood , Turing 's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today , and is considered a seminal piece of work in mathematical biology . Experiments suggest that Turing 's work can partially explain growth of " feathers , hair follicles , the branching pattern of lungs , and even the left @-@ right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest . " In 2012 , Sheth , et al. found that in mice , removal of Hox genes causes an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb , suggesting that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing @-@ type mechanism . Later papers , though promised , were not available until Collected Works of A. M. Turing was published in 1992 .
= = Conviction for indecency = =
In January 1952 , Turing , then 39 , started a relationship with Arnold Murray , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old unemployed man . Turing had met Murray just before Christmas outside the Regal Cinema when walking down Manchester 's Oxford Road and invited him to lunch . On 23 January Turing 's house was burgled . Murray told Turing that the burglar was an acquaintance of his , and Turing reported the crime to the police . During the investigation he acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray . Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United Kingdom at that time , and both men were charged with gross indecency under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 . Initial committal proceedings for the trial were held on 27 February during which Turing 's solicitor " reserved his defence " .
Later , convinced by the advice of his brother and his own solicitor , Turing entered a plea of guilty . The case , Regina v. Turing and Murray , was brought to trial on 31 March 1952 . Turing was convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation , which would be conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal treatment designed to reduce libido . He accepted the option of treatment via injections of what was then called stilboestrol ( now known as diethylstilbestrol or DES ) , a synthetic oestrogen ; this treatment was continued for the course of one year . The treatment rendered Turing impotent and caused gynaecomastia , fulfilling in the literal sense Turing 's prediction that " no doubt I shall emerge from it all a different man , but quite who I 've not found out " . Murray was given a conditional discharge .
Turing 's conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for the Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) , the British signals intelligence agency that had evolved from GC & CS in 1946 ( though he kept his academic job ) . He was denied entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952 , but was free to visit other European countries . At the time , there was acute public anxiety about homosexual entrapment of spies by Soviet agents , because of the recent exposure of the first two members of the Cambridge Five , Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean , as KGB double agents . Turing was never accused of espionage , but in common with all who had worked at Bletchley Park , he was prevented by the Official Secrets Act from discussing his war work .
= = Death = =
On 8 June 1954 , Turing 's housekeeper found him dead . He had died the previous day . A post @-@ mortem examination established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning . When his body was discovered , an apple lay half @-@ eaten beside his bed , and although the apple was not tested for cyanide , it was speculated that this was the means by which a fatal dose was consumed . An inquest determined that he had committed suicide , and he was cremated at Woking Crematorium on 12 June 1954 . Turing 's ashes were scattered there , just as his father 's had been . Andrew Hodges and another biographer , David Leavitt , have both suggested that Turing was re @-@ enacting a scene from the Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , his favourite fairy tale , both noting that ( in Leavitt 's words ) he took " an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew " .
= = = Alternative death theories = = =
Philosophy professor Jack Copeland has questioned various aspects of the coroner 's historical verdict . He suggests an alternative explanation for the cause of Turing 's death , this being the accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus for gold electroplating spoons , which uses potassium cyanide to dissolve the gold . Turing had such an apparatus set up in his tiny spare room . Copeland notes that the autopsy findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison . Turing also habitually ate an apple before bed , and it was not unusual for it to be discarded half @-@ eaten . In addition , Turing had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment ( which had been discontinued a year previously ) " with good humour " and had shown no sign of despondency prior to his death , setting down , in fact , a list of tasks he intended to complete upon return to his office after the holiday weekend . At the time , Turing 's mother believed that the ingestion was accidental , resulting from her son 's careless storage of laboratory chemicals . Biographer Andrew Hodges suggests that Turing may have arranged the cyanide experiment deliberately , to give his mother some plausible deniability .
= = Recognition and tributes = =
A biography published by the Royal Society shortly after Turing 's death , while his wartime work was still subject to the Official Secrets Act , recorded :
Three remarkable papers written just before the war , on three diverse mathematical subjects , show the quality of the work that might have been produced if he had settled down to work on some big problem at that critical time . For his work at the Foreign Office he was awarded the OBE .
Since 1966 , the Turing Award has been given annually by the Association for Computing Machinery for technical or theoretical contributions to the computing community . It is widely considered to be the computing world 's highest honour , equivalent to the Nobel Prize .
On 23 June 1998 , on what would have been Turing 's 86th birthday , his biographer , Andrew Hodges , unveiled an official English Heritage blue plaque at his birthplace and childhood home in Warrington Crescent , London , later the Colonnade Hotel . To mark the 50th anniversary of his death , a memorial plaque was unveiled on 7 June 2004 at his former residence , Hollymeade , in Wilmslow , Cheshire .
On 13 March 2000 , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines issued a set of postage stamps to celebrate the greatest achievements of the 20th century , one of which carries a portrait of Turing against a background of repeated 0s and 1s , and is captioned : " 1937 : Alan Turing 's theory of digital computing " . On 1 April 2003 , Turing 's work at Bletchley Park was named an IEEE Milestone . On 28 October 2004 , a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by John W. Mills was unveiled at the University of Surrey in Guildford , marking the 50th anniversary of Turing 's death ; it portrays him carrying his books across the campus .
Turing was one of four mathematicians examined in the BBC documentary entitled Dangerous Knowledge ( 2008 ) . The Princeton Alumni Weekly named Turing the second most significant alumnus in the history of Princeton University , second only to President James Madison . A 1 @.@ 5 @-@ ton , life @-@ size statue of Turing was unveiled on 19 June 2007 at Bletchley Park . Built from approximately half a million pieces of Welsh slate , it was sculpted by Stephen Kettle , having been commissioned by the American billionaire Sidney Frank .
Turing has been honoured in various ways in Manchester , the city where he worked towards the end of his life . In 1994 , a stretch of the A6010 road ( the Manchester city intermediate ring road ) was named " Alan Turing Way " . A bridge carrying this road was widened , and carries the name Alan Turing Bridge . A statue of Turing was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001 in Sackville Park , between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and Canal Street . The memorial statue depicts the " father of computer science " sitting on a bench at a central position in the park . Turing is shown holding an apple . The cast bronze bench carries in relief the text ' Alan Mathison Turing 1912 – 1954 ' , and the motto ' Founder of Computer Science ' as it could appear if encoded by an Enigma machine : ' IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ ' .
A plaque at the statue 's feet reads ' Father of computer science , mathematician , logician , wartime codebreaker , victim of prejudice ' . There is also a Bertrand Russell quotation : " Mathematics , rightly viewed , possesses not only truth , but supreme beauty — a beauty cold and austere , like that of sculpture . " The sculptor buried his own old Amstrad computer under the plinth as a tribute to " the godfather of all modern computers " .
In 1999 , Time magazine named Turing as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and stated , " The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard , opening a spreadsheet or a word @-@ processing program , is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine . "
In 2002 , Turing was ranked twenty @-@ first on the BBC 's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK @-@ wide vote . In 2006 , British writer and mathematician Ioan James chose Turing as one of twenty people to feature in his book about famous historical figures who may have had some of the traits of Asperger syndrome . In 2010 , actor / playwright Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed Turing in the solo musical , ICONS : The Lesbian and Gay History of the World , Vol . 4 . In 2011 , in The Guardian 's " My hero " series , writer Alan Garner chose Turing as his hero and described how they had met whilst out jogging in the early 1950s . Garner remembered Turing as " funny and witty " and said that he " talked endlessly " . In 2006 , Alan Turing was named with online resources as an LGBT History Month Icon . In 2006 , Boston Pride named Turing their Honorary Grand Marshal .
The logo of Apple Inc. is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing , with the bite mark a reference to his death . Both the designer of the logo and the company deny that there is any homage to Turing in the design . Stephen Fry has recounted asking Steve Jobs whether the design was intentional , saying that Jobs ' response was , " God , we wish it were . " In February 2011 , Turing 's papers from the Second World War were bought for the nation with an 11th @-@ hour bid by the National Heritage Memorial Fund , allowing them to stay at Bletchley Park .
In 2012 , Turing was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display that celebrates LGBT history and people .
The francophone singer @-@ songwriter Salvatore Adamo made a tribute to Turing with his song " Alan et la Pomme " . Turing 's life and work featured in a BBC children 's programme about famous scientists – Absolute Genius with Dick and Dom – first broadcast on 12 March 2014 .
On 17 May 2014 , the world 's first work of public art to recognise Alan Turing as gay was commissioned in Bletchley , close by to Bletchley Park where his war @-@ time work was carried out . The commission was announced by the owners of Milton Keynes @-@ based LGBT venue and nightclub Pink Punters to mark International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia . The work was unveiled at a ceremony on Turing 's birthday , 23 June 2014 , and is placed outside Pink Punter 's alongside the busy Watling Street , the old main road to London where Turing himself would have passed by on many occasions . On 22 October 2014 , Turing was inducted into the NSA Hall of Honor .
= = = Tributes by universities and research institutions = = =
The computer room at King 's College , Cambridge , Alan Turing 's alma mater , is called the Turing Room .
The Turing Room at the University of Edinburgh 's School of Informatics houses a bust of Turing by Eduardo Paolozzi , and a set ( No. 42 / 50 ) of his Turing prints ( 2000 ) .
The University of Surrey has a statue of Turing on their main piazza and one of the buildings of Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences is named after him .
Istanbul Bilgi University organises an annual conference on the theory of computation called " Turing Days " .
The University of Texas at Austin has an honours computer science programme named the Turing Scholars .
In the early 1960s , Stanford University named the sole lecture room of the Polya Hall Mathematics building " Alan Turing Auditorium " .
One of the amphitheatres of the Computer Science department ( LIFL ) at the University of Lille in northern France is named in honour of Alan M. Turing ( the other amphitheatre is named after Kurt Gödel ) .
The Department of Computer Science at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile , the University of Buenos Aires , the Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico , Los Andes University in Bogotá , Colombia , King 's College , Cambridge , Bangor University in Wales , the Universities of Ghent and Mons in Belgium , the University of Turin ( Università degli Studi di Torino ) , the University of Puerto Rico at Humacao , Keele University and the University of Washington have computer laboratories named after Turing .
The University of Manchester , the Open University , Oxford Brookes University and Aarhus University ( in Aarhus , Denmark ) all have buildings named after Turing .
Alan Turing Road in the Surrey Research Park and the Alan Turing Way , part of the Manchester inner ring road are named after Alan Turing .
Carnegie Mellon University has a granite bench , situated in the Hornbostel Mall , with the name " A. M. Turing " carved across the top , " Read " down the left leg , and " Write " down the other .
The University of Oregon has a bust of Turing on the side of Deschutes Hall , the computer science building .
The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne has a road and a square named after Alan Turing ( Chemin de Alan Turing and Place de Alan Turing ) .
The Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava , Slovakia , has a lecture room named " Turing Auditorium " .
The Paris Diderot University has a lecture room named " Amphithéâtre Turing " .
The Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science at the University of Würzburg has a lecture hall named " Turing Hörsaal " .
The Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse has a lecture room named " Amphithéâtre Turing " ( Bâtiment U4 ) .
The largest conference hall at the Amsterdam Science Park is named Turingzaal .
King 's College London 's School of Natural and Mathematical Sciences awards the Alan Turing Centenary Prize .
The University of Kent named the Turing College after him at their Canterbury campus .
The campus of the École polytechnique has a building named after Alan Turing ; it is a research centre whose premises are shared by the École Polytechnique , the INRIA and Microsoft .
The University of Toronto developed the Turing programming language in 1982 , named after Alan Turing
The Faculty of Exact Sciences at the University of Buenos Aires has a computer laboratory named after Alan Turing .
The campus of State University of Campinas in Brazil has an avenue , one of its largest , named after Turing .
= = Government apology and pardon = =
In August 2009 , John Graham @-@ Cumming started a petition urging the British Government to apologise for Turing 's prosecution as a homosexual . The petition received more than 30 @,@ 000 signatures . Prime Minister Gordon Brown acknowledged the petition , releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as " appalling " :
Thousands of people have come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and recognition of the appalling way he was treated . While Turing was dealt with under the law of the time and we can 't put the clock back , his treatment was of course utterly unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I and we all are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government , and all those who live freely thanks to Alan 's work I am very proud to say : we 're sorry , you deserved so much better .
In December 2011 , William Jones created an e @-@ petition requesting the British Government pardon Turing for his conviction of " gross indecency " :
We ask the HM Government to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of " gross indecency " . In 1952 , he was convicted of " gross indecency " with another man and was forced to undergo so @-@ called " organo @-@ therapy " – chemical castration . Two years later , he killed himself with cyanide , aged just 41 . Alan Turing was driven to a terrible despair and early death by the nation he 'd done so much to save . This remains a shame on the British government and British history . A pardon can go to some way to healing this damage . It may act as an apology to many of the other gay men , not as well @-@ known as Alan Turing , who were subjected to these laws .
The petition gathered over 37 @,@ 000 signatures , but the request was discouraged by Lord McNally , who gave the following opinion in his role as the Justice Minister :
A posthumous pardon was not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly convicted of what at the time was a criminal offence . He would have known that his offence was against the law and that he would be prosecuted . It is tragic that Alan Turing was convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and absurd — particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war effort . However , the law at the time required a prosecution and , as such , long @-@ standing policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and , rather than trying to alter the historical context and to put right what cannot be put right , ensure instead that we never again return to those times .
On 26 July 2012 , a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 , of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952 . Late in the year in a letter to The Daily Telegraph , the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees , President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse , Lady Trumpington ( who worked for Turing during the war ) and Lord Sharkey ( the bill 's sponsor ) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request . The Government indicated it would support the bill , and it passed its third reading in the Lords in October .
Before the bill could be debated in the House of Commons , the Government elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy . On 24 December 2013 , Queen Elizabeth II signed a pardon for Turing 's conviction for gross indecency , with immediate effect . Announcing the pardon , Justice Secretary Chris Grayling said Turing deserved to be " remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort " and not for his later criminal conviction . The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014 . The Queen 's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War . This case is unusual in that pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent , and a request has been made by the family or other interested party . Neither condition was met in regard to Turing 's conviction .
In a letter to Prime Minister David Cameron after announcement of the pardon , human rights advocate Peter Tatchell criticised the decision to single out Turing due to his fame and achievements , when thousands of others convicted under the same law have not received pardons . Tatchell also called for a new investigation into Turing 's death :
A new inquiry is long overdue , even if only to dispel any doubts about the true cause of his death – including speculation that he was murdered by the security services ( or others ) . I think murder by state agents is unlikely . There is no known evidence pointing to any such act . However , it is a major failing that this possibility has never been considered or investigated .
= = Centenary celebrations = =
To mark the 100th anniversary of Turing 's birth , the Turing Centenary Advisory Committee ( TCAC ) co @-@ ordinated the Alan Turing Year , a year @-@ long programme of events around the world honouring Turing 's life and achievements . The TCAC , chaired by S. Barry Cooper with Alan Turing 's nephew Sir John Dermot Turing acting as Honorary President , worked with the University of Manchester faculty members and a broad spectrum of people from Cambridge University and Bletchley Park .
On 23 June 2012 , Google featured an interactive doodle where visitors had to change the instructions of a Turing Machine , so when run , the symbols on the tape would match a provided sequence , featuring " Google " in Baudot @-@ Murray code .
The Bletchley Park Trust collaborated with Winning Moves to publish an Alan Turing edition of the board game Monopoly . The game 's squares and cards have been revised to tell the story of Alan Turing 's life , from his birthplace in Maida Vale to Hut 8 at Bletchley Park . The game also includes a replica of an original hand @-@ drawn board created by William Newman , son of Turing 's mentor , Max Newman , which Turing played on in the 1950s .
In the Philippines , the Department of Philosophy at De La Salle University @-@ Manila hosted Turing 2012 , an international conference on philosophy , artificial intelligence , and cognitive science from 27 to 28 March 2012 to commemorate the centenary birth of Turing . Madurai , India held celebrations with a programme attended by 6 @,@ 000 students .
= = = UK celebrations = = =
There was a three @-@ day conference in Manchester in June , a two @-@ day conference in San Francisco , organised by the ACM , and a birthday party and Turing Centenary Conference in Cambridge organised at King 's College , Cambridge , and the University of Cambridge , the latter organised by the association Computability in Europe .
The Science Museum in London launched a free exhibition devoted to Turing 's life and achievements in June 2012 , to run until July 2013 . In February 2012 , the Royal Mail issued a stamp featuring Turing as part of its " Britons of Distinction " series . The London 2012 Olympic Torch flame was passed on in front of Turing 's statue in Sackville Gardens , Manchester , on the evening of 23 June 2012 , the 100th anniversary of his birth .
On 22 June 2012 Manchester City Council , in partnership with the Lesbian and Gay Foundation , launched the Alan Turing Memorial Award , which will recognise individuals or groups who have made a significant contribution to the fight against homophobia in Manchester .
At the University of Oxford , a new course in Computer Science and Philosophy was established to coincide with the centenary of Turing 's birth .
Previous events have included a celebration of Turing 's life and achievements , at the University of Manchester , arranged by the British Logic Colloquium and the British Society for the History of Mathematics on 5 June 2004 .
= = Portrayal in adaptations = =
= = = Theatre = = =
Breaking the Code is a 1986 play by Hugh Whitemore about Alan Turing . The play ran in London 's West End beginning in November 1986 and on Broadway from 15 November 1987 to 10 April 1988 . There was also a 1996 BBC television production ( broadcast in the United States by PBS ) . In all three performances Turing was played by Derek Jacobi . The Broadway production was nominated for three Tony Awards including Best Actor in a Play , Best Featured Actor in a Play , and Best Direction of a Play , and for two Drama Desk Awards , for Best Actor and Best Featured Actor . Turing was again portrayed by Jacobi in the 1996 television film adaptation of Breaking the Code .
In 2012 , in honour of the Turing Centennial , American Lyric Theater commissioned an operatic exploration of the life and death of Alan Turing from composer Justine F. Chen and librettist David Simpatico . Titled The Life and Death ( s ) of Alan Turing , the opera is a historical fantasia on the life of the brilliant scientist . The opera will receive a concert performance in October 2015 in New York City . In November 2014 , the opera and several other artistic works inspired by Turing 's life were featured on Studio 360 .
= = = Literature = = =
In William Gibson 's Neuromancer the Turing police have jurisdiction over AIs . ( 1984 )
Turing is featured in the Neal Stephenson novel Cryptonomicon ( 1999 ) .
The 2006 novel A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines contrasts fictionalised accounts of the lives and ideas of Turing and Kurt Gödel .
The 2015 novel Speak , written by Louisa Hall , includes a series of fictional letters written from Turing to his best friend 's mother throughout his life , detailing his research about artificial intelligence .
= = = Music = = =
Electronic music duo Matmos released an EP titled For Alan Turing in 2006 , which was based on material commissioned by Dr. Robert Osserman and David Elsenbud of the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute . In one of its tracks , an original Enigma Machine is sampled .
In 2012 , Spanish group Hidrogenesse dedicated their LP Un dígito binario dudoso . Recital para Alan Turing ( A dubious binary digit . Concert for Alan Turing ) to the memory of the mathematician .
A musical work inspired by Turing 's life , written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe of the Pet Shop Boys , entitled A Man from the Future , was announced in late 2013 . It was performed by the Pet Shop Boys and Juliet Stevenson ( narrator ) , the BBC Singers , and the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by Dominic Wheeler at the BBC Proms in the Royal Albert Hall on 23 July 2014 .
Codebreaker is also the title of a choral work by the composer James McCarthy . It includes settings of texts by the poets Wilfred Owen , Sara Teasdale , Walt Whitman , Oscar Wilde and Robert Burns that are used to illustrate aspects of Turing 's life . It was premiered on 26 April 2014 at the Barbican Centre in London , where it was performed by the Hertfordshire Chorus , who commissioned the work , led by David Temple with the soprano soloist Naomi Harvey providing the voice of Turing 's mother .
= = = Film = = =
The drama @-@ documentary Codebreaker , about Turing 's life , was aired by UK 's Channel 4 in November 2011 and was released in the US in October 2012 . It is also known as Britain 's Greatest Codebreaker . The film features Ed Stoppard as Turing and Henry Goodman as Franz Greenbaum .
The historical drama film The Imitation Game , directed by Morten Tyldum and starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Turing and Keira Knightley as Joan Clarke , was released in the UK on 14 November 2014 and released theatrically in the US on 28 November 2014 . It is about Alan Turing breaking the Enigma code with other codebreakers in Bletchley Park .
= = Awards and honours = =
Turing was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1951 . In addition , he has had several things named in his honour .
Good – Turing frequency estimation
Turing completeness
Turing degree
Turing Institute
Turing Lecture
Turing machine examples
Turing patterns
Turing reduction
Turing switch
= = = Articles = = =
Copeland , B. Jack ( ed . ) . " The Mind and the Computing Machine : Alan Turing and others " . The Rutherford Journal .
Copeland , B. Jack ( ed . ) . " Alan Turing : Father of the Modern Computer " . The Rutherford Journal .
Hodges , Andrew ( 27 August 2007 ) . " Alan Turing " . In Edward N. Zalta ( ed . ) . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( Winter 2009 ed . ) . Stanford University . Retrieved 10 January 2011 .
Hodges , Andrew ( 2004 ) . " Turing , Alan Mathison " . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( online ed . ) . Oxford University Press. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / ref : odnb / 36578 . ( Subscription or UK public library membership required . )
Gray , Paul ( 29 March 1999 ) . " Computer Scientist : Alan Turing " . TIME .
= = = Books = = =
Andrew Hodges ( 2014 ) . Alan Turing : The Enigma . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0691164724 . ( originally published in 1983 ) ; basis of the film The Imitation Game
George Dyson ( 2012 ) . Turing 's Cathedral : The Origins of the Digital Universe . Vintage . ISBN 978 @-@ 1400075997 .
Gleick , James , The Information : A History , a Theory , a Flood , New York : Pantheon , 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 42372 @-@ 7
= = = Works of Turing = = =
List of publications from Microsoft Academic Search
Alan Turing 's publications indexed by Google Scholar , a service provided by Google
Turing , Alan ( October 1950 ) , " Computing Machinery and Intelligence " , Mind LIX ( 236 ) : 433 – 460 , doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mind / LIX.236.433 , ISSN 0026 @-@ 4423 , retrieved 2008 @-@ 08 @-@ 18
= = = Other = = =
Oral history interview with Nicholas C. Metropolis , Charles Babbage Institute , University of Minnesota . Metropolis was the first director of computing services at Los Alamos National Laboratory ; topics include the relationship between Alan Turing and John von Neumann
= Chlemoutsi =
Chlemoutsi ( Greek : Χλεμούτσι or Χλουμούτσι ) is a medieval castle in the northwest of the Elis regional unit in the Peloponnese peninsula of southern Greece , in the Kastro @-@ Kyllini municipality .
It was built in the early 1220s by the Crusader rulers of the Principality of Achaea as their main stronghold , and is perhaps the finest fortification of the early period of Frankish rule in Greece preserved in the country today . The castle is located on a small plateau 226 metres ( 741 ft ) above sea level , and comprises a central hexagonal keep , built around an inner courtyard and containing two @-@ storeyed halls along its entire length , and complemented by an outer wall enclosing an outer yard on its western side . The castle is largely preserved in its original 13th @-@ century state , with only minor later modifications for the installation of artillery .
Located near the Principality 's capital of Andravida and the chief port of Glarentza , Chlemoutsi played a central role in the Principality 's history , but was never actually besieged . After coming under Byzantine rule in 1427 , it was captured in 1460 by the Ottoman Empire , along with the rest of the Byzantine Despotate of the Morea . In Ottoman times , minor additions were made to provide platforms for artillery , but the castle progressively lost its significance and was completely deserted by the late 18th century . In 1825 , during the Greek War of Independence , part of its outer wall was demolished to prevent the Greek rebels from using it . Today it is a preserved monument open to the public .
= = History = =
The castle was built between 1220 and 1223 , during the rule of the Prince of Achaea Geoffrey I of Villehardouin , as a result of a dispute between the Prince and the clergy of the Principality . Geoffrey had asked the clergy , which owned almost a third of the Principality 's lands but was not obliged to render military service , for additional donations to help defend the realm . When the clergy refused , claiming that they owed allegiance only to the Pope , Geoffrey confiscated Church property , and began construction of Chlemoutsi with the new funds . The fortress was set on a new foundation , with no previous structure identifiable on this site . Its French name , Clairmont or Clermont , most probably gave rise to the Greek form of Chlo [ u ] moutsi , which more recently became Chlemoutsi , although various theories have been proposed as to the name 's origin , with suggestions of Greek , Albanian or Slavic roots pre @-@ dating the Frankish fortress . From the 15th century , Italian sources came to call it Castel Tornese , apparently through a confusion with the seat of the Principality 's mint in nearby Glarentza , which until the middle of the 14th century minted silver tornese coins .
The new fortress was near the princely capital of Andravida , some 13 kilometres ( 8 mi ) away , and ca . 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) from the Principality 's largest port and town , Glarentza . These three sites were the administrative heart of the Principality and , along with the fortress of Beauvoir or Pontiko at Katakolo further south , served to secure control of the fertile plain of Elis , which formed a major part of the princely domain ( along with Corinthia and the Evrotas valley in Laconia ) . Despite its importance , however , throughout the history of the Principality of Achaea Chlemoutsi was never the object of major military operations ; rather , its main function seems to have been as a prison for distinguished captives , such as the Byzantine generals taken captive at the Battle of Makryplagi in c . 1263 , one of whom , Alexios Philes , died in captivity there .
When the Prince William II of Villehardouin died in 1278 , the princely domain , as well as the princely title , went to the King of Naples , Charles of Anjou , according to the provisions of the Treaty of Viterbo . Chlemoutsi , however , had been granted by William to his wife , Anna Komnene Doukaina , and she retained it , along with the Villehardouins ' hereditary Barony of Kalamata in Messenia . In 1280 , Anna married the baron Nicholas II of Saint Omer , lord of one half of Thebes . The latter 's acquisition of some of the " most fertile lands and the most powerful fortress in the Morea " , in the words of the French medievalist Antoine Bon , in addition to the wealth he had inherited from his first marriage , worried King Charles . On 25 September 1281 , an agreement was reached whereby Chlemoutsi and Kalamata were ceded to the princely domain in exchange for half the lands of the recently deceased Leonard of Veroli , comprising estates in both the Morea ( in Elis and Messenia ) and Italy . In the early 1290s , Thomas Komnenos Doukas , son and successor of the Despot of Epirus Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas , was held at Chlemoutsi as a hostage for his father 's behaviour .
In c . 1311 , the sole surviving daughter of William II Villehardouin , Margaret , sought , by virtue of her descent , to claim the Principality , or at least a portion of it including Chlemoutsi and Kalamata , from the Angevin Kings of Naples who had controlled it since 1278 . To this end , in February 1314 she wedded her only daughter , Isabel of Sabran , to Ferdinand of Majorca , and passed her titles and claims to them . She then returned to Achaea , where she was imprisoned by the Angevin bailli at Chlemoutsi , where she died in February or March 1315 . Ferdinand landed at Glarentza in June 1315 , claiming the Principality from the Angevin nominee , Louis of Burgundy . Chlemoutsi and most of Elis fell rapidly under Ferdinand 's control , but he was eventually defeated and killed in the Battle of Manolada in July 1316 . The remaining Majorcan troops ceded the fortresses they held in Elis and set sail for home shortly after .
In 1418 , Glarentza and Chlemoutsi passed into the hands of Carlo I Tocco , who began to expand his territories in the Morea at the expense of Prince Centurione II Zaccaria . After his defeat by the Byzantine navy in the 1427 Battle of the Echinades , however , Tocco was forced to cede his possessions to the Despot of the Morea , Constantine Palaiologos ( who would become the last Byzantine emperor ) , in the form of a dowry for his daughter Maddalena Tocco . Chlemoutsi now became Constantine 's residence and his base of operations against the last major Latin stronghold , the city of Patras , in 1428 – 30 . The castle remained in Byzantine hands until it was captured , along with the rest of the Morea , by the Ottoman Empire in 1460 . The bastard son of Centurione II , John Asen Zaccaria , was also imprisoned at Chlemoutsi , but managed to escape in 1453 and lead a rebellion against the Byzantine Despots of the Morea .
With the Ottoman conquest , the castle lost much of its strategic significance , although it was occupied by the Venetians during the Ottoman – Venetian War of 1463 – 79 , and attacked by the Knights of Malta in 1620 . During the period of Venetian rule in the Peloponnese ( 1687 – 1715 ) after the Morean War , it served as the seat of a fiscal district . The reports of the Venetian governors at the time , however , dismiss Chlemoutsi as small in size and barely inhabited . In 1701 the provveditore generale Francesco Grimani proposed that it be destroyed , as it was too far from the sea — a vital concern for the maritime @-@ minded Republic — and difficult to defend , and recommended that Glarentza , by then abandoned and ruined , be rebuilt instead . In 1715 , the Morea returned to Ottoman control , and by the early 19th century , the fortress had been completely deserted . In 1825 , during the Greek War of Independence , the forces of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt took the castle and dismantled a portion of its walls , so that it could not be used by the Greek rebels .
Today the castle is a preserved landmark , under the 6th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities . It can be visited and is easily accessible by car from nearby Kyllini .
= = Location and architecture = =
Chlemoutsi remains " the most beautiful testimony of the military art in the Frankish principality " , according to A. Bon . Its location , on a small plateau of 226 metres ( 741 ft ) above sea level near the modern village of Kastro @-@ Kyllini , gives it a commanding view of the surrounding countryside , encompassing the coastal plain of Elis and reaching to the Ionian Islands of Zakynthos and Cephalonia and even to the coast of Aetolia @-@ Acarnania on the Greek mainland . The view from this location and the scale and quality of its construction prove , according to A. Bon , that Chlemoutsi was not built as a citadel for Glarentza , but that it fulfilled an independent military role , that of securing control over the wider region .
The castle is located on the top of an irregular plateau , whose southern , eastern and northern slopes are abrupt , with the softer western slope , towards the modern village of Kastro , offering the easiest access . The heart of the fortress consists of a large hexagonal keep , complemented towards the west , where the terrain is more accessible , by an additional outer wall , likewise of irregular polygonal outline , enclosing a second , much wider courtyard ( the outer ward ) .
= = = Outer ward = = =
The outer gate of the fortress lies in the northwestern side of the outer ward , originally within a small recess in the outer curtain wall , protected by a portcullis . The recess was later filled by the Turks with a smaller set of walls , so as to preserve unbroken the outer wall 's frontage . The Ottomans also added additional buttresses to the junctions of their wall with the original curtain wall , while the space between the original gate and the new , Ottoman entrance was left unroofed and open to the sky . From the gate , the outer wall continues east and then south , in three distinct stretches of walls , to the keep . The wall is built of limestone masonry , with little evidence of brick or tiles , topped by a small inner parapet and Ottoman @-@ built crenellations , now largely ruined . From the beginning , buildings were built leaning on the outer wall , as evidenced by the remnant of their foundations , side walls joining the curtain wall 's inner face , or the presence of fireplaces and lancet windows in the curtain wall . One of these buildings is largely preserved immediately next to the outer gate . Windows , fireplaces etc. display a uniformity of style that points to their construction at the same time as the fortress itself . At the point where the outer wall joins the keep , a small postern is located , as well as a stairway leading up to the outer wall 's chemin de ronde .
On the other side of the gate , the curtain wall continues in two stretches southwest and south , with a tower — probably an Ottoman addition — at their junction , before turning sharply to the east . A terrepleined bastion was built behind this southwestern corner by the Turks as an artillery platform . Along the western wall too there is evidence of buildings erected adjoining the curtain wall . The southern wall shows evidence of later , probably Turkish , repairs , with broken tiles alternating with stone courses . It is in this stretch that the cannons of Ibrahim Pasha effected the breach in the wall in 1825 . Roughly halfway between the southwestern corner and the keep , the wall abruptly turns inwards for about 5 metres ( 16 ft ) around an Ottoman @-@ built tower , before continuing east and then northeast to join the keep . Another postern is located about 10 metres ( 33 ft ) from the junction of the two walls .
= = = Keep = = =
The keep is of an irregular hexagonal shape , measuring some 90 metres ( 300 ft ) from east to west and c . 60 metres ( 200 ft ) from south to north , with its six walls enclosing an inner courtyard of 61 metres by 31 metres ( 200 ft × 102 ft ) . Its walls hold a series of two @-@ storeyed halls , forming a ring of rooms around the central courtyard . The lower storey , separated from the upper by wooden floors — now mostly collapsed with only the niches for the support of beams testifying to their existence — has arches opening into the courtyard . The upper storey features large galleries with ovoid barrel vaults " of immaculate poros ashlar " ( Andrews ) , supported by side walls of limestone blocks and by regularly spaced transverse arches every 7 – 10 metres ( 23 – 33 ft ) . These have collapsed except for the pilasters , set into the wall and topped by Byzantine @-@ style chamfered imposts .
The galleries feature mostly a uniform style — common in 12th @-@ century French architecture — of double @-@ arched windows set within a vaulted depression in the walls , with banquettes on either side . The galleries also feature niches and fireplaces similar to those of the outer curtain wall and the associated buildings , reinforcing the " stylistic uniformity " ( Andrews ) of the castle . Chlemoutsi was well suited for a princely residence : its halls , arranged around the inner courtyard , were spacious , comfortable , and well @-@
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played at the venue . Neither club had previously won the competition . Bolton reached the final in 1894 , but were beaten comfortably by Notts County , losing 4 – 1 at Goodison Park despite a strong performance by goalkeeper John Sutcliffe .
In their passage to the final Manchester City faced opposition from the top division in all but one round . Second Division Woolwich Arsenal , City 's opponents in the second round , were the exception . Sunderland were defeated 3 – 2 at Hyde Road in the first round , and the visit to Arsenal yielded a 2 – 0 win . A club record crowd of 30 @,@ 022 watched the quarter @-@ final against Middlesbrough , but a 0 – 0 draw meant a replay at Ayresome Park was required , which City won 3 – 1 to set up a semi @-@ final against The Wednesday . Two goals from Turnbull and one from Meredith gave City a 3 – 0 win at Goodison Park .
Bolton 's cup run started slowly , with a replay required to overcome non @-@ league Reading . A 4 – 1 victory over Southampton secured a quarter @-@ final berth at Sheffield United . As a Second Division team with a poor away record , Wanderers were clear underdogs in the quarter @-@ final , particularly in view of Sheffield United 's strong home form . Nevertheless , Bolton prevailed 2 – 0 courtesy of goals by Sam Marsh and Billy Yenson . At this point Marsh had scored in every round of the competition . A 1 – 0 defeat of Derby County in the semi @-@ final took Bolton to the final .
Though Lancashire was a football stronghold in the early years of the professional game , providing a large proportion of Football League teams , the cup final had never been contested between two Lancashire clubs until the 1904 final . 30 @,@ 000 supporters from the region travelled to London , sparking press reports of records for North @-@ South rail travel . Lacking alternative accommodation , several thousand slept on the platforms at Euston and St Pancras . A jovial atmosphere built up , with the Manchester Industrial Boys Band playing Hiawatha . However , in London itself , the match received less attention than a final featuring a southern team would have done . Tickets in an uncovered stand cost 5s .
Prior to the match the teams both stayed in the suburb of West Norwood , within walking distance of Crystal Palace . Manchester City arrived on 21 April , and were joined the following day by the Bolton Wanderers , who had spent the earlier part of the week at a training camp in Norbreck , near Blackpool . London 's Morning Leader described the relaxed nature of the Manchester City players , commenting that " they might have been a tug of war eleven out for a holiday " .
The majority of observers , including the Times correspondent , expected a win for Manchester City , as they had performed strongly over the League season , lying second in the First Division on the day of the final , whereas Bolton were a mid @-@ table Second Division side whose most talented forward , Boyd , was sidelined through injury . Manchester City had one injury worry , Billy Holmes , who had missed the previous league match after sustaining an injury against Nottingham Forest . George Livingstone , initially a doubt , was passed fit well in advance . When the final line @-@ ups were announced , both teams had one change from the semi @-@ finals . For Bolton , Boyd was replaced by Clifford , who had not played in any of the previous rounds , and Archie Freebairn switched to Boyd 's usual flank " with a view to coping with Meredith " . For Manchester City , Sam Ashworth replaced Holmes . Both teams played 2 – 3 – 5 , the standard formation of the period .
= = Match = =
The match took place in good weather , with the crowd approximately 62 @,@ 000 . Dignitaries present included Prime Minister Arthur Balfour , Colonial Secretary Alfred Lyttelton , Postmaster General Lord Stanley and Lord Kinnaird . Also in attendance were cricketers WG Grace , GL Jessop and CB Fry , plus several members of the Australian cricket team . Manchester City entered the field of play first , led by captain Billy Meredith , with the Bolton team emerging shortly after . Manchester City won the toss , and elected to play towards the southern end of the ground in the first half , with the wind at their backs . The opening exchanges were fairly even , the Athletic News reporting that " For some time there was little to choose between the rivals " , but that " Manchester were the more systematic and scientific " .
Twenty minutes into the game , a pass to the right wing by George Livingstone eluded Bolton 's Archie Freebairn , and reached Meredith , who dribbled beyond Bob Struthers for a run on goal . He shot to goalkeeper Davies ' left , scoring the opening goal . Reporters with Bolton sympathies , such as ex @-@ Bolton secretary JJ Bentley , claimed the goal to be offside , though the Bolton players made no appeal to the referee . The goal led to one over @-@ exuberant Manchester City supporter invading the pitch , and subsequently being escorted away by police , though in contrast to the modern image of the football hooligan , the Sporting Chronicle reported that the man was then allowed back onto the terraces , as the police had been impressed by the level of devotion that he had demonstrated .
Bolton had the majority of possession in the second half , aside from a ten @-@ minute spell , but the performance of the Manchester City defence limited Bolton 's goalscoring opportunities . The Manchester Evening News singled out Herbert Burgess for particular praise in this respect , writing that City had " considerable reason to be thankful to their left @-@ back , Burgess ... ... the famous International played a game which has rarely been surpassed " . The Bolton Evening News took a rather different view , claiming that physical play by Burgess provoked the ire of the crowd . Bolton 's adoption of " kick and rush " tactics resulted in a spell of pressure , but to no avail . Bolton 's best chance came in the final five minutes , a shot by White which " missed by inches " . The match finished 1 – 0 , giving Manchester City their first major honour .
= = = Match details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Manchester City captain Meredith received the trophy from the serving prime minister , Arthur Balfour , a patron of the club . Alfred Lyttelton then made a speech praising the efforts of the two teams . Lyttelton , a former footballer himself , compared the play in the final with the match he played for the England team against Scotland in 1877 . Noting that " the game is a good deal changed " , he emphasised how the final had demonstrated the importance of teamwork , in contrast to his day when " each man played for himself " .
While most of those in attendance behaved well , with few reports of disturbances , later in the day several young men " with provincial accents " appeared at a west London police court charged with drunken disorder . Due to " offence caused by ' scrimmage ' " , they were issued with fines averaging 10s .
Manchester City did not return directly to Manchester , but instead went to Liverpool , as the club 's final league fixture was scheduled for Monday afternoon at Everton . At this point Manchester City were still in contention for the league title . However , a 1 – 0 defeat at Goodison Park eliminated City from the title race and confirmed The Wednesday as champions . The team arrived in Manchester in that evening , and travelled to the Town Hall to commence a victory parade . From the Town Hall , the parade travelled to Ardwick Conservative Club , via Deansgate , Market Street and Ardwick Green . The number of people lining the route was five times as many as had attended a recent visit by the Prince and Princess of Wales .
= Dick Tracy ( 1990 film ) =
Dick Tracy is a 1990 American action comedy film based on the 1930s comic strip character of the same name created by Chester Gould . Warren Beatty produced , directed , and starred in the film , which features supporting roles from Al Pacino , Charles Durning , Madonna , Dustin Hoffman , William Forsythe , Glenne Headly , Paul Sorvino , Dick Van Dyke , and Charlie Korsmo . Dick Tracy depicts the detective 's love relationships with Breathless Mahoney and Tess Truehart , as well as his conflicts with crime boss Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice . Tracy also begins his upbringing of " The Kid . "
Development of the film started in the early 1980s with Tom Mankiewicz assigned to write the script . The screenplay would instead be crafted by Jim Cash and Jack Epps , Jr . , both of Top Gun fame . The project also went through directors Steven Spielberg , John Landis , Walter Hill , and Richard Benjamin before the arrival of Beatty . Filming was mostly at Universal Studios . Danny Elfman was hired to compose the film score , and the music was featured on three separate soundtrack albums .
Dick Tracy was released in 1990 to mixed reviews , but was a success at the box office and at awards time . It picked up seven Academy Award nominations and won in three of the categories : Best Original Song , Best Makeup and Best Art Direction . A sequel was planned , but a controversy over the film rights ensued between Beatty and Tribune Media Services . The lawsuit was resolved in Beatty 's favor in October 2013 . However , no plans for a sequel or follow @-@ up have been publicly disclosed as of June 2014 . Beatty created The Dick Tracy TV Special in 2008 , which featured him reprising the character to be interviewed by film critic Leonard Maltin .
= = Plot = =
At an illegal card game , a young street urchin witnesses the massacre of a group of mobsters at the hands of Flattop and Itchy , two of the hoods on the payroll of Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice . Big Boy 's crime syndicate is aggressively taking over small businesses in the city . Detective Dick Tracy catches the urchin ( who calls himself " Kid " ) in an act of petty theft . After rescuing him from a ruthless host , Tracy temporarily adopts him with the help of his girlfriend , Tess Truehart ( Glenne Headly ) .
Meanwhile , Big Boy coerces club owner Lips Manlis into signing over the deed to Club Ritz . He then kills Lips with a cement overcoat ( referred to onscreen as " The Bath " ) and steals his girlfriend , the seductive and sultry singer , Breathless Mahoney . After Lips is reported missing , Tracy interrogates his three hired guns Flattop , Itchy , and Mumbles , then goes to the club to arrest Big Boy for Lips ' murder . Breathless is the only witness . Instead of providing testimony , she unsuccessfully attempts to seduce Tracy . Big Boy cannot be indicted and he is released from jail . Big Boy 's next move is to try to bring other criminals , including Spud Spaldoni , Pruneface , Influence , Texie Garcia , Ribs Mocca , and Numbers , together under his leadership . Spaldoni refuses and is intentionally killed , leaving Dick Tracy , who discovered the meeting and was attempting to spy on it , wondering what is going on . The next day , Big Boy and his henchmen kidnap Tracy and attempt to bribe him ; Tracy refuses , prompting the criminals to attempt to kill him . However , Tracy is saved by Kid , who gets prized by the police with a Honorary Detective Certificate , which will remain temporary until he decides a name for himself .
Breathless shows up at Tracy 's apartment , once again in an attempt to seduce him . Tracy shows he is only human by allowing her to kiss him . Tess witnesses this and eventually leaves town . Tracy leads a seemingly unsuccessful raid on Club Ritz , but it is actually a diversion so officer " Bug " Bailey can enter the building to operate a secretly installed listening device so the police can hear in on Big Boy 's criminal activities . The resultant raids all but wipe out Big Boy 's criminal empire . However , Big Boy discovers Bug and captures him for a trap planned by Influence and Pruneface to kill Tracy in the warehouse . In the resulting gun battle , a stranger with no face called " The Blank " steps out of the shadows to save Tracy after he is cornered and kills Pruneface . Influence escapes as Tracy rescues Bug from the same fate given to Lips Manlis , and Big Boy is enraged upon hearing that The Blank foiled the hit . Tracy tries again to get the testimony from Breathless he needs to put Big Boy away . She agrees to testify only if Tracy agrees to give in to her advances . Tess eventually has a change of heart , but before she can tell Tracy , she is kidnapped by The Blank , with the help of Big Boy 's club piano player , 88 Keys . Tracy is drugged and rendered unconscious by The Blank , framed for murdering the corrupt District Attorney John Fletcher , and is detained . The Kid , meanwhile , adopts the name " Dick Tracy , Jr . "
Big Boy 's business thrives until the Blank frames him for Tess ' kidnapping . Released by his colleagues on New Year 's Eve , Tracy interrogates Mumbles and arrives at a shootout outside Big Boy 's club where his men are killed by the police and Tracy . Abandoning his crew , Big Boy flees to a drawbridge and ties Tess to the gears before he is confronted by Tracy . Their fight is halted when the Blank appears and holds both men at gunpoint , offering to share the city with Tracy after Big Boy is dead . Big Boy takes advantage of a distraction and opens fire before Tracy sends him falling to his death in the bridge gears . Mortally wounded , the Blank is revealed to be Breathless Mahoney , who kisses Tracy before dying . All charges against Tracy are dropped .
Later , Tracy proposes to Tess when he is interrupted by the report of a robbery in progress . He leaves her with a ring before heading away with Dick Tracy , Jr .
= = Cast = =
Main characters
Warren Beatty as Dick Tracy : A square @-@ jawed , fast @-@ shooting , hard @-@ hitting , and intelligent police detective sporting a yellow overcoat and fedora . He is heavily committed to break the organized crime that infests in the city . In addition , Tracy is in line to become the chief of police , which he scorns as a " desk job " .
Al Pacino as Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice : The leading crime boss of the city . Although he is involved with numerous criminal activities , they remain unproven , as Tracy has never been able to catch him in the act or find a witness to testify .
Madonna as Breathless Mahoney : An entertainer at Club Ritz who wants to steal Tracy from his girlfriend . She is also the sole witness to several of Caprice 's crimes .
Glenne Headly as Tess Trueheart : Dick Tracy 's girlfriend . She feels that Tracy cares more for his job than for her .
Charlie Korsmo as The Kid : A scrawny street orphan who survives by eating out of garbage cans . He falls into the life of both Tracy and Trueheart and becomes an ally .
Law enforcement
James Keane as Pat Patton : Tracy 's closest associate and second @-@ in @-@ command .
Seymour Cassel as Sam Catchem : Tracy 's closest associate and third @-@ in @-@ command .
Michael J. Pollard as Bug Bailey : A surveillance expert .
Charles Durning as Chief Brandon : The chief of police who supports Tracy 's crusade .
Dick Van Dyke as District Attorney John Fletcher : A district attorney who refuses to prosecute Caprice .
Frank Campanella as Judge Harper
The mob
Dustin Hoffman as Mumbles : Caprice 's fast @-@ talking henchman .
William Forsythe as Flattop : Caprice 's top hitman . His most distinguishing feature is his square , flat cranium and matching haircut .
Ed O 'Ross as Itchy : Caprice 's other hitman . He is usually paired with Flattop .
James Tolkan as Numbers : Caprice 's accountant .
Mandy Patinkin as 88 Keys : A piano player at Club Ritz who becomes The Blank 's minion .
R. G. Armstrong as Pruneface : A deformed crime boss who becomes one of Caprice 's minions .
Henry Silva as Influence : Pruneface 's sinister top gunman who accompanies Pruneface in siding with Caprice .
Paul Sorvino as Lips Manlis : The original owner of Club Ritz and Caprice 's mentor .
Lawrence Steven Meyers as Little Face : A criminal with a big head and a small face .
James Caan as Spud Spaldoni : A crime boss who refuses to submit to Caprice .
Catherine O 'Hara as Texie Garcia : A female criminal who submits to Caprice .
Robert Beecher as Ribs Mocca : A criminal who submits to Caprice .
Hamilton Camp appears as a store owner and Bing Russell plays a Club Ritz patron . Robert Costanzo cameos as Lips Manlis ' bodyguard . Allen Garfield , John Schuck , and Charles Fleischer make cameos as reporters . Walker Edmiston , John Moschitta , Jr . , and Neil Ross provide the voices of each radio announcer . Mike Mazurki ( who played Splitface in the original Dick Tracy film ) appears in a small cameo . The 94 @-@ year @-@ old veteran character actor Ian Wolfe plays his last film role as " Munger " .
= = Development = =
Warren Beatty had a concept for a Dick Tracy film in 1975 . At the time , the film rights were owned by Michael Laughlin , who gave up his option from Tribune Media Services after he was unsuccessful in pitching Dick Tracy to Hollywood studios . Floyd Mutrux and Art Linson purchased the film rights from the Tribune in 1977 , and , in 1980 , United Artists became interested in financing / distributing Dick Tracy . Tom Mankiewicz was under negotiations to write the script , based on his previous success with Superman ( 1978 ) and Superman II ( 1980 ) . The deal fell through when Chester Gould insisted on strict financial and artistic control .
That same year , Mutrux and Linson eventually took the property to Paramount Pictures , who began developing screenplays , offered Steven Spielberg the director 's position , and brought in Universal Pictures to co @-@ finance . Universal put John Landis forward as a candidate for director , courted Clint Eastwood for the title role , and commissioned Jim Cash and Jack Epps , Jr. to write the screenplay . " Before we were brought on , there were several failed scripts at Universal , " reflected Epps , " then it went dormant , but John Landis was interested in Dick Tracy , and he brought us in to write it . " Cash and Epps ' simple orders from Landis were to write the script in a 1930s pulp magazine atmosphere and center it with Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice as the primary villain . For research , Epps read every Dick Tracy comic strip from 1930 to 1957 . The writers wrote two drafts for Landis ; Max Allan Collins , then writer of the Dick Tracy comic strip , remembers reading one of them . " It was terrible . The only positive thing about it was a thirties setting and lots of great villains , but the story was paper @-@ thin and it was uncomfortably campy . "
In addition to Beatty and Eastwood , other actors who were considered for the lead role included Harrison Ford , Richard Gere , Tom Selleck , and Mel Gibson . Landis left Dick Tracy following the controversial on @-@ set accident on Twilight Zone : The Movie ( 1983 ) , in which actor Vic Morrow was killed . Walter Hill then came on board to direct with Joel Silver as producer . Cash and Epps wrote another draft , and Hill approached Warren Beatty for the title role . Pre @-@ production had progressed as far as set building , but the film was stalled when artistic control issues arose with Beatty , a fan of the Dick Tracy comic strip . Hill wanted to make the film violent and realistic , while Beatty envisioned a stylized homage to the 1930s comic strip . The actor also reportedly wanted $ 5 million plus fifteen percent of the box office gross , a deal which Universal refused to accept .
Hill and Beatty left the film , which Paramount began developing as a lower @-@ budget project with Richard Benjamin directing . Cash and Epps continued to rewrite the script , but Universal was unsatisfied . The film rights eventually reverted to Tribune Media Services in 1985 . However , Beatty decided to option the Dick Tracy rights himself , along with the Cash / Epps script . When Jeffrey Katzenberg moved from Paramount to the Walt Disney Studios , Dick Tracy resurfaced with Beatty as director , producer and leading man . He considered hiring Martin Scorsese to direct the film , but changed his mind . " It never occurred to me to direct the movie , " Beatty admitted , " but finally , like most of the movies that I direct , when the time comes to do it , I just do it because it 's easier than going through what I 'd have to go through to get somebody else to do it . "
Beatty 's reputation for directorial profligacy — notably with the critically acclaimed Reds ( 1981 ) , did not sit well with Disney . As a result , Beatty and Disney reached a contracted agreement whereby any budget overruns on Dick Tracy would be deducted from Beatty 's fee as producer , director , and star . Beatty and regular collaborator Bo Goldman significantly rewrote the dialogue but lost a Writers Guild arbitration and did not receive screen credit .
Disney greenlighted Dick Tracy in 1988 under the condition that Warren Beatty keep the production budget within $ 25 million , which began to rise once filming started . It quickly jumped to $ 30 million and then $ 47 million as its final production budget . Disney spent an additional $ 54 million on the marketing campaign , resulting in a total of $ 101 million spent overall . The financing for Dick Tracy came from Disney and Silver Screen Partners IV , as well as Beatty 's own production company , Mulholland Productions . Disney was originally going to release the film under the traditional Walt Disney Pictures banner , but chose instead to release and market the film under the adult @-@ oriented Touchstone Pictures label leading up to the film 's theatrical debut , because the studio felt it had too many mature themes for a Disney @-@ branded film .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Although Al Pacino was Warren Beatty 's first choice for the role of Alphonse " Big Boy " Caprice , Robert De Niro was under consideration . Madonna pursued the part of Breathless Mahoney , offering to work for scale to avoid any appearance of nepotism . Her resulting paycheck for the film was just $ 35 @,@ 000 . Sean Young claims she was forced out of the role of Tess Truehart ( which eventually went to Glenne Headly ) after rebuffing sexual advances from Beatty . In a 1989 statement , Beatty said , " I made a mistake casting Sean Young in the part and I felt very badly about it . " Mike Mazurki , who had appeared in Dick Tracy ( 1945 ) had a cameo .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Dick Tracy began on February 2 , 1989 . The filmmakers considered shooting the film on @-@ location in Chicago , Illinois , but production designer Richard Sylbert believed Dick Tracy would work better using sound stages and backlots at Universal Studios in Universal City , California . Other filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank . In total , 53 interior and 25 exterior sets were constructed . Beatty , being a perfectionist , often filmed dozens of takes of every scene .
As filming continued , Disney and Max Allan Collins conflicted over the novelization . The studio rejected his manuscript : " I wound up doing an eleventh hour rewrite that was more faithful to the screenplay , even while I made it much more consistent with the strip , " Collins continued , " and fixed as many plot holes as I could . " Disney did not like this version either , but accepted based on Beatty 's insistence to incorporate some of Collins ' writing into the shooting script , which solved the plot hole concerns . Through post @-@ production dubbing , some of Collins ' dialogue was also incorporated into the film . Principal photography for Dick Tracy ended in May 1989 .
= = = Design = = =
Early in the development of Dick Tracy , Warren Beatty decided to make the film using a palette limited to just seven colors , primarily red , green , blue and yellow — to evoke the film 's comic strip origins ; furthermore each of the colors was to be exactly the same shade . Beatty 's design team included production designer Richard Sylbert , set decorator Rick Simpson , cinematographer Vittorio Storaro ( whom Beatty had worked with on his previous film as producer and lead actor , Ishtar ) , visual effects supervisors Michael Lloyd and Harrison Ellenshaw , prosthetic makeup designers John Caglione , Jr. and Doug Drexler , and costume designer Milena Canonero . Their main intention was to stay close to Chester Gould 's original drawings from the 1930s . Other influences came from the Art Deco movement and German Expressionism .
For Storaro , the limited color palette was the most challenging aspect of production . " These are not the kind of colors the audience is used to seeing , " he noted . " These are much more dramatic in strength , in saturation . Comic strip art is usually done with very simple and primitive ideas and emotions , " Storaro theorized . " One of the elements is that the story is usually told in vignette , so what we tried to do is never move the camera at all . Never . Try to make everything work into the frame . " For the matte paintings , Ellenshaw and Lloyd executed over 57 paintings on glass , which were then optically combined with the live action . For a brief sequence in which The Kid dashes in front of a speeding locomotive , only 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) of real track was laid ; the train itself was a 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) scale model , and the surrounding train yard a matte painting .
Caglione and Drexler were recommended for the prosthetic makeup designs by Canonero , with whom they had worked on The Cotton Club ( 1984 ) . The rogues gallery makeup designs were directly taken from Gould 's drawings , with the exception of Al Pacino ( Big Boy Caprice ) , who improvised his own designs , ignoring the rather overweight character of the strip . His makeup took 3 @.@ 5 hours to apply .
= = = Music = = =
Warren Beatty hired Danny Elfman to compose / write the film score based on his previous success with Batman ( 1989 ) . Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek and Shirley Walker to arrange compositions for the orchestra . " In a completely different way , " Elfman commented , " Dick Tracy has this unique quality that Batman had for me . It gives an incredible sense of non @-@ reality . " In addition , Beatty hired acclaimed songwriter Stephen Sondheim to write five original songs : " Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) , " " More , " " Live Alone and Like It , " " Back in Business , " and " What Can You Lose ? " . " Sooner or Later " and " More " were performed by Madonna , with " What Can You Lose ? " being a duet with Mandy Patinkin . Mel Tormé sang " Live Alone and Like It , " and " Back in Business " was performed by Janis Siegel , Cheryl Bentyne , and Lorraine Feather . " Back in Business " and " Live Alone and Like It " were both used as background music during montage sequences . " Sooner or Later " and " Back in Business " would be featured in the original 1992 production of the Sondheim revue Putting It Together in Oxford , England , and four of the five Sondheim songs from Dick Tracy ( the exception being " What Can You Lose ? " ) were used in the 1999 Broadway production of Putting It Together .
Dick Tracy is also the first film to use digital audio . In a December 1990 interview with The New York Times , Elfman criticized the growing tendency to use digital technology for sound design and dubbing purposes . " I detest contemporary scoring and dubbing in cinema . Film music as an art took a deep plunge when Dolby stereo hit . Stereo has the capacity to make orchestral music sound big and beautiful and more expansive , but it also can make sound effects sound four times as big . That began the era of sound effects over music . "
= = Marketing = =
Disney modeled its marketing campaign after the 1989 success of Batman , which was based on high concept promotion . This included a McDonald 's promotional tie @-@ in and a Warren Beatty interview conducted by Barbara Walters on 20 / 20 . " I find the media 's obsession with promotion and demographics upsetting , " Beatty said . " I find all this anti @-@ cultural . " In attempting to market Dick Tracy to young children , Disney added a new Roger Rabbit cartoon short ( Roller Coaster Rabbit ) and made two specific television advertisements centered on The Kid ( Charlie Korsmo ) . In total , Disney commissioned 28 TV advertisements . Playmates Toys manufactured a line of 14 Dick Tracy figures .
It was Madonna 's idea to include the film as part of her Blond Ambition World Tour . Prior to the June 1990 theatrical release , Disney had already featured Dick Tracy in musical theatre stage shows in both Disneyland and the Walt Disney World Resort , using Stephen Sondheim and Danny Elfman 's music . The New York Times also wrote in June 1990 of Disney Stores " selling nothing but Tracy @-@ related merchandise . " Max Allan Collins lobbied to write the film 's novelization long before Disney had even greenlighted Dick Tracy in 1988 . " I hated the idea that anyone else would write a Tracy novel , " Collins explained . After much conflict with Disney , leading to seven different printings of the novelization , the book was released in May 1990 , published by Bantam Books . It sold almost one million copies prior to the film 's release . A graphic novel adaptation of the film was also released , written and illustrated by Kyle Baker . Reruns of The Dick Tracy Show began airing to coincide with the release of the film , but stations in Los Angeles and New York pulled and edited the episodes when Asian and Hispanic groups protested that the characters Joe Jitsu and Go Go Gomez were offensive stereotypes . A theme park ride for Disneyland , Disney @-@ MGM Studios and Euro Disney Resort called Dick Tracy 's Crime Stoppers was planned but ultimately never built .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
Dick Tracy had its premiere at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando , Florida . The film was released in the United States in 2 @,@ 332 theaters on June 15 , 1990 , earning $ 22 @.@ 54 million in its in opening weekend . This was the third @-@ highest opening weekend of 1990 . Dick Tracy eventually grossed $ 103 @.@ 74 million in US totals and $ 59 million elsewhere , coming to a worldwide total of $ 162 @.@ 74 million . Dick Tracy was also the ninth @-@ highest grossing film of America in 1990 , and number twelve in worldwide totals .
Although Disney was impressed by the opening weekend gross , studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg expressed disappointment . He suggested that Dick Tracy had cost about $ 100 million in total to produce , market and promote . " We made demands on our time , talent and treasury that , upon reflection , may not have been worth it , " Katzenberg reported . Disney , in particular , was expecting the film 's earnings to match Batman ( 1989 ) . By 1997 , Dick Tracy had made an additional $ 60 @.@ 61 million in rental figures .
= = = Critical response = = =
Dick Tracy has received mixed reviews from critics . Based on 45 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 64 % of the critics enjoyed Dick Tracy . The consensus reads : " Dick Tracy is stylish , unique , and an undeniable technical triumph , but it ultimately struggles to rise above its two @-@ dimensional artificiality . " Roger Ebert gave the film four stars in his review , arguing that Warren Beatty succeeded in creating the perfect tone of nostalgia for the film . Ebert mostly praised the matte paintings , art direction and prosthetic makeup design . " Dick Tracy is one of the most original and visionary fantasies I 've seen on a screen , " he wrote .
Vincent Canby of The New York Times reviewed : " Dick Tracy has just about everything required of an extravaganza : a smashing cast , some great Stephen Sondheim songs , all of the technical wizardry that money can buy , and a screenplay that observes the fine line separating true comedy from lesser camp . " Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review , but was impressed by Madonna 's performance . " Dick Tracy is an honest effort but finally a bit of a folly . It could have used a little less color and a little more flesh and blood , " Gleiberman concluded .
In his heavily negative review for The Washington Post , Desson Thomson criticized Disney 's hyped marketing campaign , and the film in general . " Dick Tracy is Hollywood 's annual celebration of everything that 's wrong with Hollywood , " he stated . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine cited that Warren Beatty , at 52 years old , was too old for the part . He also found similarities with Batman ( 1989 ) , in which both films involve " a loner hero , a grotesque villain , a blond bombshell , a marketable pop soundtrack and a no @-@ mercy merchandising campaign , " Travers continued . " But Batman possesses something else : a psychological depth that gives the audience a stake in the characters . Tracy sticks to its eye @-@ poppingly brilliant surface . Though the film is a visual knockout , it 's emotionally impoverished . "
Although Max Allan Collins ( then a Dick Tracy comic @-@ strip writer ) had conflicts with Disney concerning the novelization , he gave a positive review for the finished film . He praised Beatty for hiring an elaborate design team and his decision to mimic the strip 's limited color palette . Collins also enjoyed Beatty 's performance , both the prosthetic makeup and characterization of the rogues gallery , as well as the Stephen Sondheim music . However , he believed the filmmakers still sacrificed the storyline in favor of the visual design .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 63rd Academy Awards , production designer Richard Sylbert and set decorator Rick Simpson won Best Art Direction , while John Caglione , Jr. and Doug Drexler won Best Makeup . Stephen Sondheim was also awarded with Best Original Song for " Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) " , which Madonna sang live at the awards ceremony . Dick Tracy , with three Oscars , is the comic book film with the most wins , followed by The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) with two . Nominations included Al Pacino for Best Supporting Actor , Vittorio Storaro ( Cinematography ) , Milena Canonero ( Costume Design ) , and the sound designers ( Sound - Thomas Causey , Chris Jenkins , David E. Campbell and Doug Hemphill ) . Storaro was also honored for his work by both the American Society of Cinematographers and British Society of Cinematographers .
The British Academy of Film and Television Arts gave awards to Sylbert , Caglione and Drexler at the 44th British Academy Film Awards . Pacino , Canonero , editor Richard Marks , and both the sound design and visual effects departments received nominations . At the 48th Golden Globe Awards , Pacino and Sondheim ( for both " Sooner of Later ( I Always Get My Man ) " and " What Can You Lose " ) were nominated for their work , while Dick Tracy lost the Best Motion Picture ( Musical or Comedy ) to Green Card ( 1990 ) and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film to Ghost ( 1990 ) . Cagilione and Drexler ended up winning Best Make @-@ up , while Warren Beatty ( Best Actor ) , Madonna ( Best Actress ) , Pacino ( Supporting Actor ) , and Charlie Korsmo ( Performance by a Younger Actor ) received nominations . Canonero was also nominated once more for her costume design . Film score composer Danny Elfman and Sondheim ( " More " ) received individual nominations at the Grammy Awards .
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Dick Tracy — Nominated Hero
= = Home media release = =
The film was released on VHS on December 19 , 1990 , and was first released on DVD in Europe in 2000 , but domestic release in the US was delayed until April 2 , 2002 , and without any special features . Rumors circulated over the web shortly after the US DVD release that Warren Beatty had planned to release a director 's cut under Disney 's " Vista Series " label ; including at least ten extra minutes of footage .
The Blu @-@ ray was released in the US and Canada on December 11 , 2012 . This release also lacked special features , save for a digital copy .
= = Sequel and legal issues = =
Disney had hoped Dick Tracy would launch a successful franchise , like the Indiana Jones series , but a disappointing box office performance halted Disney 's plans . In addition , executive producers Art Linson and Floyd Mutrux sued Beatty shortly after the release of the film , alleging that they were owed profit participation from the film .
Beatty purchased the Dick Tracy film and television rights in 1985 from Tribune Media Services . He then took the property to the Walt Disney Studios , who optioned the rights in 1988 . According to Beatty , in 2002 , Tribune attempted to reclaim the rights and notified Disney — but not through the process outlined in the 1985 agreement . Beatty , who commented he had " a very good idea " for a sequel , believed Tribune violated various notification procedures that " clouded the title " to the rights and made it " commercially impossible " for him to produce a sequel . He approached the Tribune in 2004 to settle the situation , but the company said they had met the conditions to get back the rights .
Disney , which had no intention of producing a sequel , rejected Tribune 's claim and gave Beatty back most of the rights in May 2005 . That same month , Beatty filed a lawsuit in the Los Angeles , California Superior Court seeking $ 30 million in damages against the Tribune and a declaration over the rights . Bertram Fields , Beatty 's lawyer , said the original 1985 agreement with the Tribune was negotiated specifically to allow Beatty a chance to make another Dick Tracy film . " It was very carefully done and they just ignored it , " he stated . " The Tribune is a big , powerful company and they think they can just run roughshod over people . They picked the wrong guy . "
The Tribune believed the situation would be settled quickly and was confident enough to begin developing a Dick Tracy live action television series with Lorenzo di Bonaventura , Robert Newmyer and Outlaw Productions . The TV show was to have a contemporary setting , comparable to Smallville , and Di Bonaventura commented that if the TV show was successful , a feature film would likely follow . However , an August 2005 ruling by federal judge Dean D. Pregerson cleared the way for Beatty to sue the Tribune . The April 2006 hearing ended without a ruling , but in July 2006 , a Los Angeles judge ruled that the case can go to trial ; Tribune 's request to end the suit in their favor was rejected . The legal battle between Beatty and the Tribune continued to ensue .
In 2008 , Beatty convinced cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki and film critic Leonard Maltin to make The Dick Tracy TV Special for Turner Classic Movies , which featured Beatty as Tracy having a retrospective interview with Maltin . Maltin explicitly asks the fictional Tracy if Warren Beatty is planning on making a sequel to the 1990 film and he responds that he 's heard about that but Maltin needs to ask Beatty himself . By March 2009 , Tribune was in Chapter 11 bankruptcy and lawyers for the company began to declare their ownership of television and film rights to Dick Tracy . " Mr. Beatty 's conduct and wrongful claims have effectively locked away certain motion picture and television rights to the Dick Tracy property , " lawyers for Tribune wrote in a filing . Fields responded that it was " a nuisance lawsuit by a bankrupt company and they should be ashamed of themselves . "
On March 25 , 2011 , U.S. District Court Judge Dean D. Pregerson granted Beatty 's request for a summary judgment and ruled in the actor 's favor . Judge Pregerson wrote in his order that " Beatty 's commencement of principal photography of his television special on November 8 , 2008 was sufficient for him to retain the Dick Tracy rights . "
In June 2011 , Beatty confirmed his intention to make a sequel to Dick Tracy , but he refused to discuss details . He said : " I 'm gonna make another one [ but ] I think it 's dumb talking about movies before you make them . I just don 't do it . It gives you the perfect excuse to avoid making them . " When asked when the sequel would get made , he replied : " I take so long to get around to making a movie that I don ’ t know when it starts . "
The lawsuit was resolved in Beatty 's favor , with a US District judge ruling that Beatty did everything contractually required of him to keep the rights to the character .
While there have not been any sequels in either television or motion picture form , there have been sequels in novel form . Shortly after the release of the 1990 film , Max Allan Collins wrote Dick Tracy Goes To War . The story is set after the opening of World War II and involves Dick Tracy 's enlistment into the U.S. Navy , working for their Military Intelligence Division ( as he did in the comic strip ) . In the story , Nazi saboteurs Black Pearl and Mrs. Pruneface ( Pruneface 's widow ) set up a sabotage / espionage operation out of Caprice 's old headquarters in the Club Ritz . For their activities , they recruit B.B. Eyes , The Mole , and Shakey . Their reign of terror , culminating in an attempt to bomb a weapons plant , is averted by Tracy . A year after " War " was released , Collins wrote a third novel entitled Dick Tracy Meets His Match , in which Dick Tracy finally follows through in his marriage proposal to Tess Trueheart .
In April 2016 , Beatty again mentioned the possibility of doing a sequel when he attended CinemaCon .
= = Popular culture = =
A Berts ytterligare betraktelser illustration shows a poster for the film , depicting Dick Tracy firing a machine gun , and the text " Warren Beatty Dick Tracy " appearing above , as Bert in mid @-@ October accidentally drops Nadja into the floor at the cinema lobby room .
= Rand Paul =
Randal Howard " Rand " Paul ( born January 7 , 1963 ) is an American politician and physician . Since 2011 , Paul has served in the United States Senate as a member of the Republican Party representing Kentucky . He is the son of former U.S. Representative Ron Paul of Texas .
Born in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Paul attended Baylor University and is a graduate of the Duke University School of Medicine . Paul began practicing ophthalmology in 1993 in Bowling Green , Kentucky , and established his own clinic in December 2007 . Throughout Paul 's life , he volunteered for his father 's campaigns . In 2010 , Paul entered politics by running for a seat in the United States Senate . Paul has described himself as a Constitutional conservative and a supporter of the Tea Party movement and has advocated for a balanced budget amendment , term limits , and privacy reform .
On April 7 , 2015 , Paul officially announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination at the 2016 U.S. presidential election . He suspended his campaign on February 3 , 2016 , shortly after the Iowa caucus .
= = Early life = =
Randal Howard Paul was born on January 7 , 1963 , in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , to Carol ( née Wells ) and Ron Paul , who is also a politician and physician . The elder Paul was a U.S. Representative from Texas and ran for President three times . The middle child of five , his siblings are Ronald " Ronnie " Paul Jr . , Lori Paul Pyeatt , Robert Paul , and Joy Paul @-@ LeBlanc . Paul was baptized in the Episcopal Church and identified as a practicing Christian as a teenager . Despite his father 's libertarian views and strong support for individual rights , the novelist Ayn Rand was not the inspiration for his first name . Growing up , he went by " Randy " , but his wife shortened it to " Rand . "
The Paul family moved to Lake Jackson , Texas , in 1968 , where he was raised and where his father began a medical practice and for an extent of time was the only obstetrician in Brazoria County . When he was 13 , his father was elected to the United States House of Representatives . That same year , Paul attended the 1976 Republican National Convention , where his father headed Ronald Reagan 's Texas delegation . The younger Paul often spent summer vacations interning in his father 's congressional office . In his teenage years , Paul studied the Austrian economists that his father respected , as well as the writings of Objectivist philosopher Ayn Rand . Paul went to Brazoswood High School and was on the swimming team and played defensive back on the football team . Paul attended Baylor University from fall 1981 to summer 1984 and was enrolled in the honors program . During the time he spent at Baylor , he was involved in the swim team and the Young Conservatives of Texas and was a member of a secret organization known as the NoZe Brotherhood . Paul also regularly contributed to The Baylor Lariat student newspaper . Paul dropped out of Baylor without completing his Bachelor 's degree in either biology or English , when he was accepted into his father 's alma mater , the Duke University School of Medicine . At the time , Duke did not require an undergraduate degree for admission to its graduate school . He earned an M.D. degree in 1988 and completed his residency in 1993 .
= = Medical career = =
After completing his residency in ophthalmology , Paul moved to Bowling Green , Kentucky . He has held a state @-@ issued medical license since moving there in 1993 . He received his first job from John Downing of Downing McPeak Vision Centers , which brought him to Bowling Green after completing his residency . Paul worked for Downing for about five years before parting ways . Afterwards , he went to work at the Graves Gilbert Clinic , a private medical group in Bowling Green , for 10 years before creating his own practice in a converted one @-@ story house across the street from Downing 's office . After his election to the U.S. Senate , he merged his practice with Downing 's medical practice . Paul has faced two malpractice lawsuits between 1993 and 2010 ; he was cleared in one case while the other was settled for $ 50 @,@ 000 . His medical work has been praised by Downing and he has medical privileges at two Bowling Green hospitals . Paul specializes in cataract and glaucoma surgeries , LASIK procedures , and corneal transplants . As a member of the Bowling Green Noon Lions Club , Paul founded the Southern Kentucky Lions Eye Clinic in 2009 to help provide eye surgery and exams for those who cannot afford to pay . Paul won the Melvin Jones Fellow Award for Dedicated Humanitarian Services from the Lions Club International Foundation for his work establishing the Southern Kentucky Lions Eye Clinic .
= = = National Board of Ophthalmology = = =
In 1995 , Paul passed the American Board of Ophthalmology ( ABO ) boards on his first attempt and earned board @-@ certification under the ABO for 10 years .
Prior to this , in 1992 , the ABO had changed their certification program , which had previously awarded lifetime certifications , instead requiring doctors to recertify every 10 years . Those who had already been given lifetime certification were allowed to keep it ( according to the ABO , they would not legally have been able to rescind these certifications ) . Shortly after this change , Paul began a campaign to protest it . This effort culminated in 1997 with him creating , " along with 200 other young ophthalmologists " , the National Board of Ophthalmology ( NBO ) to offer an alternative certification system , at a cost substantially lower than that of the ABO . Its certification exam , an open book take @-@ home test , was described by one taker as " probably harder " and " more clinically relevant " than the ABO 's exam .
Named board members were Paul , his wife , and his father @-@ in @-@ law . The NBO was never itself accepted as an accrediting entity by organizations such as the American Board of Medical Specialities , and its certification was considered invalid by many hospitals and insurance companies . Paul let his own ABO certification lapse in 2005 , which did not affect his practice in Kentucky , since the state does not require board certification .
By Paul 's estimate , about 50 or 60 doctors were certified by the NBO . The NBO was incorporated in 1999 , but Paul allowed it to be dissolved in 2000 when he did not file the required paperwork with the Kentucky Secretary of State 's office . He later recreated the board in 2005 , but it was again dissolved in 2011 .
= = Political activism = =
Paul served as the head of the local chapter of the Young Conservatives of Texas during his time at Baylor University . In 1984 , Paul took a semester off to aid his father 's primary challenge to Republican Senator Phil Gramm . While attending Duke Medical School , Paul volunteered for his father 's 1988 Libertarian presidential campaign . In response to President Bush breaking his election promise to not raise taxes , Paul founded the North Carolina Taxpayers Union in 1991 . In 1994 , Paul founded the anti @-@ tax organization Kentucky Taxpayers United ( KTU ) , serving as chair of the organization from its inception . He has often cited his involvement with KTU as the foundation of his involvement with state politics . Described as " ideological and conservative " by the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , the group considered itself nonpartisan , examining Kentucky legislators ' records on taxation and spending and encouraging politicians to publicly pledge to vote uniformly against tax increases . Paul managed his father 's successful 1996 Congressional campaign , in which the elder Paul returned to the House after a twelve @-@ year absence . The elder Paul defeated incumbent Democrat @-@ turned @-@ Republican Greg Laughlin in the Republican primary , despite Laughlin 's support from the NRCC and Republican leaders such as Newt Gingrich and George W. Bush .
The Wall Street Journal reported in 2010 that although Paul had told a Kentucky television audience as recently as September 2009 that KTU published ratings each year on state legislators ' tax positions and that " we 've done that for about 15 years " , the group had stopped issuing its ratings and report cards after 2002 and had been legally dissolved by the state in 2000 after failing to file registration documents .
Paul spoke on his father 's behalf when his father was campaigning for office , including throughout the elder Paul 's run in the 2008 presidential election , during which Rand campaigned door @-@ to @-@ door in New Hampshire and spoke in Boston at a fundraising rally for his father on the 234th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party .
In February 2014 , Paul joined the Tea Party @-@ affiliated conservative advocacy group FreedomWorks in filing a class @-@ action lawsuit charging that the federal government 's bulk collection of Americans ' phone records metadata is a violation of the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution . Commenting on the lawsuit at a press conference , Paul said , " I 'm not against the NSA , I 'm not against spying , I 'm not against looking at phone records .... I just want you to go to a judge , have an individual 's name and [ get ] a warrant . That 's what the Fourth Amendment says . " He also said there was no evidence the surveillance of phone metadata had stopped terrorism . Critics , including Harvard University law professor Alan Dershowitz and Steven Aftergood , the director of the American Scientists ' Project on Government Secrecy , called the lawsuit a political " stunt " . Paul 's political campaign organization said that the names of members of the public who went to Paul 's websites and signed on as potential class @-@ action participants would be available in the organization 's database for future campaign use . On the announcement of the filing of the lawsuit , Mattie Fein , the spokeswoman for and former wife of attorney Bruce Fein , complained that Fein 's intellectual contribution to the lawsuit had been stolen and that he had not been properly paid for his work . Paul 's representatives denied the charge , and Fein issued a statement saying that Mattie Fein had not been authorized to speak for him on the matter and that he had in fact been paid for his work on the lawsuit .
Paul is co @-@ author of a book entitled The Tea Party Goes to Washington ( 2011 ) and also the author of Government Bullies : How Everyday Americans Are Being Harassed , Abused , and Imprisoned by the Feds ( 2012 ) . Paul was included in Time magazine 's world 's 100 most influential people , for 2013 and 2014 .
= = Election to U.S. Senate = =
= = = Primary campaign = = =
At the beginning of 2009 , there was movement by political supporters of his father to draft Paul in a bid to replace beleaguered Republican Kentucky senator Jim Bunning . Paul 's potential candidacy was discussed in the Los Angeles Times and locally in the Kentucky press . Paul 's father said , " Should Senator Bunning decide not to run , I think Rand would make a great U.S. Senator . " On April 15 , 2009 , Paul gave his first political speech as a potential candidate at a Tea Party rally held in his town of Bowling Green , Kentucky , where more than 700 people had gathered in support of the Tea Party movement .
On May 1 , 2009 , Paul said that if Bunning , whose fundraising in 2009 matched his poor numbers in opinion polling for the 2010 election , declined to seek a third term , he would almost certainly run in the Republican Party primary to succeed him , and formed an exploratory committee soon after , while still promising to stay out of the race if Bunning ultimately decided to run for reelection . Paul made this announcement on MSNBC 's The Rachel Maddow Show , though a Kentucky news site first broke the news .
On July 28 , 2009 , Bunning announced that he would not run for reelection in the face of insufficient fundraising . The announcement left only Paul and Secretary of State Trey Grayson as the remaining candidates for the Republican nomination , with Paul announcing on August 5 , 2009 , that he would officially run for the U.S. Senate as a Republican . The announcement was made through a series of national TV events , radio , and other programs , as well as newspapers in Kentucky .
On August 20 , 2009 , Paul 's supporters planned a moneybomb to kick off his campaign . The official campaign took in $ 433 @,@ 509 in 24 hours . His website reported that this set a new record in Kentucky 's political fundraising history in a 24 @-@ hour period . A second " moneybomb " was held on September 23 , 2009 , to counter a D.C. fundraiser being held for primary opponent Trey Grayson , by 23 Republican United States Senators . The theme was a UFC " fight " between " We the People " and the " D.C. Insiders " . Later in the campaign , Paul claimed his pledge to not take money from lobbyists and Senators who had voted for the bailout was only a " primary pledge " ; he subsequently held a DC fundraiser with the same Senators who had been the target of the September 23 , 2009 , " moneybomb " . Paul ended up raising some $ 3 million during the primary period . Paul 's fundraising was aided by his father 's network of supporters .
Although Grayson was considered the frontrunner in July 2009 , Paul found success characterizing Grayson as a " career politician " and challenging Grayson 's conservatism . Paul ran an ad in February that made an issue out of Grayson 's September 2008 admission that he voted for Bill Clinton when he was 20 years old . James Dobson , a Christian evangelical figure , endorsed Grayson on April 26 based on the advice of what Dobson described as " senior members of the GOP " , but on May 3 the Paul campaign announced that Dobson had changed his endorsement to Paul after Paul and some Paul supporters had lobbied Dobson insisting on Paul 's social conservative bona fides .
On May 18 , Paul won the Republican Senatorial primary by a 23 % margin , meaning he would face the Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway , in the November 2 general election .
= = = General campaign = = =
In the 2010 general election , Paul faced Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway . The campaign attracted $ 8 @.@ 5 million in contributions from outside groups , of which $ 6 million was spent to help Paul and $ 2 @.@ 5 million to help Conway . This money influx was in addition to the money spent by the candidates themselves : $ 6 million by Paul and $ 4 @.@ 7 million by Conway . On June 28 , 2010 , Paul supporters held their first post @-@ primary online fundraising drive , this time promoted as a " money blast " .
Paul 's campaign got off to a rough start after his comments on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stirred controversy . Paul stated that he favored 9 out of 10 titles of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , but that had he been a senator during the 1960s , he would have raised some questions on the constitutionality of Title II of the Act . Paul said that he abhors racism , and that he would have marched with Martin Luther King Jr. to repeal Jim Crow Laws . He later released a statement declaring that he would have voted for the Act and stated " unequivocally ... that I will not support any efforts to repeal the Civil Rights Act of 1964 " . Later he generated more controversy by characterizing statements made by Obama Administration officials regarding the BP oil spill cleanup as sounding " un @-@ American " .
Paul defeated Conway in the general election with 56 % of the vote to 44 % for Conway .
= = U.S. Senate career = =
= = = 112th Congress ( 2011 – 13 ) = = =
Paul was sworn in on January 5 , 2011 , along with his father , who simultaneously served in the House of Representatives .
Paul was assigned to serve on the Energy and Natural Resources , Health , Education , Labor and Pensions , Homeland Security and Government Affairs , and Small Business committees . Paul also formed the Senate Tea Party Caucus with Jim DeMint and Mike Lee as its inaugural members . His first legislative proposal was to cut $ 500 billion from federal spending in one year . This proposal included cutting the Department of Education by 83 percent and the Department of Homeland Security by 43 percent , as well as folding the Department of Energy into the Department of Defense and eliminating the Department of Housing and Urban Development . Seven independent agencies would be eliminated and food stamps would be cut by 30 percent . Under Paul 's proposal , defense spending would be reduced by 6 @.@ 5 percent and international aid would be eliminated . He later proposed a five @-@ year budget plan intended to balance the budget .
In February , Paul was one of two Republicans to vote against extending three key provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act ( roving wiretaps , searches of business records , and conducting surveillance of " lone wolves " — individuals not linked to terrorist groups ) .
On March 2 , Paul was one of nine senators to vote against a stopgap bill that cut $ 4 billion from the budget and temporarily prevent a government shutdown , saying that it did not cut enough from the budget . One week later , he voted against the Democratic and Republican budget proposals to keep funding the federal government , saying that both bills did not cut enough spending . Both bills failed to pass the Senate . He later voted against stopgap measures on March 17 and April 8 , both of which passed the senate . On April 14 , He was one of 19 senators to vote against a budget that cut $ 38 @.@ 5 billion from the budget and fund the government for the remainder of the fiscal year . Paul voiced opposition to U.S. intervention in the Libyan civil war and has criticized President Obama for not gaining congressional consent for Operation Odyssey Dawn . During the debt ceiling crisis , the Senator stated that he would only support raising the debt ceiling if a balanced budget amendment was enacted . Paul was a supporter of the Cut , Cap and Balance Act , which was tabled by Democratic opposition . On August 3 , Paul voted against a bill that would raise the debt ceiling .
On September 7 , Paul called for a vote of no confidence in U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner . Later that month , Paul blocked legislation that would strengthen safety rules for oil and gas pipelines because he stated the bill was not strong enough . In October , Paul blocked a bill that would provide $ 36 million in benefits for elderly and disabled refugees , saying that he was concerned that it could be used to aid domestic terrorists . This was in response to two alleged terrorists who came to the United States through a refugee program and were receiving welfare benefits when they were arrested in 2011 in Paul 's hometown of Bowling Green . Paul lifted his hold on the bill after Democratic leaders promised to hold a Congressional hearing into how individuals are selected for refugee status and request an investigation on how the two suspects were admitted in the country through a refugee program . In June 2012 , Paul endorsed Mitt Romney after it became apparent that he would be the Republican nominee for the 2012 presidential election . However , he was later vocal about his disagreements with Romney on a number of policies .
= = = 113th Congress ( 2013 – 15 ) = = =
For the 113th Congress , Paul was added to the Foreign Relations committee and retained his spot on the Health , Education , Labor and Pensions , Homeland Security and Government Affairs , and Small Business committees .
On March 6 – 7 , 2013 , Paul engaged in a filibuster to delay voting on the nomination of John O. Brennan as the Director of the CIA . Paul questioned the Obama administration 's use of drones and the stated legal justification for their potential use within the United States . Paul held the floor for 12 hours and 52 minutes . He ceded to several Republican senators and Democratic senator , Ron Wyden , who generally also questioned drone usage . Paul said his purpose was to challenge drone policy in general and specifically as it related to noncombatants on U.S. soil . He requested a pledge from the Administration that noncombatants would not be targeted on U.S. soil . Attorney General Eric Holder responded that the President is not authorized to deploy extrajudicial punishment without due process , against non @-@ combatant citizens . Paul answered that he was " quite happy " with the response . The filibuster was ended with a cloture vote of 81 to 16 , and Brennan was confirmed by the Senate with a vote of 63 to 34 .
In March 2013 , Paul , with Senators Ted Cruz and Mike Lee , threatened another filibuster , this one opposing any legislative proposals to expand federal gun control measures . The filibuster was attempted on April 11 , 2013 , but was dismissed by cloture , in a 68 – 31 vote . Also in March 2013 , Paul endorsed fellow Kentucky Republican Senator Mitch McConnell 's 2014 re @-@ election campaign . McConnell had previously hired Paul 's 2010 campaign manager , Jesse Benton , as his own campaign manager . Paul 's endorsement was seen as a major win for McConnell in avoiding a challenge in the Republican primary .
In response to Detroit 's declaration of bankruptcy , Paul stated he would not allow the government to attempt to bail out Detroit . In a phone interview with Breitbart.com on July 19 , 2013 , Paul said , " I basically say he is bailing them out over my dead body because we don 't have any money in Washington . " Paul said he thought a federal bailout would send the wrong message to other cities with financial problems .
In September , Paul stated that the United States should avoid military intervention in the ongoing Syrian civil war . In an op @-@ ed , Paul disputed the Obama administration 's claims that the threat of military force caused Syria 's government to consider turning over its chemical weapons , instead arguing that the opposition to military action in Syria , and the delay that it caused , led to diplomatic progress .
In October 2013 , Paul was the subject of some controversy when it was discovered that he had plagiarized from Wikipedia part of a speech in support of Virginia gubernatorial candidate Ken Cuccinelli . Referencing the movie Gattaca , Paul quoted almost verbatim from the Wikipedia article about the film without citing the source . Evidence soon surfaced that Paul had copied sentences in a number of his other speeches nearly verbatim from other authors without giving credit to the original sources , including in the speech he had given as the Tea Party rebuttal to the president 's 2013 State of the Union address . In addition , a three @-@ page @-@ long passage of Paul 's book Government Bullies was taken directly from an article by the conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation . When it became apparent that Paul 's Washington Times op @-@ ed on mandatory minimums and related testimony he had given before the Senate Judiciary Committee both contained material that was virtually identical to an article that had been published by another author in The Week a few days earlier , the Washington Times said that the newspaper would no longer publish the weekly column Paul had been contributing to the paper . After a week of almost daily news reports of new allegations of plagiarism , Paul said that he was being held to an " unfair standard " , but would restructure his office in order to prevent mistakes in the future , if that would be what it would take " to make people leave me the hell alone . "
In response to political turmoil in Ukraine in early 2014 , Paul initially said that the US should remain mindful of the fact that although the Cold War is over , Russia remains a military power with long @-@ range nuclear missiles . He said that the US should try to maintain a " respectful relationship with Russia " and avoid taking actions that the Russians might view as a provocation , such as seeking to have Ukraine join NATO or otherwise interfering in Russia 's relationship with Ukraine . Two weeks later , after the Russian parliament authorized the use of military force in Ukraine and Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered military exercises along Russia 's border with Ukraine , Paul began taking a different tone . He wrote : " Vladimir Putin 's invasion of Ukraine is a gross violation of that nation 's sovereignty and an affront to the international community .... Putin must be punished for violating the Budapest Memorandum , and Russia must learn that the U.S. will isolate it if it insists on acting like a rogue nation . " He said that the US and European allies could retaliate against Russia 's military aggression without any need for military action . He urged that the US impose economic sanctions on Russia and resume an effort to build defensive anti @-@ missile installations in Poland and the Czech Republic . He also called for the US to take steps as a counterweight to Russia 's strategic influence on Europe 's oil and gas supply , such as lifting restrictions on new exploration and drilling for fossil fuels in the United States along with immediate approval of the controversial Keystone Pipeline , which he said would allow the US to ship more oil and gas to Europe if Russia attempts to cut off its own supply to Europe .
Paul played a leading role in blocking a treaty with Switzerland that would enable the IRS to conduct tax evasion probes , arguing that the treaty would infringe upon Americans ' privacy . Paul received the 2014 Distinguished Service Award from the Center for the National Interest ( formally called the Nixon Center ) for his public policy work .
In response to reports that the CIA infiltrated the computers of the Senate Intelligence Committee , Paul called for the firing of CIA Director John O. Brennan . In December 2014 , Paul supported the actions to change the US policy towards Cuba and trade with that country taken by the Obama administration .
= = = 114th Congress ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In the beginning of 2015 , Senator Paul re @-@ introduced the Federal Reserve Transparency Act . Senator Paul also introduced the FAIR Act , or Fifth Amendment Integrity Restoration Act , which would restrict civil forfeiture proceedings .
On May 20 , 2015 , Paul spoke for ten and a half hours in opposition to the reauthorization of Section 215 of the Patriot Act . Sections of the Patriot Act were prevented from being reauthorized on June 1 .
After the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016 , on February 15 , Paul indicated that he would oppose any nomination by President Obama to replace the late Supreme Court Justice .
During a press briefing on May 6 , 2016 , President Obama called on Paul to stop " blocking the implementation of tax treaties that have been pending for years " , arguing that they assisted law enforcement in off shore investigations into tax evasion .
On June 6 , Paul spoke of introducing legislation to cease Selective Service , three days after the passing of Muhammed Ali , who he intended to name the legislation after in tribute .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Current
Committee on Foreign Relations ( starting 2013 )
United States Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on International Operations and Organizations , Human Rights , Democracy and Global Women 's Issues ( Chairman )
United States Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on African Affairs
United States Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on International Development and Foreign Assistance , Economic Affairs and International Environmental Protection , and Peace Corps
United States Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere and Global Narcotics Affairs
Committee on Health , Education , Labor , and Pensions ( starting 2011 )
United States Senate Health Subcommittee on Children and Families
United States Senate Health Subcommittee on Employment and Workplace Safety
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs ( starting 2011 )
United States Senate Homeland Security Subcommittee on Emergency Management , Intergovernmental Relations , and the District of Columbia ( Chairman )
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
United States Senate Homeland Security Subcommittee on the Efficiency and Effectiveness of Federal Programs and the Federal Workforce
Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship ( starting 2011 )
Previous
Committee on Energy and Natural Resources ( 2011 – 13 )
= = 2016 presidential campaign = =
= = = Background = = =
Paul was considered a potential candidate for the Republican nomination for the Presidency of the United States since at least January 2013 . He delivered the Tea Party response to President Barack Obama 's State of the Union address on February 13 , 2013 , while Marco Rubio gave the official Republican response . This prompted some pundits to call that date the start of the 2016 Republican primaries . That year , he spoke at the Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington D.C. , where he won the 2016 Presidential straw poll . Paul went on to win the straw poll for the next two years as well , leading to some considering Paul to be a front runner for the nomination , although CPAC attendees are typically considered younger and more libertarian @-@ minded than average Republican voters .
In a speech at the GOP Freedom Summit in April 2014 , Paul insisted that the GOP has to broaden its appeal in order to grow as a party . To do so , he said it cannot be the party of " fat cats , rich people and Wall Street " and that the conservative movement has never been about rich people or privilege , " we are the middle class " , he said . Paul also said that conservatives must present a message of justice and concern for the unemployed and be against government surveillance to attract new people to the movement , including the young , Hispanics , and blacks During the 2014 election , Paul launched a social media campaign titled " Hillary 's Losers " which was meant to highlight many of the Democratic candidates that lost their bids for the U.S. Senate despite endorsements from Hillary Clinton . Clinton is also a candidate for President and is considered a front runner for the Democratic Party 's nomination .
Paul began to assemble his campaign team , setting up campaign offices and hiring his campaign manager in the beginning of 2015 , fueling speculation that he was preparing to enter the Presidential race . In February 2015 , Paul said he would make an announcement about whether or not he would be running in late March or early April .
Paul officially announced his presidential candidacy on April 7 , 2015 . Within a day of his announcement , Paul raised $ 1 million .
= = = Senate reelection = = =
In April 2011 , Paul filed to run for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 2016 . Had he become the Republican presidential ( or vice @-@ presidential ) nominee , state law would prohibit him from simultaneously running for re @-@ election . In March 2014 , the Republican @-@ controlled Kentucky Senate passed a bill that would allow Paul to run for both offices , but the Democratic @-@ controlled Kentucky House of Representatives declined to take it up . Paul spent his own campaign money in the 2014 legislative elections , helping Republican candidates for the State House in the hopes of flipping the chamber , thus allowing the legislature to pass the bill ( Democratic Governor Steve Beshear 's veto can be overridden with a simple majority ) . However , the Democrats retained their 54 – 46 majority in the State House . Paul has since given his support to the idea that the Kentucky Republican Party could decide to hold a caucus rather than a primary , potentially giving Paul more time to decide whether he should run for U.S. Senator or continue a potential bid for President .
= = = Suspension = = =
Paul announced the suspension of his presidential campaign on February 3 , 2016 , shortly after the Iowa caucus .
= = Political positions = =
A supporter of the Tea Party movement , Paul has described himself as a " constitutional conservative " . He is generally described as a libertarian , a term he both embraced and rejected during his first Senate campaign . He supports term limits , a balanced budget amendment , and the Read the Bills Act , in addition to the widespread reduction of federal spending and taxation . He favors a flat tax rate of 14 @.@ 5 % for individuals and business , while eliminating the FICA payroll taxes , as well as taxes on inheritance , gifts , capital gains , dividends , and interest .
On social issues , Paul describes himself as " 100 % pro life " , believing that legal personhood begins at fertilization . In 2009 , his position was to ban abortion under all circumstances . Since 2010 , he has said he would allow for a doctor 's discretion in life @-@ threatening cases such as ectopic pregnancies . Concerning same @-@ sex marriage , Paul has made a distinction between his personal beliefs and how he feels the government should handle it . He has stated that he personally feels same @-@ sex marriage " offends [ himself ] and a lot of people " , and said there is a " crisis that allows people to think there would be some other sorts of marriage . " However , he believes the issue should be left to the states to decide , and would not support a federal ban .
Concerning drugs , Paul has criticized mandatory minimums that he believes have led to unreasonably harsh sentences for repeat offenders . He has highlighted the case of Timothy L. Tyler as particularly unfair . Paul does not believe in legalizing the recreational use of drugs like marijuana and cocaine , but does not support jailing marijuana users . He supports state laws to legalize the use of marijuana for medical purposes . Paul was one of three U.S. senators in 2015 to introduce a bipartisan bill , CARERS , that would legalize medical marijuana under federal law .
Paul opposes all forms of gun control as a violation of Second Amendment rights , including provisions of the Patriot Act . His advocacy of personal property rights includes introducing House Bill S. 890 , the Defense of Environment and Property Act of 2012 . Provisions of the bill include restricting the ability of the Environmental Protection Agency and other Federal agencies to " impinge upon states ' power over land and water use . " The bill holds requires Federal agencies to reimburse private property owners double the amount of any economic losses arising from new Federal regulations " that relate to the definition of navigable waters or waters of the United States " , and holds the enforcement of any such regulation in abeyance until such payments are complete .
Unlike his more stridently " non @-@ interventionist " father , Paul concedes a role for American armed forces abroad , including permanent foreign military bases . He has said that he blames supporters of the Iraq War and not President Obama for the growth in violence that occurred in 2014 , and that the Iraq War " emboldened " Iran . Dick Cheney , John McCain and Rick Perry have responded by calling Paul an isolationist , but Paul has pointed to opinion polls of likely GOP primary voters as support for his position . Paul also stated : " I personally believe that this group [ ISIS ] would not be in Iraq and would not be as powerful had we not been supplying their allies in the war [ against Syrian Bashar al @-@ Assad 's government ] . " Paul then supported airstrikes against ISIS , but questioned the constitutionality of Obama 's unilateral actions without a clear congressional mandate . Paul has stated concerns about arms sent to Syrian rebels that wind up in unfriendly hands . In 2015 , Paul called for a defense budget of $ 697 billion in 2016 . In 2011 , shortly after being elected , he proposed a budget which specified $ 542 billion in defense spending .
On February 2 , 2015 , Paul generated controversy by suggesting that states should not require parents to vaccinate their children because parents should have the freedom to make that decision for their children . In an interview with CNBC on February 2 , Paul clarified this statement , commenting " I 'm not arguing vaccines are a bad idea . I think they are a good thing . But I think the parent should have some input . The state doesn 't own your children . Parents own the children , and it is an issue of freedom . " On February 3 , he posted a photograph to Twitter of himself being vaccinated .
= = Personal life = =
Paul is married to Kelley Paul ( née Ashby ) , a freelance writer . They and their three sons reside in Bowling Green , Kentucky .
= = Electoral history = =
= Pretty Girl Rock =
" Pretty Girl Rock " is a song by American R & B recording artist Keri Hilson , taken from her second studio album , No Boys Allowed ( 2010 ) . It was released as the lead single internationally and was the second single from that album released in the United States . The song was written by Bill Withers , Ralph MacDonald , William Salter , Ne @-@ Yo and Chuck Harmony , who also handled its production . " Pretty Girl Rock " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and pop song that features a slinky piano and bouncy R & B beats . The lyrics deliver messages of self @-@ love and female empowerment .
Critical reception towards the song was mixed to positive . Music critics noted it as the standout track on the album , and praised its catchy production . However , critics were of disparate opinions on the song 's lyrics . In the United States , " Pretty Girl Rock " peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and at number four on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies . Internationally , the song reached the top 20 in Germany and New Zealand , and the top 30 in Austria and Slovakia .
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn and features Hilson portraying an array of American female icons of the past , including Josephine Baker , Dorothy Dandridge , Dream Girls , Diana Ross , Donna Summer , Janet Jackson and T @-@ Boz of the R & B girl group TLC . The video received positive response from critics and was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2011 BET Awards , and Best Dance Performance at the 2011 Soul Train Music Awards . Hilson promoted the song through live performances on various televised shows , including The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Germany 's Next Topmodel , as well as in live concerts such as , the VH1 Divas Salute the Troops and the 84th Annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . R & B girl group RichGirl and American rapper Lil ' Kim have released their own remixes to " Pretty Girl Rock " , and American rock band Parachute have covered the song .
= = Background and release = =
" Pretty Girl Rock " ( titled " Pretty Girls " during production ) was written by Bill Withers , Ralph MacDonald , William Salter , Ne @-@ Yo and Chuck Harmony , who also produced the track . It was recorded in 2010 at Westlake Recording Studios and Vanilla Sky Studios in Los Angeles , California .
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a few minor differences in the control scheme , and they begin with all of their mobility upgrades , which allows the player to explore the castle freely from the beginning . ' Richter ' is also misspelled as Richiter within dialogue boxes in the main game . In Old Axe Armor mode , the player controls the Old Axe Armor enemy . Because there is only one character , the player is unable to switch characters as in the other modes . The character also lacks any magic spells and has only two sub @-@ weapons .
Boss Rush Mode is separate from the main game ; essentially , it is a time attack mode . There are three separate stages to choose from , though initially only one is available . The other two become available after obtaining the true ending of the game . Each stage is a series of rooms that the player traverses from left to right . Within each room is a boss or collection of monsters from the game . Depending on how quickly a player completes each stage , they will be rewarded with special items which can be added to the inventory of the normal game . This mode also features a wireless , cooperative two player option .
= = = Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi = = =
Portrait of Ruin is the first game in the Castlevania franchise with cooperative multiplayer . However , this is the second multiplayer Castlevania game ; Dawn of Sorrow , also for the DS , was the first to have a multiplayer mode . Players can interact through either the Co @-@ op mode or a Shop mode . Both modes can connect by local wireless or Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi . The online cooperative mode allows two players to complete Boss Rushes together . The character used in this mode can be chosen at the beginning and is selected from a list of characters that is unlocked through the standard gameplay . The Co @-@ op mode is initially limited to one boss @-@ run challenge , but after a file is beaten , two more challenges become available . The online Shop mode allows players to sell their items to other player . When another player buys the item , the selling player gains the money , but doesn 't lose the item .
= = Plot and setting = =
Portrait of Ruin takes place in the fictional universe of the Castlevania series . The series ' premise is the conflict between the vampire hunters of the Belmont clan and the immortal vampire Dracula . The story occurs in Dracula 's castle and is set in 1944 Europe during World War II . In addition to the castle , the main characters explore various different paintings that have been constructed by Brauner , a villain . The paintings act as portals to new areas and feature a distinct look that is different from the main castle .
= = = Characters = = =
Portrait of Ruin introduces new characters to the Castlevania series . The main protagonists are Jonathan Morris and Charlotte Aulin . Jonathan is the current wielder of the legendary whip , " Vampire Killer " , which was passed down to him by his father , John Morris from Castlevania : Bloodlines . As he is not a direct descendant of the Belmont clan , he is unable to unlock the Vampire Killer 's full power without the assistance of a member of the Lecarde family . Charlotte is a mage and distant descendant of the Belnades clan . The game features the same antagonists as previous Castlevania titles and introduces three new ones . The main villain is Dracula and serves as the game 's final boss . Despite his previous incarnations in the timeline , such as Symphony of the Night , Dracula has short , black hair and no facial hair .
The new antagonists are three vampires that have taken control of Dracula 's castle . Leading them is Brauner , an elderly vampire based on the real life artist Victor Brauner from the same time period . Brauner recreated Dracula 's castle using the souls of the dead from World War II in order to draw power from the castle . He plans to use that power to destroy humanity . He disdains humanity , because his two real daughters had been killed 30 years prior during World War I. Brauner is able to construct paintings that contain pocket dimensions in order to harness the castle 's power for his own purposes . He is joined by vampire sisters , Stella and Loretta . Although the two are vampires , they are actually Eric Lecarde 's daughters . After being turned into vampires by Brauner , the sisters believe Brauner is their father . In the bad ending Brauner gives up and escapes from the castle in order to save the life of their two adopted daughters .
Assisting the two main characters are a priest named Vincent Dorin and a ghost that introduces himself as " Wind " . Vincent acts as a merchant to the two characters and sells weapons , potions and skills . Wind provides Jonathan and Charlotte new skills and equipment that once belonged to him if they perform certain tasks called " quests " . Wind 's identity is eventually revealed to be Eric Lecarde , who once fought alongside Jonathan 's father to slay Dracula in Bloodlines , and that Eric is Stella and Loretta 's true father .
= = = Story = = =
Prior to the start of the game , the two sisters , Stella and Loretta travel to Dracula 's castle in search of their father , Eric Lecarde . After traversing through the castle , the two arrive at Brauner 's lair where they find their father defeated . Seeing the two sisters , Brauner grabs them and turns them into vampires . At the beginning of the game , Jonathan and Charlotte encounter Vincent at the gates of the castle , who serves as a merchant . Upon entering the castle , Jonathan and Charlotte encounter an enigmatic blue figure that they first identify as hostile . After the figure transforms into a humanoid male , he explains that he was killed a short time ago and had cast a magical barrier to keep himself conscious while still within the confines of the castle . He introduces himself as " Wind " .
Shortly after meeting Wind , Jonathan and Charlotte find one of Brauner 's magical portraits . Unable to destroy it from outside , the two travel into the world within . Soon , they find Brauner 's channeler , a Dullahan . Shortly after its defeat , one of the vampire sisters appears and disdains their efforts , saying their control is lessened in only a minor degree . Later , when entering the second portrait , they find Brauner and the two twins ; Brauner laughs at the notion of reviving Dracula , as he has failed too many times to control humanity , but concedes his power is too great to ignore . Both sisters desire to kill the two humans , but Brauner sees Dracula 's servant Death as a greater threat , as he could wrest control from him far more easily than them . While exploring the castle , Charlotte and Jonathan encounter Death , who acts as if Dracula were already revived . When informed Dracula is still dead , and that another vampire is controlling the castle , he scoffs at the idea of a hand other than Dracula 's to rule Castlevania . Yet , he is gravely disturbed when he sees the statements are true , and promptly leaves to seek a way to destroy Brauner and revive Dracula .
Jonathan and Charlotte encounter Stella at the base of the Tower of Death , and after being promptly defeated , she loses her locket as she flees with her sister . Opening the locket , Charlotte finds a photo of the twins with Wind , and both decide to question him . Wind confesses his true name , Eric Lecarde , and that the twins are his children . Later , Jonathan and Charlotte confront Death , who wants to disassociate himself from Brauner and has no desire to fight . Nevertheless , he engages them but is defeated and flees . When Jonathan and Charlotte reach the towering spire of the Master 's Keep , they find the Dracula 's throne room sealed off , and conclude that Brauner is delaying Dracula 's revival to siphon his power .
After searching the castle , Jonathan and Charlotte obtain the Sanctuary spell , a magical attack that dispels curses and allows the dead to rest in peace . During the battle with the twins , the sisters are cured of their vampirism by Charlotte 's spell . This allows them to regain their sanity , and they subsequently offer to perform a ritual that allows Jonathan to utilize the Vampire Killer whip 's full power . After Jonathan passes the test and defeats the Memory of the Whip , an entity bearing the likeness of Richter Belmont , he is warned against overusing it , as the Vampire Killer drains life force of a non @-@ Belmont wielding the full power , eventually killing the user as it did Jonathan 's father . After the twins are defeated , they open a passage leading to a massive storeroom that contains a portrait leading to Brauner 's studio . The two confront Brauner and defeat him . When confronted about his acts , he admits justice wasn 't on his side , but refuses to acknowledge it was on the heroes ' . Death suddenly hovers from above , and kills Brauner with one swing of his scythe . This act destroys the painting sealing the Throne Room , and Jonathan and Charlotte then go to battle with Dracula .
Before they can engage Dracula , Death enters the room and sides with his master , and together they attack the heroes . During the course of the battle , Death and Dracula merge into a more powerful form , but they are eventually defeated by Jonathan and Charlotte . When destroyed , everyone flees the castle , and sees from the distance as the walls collapse . Later , the twins , Jonathan and Charlotte are visited in the fields outside the castle by Eric 's ghost , who gives some advice to the twins and thanks Charlotte and Jonathan for destroying the curse before his spirit finally fades from existence . As the four of them leave , they end up forgetting about Vincent , who is comically trying to get their attention as he chases after them .
= = Development = =
NCL first announced a new Castlevania for the DS on October 5 , 2005 . Details of the game were not released until April 21 , 2006 , when Konami revealed the game 's title and its World War II setting . On May 9 , 2006 , the official trailer was shown at Konami 's official press conference . The trailer showcased the smooth player switching and combinations of Jonathan and Charolette 's abilities . In an interview with producer Koji Igarashi in June 2006 , it was revealed the game would try to utilize the touch screen better than Dawn of Sorrow . He also mentioned he was thinking of incorporating cooperative game play in an unlockable stage via WiFi . More information concerning online game play were released a month later at Comic @-@ Con 2006 , but details on how it would be implemented were still unconfirmed . At the 2006 Tokyo Game Show , Igarashi confirmed details about the WiFi modes and stated Portrait of Ruin would have a cooperative time attack and an online shop mode .
Because of Nintendo 's solid infrastructure for the DS , Igarashi wanted to try the online components , and test for possible online game play , in future Castlevania titles . Igarashi commented the two player game play was homage to Castlevania III : Dracula 's Curse , his favorite Castlevania game . The anime style of artwork was retained from Dawn of Sorrow , which Igarashi had switched to in the previous title to appeal more to the younger demographics of the Nintendo handheld systems . Portrait of Ruin 's development cycle took roughly the same amount of time as Dawn of Sorrow did . Koji Igarashi stated that the schedule became tight due to Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi difficulties , considering it was their first online enabled game .
= = = Audio = = =
Portrait of Ruin featured English voice @-@ overs for portions of the game . The original Japanese dialog was also included as an easter egg . Michiru Yamane returned to compose the music , with additional songs by Yuzo Koshiro . IGN noted that the style of the music tracks ranged from " hauntingly morose to almost jovially up @-@ tempo " . The audio tracks are also accessible via a " Sound Mode " that is unlocked by defeating Dracula . The player can also collect records of certain tracks that can be used to replace the game 's default background music . The songs " Sandfall " and " In Search of the Secret Spell " that play in the Forgotten City level are originally from Konami 's own King 's Valley 2 released on the MSX2 computer .
= = Merchandise = =
There were several pieces of Castlevania : Portrait of Ruin merchandise released along with the game . Strategy guides were released , both in Japan and North America . In Japan , Konami released an official strategy guide . In North America , the official strategy guide was released by BradyGames and featured a complete walkthrough , maps , and item lists . The most notable merchandise was the " 20th Anniversary Pre @-@ order Bundle " . In celebration of their 20th anniversary of the series , anyone that pre @-@ ordered Portrait of Ruin at any popular game outlet , received a free bundle , along with the game . The bundle includes a variety of Castlevania products contained in cardboard sleeve with a plastic Seal of the Castlevania logo . The products include : a soundtrack CD containing songs from the Castlevania series , a timeline poster covering many of the significant characters and events of Castlevania history , a 48 @-@ page art book containing artwork from the entire series , a clear / white game case designed to hold both Castlevania : Dawn of Sorrow and Castlevania : Portrait of Ruin , and an extendable stylus .
= = Reception = =
Portrait of Ruin has met with overall positive reviews and received various awards . Game Informer awarded it " Handheld Game of the Month " for January 2007 , and listed it as one of the " Top 50 Games of 2006 " . Portrait of Ruin also won " Best Original Score " and was runner @-@ up for " Best Adventure Game " in IGN 's Best of 2006 . Dracula was listed as the third top villain of 2006 by Game Informer , citing the final boss fight in Portrait of Ruin as the reason . 1UP.com listed it as the " Best DS Game " in their " Best of E3 2006 " feature . The audio was well received . GameSpot called the music " excellent " and rated the sound a 9 out of 10 . Yahoo ! Games rated the sound a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Game Informer called the audio a high point of the game , though complained about Charlotte always shouting the name of her attack . Game Informer also praised the cooperative element and felt that more games should be designed like it . IGN stated that " the dramatic score is enough to send a chill up your spine " , though mentioned that amount of vocals was sparse . GameZone ranked it as the ninth best Castlevania game . Robert Workman ( an editor for GameZone ) complimented it for its changes to the series that came without a sacrifice to quality .
The game play received mixed reviews , though most were overall positive . GamePro complimented the multiplayer components and noted that the game " not only reaffirms the series ' greatness , but is easily one of the best handheld games released this year . " They also rated the game a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 in all categories . Eurogamer commented that the two character game play was complicated and sometimes awkward . They also compared it to its predecessor , stating that Portrait of Ruin deviated away from Dawn of Sorrow in terms of game play . Game Informer called it " one of the best experiences in gaming " and complimented the story , setting , and game play . Yahoo ! Games called the game play " addictive " and praised the two character game play . They also complimented the online multiplayer , the setting , and the freedom to play the game with or without the DS 's special functions , but criticized some of the dialog . IGN stated that the game was not " the mind @-@ blowing revelation that Dawn of Sorrow was " , but still complemented the " solid " game play and called it an enjoyable experience . GameSpot called it a great game because it " stays true to the familiar Castlevania design and delivers a fun , lengthy adventure . " Game Informer mentioned the two character play was " done before , but Portrait of Ruin 's system is particularly smooth in execution . "
= Linear probing =
Linear probing is a scheme in computer programming for resolving collisions in hash tables , data structures for maintaining a collection of key – value pairs and looking up the value associated with a given key . It was invented in 1954 by Gene Amdahl , Elaine M. McGraw , and Arthur Samuel and first analyzed in 1963 by Donald Knuth .
Along with quadratic probing and double hashing , linear probing is a form of open addressing . In these schemes , each cell of a hash table stores a single key – value pair . When the hash function causes a collision by mapping a new key to a cell of the hash table that is already occupied by another key , linear probing searches the table for the closest following free location and inserts the new key there . Lookups are performed in the same way , by searching the table sequentially starting at the position given by the hash function , until finding a cell with a matching key or an empty cell .
As Thorup & Zhang ( 2012 ) write , " Hash tables are the most commonly used nontrivial data structures , and the most popular implementation on standard hardware uses linear probing , which is both fast and simple . " Linear probing can provide high performance because of its good locality of reference , but is more sensitive to the quality of its hash function than some other collision resolution schemes . It takes constant expected time per search , insertion , or deletion when implemented using a random hash function , a 5 @-@ independent hash function , or tabulation hashing .
= = Operations = =
Linear probing is a component of open addressing schemes for using a hash table to solve the dictionary problem . In the dictionary problem , a data structure should maintain a collection of key – value pairs subject to operations that insert or delete pairs from the collection or that search for the value associated with a given key . In open addressing solutions to this problem , the data structure is an array T ( the hash table ) whose cells T [ i ] ( when nonempty ) each store a single key – value pair . A hash function is used to map each key into the cell of T where that key should be stored , typically scrambling the keys so that keys with similar values are not placed near each other in the table . A hash collision occurs when the hash function maps a key into a cell that is already occupied by a different key . Linear probing is a strategy for resolving collisions , by placing the new key into the closest following empty cell .
= = = Search = = =
To search for a given key x , the cells of T are examined , beginning with the cell at index h ( x ) ( where h is the hash function ) and continuing to the adjacent cells h ( x ) + 1 , h ( x ) + 2 , ... , until finding either an empty cell or a cell whose stored key is x . If a cell containing the key is found , the search returns the value from that cell . Otherwise , if an empty cell is found , the key cannot be in the table , because it would have been placed in that cell in preference to any later cell that has not yet been searched . In this case , the search returns as its result that the key is not present in the dictionary .
= = = Insertion = = =
To insert a key – value pair ( x , v ) into the table ( possibly replacing any existing pair with the same key ) , the insertion algorithm follows the same sequence of cells that would be followed for a search , until finding either an empty cell or a cell whose stored key is x . The new key – value pair is then placed into that cell .
If the insertion would cause the load factor of the table ( its fraction of occupied cells ) to grow above some preset threshold , the whole table may be replaced by a new table , larger by a constant factor , with a new hash function , as in a dynamic array . Setting this threshold close to zero and using a high growth rate for the table size leads to faster hash table operations but greater memory usage than threshold values close to one and low growth rates . A common choice would be to double the table size when the load factor would exceed 1 / 2 , causing the load factor to stay between 1 / 4 and 1 / 2 .
= = = Deletion = = =
It is also possible to remove a key – value pair from the dictionary . However , it is not sufficient to do so by simply emptying its cell . This would affect searches for other keys that have a hash value earlier than the emptied cell , but that are stored in a position later than the emptied cell . The emptied cell would cause those searches to incorrectly report that the key is not present .
Instead , when a cell i is emptied , it is necessary to search forward through the following cells of the table until finding either another empty cell or a key that can be moved to cell i ( that is , a key whose hash value is equal to or earlier than i ) . When an empty cell is found , then emptying cell i is safe and the deletion process terminates . But , when the search finds a key that can be moved to cell i , it performs this move . This has the effect of speeding up later searches for the moved key , but it also empties out another cell , later in the same block of occupied cells . The search for a movable key continues for the new emptied cell , in the same way , until it terminates by reaching a cell that was already empty . In this process of moving keys to earlier cells , each key is examined only once . Therefore , the time to complete the whole process is proportional to the length of the block of occupied cells containing the deleted key , matching the running time of the other hash table operations .
Alternatively , it is possible to use a lazy deletion strategy in which a key – value pair is removed by replacing the value by a special flag value indicating a deleted key . However , these flag values will contribute to the load factor of the hash table . With this strategy , it may become necessary to clean the flag values out of the array and rehash all the remaining key – value pairs once too large a fraction of the array becomes occupied by deleted keys .
= = Properties = =
Linear probing provides good locality of reference , which causes it to require few uncached memory accesses per operation . Because of this , for low to moderate load factors , it can provide very high performance . However , compared to some other open addressing strategies , its performance degrades more quickly at high load factors because of primary clustering , a tendency for one collision to cause more nearby collisions . Additionally , achieving good performance with this method requires a higher @-@ quality hash function than for some other collision resolution schemes . When used with low @-@ quality hash functions that fail to eliminate nonuniformities in the input distribution , linear probing can be slower than other open @-@ addressing strategies such as double hashing , which probes a sequence of cells whose separation is determined by a second hash function , or quadratic probing , where the size of each step varies depending on its position within the probe sequence .
= = Analysis = =
Using linear probing , dictionary operations can be implemented in constant expected time . In other words , insert , remove and search operations can be implemented in O ( 1 ) , as long as the load factor of the hash table is a constant strictly less than one .
In more detail , the time for any particular operation ( a search , insertion , or deletion ) is proportional to the length of the contiguous block of occupied cells at which the operation starts . If all starting cells are equally likely , in a hash table with N cells , then a maximal block of k occupied cells will have probability k / N of containing the starting location of a search , and will take time O ( k ) whenever it is the starting location . Therefore , the expected time for an operation can be calculated as the product of these two terms , O ( k2 / N ) , summed over all of the maximal blocks of contiguous cells in the table . A similar sum of squared block lengths gives the expected time bound for a random hash function ( rather than for a random starting location into a specific state of the hash table ) , by summing over all the blocks that could exist ( rather than the ones that actually exist in a given state of the table ) , and multiplying the term for each potential block by the probability that the block is actually occupied . That is , defining Block ( i , k ) to be the event that there is a maximal contiguous block of occupied cells of length k beginning at index i , the expected time per operation is
<formula>
This formula can be simiplified by replacing Block ( i , k ) by a simpler necessary condition Full ( k ) , the event that at least k elements have hash values that lie within a block of cells of length k . After this replacement , the value within the sum no longer depends on i , and the 1 / N factor cancels the N terms of the outer summation . These simplifications lead to the bound
<formula>
But by the multiplicative form of the Chernoff bound , when the load factor is bounded away from one , the probability that a block of length k contains at least k hashed values is exponentially small as a function of k , causing this sum to be bounded by a constant independent of n . It is also possible to perform the same analysis using Stirling 's approximation instead of the Chernoff bound to estimate the probability that a block contains exactly k hashed values .
In terms of the load factor α , the expected time for a successful search is O ( 1 + 1 / ( 1 − α ) ) , and the expected time for an unsuccessful search ( or the insertion of a new key ) is O ( 1 + 1 / ( 1 − α ) 2 ) . For constant load factors , with high probability , the longest probe sequence ( among the probe sequences for all keys stored in the table ) has logarithmic length .
= = Choice of hash function = =
Because linear probing is especially sensitive to unevenly distributed hash values , it is important to combine it with a high @-@ quality hash function that does not produce such irregularities .
The analysis above assumes that each key 's hash is a random number independent of the hashes of all the other keys . This assumption is unrealistic for most applications of hashing . However , random or pseudorandom hash values may be used when hashing objects by their identity rather than by their value . For instance , this is done using linear probing by the IdentityHashMap class of the Java collections framework . The hash value that this class associates with each object , its identityHashCode , is guaranteed to remain fixed for the lifetime of an object but is otherwise arbitrary . Because the identityHashCode is constructed only once per object , and is not required to be related to the object 's address or value , its construction may involve slower computations such as the call to a random or pseudorandom number generator . For instance , Java 8 uses an Xorshift pseudorandom number generator to construct these values .
For most applications of hashing , it is necessary to compute the hash function for each value every time that it is hashed , rather than once when its object is created . In such applications , random or pseudorandom numbers cannot be used as hash values , because then different objects with the same value would have different hashes . And cryptographic hash functions ( which are designed to be computationally indistinguishable from truly random functions ) are usually too slow to be used in hash tables . Instead , other methods for constructing hash functions have been devised . These methods compute the hash function quickly , and can be proven to work well with linear probing . In particular , linear probing has been analyzed from the framework of k @-@ independent hashing , a class of hash functions that are initialized from a small random seed and that are equally likely to map any k @-@ tuple of distinct keys to any k @-@ tuple of indexes . The parameter k can be thought of as a measure of hash function quality : the larger k is , the more time it will take to compute the hash function but it will behave more similarly to completely random functions . For linear probing , 5 @-@ independence is enough to guarantee constant expected time per operation , while some 4 @-@ independent hash functions perform badly , taking up to logarithmic time per operation .
Another method of constructing hash functions with both high quality and practical speed is tabulation hashing . In this method , the hash value for a key is computed by using each byte of the key as an index into a table of random numbers ( with a different table for each byte position ) . The numbers from those table cells are then combined by a bitwise exclusive or operation . Hash functions constructed this way are only 3 @-@ independent . Nevertheless , linear probing using these hash functions takes constant expected time per operation . Both tabulation hashing and standard methods for generating 5 @-@ independent hash functions are limited to keys that have a fixed number of bits . To handle strings or other types of variable @-@ length keys , it is possible to compose a simpler universal hashing technique that maps the keys to intermediate values and a higher quality ( 5 @-@ independent or tabulation ) hash function that maps the intermediate values to hash table indices .
= = History = =
The idea of an associative array that allows data to be accessed by its value rather than by its address dates back to the mid @-@ 1940s in the work of Konrad Zuse and Vannevar Bush , but hash tables were not described until 1953 , in an IBM memorandum by Hans Peter Luhn . Luhn used a different collision resolution method , chaining , rather than linear probing .
Knuth ( 1963 ) summarizes the early history of linear probing . It was the first open addressing method , and was originally synonymous with open addressing . According to Knuth , it was first used by Gene Amdahl , Elaine M. McGraw ( née Boehme ) , and Arthur Samuel in 1954 , in an assembler program for the IBM 701 computer . The first published description of linear probing is by Peterson ( 1957 ) , who also credits Samuel , Amdahl , and Boehme but adds that " the system is so natural , that it very likely may have been conceived independently by others either before or since that time " . Another early publication of this method was by Soviet researcher Andrey Ershov , in 1958 .
The first theoretical analysis of linear probing , showing that it takes constant expected time per operation with random hash functions , was given by Knuth . Sedgewick calls Knuth 's work " a landmark in the analysis of algorithms " . Significant later developments include a more detailed analysis of the probability distribution of the running time , and the proof that linear probing runs in constant time per operation with practically usable hash functions rather than with the idealized random functions assumed by earlier analysis .
= Eastern Air Lines Flight 663 =
Eastern Air Lines Flight 663 was a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Boston , Massachusetts , to Atlanta , Georgia , with scheduled stopovers at John F. Kennedy International Airport , New York ; Richmond , Virginia ; Charlotte , North Carolina ; and Greenville , South Carolina . On the night of February 8 , 1965 , the aircraft serving the flight , a Douglas DC @-@ 7 , crashed near Jones Beach State Park , New York , just after taking off from JFK Airport . All 79 passengers and five crew aboard perished .
National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) and Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) investigations determined that evasive maneuvers undertaken by Flight 663 to avoid an oncoming Pan Am Boeing 707 caused the pilot to suffer spatial disorientation and lose control of the aircraft . The accident is the third @-@ worst accident involving a DC @-@ 7 .
= = Flight history = =
The Douglas DC @-@ 7 serving Flight 663 made its first flight in 1958 , and had subsequently accumulated a total of 18 @,@ 500 hours of flight time . It was piloted by Captain Frederick R. Carson , 41 , who had been employed by Eastern Air Lines for 19 years and who had accumulated 12 @,@ 607 hours of flight time . His copilot , First Officer Edward R. Dunn , 41 , a nine @-@ year veteran of Eastern Airlines , had 8 @,@ 550 hours of flight time . The flight engineer was Douglas C. Mitchell , 24 , with two years ' employment and 407 pilot hours and 141 hours flight engineer time . All had passed proficiency checks with the DC @-@ 7B aircraft . The two flight attendants aboard were Linda Lord and Judith Durkin .
The flight from Logan International Airport in Boston , Massachusetts , to John F. Kennedy International Airport , in New York , proceeded normally . Flight 663 departed JFK at 6 : 20 p.m. EDT on an instrument flight rules ( IFR ) clearance to Byrd Field ( now Richmond International Airport ) , in Richmond , Virginia . Take @-@ off proceeded normally , and the airport control @-@ tower prepared to hand over control to the New York Air Route Traffic Control Center ( ARTCC ) on Long Island , noting that Flight 663 was executing a Dutch seven departure , a routine takeoff procedure that required a series of turns over the Atlantic Ocean in order to avoid flying over New York City . The New York ARTCC responded with the information that Pan American Airways Flight 212 , a Boeing 707 , was descending to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in the same airspace .
Though the control tower responded that Flight 663 was at a higher altitude than Flight 212 , it was , in fact , lower . Subsequently , the control tower radioed the Pan Am flight that there was traffic in his airspace at 11 o 'clock , six miles away travelling southeast of Pam Am 's position , climbing above 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Pan Am 212 acknowledged . Air traffic control then radioed Flight 663 a similar advisory : at 2 o 'clock , five miles away travelling , below Flight 663 's position . In reality , the traffic , Pan Am 212 , was above Flight 663 , descending from 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Captain Carson acknowledged that he saw the traffic , that he was beginning to turn into the Dutch seven departure , and signed off , saying , good night .
Flight 663 's radioed good night at 6 : 25 p.m. was the last transmission received from the flight .
= = Crash = =
The night of February 8 was dark , with no visible moon or stars , and no visible horizon . As the two airliners approached similar positions , their pilots had no points of reference with which to determine actual separation distance or position . Flight 663 's departure turn , and Pan Am 's subsequent turn left to its assigned heading , had placed the two aircraft on an apparent collision course . The Boeing rolled right and initiated a descent in an attempt to avoid a collision . In response , Eastern 663 initiated an extreme right turn in order to pass safely . The captain of Pan Am 212 later estimated that the two aircraft had passed between 200 and 500 feet ( 60 and 150 m ) of each other , while the first officer estimated that the distance was only 200 to 300 feet ( 60 to 90 m ) .
Flight 663 was unable to recover from its unusually steep bank and plunged into the icy water of the Atlantic Ocean , where it exploded with bright orange flames . The Pan American 707 was the first to relay news of the crash , as it was receiving permission to land . Air Canada Flight 627 , which had departed a few minutes prior to Flight 663 , also radioed news of an explosion in the water .
After the initial explosion , the wrecked aircraft sank to the bottom of 75 feet ( 23 m ) of water . Numerous air crews , including Pan Am 212 , Air Canada 627 , and Braniff Airlines Flight 5 , radioed ATC controllers in the area with news of an explosion . The aircraft broke up upon impact , and was destroyed . All five crewmembers and 79 passengers died on impact .
= = Aftermath and investigation = =
Fifteen ships , accompanied by eleven helicopters and numerous rescue divers converged on the scene of the crash in hopes of rendering aid to survivors . Two hours after impact , debris began floating up to the surface . By sunrise , seven bodies had been recovered ; three more were discovered in the course of the following three days . In locating the wreckage , the United States Navy provided underwater sonar to assist with the operation . Thirteen Coast Guard vessels helped searching the shores of Long Island and provided salvage efforts . Rescue workers and volunteers scoured 40 miles ( 64 km ) of beaches , collecting debris that washed ashore .
The Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) investigated the accident . The DC @-@ 7 was not required to be equipped with a flight recorder , which would have automatically recorded the pilots ' every control input . Thus , the CAB was forced to rely on witness testimony , radio recordings , and a best guess based on experience . Nevertheless , the CAB determined that the evasive maneuvers taken by the pilot of Flight 663 in order to avoid the oncoming Pan Am jet caused spatial disorientation . The disorientation , coupled with the extreme maneuver , made it impossible for the pilot to recover from the roll in the few seconds remaining before the DC @-@ 7 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean . The CAB also determined that Captain Carson had neither the time nor adequate information to assess Flight 663 's position relative to Pan Am 212 and , given the illusion of a collision course , he had acted appropriately in initiating evasive maneuvers . The CAB made no recommendations in the final accident report . Although early news reports reported the near miss of Flights 663 and 212 , the FAA denied that there was ever any danger of a collision .
At that time , the crash of Flight 663 was the fifth worst aviation accident to have occurred in the United States . It was and remains the third deadliest crash of a DC @-@ 7 ( after Caledonian Airways Flight 153 and Northwest Airlines Flight 293 ) , and is the 25th deadliest single @-@ plane accident to have occurred in the United States .
= 2008 Tanana Valley flood =
The 2008 Tanana Valley flood or the 2008 Fairbanks flood was a flood in late July and early August 2008 that affected several rivers in the central portion of the American state of Alaska . The city of Fairbanks , Alaska saw high water levels , while the towns of Nenana , Salcha , and Old Minto received heavy damage . The Salcha River and Tanana River reached their second @-@ highest levels since record @-@ keeping began ( the highest was during the 1967 Tanana Valley Flood ) , while the Chena River , which bisects Fairbanks , was kept below flood stage by the use of the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project .
Several hundred homes were inundated by the flood in Fairbanks , Salcha , unincorporated Fairbanks North Star Borough , Nenana , and smaller villages , but due to early warnings from the National Weather Service , volunteer fire departments , and the borough 's emergency contact system , no one was injured . The area affected by the flood was declared a state disaster area , making residents whose homes were flooded eligible for state aid . The long @-@ term effects of the flood , including its effect on the salmon spawning season , are as yet unknown .
= = Background = =
The summer of 2008 was an unusually wet one for central Alaska . In June , the National Weather Service recorded 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 53 mm ) of precipitation at the Fairbanks International Airport — the most in that month since June 1994 , and 0 @.@ 68 inches ( 17 mm ) above average . By July 27 , 1 @.@ 47 inches of rain had fallen in July . This was slightly below the average for the month at that time ( 1 @.@ 49 inches ) , but the year @-@ to @-@ date rainfall total was still one and two @-@ thirds inches above normal . The next day , July 28 , 1 @.@ 14 inches of rain fell in Fairbanks , setting a single @-@ day Fairbanks rainfall total for that date , with heavier amounts measured east of the town . Scattered locations between Salcha and Delta Junction received up to four inches of precipitation . On the 29th , another 0 @.@ 77 inches of rain fell in Fairbanks — another record for the date — and again , locations outside of the town received greater amounts . Just 0 @.@ 14 inches of rain fell on the 30th , but on the 31st , 0 @.@ 6 inches fell . This amount was not a record for the date , but it brought the overall rainfall total in Fairbanks for the month of July to 4 @.@ 12 inches — more than double the normal average of 1 @.@ 73 inches ( 44 mm ) of rain . At Eielson Air Force Base , which lies to the southwest of Fairbanks , 7 @.@ 30 inches of rain were recorded as having fallen in July , making it the rainiest July ever recorded and the second @-@ rainiest month ever recorded at the base . Though more rain fell on August 1 and afterward , the Tanana , Salcha , and Chena rivers had already crested .
= = Flood = =
= = = Salcha = = =
By the evening of July 28 , the record @-@ breaking rainfall that had fallen to that point caused the National Weather Service to issue a flood warning for the tributaries of the Tanana River east of Fairbanks . On the 29th , the continued rain forced the expansion of the flood warning to cover the entire Tanana and Salcha River basins between Salcha and Nenana , a stretch of land 320 miles ( 510 km ) long . The rising Salcha River forced home evacuations on the 29th and caused the Old Richardson Highway to be closed in several locations as the Salcha overflowed its banks and covered the road near the town of Salcha . An emergency shelter was set up to handle refugees from the Salcha River 's flooding , and forecasters predicted the river would continue to rise .
On the 30th , the Salcha River crested at 16 @.@ 8 feet — almost three feet above flood stage — where it crosses the Richardson Highway . This was the sixth @-@ highest crest since measurements began in the first half of the 20th century . The last time the river reached that height was October 15 , 2000 , when the river crested at 16 @.@ 91 feet ( 5 @.@ 15 m ) . More than 100 homes were at least partially underwater , and nearly two dozen Salcha town residents took advantage of the emergency shelter that had been set up at Salcha Elementary School the day before .
High water remained in Salcha through the 31st , though the crest of the flooding had passed . Water continued to cover roads in and around Salcha , and water @-@ borne debris accumulated under several local bridges , causing impromptu dams . By August 1 , the Salcha River had begun to recede to a noticeable extent . Though some roads remained underwater and falling trees knocked out power to areas of the town , residents began to pump out basements and begin recovery efforts . By early afternoon on the first , the Old Richardson Highway had been cleared of water and the National Weather Service canceled its flood warning for the Salcha area .
= = = Fairbanks = = =
The first effects of the flood began to be felt in Fairbanks late on the 29th , as the Tanana River overflowed its banks and covered low @-@ lying areas of South Fairbanks . Thought was given on that date to closing the floodgates of the Moose Creek Dam , located on the Chena River as part of the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project , but the Chena 's rise was not as rapid as that of the Tanana , which lies to the south of the town , and no action was taken on the 29th . Engineers also considered lowering the gates on the 30th , but the flow of the Chena River had not reached a level where computer models mandated the closing of the gates to protect Fairbanks .
The Tanana River , which is not controlled by the flood project , meanwhile reached a crest of 26 @.@ 60 feet at Fairbanks on the 30th . This amount was more than two feet above flood stage and was the highest level seen since August 1967 , when the river crested at 27 @.@ 80 feet ( 8 @.@ 47 m ) during the great 1967 Fairbanks flood . The height of the water caused flooding in the Rosie Creek and Chena Pump neighborhoods west of Fairbanks , and caused some residents to evacuate . Residents who remained were placed under a boil @-@ water order for fear that floodwater had contaminated the public drinking water system . In response to the continuing spread of the flood , Fairbanks and Fairbanks North Star Borough authorities opened an emergency operations center to handle the response to the flood and answer residents ' questions . Residents of the Rosie Creek neighborhood were awakened in the early morning hours of the 31st by borough warnings and volunteer firefighters , who instructed them to evacuate . High water had surrounded the residents ' homes , causing many to flee to a shelter set up at a nearby elementary school . No residents were injured in the evacuation , something many of them credited to prompt and efficient warnings . The continued high water of the Tanana River caused overflow to flood into the nearby Chena , normally a tributary of the Tanana . Despite that unusual flow , engineers at the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project decided not to close the project 's floodgates , forecasting that the Chena would not rise above flood stage , even with the increased flow .
By the morning of August 1 , the Tanana River had begun to fall in Fairbanks , just as the Salcha River had begun to recede in Salcha . Though isolated roads continued to wash out from heavy water flow and residents were not allowed to return to their homes , the water level of the river continued to fall . Due to this fact , the opening of Fairbanks ' Tanana Valley Fair — scheduled for August 1 — was not delayed . Despite the falling water level in the Tanana , the Chena River continued to rise due to the differing water levels in the two rivers . This fact caused the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to close the floodgates of the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project at 3 : 30 a.m. on August 1 . They remained closed throughout the day before being reopened at 5 : 30 a.m. on August 2 .
= = = Nenana = = =
Though Nenana also received heavy rain from the storm system that began the flood , its position further downstream on the Tanana River meant that it did not receive the first effects of the flood until the 30th , when Alaska Railroad officials suspended operations south of Nenana due to track damage caused by rising water .
On July 31 , the Tanana River began to overflow its banks in Nenana . Water flooded the rails of the Alaska Railroad in town , caused an evacuation of the town 's clinic , and flooded low @-@ lying areas throughout the town . By August 1 , the entire town was at least partially flooded , with most basements and other low @-@ lying areas being completely filled by floodwater . The flooding of the Alaska Railroad track in town forced a halt to all passenger and freight operations between Anchorage and Fairbanks , effectively cutting off Fairbanks from rail traffic .
On August 2 , the Tanana River at Nenana crested at 14 @.@ 64 feet . This total was more than four feet above flood stage and was the third @-@ highest water level ever recorded , falling short of a 15 @.@ 9 @-@ foot mark in 1948 and the record 18 @.@ 9 @-@ foot mark recorded during the flood of 1967 . The town shipyard was submerged under three feet of water , and the town 's clinic was moved from its interim location in the fire station to the town airport after floodwater threatened the station . Town leaders encouraged residents to evacuate to higher ground until the flood receded . Nenana High School was saved from flooding by just eight inches of elevation . Water lapped around the school 's base , but did not enter the school itself due to that small margin . High water lingered in the town until August 3 , when a National Weather Service forecaster felt confident enough to say , " The worst is over . "
= = Aftermath = =
On the morning of August 1 , the mayor of the Fairbanks North Star Borough , Jim Whitaker , issued a disaster declaration for the drainage area of the Tanana River . In the declaration , he appealed for help from state and federal governments in the recovery process , saying , " substantial damage is occurring due to high water and river current on the Tanana River , the Salcha River and the Chena River , resulting in damage to over 500 private residences with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants and to the road networks " maintained by the borough and the state . The next day , the Alaska commissioner of military and veterans affairs and the state director of homeland security and emergency management toured the flooded areas by helicopter . On August 4 , Alaska governor Sarah Palin visited Fairbanks to officially sign the disaster declaration and tour the flooded area . By the middle of August , the total damage from the flooding was estimated to be more than $ 10 million . In late September , President Bush approved a federal disaster declaration for the affected area , allowing federal aid to be spent on reconstruction efforts for damaged homes and buildings .
Some Alaska subsistence fishermen feared the floods could exacerbate an already poor salmon fishing season by disrupting the spawning season for king salmon .
= 2014 GoDaddy Bowl =
The 2014 GoDaddy Bowl was an American college football bowl game that was played on January 5 , 2014 at the Ladd Peebles Stadium in Mobile , Alabama . The fifteenth edition of the GoDaddy Bowl ( originally known as the Mobile Alabama Bowl ) , it featured the Ball State Cardinals from the Mid @-@ American Conference and the Arkansas State Red Wolves , co @-@ champions of the Sun Belt Conference . It was one of the 2013 – 14 bowl games that concluded the 2013 FBS football season . The game began at 8 : 00 p.m. CST and aired on ESPN . It was sponsored by web hosting service company Go Daddy . Arkansas State defeated Ball State by a score of 23 – 20 .
The Cardinals , who earned a 10 – 2 record during the season , made their second appearance in the bowl , while the Red Wolves , who earned a 7 – 5 record during the season , made their third consecutive appearance in the bowl . The pregame buildup focused on the teams ' respective strong offenses . For Ball State , the passing game centered on quarterback Keith Wenning connecting with wide receiver Willie Snead . In tandem with the rushing attack fueled by a strong offensive line , one writer asserted that they would enjoy " easy pickings " against a mediocre Arkansas State defense . Unlike the Ball State offense , Arkansas State 's offense focused predominantly on the rushing attack , to which both dual @-@ threat quarterback Adam Kennedy and running back Michael Gordon contributed . Ball State 's defense was average in terms of points allowed , but poor in terms of yards allowed . Ball State was a 9 @.@ 5 point favorite to win the game , and was the predicted winner among most sportswriters .
Ball State jumped out to an early lead via a Wenning to Snead touchdown , and led at the end of the first quarter 7 – 0 . After the first quarter , due to Kennedy 's ineffectiveness , Fredi Knighten took over at quarterback for Arkansas State , and in the second quarter , helped the team score 10 points while Ball State scored only 3 – at half time , the teams were tied at 10 . Arkansas State made two field goals in the third quarter , thus entering the fourth with a six @-@ point lead . However , Ball State scored via a field goal early in the quarter , and a touchdown with less than two minutes to play to retake the lead . Arkansas State promptly responded via a touchdown pass . Although Ball State was able to move the ball into field goal range as time waned , their field goal try was blocked , and ultimately Arkansas State held onto win the game , 23 – 20 .
= = Teams = =
The game featured the Ball State Cardinals against the Arkansas State Red Wolves .
= = = Ball State Cardinals = = =
The Cardinals continued their recent winning ways in 2013 , finishing the season with a 7 @-@ 1 conference and 10 @-@ 2 overall record , good for second place in the MAC 's West Division . They won their first two games before losing to North Texas . After that , they won seven consecutive games before losing in their only game against a ranked opponent , Northern Illinois on November 13 . They won their final game , at which point bowl director Jerry Silverstein extended an invitation to play in the game . This will be Ball State 's second GoDaddy Bowl ; they had previously appeared in the 2009 game ( when it was known as the GMAC Bowl ) , losing to the Tulsa Golden Hurricane by a score of 45 @-@ 13 .
= = = Arkansas State Red Wolves = = =
The Red Wolves continued their recent winning ways in 2013 , finishing the season with a 5 @-@ 2 conference and a 7 @-@ 5 overall record . After losing to the WKU Hilltoppers for the team 's fifth loss of the season ( and second in @-@ conference ) , bowl director Jerry Silverstein extended an invitation to play in the game . This was the Red Wolves ' third consecutive GoDaddy Bowl , making them the team with the most appearances in the game 's history . The Red Wolves had previously lost the 2012 game to the Northern Illinois Huskies by a score of 38 @-@ 20 , and then won the 2013 game over the 25th ranked Kent State Golden Flashes by a score of 17 @-@ 13 . The Red Wolves began their season defeating Arkansas – Pine Bluff in a rout before being demoralized by Auburn . After winning a close game the following week against Troy in their conference opener , they lost two consecutive non @-@ conference games . They split their next two games , but subsequently won four consecutive games before falling to Western Kentucky and being invited to the bowl .
Shortly after the end of the regular season , Red Wolves head coach Bryan Harsin left to take the head coaching position at Boise State , a program where he had served as an assistant from 2001 to 2010 . Red Wolves defensive coordinator John Thompson was named as interim head coach for the bowl game . This is his second consecutive GoDaddy Bowl as interim head coach , as he served in that capacity for the 2013 game after Gus Malzahn left to become head coach at Auburn .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Entering the game , Ball State was a 9 @.@ 5 point favorite , and thus not surprisingly , they were favored to win by college football analysts , including all six of CBS Sports ' analysts . One sports blog ranked the game as the game providing the " worst " entertainment value of the 2013 @-@ 14 bowl season , however the game was predicted to be a shootout .
= = = Ball State offense vs. Arkansas State defense = = =
= = = = Matchup = = = =
The passing attack was predicted to have " easy pickings " , particularly with the Keith Wenning to Willie Snead connection that had eclipsed 100 yards in all but three games , against Arkansas State 's secondary , which struggled against the pass . Compounding the potential offensive success of Ball State was their strong offensive line play , against which Arkansas State would need to sack the quarterback , a category in which they ranked 63rd @-@ best in the country .
= = = = Ball State offense = = = =
Coordinated by Rick Skrosky , who was in his third year , Ball State 's offense ranked ninth in the country by averaging 333 passing yards per game , 78th in the country with 153 @.@ 3 rushing yards per game , and 14th in the country with 40 @.@ 1 points per game . " Stellar senior quarterback " Keith Wenning led the Cardinals ' offense , and passed for a total of 3 @,@ 933 yards for 34 touchdowns and just 6 interceptions , predominantly to two 1 @,@ 000 yard receivers – junior Willie Snead , who caught 97 passes for 1 @,@ 429 yards and 14 touchdowns , and sophomore Jordan Williams , who caught 68 passes for 1 @,@ 016 yards and 10 touchdowns . Supplementing that duo was senior Jamill Smith , who caught 63 passes for 855 yards and 8 touchdowns , as well as fellow senior Zane Fakes , an academic All @-@ American tight end , who caught 37 passes for 382 yards and 2 touchdowns . The receiving corps was plagued by injuries , with three receivers confirmed out for the game , as well as one questionable . Jahwan Edwards led the rushing attack with 964 yards and 13 touchdowns . Underclassmen Horactio Banks , who was out for the bowl game due to a knee injury , and Teddy Williamson rushed for 595 and 213 yards respectively . Junior kicker Scott Secor made 17 of his 21 field goal attempts , including a long of 47 yards , and made 58 of his 60 extra point attempts . After losing four of its five starters entering the season , Ball State 's offensive line entered the year with right guard Jordan Hansel its only returnee ; Hansel won first team All @-@ MAC honors and center Jacob Richard achieved third team All @-@ MAC honors .
= = = = Arkansas State defense = = = =
The Red Wolves ' defense was led by defensive coordinator / linebackers coach John Thompson , who was in his second year with the program . They finished in the middle of the pack in both the NCAA and the conference in defensive statistical categories relating to yardage and points allowed . Anchored by nose tackle Ryan Carrethers , an NFL Draft prospect whose tackle totals moved him even higher up the radar ( he was second on the team with 87 as well as four sacks and eight tackles for a loss ( TFL ) ) , the Arkansas State defensive line also featured redshirt sophomore defensive end Chris Stone , who led the defense with 9 @.@ 5 TFL and added three sacks , and fifth @-@ year senior Amos Draper . The linebacking corps was not a focal point of the defense – only two of the defense 's top 15 tacklers were linebackers – the leader was undersized junior Qushaun Lee ( 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) ) , who led the defense with 119 tackles and added 6 TFL , and also contributing was freshman Xavier Woosdon , who recorded 22 total tackles . Making up for the lack of linebackers were a plethora of defensive backs who played key roles on the unit , including three of the top six tacklers – junior Sterling Young ( 70 tackles , 2 interceptions , 3 fumble recoveries ) , and sophomores Chris Humes ( 50 tackles , 3 @.@ 5 TFL ) , and Rocky Hayes ( 42 tackles , team @-@ leading 3 interceptions , 10 pass breakups , 2 TFL ) . Other key contributors included junior Artez Brown ( 37 tackles , 10 pass breakups , interception ) , freshman Money Hunter ( 35 tackles ) , and junior Andrew Tryon ( 28 tackles , 5 pass breakups ) .
= = = Arkansas State offense vs. Ball State defense = = =
= = = = Matchup = = = =
A key to this matchup was for Ball State to force Arkansas State quarterback Adam Kennedy to be one @-@ dimensional , limiting his ability to run the football , and thus forcing him to pass , attacking the Cardinals ' defensive strong point , their secondary . For Arkansas State , establishing a rushing attack early and utilizing it often was paramount , as Ball State did not defend against the run particularly well during the regular season , however at the same time , Arkansas State needed to limit turnovers as they had all season ( 13 lost all season – seventh nationally ) ; creating them was a strength for Ball State ( 30 created all season ( including 10 in previous 4 games ) – seventh nationally ) .
= = = = Arkansas State offense = = = =
Led by co @-@ coordinators Eliah Drinkwitz ( who predominantly focused on running backs ) and Bush Hamdan ( who predominantly focused on quarterbacks ) , Arkansas State 's offense excelled in the running game , and averaged 206 rushing yards per game , which was second in the Sun Belt , but struggled in the passing game , averaging just 208 yards per game , which was sixth in the conference ; the aggregate mediocrity of their offense manifested itself by averaging 29 @.@ 7 points per game , fourth in the conference . Their offense was led by dual @-@ threat quarterback Adam Kennedy , a transfer from Utah State who was in his first year as a Red Wolf . The senior totaled 2 @,@ 349 passing yards , and added 514 rushing yards , second among Sun Belt quarterbacks and tied for ninth overall in the conference ; he scored 15 total touchdowns ( 11 passing , 4 rushing ) . Leading Arkansas State 's rushing attack , however , was sophomore Michael Gordon , a small back with a 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) stature , who amassed 717 yards ( fifth in the conference ) and ten touchdowns ( tied for fourth in the conference ) . Also leading the running game were seniors David Oku ( a transfer from Tennessee ) and Sirgregory Thornton , who contributed 511 and 340 yards respectively . Augmenting the aforementioned were sophomores backup quarterback Fredi Knighten , who rushed for 247 yards , and wide receiver J.D. McKissic , who rushed 118 yards .
Leading the receiving game were senior big @-@ play threat Julian Jones , who caught 51 passes for 630 yards and 4 touchdowns , and possession safety valve McKissic , who caught 73 receptions for 590 yards and 4 touchdowns . Augmenting the aforementioned duo were 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) senior Allen Muse , third on the team in receiving yards , and sophomore tight end Darion Griswold , fourth on the team in receiving . Gordon , Oku , and senior receiver R.J. Fleming also contributed in the receiving game . Senior Brian Davis handled the kicking game , and went 44 / 45 on extra points , and 12 / 14 kicking field goals ( with a long of 50 yards ) for a total of 80 points . The Wolves ' offensive line struggled to protect the quarterback despite returning the majority of the unit from the 2012 season , but did manage to open holes for the running game . Starters on the offensive line included sophomore center Bryce Giddens , a preseason all @-@ conference honoree , senior tackle Aaron Williams and freshman tackle Colton Jackson , as well as upperclassmen guards Alan Wright and Steve Haunga .
= = = = Ball State defense = = = =
Defensive coordinator Jay Bateman led the Cardinals ' defense , which was in the middle of the pack in the FBS in terms of points allowed ( 24 @.@ 8 per game ) , in the bottom half in terms of yards allowed ( 420 @.@ 8 per game ) , particularly struggling against the running game , allowing 194 @.@ 8 rushing yards per game , which was in the bottom third nationally . Ball State 's defensive line was led by fifth @-@ year senior defensive end Jonathan Newsome , who achieved first team All @-@ MAC honors , and totaled 57 tackles , 11 @.@ 5 TFL , and 8 sacks . Senior Nathan Ollie was also a leader of the line , earning second team All @-@ MAC accolades , and totaling 67 tackles , 9 TFL , and 3 sacks on the season . Like Ollie ( Newsome did not start the second game of the season ) , senior Joel Cox and junior Nick Miles started every game of the season , at nose tackle and defensive end respectively . Junior Ben Ingle started 11 of the 12 games at weak side linebacker , and led the defense with 105 tackles , including 3 @.@ 5 TFL , redshirt freshman Zack Ryan , who started every game at middle linebacker , was third on the defense with 80 tackles , with 8 TFL and 2 @.@ 5 sacks , and senior Kenneth Lee played strong side linebacker , and recorded 42 tackles , 4 @.@ 5 TFL , and 2 @.@ 5 sacks . Aside from junior Brian Jones , who started all 12 games and finished the season second on the defense with 90 tackles and led the defense with 4 fumble recoveries , continuity was lacking in the Cardinals ' secondary – three different players started at the " BC " cornerback spot , two different players started at the " FC " cornerback spot , and two different players started at the free safety spot . Injuries also took their toll , with two defensive backs out for the bowl game .
= = Game summary = =
= = = First quarter = = =
After receiving the opening kickoff , Ball State 's first drive stalled , and it ultimately went three @-@ and @-@ out . Their punter , Kyle Schmidt , managed only 24 yards on the punt , and gave Arkansas State the ball at Ball State 's 36 @-@ yard line . Arkansas State failed to capitalize on the good field position , however , missing a 34 @-@ yard field goal attempt . Subsequently , the teams exchanged punts . After being pinned at their own 11 @-@ yard line , the Cardinals embarked on a 14 @-@ play , 89 @-@ yard drive that featured six rushes by Jahwan Edwards for a total of 44 yards , including one 22 @-@ yard rush . Also on the drive , Keith Wenning completed four of five passes , three of which were to Willie Snead , including a 9 @-@ yard touchdown pass that was the first score of the game . At the end of the quarter , the Red Wolves had just concluded a drive , that had crossed into Ball State 's territory before a punt that was downed inside the 5 @-@ yard line . On that drive , Fredi Knighten replaced Adam Kennedy at quarterback .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The victim of poor field position , Ball State executed only three plays , the last of which was a sack that pinned them at their own 1 @-@ yard line . Nevertheless , Schmidt was able to punt the ball 52 yards , but a 10 @-@ yard return still gave Arkansas State the ball in Ball State 's territory . They got on the score board on that drive via a 41 @-@ yard field goal kick by Brian Davis , making the score 7 – 3 Ball State . On their ensuing drive , Ball State executed another extended drive , this one lasting 13 plays and totaling 67 yards ( highlighted by another 20 + yard rush by Edwards ) ; it failed to reach the end zone , but all was not lost , as Scott Secor made a 26 @-@ yard field goal to put the Cardinals up by seven points . The drive encompassed 6 : 09 . Arkansas State responded , embarking on a 9 @-@ play , 63 @-@ yard drive that was highlighted by a 27 @-@ yard rush by R.J. Fleming , and climaxed when Sirgregory Thornton rushed for a 1 @-@ yard touchdown , tying the game in the waning seconds of the first half . The half time score was 10 – 10 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Arkansas State got the ball to start the second half , and promptly drove down the field relying predominantly on Knighten , who threw six passes and attempted three rushes ; ultimately , their drive stalled at the 2 @-@ yard line , and Davis kicked an 18 @-@ yard field goal to put the Red Wolves atop 13 – 10 . Ball State subsequently faced a fourth down and one ( 4th and 1 ) situation , on which they attempted a fake punt – Schmidt was tackled by Brock Barnhill on the play and lost three yards on the rush , and the Cardinals had to relinquish the ball in their own territory . Arkansas State took advantage of the field position , converting another field goal attempt , this one from 29 yards , to give them a 6 @-@ point lead . Once again , Ball State turned the ball over on downs on their ensuing possession , this time doing so at the Arkansas State 32 @-@ yard line . This time , Arkansas State failed to take advantage , punting after achieving only one first down . At the end of the quarter , Ball State was in the midst of a possession around their 25 @-@ yard line .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Ball State took advantage of a pass interference penalty on Arkansas State on their drive – Secor kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal to pull the Cardinals within three points . The Red Wolves then went three @-@ and @-@ out . After that , each team 's quarterback ( Wenning and Knighten respectively ) threw interceptions ; after the interceptions , Ball State had the ball at their own 4 @-@ yard line ( Wenning 's interception was returned to the 8 @-@ yard line ) . They scored after executing a demoralizing 16 @-@ play , 80 @-@ yard drive that encapsulated 6 : 51 – it culminated when Edwards rushed for a 1 @-@ yard touchdown . Arkansas State efficiently responded , scoring on a 13 @-@ yard pass from Knighten to Allen Muse , a 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) , 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) senior wide receiver . The touchdown gave Arkansas State a 23 – 20 lead that they would not relinquish – Secor attempted a 38 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to try to tie the game , however the kick was blocked , and the Red Wolves held on to win .
= = = Broadcast = = =
The game was broadcast multilaterally , across a variety of platforms , both radio and television . ESPN broadcast the game on television , with Carter Blackburn handling play @-@ by @-@ play , Danny Kanell facilitating analysis , and Allison Williams reporting from the sidelines . Several radio stations were set to broadcast the game , including Ball State student radio WCRD , which featured Tyler Bradfield doing play @-@ by @-@ play and Sean Stewart as the analyst , and Ball State 's flagship radio station WLBC @-@ FM , which featured a four @-@ person crew – Joel Gedett ( play @-@ by @-@ play ) , Mark O 'Connell ( analyst ) , Luke Martin ( sidelines ) , and Jeff Weiler ( host ) . The GoDaddy Bowl Radio Network was also set to broadcast the game on over 400 affiliated radio stations , as well as Sirius XM . For that broadcast Mike Grace handled play @-@ by @-@ play duties and served as executive producer , Jay Roberson served as the analyst , and Randy Burgan reported from the sidelines .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = = = Team statistics = = = =
= = = = Individual statistics = = = =
= = = = = Passing = = = = =
= = = = = Rushing = = = = =
= = = = = Receiving = = = = =
Box Score from ESPN , Retrieved April 2 , 2014
= HMS Anson ( 79 ) =
HMS Anson was a King George V @-@ class battleship of the Royal Navy , named after Admiral George Anson . She was built by Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson Shipyard and launched on 24 February 1940 , being completed on 22 June 1942 . Her completion was delayed to allow the fitting of fire @-@ control radar and additional anti @-@ aircraft weapons . She was originally to have been named Jellicoe , but was renamed Anson in February 1940 .
Anson saw service in the Second World War , escorting nine Russian convoys in the Arctic by December 1943 . She took part in diversionary moves to draw attention away from Operation Husky in July 1943 . In February 1944 she provided cover for Operation Tungsten , the successful air strike against the German battleship Tirpitz . She accepted the surrender of Japanese forces occupying Hong Kong on 15 August 1945 and after the end of the war she became the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron of the British Pacific Fleet .
Anson arrived back in British waters on 29 July 1946 , spending the next three years in active service with the post @-@ war navy . She was finally placed in reserve and " mothballed " in 1949 , spending eight years in this condition . On 17 December 1957 she was purchased for scrap by Shipbreaking Industries , Faslane .
= = Construction = =
In the aftermath of the First World War , the Washington Naval Treaty was drawn up in 1922 in an effort to stop an arms race developing between Britain , Japan , France , Italy and the United States . This treaty limited the number of ships each nation was allowed to build and capped the displacement of all capital ships at 35 @,@ 000 long tons . These restrictions were extended in 1930 through the London Naval Treaty , however , in 1935 Japan and Italy would not agree to the Second London Naval Treaty for further armament control . Concerned by a lack of modern battleships within their navy , the Admiralty ordered the construction of a new battleship class : the King George V class . The calibre limitation clause introduced in the Second Treaty meant that the main armament of the King George V was limited to 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) and the unusual arrangement of the guns in the three turrets was an attempt to maximise firepower . Due to the pressing need for the ships , the British unlike the US could not delay to take advantage of an escalator clause that would allow 16 @-@ inch guns . The ships were the only ones to be built at the time to adhere to the treaty and even though it soon became apparent to the British that the other signatories to the treaty were ignoring its requirements , it was too late to change the design of the class before they were laid down in 1937 .
The keel of the fourth ship of the class was laid at the Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson Shipyard on 20 July 1937 . She was originally to have been named Jellicoe , after Admiral Sir John Jellicoe , the commander of the Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , but she was renamed Anson in February 1940 . Anson was launched on 24 February 1940 and was completed on 22 June 1942 . Completion was delayed largely because of the inclusion of fire @-@ control radar , and additional anti @-@ aircraft weapons .
= = Description = =
Anson displaced 42 @,@ 600 long tons ( 43 @,@ 300 t ) on trials in 1942 and 45 @,@ 360 long tons ( 46 @,@ 090 t ) fully loaded in 1945 . The ship had an overall length of 745 feet ( 227 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 103 feet ( 31 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 31 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 5 m ) . Her designed metacentric height was 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) at normal load and 8 feet 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 46 m ) at deep load .
She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines driving four propeller shafts . Steam was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers which normally delivered 100 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 75 @,@ 000 kW ) , but could deliver 110 @,@ 000 shp ( 82 @,@ 000 kW ) at emergency overload . This gave Anson a top speed of 27 @.@ 62 knots ( 51 @.@ 15 km / h ; 31 @.@ 78 mph ) . The ship carried 4 @,@ 210 long tons ( 4 @,@ 300 t ) of fuel oil . At full speed Anson had a range of 3 @,@ 150 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 830 km ; 3 @,@ 620 mi ) at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) while burning 36 long tons ( 37 t ) of fuel per hour .
= = = Armament = = =
Anson 's main armament was ten BL 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) Mk VII guns . The 14 @-@ inch guns were mounted in three turrets ; one Mark III quadruple turret forward and one aft , and one Mark II twin turret forward firing over the quadruple turret . The guns could be elevated 40 degrees and depressed 3 degrees . A full gun broadside weighed 15 @,@ 950 pounds ( 7 @.@ 23 t ) , and a salvo could be fired every 40 seconds . Her secondary armament consisted of 16 QF 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) Mk I guns which were mounted in eight twin mounts . The maximum range of the Mk I guns was 24 @,@ 070 yards ( 22 @,@ 009 @.@ 6 m ) at a 45 @-@ degree elevation , the anti @-@ aircraft ceiling was 49 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 935 @.@ 2 m ) . The guns could be elevated to 70 degrees and depressed to 5 degrees . The normal rate of fire was ten to twelve rounds per minute , but in practice the guns could only fire seven to eight rounds per minute . Along with her main and secondary batteries Anson carried six 8 @-@ barrelled QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk . VIII ( 40 mm ) " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft guns . These were supplemented by eighteen 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns .
= = Operational history = =
After her commissioning in 1942 , Anson was sent to the Arctic Sea with most of the Home Fleet as an escort ship for multiple Russian convoys . On 12 September 1942 Anson was part of the distant covering force for Convoy QP 14 , along with her sister ship HMS Duke of York , the light cruiser HMS Jamaica and the destroyers HMS Keppel , Mackay , Montrose and Bramham . On 29 December Anson provided distant cover for Convoy JW 51B along with the cruiser HMS Cumberland and the destroyers HMS Forester , Icarus and Impulsive . On 23 and 24 January 1943 Anson provided distant cover for Convoy JW 52 along with the cruiser HMS Sheffield and the destroyers HMS Echo , Eclipse , Faulknor , Inglefield , Montrose , Queenborough , Raider and the Polish destroyer Orkan . On 29 January , Convoy RA 52 departed from the Kola inlet , with distant cover provided by Anson , the cruiser Sheffield and the destroyers Inglefield , Oribi , Obedient and the Polish destroyer Orkan from 30 January .
In June 1942 , the pre @-@ First World War battleship HMS Centurion was disguised as Anson in the Mediterranean Sea , acting as a decoy during Operation Vigorous .
In July 1943 Anson took part in the diversionary moves designed to draw attention away from the preparations for Operation Husky , and in October that year , with Duke of York and the US cruiser Tuscaloosa , provided cover for Operation Leader , in which the US aircraft carrier Ranger mounted air strikes against German shipping off Norway . In February 1944 , in company with the French battleship Richelieu and a force of cruisers and destroyers , Anson stood by in the same capacity while aircraft from the aircraft carrier HMS Furious carried out air strikes against German targets in Norway during Operation Bayleaf , and on 3 April she provided cover for Operation Tungsten , a successful air strike against the German battleship Tirpitz , during which she served as flagship for Vice Admiral Sir Henry Moore .
Anson was decommissioned for a refit in June 1944 and did not return to the fleet until March 1945 , when she sailed with Duke of York to join the British Pacific Fleet . By the time she arrived in the theatre , hostilities were all but over . She left Sydney on 15 August for Hong Kong with Duke of York , and along with a task force of other ships from Britain and the Commonwealth , accepted the surrender of the Japanese forces occupying Hong Kong . She was also present in Tokyo Bay during the official Japanese surrender aboard the USS Missouri .
= = = Post war era = = =
Following the war Anson was the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron of the British Pacific Fleet and helped to liberate Hong Kong . After a brief refit , Anson sailed from Sydney to Hobart in February 1946 to collect the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester and return them to Sydney .
Anson arrived back in British waters on 29 July 1946 and after a short refit was returned to peacetime duties . In November 1949 , Anson was placed in reserve and in 1951 she was towed to Gare Loch . On 17 December 1957 she was purchased for scrap by Shipbreaking Industries , Faslane .
= = Refits = =
During her career , Anson was refitted on several occasions in order to update her equipment . The following are the dates and details of the refits undertaken :
= Lead Balloon =
Lead Balloon is a British television series produced by Open Mike Productions for BBC Four . The series was created and is co @-@ written by comedian Jack Dee and Pete Sinclair . It stars Dee as Rick Spleen ( Formally Rick Shaw ) , a cynical and misanthropic comedian whose life is plagued by petty annoyances , disappointments and embarrassments . Raquel Cassidy , Sean Power and Tony Gardner also star . The first series of six episodes was broadcast on BBC Four in 2006 , with the first episode achieving the highest ratings for a comedy on the channel . Repeats of the series were run on BBC Two and BBC HD , bringing it to a larger audience . The second series of eight episodes aired on BBC Two from November 2007 ; the third series aired from November 2008 ; and the final series aired from 31 May 2011 until 5 July .
Comparisons were made by critics to the successful American comedy Curb Your Enthusiasm , and positive comments were made about Lead Balloon 's characters , particularly Magda , the Eastern European housekeeper . The first series was released on DVD in November 2007 . The show 's theme tune is a cover version of " One Way Road " , written by Noel Gallagher and performed by Paul Weller .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The genesis of the series came towards the end of recording the 2005 series of Jack Dee Live at the Apollo , when Dee speculated as to whether his experiences of " witless " interviews could be turned into a television programme . Following a meeting with his agent , in which he turned down the lead role in a series , Dee began writing the character that would become Rick Spleen . He focused the writing on Spleen 's domestic life , rather than his professional , but did highlight the clash between the two . A pilot , commissioned by BBC Four and recorded in December 2005 , received positive feedback and led to a full series of six 30 @-@ minute episodes being ordered in January 2006 for broadcast later in the year .
= = = Writing = = =
Dee 's frequent collaborator Pete Sinclair joined him to write the pilot script . The two worked for two weeks developing the characters and forming storylines from them , which prepared them for writing the series proper when it was commissioned . The two were strongly influenced in their writing by the " paradigm shift " of The Office that made " natural conversation " funny without a studio audience being present . Dee cites the early films of Woody Allen , Seinfeld and Curb Your Enthusiasm as other " cultural influences " that helped set the tone of the series . Controller of BBC Four Janice Hadlow stated the series was in the " same ballpark " as Curb , though it is not quite as autobiographical . The name Lead Balloon comes from the expression " To go down like a lead balloon " , meaning to be received badly by an audience .
= = = Filming = = =
The never @-@ broadcast pilot features a scene with Omid Djalili as a dry cleaner , which was reused in the fifth episode , " Pistachio " . Location filming for the first two series , particularly Rick and Mel 's house , was done in Willesden . Michael 's cafe used Gracelands Cafe in Kensal Green for the first two series , and Hugo 's restaurant in Lonsdale Road , Queen 's Park , London for the third . Most moped shots in the third series were filmed in Ladbroke Grove . Scenes are separated by the insertion of a person writing ideas for comedy material on a writing pad .
= = Characters = =
Dee 's character Rick Spleen ( born Richard Shaw ) is a stand @-@ up comedian living in London who struggles to get decent gigs and makes ends meet by hosting corporate events such as the Frozen Goods Awards Evening . Dee and Sinclair based the character on the " comedians who hated being comedians " who performed alongside Dee in his early years of stand @-@ up . Rick is a habitual and incompetent liar who often attempts practical tasks himself in an attempt to avoid paying professionals .
His partner Mel ( Raquel Cassidy ) is a talent agent whose clientele of everyday people getting their 15 minutes of fame serves to highlight Rick 's failing career . Her calm , perceptive and considerate personality contrasts strongly with Rick 's .
Rick 's American co @-@ writer , Marty ( Sean Power ) , writes the majority of Rick 's material , often working with him at Rick 's home or Michael 's café . Though he tries to moderate Rick 's desperate behaviour , he is quietly frustrated with him , and conspires against Rick 's interests .
Michael ( Tony Gardner ) owns and runs the café that Rick and Marty frequently visit to escape the chaos of Rick 's home . He is socially awkward , possibly to the extent of having a mental disorder , although he was actually a high @-@ flying city banker who suffered from burn @-@ out . His father turns out to be gay in later series , to which Michael reacts negatively .
Rick 's daughter Sam ( Antonia Campbell @-@ Hughes ) attends sixth form college and regularly extracts money from her father , often by expressing sympathy at his misfortunes . This money is always around forty pounds , and is possibly being used for the purchase of recreational drugs .
Sam 's slacker boyfriend Ben ( Rasmus Hardiker ) goes through numerous jobs and interests in the first series , such as taking a circus skills course , and a short @-@ lived shelf @-@ stacking job , however these apparent jobs require a recurring amount of forty pounds ( which is gained from Rick through Sam 's pleas ) , which may in fact be used to purchase recreational drugs , meaning the jobs and interests may not exist at all .
Magda ( Anna Crilly ) is the Spleens ' morose Eastern European housekeeper , who is often puzzled by British attitudes , language and , in her view , softness . She is a willing worker and generally suffers Rick 's selfish eccentricities in sullen silence .
Neighbour Clive ( John Biggins ) had a part in a single scene in the first series , but had a larger part in an episode of the second series ; by the third series he had become a prominent character , concerned about the well @-@ being of his elderly mother who is very delicate and has had problems with losing her cat and having teenagers throwing rubbish over her wall .
= = Episodes = =
= = Reception = =
Immediately following the commission of the series , reviewers compared it to Curb Your Enthusiasm ; a story in The Independent ran with the headline " Dee writes BBC 's answer to Curb Your Enthusiasm " . The Stage 's Mark Wright called it " a curious oddity " and called comparisons to Curb " inevitable " . Ian Johns of The Times " obsessed " over the similarities to Curb , though singled out Crilly and Gardner for their performances , and described Dee 's characterisation of Rick as " turning childish pettiness into something almost endearing " .
A. A. Gill , in The Sunday Times , wryly praised the style of humour and the reaction it provoked in viewers . Hermione Eyre of The Independent on Sunday called it " a delectable comedy of everyday embarrassment " , but " unfortunately , Lead Balloon shows awkward joints where Curb Your Enthusiasm has invisible seams " ; the reviewer cited Larry David as being a good man driven to obnoxious behaviour , whereas Spleen is just obnoxious . Thomas Sutcliffe of The Independent named the series the best new comedy of 2006 .
When appearing on a panel of comedy judges at the 2007 Edinburgh International Television Festival , Frank Skinner , in response to The Vicar of Dibley and The Catherine Tate Show being voted the best comedies in a public poll , called it " the best sitcom that anyone from the comedy circuit has done [ ... ] Obviously I was hoping it would be shit " ( Skinner starred in his own failed sitcom , Shane in 2004 ) .
The first episode broke BBC Four 's audience record for a comedy series , with 383 @,@ 000 viewers . Despite dropping to 199 @,@ 000 by the third episode , it still won a multi @-@ channel slot . " Rubbish " ' s BBC Two repeat received 2 @.@ 1 million viewers , with 122 @,@ 000 seeing " Allergic " afterwards on BBC Four . The final episode of the first series , " Fatty " , received 2 @.@ 3 million for its BBC Two repeat .
The first series was nominated for a British Comedy Award in 2007 , with Dee also nominated for best comedy actor .
= = Series information = =
= = = Broadcast history = = =
The first series aired on BBC Four between 4 October and 8 November 2006 in the 10 : 30 p.m. timeslot . The ratings success of the first episodes led to the series having a repeat run on BBC Two , starting on 26 October . A second series of eight episodes was commissioned by the controller of BBC Two following the conclusion of the first series . The third series began on 13 November 2008 . The fourth series premiered on BBC 2 on 31 May 2011 .
Lead Balloon was the first comedy series to be broadcast on the BBC 's high @-@ definition service , BBC HD , with another repeat run beginning on 21 December 2006 . Episodes were also made available as streaming downloads on bbc.co.uk during the first series run .
Jack Dee announced during an interview on Alan Carr : Chatty Man that a fourth series was in the works . Shooting finished in autumn 2010 and the series began its broadcast run on 31 May 2011 in the UK on BBC2 at 10pm .
In Australia , series one and two were first aired back @-@ to @-@ back on ABC1 each Tuesday at 8pm from 3 February 2009 until 7 April when the network shifted the remaining episodes to the later 9 : 30pm slot until 5 May 2009 . Both seasons have since been repeated on the lower @-@ rated ABC2 channel and uploaded to the ABC iView catch @-@ up service . Series three is yet to air in Australia .
In Sweden , series two was aired on SVT1 from the ninth of July 2012 : Series 3 and 4 were aired in the Autumn of the same year .
= = = DVD releases = = =
The first series was released on DVD on 12 November 2007 and the second on 24 November 2008 . The third and fourth series were released on 6 June 2011 and 11 July 2011 respectively . All 4 series were also released as a DVD boxset on 11 July 2011 .
= Yip Pin Xiu =
Yip Pin Xiu ( Chinese : 叶品秀 ; pinyin : Yè Pǐnxìu ) , born 10 January 1992 ) is a Singaporean backstroke swimmer . She has muscular dystrophy and competes in the S3 category for the physically impaired . Since 2005 , she has won medals in international competitions such as the World Wheelchair and Amputee Games , Japan Paralympic Swimming Championships and International German Paralympic Swimming Championships . At the 2008 Summer Paralympics , she won a gold medal in the 50 metres backstroke and a silver medal in the 50 metres freestyle , setting world records in both events . In honour of her feats at the Paralympic Garmes , she was conferred the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Service Medal ) during the National Day Awards ceremony and named " Young Woman Achiever of the Year " by local magazine Her World . Her achievements contributed to public debate about the treatment and recognition of disabled athletes in Singapore .
= = Early years and personal life = =
Yip was born with muscular dystrophy , a genetic disorder that slowly breaks down the muscles , and a nerve condition that affects eyesight . When she was five , she started swimming to improve her health and strengthen her muscles ; nevertheless , by the age of eleven , she had lost her ability to walk and had to use a wheelchair . The youngest of three children in her family , she studied in Ai Tong Primary School and Bendemeer Secondary School , then graduated from Republic Polytechnic as back @-@ up valedictorian and , as of 2012 , is studying social science at Singapore Management University .
= = Swimming career = =
Yip started swimming competitively when she was twelve years old . After losing her ability to kick , Yip switched from the front crawl to the backstroke and was reclassified from the S5 to the S3 category ( lower numbers indicate more severe disabilities ) . Her coach is former Singaporean Olympic swimmer Ang Peng Siong , while fellow Paralympic swimmer Theresa Goh is her close friend and role model . Besides competitive swimming , Yip has participated in events to raise awareness of disabled sports , such as the Interschool Swimming Meets and Montfort Secondary School Track and Field Meet 2007 .
After successes in national championships , Yip participated in the Asia Paralympics Swimming Championship 2005 , winning two gold medals . Her first international competition was the World Wheelchair and Amputee Games 2005 , where she won two gold medals and a bronze . She then received four gold medals at the DSE Long Course Swimming Championships in 2006 . In 2007 , she won three gold medals at the Japan Paralympic Swimming Championships and four gold medals at the World Wheelchair and Amputee Games .
At the 4th ASEAN ParaGames , Yip finished first in the women 's 150 metres individual medley , clocking 4 minutes 56 @.@ 34 seconds . She set a world record time of 1 minute 00 @.@ 80 seconds in the 50 metres backstroke at the US Paralympic swimming trials . The 22nd International German Paralympic Swimming Championships saw her set a world record of 2 minutes 10 @.@ 09 seconds in the 100 metres backstroke heats ; in the finals , she was awarded the gold medal with a time of 2 minutes 08 @.@ 09 seconds , bettering her own world record .
Yip started her 2008 Summer Paralympic Games campaign by breaking another world record , clocking 57 @.@ 04 seconds in the women 's 50 metres freestyle heats . However , she was narrowly beaten by Mexican swimmer Patricia Valle in the finals , clinching a silver medal with a time of 57 @.@ 43 seconds . In the women 's 50 metres backstroke heats , she posted a time of 57 @.@ 92 seconds , taking two seconds off her own world record . She then swam the women 's 50 metres backstroke finals in a time of 58 @.@ 75 seconds to win the gold medal . After she returned to Singapore , the president conferred Yip a state medal , the Meritorious Service Medal .
The success of Yip and Laurentia Tan , who won two bronze medals in equestrian events , sparked public debate about the treatment and recognition of disabled athletes in Singapore . Letters to The Straits Times criticised the poor coverage of the Paralympics . Many Singaporeans also commented about the disparity of the cash awards handed out by the government : S $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for an Olympic gold and S $ 100 @,@ 000 for a Paralympic gold . When the issues were raised in Parliament , MCYS parliamentary secretary Teo Ser Luck promised to study plans to give disabled athletes greater support and to include them in sporting programmes such as Project 0812 , a training programme for top Singaporean sportspeople . Two months later , the cash rewards for Paralympic medals were doubled and funding for the Singapore National Paralympic Council was increased .
At the 8th ASEAN Para Games , she is torch lighter with Tay Wei Ming and Gan Kai Hong Aloysius .
= Skeet Shoot =
Skeet Shoot is a skeet shooting video game for the Atari 2600 and the first game released by Games by Apollo . Players assume the role of a skeet shooter shooting clay pigeons . There is a two @-@ player mode where the players alternate . It was developed by programmer Ed Salvo in his Iowa home and purchased by Pat Roper for release in December 1981 under the newly formed Apollo . Despite negative reviews , it was a financial success , and led to Salvo 's continuation with the company , where he became Director of Development .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls a skeet shooter who is shooting clay pigeons . By pressing the button on the controller , a clay pigeon is sent out and pressing the button again will shoot ; moving the joystick changes the gun 's angle . A point is earned if the bullet hits . Difficulty varieties adjust the speed of the pigeons .
Two two @-@ player gameplay variations exist and are activated by modifying the Atari 2600 's difficulty switches . There is an alternating version where players take turns shooting the clay pigeons , and another variation features one player shooting while the other controls the angle of the clay pigeons . Other variables that can be changed are the position of the shooter and the direction the bird will enter the screen from .
= = Development = =
Ed Salvo developed Skeet Shoot independently . Salvo had self @-@ taught himself to program for the 2600 after purchasing an Atari 800 ; the dealer wanted a flight simulator for the 2600 so he contracted Salvo to make one . The game was never released as the dealer had lost interest . According to Salvo , the development of Skeet Shoot took him around a month at night in his home to finish . After his friend sent him an advertisement from a Dallas newspaper by newly founded studio Games by Apollo that asked for programmers , he contacted Apollo founder Pat Roper and showed him Skeet Shoot . Roper decided that Skeet Shoot was a good enough game for a first time . He offered Salvo a job at Apollo , which Salvo declined , believing it would be too risky . When Salvo returned to his Iowa home , Roper contacted him and told him he would buy Skeet Shoot for five thousand dollars which Salvo accepted .
Skeet Shoot still had glitches when it was released ; one caused the image to flip vertically . Salvo learned of the glitch and fixed it , and the only cartridges that bear the bug are European versions .
= = Release and reception = =
Skeet Shoot was released by Apollo in December 1981 . Reviews were negative , as Apollo 's publicist Emmit Crawford acknowledged . Crawford believed that the reason people did not like Skeet Shoot was because it did not provide enough challenge for most video game players and that the company had distributed it in too much of a hurry . He later said that " All in all , Skeet Shoot wasn 't a spectacular game to start off with . " Despite the poor publicity , the game sold very well .
Author Brett Alan Weiss wrote that Skeet Shoot was " a shoddily programmed , graphically primitive game " and said that the poor controls and difficulty levels rendered the game " virtually worthless " . A writer for Atari HQ called it a mediocre game . Lee Peppas of ANALOG Computing remarked that " Atari & Activision have nothing to fear from the graphics on this first release . " TV Gamer opined it was one of the worst games for the system , saying that it was boring and criticizing the fact that it was difficult to hit the skeet .
Mark Androvich of Classic Gamer Magazine was similarly negative , writing " Games by Apollo released a couple of decent games before going bankrupt , but you never would have guessed that anyone at the company knew how to program the Atari 2600 judging by their debut game . " Androvich opined that while the game was playable , it was not " a step in the right direction " for Apollo .
= = Aftermath = =
After Skeet Shoot , Salvo signed a contract that led to the creation of Spacechase . Eventually , Salvo became Apollo 's Director of Development and was given the job of hiring 25 programmers to work on Apollo 's games . Apollo went on to release seven other games after Skeet Shoot . One year later , the studio eventually filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on November 12 , 1982 , due to pressure from its advertising agency , Benton & Bowles . Apollo owed the company $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( half of its total debt ) . Although Roper expected Apollo to return in " smaller form " , the company closed in 1983 after reorganization attempts failed .
= American Saddlebred =
The American Saddlebred is a horse breed from the United States . This breed was referred to as the " Horse America Made " . Descended from riding @-@ type horses bred at the time of the American Revolution , the American Saddlebred includes the Narragansett Pacer , Canadian Pacer , Morgan and Thoroughbred among its ancestors . Developed into its modern type in Kentucky , it was once known as the " Kentucky Saddler " , and used extensively as an officer 's mount in the American Civil War . In 1891 , a breed registry was formed in the United States . Throughout the 20th century , the breed 's popularity continued to grow in the United States , and exports began to South Africa and Great Britain . Since the formation of the US registry , almost 250 @,@ 000 American Saddlebreds have been registered , and can now be found in countries around the world , with separate breed registries established in Great Britain , Australia , continental Europe , and southern Africa .
Averaging 15 to 16 hands ( 60 to 64 inches , 152 to 163 cm ) in height , Saddlebreds are known for their sense of presence and style , as well as for their spirited , yet gentle , temperament . They may be of any color , including pinto patterns , which have been acknowledged in the breed since the late 1800s . They are considered a gaited breed , as some Saddlebreds are bred and trained to perform four @-@ beat ambling gaits , one being a " slow gait " that historically was one of three possible ambling patterns , and the much faster rack . The breed does have a hereditary predisposition to lordosis , a curvature of the spine , as well as occupational predispositions to upper respiratory and lameness issues .
Since the mid @-@ 1800s , the breed has played a prominent part in the US horse show industry , and is called the " peacock of the horse world " . They have attracted the attention of numerous celebrities , who have become breeders and exhibitors , and purebred and partbred American Saddlebreds have appeared in several films , especially during the Golden Age of Hollywood . Saddlebreds are mainly known for their performance in the show ring , but can also be seen in competition in several other English riding disciplines and combined driving , as well as being used as a pleasure riding horse . American Saddlebreds often compete in five primary divisions : Five @-@ Gaited , Three @-@ Gaited , Fine Harness , Park and Pleasure . In these divisions they are judged on performance , manners , presence , quality and conformation
= = Characteristics = =
American Saddlebreds stand 15 to 17 hands ( 60 to 68 inches , 152 to 173 cm ) high , averaging 15 to 16 hands ( 60 to 64 inches , 152 to 163 cm ) , and weigh between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 450 and 540 kg ) . Members of the breed have well @-@ shaped heads with a straight profile , long , slim , arched necks , well @-@ defined withers , sloping shoulders , correct leg conformation , and strong level backs with well @-@ sprung ribs . The croup is level with a high @-@ carried tail . Enthusiasts consider them to be spirited , yet gentle , animals . Any color is acceptable , but most common are chestnut , bay , brown and black . Some are gray , roan , palomino and pinto . The first @-@ known pinto Saddlebred was a stallion foaled in 1882 . In 1884 and 1891 , two additional pintos , both mares , were foaled . These three horses were recorded as " spotted " , but many other pinto Saddlebreds with minimal markings were recorded only by their base color , without making note of their markings . This practice continued into the 1930s , at which time breeders came to be more accepting of " colored " horses and began recording markings and registering horses as pinto . The Saddlebred has been called the " world 's most beautiful horse " by admirers , and is known as the " peacock of the horse world " . The United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) describes the Saddlebred as follows : " He carries himself with an attitude that is elusive of description — some call it " class " , presence , quality , style , or charm . This superior air distinguishes his every movement . "
Saddlebreds are popularly known as show horses , with horses being shown saddle seat in both three @-@ gaited and five @-@ gaited classes . The former are the three common gaits seen in most breeds , the walk , trot and canter . The latter includes the three regular gaits , plus two four @-@ beat ambling gaits known as the slow gait and the rack . The slow gait today is a four @-@ beat gait in which the lateral pairs of legs leave the ground together , but strike the ground at different times , the hind foot connecting slightly before the forefoot . In the show ring , the gait should be performed with restraint and precision .
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New material from the Kaiparowits Formation of Utah , in Grand Staircase @-@ Escalante National Monument , includes a skull and partial skeleton that represent the species G. monumentensis . Its skull was more robust than that of the other species , and its predentary had enlarged prongs along its upper margin , where the lower jaw 's beak was based . This new species greatly expands the geographic range of this genus , and there may be a second , more lightly built species present as well . Multiple gryposaur species are known from the Kaiparowits Formation , represented by cranial and postcranial remains , and were larger than their northern counterparts .
= = = Species = = =
Three named species are recognized today : G. notabilis , G. latidens , and G. monumentensis . The type species G. notabilis is from the late Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta , Canada . It is now thought that another species from the same formation , Kritosaurus incurvimanus ( also known as Gryposaurus incurvimanus ) , is a synonym of G. notabilis . The two had been differentiated by the size of the nasal arch ( larger and closer to the eyes in G. notabilis ) and the form of the upper arm ( longer and more robust in K. incurvimanus ) . Ten complete skulls and twelve fragmentary skulls are known for G. notabilis along with postcrania , as well as with two skeletons with skulls that had been assigned to K. incurvimanus . G. latidens , from the late Santonian @-@ early Campanian Lower Two Medicine Formation of Pondera County , Montana , USA , is known from partial skulls and skeletons from several individuals . Its nasal arch is prominent like that of G. notabilis , but farther forward on the snout , and its teeth are less derived , reflecting iguanodont @-@ like characteristics . The informal name " Hadrosauravus " is an early , unused name for this species . G. monumentensis is known from a skull and partial skeleton from Utah . G. monumentensis was listed second on the top 10 list of new species in 2008 by the International Institute for Species Exploration .
The dubious hadrosaurid Stephanosaurus marginatus was considered a possible species of Kritosaurus , following the synonymy of Gryposaurus with Kritosaurus . However , this synonymy was rejected in the 2004 edition of the Dinosauria , with Stephanosaurus being tabulated as dubious .
= = Paleobiology = =
As a hadrosaurid , Gryposaurus would have been a bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating a variety of plants . Its skull had special joints that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing , and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) above .
Like other bird @-@ hipped dinosaurs of the Dinosaur Park Formation , Gryposaurus appears to have only existed for part of the duration of time that the rocks were being formed . As the formation was being laid down , it recorded a change to more marine @-@ influenced conditions . Gryposaurus is absent from the upper part of the formation , with Prosaurolophus present instead . Other dinosaurs known from only the lower part of the formation include the horned Centrosaurus and the hollow @-@ crested duckbill Corythosaurus . Gryposaurus may have preferred river @-@ related settings .
= = = Nasal arch = = =
The distinctive nasal arch of Gryposaurus , like other cranial modifications in duckbills , may have been used for a variety of social functions , such as identification of sexes or species and social ranking . It could also have functioned as a tool for broadside pushing or butting in social contests , and there may have been inflatable air sacs flanking it for both visual and auditory signaling . The top of the arch is roughened in some specimens , suggesting that it was covered by thick , keratinized skin , or that there was a cartilaginous extension .
= = Paleoecology = =
= = = Utah = = =
Argon @-@ argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76 @.@ 1 and 74 @.@ 0 million years ago , during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period . During the Late Cretaceous period , the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway , a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses , Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east . The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps , ponds and lakes , and was bordered by highlands . The climate was wet and humid , and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms . This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world .
Gryposaurus monumentensis shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs , such as dromaeosaurid theropods , the troodontid Talos sampsoni , ornithomimids like Ornithomimus velox , tyrannosaurids like Albertosaurus and Teratophoneus , armored ankylosaurids , the duckbilled hadrosaur Parasaurolophus cyrtocristatus , the ceratopsians Utahceratops gettyi , Nasutoceratops titusi and Kosmoceratops richardsoni and the oviraptorosaurian Hagryphus giganteus . Other paleofauna present in the Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans ( sharks and rays ) , frogs , salamanders , turtles , lizards and crocodilians . A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates , marsupials , and insectivorans .
= Pain fitzJohn =
Pain fitzJohn ( sometimes Payn fitzJohn , Payn FitzJohn , or Pagan fitzJohn ; died 1137 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and administrator , one of King Henry I of England 's " new men " , who owed their positions and wealth to the king . Pain 's family originated in Normandy , but there is little to suggest that he had many ties there , and he appears to have spent most of his career in England and the Welsh Marches . A son of a minor nobleman , he rose through ability to become an important royal official during Henry 's reign . In 1115 he was rewarded with marriage to an heiress , thereby gaining control of the town of Ludlow and its castle , which he augmented with further acquisitions .
Although later medieval traditions described Pain as a chamberlain to King Henry , that position is not securely confirmed in contemporary records . He did hold other offices though , including that of sheriff in two counties near the border between England and Wales . In his capacity as a royal justice Pain also heard legal cases for the king throughout much of western England .
After King Henry 's death in 1135 Pain supported Henry 's nephew , King Stephen , and was with the new king throughout 1136 . In July 1137 Pain was ambushed by the Welsh and killed as he was leading a relief expedition to the garrison at Carmarthen . His heirs were his daughters , Cecily and Agnes . Cecily married the son of one of Pain 's close associates , Miles of Gloucester . Pain was generous in his gifts of land to a number of monastic houses .
= = Family background = =
Pain was a son , likely the eldest , of John fitzRichard , a tenant @-@ in @-@ chief listed in Domesday Book . John may have had two wives , therefore the identity of Pain 's mother is uncertain . On the basis of landholding , it has been speculated that Pain 's mother was a daughter of Ralph Mortimer , who held Wigmore in Domesday Book . As well as being a moneyer , Pain 's paternal grandfather , who came from near Avranches in Normandy , owned a mill . Pain 's brother , Eustace fitzJohn , became a royal official who owned lands in the north of England . His other siblings included William , Alice and Agnes . William was probably the same William who later held Harptree in Somerset , and in 1130 was a royal justice in western England . Alice was the abbess of Barking Abbey and Agnes became the wife of Roger de Valognes .
Pain was born some time before 1100 . His father may have been in the service of King Henry in Normandy before Henry became king . The family lands in England , which were not extensive , were mainly in East Anglia , and Pain appears to have inherited most of them ; his payment for danegeld , a tax , in 1130 for his East Anglian properties was 40 shillings , compared to only 9 shillings for his brother Eustace .
= = Marriage and lands = =
All accounts agree that Pain married in 1115 and that his wife was named Sybil , although the identity of Sybil 's parents is unclear . Pain 's Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry states that he married Sybil Talbot , the niece of Hugh de Lacy . The Complete Peerage states that he married Sybil , the daughter of Geoffrey Talbot and Talbot 's wife Agnes , who was herself probably the daughter of Walter de Lacy . The historian K. S. B. Keats @-@ Rohan states that Pain married Sybil de Lacy , the daughter of Hugh de Lacy , a view shared by fellow historians Judith Green and Paul Dalton . Others such as Bruce Coplestone @-@ Crow and David Crouch agree with the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 's designation of Sybil as Hugh 's niece , and daughter of Geoffrey Talbot and Agnes , the sister of Hugh de Lacy .
King Henry and King Stephen recognized Pain as the legitimate holder of the lands acquired through his wife Sybil . Her kinsman Gilbert de Lacy was the son of Roger de Lacy , who had been banished from England in 1095 and his English estates confiscated ; he had though retained his properties in Normandy . Roger 's English possessions were given to his brother Hugh de Lacy , from whom Sybil had inherited them . On Roger 's death Gilbert inherited the lands in Normandy , and pressed his claim to the family 's former English estates . Coplestone @-@ Crow speculates that the uncertainty hanging over the inheritance was one reason why Pain endeavoured to secure more lands around Ludlow .
Pain is the presumed builder of Pain 's Castle in the Welsh county of Radnor . He also controlled Caus Castle in Shropshire , and through his wife Ludlow Castle in the same county . Although he held the title to Weobley Castle , he does not appear to have exercised any control over it , which eventually went to Gilbert de Lacy . Pain was not the only recipient of Hugh de Lacy 's lands ; some went to Jocelin de Dinan and some to Miles of Gloucester . Pain 's share included property in Gloucestershire , Herefordshire , and Worcestershire , and he succeeded in acquiring additional lands near Ludlow , adding to the manors he held there through his wife ; his holdings of land were considered to be worth 17 knights fees . By 1130 he had evidently acquired additional properties in Oxfordshire , where he is recorded as being excused payment of danegeld that year .
= = Career = =
= = = Under Henry I = = =
Pain was too young to serve King William Rufus , but according to the later 12th @-@ century writings of Walter Map he may have been a chamberlain — one of the officials in charge of the royal household — for William 's brother , King Henry I ( reigned 1100 – 1135 ) . There is no contemporary evidence for Pain having held that office and nor is it likely , given Map 's story , that Pain was involved with Henry 's financial affairs ; rather it appears that if indeed he was a chamberlain , he was a body servant . Map relates a story about Pain serving the king personally at night , providing Henry with wine if the king called for it . The story continues that Pain once drank the wine and was caught out by Henry when the king subsequently demanded his nightcap . Map finishes the story by saying that the king then ordered that Pain should be given wine every night while awaiting the king 's pleasure . Although the story is unlikely to be true in all details , it suggests that Pain 's service to the king was personal as well as judicial and governmental . Other evidence against Map 's claim that Pain was a chamberlain is that he never attested a royal charter in that office .
The author of the Gesta Stephani described Pain as having been a page at Henry 's court , stating that he owed his position to being one of the " special and very intimate friends of King Henry " and that although Pain had been " taken into [ Henry 's ] service as [ one of his ] court pages " , it appears likely that the three fitzJohn brothers — Pain , Eustace and William — worked to advance each other 's careers , as they are frequently found witnessing , or attesting , the same charters and other royal documents .
In 1115 , Pain was a witness to a charter of confirmation that King Henry issued to Geoffrey de Clive , the Bishop of Hereford , issued in the Welsh Marches . Sometime between 1123 and 1127 he was appointed Sheriff of Herefordshire , and in 1127 became Sheriff of Shropshire also . He held the sheriffdoms of Hereford and Shropshire at least until 1136 , and probably until his death . Pain is also often termed the king 's " viceregent " or " justiciar " for those counties , and he had the custody of King Henry 's prisoner , Waleran of Melun , from September 1126 until late 1126 , when Waleran was moved to Wallingford Castle and the custody of Brian fitzCount .
Pain was one of Henry 's " new men " , who owed their positions and wealth to the king . The medieval writer Orderic Vitalis described them as a group as " of base stock who had served him [ Henry ] well , raised them , so to say , from the dust " and that the king " stationed them above earls and famous castellans " . Although Orderic stated that the families of these men were not considered high status , this likely was an exaggeration on the chronicler 's part . Pain 's family was respectable enough , as his father held a number of properties directly from the king . It appears that Pain did not always take the king 's side ; the historian C. Warren Hollister has argued that Pain was not among the supporters of Henry 's only surviving legitimate child , Matilda , in 1126 , when Henry had his nobility swear that they would recognise her as his heiress . Hollister feels that the removal of Waleran from Pain 's custody was a sign that Pain had not supported Matilda .
Pain consolidated much of his power in Shropshire and Herefordshire at Bridgnorth Castle , often using that site as a place of business in preference to Shrewsbury , which had previously been the main centre of business for his predecessors as sheriff . As well as Waleran , Pain imprisoned a Welsh hostage there in 1128 , Llywelyn ab Owain , the nephew of Maredudd ap Bleddyn , ruler of the Welsh principality of Powys . Besides Bridgnorth , Pain used his possession of Ludlow Castle to consolidate his power in the Welsh Marches . During Henry 's reign , the Welsh border was a zone of frequent raids and conflict between the Anglo @-@ Normans and the Welsh .
The Gesta Stephani indicates that Pain , along with Miles of Gloucester , was a major landholder in the western part of England , and the pair managed to dominate justice in that region . According to the document the two men " raised their power to such a pitch that from the Severn to the sea , all along the border between England and Wales , they involved everyone in litigation and forced services . " The later medieval writer Gerald of Wales called Miles and Pain " secretaries and privy councillors of the king " .
The 1130 Pipe Roll noted that Pain was a royal justice in Staffordshire , Gloucestershire , and Pembroke . Besides the ordinary court , Pain also heard cases relating to the forest law in those counties . The Pipe Roll does not record Pain as sheriff in Shropshire , but this is likely because the Shropshire returns for that year are missing from it . Also in 1130 , Pain was consulted by the king about the appointment to a vacant bishopric . The Diocese of Hereford had been vacant since the death of Richard de Capella in August 1127 , and the king consulted with Pain and the constable of Hereford before accepting their candidate — Robert de Bethune , the prior of Llanthony Priory . In 1132 Pain was present , along with his brother , at the Christmas court held by King Henry . Subsequently Caus Castle , which was under Pain 's control , was burnt by the Welsh in 1134 . As lord of Caus , Pain was involved in efforts to suppress Welsh raiding . Although Pain held Caus , his title to the fortification was unclear , as it had earlier been held by Robert Corbet .
By the end of Henry 's reign , Pain had witnessed over 60 royal charters for the king , spanning a period from around 1115 until 1135 . Although Pain witnessed a large number of royal documents , this activity took place mostly in England , as few of the documents he witnessed were drawn up while the king was in Normandy . As a reward for his service , Henry gave Pain the lordships of Ewias Lacy and Archenfield , both in Wales .
= = = Under Stephen = = =
Following King Henry 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed between the king 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. King Henry 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father , who married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but when Henry I died in 1135 , Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald contented himself with his possessions in France . Matilda , though , was less sanguine , and secured the support of the Scottish king , David , who was her maternal uncle , and in 1138 also that of her half @-@ brother , Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I.
On Henry 's death in December 1135 , Pain attended the king 's funeral . Pain was an early supporter of King Stephen , although he was said initially to have been afraid to appear at Stephen 's court for fear of being confronted by those he had oppressed . Nevertheless , Pain was with the new king by early January 1136 , when he witnessed one of Stephen 's documents , dated to around 4 January 1136 , at Reading . By Easter , both Pain and his brother Eustace had formally submitted to the king . Pain witnessed a royal charter at Oxford in April 1136 . The king rewarded the brothers by continuing to appoint them to judicial functions , and confirmed grants made by them to various religious houses .
After Henry 's death , the Welsh attempted to drive out the Norman lords who had been extending their control into Wales during Henry 's reign . Pain was with King Stephen at the siege of Exeter from June to August 1136 , early in the king 's reign . Crouch argues that Stephen did not at that time trust Pain , and kept him at the siege to more easily monitor his actions , and to prevent him from defecting to Matilda 's cause .
= = Relations with the Church = =
In 1119 Pope Callixtus II addressed letters to a group of Anglo @-@ Norman landholders in the Welsh Marches , including Pain , accusing them of having appropriated the lands of the Diocese of Llandaff and ordering their return . Pain was among a group of nobles similarly accused by Pope Honorius II in 1128 . Honorius once again ordered the nobles to restore to the Church lands they had confiscated .
Pain gave lands to Llanthony Priory , helping to establish the endowment of that monastic house , although it is difficult to distinguish his gifts from those of Hugh de Lacy , as the monks of Llanthony grouped the gifts of both men together in their records . In addition Pain granted lands to Gloucester Abbey , which had benefited from the generosity of his father and brother , as did his wife Sybil , together with other grants to her uncle the abbot . She also gave to two churches in Hereford : St Peter and St Guthlac .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 10 July 1137 Pain was killed by a javelin blow to the head , during an ambush by the Welsh as he was leading a relief expedition to the garrison at Carmarthen . He was buried in Gloucester Abbey , following a funeral service conducted by Robert de Bethune . A number of barons from the Welsh Marches attended , including Miles of Gloucester . Pain 's widow continued to hold Ludlow Castle until the middle of 1139 , when she was forced to surrender it to King Stephen . Stephen then gave Sybil in marriage to Jocelin de Dinan , who consequently acquired Ludlow Castle through his new wife , setting up the background to Gilbert Lacy 's attempts to seize Ludlow from Dinan on which the medieval Welsh romance work Fouke le Fitz Waryn is based .
Pain 's heirs were his two daughters , Cecily and Agnes . His heir male was his brother , Eustace fitzJohn . The two daughters were married five times in total ; Cecily married three times but failed to produce any direct heirs . Her first husband was Roger , the son of Miles of Gloucester . Pain arranged Cecily and Roger 's marriage . The marriage contract specified that Roger would inherit all of Pain 's lands , but as result of the latter 's death the marriage was not contracted until December 1137 , when King Stephen confirmed the terms of the settlement . The king also settled the bulk of the inheritance on Cecily , which led to disturbances and a minor war among disappointed claimants . Agnes married Warin de Munchensy and after his death Haldenald de Bidun . She died after 1185 , by which time she was described as a widow .
The historian W. E. Wightman described Pain as a " second @-@ class baron and first @-@ class civil servant " .
= When I Was Your Man =
" When I Was Your Man " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars for his second studio album , Unorthodox Jukebox ( 2012 ) . Atlantic Records released the song as the third promotional single and as the second official single , taken from the album , to mainstream radio in the United States on January 15 , 2013 . " When I Was Your Man " was written by Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Ari Levine and Andrew Wyatt ; with Mars , Lawrence and Levine credited for composing the song as well .
The pop song is an emotional piano ballad with lyrics describing the heartbreak and regret Mars felt from letting his lover get away , and his expressed hope that her new man will give her all the love and attention that he failed to provide . It features Mars singing and a piano accompaniment as the sole instrumentation . " When I Was Your Man " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised Mars ' vocal prowess ; calling it a " vulnerable and emotional ballad " . The song won " Favorite Hit " at the 2013 Premios Juventud and was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . " When I Was Your Man " topped the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , and reached the top ten on the singles chart of Australia , Canada , Denmark , France , Ireland , Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway , South Korea and the United Kingdom . It was certified quadruple @-@ platinum in Australia and in the US ; while in Canada , it was certified six times platinum . " When I Was Your Man " was the worlds eighth best selling digital single of 2013 , with sales of 8 @.@ 3 million copies ; joining an elite group of the best @-@ selling singles worldwide .
Cameron Duddy and Mars directed the ballad 's accompanying music video . It portrays Mars as a " lonely balladeer " who sits at his piano donned in a pair of sunglasses while setting a half @-@ full glass of whiskey atop it . Critics resoundingly complimented the simplicity of the video 's production . The song has been covered by artists , including Mike Ward , who released a studio version of the song after he performed it on The Voice UK . Ward 's cover peaked at number 60 in the UK Singles Chart . " When I Was Your Man " was also added to the soundtrack of the Brazilian soap opera Amor à Vida . Mars performed the song on The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) .
= = Writing and production = =
While working on the album , Mars said : " I 'm never singing another ballad again , " but that came from the gut – it 's the most honest , real thing I 've ever sung , " he says . " When there are no safe bets , that 's when I feel my blood move . " He also shared how important the lyrics to this song are for him when he posted a photograph of Unorthodox Jukebox 's artwork via his Twitter account . " Soon you guys will hear a song I wrote called When I Was Your Man . I 've never been this nervous . Can 't explain it , " he tweeted . Philip Lawrence explained the inspiration of the song : " I think Bruno and I are both huge fans of older music , like Billy Joel and Elton John . We always loved those moments where you can sit at the piano and emote . Those intimate moments when an artist is so naked and vulnerable ; you can ’ t help but be drawn to it . We always wanted to find a stripped down song like that , which is how that song came to be . The subject matter was real life ; Bruno had experienced that , so we tried to say it in the best and catchiest way we could . "
" When I Was Your Man " was mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in Hollywood by Manny Marroquin . Bruno Mars played the piano , while the recording was done by Ari Levine . Charlez Moniz was responsible for engineering the song ; and David Kutch with mastering it .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" When I Was Your Man " was written by Andrew Wyatt , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , while production was handled by the latter three production @-@ team The Smeezingtons . Having chord progressions Am @-@ C @-@ Dm @-@ G @-@ G7 @-@ C ( verse ) and F @-@ G @-@ C ( chorus ) , the song is written in the key of C Major , with Mars ' vocals range from the low note of G3 to the high note of C5 . The pop piano ballad finds Mars singing about a pre @-@ fame heartbreak as he regrets letting his woman get away . It starts with a rolling piano riff ; unto a nearly scat " vocal cadence " : " Same bed but it feels just a little bit bigger now / Our song on the radio but it don ’ t sound the same " , as he laments the " single state " he created for himself . Next , he sings of his failings ; to do right by his woman , " I shoulda bought you flowers / And held your hand / Shoulda gave you all my hours / When I had the chance " . Its title phrase re @-@ emerges in the final chorus , juxtaposed by Bruno from all the things he " shoulda " done , into things he hopes his ex ’ s new man will do ; concluding : " Do all of the things I should have done / When I was your man " . In an interview to Rolling Stone , Mars revealed , while reluctant , that he wrote the song for his girlfriend , model Jessica Caban , when he was worried about losing her . In contrast with the song , Mars and Caban stayed together ; remaining a couple as of 2014 . Mars also said , in the interview , that he finds it difficult to perform the song ; saying : " You 're bringing up all these old emotions again , " and that : " It 's just like bleeding ! "
For Andrew Unterberger of Pop Dust , the song " starts out dangerously close to ' Drops of Jupiter ' territory , but luckily , there are no fried chicken or soy latte lyrics to be found here . " He also noted that , " ' When I Was Your Man ' goes minimal with the musical accompaniment , featuring just Bruno and his piano , sounding halfway between an Alicia Keys ballad and Prince ’ s ' How Come U Don 't Call Me Anymore ? ' . " Andy Gill of The Independent called it a " McCartney @-@ esque piano ballad . " Melinda Newman of HitFix thought that the song " sounds like a cross between Stevie Wonder and Elton John , " also seeing " a touch of Michael Jackson " in his delivery . Sam Lansky of Idolator agreed , writing that " while evoking Elton John , the track sounds like it was recorded live in a piano bar , with audible background noise , like the spooling of film on a projector . "
= = Release = =
" When I Was Your Man " was released as the third and final promotional single taken from Unorthodox Jukebox , on December 3 , 2012 . Later , it was reported by Mars that " Young Girls " was scheduled to be the second single from the album . However , a week later , while performing " When I Was Your Man " on a TV show , he announced that it would be the second official single from the album . To confirm the news , Mediabase also published that the song will be soon released to radio stations .
" When I Was Your Man " was released as the second single from Unorthodox Jukebox . Atlantic Records serviced the song to mainstream radio in the United States on January 15 , 2013 . On March 8 , 2013 , Warner Music Group sent the song to mainstream radio in Italy . It was released as a CD single in Germany on April 5 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The song has received generally positive reviews from most music critics . Sam Lanksy of Idolator gave the song a favorable review , calling it " an emotional ballad that shows off Mars ’ sweet vocals . " Lansky also praised it , naming it " another exceptional offering from Unorthodox Jukebox , which is shaping up to be one of the year ’ s best pop releases . " Andrew Unterberger of Pop Dust gave the song a rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , commenting that ' When I Was Your Man ' is " a much more satisfying , less ostentatious ballad than ' Young Girls ' — though maybe the lyrics are a little too clichéd to result in a classic soul ballad the way Bruno seems to be going for . " However , he praised Mars , which according to him , " nobody puts a song like this over quite like him , and when he hits the big high note on the song ’ s bridge , it ’ s about as striking a moment as you ’ re likely to hear on a pop record this year . It might be a little too perfect to be as devastating as a song like ' Someone Like You ' , but it might be a big hit just the same , and it ’ s guaranteed to absolutely slay in a live set . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly was positive , writing that " Old @-@ school charm still gets Mars the furthest , and the best thing here is the classic torch song ' When I Was Your Man ' , which finds him at the piano listing all the ways he wronged an ex . ' Caused a good , strong woman like you to walk out my life , ' he cries in his Sinatra @-@ smooth tenor , oozing charm . Maybe he 's a jerk . But he 's the jerk that girl 's going home with tonight . "
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that " The piano tells it all on this song , which is one of the most certain on the album . " Later , he stated , " If this isn ’ t the beginning of the Billy Joel comeback , people should lose their jobs . " Jason Lipshut of Billboard wrote that " it will make for a killer lighters @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air moment in concert . Although it 's not quite an Alicia Keys @-@ esque powerhouse , ' When I Was Your Man ' smartly allows Mars to momentarily remove his fedora and bare his soul . " The Arizona Republic 's Ed Masley viewed " When I Was Your Man " as one of Unorthodox Jukebox best tracks and described it as " stripped @-@ down soul " . Jessica Sager of Pop Crush opined that " It ’ s a vulnerable look at the ever @-@ smooth Mars , and if it doesn ’ t pull at your heartstrings at least a little bit , you might not have a soul . " Jim Farber of New York Daily News wrote that in the ballad , " he matches his bravura performance to a tune stirring enough to inspire aspiring stars on the ' X Factor / Idol ' axis for years to come . " Melinda Newman of HitFix called it a " beautiful piano ballad , " writing that " There ’ s not a lot of embellishment , there are no samples and there is not a wasted note . " Sandy Cohen of The Huffington Post wrote that " Mars is at his best on the bare piano ballad ' When I Was Your Man ' . " Andrew Chan of Slant Magazine gave a mixed review for the song , writing that " his melody and lyrics end up sounding as slight as they did before — an embarrassment for an artist who 's staked so much of his image on sturdy , old @-@ fashioned songcraft . "
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
" When I Was Your Man " won " Favorite Hit " at the 2013 Premios Juventud and was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , and for Favorite Song at the 2014 People 's Choice Awards . The ballad was nominated for Break @-@ Up Song at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards . The song was one of the several winners of the 2014 ASCAP Pop Music Awards for Most Performed Song . It was the fourth most played song on radio , the eighth most played on Top 40 and the eighth most played on Adult Contemporary radios , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Mediabase ranked the song as the 15th most played on Top 40 radio stations in 2013 . In the UK , " When I Was Your Man " was the tenth pop track most played in 2013 .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = North America = = =
" When I Was Your Man " was released on iTunes as a promotional single , leading the song to debut at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . His performance on The Voice , made the song re @-@ entering at number 62 . " When I Was Your Man " entered the top 10 the week of February 13 , 2013 , charting at number 9 , becoming Mars ' 10th top 10 single . At that time , " Locked Out of Heaven " was at number 2 , and thus Mars became the first male artist to place two titles as a lead act in the Hot 100 's top 10 simultaneously since " Grenade " and " Just the Way You Are " doubled up for eight consecutive weeks . On February 27 , 2013 , the song jumped from number 8 to number 3 on the Hot 100 with " Airplay Gainer " honors for a seventh week in a row , tying it with Rihanna 's " Rude Boy " ( 2010 ) , T @-@ Pain 's " Buy U a Drank ( Shawty Snappin ' ) , " featuring Yung Joc ( 2007 ) , and Beyonce 's " Baby Boy , " featuring Sean Paul ( 2003 ) , for the longest streak dating to the award 's 1985 launch . The song reached number 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , in its 16th week after being discounted to 69 cents on the iTunes music store , making it Mars ' slowest @-@ peaking single . It also became the second number 1 song in the chart 's to feature exclusively piano and vocals . Mars , Adele and John Legend are the only who have been able to achieve this feat . With " When I Was Your Man " topping the Hot 100 , Mars reached the same mark as Diddy , Ludacris , Prince and Lionel Richie . Elvis Presley was the only male who reached five leaders more quickly than Mars . It stayed at number one for one week , before being replaced by P ! nk 's " Just Give Me a Reason . "
On the Radio Songs chart , " When I Was Your Man " peaked at number one , becoming Mars ' fifth number 1 on the Radio Songs . Among men , Mars ties 50 Cent and trails only Usher ( seven No. 1s ) , Ludacris and Kanye West ( six ) since the chart 's 1990 start . Mariah Carey leads with 11 Radio Songs No. 1s . On the Mainstream Top 40 chart , " When I Was Your Man " peaked at number 1 , giving Mars the highest total among solo males of number one songs ( six ) on the chart ( only Katy Perry and Rihanna lead all acts with eleven number one 's each ) . After an year , Justin Timberlake 's " Not a Bad Thing " passed Mars for most number one songs on the Mainstream Top 40 . The song reached its one million downloads in the United States on February 27 , 2013 . It became the ninth best @-@ selling song of 2013 in the US with 3 @,@ 928 @,@ 000 downloads sold . As of January 2014 , it has sold over 4 @,@ 123 @,@ 000 downloads in the US .
On the Canadian Hot 100 chart , the song was a success in its first week , debuting at number 45 . Later , it re @-@ entered at number 48 . It peaked at number 3 . It was certified four times platinum by the Music Canada , indicating shipment of 320 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
" When I Was Your Man " peaked at number 2 , in the United Kingdom . The song was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales of 600 @,@ 000 copies . On the Danish Singles Chart , " When I Was Your Man " debuted at number 23 on February 15 , 2013 . The song reached a high point of number 4 on March 8 , 2013 , and on March 22 , 2013 , it was certified double @-@ platinum by the IFPI Denmark , indicating streams of 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 . " When I Was Your Man " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 26 on January 1 , 2013 . After three weeks the song jumped in the top ten , to number 4 , remaining for two non @-@ consecutive weeks , becoming its highest peak . The single has received a double @-@ platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , denoting sales of 30 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the song debuted at number 44 on the ARIA Charts week of December 23 , 2012 . Later , it jumped to number 21 . In its third week , it dropped to number 29 , however , in its fourth week , the song climbed to number 18 , becoming his eighth top @-@ twenty single in Australia . In its fifth week , the song gave a huge climb to number 6 , becoming his sixth top @-@ ten single in Australia . In South Korea , the song peaked at number 7 on the " International Download Chart " . In 2012 , the single sold 38 @,@ 178 copies and in 2013 it was able to sell 258 @,@ 106 . Overall , the single sold 296 @,@ 284 copies in both years . Worldwide , it was the eighth best selling digital single of 2013 with sales of 8 @.@ 3 million copies As of January 2016 , the song has sold 8 @,@ 9 million copies worldwide .
= = Live performances = =
" When I Was Your Man " was performed live for the first time on the season three finale of US The Voice . Mars performed the song with a piano player and a Hammond B3 player and no stage production except for blue lighting . TJ of Neon Limelight praised the performance , writing that " he poured out his soul as he belted the emotional track with holy @-@ freaking @-@ amazing vocals . " Alexandra Capotorto of Pop Crush praised " his voice , " calling it " as smooth as a baby ’ s bottom . " Malachi of The Honesty Hour called it a " showstopping performance . " He also performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on January 10 , 2013 . The performance had Mars wearing a Los Angeles Kings hat ; with piano and organ accompaniment . Kat Lee of Pop Crush raved the performance , writing that " Bruno , you cut us to the core ! , " while she also praised his voice , calling it " the star of the show and rightfully so . The vocals on the recorded version of this song are impeccable and his live version on ‘ Kimmel ’ showcases just how talented Mars is . " Kyle McGovern of Spin wrote that " he swells and contracts with every new regret and heartbroken epiphany . " McGovern also stated , " Mars might still be locked out of heaven , but it sounds like he 's getting closer to the angels . " Story Gilmore of Neon Limelight also praised the performance , commenting that " Bruno served nothing but flawless vocals during the performance just as he did when he dropped by The Voice ’ s season three finale to perform the song . " " When I Was Your Man " was performed at The Jonathan Ross Show after an interview , on March 3 , 2013 . The song was performed at season five the finale of Let 's Dance for Comic Relief , on March 9 , 2013 . On April 3 , 2014 , Mars performed the song live on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . Carl Williott called the performance " flawless " . On May 26 , 2013 , the single was performed at the Radio 1 's Big Weekend . The song was performed on the show Vivement Dimanche , on April 7 , 2014 . It was the twelfth song of his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Cover versions and usage in media = =
In 2013 , The Voice UK contestant Mike Ward performed the song during the competition . A studio version of his performance was released and peaked at number 60 in the UK Singles Chart .
" When I Was Your Man " was included on the soundtrack of the Brazilian soap opera Amor à Vida .
Country singer Thomas Rhett recorded a cover of the song as a ' thank @-@ you ' to fans . The song was released for sale on February 3 , 2015 and it debuted at No. 27 on the Hot Country Songs chart and No. 2 on the Country Digital Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The music video of the song was directed by Cameron Duddy and Mars , and was released February 5 , 2013 . The video portrays the taping of a TV special , in which Mars is playing a lonely balladeer on the ivories while sitting in front of a piano with sunglasses donned and a half @-@ full glass of whiskey atop his instrument , wearing a suit with a carnation boutonnière , while he keeps reminding himself of what he could have done to keep his lover . The video is based on 70 's vibe and retro effects . The set and the idea of the video is similar to one used for " Love in the Key of C " , a 1997 Belinda Carlisle minor hit .
= = = Reception = = =
Rolling Stone , called the video " powerful " and a found " the final crescendo reaching a breaking point of true sorrow " . Chris Payne , from Billboard called the music video " somber " . Nicole Sia of Spin praised " the song 's visual " . According to Amy Sciarretto from Pop Crush , " The emotion reverberates off the screen as he sings the lyrics of the song " , adding " The clip has a bit of a prismatic tone to it , but the visuals really are secondary to the simplicity of his playing and emoting " . According to Lansky of Idolator , " the clip , which is basically just Mars ... sitting and singing at the piano ... works " . He continued , " While he certainly could have gone for something a little more high @-@ concept , the clip ’ s elegant framing just draws attention to ... the song " .
= = Track listing = =
Promo CD single
" When I Was Your Man " – 3 : 34
German CD single
" When I Was Your Man " – 3 : 36
" Locked Out of Heaven " ( Cazzette 's Answering Machine Mix ) – 5 : 04
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at : Daptone Studios in Brooklyn , New York and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California ; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unorthodox Jukebox , Atlantic Records
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Promotional release = = =
= = = Single release = = =
= SS American ( 1900 ) =
SS American was a steel @-@ hulled , single propeller cargo ship built at Chester , Pennsylvania , by the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding and Engine Works for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company and the Hawaiian sugar trade . During World War I service for the United States Navy , the ship was known as USS American ( ID @-@ 2292 ) . Late in her career for American @-@ Hawaiian , she was renamed SS Honolulan .
American was a little more than 430 feet ( 130 m ) long and 51 feet ( 16 m ) abeam . Coal @-@ fired boilers powered a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine which turned a single screw propeller . This power plant — supplemented with auxiliary sails — was capable of moving the ship at up to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) . As one of the first four ships ordered by the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company after its 1899 formation , American was used on the Hawaii – New York sugar trade via the Straits of Magellan . In 1901 she set a record for the fastest New York – San Francisco ocean passage , making the voyage in 59 days . After 1905 , she was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and , after it opened in 1914 , the Panama Canal .
Taken up for wartime service after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , she completed two round @-@ trip voyages to France without incident . Shortly after the start of her third such voyage , however , she collided with another U.S. Navy vessel , USS West Gate , sinking that vessel with the loss of seven of her crew in October 1918 . She completed one more round trip in U.S. Navy service , sailing to Gibraltar after the Armistice in November . She returned to New York in February 1919 , was decommissioned , and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian .
SS American resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from naval service , being renamed Honolulan in 1925 . She was sold in 1926 and taken to Osaka where she was broken up sometime after her arrival there in November that same year .
= = Design and construction = =
The American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , shortly after its March 1899 formation , placed orders for its first four ships for the company 's planned sugar service between Hawaii and the East Coast of the United States . Three ships — American , Hawaiian , and Oregonian — were ordered from Delaware River Shipbuilding in Chester , Pennsylvania , while the fourth — Californian — was ordered from Union Iron Works of San Francisco . The contract cost of the three Pennsylvania @-@ built ships was set at $ 425 @,@ 000 each , but financing costs drove the final cost of each ship higher ; the final cost of American was $ 61 @.@ 00 per deadweight ton , which totaled just under $ 540 @,@ 000 .
American ( Delaware River yard no . 308 ) was launched on 14 July 1900 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in October , joining Californian in the American @-@ Hawaiian Fleet . American , the first of the trio of Pennsylvania ships to be completed , was 6 @,@ 861 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 430 feet 1 inch ( 131 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 51 feet 2 inches ( 15 @.@ 60 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 850 LT DWT , and her cargo holds had a storage capacity of 376 @,@ 699 cubic feet ( 10 @,@ 666 @.@ 9 m3 ) . American had a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , and was powered by a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine with coal @-@ fired boilers , that drove a single screw propeller . American and her sister ships , equipped with two upright masts , carried and used two large trysails , a fore staysail and jib , and a main staysail , to help conserve coal for their journeys .
= = Early career = =
At the start of her American @-@ Hawaiian career , American sailed in scheduled service from New York and Philadelphia around South America via the Straits of Magellan , up to San Francisco and from there to Honolulu . Along the way , she was refueled with coal at Saint Lucia in the British West Indies and at Coronel in Chile . The Chilean coal was often of lesser quality which burned too quickly and dangerously sent sparks flying from the ship 's funnel ; the quality and fire danger were key reasons that all subsequent American @-@ Hawaiian ships used oil instead of coal for fuel .
The early American @-@ Hawaiian voyages averaged about 70 days in each direction from New York to San Francisco , which was about 55 days shorter than the typical time required for sailing ships . Insurers initially made the company pay a 6 % premium for taking its large ships through the treacherous 300 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 560 km ) channel in the Straits of Magellan , rather than the safer passage around Cape Horn . But by 1903 , American @-@ Hawaiian 's safe operation and experience on the route allowed the company to negotiate a 3 ½ % rate , just a ½ % surcharge over the standard rate of 3 % . The experience on the route also paid off in shorter transit times : American set a record time with a 59 @-@ day New York @-@ to @-@ San Francisco passage in 1901 . However , typical times for the trip were just over 50 days by 1903 .
In May 1905 , after two years of negotiations , American @-@ Hawaiian signed a contract with the Tehuantepec National Railway of Mexico , abandoning the Straits of Magellan route in favor of the Tehuantepec Route . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , Mexico 's narrowest point , on the railroad . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaiian to return to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan in late April . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route . In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including American , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again .
American 's exact movements from this time through early 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore . However , when the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the entire American @-@ Hawaiian fleet , including American , was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , which then returned the ships for operation by American @-@ Hawaiian .
= = U.S. Navy service = =
In May 1918 , the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) selected American for service carrying United States Army cargo to France as a part of the U.S. Navy 's Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) . On 22 May , American was turned over to the Navy and assigned the identification number of 2292 . She was commissioned as USS American on 25 May with Lieutenant Commander ( Lt. Cdr . ) Myron P. Schermerhorn , USNRF , in command . One week later , American , loaded with cargo , departed New York and joined up with an eastbound convoy on 2 June , reaching Brest , France , on 17 June . She sailed to Bordeaux via La Pallice to unload , and departed on 6 July , reaching New York 16 days later . After a quick turnaround , American sailed for Bordeaux again on 5 August and had arrived back at New York on 6 September .
= = = Collision with West Gate = = =
On 4 October , American began her third trip to France in a convoy escorted by the cruiser Denver and headed to Bordeaux . On the night of 6 / 7 October — noted in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships as " particularly dark and rainy " — the ships were having trouble maintaining their stations in the convoy ; American was sailing in the column headed by the convoy 's guide ship , Sagua .
At 02 : 28 on 7 October , while about 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ) south of Halifax , the steering gear engine of USS West Gate — ahead and to the starboard of American — jammed , sending the ship veering sharply to the port . West Gate 's crew put the ship 's engine at half speed to try to drop out of the convoy , but minutes later , men on the bridge sighted the red light from the oncoming American . Though West Gate 's bridge rang up " full speed ahead " to avoid the collision , there was not enough time for the engine to respond before American 's bow cut into the starboard side of West Gate , near the poop deck .
American , which was lightly damaged by the collision , reversed her engine to back out of the tangle while West Gate 's engine was shut down . After American was completely backed out , West Gate began rapidly settling and was ordered abandoned . A total of seven men from West Gate died in the accident — two when their lifeboat capsized , and a further five that probably died in the initial impact . West Gate 's commanding officer , Lt. Cdr . R. B. Vandervoort , and six men he had personally escorted to a life raft were picked up by one of American 's lifeboats at 06 : 00 , after some 3 ½ hours in the water . The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships does not report any casualties on American from the collision .
American proceeded to Halifax , where she had her collision damage repaired over the next six weeks . She departed for Gibraltar on 27 November , a little more than two weeks after the signing of the Armistice with Germany that ended the fighting . After calling at that British port on 9 December , American docked at Marseilles , before leaving for New York in the new year , arriving there on 9 February 1919 . American was decommissioned and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian on 4 March , and formally struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 14 May .
= = Later career = =
American resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , American sailed in inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal . In June 1925 , American @-@ Hawaiian announced its intent to acquire six steamers from W. R. Grace and Company . Later in the year , American was renamed Honolulan in order to free her name for the newly acquired Santa Barbara . In 1926 , Honolulan was sold for scrap . She was taken to Osaka , Japan , and was broken up some time after her arrival there in November that same year .
= Bridie Kean =
Bridie Kean ( born 27 February 1987 ) is an Australian wheelchair basketball player and canoeist . She won a bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and a silver medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . In 2016 she became a va 'a world champion .
= = Personal = =
Kean was born 27 February 1987 . When she was two , her feet were amputated due to meningococcal septicaemia . She is nicknamed Bird because her friend Kate Dunstan in high school thought it was funny that her name sounded like Bird . Then , when she moved to the United States , her friends struggled to pronounce her first name correctly – it rhymes with " tidy " – when she was living there . And so , the nickname stuck . Her hometown is Parkdale , Victoria . An award in Kean 's honour , acknowledging qualities of compassion and bravery , is each year presented to a student at Kilbreda College , where she went to scool . As of 2012 , she lives in Alexandra Headland , Queensland .
Kean did a gap year in England in 2005 . She earned a Bachelor of Science from the University of Illinois , Urbana @-@ Champaign in 2010 , and in graduated with a Master of Public Health from the University of Queensland . In 2015 , she was working on her PhD in Health Promotion at the University of the Sunshine Coast . She became the manager of its Sports Elite and Education Dual ( SEED ) program , which enabled elite athletes with a disability to combine study with high performance training and competition , in 2016 .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
When she was 15 , Kean was encouraged to take up wheelchair basketball by Liesl Tesch . She was invited to a training camp , and started playing the sport on the state and national level in 2003 . In 2011 / 2012 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 17 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . A 4 point player , she plays as a forward .
= = = University = = =
Kean had a wheelchair basketball scholarship with the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign that ended in 2010 .
= = = Club = = =
Kean made her Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) debut in 2007 . In 2012 , she played club basketball for the Brisbane @-@ based Minecraft Comets . That season , she was the team 's captain . Since September 2012 , she plays for Hamburger SV , which returned to Germany 's top league after a two season absence . Hamburger SV won the national championship for the eighth time in 2013 . In 2014 she spearheaded the Minecraft Comets to their first ever national title win , which was clinched by a crucial three point field goal by Kean in the final stages .
= = = National team = = =
She made her national team debut in 2007 when she competed in the IWBF Qualification tournament . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2009 Four Nations tournament in Canada , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . In July 2010 , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany . In 2010 , she was a member of the team that played in the Osaka Cup . She represented Australia at the 2010 World Championships where her team finished fourth .
= = = = Paralympics = = = =
She was part of the bronze medal @-@ winning Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . Her team defeated Canada 53 @-@ 47 in earning their medal . She said of her team 's 2008 performance , " We worked together as a team really well and our medal is a credit to a lot of hard work and dedication . "
In October 2011 , she was named as part of the senior national squad that would compete at the Paralympic qualifying tournament for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . She was the captain of the Gliders at the 2012 Summer Paralympics . In the gold medal game against Germany , she played 13 : 02 minutes . Her team lost 44 @-@ 58 , but earned a silver medal . She scored 1 point and had four rebounds in the game .
= = Canoeing = =
The Gliders failed to qualify for the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro . Kean took up canoeing , coached by Gayle Mayes , who represented Australia at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . With her No Limits team @-@ mates from Mooloolaba , Queensland , she won gold in the Para Mixed V12 500m and the Para Mixed V6 1000m finals in at the IVF Va 'a World Elite and Club Sprints Championships at Lake Kawana on the Sunshine Coast .
= Dælenenga idrettspark =
Dælenenga idrettspark is a sports facility located at Grünerløkka in Oslo , Norway . It consists of an artificial turf football pitch , a club house and an indoor ice rink — Grünerhallen . The facilities are owned by the Municipality of Oslo and used and operated by Grüner IL , the local sports club .
The venue opened in 1916 and was originally used for football , athletics and speed skating . The club house was completed in 1928 and has since been used for martial arts . From 1929 , a velodrome course was installed , which remained in use until 1940 . During the 1930s , the venue was the main Oslo stadium for the Workers ' Sports Federation ( AIF ) . A speedway course was installed in 1947 and remained in use until 1968 . The venue featured eight ice hockey matches and two bandy matches during the 1952 Winter Olympics . Artificial ice was laid in 1985 and the skating hall opened in 1995 , two years before the artificial turf was laid .
= = History = =
Construction started in 1915 . The stadium opened in 1916 as a combined football and athletics venue with a capacity for 10 @,@ 000 spectators . The track was iced during winter and used for speed skating . Dælenenga was one of two multi @-@ sport venues serving eastern Oslo , along with Jordal Idrettspark . The club house , used for wrestling and boxing , opened in 1928 . The following year , the ice rink was decommissioned and a velodrome was instead installed , which remained in use until 1940 . During the Second World War , the club house was used as a school .
In 1947 , the velodrome was removed and the track converted for use for speedway . For the 1952 Winter Olympics , the venue was upgraded with a new ice hockey clock , a new lighting system and new ice hockey boards . The speedway course was dismounted in 1968 . During the 1980s , the stadium became a central location for drug dealing , but the traffic moved away during the 1990s . In 1985 , artificial ice was laid north of the football pitch , costing 2 @.@ 1 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Of this , NOK 1 @.@ 3 million was financed by Grüner IL through loans . At the same time a new gravel pitch was laid on the football field .
The artificial ice increased the popularity of playing ice hockey in the neighborhood . The club therefore started working on plans to build an indoor ice rink over the artificial rink . Planning of the hall started in 1989 , and in 1990 a proposal for a steel structure was launched . However , it was rejected by the municipality . The club therefore hired Einar Dahle Arkitekter to work on a new design , resulting in area planning regulations being passed in 1991 . Financing of the steel structure had been secured in loans , but these were stopped following a credit crunch . In 1994 , the municipality initiated a redevelopment program of the downtown residential areas , which included grants to build Grünerhallen . The hall was estimated to cost NOK 23 @.@ 4 million and the contract was awarded to Mur 6 Tax . Construction started in March 1995 and the venue opened on 6 October 1995 , as the 30th indoor ice rink in Norway . In 1996 , the city council had to grant an additional NOK 4 @.@ 6 million to cover cost overruns .
Ahead of 1997 , the municipal council granted NOK 3 @.@ 2 million to lay artificial turf at Dælenenga . Construction started in May and the pitch was taken into use on 4 September 1997 . The new turf was Belgian @-@ manufactured , sand @-@ filled Superfoot 32 . The upgrade also saw the first upgrades to the terraces in the stadium 's history . New artificial turf was laid in 2008 .
= = Facilities = =
Dælenenga idrettspark consists of a club house , an artificial turf football pitch and an indoor ice rink . The venue is owned by Oslo Municipality , but the day @-@ to @-@ day operation is undertaken by Grüner IL , the main tenant . The park covers an area of 16 @.@ 1 hectares ( 40 acres ) . The football pitch has artificial turf and measures 100 by 64 meters ( 109 by 70 yd ) . The club house has a floor area of 900 square meters ( 9 @,@ 700 sq ft ) and is built in brick . The building has suffered under lack of maintenance and has been subject to water damage , although the outer walls and foundation are in good condition . The club house has an impractical floor plan , and contains gyms for martial art and changing rooms for the pitch .
Grünerhallen has a single 30 @-@ by @-@ 60 @-@ meter ( 98 by 197 ft ) ice rink . It has a capacity for 200 sitting and 400 standing spectators and features six player and two referee change rooms . The hall 's lighting produces 600 lux . The building also features a weight lifting room , a cafeteria and club offices . Dælenenga idrettspark is 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 mi ) from downtown Oslo and is located on Ruter bus route 30 and close to the light rail station Birkelunden on the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line .
= = Events = =
During the late 1920s and 1930s , Dælenenga was dominated by the Workers ' Sports Federation ( AIF ) and served as its main stadium in Oslo . AIF 's Grünerløkka chapter was established at Dælenenga and used it as its training ground . Dælenenga was used for major AIF tournaments and the largest tournament took place 5 July 1929 , with 500 participants . It also served as the terminus of many of AIF 's and other labor movement parades . Each May Day the stadium would be packed . From the early 1930s , AIF moved its largest tournaments to Jordal . The local AIF club was particularly good at boxing , and in 1937 gathered thousands of spectators to watch a boxing match at Dælenenga .
From the 1920s to 1946 , the Østkantstafetten relay race was held with start and finish at Dælenenga . The route ran through various streets in eastern Oslo and was a counter @-@ measure to Holmenkollstafetten in the western part of town . From 1929 Dælenenga became a center of velodrome cycling . During the Second World War , Dælenengen was used for sports training in football and handball by the German Wehrmacht . After the war ended , the clubs in the neighborhood went through a consolidation process . In 1952 , the clubs Spero , Strong and B @-@ 14 merged to create Grüner IL , which became the dominant club at the venue . Speedway events took place between 1947 and 1968 , with Dælenenga growing to become a prime national venue , especially during the 1950s . The most notable regular local drivers were Basse Hveem , Henry Andersen , Werner Lorentzen and Aage Hansen .
As of 2012 , Grüner Fotball remains the football venue 's tenant . Their main football team plays in Third Division . Grüner Hockey uses the hockey rink , with their main men 's team playing in the First Division . The club house is used by Sportsklubben av 1909 , Grüner IL and Fighter Kickboxingklubb .
= = = Speed skating = = =
The first speed skating competition took place on 24 January 1917 , and the stadium remained in use for speed skating until 1929 . AIF arranged their Norwegian championships in speed skating at Dælenenga in 1926 and 1929 . Finland 's Clas Thunberg set two unofficial world records in 1 @,@ 000 meters of 1 : 31 @.@ 60 twice in 1921 .
= = = 1952 Winter Olympics = = =
Dælenenga was one of five ice hockey rinks used during the 1952 Winter Olympics . Hosting 8 of 37 matches , it the second @-@ most use venue after Jordal Amfi . It was also the only hockey venue other than Jordal to be located in Oslo .
Bandy was arranged as a demonstration sport at the 1952 Winter Olympics . Two of the three matches were conducted at Dælenenga .
= Æthelric II =
Æthelric ( called Æthelric II to distinguish him from an earlier Æthelric who was also bishop of Selsey and also spelled Ethelric ; died c . 1076 ) was the second to last medieval Bishop of Selsey in England before the see was moved to Chichester . Consecrated a bishop in 1058 , he was deposed in 1070 for unknown reasons and then imprisoned by King William I of England . He was considered one of the best legal experts of his time , and was even brought from his prison to attend the trial on Penenden Heath where he gave testimony about English law before the Norman Conquest of England .
= = Early life = =
Æthelric was a monk at Christ Church Priory at Canterbury prior to his becoming a bishop . Several historians opine that he might have been the same as the Æthelric who was a monk of Canterbury and a relative of Godwin , Earl of Wessex . That Æthelric was elected by the monks of Canterbury to be Archbishop of Canterbury in 1050 , but was not confirmed by King Edward the Confessor who insisted on Robert of Jumièges becoming archbishop instead . The evidence is not merely that they shared the same name , because the name was a relatively common one in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Other evidence pointing to the possibility of them being the same person includes the fact that he was felt to have been unfairly deposed in 1070 as well as the bishop 's great age in 1076 .
Æthelric was consecrated bishop in 1058 by Stigand , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Æthelric was consecrated by Stigand , unlike most of the English bishops of the time period , because at that point , Stigand held a valid pallium , or symbol of an archbishop 's authority and ability to consecrate bishops .
= = Deposition = =
Æthelric was deposed by the Council of Windsor on 24 May 1070 and imprisoned at Marlborough , being replaced by Stigand ( not the same as the archbishop ) , who later moved the seat of the diocese to Chichester . It is possible , that his deposition was tied to the fact that about that time , King Harold of England 's mother and sister took refuge with the count of Flanders . If Æthelric was related to the Godwin 's , King William I of England may have feared that the bishop would use his diocese to launch a rebellion . Other reasons put forward include the fact that Æthelric had been consecrated by Stigand , but the other bishop that Stigand had consecrated , Siward the Bishop of Rochester was not deposed . Æthelric was a monk , and while not having a great reputation for sanctity , he was not held to be immoral either . The pope did not feel that his deposition had been handled correctly , so his deposition was confirmed at the Council of Winchester on 1 April 1076 . It continued to be considered uncanonical , but Æthelric was never restored to his bishopric .
= = Penenden Heath = =
He was carted from imprisonment to the Trial of Penenden Heath of Odo of Bayeux , earl of Kent . This took place sometime between 1072 and 1076 . At that time , he was the most prominent legalist in England . He helped clarify Anglo @-@ Saxon land laws , as the trial was concerned with the attempts of Lanfranc to recover lands from Odo . The medieval writer Eadmer also consulted Æthelric for information on Eadmer 's Life of St Dunstan .
Presumably Æthelric died soon after the trial , as he was already an old man when he attended the trial .
= = Note = =
= German submarine U @-@ 255 =
German submarine U @-@ 255 was a Type VIIC U @-@ boat that served in Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The submarine was laid down on 21 December 1940 at the Bremer Vulkan yard at Bremen @-@ Vegesack , launched on 8 October 1941 and commissioned on 29 November 1941 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Reinhart Reche .
One of the most successful U @-@ boats to operate in Arctic waters , she operated from Norway during 1942 – 1943 , and then from France in 1944 – 1945 , sailing on 15 combat patrols , sinking ten merchant ships totalling 47 @,@ 640 GRT and damaging another of 7 @,@ 191 GRT enough for it to be written off as a total loss . She also sank the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ tons Edsall @-@ class destroyer escort USS Leopold ( DE @-@ 319 ) . At the end of the war U @-@ 255 surrendered to the British , and was sunk during Operation Deadlight on 13 December 1945 .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 255 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 23 September 1939 and laid down more than a year later on 21 December 1940 at the Bremer Vulkan yard at Bremen @-@ Vegesack as yard number 20 . U @-@ 255 was launched 8 October 1941 , and commissioned on 29 November that same year with Kptlt . Reinhart Reche in command .
= = Design = =
German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines . U @-@ 255 had a displacement of 769 tonnes ( 757 long tons ) when at the surface and 871 tonnes ( 857 long tons ) while submerged . She had a total length of 67 @.@ 10 m ( 220 ft 2 in ) , a pressure hull length of 50 @.@ 50 m ( 165 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 20 m ( 20 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 74 m ( 15 ft 7 in ) . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four @-@ stroke , six @-@ cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of 2 @,@ 800 to 3 @,@ 200 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 060 to 2 @,@ 350 kW ; 2 @,@ 760 to 3 @,@ 160 shp ) for use while surfaced , two AEG GU 460 / 8 – 27 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 750 metric horsepower ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 17 @.@ 7 knots ( 32 @.@ 8 km / h ; 20 @.@ 4 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 6 knots ( 14 @.@ 1 km / h ; 8 @.@ 7 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 80 nautical miles ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 8 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 700 km ; 9 @,@ 800 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 255 was fitted with five 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and one at the stern ) , fourteen torpedoes , one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK C / 35 naval gun , 220 rounds , and an anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of between forty @-@ four and sixty .
= = Service history = =
After a period of training with the 8th U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Königsberg in the Baltic Sea , U @-@ 255 was transferred to the 11th U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Bergen , Western Norway , for front @-@ line service on 1 July 1942 .
= = = First patrol = = =
On 15 June 1942 , U @-@ 255 sailed from Kiel , under the command of Kptlt . Reche , arriving at Narvik on the 20th . She then departed on her first patrol on 23 June , sailing into the Barents Sea , north of Russia .
She made her first kill on 6 July , sinking the 7 @,@ 191 ton American Liberty ship John Witherspoon about 20 miles off Novaya Zemlya . The ship , en route from Baltimore to Arkhangelsk with 8 @,@ 575 tons of ammunition and tanks aboard , had been a part of Convoy PQ 17 which had dispersed on Admiralty orders in the Barents Sea on 4 July . After being hit by four torpedoes , the ship broke in two , and sank within minutes . The crew abandoned ship , and one seaman fell overboard and drowned . U @-@ 255 questioned the survivors , offered food and water , gave directions to the nearest land , and left . The crew were picked up by Royal Navy ships on 9 July .
The next day , 7 July , she sank the 5 @,@ 116 ton American Hog Islander Alcoa Ranger , also from Convoy PQ 17 . A single torpedo struck the ship , causing the vessel to list heavily to starboard . The crew abandoned ship in three lifeboats within 15 minutes . After she questioned the crew , she began to shell the ship from a distance of about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , firing at least 60 shells ( some survivors said as many as 150 ) until the ship sank . The crewmen were rescued by Soviet patrol boats later that day .
Early on 8 July , U @-@ 255 caught another ship from Convoy PQ 17 , the 6 @,@ 069 ton American merchant ship Olopana , loaded with 6 @,@ 000 tons of explosives , gasoline , and trucks as deck cargo . A single torpedo hit the ship , blowing out all the bulkheads , and killing seven of the crew . The surviving crewmen abandoned ship on four rafts , as U @-@ 255 surfaced and fired 20 shells at the ship , which sank after 20 minutes . U @-@ 255 questioned the survivors , gave them a course to land , and asked if they had enough food and water before leaving . The survivors landed at Moller Bay , Novaya Zemlya , two days later .
On 13 July U @-@ 255 found the 7 @,@ 168 ton Dutch merchant ship Paulus Potter abandoned and drifting , with 2 @,@ 250 tons of general goods , ammunition , 34 tanks , 15 aircraft and 103 trucks aboard . The ship had been attacked by Ju 88 dive bombers of III . / KG 30 east @-@ north @-@ east of Bear Island on 5 July , the day after Convoy PQ 17 dispersed . The crew had abandoned the badly damaged ship , believing it was about to sink . All 76 of the crew had taken five days to reach land at Novaya Zemlya , eventually being rescued by a Soviet whaling vessel . After finding her the II.WO and two mates from U @-@ 255 boarded the ship , and attempted to start the engines , but the engine room was flooded . They then searched the vessel , taking blankets , cigarettes , and other useful materials , including confidential documents found on the bridge , and the ship 's ensign as a prize , before the ship was sunk with a single torpedo . U @-@ 255 returned to Narvik on 15 July .
= = = Second patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 left Narvik on 18 July 1942 , arriving at Bergen on the 20th . She sailed from Bergen on 4 August for her second combat patrol , heading deep into Soviet waters , but had no success , although she shelled two Soviet wireless stations as part of Operation Wunderland , before arriving at Neidenfjord on the Norwegian / Finnish border on 9 September .
= = = Third patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 sailed from Neidenfjord on 13 September 1942 , patrolling the Barents Sea , with no result , before heading out into the Greenland Sea . There , on 20 September , she attacked the 4 @,@ 937 ton American merchant ship Silver Sword , returning from Arkhangelsk to New York with 5 @,@ 000 tons of hides and chrome ore and a deck cargo of wood pulp . Hit by two torpedoes , which blew off the stern post , propeller and rudder , and caused the after magazine to explode , the 48 crew and 16 passengers ( survivors from PQ 17 ) abandoned ship in two lifeboats and one raft . The ship was then shelled by the W class destroyer HMS Worcester and sank . The crew were later picked up by British ships , with one man dying of wounds later .
Three days later , on 23 September , U @-@ 255 was attacked by a Catalina patrol aircraft of No. 210 Squadron RAF south of Jan Mayen . After being badly damaged by two depth charges , she was forced to return to Bergen , arriving on the 25th .
= = = Refitting and 4th patrol = = =
On 29 September 1942 U @-@ 255 sailed from Bergen , arriving back at Kiel on 3 October . There the submarine was fitted with a Schnorchel underwater @-@ breathing apparatus before sailing again on 7 January 1943 , and arriving at Hammerfest in northern Norway on the 18th .
Returning to her old hunting grounds north of Norway , U @-@ 255 sailed from Hammerfest on 23 January 1943 , and on the 26th , U @-@ 255 likely sank the 2 @,@ 418 ton Soviet merchant ship Krasnyj Partizan with two torpedoes west of Bear Island . The Russian ship had just evaded the pursuing U @-@ 625 when it went missing . She was probably sunk by U @-@ 255 because the submarine recorded a loss the same day . After the sinking of the unknown merchant ship that was likely Krasnyj Partizan , U @-@ 255 surfaced and tried to question the survivors . They only spoke Russian and could not be understood . As a result , the crew of U @-@ 255 were unable to confirm the identity of the vessel . On 29 January , she sank another Russian freighter , the 1 @,@ 892 ton Ufa , south of Bear Island . Both Krasnyj Partizan and Ufa were loaded with timber destined for the United States , and no survivors were found from either ship unless the survivors from the unknown Russian merchant vessel that was sunk by U @-@ 255 were indeed crew members of Krasnyj Partizan .
On the afternoon of 3 February , about 600 miles northeast of Iceland , U @-@ 255 fired a salvo of torpedoes at Convoy RA @-@ 52 , en route from Murmansk to New York , and hit the 7 @,@ 460 ton American merchant ship Greylock . The ship attempted to evade the attack , but was holed below the waterline , immediately flooded , and began to list to starboard . Within fifteen minutes the crew of 61 and nine passengers abandoned ship in four lifeboats . A British escort then shelled and sank the crippled ship . U @-@ 255 then arrived back at Narvik on 9 February .
= = = 5th patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 sailed from Narvik on 22 February 1943 out into the northern seas once more . On 5 March she fired a spread of three torpedoes at Convoy RA @-@ 53 , sailing from Murmansk to Scotland , and hit two American merchant ships ; the 4 @,@ 978 ton Hog Islander Executive , loaded with 1 @,@ 500 tons of potassium chloride , and the 7 @,@ 191 ton Liberty ship Richard Bland , carrying 4 @,@ 000 tons of lumber .
The Executive was struck on the starboard side ; the explosion demolished the booms , engine , dynamos and all equipment in the immediate area . One hold rapidly flooded and the ship began to settle by the stern . Nine of the crew were killed , the remaining 53 abandoned ship in three lifeboats and a raft . The ship was sunk by gunfire from a destroyer about an hour after the attack .
The Richard Bland was struck by a torpedo which did not explode , but passed through the ship , making 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) holes on either side . The ship remained with the convoy with only a slightly reduced speed , but on the night of 6 March lost contact in gale force winds and rough seas , and proceeded alone towards Iceland . Five days later , on 10 March , U @-@ 255 found the vessel about 35 miles off Langanes , Iceland , and hit her with two more torpedoes , breaking the ship in two just forward of the bridge . The crew abandoned ship , and of the total of 69 on board , the master , five officers , 13 crewmen and 15 armed guards were lost , when their lifeboats were swamped in heavy seas . The stern section was torpedoed by U @-@ 255 again and sank , but the forward section was towed to Akureyri in Iceland , where the ship was declared a total loss . U @-@ 255 then returned to Narvik , arriving on 15 March .
= = = 6th patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 sailed from Narvik on 29 March 1943 to patrol the Barents Sea , but had no successes , arriving at Bergen on 29 April . On 1 June 1943 , U @-@ 255 was transferred to the newly created 13th U @-@ boat Flotilla based at the DORA 1 submarine base at Trondheim .
= = = 7th patrol = = =
Under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Erich Harms ( the U @-@ boat 's former I.WO ) from 7 June 1943 , U @-@ 255 sailed from Bergen on 9 July , arriving at Narvik on the 16th . She left Narvik on 19 July and sailed into Soviet waters , where on 27 July she sank the 411 ton Russian survey ship Akademik Shokalskij with her deck gun and small arms fire . U @-@ 255 established a secret seaplane base on Novaya Zemlya , and returned to Narvik on 19 September after 63 days at sea .
On 1 December 1943 U @-@ 255 was transferred again , this time to the 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Saint @-@ Nazaire in France .
= = = 8th patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 departed Bergen on 26 February 1944 sailing out into the northern Atlantic between Greenland and Iceland . On 10 March , about 400 miles south of Iceland , U @-@ 255 located Convoy CU 16 , but was detected by sonar by the US Navy destroyer escort Leopold . The ship turned to investigate the contact , but was hit by an acoustic torpedo . The crew abandoned ship , and she sank after several hours . Only 28 survivors were picked up by her sister ship Joyce from her crew of 199 . U @-@ 255 was hunted by other escorts for three hours , but managed to slip away . On 11 April , the inbound U @-@ boat was caught on the surface with its escort by 15 British Mosquito aircraft . These were in turn attacked by German Ju 88 aircraft . U @-@ 255 reached its new home port of St. Nazaire later that day on with only minor damage .
= = = 9th and 10th patrols = = =
U @-@ 255 made two short patrols in the Bay of Biscay on the 6 – 9 May and 6 – 15 June 1944 , but had no successes . U @-@ 255 began her ninth patrol on 6 May 1944 when she left St. Nazaire . However she was recalled to her home port after only 2 days fully at sea on 8 May . U @-@ 255 's tenth patrol was to suffer the same fate as her ninth . She left St. Nazaire on 6 June 1944 , ( the day of the Normandy landings ) and was recalled home on 15 June after only 10 days at sea .
= = = 11th @-@ 14th patrols = = =
Damaged in an air raid in August 1944 , U @-@ 255 was decommissioned for repairs . She was transferred back to the 13th U @-@ boat Flotilla on 1 March 1945 , and recommissioned on 2 March with Oberleutnant zur See Helmuth Heinrich in command . U @-@ 255 made a series of four short patrols between St. Nazaire and La Pallice in April and early May 1945 laying mines .
= = = 15th patrol = = =
U @-@ 255 began her final voyage under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Helmuth Heinrich on the day of the German surrender , sailing from St. Nazaire on 8 May 1945 to Loch Alsh in Scotland , arriving there on 19 May to make her formal surrender .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 255 took part in six wolfpacks , namely .
Eisteufel ( 1 – 12 July 1942 )
Nebelkönig ( 7 – 9 August 1942 )
Nordwind ( 24 January - 4 February 1943 )
Taifun ( 2 – 4 April 1943 )
Eisbär ( 4 – 15 April 1943 )
Preussen ( 9 – 22 March 1944 )
= = = Post war fate = = =
U @-@ 255 was transferred to Loch Eriboll , and then Loch Ryan on 14 May 1945 for " Operation Deadlight " . She was towed out to sea
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I have never felt that this war will be won from the air . " At the time , Johnson was reluctant to accede to his officials ' calls for large @-@ scale bombing of North Vietnam , a strategy that eventually became policy .
In January 1965 , the Vietcong secretly held their 3rd Conference in South Vietnam and concluded that in failing to retaliate , " the Americans lacked the will to strike North Vietnam or shield South Vietnam from the mortal blow " . At the time , North Vietnam vigorously denied ever sending troops or equipment into South Vietnam . In reality , both sides violated the 1954 Geneva Accords by covertly infiltrating the other 's borders to carry out hostile military activity . Meanwhile , South Vietnam 's government had imposed media censorship in November 1964 and closed ten newspapers for sympathizing with the communists .
The attack fomented feelings of insecurity among American policymakers about communist attacks . Johnson hoped that the continuing presence of American military advisers would be sufficient to strengthen the ARVN so that it could stabilize the Saigon government , but many of his defense department advisers felt that American combat troops were needed on the ground . This increased the tension between the president 's civilian and military officials , before the Americans became directly involved in fighting in 1965 . David Tucker of the United States Army War College said that the bombing was " insignificant for the conventional military balance but important for the political struggle that was the primary focus of the enemy [ Vietcong ] " . The facility was repaired and American officers continued to stay there until the fall of Saigon on April 30 , 1975 , when the communists overran South Vietnam and reunified the country under their rule .
Today , the site is a Park Hyatt hotel built along French Colonial architectural lines , and there is a memorial to the bombing on site .
= Komodo dragon =
The Komodo dragon ( Varanus komodoensis ) , also known as the Komodo monitor , is a large species of lizard found in the Indonesian islands of Komodo , Rinca , Flores , Gili Motang , and Padar . A member of the monitor lizard family Varanidae , it is the largest living species of lizard , growing to a maximum length of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) in rare cases and weighing up to approximately 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) .
Their unusually large size has been attributed to island gigantism , since no other carnivorous animals fill the niche on the islands where they live . However , recent research suggests the large size of Komodo dragons may be better understood as representative of a relict population of very large varanid lizards that once lived across Indonesia and Australia , most of which , along with other megafauna , died out after the Pleistocene . Fossils very similar to V. komodoensis have been found in Australia dating to greater than 3 @.@ 8 million years ago , and its body size remained stable on Flores , one of the handful of Indonesian islands where it is currently found , over the last 900 @,@ 000 years , " a time marked by major faunal turnovers , extinction of the island 's megafauna , and the arrival of early hominids by 880 ka [ kiloannums ] . "
As a result of their size , these lizards dominate the ecosystems in which they live . Komodo dragons hunt and ambush prey including invertebrates , birds , and mammals . It has been claimed that they have a venomous bite ; there are two glands in the lower jaw which secrete several toxic proteins . The biological significance of these proteins is disputed , but the glands have been shown to secrete an anticoagulant . Komodo dragon group behaviour in hunting is exceptional in the reptile world . The diet of big Komodo dragons mainly consists of deer , though they also eat considerable amounts of carrion . Komodo dragons also occasionally attack humans in the area of West Manggarai Regency where they live in Indonesia .
Mating begins between May and August , and the eggs are laid in September . About 20 eggs are deposited in abandoned megapode nests or in a self @-@ dug nesting hole . The eggs are incubated for seven to eight months , hatching in April , when insects are most plentiful . Young Komodo dragons are vulnerable and therefore dwell in trees , safe from predators and cannibalistic adults . They take 8 to 9 years to mature , and are estimated to live up to 30 years .
Komodo dragons were first recorded by Western scientists in 1910 . Their large size and fearsome reputation make them popular zoo exhibits . In the wild , their range has contracted due to human activities , and they are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN . They are protected under Indonesian law , and a national park , Komodo National Park , was founded to aid protection efforts .
= = Etymology = =
The Komodo dragon is also known as the Komodo monitor or the Komodo Island monitor in scientific literature , although this is not very common . To the natives of Komodo Island , it is referred to as ora , buaya darat ( land crocodile ) , or biawak raksasa ( giant monitor ) .
= = Evolutionary history = =
The evolutionary development of the Komodo dragon started with the Varanus genus , which originated in Asia about 40 million years ago and migrated to Australia . Around 15 million years ago , a collision between Australia and Southeast Asia allowed the varanids to move into what is now the Indonesian archipelago , extending their range as far east as the island of Timor . The Komodo dragon was believed to have differentiated from its Australian ancestors 4 million years ago . However , recent fossil evidence from Queensland suggests the Komodo dragon evolved in Australia before spreading to Indonesia . Dramatic lowering of sea level during the last glacial period uncovered extensive stretches of continental shelf that the Komodo dragon colonised , becoming isolated in their present island range as sea levels rose afterwards .
= = Description = =
In the wild , an adult Komodo dragon usually weighs around 70 kg ( 150 lb ) , although captive specimens often weigh more . According to the Guinness Book of World Records , an average adult male will weigh 79 to 91 kg ( 174 to 201 lb ) and measure 2 @.@ 59 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) , while an average female will weigh 68 to 73 kg ( 150 to 161 lb ) and measure 2 @.@ 29 m ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) . The largest verified wild specimen was 3 @.@ 13 m ( 10 @.@ 3 ft ) long and weighed 166 kg ( 366 lb ) , including undigested food . The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body , as well as about 60 frequently replaced , serrated teeth that can measure up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) in length . Its saliva is frequently blood @-@ tinged , because its teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding . It also has a long , yellow , deeply forked tongue . Komodo dragon skin is reinforced by armoured scales , which contain tiny bones called osteoderms that function as a sort of natural chain @-@ mail . This rugged hide makes Komodo dragon skin poorly suited for making into leather .
= = = Senses = = =
As with other varanids , Komodo dragons have only a single ear bone , the stapes , for transferring vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea . This arrangement means they are likely restricted to sounds in the 400 to 2 @,@ 000 hertz range , compared to humans who hear between 20 and 20 @,@ 000 hertz . It was formerly thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo dragons in response to whispers , raised voices , or shouts . This was disputed when London Zoological Garden employee Joan Proctor trained a captive specimen to come out to feed at the sound of her voice , even when she could not be seen .
The Komodo dragon can see objects as far away as 300 m ( 980 ft ) , but because its retinas only contain cones , it is thought to have poor night vision . The Komodo dragon is able to see in colour , but has poor visual discrimination of stationary objects .
The Komodo dragon uses its tongue to detect , taste , and smell stimuli , as with many other reptiles , with the vomeronasal sense using the Jacobson 's organ , rather than using the nostrils . With the help of a favorable wind and its habit of swinging its head from side to side as it walks , a Komodo dragon may be able to detect carrion from 4 – 9 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 9 mi ) away . It only has a few taste buds in the back of its throat . Its scales , some of which are reinforced with bone , have sensory plaques connected to nerves to facilitate its sense of touch . The scales around the ears , lips , chin , and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The Komodo dragon prefers hot and dry places , and typically lives in dry , open grassland , savanna , and tropical forest at low elevations . As an ectotherm , it is most active in the day , although it exhibits some nocturnal activity . Komodo dragons are solitary , coming together only to breed and eat . They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints up to 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) , diving up to 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) , and climbing trees proficiently when young through use of their strong claws . To catch out @-@ of @-@ reach prey , the Komodo dragon may stand on its hind legs and use its tail as a support . As it matures , its claws are used primarily as weapons , as its great size makes climbing impractical .
For shelter , the Komodo dragon digs holes that can measure from 1 to 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with its powerful forelimbs and claws . Because of its large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows , it is able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimise its basking period the morning after . The Komodo dragon hunts in the afternoon , but stays in the shade during the hottest part of the day . These special resting places , usually located on ridges with cool sea breezes , are marked with droppings and are cleared of vegetation . They serve as strategic locations from which to ambush deer .
= = = Diet = = =
Komodo dragons are carnivores . Although they eat mostly carrion , they will also ambush live prey with a stealthy approach . When suitable prey arrives near a dragon 's ambush site , it will suddenly charge at the animal and go for the underside or the throat . It is able to locate its prey using its keen sense of smell , which can locate a dead or dying animal from a range of up to 9 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . Komodo dragons have been observed knocking down large pigs and deer with their strong tails .
Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs . For smaller prey up to the size of a goat , their loosely articulated jaws , flexible skulls , and expandable stomachs allow them to swallow prey whole . The vegetable contents of the stomach and intestines are typically avoided . Copious amounts of red saliva the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food , but swallowing is still a long process ( 15 – 20 minutes to swallow a goat ) . A Komodo dragon may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat , sometimes ramming so forcefully , the tree is knocked down . A small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs allows it to breathe while swallowing . After eating up to 80 % of its body weight in one meal , it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion , as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long . Because of their slow metabolism , large dragons can survive on as few as 12 meals a year . After digestion , the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns , hair , and teeth known as the gastric pellet , which is covered in malodorous mucus . After regurgitating the gastric pellet , it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus , suggesting it does not relish the scent of its own excretions .
The largest animals eat first , while the smaller ones follow a hierarchy . The largest male asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses . Dragons of equal size may resort to " wrestling " . Losers usually retreat , though they have been known to be killed and eaten by victors .
The Komodo dragon 's diet is wide @-@ ranging , and includes invertebrates , other reptiles ( including smaller Komodo dragons ) , birds , bird eggs , small mammals , monkeys , wild boar , goats , deer , horses , and water buffalo . Young Komodos will eat insects , eggs , geckos , and small mammals . Occasionally , they attack and bite humans ( see first paragraphs of this article ) . Sometimes they consume human corpses , digging up bodies from shallow graves . This habit of raiding graves caused the villagers of Komodo to move their graves from sandy to clay ground and pile rocks on top of them to deter the lizards . The Komodo dragon may have evolved to feed on the extinct dwarf elephant Stegodon that once lived on Flores , according to evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond .
The Komodo dragon drinks by sucking water into its mouth via buccal pumping ( a process also used for respiration ) , lifting its head , and letting the water run down its throat .
= = = Saliva = = =
Although previous studies proposed that Komodo dragon saliva contains a variety of highly septic bacteria that would help to bring down prey , research in 2013 suggested that the bacteria in the mouths of Komodo dragons are ordinary and similar to those found in other carnivores . They actually have surprisingly good mouth hygiene . As Bryan Fry put it : " After they are done feeding , they will spend 10 to 15 minutes lip @-@ licking and rubbing their head in the leaves to clean their mouth ... Unlike people have been led to believe , they do not have chunks of rotting flesh from their meals on their teeth , cultivating bacteria . " The observation of prey dying of sepsis would then be explained by the natural instinct of water buffalos , who are not native to the islands where the Komodo dragon lives , to run into water when attacked . The warm , faeces @-@ filled water would then cause the infections . The study used samples from 16 captive dragons ( 10 adults and six neonates ) from three U.S. zoos .
= = = Venom = = =
In late 2005 , researchers at the University of Melbourne speculated the perentie ( Varanus giganteus ) , other species of monitors , and agamids may be somewhat venomous . The team believes the immediate effects of bites from these lizards were caused by mild envenomation . Bites on human digits by a lace monitor ( V. varius ) , a Komodo dragon , and a spotted tree monitor ( V. scalaris ) all produced similar effects : rapid swelling , localised disruption of blood clotting , and shooting pain up to the elbow , with some symptoms lasting for several hours .
In 2009 , the same researchers published further evidence demonstrating Komodo dragons possess a venomous bite . MRI scans of a preserved skull showed the presence of two glands in the lower jaw . The researchers extracted one of these glands from the head of a terminally ill dragon in the Singapore Zoological Gardens , and found it secreted several different toxic proteins . The known functions of these proteins include inhibition of blood clotting , lowering of blood pressure , muscle paralysis , and the induction of hypothermia , leading to shock and loss of consciousness in envenomated prey . As a result of the discovery , the previous theory that bacteria were responsible for the deaths of Komodo victims was disputed .
Kurt Schwenk , an evolutionary biologist at the University of Connecticut , finds the discovery of these glands intriguing , but considers most of the evidence for venom in the study to be " meaningless , irrelevant , incorrect or falsely misleading " . Even if the lizards have venom @-@ like proteins in their mouths , Schwenk argues , they may be using them for a different function , and he doubts venom is necessary to explain the effect of a Komodo dragon bite , arguing that shock and blood loss are the primary factors .
Other scientists have stated that this allegation of venom glands " has had the effect of underestimating the variety of complex roles played by oral secretions in the biology of reptiles , produced a very narrow view of oral secretions and resulted in misinterpretation of reptilian evolution " . According to these scientists " reptilian oral secretions contribute to many biological roles other than to quickly dispatch prey " . These researchers concluded that , " Calling all in this clade venomous implies an overall potential danger that does not exist , misleads in the assessment of medical risks , and confuses the biological assessment of squamate biochemical systems " .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Mating occurs between May and August , with the eggs laid in September . During this period , males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs , with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground . These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight . The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity . Females are antagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship . Therefore , the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt . Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female , hard scratches to the back , and licking . Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of his hemipenes into the female 's cloaca . Komodo dragons may be monogamous and form " pair bonds " , a rare behavior for lizards .
Female Komodos lay their eggs from August to September and may use several types of locality ; in one study , 60 % laid their eggs in the nests of orange @-@ footed scrubfowl ( a moundbuilder or megapode ) , 20 % on ground level and 20 % in hilly areas . The females make many camouflage nests / holes to prevent other dragons from eating the eggs . Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs , which have an incubation period of 7 – 8 months . Hatching is an exhausting effort for the neonates , which break out of their eggshells with an egg tooth that falls off soon after . After cutting themselves out , the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest . They are born quite defenseless and are vulnerable to predation . Sixteen youngsters from a single nest were on average 46 @.@ 5 cm long and weighed 105 @.@ 1 grams .
Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees , where they are relatively safe from predators , including cannibalistic adults , as juvenile dragons make up 10 % of their diets . The habit of cannibalism may be advantageous in sustaining the large size of adults , as medium @-@ sized prey on the islands is rare . When the young approach a kill , they roll around in faecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults . Komodo dragons take approximately 8 to 9 years to mature , and may live for up to 30 years .
= = = = Parthenogenesis = = = =
A Komodo dragon at London Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from male company for more than two years . Scientists initially assumed she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male , an adaptation known as superfecundation . On 20 December 2006 , it was reported that Flora , a captive Komodo dragon living in the Chester Zoo in England , was the second known Komodo dragon to have laid unfertilised eggs : she laid 11 eggs , and seven of them hatched , all of them male . Scientists at Liverpool University in England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator , and verified Flora had never been in physical contact with a male dragon . After Flora 's eggs ' condition had been discovered , testing showed Sungai 's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization . On 31 January 2008 , the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita , Kansas , became the first zoo in the Americas to document parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons . The zoo has two adult female Komodo dragons , one of which laid about 17 eggs on 19 – 20 May 2007 . Only two eggs were incubated and hatched due to space issues ; the first hatched on 31 January 2008 , while the second hatched on 1 February . Both hatchlings were males .
Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex @-@ determination system , as opposed to the mammalian XY system . Male progeny prove Flora 's unfertilised eggs were haploid ( n ) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid ( 2n ) ( by being fertilised by a polar body , or by chromosome duplication without cell division ) , rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction @-@ divisions in her ovaries failing . When a female Komodo dragon ( with ZW sex chromosomes ) reproduces in this manner , she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes , including only one of her two sex chromosomes . This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg , which develops parthenogenetically . Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ ( male ) ; those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop , meaning that only males are produced by parthenogenesis in this species .
It has been hypothesised that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche ( such as an island ) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring , thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population ( via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young ) . Despite the advantages of such an adaptation , zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery by the Western world = = =
Komodo dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910 , when rumors of a " land crocodile " reached Lieutenant van Steyn van Hensbroek of the Dutch colonial administration . Widespread notoriety came after 1912 , when Peter Ouwens , the director of the Zoological Museum at Bogor , Java , published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin from the lieutenant , as well as two other specimens from a collector . The first two live Komodo dragons to arrive in Europe were exhibited in the Reptile House at London Zoo when it opened in 1927 . Joan Beauchamp Procter made some of the earliest observations of these animals in captivity and she demonstrated the behaviour of one of these animals at a Scientific Meeting of the Zoological Society of London in 1928 . The Komodo dragon was the driving factor for an expedition to Komodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926 . After returning with 12 preserved specimens and 2 live ones , this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movie King Kong . It was also Burden who coined the common name " Komodo dragon . " Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in the American Museum of Natural History .
= = = Studies = = =
The Dutch , realizing the limited number of individuals in the wild , outlawed sport hunting and heavily limited the number of individuals taken for scientific study . Collecting expeditions ground to a halt with the occurrence of World War II , not resuming until the 1950s and 1960s , when studies examined the Komodo dragon 's feeding behavior , reproduction , and body temperature . At around this time , an expedition was planned in which a long @-@ term study of the Komodo dragon would be undertaken . This task was given to the Auffenberg family , who stayed on Komodo Island for 11 months in 1969 . During their stay , Walter Auffenberg and his assistant Putra Sastrawan captured and tagged more than 50 Komodo dragons . The research from the Auffenberg expedition would prove to be enormously influential in raising Komodo dragons in captivity . Research after that of the Auffenberg family has shed more light on the nature of the Komodo dragon , with biologists such as Claudio Ciofi continuing to study the creatures .
= = Conservation = =
The Komodo dragon is a vulnerable species and is on the IUCN Red List . The Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo , Rinca , and Padar . Later , the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid with Komodo dragon conservation .
Komodo dragons avoid encounters with humans . Juveniles are very shy and will flee quickly into a hideout if a human comes closer than about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Older animals will also retreat from humans from a shorter distance away . If cornered , they will react aggressively by gaping their mouth , hissing , and swinging their tail . If they are disturbed further , they may start an attack and bite . Although there are anecdotes of unprovoked Komodo dragons attacking or preying on humans , most of these reports are either not reputable or caused by defensive bites . Only a very few cases are truly the result of unprovoked attacks by abnormal individuals , which lost their fear towards humans .
Volcanic activity , earthquakes , loss of habitat , fire , loss of prey due to poaching , tourism , and illegal poaching of the dragons themselves have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon . Under Appendix I of CITES ( the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ) , commercial trade of skins or specimens is illegal .
In 2013 , total population in the wild was assessed as 3 @,@ 222 individuals , declining to 3 @,@ 092 in 2014 and 3 @,@ 014 in 2015 . Populations remained relatively stable on the bigger islands ( Komodo and Rinca ) , but decreased on smaller island such as Nusa Kode and Gili Motang , likely due to diminishing prey availability . On Padar , a former population of the Komodo dragon became extinct , of which the last individuals were seen in 1975 . It is widely assumed that the Komodo dragon died out on Padar after a strong decline of the populations of large ungulate prey , for which poaching was most likely responsible .
= = = In captivity = = =
Komodo dragons have long been great zoo attractions , where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits . They are , however , rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease if captured from the wild , and do not readily reproduce . As of May 2009 , there were 13 European , 2 African , 35 North American , 1 Singaporean , and 2 Australian institutions that kept Komodo dragons .
The first Komodo dragons were displayed at London Zoo in 1927 . A Komodo dragon was exhibited in 1934 at the National Zoo in Washington , D.C. , but it lived for only two years . More attempts to exhibit Komodo dragons were made , but the lifespan of these animals was very short , averaging five years in the National Zoological Park . Studies done by Walter Auffenberg , which were documented in his book The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor , eventually allowed for more successful managing and reproducing of the dragons in captivity .
A variety of behaviors have been observed from captive specimens . Most individuals are relatively tame within a short time , and are capable of recognising individual humans and discriminating between familiar keepers . Komodo dragons have also been observed to engage in play with a variety of objects , including shovels , cans , plastic rings , and shoes . This behavior does not seem to be " food @-@ motivated predatory behavior " .
Even seemingly docile dragons may become unpredictably aggressive , especially when the animal 's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar . In June 2001 , a Komodo dragon seriously injured Phil Bronstein , the then husband of actress Sharon Stone , when he entered its enclosure at the Los Angeles Zoo after being invited in by its keeper . Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot , as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes and socks , which the keeper stated could potentially excite the Komodo dragon as they were the same colour as the white rats the zoo fed the dragon . Although he escaped , Bronstein needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically .
= Martin St. Louis =
Martin St. Louis ( French pronunciation : [ maʁtɛ ̃ sɛ ̃ lwi ] ; born June 18 , 1975 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player . An undrafted player , St. Louis played over 1 @,@ 000 games and scored 1 @,@ 000 points in an NHL career that began with the Calgary Flames in 1998 and ended with the New York Rangers in 2015 . St. Louis also played for the Tampa Bay Lightning from 2000 until being traded to the Rangers in 2014 , and briefly with HC Lausanne of the Swiss National League A. He was a member of the Tampa Bay Lightning Stanley Cup championship team .
St. Louis was a standout player in college for the Vermont Catamounts , earning East Coast Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) and National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) all @-@ star honours for three consecutive seasons between 1995 and 1997 . He was the ECAC player of the year in 1995 . As a professional , St. Louis has been named to an NHL All @-@ Star Team on five occasions and played in six All @-@ Star Games . He was voted the recipient of the Lester B. Pearson Award and Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player as chosen by the players and league respectively in 2003 – 04 , also winning his first Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading scorer with 94 points . St. Louis has on three occasions won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the league 's most gentlemanly player . In 2013 , at age 37 , he won his second Art Ross Trophy , becoming the oldest player to ever lead the league in scoring . He has also led the NHL in assists in two different seasons ( 2003 – 04 and 2012 – 13 ) .
Internationally , St. Louis has played with Team Canada on several occasions . He was a member of the team that won the 2004 World Cup of Hockey and is a two @-@ time silver medalist at the World Championships ; he was named a tournament all @-@ star after leading the 2009 event in scoring with 15 points . A two @-@ time Olympian , St. Louis was a member of Canada 's gold medal @-@ winning team at the 2014 Winter Games .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
A smaller player than his peers – St. Louis was listed at five feet nine inches tall in college – he often struggled to gain recognition for his ability . He was passed over for a provincial team at a midget age tournament despite leading his league in scoring , while major junior teams showed little interest in him . He was heavily recruited by National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) schools to play for their programs , however . He played one season of junior A hockey with the Hawkesbury Hawks of the Central Junior Hockey League ( CJHL ) in 1992 – 93 where he scored 37 goals and 87 points in just 31 games . The University of Vermont Catamounts convinced St. Louis to join their hockey program . He had 51 points in 33 games in his freshman season of 1993 – 94 and was named to the East Coast Athletic Conference 's All @-@ Rookie Team .
In his sophomore season ( 1994 – 95 ) , St. Louis was among the top scorers in the NCAA . He had 71 points in 35 games and was named both an ECAC First Team All @-@ Star and NCAA All @-@ American for the first of three consecutive seasons . Additionally , he was named the ECAC Player of the Year . Named team captain for his junior season , St. Louis scored 85 points in 35 games . He tied friend and teammate Éric Perrin for the NCAA scoring lead and the pair , along with goaltender Tim Thomas , led the Catamounts to the first ECAC hockey championship in school history . Named an all @-@ star at the 1996 NCAA Division I Men 's Ice Hockey Tournament , St. Louis scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory over Lake Superior State to reach the Final Four . The Catamounts lost the national semifinal to Colorado College , 4 – 3 in double overtime .
A finalist for the Hobey Baker Award for the first of two consecutive seasons , St. Louis earned interest from National Hockey League ( NHL ) teams in the summer of 1996 . Teams offered signing bonuses of up to $ 150 @,@ 000 hoping to convince him to leave Vermont and turn professional . Believing he could attract similar offers the following year , he chose to complete his final year of college eligibility . His offensive numbers slipped in 1996 – 97 as he scored 59 points in 36 games . St. Louis finished as Vermont 's all @-@ time leading scorer with 267 points , a record he continues to hold as of 2014 , as well as his school mark of 176 assists . He won the J. Edward Donnelly Award as the top male senior athlete at the University of Vermont in 1997 and was named to the ECAC 's all @-@ decade team of the 1990s . The University of Vermont inducted him into its athletics Hall of Fame in 2007 , and in 2012 he was presented with the school 's Alumni Achievement Award . On January 8 , 2016 the University of Vermont retired his jersey number 8 at Gutterson Fieldhouse in front of a sold out crowd .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
The NHL offers St. Louis anticipated never materialized as teams lost interest in him . Only the Ottawa Senators offered him a tryout prior to the 1997 – 98 NHL season . When they released him , St. Louis signed a two @-@ year contract with the Cleveland Lumberjacks of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) that included a clause allowing him to leave the team if offered an NHL contract . He had 50 points in 56 games for Cleveland , catching the attention of the Calgary Flames who signed him to a contract on February 18 , 1998 . He was assigned to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Saint John Flames , where he scored 26 points in 25 regular season games . He then added 20 points in 20 playoff games as Saint John reached the Calder Cup finals , losing in six games to the Philadelphia Phantoms .
St. Louis earned a spot on the Calgary roster to begin the 1998 – 99 season and made his NHL debut on October 9 , 1998 , against the San Jose Sharks . He scored his first goal on October 20 against Dallas Stars ' goaltender Roman Turek . He began the season playing with Calgary 's top forward , Theoren Fleury , but was quickly demoted to the fourth line , and often sat out of the lineup . He appeared in only 13 games in Calgary , spending the majority of the season in Saint John where he led the AHL squad with 28 goals and 62 points . He began the 1999 – 2000 season with Saint John , but earned a recall to Calgary after scoring 26 points in 17 games . St. Louis completed his first full NHL season with 3 goals and 18 points in 56 games . Pleased with his progress , general manager Al Coates picked up St. Louis ' contract option for the 2000 – 01 season . However , the organization fired Coates and his staff that summer and the new management team was not interested in retaining St. Louis . The Flames exposed him in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft , but after he went unselected , the team bought out his contract and made him an unrestricted free agent .
= = = Tampa Bay Lightning = = =
= = = = 2000 – 2006 = = = =
A few teams expressed interest in St. Louis . He chose to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning as he believed they were the most likely to give him playing time in the NHL . He made his debut with the team on October 6 , 2000 . He struggled at first , failing to score a goal in the first six weeks of the season and again found himself out of the lineup at times . Realizing that he was at a career crossroads , St. Louis abandoned the changes to his game that his NHL coaches had impressed on him , trusting his own instincts . He scored his first goal of the season in late November , and finished the season with 18 goals and 40 points – 34 of which came after December 1 .
While leading the team with 16 goals midway through the 2001 – 02 season , St. Louis suffered a broken leg following an awkward check by Josef Melichar of the Pittsburgh Penguins in a late January game . Consequently , he appeared in only 53 of Tampa Bay 's 82 games , finishing with 35 points . He had a breakout season in 2002 – 03 , finishing fourth in team scoring with 70 points and tying Vincent Lecavalier for the team lead with 33 goals . He led the team in plus @-@ minus at + 10 and appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . St. Louis won the puck control relay event and finished second in the fastest skater events of the 2003 All @-@ Star Game 's skills competition . He scored his first career hat trick on January 30 , 2003 , in a game against the Carolina Hurricanes . In the postseason , Tampa Bay won its first playoff series in franchise history when it eliminated the Washington Capitals . Three of St. Louis ' seven goals were game @-@ winners , including the overtime goal in the sixth game that won the series . He led the team with 12 points in 11 playoff games .
St. Louis exceeded his previous season in 2003 – 04 , capturing the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading scorer with 94 points . He finished fourth overall with 38 goals and his plus @-@ minus of + 38 led the league . St. Louis scored his 100th career goal on February 17 , 2004 , against the Philadelphia Flyers . He led the 2004 Stanley Cup Playoffs with 15 assists and finished with 24 post @-@ season points in 23 games . He led the Lightning to the Stanley Cup Final against Calgary , against whom he scored the overtime winning goal in game six to force a deciding seventh game of the series . The Lightning won the game , 2 – 1 , and secured the franchise 's first Stanley Cup championship . St. Louis won several post @-@ season awards : He was named a First Team All @-@ Star and voted recipient of the Lester B. Pearson Award as the NHL 's most valuable player as selected by the players . He also won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league 's most valuable player . St. Louis was only the eighth player in NHL history to win the Art Ross and Hart Trophies and the Stanley Cup in the same season , and the first to do so since Wayne Gretzky in 1986 – 87 .
While the 2004 – 05 NHL season was ultimately cancelled by a labour dispute , St. Louis spent it playing in Europe . He signed a contract with HC Lausanne of Switzerland 's National League A. He scored 25 points in 23 games . When the NHL resumed in 2005 – 06 , St. Louis signed a six @-@ year contract extension with the Lightning worth US $ 31 @.@ 5 million . He finished with his third 30 @-@ goal season , but scored only 61 points on the campaign .
= = = = 2006 – 2014 = = = =
The 2006 – 07 season was St. Louis ' greatest offensive year as he topped the 100 @-@ point plateau for the first time . He finished with career highs in goals , 43 , and points , 102 . He played in his 500th career game on February 9 , 2007 , against the New York Rangers and after becoming the first Lightning player to appear in three All @-@ Star Games , became the first to score a goal in the mid @-@ season event . He was named to the Second All @-@ Star Team following the season . An injury to Tim Taylor resulted in St. Louis being named an alternate captain in 2007 – 08 . St. Louis made his fourth All @-@ Star Game appearance in 2007 – 08 amidst an 83 @-@ point campaign . He scored his 500th career point with a goal against the Buffalo Sabres on March 19 , 2008 . Leading the Lightning with 30 goals , 50 assists and 80 points in 2008 – 09 , St. Louis earned his fifth All @-@ Star appearance .
St. Louis finished fifth in the league with 94 points in 2009 – 10 . He had two 11 @-@ game point streaks during the season , the longest in franchise history , and was named to the second All @-@ Star Team . Finishing with only 12 penalty minutes on the season , he was voted the recipient of the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the league 's most gentlemanly player . It was the fifth time he had been named a finalist for the award . He won the award for a second time in 2010 – 11 , the culmination of a season in which St. Louis made his sixth All @-@ Star Game appearance , was named to the second All @-@ Star Team for the third time and finished second in league scoring with 99 points . He was a finalist for the Hart Memorial Trophy for the second time , losing out to Corey Perry .
The 2011 – 12 season was the first under a four @-@ year contract extension signed during the previous campaign . Lightning general manager Steve Yzerman praised St. Louis ' importance to the organization when announcing the signing : " Marty means so much to this franchise , both on and off the ice . His hard work and dedication are unsurpassed and we are thrilled that he will finish his career here in Tampa Bay . " A durable player , St. Louis held the NHL 's third longest " ironman " streak among active players , having played every game since 2005 . The streak came to an end at 499 consecutive games played in early December 2011 when he was struck in the face by a shot from teammate Dominic Moore during practice . Despite suffering facial and sinus fractures , he missed only five games due to the injury . The 36 @-@ year @-@ old St. Louis finished the season with 74 points in 77 games .
In the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season , St. Louis led the NHL with 43 assists , and his 60 points were enough to capture his second Art Ross Trophy as the league 's leading scorer . After the season he was named a Second Team All @-@ Star . With only 14 penalty minutes on the season , St. Louis also won his third Lady Byng Trophy .
The Lightning named St. Louis the ninth captain in franchise history prior to the 2013 – 14 season . He replaced Vincent Lecavalier , who departed Tampa in the off @-@ season . St. Louis played his 1,000th NHL game on November 19 , 2013 , against the Los Angeles Kings . He is the 286th player in league history to reach the milestone , but only the 16th undrafted player to do so since the creation of the universal NHL Entry Draft in 1969 . St. Louis set a career high and tied a Lightning franchise record by scoring four goals in a January 18 , 2014 , game against the San Jose Sharks . His 600th career assist came two weeks later in a 5 – 3 loss to the Ottawa Senators on January 30 .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
In January , Lightning general manager Steve Yzerman , who also served as the general manager for Canada 's team at the 2014 Winter Olympics , elected not to include St. Louis on Canada 's roster . St. Louis was ultimately named to the team as an injury replacement after Steven Stamkos was not medically cleared to play . At the same time , St. Louis requested a trade from Tampa Bay . The no movement clause in his contract gave St. Louis control over where he could be moved and he reportedly consented to only being traded to the New York Rangers , a request that he first made in 2009 . The Lightning honoured his request . St. Louis was sent to New York along with a conditional 2015 second @-@ round pick on March 5 , 2014 , in exchange for Ryan Callahan , a 2015 first round draft pick , a conditional 2014 second @-@ round pick ( which became a first @-@ round pick ) , and a conditional 2015 seventh @-@ round pick . Ironically , both of the first @-@ round draft picks acquired by the Lightning in this trade were eventually traded to the New York Islanders . Though reluctant to speak of his reasons for requesting the trade , he eventually admitted that the initial Olympic snub was the primary cause . He felt a lack of respect when Yzerman initially left him off the Canadian team . St. Louis also expressed his regret over the damage the events caused to his relationship with the fans in Tampa .
St. Louis struggled offensively in his first games with the Rangers as he went 14 games without scoring a goal . He scored only one in 19 regular season games – finishing the season with 30 combined between Tampa Bay and New York – and added seven assists to finish with 69 points on the season . The death of his mother , France , of a heart attack on May 8 , left St. Louis ' participation in Games 5 and 6 of New York 's second @-@ round playoff series against the Pittsburgh Penguins in doubt . He chose to play after speaking with his father . The Rangers players rallied around St. Louis as he became the team 's focus . He led the Rangers as they overcame a 3 – 1 series deficit against Pittsburgh to win the series in seven games en route to reaching the 2014 Stanley Cup Final . St. Louis led the team with 8 goals in the playoffs and finished second with 15 points , but the Rangers lost the final to the Los Angeles Kings in five games .
St. Louis faced the Lightning for the first time following the trade on November 17 , 2014 , a 5 – 1 loss . He scored the lone goal for the Rangers and has now scored at least one goal against all 30 franchises in the NHL . He made his first return to Tampa a week later , a 5 – 4 loss on November 26 , during which the Lightning honoured his tenure with the organization via a video tribute . Two days later , St. Louis recorded a goal and an assist against the Philadelphia Flyers to reach 1 @,@ 000 points in his career . He became the sixth undrafted player in NHL history to reach the milestone .
On July 2 , 2015 , St. Louis announced his retirement as a player in the NHL .
= = International play = =
Following his MVP season in the NHL , St. Louis joined Team Canada for the first time , appearing at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . With a goal and an assist , he led Canada to an opening game , 2 – 1 victory over the United States . Overall , he scored four points in six games as Canada won the World Cup . The majority of that team returned for the 2006 Winter Olympic tournament , and St. Louis played in his first Olympic Games . The team struggled offensively throughout the tournament , finishing in seventh place . St. Louis scored two goals and added an assist in six games .
St. Louis has twice played in the World Championships . He first played in the 2008 tournament , held in Canada . He appeared in all nine games for Team Canada , scoring ten points . Canada reached the final , but were forced to settle for the silver medal after a 5 – 4 overtime loss to Russia . Returning for the 2009 World Championship in Switzerland , St. Louis led the tournament in scoring with 15 points . Canada met Russia in a rematch of the 2008 final , however St. Louis and his teammates were again relegated to the silver medal , dropping a 2 – 1 decision . St. Louis was named to the tournament 's all @-@ star team at forward . He was selected as a reserve by Team Canada for the 2010 Winter Olympics . On February 6 , 2014 , he was selected to replace injured former Lightning teammate Steven Stamkos for representation at the 2014 Winter Olympics and played in five of Canada 's six games . St. Louis won an Olympic Gold Medal with Team Canada in a 3 @-@ 0 victory over Sweden in the gold medal game .
= = Playing style = =
Listed at five @-@ foot @-@ eight inches tall during his playing days , St. Louis found himself to be one of the smallest players in the NHL . Hockey Hall of Fame coach Scotty Bowman credited St. Louis ' desire to succeed as being his primary attribute : " His long suit is his passion . Small players have to have some special attribute that makes them stand out . He 's got great acceleration and hockey sense . " St. Louis was also a durable player throughout his career , missing only seven games between 2002 and 2012 .
An offensive minded player throughout his amateur and minor professional career , St. Louis was forced into a checking @-@ line role by the Calgary Flames . He credits the experience for rounding out his game : " I played a true third @-@ line role , killing penalties and playing against the other team 's top lines . For me , it was like a five @-@ month crash course on developing my defensive game . My whole life , I had been an offensive player , and suddenly I was in the role of trying to be smart without the puck . I think those fifty @-@ six games helped me develop into a complete player . "
= = Personal = =
St. Louis was born on June 18 , 1975 , in Laval , Quebec to Normand and France St. Louis . He has a sister , Isabelle .
He met his wife Heather at the University of Vermont , where he graduated in 1997 with a degree in small business management . They have three sons : Ryan , Lucas and Mason . The family maintains an off @-@ season home in Heather 's native Greenwich , Connecticut .
St. Louis runs an annual summer hockey camp in the nearby community of Stamford for young players in the region .
On January 8 , 2016 , the Vermont Catamounts held Martin St. Louis Night , which resulted in a 1 @-@ 0 victory over visiting Dartmouth . During the night , St. Louis ' number 8 was retired by the program during a pre @-@ game ceremony . This was the first time in program history that the team retired the jersey of a former player . Additionally , Senior Jonathan Turk handed St. Louis his number 8 jersey prior to the game , and he will wear the number 88 for the rest of the season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Kingdom Hearts II =
Kingdom Hearts II ( Japanese : キングダムハーツII , Hepburn : Kingudamu Hātsu Tsū ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix in 2005 for the PlayStation 2 video game console . The game is a sequel to Kingdom Hearts , which combined Disney and Square elements into an action role @-@ playing game , though it is somewhat darker in tone than its predecessor . The game 's popularity has resulted in a novel and manga series based upon it and an international version called Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , released in March 2007 .
Kingdom Hearts II is the third game in the Kingdom Hearts series . It picks up one year after the events of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . Sora , the protagonist of the first two games , returns to search for his lost friends . Like the previous games , Kingdom Hearts II features a large cast of characters from Disney films and Final Fantasy games . Organization XIII , a group introduced in Chain of Memories , also reappears to impede Sora 's progress .
The game was well @-@ received and earned year @-@ end awards from numerous video gaming websites . In Japan , it shipped more than one million copies within a week of its release . One month after its North American release , it had sold over one million copies and was the second best @-@ selling game of 2006 . By March 31 , 2007 , the game had shipped over 4 million copies worldwide .
The game was actor Pat Morita 's final voice role before his death in November 2005 . The Final Mix version of the game was re @-@ released in high definition for Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix for the PlayStation 3 , along with Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleep Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re : coded .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Kingdom Hearts II is similar to that of Kingdom Hearts , though developers made an effort to address numerous complaints with the previous game . The player directly controls Sora from a third @-@ person camera angle , though first @-@ person perspective is available via Select button . Most of the gameplay occurs on interconnected field maps where battles take place . The game is driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next , usually told via cutscenes , though there are numerous side @-@ quests available that provide bonuses to characters .
Like many traditional role @-@ playing video games , Kingdom Hearts II features an experience point system which determines character development . As enemies are defeated , the player and allies culminate experience to " level up " , in which the playable characters grow stronger and gain access to new abilities .
Combat in Kingdom Hearts II is in real @-@ time and involves button presses which initiate attacks by the on @-@ screen character . A role @-@ playing game menu on the screen 's bottom left , similar to those found in Final Fantasy games , provides other combat options such as using magic or items , summoning beings to assist in battle , or executing combination attacks with other party members . A new feature is the " Reaction Command " , special enemy @-@ specific attacks that are triggered when the player presses the triangle button at the correct time during battle . Reaction Commands can be used to defeat regular enemies or avoid damage , and are sometimes necessary to complete a boss battle . In addition to the main character , two party members are usually present who also participate in combat . Although these characters are computer @-@ controlled , the player is allowed to customize their behavior to a certain extent through the menu screen , such as attacking the same enemy Sora targets .
In response to criticism , the " Gummi Ship " feature of the first game was re @-@ imagined to be " more enjoyable " . Although retaining its basic purpose of travel , the system was completely redone to resemble a combination of rail shooter and " Disney theme park ride " . In the world map , the player must now control the Gummi Ship from a top @-@ down view and fly to the world the player wishes to enter . Worlds are no longer open from the beginning — the player must unlock the routes to them by entering a new level , controlling the ship from a third @-@ person point of view , and battling enemy ships . After the route is opened , travel to the world is unimpeded , unless it is blocked again due to a plot @-@ related event . The player may also gain new Gummi Ships from completing routes , which is also a new feature from the first game .
= = = Drive Gauge = = =
One of the new features is a meter known as the " Drive Gauge " . The Drive Gauge has dual functions : to transform Sora into a " Drive Form " or to summon a special character . While in a Drive Form , Sora bonds with party members to become more powerful and acquire different attributes ; all but two Forms also allow the use of two Keyblades . When a Drive is executed , Sora 's combat statistics are heightened . Drive Forms also give Sora new abilities that can be used in normal form , called " Growth Abilities . " Sora 's first two Drive Forms only combine power with one party member ; later @-@ obtained Drive Forms require him to bond with both party members . When allies are used in a Drive , they are temporarily removed from battle for its duration . Unlike the HP and MP gauges , the Drive Gauge is not refilled at save points .
Like in the first game , Sora can summon a Disney character to aid him in battle . Summons will replace the two computer @-@ controlled characters and fight alongside Sora for as long as the Drive Gauge allows , or until Sora 's HP runs out . Instead of being limited to only one action , Summons now have a menu of their own and are capable of performing solo or cooperative actions with Sora . These actions are performed by pressing the triangle button . The Summon ability and each Drive Form are leveled up separately and by different criteria ; obtaining higher levels allows for extended use and in the case of Drive Forms , access to new abilities .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting = = =
Kingdom Hearts II begins one year after the events of Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories . The game 's setting is a collection of various levels ( referred to in @-@ game as " worlds " ) that the player progresses through . As in the first game , Kingdom Hearts II allows the player to travel to locales from various Disney works , along with original worlds specifically created for the series . While in the first game , Disney @-@ based worlds were primarily derived from the Disney animated features canon , Kingdom Hearts II introduces worlds that are based on Disney live @-@ action films as well . Each world varies in appearance and setting , depending on the Disney film on which it is based . The graphics of the world and characters are meant to resemble the artwork style of the environments and characters from their respective Disney films . Each world is disconnected from the others and exists separately ; with few exceptions , players travel from one world to another via a Gummi Ship .
Some worlds featured in the previous games reappear , but with new and expanded areas . There are also new worlds that are introduced , including the Land of Dragons , a fictionalized version of ancient China from the film Mulan ; Beast 's Castle , an 18th @-@ century @-@ style French castle based on Beauty and the Beast ; Timeless River , a past version of Disney Castle that features Steamboat Willie @-@ style animation ; Port Royal from Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl ; Pride Lands , a great savannah from The Lion King ; and Space Paranoids , a digital world based on Tron within Hollow Bastion 's computer network . Twilight Town , an original world first seen in Chain of Memories , has a greater role as the introductory world . The World That Never Was is a new world that serves as the headquarters of Organization XIII .
= = = Characters = = =
The three protagonists of the game are : Sora , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy chosen as a wielder of the Keyblade , a mystical key @-@ shaped weapon that can combat darkness ; Donald Duck , the court magician of Disney Castle ; and Goofy , the captain of the Disney Castle guards . Both Donald and Goofy were ordered to find and stay with the " key " , which was revealed to be Sora and his Keyblade . They befriended Sora during Kingdom Hearts , and draw strength from this friendship . Other original characters include Riku and Kairi , Sora 's friends from his home world of Destiny Islands ; Roxas , a boy who can also wield the Keyblade playable in the beginning ; and DiZ , a man in red robes with a vendetta against Organization XIII , who is later revealed to be Ansem the Wise , the mentor of Master Xehanort .
As in the previous games , there are numerous appearances of characters from both Disney and Square Enix works . While some make a return from Kingdom Hearts , new characters from Disney fiction are also introduced , such as Scar from The Lion King and Scrooge McDuck . Pete appears as a persistent enemy who works with the resurrected Maleficent . Nearly twenty characters from Final Fantasy games appear , notably Auron of Final Fantasy X , Tifa from Final Fantasy VII , and the return of Squall Leonhart , Cloud , and Sephiroth . It was stated that although the first game strictly stuck to characters Tetsuya Nomura designed , this time around they were going to " take some risks " , implying that characters not directly designed by Nomura might make an appearance . Other new characters to series are Vivi of Final Fantasy IX and Setzer of Final Fantasy VI .
The various worlds that Sora explores often have an optional party character from the film on which the world is based . Such party members include Fa Mulan , the woman who passes as a man in order to take her ailing father 's place in the army ; Jack Sparrow , a pirate who seeks to reclaim his ship , the Black Pearl ; Simba , the self @-@ exiled lion who is the rightful king of the Pride Land ; and Tron , a security program in Hollow Bastion 's computer network who seeks to end the dictatorship of the Master Control Program .
Organization XIII , a group of powerful Nobodies ( the " empty shell [ s ] " left over when a strong @-@ hearted person becomes a Heartless ) introduced in Chain of Memories , is established as the primary group of antagonists early on . Xemnas , the leader of Organization XIII , serves as the main antagonist and final boss of the game . Villains unique to the worlds are still prevalent , and are often presented as challenges that Sora 's group must overcome .
= = = Plot = = =
Sora , Donald , and Goofy have been in suspended animation for the past year to regain their memories lost in Chain of Memories . Meanwhile , Roxas , Sora 's Nobody , is trapped in a virtual simulation of Twilight Town , created by DiZ to merge Roxas with his original self to restore Sora 's power . DiZ 's plans are threatened when Organization XIII 's Nobodies , led by Axel , Roxas 's former friend in the Organization , infiltrate the virtual town , but Roxas is able to repel the hostiles and finally merges with Sora . Sora , Donald , and Goofy wake up in the real Twilight Town and meet King Mickey and Yen Sid , who send them on another journey . Their goal is to find Riku and stop the plans of Organization XIII , who control the Nobodies — the heartless shell left over when a person with a strong heart is turned into a Heartless . Afterward , Maleficent is resurrected and joins with Pete to continue her quest for power .
Sora travels to many Disney @-@ themed worlds , old and new , and resolves several problems caused by Organization XIII , the Nobodies , the Heartless , Maleficent , Pete and local villains . During a visit to Hollow Bastion , they again meet King Mickey , who reveals the true nature of Ansem , the antagonist of Kingdom Hearts . The Ansem whom Sora defeated was actually the Heartless of Xehanort , a student of the real Ansem the Wise ; and that the leader of the Organization is Xehanort 's Nobody , Xemnas . Organization XIII 's plan is also revealed — they seek the power of Kingdom Hearts , the sum of all the hearts that Sora released by destroying the Heartless with his Keyblade , to regain their lost hearts . Sora revisits the worlds to solve lingering problems and new complications , while seeking a path to Organization XIII 's base of operations . Throughout his endeavors , Sora is secretly aided by a mysterious hooded figure whom Sora believes to be Riku .
Following a lead , Sora , Donald , and Goofy enter a passageway through Twilight Town and encounter Axel , who sacrifices himself to create a passageway to " The World That Never Was " , the headquarters of Organization XIII , with Kingdom Hearts looming overhead as a heart @-@ shaped moon . Sora finds Kairi and Riku , whose appearance has been changed by the darkness to that of Xehanort 's Heartless . Riku explains to Sora the nature of his connection to Roxas . King Mickey encounters DiZ , who reveals himself to be Ansem the Wise . Ansem uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts ' power , but a system overload causes the device to self @-@ destruct , both engulfing Ansem and miraculously returning Riku to his original form . At the top of the Castle That Never Was , Sora and company battle Xemnas , who uses what remains of Kingdom Hearts to power his multiple forms . After Sora and Riku destroy Xemnas , the two are reunited with their friends at their home , Destiny Islands . A post @-@ credits scene shows Sora , Kairi , and Riku reading a letter from Mickey , its contents hidden from the player .
= = Development = =
Development plans for Kingdom Hearts II began around the completion of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix , but specific details were undecided until July 2003 . Nomura noted several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel . One such obstacle was the development team 's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more , which required Disney 's approval . The game was developed by Square Enix 's Product Development Division @-@ 1 , with most of the original staff from the first game . The game was originally supposed to have been released after Kingdom Hearts . Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained . To bridge the gap between the two games , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories was developed . To explain the loss of all the abilities from the first game at the beginning of Kingdom Hearts II , Nomura had Sora 's memories scrambled in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories .
Many aspects of the gameplay were reworked for this sequel . Some changes were made due to user feedback and others were meant to be included in previous games but were omitted either because of time or technological constraints . The camera was switched to the right analog stick of the DualShock controller instead of the shoulder buttons and the Gummi Ship travel was reworked . The combat system was completely redone and did not use any animations from the first game . Because Sora had matured , Nomura wanted his fighting style to reflect that . Other changes included more integration between exploration and battles . The variations in combat styles associated with each Drive Form and the introduction of the Reaction Command were added to give players more choices in battles . The inclusion of worlds based on live @-@ action Disney films was aided by technology that generated the character models from live @-@ action pictures .
= = = Audio = = =
= = = = Musical score = = = =
Like the first game , Kingdom Hearts II features music by Yoko Shimomura and Hikaru Utada . The Original Soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts II was composed by Shimomura and released on January 25 , 2006 . The opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged and orchestrated by Kaoru Wada and performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . The main vocal theme for the original Japanese release was " Passion " , written and performed by Utada . The English version of " Passion " , " Sanctuary " , was used in the Western releases . Utada 's involvement was announced on July 29 , 2005 . According to Nomura , the vocal theme ties in even more closely with the game 's story than " Hikari " ( " Simple and Clean " ) did with Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . The CD single for " Passion " was released on December 14 , 2005 and " Sanctuary " was first previewed on MTV 's official website in early 2006 .
= = = = Voice cast = = = =
Kingdom Hearts II features well @-@ known voice actors for both the Japanese and English versions . Many of the original voice actors from the first Kingdom Hearts reprised their roles ; Miyu Irino and Haley Joel Osment as Sora , Mamoru Miyano and David Gallagher as Riku , and Risa Uchida and Hayden Panettiere as Kairi . New voice actors included Kōki Uchiyama and Jesse McCartney as Roxas , Iku Nakahara and Brittany Snow as Naminé , and Genzō Wakayama and Christopher Lee as DiZ . A special effort was made to preserve the official voice actors from the Disney movies used in Kingdom Hearts II . Many actors reprised their Disney roles for the game , including American actors Ming @-@ Na , James Woods , Pat Morita ( in his final voice role before his death ) , Bruce Boxleitner , and Zach Braff , and Japanese actors Takashi Aoyagi , Kōichi Yamadera , Yū Shimaka , and Hiroshi Fujioka . Some voice actors from the related television series or direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels were chosen over original voice actors where applicable , such as Robert Costanzo as Philoctetes rather than Danny DeVito . Some characters were given new voice actors in the English version ; Ansem , Aerith , Leon , Sephiroth and Hercules , who were originally voiced by Billy Zane , Mandy Moore , David Boreanaz , Lance Bass , and Sean Astin respectively in the first game , were voiced by Richard Epcar , Mena Suvari , Doug Erholtz , George Newbern , and Tate Donovan ( Hercules ' original voice actor ) , and newcomer Tifa was voiced by Rachael Leigh Cook .
= = = Content editing = = =
Besides English translation and localization , the international version of Kingdom Hearts II differs from the original Japanese version in the content of gameplay and several scenes . The Hydra boss in the Hercules @-@ themed world Olympus Coliseum had its green blood from the original Japanese version ( which was taken from the film ) changed into black and purple smoke in the English version . In one cutscene , Hercules was fighting the Hydra and used his sword on its head which eventually released green blood from its mouth in the Japanese version , this was later changed into drool in the English version . Also , the scene in Disney Castle where , after chasing Donald around for missing a date , Daisy Duck pounds him on the backside in the Japanese version while she merely tells him off inaudibly in the English version .
Xigbar 's telescopic sight was changed from a crosshair and black shading around the sides to three glowing circles . An attack animation was also altered ; in the Japanese version , Xigbar combines his two hand @-@ held guns to create a sniper rifle , which is used to shoot the player 's party during the telescoping sight sequence . In the English version , Xigbar does not combine his guns , but twirls them around and shoots at Sora with a single gun . The death of Organization XIII member Axel was slightly edited ; in the original , he bursts into flames during his suicide attack , while in the English version he simply fades away after using up all of his power .
Port Royal , based on Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl , contains the most content edits . Cutscenes were edited to remove some of the violence , such as William Turner threatening to commit suicide while aiming a gun at his neck , as in the film . Unlike the Japanese version , the undead Pirates do not catch fire when affected by Fire magic and their muskets were modified to resemble crossbows , though the crossbows still fire with an audible musket shot sound effect .
= = = Promotion = = =
An unlockable trailer in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Final Mix hinted at the possibility of a sequel . Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when the video game website Quiter stated that " an internal ( and anonymous source ) at Square Japan " confirmed that development of Kingdom Hearts II had begun . It was not until Kingdom Hearts II was announced , along with Chain of Memories , at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed . Initial details were that it would take place some time after Chain of Memories , which takes place directly after the first game . Other details included the return of Sora , Donald , and Goofy , as well as new costumes . Information about Mickey Mouse 's involvement was kept to a minimum .
At the 2004 Square Enix E3 Press conference , producer Shinji Hashimoto said that many mysteries of the first game would be answered . Square Enix launched the official Japanese website in May 2005 , followed by the English website in December 2005 . The websites featured videos and information regarding characters and worlds . Commercials were aired in Japan which highlighted the numerous Disney characters in the game . Although the game was announced in September 2003 , a release date for the game was not set until two years later . Nomura admitted that the game was announced too early and information regarding the game was not released until a debut period was in sight .
= = Release = =
Within a week of its Japanese release , Kingdom Hearts II shipped one million copies , selling almost 730 @,@ 000 copies . The NPD Group reported that Kingdom Hearts II was the highest @-@ selling console game in North America during March 2006 with 614 @,@ 000 copies . In the month after its release in North America , Kingdom Hearts II sold an estimated one million copies . GameStop listed the game as their best @-@ selling title for the first quarter of 2006 . The game was also on IGN 's " Top 10 Sellers in 2006 " . By December 2006 , over 3 @.@ 5 million copies of Kingdom Hearts II had been shipped worldwide with 700 @,@ 000 in PAL regions , 1 @.@ 1 million in Japan , and 1 @.@ 7 million in North America . By March 31 , 2007 , Square Enix had shipped over 4 million units worldwide .
= = Critical response = =
Kingdom Hearts II was generally well @-@ received , garnering positive reviews . The game received numerous awards and high ratings among reviews including a Satellite Award in 2006 for " Outstanding Game Based on Existing Medium " . It tied with Resident Evil 4 as Famitsu 's " Game of the Year " 2005 . Famitsu 's readers ranked the game 29th on their " All Time Top 100 " feature , ten places below Kingdom Hearts . It was ranked number one on IGN 's 2006 " Reader 's Choice " for PlayStation 2 games . Eurogamer ranked it 34th on their " Top 50 Games of 2006 " list . Video game magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded it " Best Sequel " of 2006 , and Game Informer listed it among the " Top 50 games of 2006 " . VideoGamer.com featured it 10th in their article " Top 10 : Role playing games " . GamePro named it the 25th best RPG title of all time . Kingdom Hearts II also received a near @-@ perfect score , 39 / 40 , from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu .
Critics commended many aspects of the game . GameSpy praised the quality of the voice acting and cited the graphics as " on par with the best of Square 's productions to date . " They also commented on the realistic and accurate character models for the characters from Pirates of the Caribbean . IGN rated the graphics a 9 / 10 and stated that the " worlds look very much like their filmed counterparts . " Japanese gaming site Gpara.com also praised the look of the worlds . G4 awarded Kingdom Hearts II " Best Voice Over " and " Best Soundtrack " in their 2006 G @-@ Phoria awards show .
Like its predecessors , the gameplay received mixed reviews . Many compliments were directed at the new camera controls and combat interactions between party members . GamePro stated that the beginning was " sluggishly slow " , but praised the action @-@ oriented combat . GameSpot said that the fixed camera system and new gameplay dynamics improved the experience , but they felt the game was far too easy and that there was too much button @-@ mashing . IGN also commented on the button @-@ mashing aspect of the gameplay and criticized the party member 's artificial intelligence , citing it as " absolutely terrible " , but praised the story , presentation , and new battle features . Gpara.com had positive comments about the ease of combo attacks and complimented the steady pacing of the story and gameplay .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
Kingdom Hearts II has been released in four different versions . The first three are the normal regional releases in Japan , North America , and PAL regions , which only differ nominally in content editing and localization . The European and Australian PAL releases were reformatted to run at 50 Hz to fit the definition size of PAL encoding systems . The fourth version has additional content and was released under the title Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix . Like the previous titles , both Square and Disney released numerous types of merchandise before and after the game came out . Merchandise ranged from toys and figurines to clothing items and books . The game has also been adapted into both manga and novel series . Prior to the game 's release , an Ultimania book titled Kingdom Hearts Series Ultimania α ~ Introduction of Kingdom Hearts II ~ came out . It provides extended information on the first two Kingdom Hearts games , as well as information on the unreleased Kingdom Hearts II . After the release of the game , Kingdom Hearts II Ultimania , which focuses on the game itself , came out . Another book , titled Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + Ultimania , was released after the Final Mix version came out . Released along with Final Mix , Kingdom Hearts -Another Report- was a hardback book which includes game information , visuals by Shiro Amano , and a director interview . In North America , BradyGames published two strategy guides — a standard guide and a limited edition version . The latter version was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy 's Journal along with 400 stickers .
= = = Final Mix = = =
Because the first game was re @-@ released , there was speculation whether Tetsuya Nomura would do the same with Kingdom Hearts II . In a Weekly Shōnen Jump interview with Nomura , he expressed interest in a possible international version of Kingdom Hearts II , although there were no definite plans . He said that should a " Final Mix " version arise , he had a " trump card " in mind , with such features as the Mushroom Heartless found in the first Kingdom Hearts game . In September 2006 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , featuring new scenes and gameplay elements . Like the first re @-@ release , this version would combine English audio with Japanese text and also use the " Sanctuary " theme song instead of " Passion " . New cutscenes , however , used Japanese voice acting , as they mostly featured Organization XIII members from Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories who did not yet have English voice actors .
Kingdom Hearts II was re @-@ released in Japan on March 29 , 2007 as a 2 @-@ disc set titled Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + . The first disc contains Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix with a new secret movie and additional battles and items . The second disc contains Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories , a 3D PlayStation 2 remake of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories with extra scenes and voice acting . The battle system maintains the card gameplay , with the addition of Reaction Commands from Kingdom Hearts II . Like the first game 's Final Mix , the two games serve as a canonical update to the series . The book Kingdom Hearts -Another Report- was included along with the game for those who reserved a copy . Based on Amazon.com figures , Final Mix + was the number one PlayStation 2 game in sales during the week of its release in Japan . Nomura cited the presence of Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories to explain why Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + was so popular . Nevertheless , in a Famitsu poll in July 2011 , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix was voted the most popular entry so far .
It was released for the first time outside Japan as part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix .
= = = Printed adaptations = = =
A manga series based on the game started its serialization in the June 2006 issue of the magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan , published by Square Enix . The artist is Shiro Amano , who also did the Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories manga series . The first volume was released in Japan in December 2006 . As a result of Amano working in the Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days manga , the series has been on hiatus and resumed publication in October 2012 . Tokyopop licensed the manga and released volume one in North America on July 3 , 2007 . The second volume was released the following year .
The game has also been novelized by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano . The first volume , titled " Roxas — Seven Days " , was released on April 22 , 2006 and covers Roxas ' story to when Sora wakes up and leaves Twilight Town . The novel depicts extra scenes that were added in the Final Mix version , such as interaction between Organization XIII members and between Axel , Naminé and Riku . The second book , " The Destruction of Hollow Bastion " , was released on July 16 , 2006 , the third book , " Tears of Nobody , " revolving around Roxas ' past , was released on September 29 , 2006 , and the fourth book , " Anthem — Meet Again / Axel Last Stand , " came out in February 2007 .
= = = HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix = = =
In the credits of HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix were shown , hinting at its inclusion in another collection . On October 14 , 2013 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , a second compilation exclusively for the PlayStation 3 after HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , that includes both Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix in HD and trophy support . Additionally , the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from Kingdom Hearts Re : coded and was released in Japan on October 2 , 2014 , North America on December 2 , 2014 , Australia on December 4 , 2014 , and Europe on December 5 , 2014 .
= Phyllis ' Wedding =
" Phyllis ' Wedding " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 44th overall . It first aired on February 8 , 2007 on NBC . The episode was written by staff writer Caroline Williams and directed by Ken Whittingham . Actors Creed Bratton , Rashida Jones , and Bobby Ray Shafer guest star .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the office attends Phyllis Lapin 's ( Phyllis Smith ) wedding to Bob Vance ( Shafer ) , and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) becomes upset with how many similarities there are between her canceled wedding and Phyllis ' . Meanwhile , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) embarrasses the bride and groom , and Pam reconnects with her ex @-@ fiance Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) .
Brian Baumgartner 's character appears as a drum player in the episode , forcing the actor to take lessons for the instrument and rely on a stunt musician . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode at the time of broadcast . It received mixed reviews from television critics , as some reviewers found Michael 's actions unrealistic and cartoonish . " Phyllis ' Wedding " won a NAACP Image Award for Whittingham 's directional work and received a nomination from the Writers Guild of America .
= = Synopsis = =
Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) has asked Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to push her father 's wheelchair down the aisle at her wedding , a role that she gave him to secure six weeks off for her honeymoon . Michael assumes that his doing so will be the wedding 's highlight . Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) is upset that many details of Phyllis ' wedding , from the invitations to the wedding gown , were copied from her own canceled wedding .
During the procession , Michael becomes petulant when Phyllis ' father " upstages " him by walking under his own power . Goaded by Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) hunts down wedding crashers . He ousts Phyllis ' Uncle Al , who fails to pass Dwight 's questioning due to dementia .
Michael makes several attempts to recapture the limelight , including an embarrassing toast at the wedding banquet , which gets him kicked out of the reception hall by Phyllis ' husband Bob Vance ( Bobby Ray Shafer ) . Dwight does not let him re @-@ enter , and Michael must sit outside listening to Uncle Al 's ramblings . Pam stares as Jim and Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) dance together , and when Jim catches her eye , his face turns to sadness as she looks away .
Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) pays " Scrantonicity " , the Kevin Malone @-@ led ( Brian Baumgartner ) wedding band to play his and Pam 's song , " You Were Meant for Me " . The two dance and leave together to Jim 's obvious dismay . However , Jim soon states that " Here 's a non @-@ hypothetical : I 'm really happy I 'm with Karen . " When Phyllis leaves the reception hall with Bob Vance , she thanks Michael for finding her Uncle Al , and the newlyweds ride off in a Vance Refrigeration van .
= = Production = =
" Phyllis ' Wedding " was written by staff writer Caroline Williams and directed by Ken Whittingham , his fifth such credit for the series . Recurring guest stars Creed Bratton , Rashida Jones , and Bobby Ray Shafer appeared in the episode . The episode is the first of the series to revolve around a wedding . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Baumgartner described the episode , " Michael plays a very important role in that wedding . He is to walk Phyllis ' dad down the aisle by pushing him in a wheelchair , which in his mind is him walking Phyllis down the aisle , a very important position of authority . Of course , Phyllis has asked him to do this only so she can get six weeks of vacation time . But for him it 's a place of honor , and from there , things don 't go quite the way that he hopes . "
The episode features Kevin Malone playing the drums in a band , which had been an idea circulated since the first season , when allusions to him being in a Steve Miller tribute band were written ; the scenes had to be removed from the series due to issues negotiating with the singer . The crew later decided to have Kevin be in a Police tribute band called Scrantonicity because he " talks so low , and has very little expression , and there is no band that sings higher and with more expression than the Police . " While Kevin was always intended to be the band 's lead singer , executive producer Greg Daniels approached Baumgartner about possibly playing an instrument , but the actor replied he could not play anything . Daniels and Baumgartner then discussed instruments that would be " funny " to play and brought up harmonicas , saxophones , and drums . They ultimately decided on the latter because they deemed a " drumming lead singer [ to ] be the funniest choice , " regardless of the fact that the actor had " absolutely no drumming experience , and it 's a difficult instrument . " Baumgartner took some drum lessons , but found filming of the episode to be " the hardest thing that I 've ever done artistically . " He was aided by a stunt musician who hid behind a curtain near the band .
= = Reception = =
" Phyllis ' Wedding " first aired on February 8 , 2007 in the United States on NBC . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , and it earned a 4 @.@ 4 / 11 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . In other words , it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
AOL TV 's Jay Black called the episode " amazing " , partly because he believed the out @-@ of @-@ office setting made Michael 's " social awkwardness and emotional neediness a lot more enjoyable . " Black observed that the " main romantic plotline had some nice movement tonight as well , " and praised the Pam @-@ Roy and Jim @-@ Karen storylines in particular for their realism . Writing for IGN , Brian Zoromski rated " Phyllis ' Wedding " with 7 out of 10 , an indication of a " good " episode . He asserted that the episode contained some " great moments " such as Jim 's Altoid prank on Dwight and Michael 's conversation with Phyllis ' amnesiac uncle . In contrast to Black however , Zoromski believed Michael 's " over @-@ the @-@ top cartoonishness " actions stretched " the believability of the show 's " illusion as reality , especially because they occurred outside of the office .
Give Me My Remote 's Kath Skerry speculated that after several episodes of a " semi @-@ normal " Michael , the writers " were aching to bring back cringe worthy Michael . " She criticized the decision , calling his behavior " borderline ridiculous ( and not in a good way ) . It just seems implausible that someone could be so very clueless that they would act like that in public . " Skerry however did find high points , such as the opening sequence and any scene with Dwight and Angela . Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A " .
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West praised Smith for " again proving how sly her seemingly diffident character really is " by manipulating Michael . West also noted that she ended up " feel [ ing ] a little sorry " for Michael after the episode , due to the revelations learned from his childhood . Carell later recalled that many fans " hated " Michael for disrupting Phyllis ' wedding . For his work in the episode , Whittingham won a NAACP Image Award in the " Directing in a Comedy Series " category . Along with two other Office episodes , for her work on this episode , Caroline Williams was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy .
= The Restoration ( 1910 film ) =
The Restoration is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Hugh Logan , a single father who leaves his little girl , May , at home when he goes on a business trip . On the way to the city he is attacked by robbers and left in the road . He is found and taken in , but he suffers from amnesia . He falls in love with Maud Neals and proposes to her . Due to the prolonged absence of her father , May is taken to an orphan asylum , but she escapes . May goes to the city and ends up stopping to sleep on the doorstep of the Neals ' home . Maud finds her and takes her in , where Logan recognizes his daughter and his memory comes back . Little is known of the production credits , but the film does feature Marie Eline as the little girl . It was released on August 5 , 1910 and was met with mixed reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 6 , 1910 . It states : " Hugh Logan is a widower who lives with his only child , a little girl , in a small cottage in the country . Logan is a commercial traveler and , as the play opens , is preparing to leave on a business trip . He takes the train to the city , where he is attacked by footpads , who leave him unconscious in the roadway . He is found by Maud Neal and her father , who are passing in an auto , and they take him into their home . There he revives , but the shock has affected his memory , and he is unable to recall anything of his past life . The kindly Neal secures him employment , and as time passes Logan falls deeply in love with Maud . He finally proposes to her and it is accepted . In the meantime , little May has been waiting in vain for her father . As no word is received from him , and she has no other relatives , Bridget , the servant , takes her to the orphan asylum , where she is compelled to make her home with other little unfortunates . May dislikes the place . In the end she escapes from it . But , gaining the city , she gets lost there and , tired and hungry , goes to sleep on a doorstep - the Neals ' . There she is found by Maud , who takes her into the house . Maud is much attracted by the child 's charms and finally decides that she must never be parted from her . She tells Logan of her decision and he objects . They quarrel . Feeling himself in the wrong , Logan returns and asks Maud 's pardon . He meets May , who recognizes her father . At the sight of her , his memory returns . Speedily he determines to retain May from out of the things of the old life , and Maud from out of the new . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . Lonergan liked to use the deus ex machina dramatic technique in the conclusion of the plots and this production was no exception . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only cast credit claimed by Bowers is that of Marie Eline as the little girl . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . Known and more prominent members of the cast to appear in productions include the leading ladies , Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming , and the leading man was Frank H. Crane .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on August 5 , 1910 . Curiously , The Moving Picture World makes a reference to aphasia instead of amnesia in advertising the film , " The Friday release ( August 5 ) is a gripping heart @-@ drama , by name The Restoration . It is a curious , a novel thing ; in a sense a study in aphasia - one of those weird plots you expect a Thanhouser picture to unfold . " The film likely had a wide national release as evidenced by numerous advertisements , including theaters in Maryland , Indiana , and Kansas . Some advertisements for The Restoration were not specific and may refer to D. W. Griffith 's 1909 The Restoration . These advertisements are noted in Oregon , Washington , and North Carolina .
The film received mixed reviews , but also criticism for several aspects of the production . The Morning Telegraph stated , " The photography at the beginning of the film is poor . It seems queer that the child should be able to escape from the orphan asylum in such an easy manner and that no search be made by the institution . It seemed very theatrical and hardly possible that the child should make the first stop at the house of the father 's intended . Why did not the producer have the child make a few more stops or have something happen to her instead of making the first stop at the woman 's house ? " The The Moving Picture World spared little coverage of the actual film in its review , noting that the emotional story might be a plausible . The New York Dramatic Mirror gave a detailed review that found the acting favorable , but found the plot and its resolution to be fantastical by stating , " The manifest absurdity of this plot lies in the adoption . No girl just betrothed would ever adopt a runaway orphan . "
= Lexington @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The Lexington @-@ class aircraft carriers were a pair of aircraft carriers built for the United States Navy ( USN ) during the 1920s . The ships were built on hulls originally laid down as battlecruisers after World War I , but under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , all U.S. battleship and battlecruiser construction was cancelled . The Treaty , however , allowed two of the unfinished ships to be converted to carriers . They were the first operational aircraft carriers in the USN and were used to develop carrier aviation tactics and procedures before World War II in a series of annual exercises .
They proved extremely successful as carriers and experience with the Lexington class convinced the Navy of the value of large carriers . They were the largest aircraft carriers in the USN until the Midway @-@ class aircraft carriers were completed beginning in 1945 . The ships served in World War II , seeing action in many battles . Although Lexington was sunk in the first carrier battle in history ( the Battle of the Coral Sea ) in 1942 , Saratoga served throughout the war , despite being torpedoed twice , notably participating in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in mid @-@ 1942 where her aircraft sank the Japanese light carrier Ryūjō . She supported Allied operations in the Indian Ocean and South West Pacific Areas until she became a training ship at the end of 1943 . Saratoga returned to combat to protect American forces during the Battle of Iwo Jima in early 1945 , but was badly damaged by kamikazes . The continued growth in the size and weight of carrier aircraft made her obsolete by the end of the war . In mid @-@ 1946 , the ship was sunk during nuclear weapon tests in Operation Crossroads .
= = Development = =
The Lexington @-@ class was originally designed as battlecruisers , with heavy guns , high speed , and moderate armor protection . The Navy laid down six ships of the class in 1919 – 20 . When the battlecruisers were cancelled under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , two of the unfinished ships were designated for completion as carriers . Lexington and Saratoga were selected since they were the most advanced of the six ships in construction .
Conversion became a series of compromises and mixed blessings which would not have arisen had they been " specifically designed carriers " from the outset . On the plus side , the ships would have better anti @-@ torpedo protection , larger magazines for aircraft bombs and , with the after elevator 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) higher than otherwise , more room for aircraft landings . On the minus side , a converted battlecruiser would be 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ; 0 @.@ 58 mph ) slower than a specifically designed carrier , have 16 percent less hangar space , less emergency fuel and
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died , Edward acceded to the throne ; the barons swore allegiance to him even though he did not return for two years .
= = = Constitutional change and the reform of feudalism = = =
Edward married Eleanor of Castile , daughter of King Ferdinand of Castile , a great grandson of Henry II through his second daughter Eleanor in 1254 . Edward and Eleanor had sixteen children ; five daughters survived to adulthood , but only one son survived Edward :
Eleanor , Countess of Bar ( 1264 / 69 − 1298 )
Three daughters ( Joan , Alice , and Juliana / Katherine ) and two sons ( John and Henry ) born between 1265 and 1271 . They died between 1265 and 1274 with little historical trace .
Joan , Countess of Gloucester ( 1272 – 1307 )
Alphonso , Earl of Chester ( 1273 – 1284 )
Margaret , Duchess of Brabant ( 1275 – 1333 )
Mary of Woodstock ( 1278 – 1332 ) , who became a nun
Isabella ( 1279 – 1279 )
Elizabeth , firstly Countess of Holland and on widowhood , secondly Countess of Hereford ( 1282 – 1316 ) . Among her eleven children were the earls of Hereford , Essex , and Northampton , and the countesses of Ormond and Devon .
King Edward II
Two other daughters ( Beatrice and Blanche ) , who died as children .
Following Eleanor 's death in 1290 , Edward married Margaret of France , daughter of Philip III of France , in 1299 . Edward and Margaret had two sons , who both lived to adulthood , and a daughter who died as a child :
Thomas ( 1300 – 1338 ) , whose daughter Margaret inherited his estates . Margaret 's grandson , Thomas Mowbray , was the first duke of Norfolk , but Henry IV exiled him and stripped him of his titles .
Edmund , Earl of Kent ( 1301 to 1330 ) . Edmund 's loyalty to his half @-@ brother , Edward II , resulted in his execution by order of the rebel Mortimer and his lover , Edward 's queen , Isabella . His daughter , Joan , inherited his estates and married her own cousin , Edward the Black Prince ; together , they had Richard , who later became the English king .
Eleanor ( 1306 – 1311 ) .
Evidence for Edward 's involvement in legal reform is hard to find but his reign saw a major programme of legal change . Much of the drive and determination is likely to have come from the king and his experience of the baronial reform movement of the late 1250s and early 1260s . With the Statutes of Mortmain , Edward imposed his authority over the Church ; the statutes prohibited land donation to the Church , asserted the rights of the Crown at the expense of traditional feudal privileges , promoted the uniform administration of justice , raised income and codified the legal system . His military campaigns left him in heavy debt and when Philip IV of France confiscated the Duchy of Gascony in 1294 , Edward needed funds to wage war in France . When Edward summoned a precedent @-@ setting assembly in order to raise more taxes for military finance , he included lesser landowners and merchants . The resulting parliament included barons , clergy , knights , and burgesses for the first time .
= = = Expansion in Britain = = =
On his accession , Edward I sought to organise his realm , enforcing his claims to primacy in the British Isles . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd claimed to rule North Wales " entirely separate from " England but Edward viewed him to be " a rebel and disturber of the peace " . Edward 's determination , military experience and skilful naval manoeuvres ended what was to him rebellion . The invasion was executed by one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king , comprising Anglo @-@ Norman cavalry and Welsh archers and laying the foundation for future victories in France . Llywelyn was driven into the mountains , later dying in battle . The Statute of Rhuddlan established England 's authority over Wales , and Edward 's son was proclaimed the first English Prince of Wales upon his birth . Edward spent vast sums on his two Welsh campaigns with a large portion of it spent on a network of castles .
Edward asserted that the king of Scotland owed him feudal allegiance , and intended to unite the two nations by marrying his son Edward to Margaret , the sole heir of King Alexander III . When Margaret died in 1290 , competition for the Scottish crown ensued . By invitation of Scottish magnates , Edward I resolved the dispute , ruling in favour of John Balliol , who duly swore loyalty to him and became king . Edward insisted that he was Scotland 's sovereign and possessed the right to hear appeals against Balliol 's judgements , undermining Balliol 's authority . Balliol allied with France in 1295 ; Edward invaded Scotland the following year , deposing and exiling Balliol .
Edward was less successful in Gascony , which was overrun by the French . With his resources depleting , Edward was forced to reconfirm the Charters , including Magna Carta , to obtain the necessary funds . In 1303 the French king restored Gascony to Edward by signing the Treaty of Paris . Meanwhile , William Wallace rose in Balliol 's name and recovered most of Scotland . Wallace was defeated at the Battle of Falkirk , after which Robert the Bruce rebelled and was crowned king of Scotland . Edward died while travelling to Scotland for another campaign .
King Edward II 's coronation oath on his succession in 1307 was the first to reflect the king 's responsibility to maintain the laws that the community " shall have chosen " ( " aura eslu " ) . He was not unpopular initially but faced three challenges : discontent over the financing of wars ; his household spending ; and the role of his favourite Piers Gaveston . When Parliament decided that Gaveston should be exiled the king was left with no choice but to comply . Edward engineered Gaveston 's return , but was forced to agree to the appointment of Ordainers , led by his cousin Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , to reform the royal household with Piers Gaveston exiled again . When Gaveston returned again to England , he was abducted and executed after a mock trial . The ramifications of this drove Thomas and his adherents from power . Edward 's humiliating defeat by Bruce at the Battle of Bannockburn , confirming Bruce 's position as an independent king of Scots , leading to Lancaster being appointed head of the king 's council . Edward finally repealed the Ordinances after defeating and executing Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 .
The French monarchy asserted its rights to encroach on Edward 's legal rights in Gascony . Resistance to one judgement in Saint @-@ Sardos resulted in Charles IV declaring the duchy forfeit . Charles 's sister , Queen Isabella , was sent to negotiate and agreed a treaty that required Edward to pay homage in France to Charles . Edward resigned Aquitaine and Ponthieu to his son Edward , who travelled to France to give homage in his stead . With the English heir in her power , Isabella refused to return to England unless Edward II dismissed his favourites , and she became the mistress of Roger Mortimer . The couple invaded England and , with Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , captured the king . Edward II abdicated on condition that his son would inherit the throne rather than Mortimer . Although there is no historical record of the cause of death , he is popularly believed to have been murdered at Berkeley Castle by having a red @-@ hot poker thrust into his bowels . A coup by Edward III ended four years of control by Isabella and Mortimer . Mortimer was executed . Though removed from power , Isabella was treated well , and lived in luxury for the next 27 years .
= = = Conflict with the House of Valois = = =
In 1328 Charles IV of France died without a male heir . Queen Isabella made a claim to throne of France on behalf of her son Edward on the grounds that he was a matrilineal grandson of Philip IV of France . However , the precedents set by Philip V 's succession over his niece Joan II of Navarre and Charles IV 's succession over his nieces meant that the senior grandson of Philip III in the male line , Phillip of Valois , became king . Not yet in power , Edward paid homage to Phillip as Duke of Aquitaine .
In 1337 Phillip confiscated Aquitaine and Ponthieu from Edward alleging he was harbouring Phillip ’ s fugitive cousin and enemy , Robert of Artois . In response , Edward proclaimed himself king of France to encourage the Flemish to rise in open rebellion against the French king . The conflict , later known as the Hundred Years ' War , included a significant English naval victory at the Battle of Sluys , and a victory on land at Crécy , leaving Edward free to capture the important port of Calais . A subsequent victory against Scotland at the Battle of Neville 's Cross resulted in the capture of David II and reduced the threat from Scotland . The Black Death brought a halt to Edward 's campaigns by killing perhaps a third of his subjects . The only Plantagenet known to have died from the Black Death was Edward III 's daughter Joan in Bordeaux .
Edward , the Black Prince resumed the war with destructive chevauchées starting from Bordeaux . His army was caught by a much larger French force at Poitiers , but the ensuing battle was a decisive English victory resulting in the capture of John II of France . John agreed a treaty promising the French would pay a four million écus ransom . The subsequent Treaty of Brétigny was demonstrably popular in England , where it was both ratified in parliament and celebrated with great ceremony . To reach agreement , clauses were removed that would have had Edward renounce his claim to the French crown in return for territory in Aquitaine and the town of Calais . These were entered in another agreement to be effected only after the transfer of territory by November 1361 but both sides prevaricated over their commitments for the following nine years . Hostages from the Valois family were held in London while John returned to France to raise his ransom . Edward had restored the lands of the former Angevin Empire holding Normandy , Brittany , Anjou , Maine and the coastline from Flanders to Spain . When the hostages escaped back to France , John was horrified that his word had been broken and returned to England , where he eventually died .
Fighting in the Hundred Years ' War spilled from the French and Plantagenet lands into surrounding realms , including the dynastic conflict in Castile between Peter of Castile and Henry II of Castile . The Black Prince allied himself with Peter , defeating Henry at the Battle of Nájera . Edward and Peter fell out when Peter was unable to reimburse Edward ’ s military expenses leaving him bankrupt . The Plantagenets continued to interfere , and John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , the Black Prince 's brother , married Peter 's daughter Constance , claiming the Crown of Castile in her name . He invaded with an army of 5000 men . Fighting was inconclusive before Gaunt agreed a treaty with King Juan of Castile . Terms of the treaty included the marriage of John of Gaunt 's daughter Katherine to Juan 's son , Enrique .
Charles V of France maintained the terms of the treaty of Brétigny but encouraged others in Aquitaine to challenge the authority of the Plantagenets in Aquitaine . The prince , who had suffered a debilitating illness for nearly a decade which often restricted his movement to being carried in a litter , returned to England , where he soon died . John of Gaunt assumed leadership in France with limited success , and peace negotiations over several years were inconclusive .
= = = Descendants of Edward III = = =
The marriage of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault produced thirteen children and thirty @-@ two grandchildren :
Edward ( 1330 – 1376 ) — married his cousin Joan of Kent , a granddaughter of Edward I , with whom he had two sons :
Edward ( 1365 – 1371 / 2 )
Richard ( 1367 – 1400 )
Isabella ( 1332 – 1382 ) — married Enguerrand II , Lord of Coucy , and had two daughters :
Marie
Philippa
Joan ( 1335 – 1348 )
William ( 1334 / 6 – 1337 )
Lionel ( 1338 – 1368 ) — had one daughter with Elizabeth de Burgh :
Philippa ( 1355 – 1378 / 81 ) — through Philippa , the House of York , by cognatic kinship , asserted that its claim to the throne was superior to the House of Lancaster 's . Philippa 's granddaughter and heir , Anne Mortimer , married Richard of Conisburgh , 3rd Earl of Cambridge , the Duke of York 's heir . The earls of Northumberland and Clifford , significant supporters of the Lancasters during the Wars of the Roses , were descendants of Philippa through her other daughter , Elizabeth Mortimer .
John of Gaunt ( 1340 – 1399 ) — married Blanche of Lancaster , the heiress to the duchy of Lancaster and a direct descendent of Henry III , and had six children with her :
Philippa ( 1360 – 1415 ) — married John I of Portugal .
John ( c . 1362 / 1364 ) — died as an infant .
Elizabeth ( 1364 – 1426 ) — married John Hastings , 3rd Earl of Pembroke , John Holland , 1st Duke of Exeter , and John Cornwall , 1st Baron Fanhope , respectively .
Edward of Lancaster ( 1365 – 1365 )
John of Lancaster ( 1366 ) — died as an infant .
Henry ( 1367 – 1413 )
Isabella of Lancaster ( b . 1368 ) — died as a child .
After Blanche 's death in 1369 , John married Constance of Castile , trying unsuccessfully to obtain the throne of Castile . The marriage produced two children :
Catherine of Lancaster ( 1372 – 1418 ) — married Henry III of Castile , with whom she was a great @-@ grandmother of Catherine of Aragon , first wife of Henry VIII of England .
John ( 1374 – 1375 )
Constance died in 1394 , after which John married Katherine Swynford on 13 January 1396 . Their four children were born before they married . The pope legitimised them in 1396 , as did Richard II by charter , on the condition that their children could not ascend the throne :
John ( c . 1371 / 1372 – 1410 ) — grandfather of Margaret Beaufort , Henry VII 's mother .
Henry ( 1375 – 1447 )
Thomas ( 1377 – 1427 )
Joan ( 1379 – 1440 ) — Joan 's son , Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , and her grandson , Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , were leading supporters of the House of York .
Edmund ( 1341 – 1402 ) — founder of the House of York . He had three children with Isabella of Castile :
Edward ( 1373 – 1415 ) — killed at the Battle of Agincourt .
Constance ( 1374 – 1416 )
Richard — ( 1375 – 1415 )
Blanche ( 1342 ) — died as a child .
Mary of Waltham ( 1344 – 1362 ) — married John V , Duke of Brittany . No issue .
Margaret ( 1346 – 1361 ) — married John Hastings , 2nd Earl of Pembroke . No issue .
Joan ( b . 1351 )
Thomas ( 1355 – 1397 ) — murdered or executed for treason by order of Richard II ; his daughter , Anne , married Edmund Stafford .
Edward ’ s long reign had forged a new national identity , reinforced by Middle English beginning to establish itself as the spoken and written language of government . As a result he is considered by many historians in cultural respects the first ‘ English ’ post @-@ conquest ruler .
= = = Demise of the main line = = =
The Black Prince 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son succeeded as Richard II of England on the death of his grandfather , nominally exercising all the powers of kingship supported by various councils . His government levied poll taxes to finance military campaigns and combined with the poor state of the economy resulted in the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 , followed by brutal reprisals against the rebels .
The king 's uncle Thomas of Woodstock , 1st Duke of Gloucester , Richard FitzAlan , 11th Earl of Arundel , and Thomas de Beauchamp , 12th Earl of Warwick , became known as the Lords Appellant when they sought to impeach five of the king 's favourites and restrain what was increasingly seen as tyrannical and capricious rule . Later they were joined by Henry Bolingbroke , the son and heir of John of Gaunt , and Thomas de Mowbray , 1st Duke of Norfolk . Initially , they were successful in establishing a commission to govern England for one year , but they were forced to rebel against Richard , defeating an army under Robert de Vere , Earl of Oxford , at the skirmish of Radcot Bridge .
Richard was reduced to a figurehead with little power . As a result of the Merciless Parliament , de Vere and Michael de la Pole , 1st Earl of Suffolk , who had fled abroad , were sentenced to death in their absence . Alexander Neville , Archbishop of York , had all his possessions confiscated . Several of Richard 's council were executed . On John of Gaunt 's return from Spain , Richard was able to re @-@ establish his power , having Gloucester murdered in captivity in Calais . Warwick was stripped of his title . Bolingbroke and Mowbray were exiled .
When John of Gaunt died in 1399 , Richard disinherited John 's son , Henry , who invaded England in response with a small force that quickly grew in numbers . Meeting little resistance , Henry deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England . Richard died in captivity early the next year , probably murdered , bringing an end to the main Plantagenet line . None of Henry 's heirs were free from challenge on the grounds of not being the true heir of Richard II and that the Lancastrian dynasty had gained the throne by an act of usurpation .
= = House of Lancaster = =
Henry married his Plantagenet cousin Mary de Bohun , who was paternally descended from Edward I and maternally from Edmund Crouchback . They had seven children :
Edward ( b . 1382 ; died as a child ) — buried at Monmouth Castle , Monmouth .
Henry ( 1386 – 1422 ) — had one son :
Henry ( 1421 – 1471 ) — also had one son :
Edward ( 1453 – 1471 )
Thomas ( 1387 – 1421 ) — killed at the Battle of Baugé . His marriage to Margaret Holland proved childless ; he had an illegitimate son named John , also known as the Bastard of Clarence .
John ( 1389 – 1435 ) — had two childless marriages : to Anne of Burgundy , daughter of John the Fearless , and Jacquetta of Luxembourg . John had an illegitimate son and daughter , named Richard and Mary , respectively .
Humphrey ( 1390 – 1447 ) — died under suspicious circumstances while imprisoned for treason against Henry VI ; his death may have been the result of a stroke .
Blanche ( 1392 – 1409 ) — married Louis III , Count Palatine of the Rhine , in 1402 .
Philippa ( 1394 – 1430 ) — married Eric of Pomerania , king of Denmark , Norway and Sweden , in 1406 .
Henry went to convoluted legal means to justify his succession . Many Lancastrians asserted that his mother had had legitimate rights through her descent from Edmund Crouchback , who it was claimed was the elder son of Henry III of England , set aside due to deformity . As the grandson of Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , was the heir presumptive to Richard II and Henry used multiple rationales stressing his Plantagenet descent , divine grace , powerful friends , and the Richard 's misgovernment . In fact Mortimer never showed interest in the throne . The later marriage of his granddaughter Anne to Richard 's son consolidated his descendants ' claim to the throne with that of the more junior House of York . Henry planned to resume war with France , but was plagued with financial problems , declining health and frequent rebellions . He defeated a Scottish invasion , a serious rebellion by Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland in the North and Owain Glyndŵr 's rebellion in Wales . Many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with unknown but chronic illnesses .
Henry IV died in 1413 . His son and successor , Henry V of England , aware that Charles VI of France 's mental illness had caused instability in France , invaded to assert the Plantagenet claims and won a near total victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt . In subsequent years Henry recaptured much of Normandy and secured marriage to Catherine of Valois . The resulting Treaty of Troyes stated that Henry 's heirs would inherit the throne of France , but conflict continued with the Dauphin . When Henry died in 1422 , his nine @-@ month @-@ old son succeeded him as Henry VI of England . During the minority of Henry VI the war caused political division among his Plantagenet uncles , Bedford , Humphrey of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Gloucester , and Cardinal Beaufort . Humphrey 's wife was accused of treasonable necromancy after two astrologers in her employ unwisely , if honestly , predicted a serious illness would endanger Henry VI 's life , and Humphrey was later arrested and died in prison .
Depopulation stemming from the Black Death led to increased wages , static food costs and a resulting improvement in the standard of living for the peasantry . However , under Henry misgovernment and harvest failures depressed the English economy to a pitiful state known as the Great Slump . The economy was in ruins by 1450 , a consequence of the loss of France , piracy in the channel and poor trading relations with the Hanseatic League . The economic slowdown began in the 1430s in the north of the country , spreading south in the 1440s , with the economy not recovering until the 1480s . It was also driven by multiple harvest failures in the 1430s and disease amongst livestock , which drove up the price of food and damaged the wider economy . Certain groups were particularly badly affected : cloth exports fell by 35 per cent in just four years at the end of the 1440s , collapsing by up to 90 per cent in some parts of the South @-@ West . The Crown 's debts reached £ 372 @,@ 000 , Henry 's deficit was £ 20 @,@ 000 per annum , and tax revenues were half those of his father .
= = House of York = =
Edward III made his fourth son Edmund the first duke of York in 1362 . Edmund was married to Isabella , a daughter of King Peter of Castile and María de Padilla and the sister of Constance of Castile , who was the second wife of Edmund 's brother John of Gaunt . Both of Edmund 's sons were killed in 1415 . Richard became involved in the Southampton Plot , a conspiracy to depose Henry V in favour of Richard 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Mortimer . When Mortimer revealed the plot to the king , Richard was executed for treason . Richard 's childless older brother Edward was killed at the Battle of Agincourt later the same year . Constance of York was Edmund 's only daughter and was an ancestor of Queen Anne Neville . The increasingly interwoven Plantagenet relationships were demonstrated by Edmund 's second marriage to Joan Holland . Her sister Alianore Holland was mother to Richard 's wife , Anne Mortimer . Margaret Holland , another of Joan 's sisters , married John of Gaunt 's son . She later married Thomas of Lancaster , John of Gaunt 's grandson by King Henry IV . A third sister , Eleanor Holland , was mother @-@ in @-@ law to Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury — John 's grandson by his daughter Joan Beaufort , Countess of Westmorland . These sisters were all granddaughters of Joan of Kent , the mother of Richard II , and therefore Plantagenet descendants of Edward I.
Edmund 's son Richard was married to Anne Mortimer , the daughter of Roger Mortimer , 4th Earl of March and Eleanor Holland and great @-@ granddaughter of Edward III 's second surviving son Lionel . Anne died giving birth to their only son in September 1411 . Richard 's execution four years later left two orphans : Isabel , who married into the Bourchier family , and a son who was also called Richard . Although his earldom was forfeited , Richard ( the father ) was not attainted , and the four @-@ year @-@ old orphan Richard was his heir . Within months of his father 's death , Richard 's childless uncle , Edward Duke of York , was killed at Agincourt . Richard was allowed to inherit the title of Duke of York in 1426 . In 1432 he acquired the earldoms of March and Ulster on the death of his maternal uncle Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , who had died campaigning with Henry V in France , and the earldom of Cambridge which had belonged to his father . Being descended from Edward III in both the maternal and the paternal line gave Richard a significant claim to the throne if the Lancastrian line should fail , and by cognatic primogeniture arguably a superior claim . He emphasised the point by being the first to assume the Plantagenet surname in 1448 . Having inherited the March and Ulster titles , he became the wealthiest and most powerful noble in England , second only to the king himself . Richard married Cecily Neville , a granddaughter of John of Gaunt , and had thirteen or possibly fifteen children :
Joan ( b . 1438 ; died as a child )
Anne of York ( 1439 – 1476 ) — Mitochondrial DNA taken from a descendant of her second daughter , Anne St Leger , Baroness de Ros , was used in the identification of the remains of Richard III , which were found in 2012 .
Henry ( b . 1441 ; died as a child )
Edward ( 1442 – 1483 )
Edmund ( 1443 – 1460 )
Elizabeth ( 1444 – 1503 ) — married John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk ; she was the mother of several claimants to the throne .
Margaret ( 1446 – 1503 ) — married Charles the Bold , Duke of Burgundy .
William ( b . 1447 ; died as a child )
John ( b . 1448 ; died as a child )
George ( 1449 – 1478 )
Thomas ( b . 1450 / 51 ; died as a child )
Richard ( 1452 – 1485 )
Ursula ( b . 1455 ; died as a child )
In her will , Cecily stated that Katherine and Humphrey were her children , but they may have been her grandchildren through de la Pole .
When Henry VI had a mental breakdown , Richard was named regent , but the birth of a male heir resolved the question of succession . When Henry 's sanity returned , the court party reasserted its authority , but Richard of York and the Nevilles defeated them at a skirmish called the First Battle of St Albans . The ruling class was deeply shocked and reconciliation was attempted . York and the Nevilles fled abroad , but the Nevilles returned to win the Battle of Northampton , where they captured Henry . When Richard of York joined them he surprised Parliament by claiming the throne and forcing through the Act of Accord , which stated that Henry would remain as king for his lifetime , but would be succeeded by York . Margaret found this disregard for her son 's claims unacceptable , and so the conflict continued . York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his head set on display at Micklegate Bar along with those of Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury , who had been captured and beheaded . The Scottish queen Mary of Guelders provided Margaret with support but London welcomed York 's son Edward , Earl of March and Parliament confirmed that Edward should be made king . He was crowned after consolidating his position with victory at the Battle of Towton .
Edward 's preferment of the former Lancastrian @-@ supporting Woodville family , following his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville , led Warwick and Clarence to help Margaret depose Edward and return Henry to the throne . Edward and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , fled , but on their return , Clarence switched sides at the Battle of Barnet , leading to the death of the Neville brothers . The subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury brought the demise of the last of the male line of the Beauforts . The battlefield execution of Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , and the later probable murder of Henry VI extinguished the House of Lancaster .
By the mid @-@ 1470s , the victorious House of York looked safely established , with seven living male princes : Edward IV and his two sons , his brother George and George 's son , his brother Richard and Richard 's son . Edward and Elizabeth Woodville themselves had ten children , seven of whom survived him :
Elizabeth ( 1466 – 1503 ) — queen consort to Henry VII of England
Mary ( 1467 – 1482 )
Cecily ( 1469 – 1507 ) — initially married John Welles , 1st Viscount Welles , and later married Thomas Kyme ( or Keme ) following John 's death .
Edward ( 1470 – c . 1483 ) — briefly succeeded his father as King Edward V.
Margaret ( 1472 ; died that year )
Richard ( 1473 – c . 1483 )
Anne ( 1475 – 1511 ) — married Thomas Howard
George ( 1477 – 1479 )
Catherine of York ( 1479 – 1527 ) — married William Courtenay , 1st Earl of Devon .
Bridget of York ( 1480 – 1517 ) — became a nun — possibly had an illegitimate daughter called Agnes of Eltham
Dynastic infighting and misfortune quickly brought about the demise of the House of York . George Plantagenet , 1st Duke of Clarence , plotted against his brother and was executed . Following Edward 's premature death in 1483 , his brother Richard had Parliament declare Edward 's two sons illegitimate on the pretext of an alleged prior pre @-@ contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot , leaving Edward 's marriage invalid . Richard seized the throne , and the Princes in the Tower were never seen again . Richard 's son predeceased him and Richard was killed in 1485 after an invasion of foreign mercenaries led by Henry Tudor , who claimed the throne through his mother Margaret Beaufort . Tudor assumed the throne as Henry VII , founding the Tudor dynasty and bringing the Plantagenet line of kings to an end .
= = House of Tudor and other Plantagenet descendants = =
= = = Tudor = = =
When Henry Tudor seized the throne there were eighteen Plantagenet descendants who might today be thought to have a stronger hereditary claim , and by 1510 this number had been increased further by the birth of sixteen Yorkist children . Henry mitigated this situation with his marriage to Elizabeth of York . She was the eldest daughter of Edward IV , and all their children were his cognatic heirs . Indeed , Polydore Vergil noted Henry VIII 's pronounced resemblance to his grandfather Edward : " For just as Edward was the most warmly thought of by the English people amongst all English kings , so this successor of his , Henry , was very like him in general appearance , in greatness of mind and generosity and for that reason was the most acclaimed and approved of all . "
This did not deter Margaret of York , Duchess of Burgundy — Edward 's sister and Elizabeth 's aunt — and members of the de la Pole family — children of Edward 's sister and John de la Pole , 2nd Duke of Suffolk — from frequent attempts to destabilise Henry 's regime . Henry imprisoned Margaret 's nephew Edward , Earl of Warwick , the son of her brother George , in the Tower of London , but in 1487 Margaret financed a rebellion led by Lambert Simnel pretending to be Edward . John de la Pole , 1st Earl of Lincoln , joined the revolt , probably anticipating that it would further his own ambitions to the throne , but he was killed in the suppression of the uprising at the Battle of Stoke Field in 1487 . Warwick was implicated by two further failed invasions supported by Margaret using Perkin Warbeck pretending to be Edward IV 's son Richard of Shrewsbury , and Warbeck 's later planned escape for them both ; Warwick was executed in 1499 . Edward 's execution may simply have been a precondition for the marriage of Arthur , Prince of Wales to Katherine of Aragon in 1501 .
= = = De La Pole = = =
John de la Pole 's attainder meant that his brother Edmund inherited their father 's titles , but much of the wealth of the duchy of Suffolk was forfeit . Edmund did not possess sufficient finances to maintain his status as a duke , so as a compromise he accepted the title of earl of Suffolk . Financial difficulties led to frequent legal conflicts and Edmund 's indictment for murder in 1501 . He fled with his brother Richard , while their remaining brother , William , was imprisoned in the Tower — where he would remain until his death 37 years later — as part of a general suppression of Edmund 's associates Philip the Fair had been holding Edmund and in 1506 he returned him to Henry . Edmund was imprisoned in the Tower . In 1513 , he was executed after Richard de la Pole , whom Louis XII of France had recognised as king of England the previous year , claimed the kingship in his own right . Richard , known as the White Rose , plotted an invasion of England for years but was killed in 1525 at the Battle of Pavia while fighting as the captain of the French landsknechts during François I of France 's invasion of Italy .
= = = Pole = = =
Warwick 's sister , and therefore Edward IV 's niece , Margaret Pole , Countess of Salisbury , was executed by Henry VIII in 1541 . By then , the cause was more religious and political rather than dynastic . The attainder of her father , Clarence , was a legal bar to any claims to the throne by his children . Additionally her marriage , arranged by Henry VII , to Sir Richard Pole , his half @-@ cousin and trusted supporter , was not auspicious . Nevertheless , it did allow the couple to be closely involved in court affairs . Margaret 's fortunes improved under Henry VIII and in February 1512 she was restored to the earldom of Salisbury and all the Warwicks ' lands . This made her the first and , apart from Anne Boleyn , the only woman in 16th @-@ century England to hold a peerage title in her own right .
Her daughter Ursula married the son of Edward Stafford , 3rd Duke of Buckingham . Buckingham 's fall after arguments with the king over property , and Margaret 's open support for Catherine of Aragon and Princess Mary began the Poles ' estrangement from the king . Hope of reconciliation was dashed by De unitate , the letter that Margaret 's son Reginald Pole wrote to Henry VIII , in which Reginald declared his opposition to the royal supremacy . In 1538 evidence came to light that Pole family members in England had been in communication with Reginald . Margaret 's sons Geoffrey and Henry were arrested for treason along with several friends and associates , including Henry 's wife and brother @-@ in @-@ law — Edward Neville . Among those arrested was the king 's cousin Henry Courtenay , 1st Marquess of Exeter , his wife and 11 @-@ year @-@ old son . Courteney 's wife was released two years later , but their son spent 15 years in the Tower until Queen Mary released him . Except for the surviving Geoffrey Pole , all the others implicated were beheaded .
Margaret was attainted . The possibility of an invasion involving Reginald via her south coast estates and her embittered relationship with Henry VIII precluded any chance of pardon . However , the decision to execute her seems a spontaneous , rather than a premeditated , act . According to the Calendar of State Papers her execution was botched at the hands of " a wretched and blundering youth ... who literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces in the most pitiful manner " . In 1886 she was beatified by Pope Leo XIII on the grounds she had laid down her life for the Holy See " and for the truth of the orthodox Faith " .
= = = Stafford = = =
Edward Stafford , Duke of Buckingham , combined multiple lines of Plantagenet descent : from Edward III by his son Thomas of Woodstock , from Edward III via two of his Beaufort children , and from Edward I from Joan of Kent and the Holland family . His father failed in his rebellion against Richard III in 1483 but was restored to his inheritance on the reversal of his father 's attainder late in 1485 . His mother married Henry VII 's uncle Jasper Tudor , and his wardship was entrusted to the king 's mother , Lady Margaret Beaufort . In 1502 , during Henry VII 's illness , there was debate as to whether Buckingham or Edmund de la Pole should act as regent for Henry VIII . There is no evidence of continuous hostility between Buckingham and Henry VIII , but there is little doubt of the duke 's dislike of Thomas Wolsey , whom he believed to be plotting to ruin the old nobility . Therefore , Henry VIII instructed Wolsey to watch Buckingham , his brother Henry Stafford , 1st Earl of Wiltshire , and three other peers . Neither Henry VIII nor his father planned to destroy Buckingham because of his lineage and Henry VIII even allowed Buckingham 's son and heir , Henry Stafford , 1st Baron Stafford , to marry Ursula Pole , giving the Staffords a further line of royal blood descent . Buckingham himself was arrested in April 1521 ; he was found guilty on 16 May and executed the next day . Evidence was provided that the duke had been listening to prophecies that he would be king and that the Tudor family lay under God 's curse for the execution of Warwick . This was said to explain Henry VIII 's failure to produce a male heir . Much of this evidence consisted of ill @-@ judged comments , speculation and bad temper , but it underlined the threat presented by Buckingham 's descent .
= = = Tudor succession = = =
As late as 1600 , with the Tudor succession in doubt , older Plantagenet lines remained as possible claimants to a disputed throne , and religious and dynastic factors gave rise to complications . Thomas Wilson wrote in his report The State of England , Anno Domini 1600 that there were 12 " competitors " for the succession . At the time of writing ( about 1601 ) , Wilson had been working on intelligence matters for Lord Buckhurst and Sir Robert Cecil . The alleged competitors included five descendants of Henry VII and Elizabeth , including the eventual successor James I of England , but also seven from older Plantagenet lines :
Henry Hastings , 3rd Earl of Huntingdon
George Hastings , 4th Earl of Huntingdon
Charles Neville , 6th Earl of Westmorland
Henry Percy , 9th Earl of Northumberland
António , Prior of Crato
Ranuccio I Farnese , Duke of Parma
Philip III of Spain and his infant daughter
Ranulph Crewe , Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , argued that by 1626 the House of Plantagenet could not be considered to remain in existence in a speech during the Oxford Peerage case , which was to rule on who should inherit the earldom of Oxford . It was referred by Charles I of England to the House of Lords , who called for judicial assistance . Crewe said :
I have labored to make a covenant with myself , that affection may not press upon judgment ; for I suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry or nobleness , but his affection stands to the continuance of a house so illustrious , and would take hold of a twig or twine @-@ thread to support it . And yet time hath his revolutions ; there must be a period and an end to all temporal things — finis rerum — an end of names and dignities , and whatsoever is terrene ; and why not of de Vere ? For where is Bohun ? Where is Mowbray ? Where is Mortimer ? Nay , which is more , and most of all , where is Plantagenet ? They are entombed in the urns and sepulchres of mortality ! yet let the name of de Vere stand so long as it pleaseth God .
= = Further information = =
= Bandslam =
Bandslam also known as High School Rock is a 2009 American musical and romantic comedy film produced by Summit Entertainment and Walden Media . Written by Josh A. Cagan and Todd Graff , it stars Aly Michalka , Vanessa Hudgens , Gaelan Connell , Lisa Kudrow , Scott Porter , Ryan Donowho , and Tim Jo . The story revolves around Will and Charlotte , who form an unlikely bond through their shared love of music . Assembling a like @-@ minded crew of misfits , the friends form a rock group and perform in a battle of the bands competition called " Bandslam " . Bandslam was shot in Austin , Texas , with additional scenes filmed in New York City . The film generated mostly positive reviews but it failed to chart in the top 10 when it was released on August 14 , 2009 in the US , where it grossed only $ 2 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 on the weekend . In a brief cameo , this was David Bowie 's final film appearance .
= = Plot = =
Will Burton ( Gaelan Connell ) is a music enthusiast and a David Bowie fan with a hint of rock and roll and boy next door . Throughout the movie , Will writes journal @-@ like e @-@ mails to Bowie every day , although Bowie never answers . When Will 's mother Karen ( Lisa Kudrow ) finds a new job , he switches to a new school , which he is eager to do since he was bullied at his previous one . During lunch one day at his new school , he meets a girl who says her name is written Sa5m but pronounced Sam , the 5 is silent ( Vanessa Hudgens ) . She tells him about Bandslam , an annual music competition in which the winning band gets a recording contract . Will and Sa5m quickly become friends but , shortly after , he is sought after by another girl named Charlotte Barnes ( Aly Michalka ) . One afternoon , Charlotte asks Will to join her in an after @-@ school day @-@ care center . When she starts inviting him to hang out with her , the teenager is stunned — as is his single mother Karen . Impressed by his eclectic knowledge of music , Charlotte , who is a gifted singer @-@ songwriter , asks Will to manage her rock / ska band . Her goal is apparently to take revenge on her egocentric musician ex @-@ boyfriend Ben Wheatley ( Scott Porter ) during Bandslam .
Unsure of what he is getting himself into , Will agrees to help Charlotte 's band ( later called I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On ) which includes Bug ( Charlie Saxton ) and Omar ( Tim Jo ) , eventually expanding it with more like @-@ minded outcasts . Against all odds , the group 's sound starts to come together and their prospects for success look bright . Will starts losing his " loser @-@ status " , but the band gets in the way of completing a project he was going to do with Sa5m . After spending a day with Sa5m , Charlotte teaches Will how to properly kiss a girl , by demonstrating on him ; after an awkward start , Will kisses Sa5m at the Overlook . Will stands Sa5m up , breaking the date for a concert with Charlotte . After that , Sa5m starts ignoring Will at school ; he visits her house , hoping to apologize . Her mom shows him a video of a younger Sa5m performing " Everything I Own " , leading Sa5m to be outraged and order Will to leave . As an apology , he makes a touching documentary short about her for his Human Studies project ( with the song " Young Folks " included in it ) and she eventually forgives him .
After Will accidentally ruins Ben 's attempt to reconcile with Charlotte , Ben decides to do a little research on him , in order to ruin his image . He finds out about Will 's father , who was sent to prison years ago when he accidentally killed a child while driving drunk . Ben then starts to call Will " Dewey " ( just as other students did at his old school ) , which stands for " DWI " ( " Driving While Intoxicated " ) . Will detests this nickname because it reminds him of his father , whom he is ashamed of . What is more , Charlotte 's father dies and she decides to quit the band . As she explains to Will , her father hated how she acted when she was with her ex @-@ boyfriend , so after he got sick , she decided to change her image and be nicer to " people like [ Will ] " , meaning outcasts , hoping that this good behavior would cause her dad to get well . The band members are hurt by this discovery , as it means she did not genuinely like them , but they decide to go on nonetheless , with Sa5m taking over as lead singer .
On the night of Bandslam , Charlotte comes backstage in order to apologize to the band , and after a moment of hesitation , Will accepts her apology . Right before going on stage , however , they discover that Ben 's band ( the " Glory Dogs " ) have decided to play the song that I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On were originally to perform , forcing them to change their act at the last minute . Will suddenly remembers the video Sa5m 's mother showed him earlier and suggests that they perform " Everything I Own " , since it is the only other song Sa5m knows . To buy some time , Will comes out first onstage , but at first he is embarrassingly silent . The students begin to chant " Dewey ! Dewey ! Dewey ! " . He starts to walk off the stage , but then comes back and decides to chant with them instead . After carrying the chant for a while , he finally changes it to , " Do we wanna ROCK ? ! " . The band then shows up and fires up the crowd with an upbeat ska version of " Everything I Own " .
Although they fail to win the competition , a YouTube video of their performance gains the band popularity at school . David Bowie ( portraying himself ) sees the video and sends an e @-@ mail to Will , explaining that he is starting an indie music label and is interested in having the band as one of their first artists . Will is so excited and overwhelmed that he falls down in the middle of the school hallway ( close to the same position as the front cover of Bowie 's Lodger album ) . The last scene takes place during Charlotte 's graduation ceremony where Will and Sa5m are confirmed as dating .
= = Cast = =
Aly Michalka as Charlotte Barnes , popular ex @-@ cheerleader and senior at the high school that Will attends . We are told later in the film that her ailing father does not approve of how she only runs with the " Populars " in school . Charlotte makes a vow to forsake the populars and run with the geekier teens like Will and Sa5m in hopes that this good behavior will cause her dad to get well . She terms this an " experiment " . Her efforts to start a new band ( " I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On " ) , include making Will the manager and coach of the eight musicians that make up their newly formed group . Old boyfriend , Ben Wheatley , surfaces several times in the movie attempting to woo Charlotte back .
Gaelan Connell as Will Burton , the male protagonist . Will is an avid fan of David Bowie and writes regular emails to the latter . Will is also a music enthusiast and well acquainted with the mechanics of well produced , pop music . After relocating to New Jersey and a new high school , he finds himself managing Charlotte 's new rock band . They hope to compete in the East Coast , " Battle of the Bands " contest called " Bandslam . " He lives with his single parent mother .
Vanessa Hudgens as Sa5m ( the 5 is silent ) . She is Will 's first friend at his new school in Lodi , New Jersey . She talks in a monotone and slowly because she says that " emotion is overrated " and she used to stutter when she was young . She develops a relationship with Will , but " breaks up " with him when she is stood up for a date and discovers that Will was at an event with Charlotte . We discover later that she is a gifted singer . After she reconciles with Will , she is appointed the new lead vocalist in their band . She recognizes long before Will that Charlotte is " hard wired " to run with the high rollers . Sa5m suspects that Charlotte 's " experiment " might have wider scope in that a higher intelligence could be controlling their actions ( " Charlotte times a trillion " ) .
Lisa Kudrow as Karen Burton ( Will 's single parent mother ) . She is concerned with Will 's involvement with other kids at school because they pick on him due to the fact that his dad was sent to prison . She is a good mom and tries to protect him from the likes of Charlotte .
Scott Porter as Ben Wheatley , the boastful and show @-@ off lead vocalist in the original band , " Glory Dogs " , which is now competing against Charlotte 's new band , " I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On " . He is Charlotte 's ex @-@ boyfriend as well . In the later part of the movie , he reconciles with Charlotte . He serves as the main antagonist .
The film 's fictional band , " I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On " members include :
Charlie Saxton as Bug , the bassist .
Ryan Donowho as Basher Martin , the drummer . Basher has anger management issues , and initially dislikes the concept of Bandslam . He decides to join after Will tells he has an older sister who is often around — in fact his mother .
Tim Jo as Omar , the guitarist .
Lisa Chung as Kim Lee , the keyboardist .
Elvy Yost as Irene Lerman , the cellist .
David Bowie officially began talks in early February 2009 to be in the film . Bowie has a vital role as Will Burton 's idol , to whom Burton frequently writes e @-@ mails . He makes a short cameo in the end of the film . Liam Aiken was originally chosen to play Will , but ultimately the role was given to Gaelan Connell . Actually , when Connell auditioned for " Will " , he was recommended to try out for the cellist part since he plays cello . Director Todd Graff watched his cello audition , and decided to give him the starring role as " Will . " Originally , Vanessa Hudgens wanted to play the role of Charlotte , but she was cast for the role of Sa5m on January 12 , 2008 . Hudgens sang " Rehab " for her audition . In order to pursue the role , Hudgens watched The Addams Family and tapped into Wednesday 's character .
= = Production = =
Bandslam was bought by a studio back in 2004 , but in late January 2007 , Walden Media and Summit Entertainment announced that they would co @-@ finance Bandslam , co @-@ written by Todd Graff and Josh A. Cagan and directed by Graff . Graff was hired to direct in early March 2007 and rewrote the screenplay . Before filming , they had two weeks of music rehearsals . The actors and actresses were designated to play their instruments . Donowho and Michalka had extensive experience with the drums and guitar , respectively , so they were used to their instruments , but Lisa Chung , Scott Porter and Vanessa Hudgens were not . Hudgens told MTV News she didn 't expect there to be as much music , and " they are like , ' We are going to have two weeks of music rehearsals , ' and I was like , ' What ? ' But it was really cool . It 's definitely not the kind of music I do normally . " Principal photography began on February 9 , 2008 in Austin , Texas . Although the film is set in New Jersey , Graff felt strongly that it was important to shoot in a place with a wide array of great live music to choose from . " I 'm a big believer in local scenes , " he says . " I think it 's the lifeblood of music . Austin is renowned as a music town , and rightly so . They have a ton of really great bands just trying to get their music out there . So , it 's great we had an opportunity to use several unsigned local Texas bands . " In an interview with Los Angeles Times , director Todd Graff admitted there were cultural incongruities underlying the film . " I know , it 's demented . Every once in a while on set I would think to myself , ' I can 't believe we got away with this ' . I always thought if it only sent one kid to listen to a Velvet Underground record , it would be worth it to me . " All of the vocals were filmed live by each of the singing cast members , as mentioned by director Graff . One of the requirements for the film was that all actors had to be able to provide their own vocals . Because Aly Michalka was on tour with her sister AJ Michalka and Miley Cyrus , she did not arrive in Austin until midway through rehearsals . Conveniently , the tour 's last stop was in Austin , where rehearsal and filming for the movie took place . All of the instruments and singing in the movie were recorded by the actors , with the exception of the guitar parts of Vanessa Hudgens and Scott Porter , as well as Lisa Chung 's piano parts . Although Hudgens and Porter learned how to play their songs , they were dubbed by guitarists Jason Mozersky and JW Wright .
= = Marketing = =
Summit Entertainment spent an estimated $ 10 million to produce and market Bandslam . The full @-@ length trailer was released in the internet on March 25 , 2009 . On June 3 , 2009 , the official poster was released . A novelization of the movie written by Aaron Rosenberg was released on July 9 , 2009 . Michalka , Hudgens and Connell , hosted a Bandslam Reel Thinking event at the Grammy Museum to promote the importance of music to middle @-@ schoolers . In partnership with Magic 106 @.@ 7 , Summit Entertainment conducted a band contest in Boston suburb 's Burlington Mall . Hudgens and Connell attended the contest as judges . Mike Ryan won the contest and performed his original song on August 1 , 2009 . On August 7 , 2009 , Hudgens and Michalka were inducted as an honorary girl scouts by the Girl Scouts of Greater Los Angeles . During the induction , a special screening was held for the scouts present . In the UK , browser game Stardoll started a campaign which lets users dress Vanessa Hudgens in Bandslam outfits , view the film trailer , create their own band using Stardoll scenery and virtual guitar gifts to give to friends . Summit Entertainment 's marketing strategies have been criticized . The studio apparently received many calls and e @-@ mails from other studios ' heads of marketing , saying the film 's campaign may be the worst job they have seen from positioning , title , marketing tie @-@ ins , and targeting audiences . Deadline.com editor Nikki Finke released an e @-@ mail from a Bandslam insider who pointed out that Summit 's marketing have basically sold it on to their stars Hudgens and Michalka instead of selling the concept . The e @-@ mail also claims that " they Disneyfied this movie with glitter paint " . The insider commented that the bad marketing was particularly unfortunate , a result of the good reviews . Yale Daily News marked that the film had the " Worst Marketing " , pointing out that " Summit Entertainment , which has a done an admirable job marketing the Twilight films , completely ruined what should have been a sleeper hit . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Despite receiving positive reviews , the film was not a box office success . In its opening weekend , Bandslam grossed $ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 273 million in 2 @,@ 121 theaters in the United States and Canada , ranking # 13 at the box office , was the best debut for a musical film that week . By the end of its run , Bandslam grossed $ 5 @,@ 210 @,@ 988 domestically and $ 7 @,@ 014 @,@ 035 internationally , totaling $ 12 @,@ 225 @,@ 023 worldwide .
= = = Critical response = = =
Bandslam was well @-@ received critically , before and after it was released . The Broadcast Film Critics Association gave it an 81 rating score and a 3 / 4 stars rating . As of August 15 , 2009 , based on 20 reviews collected , Metacritic gave the film a 66 % " metacritic " score , indicating generally favorable reviews . Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 81 % " fresh " rating based on 96 reviews collected ; 77 " fresh " and 19 " rotten " with the reported consensus " Bandslam is an intelligent teen film that avoids teen film cliches , in an entertaining package of music and coming @-@ of @-@ age drama . " With the positive critical response from the review Rotten Tomatoes collected , it ranked # 9 in the 10 Tomatoemeters of the Summer . Comparatively , Yahoo ! Movies gives a grade of " B- " averaged from 7 critic reviews . Entertainment Weekly critic , Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film a " B " , and praised Hudgens ' and Michalka 's performances as well . Variety said that " Bandslam " will make its cracking voice heard amid the summer 's boy @-@ based blockbuster clique while Joe Williams remarked , " Although it 's the wimpy teen musical that prevails , it 's the misfit coming @-@ of @-@ age story that leaves an impression . " Roger Ebert wrote on his review , that though this isn 't a breakthrough movie , it 's charming , and not any more innocuous than it has to be . Fort Worth Weekly revealed in the review , " The comedy subsides into some unusually heavy drama in the second half , and only Graff 's assured direction keeps it from tipping over into weepiness . " Empire and Digital Spy all gave Bandslam a three out of five rating while Independent Weekly and the Deseret News both gave the film two out of four . Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald revealed that the film was from " the John Hughes playbook of high @-@ school comedies but lack the heart and insight Hughes invested in his pictures . " , but still praised the teenage cast saying " The performances in Bandslam are uniformly strong -- good enough to make you wish this bunch of charismatic , talented kids had been given better material . " Time Out reviewer Derek Adams said that Bandslam is far from exceptional , but is saved by decent character development , a cluster of engaging performances and several amusing deadpan moments . Canada 's The Globe and Mail reviewer 's conclusion follows : " Bandslam offers some nice observational and comedy moments , and director and co @-@ writer Todd Graff deftly deliver the coming @-@ of @-@ age goods for the three main characters . " The Daily Telegraph 's reviewer Leight Paastch says that the film gives the genre a right old spin thanks to some lively performances and sharp pacing . Bandslam was The Washington Post 's critic choice , having a perfect score of 4 / 4 stars . Bandslam was somehow associated with High School Musical in a couple of reviews . However , the reviews concluded the comparisons positively , saying that Bandslam was " actually a lot quirkier than the posters would have you believe . " New Jersey 's local newspaper , The Star Ledger says that the plot is nicely skewed : " Basically , it 's the standard teen picture -- girl torn between bad boy and nice guy -- with a gender switch . " Michael Phillips of The Los Angeles Times praised the film by saying : " Bandslam is a pretty good movie given that the odds of it having been a pretty bad movie were steep . " Critic Andy Webster of The New York Times said that Bandslam may not entirely break new teen @-@ movie ground , but it does offer intriguing glimpses of performers ready to bolt from the Disney stable . Hudgens received an amount of praise from reviewers , emphasizing her transition from being associated with her previous commercial character , Gabriella Montez , multiple times . Reviewers also cited her impressive performance in the film . Even though Connell and Michalka each received their fair amount of enthusiastic press , David Waddington of North Wales Pioneer claims that Hudgens " outshines the rest of the cast , failing to fit in with the outcast narrative and making the inevitable climactic ending all the more expected . " Hudgens was praised with her performance in the film that The Observer critic , Philip French said that she looks like the young Thandie Newton and " wisecracks like Dorothy Parker . " French then adds that " Bandslam is a witty , touching , cleverly plotted film with excellent music . " Eye Weekly reviewer Will Sloan says , " Bandslam is like a teenybopper version of Adventureland , and if its PG limitations keep it from being quite as insightful or funny as that film , it 's still a serviceable , surprisingly intelligent bit of tweenertainment . " Reviewers asserted that the film 's music mainly lifted to the success of Bandslam from reviews , especially the ska version of Everything I Own , that the film is full of unexpected pleasures set to a surprisingly retro soundtrack . Similarly , Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter emphasized the effect of the film 's music @-@ driven comedy set against the backdrop of a high school battle of the bands competition which manages to come up with a fresh backbeat for the familiar alienated teen refrain , boosted by a talented cast and authentic soundtrack .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Bandslam was released on August 12 , 2009 , in the UK , Ireland , and France ; August 13 , 2009 in Australia ; August 14 in the US , and Canada ; August 20 , 2009 in some parts of Asia ; August 26 , 2009 in the Philippines . Earlier , the film 's tentative date was April 10 , 2009 listed by The Numbers around the time Liam Aiken was involved in the film . It then switched to be on July 31 , 2009 , which was the original release date once production started . But with unknown reasons , Box Office Mojo confirms the push back to its current US release date which is on August 14 , 2009 . The film was titled as " High School Band " in Brazil , The film was previously titled as " Will " , based on early reports , and then it was renamed to " Rock On " , ultimately ending up being called " Bandslam . " A premiere night , which was attended by the rest of the cast including the main actors of the film , was held at Westwood , California on August 6 , 2009 . The film was rated PG in the US for some thematic elements and mild language . In the Philippines , it is rated GP . Bandslam was critically successful but did not do well commercially . Debuting at 2 @,@ 121 theaters , the film only grossed $ 890 @,@ 000 on its first day and failed to chart in the top 10 . The film eventually reached the top 10 and grossed $ 50 @,@ 000 more on the same day . For its opening weekend , Bandslam didn 't chart in the US weekend box office top 10 , where it only grossed $ 2 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 . It only reached the number 12 spot . As of October 1 , 2009 , the film has a domestic gross of $ 5 @,@ 210 @,@ 988 , with a foreign gross of $ 7 @,@ 014 @,@ 035 totaling an international gross of $ 12 @,@ 225 @,@ 023 .
= = Home media = =
Bandslam was slated to be released in standard DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the UK on December 7 , 2009 . However , due to unknown circumstances , UK label E1 Entertainment were unable to release the film on Blu @-@ ray at that time . In the United States , the DVD was released on March 16 , 2010 . In the rest of Europe , the DVD was also released between December 2009 and June 2010 .
The DVD contains , aside from the movie itself , some extras :
Bandslam : Making the Band documentary
Audio commentary by the Director and the cast
Deleted scenes
Music video : " Honor Society " – " Where Are You Now " .
Music video : " I Can 't Go On , I 'll Go On " featuring Vanessa Hudgens – " Everything I Own " .
Additionally :
International releases included a trailer in the local language .
Also , the UK DVD includes an The Twilight Saga : New Moon artcard .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack was released under Hollywood Records on August 11 , 2009 . The soundtrack features tracks from Wilco , The Burning Hotels , Velvet Underground , Peter Bjorn and John , Seventeen Evergreen , Honor Society , the Daze , Nick Drake and David Bowie .
= Seasons ( Ayumi Hamasaki song ) =
" Seasons " ( capitalized as " SEASONS " ) is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki for her third studio album , Duty ( 2000 ) . It was written by Hamasaki , while production was handled by Max Matsuura . It premiered on June 7 , 2000 as the third single from the album . The song is the final part of a trilogy from Duty ; the other two singles being " Vogue " and " Far Away " .
Musically , " Season " is a Japanese pop song . The lyrics highlights theme of the hopelessness , describing Hamasaki 's future . Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised Hamasaki 's songwriting , the songs composition and selected it as an album and career stand out track . It also achieved success in Japan , peaking at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart and on the TBS Count Down TV chart . " Seasons " has sold over 1 @.@ 367 million units in Japan , making it Hamasaki 's best selling single .
The accompanying music video for " Seasons " was directed by Wataru Takeishi , and leads on from the videos of " Vogue " and " Far Away " ; it features Hamasaki in a black gown in the middle of a post @-@ apocalypse city . Both the music video and the song has appeared on several compilations by Hamasaki , including A Best ( 2001 ) and A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) . For additional promotion , the song was featured on several concert tours by Hamasaki .
= = Background and release = =
" Seasons " " was recorded in 2000 at Nowadays Studios and Prime Sound Studios in Tokyo , Japan . As part of the trilogy set with " Vogue " and " Far Away " , " Seasons " highlights theme of hopelessness and predicts Hamasaki 's future . With this , " Vogue " details Hamasaki 's presence , whilst " Far Away " discusses her past . Based on her song writing , she described her feelings after the writing all the tracks from Duty as " unnatural " and was constantly " nervous " for the final result . A staff reviewer from Amazon Japan noticed that the trilogy set had a " healing effect " that was absent on Hamasaki 's two previous studio albums .
" Seasons " was written by Hamasaki , while production was handled by Japanese businessman and musician Max Matsuura . The song was composed by long @-@ term collaborators Dai Nagao , whilst arrangement was handled by Naoto Suzuki . For the track 's instrumentation , Suzuki played the keyboards , Naoki Hayashibe played the guitar , Takahiro Iida programmed and mixed the final composition , and Junko Hirotani provided background vocals .
It was selected as the second single from Duty , and was released on June 7 , 2000 by Avex Trax . The maxi CD of the single contains the original composition and its instrumental version , plus nine remixes . As a single from the Duty trilogy , which included Hamasaki 's singles " Vogue " and " Far Away " , the singles were released as a DVD single and VHS . It included the three mini @-@ music videos , alongside the making @-@ of videos and a TV commercial . The CD and digital cover sleeve have an image of Hamasaki holding a polaroid of the cover artwork for " Far Away " . The song 's title , " Seasons " , is present on cover . The standalone CD cover was used as the digital EP cover for the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.
= = Critical response = =
" Seasons " received favourable reviews from music critics . Alexey Eremenko , who had written her extended biography at AllMusic , highlighted the song as an album and career stand out track . Morimosa from Nifty.com complimented Hamasaki 's songwriting in the song . A staff reviewer from Yahoo ! GeoCities was positive towards the song , and selected it as one of the best tracks from the album . Hamasaki hosted an online voting poll for fans to choose their favourite tracks to be featured on her Ayumi Hamasaki 15th Anniversary Tour Best Live Tour . As a result , " Seasons " was included on the list . In early 2014 , in honor of Hamasaki 's sixteenth @-@ year career milestone , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Hamasaki out of thirty positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Seasons " was ranked at the top spot . According to their separate review , the website commented on its win ; " ' Seasons ' was an instant classic ... Fans cite the song 's heartfelt and resonating lyrics as some of her best . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In Japan , " Seasons " was a success on the Oricon Singles Chart . It debuted at the top spot of the chart , lasted for 21 weeks on the chart , and sold 1 @.@ 367 million units by the end of 2000 . This is Hamasaki 's best selling single ; as of today , the song is Hamasaki 's second best selling single according to Oricon Style . The DVD single , released under the title of Vogue / Far Away / Seasons reached number one on the Oricon DVD Chart , spending seventeen weeks in the top fifty . It is Hamasaki 's second best selling DVD single , and her eighth best seller overall . " Seasons " was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of one million units . In August 2014 , the song was certified gold by RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . The single entered at number one on Japan 's TBS Count Down TV Chart ; it stayed there for two consecutive weeks , and lasted 21 weeks in the chart . It was placed at number seven on their Annual Count Down TV chart in 2000 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi . Because the music video was part of the trilogy set with " Vogue " and " Far Away " , only a portion of the song was shot for the video . As a result , the video for " Seasons " lasts for two minutes and 27 seconds . Two outtake shots from the " Vogue " video were then used for the artworks of " Far Away " and " Seasons " . The music video was included on the DVD and VHS formats of " Seasons " . The music video also appeared on Hamasaki 's DVD compilation box sets : A Clips Vol.2 ( 2002 ) , Complete Clip Box ( 2004 ) , A Clip Box 1998 – 2011 ( 2011 ) , and the bonus DVD version with A Complete : All Singles .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with a cover of a photo album , superimposed with a scene of two children from the videos of " Vogue " and " Far Away " . It then has a blurry image of Hamasaki in the post @-@ apocalyptic city , which has now left behind a series of hills . As Hamasaki walks towards the camera , the photo album opens with the city before its destruction . Hamasaki stands in the middle of a grainy surface , with projectile flames coming from underneath the ground . As she sings , scenes from the " Vogue " and " Far Away " videos appear in the photo album . She walks through the hill surface , finding the photo album the two children left behind . She opens the book , and witnesses the " Vogue " video . The final scene has Hamasaki close the book , which its back cover is a title @-@ less shot of the artwork to " Vogue " .
= = Live performances and other appearances = =
Hamasaki has performed " Seasons " on several concert tours throughout Asia . The song was performed on Hamasaki 's 2000 concert in Japan , where it was included during the first segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on September 27 , 2000 . It was performed on her 2000 @-@ 2001 New Years countdown concert tour , where it was included during the last segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on June 20 , 2001 . It was performed on her Dome Tour ( 2001 ) , where it was included during the last segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on December 12 , 2001 . It was performed on her Stadium tour ( 2002 ) , where it was included as an encore track . It was included on the live DVD , released on January 29 , 2003 .
It was performed on her A Museum tour ( 2004 ) , where it was included as an encore track . It was included on the live DVD , released on February 25 , 2004 . It was performed on her Tours of Secret concert tour ( 2007 ) , where it was included as an encore track . It was included on the live DVD , released on March 12 , 2008 . The song was performed on her Power of Music tour ( 2011 ) in Japan , where it was included in the trilogy segment with " Vogue " and " Far Away " . It was included on the live DVD , released on March 21 , 2012 . The song was performed on her 15th Anniversary tour ( 2013 ) in Japan , where it was included in the trilogy segment with " Vogue " and " Far Away " . It was included on the live DVD , released on October 30 , 2013 . The song has been included on three of her greatest hits compilations : A Best ( 2002 ) , A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) , and A Summer Best ( 2012 ) . The 2000 vol . 2 live performance was included on Hamasaki 's live DVD compilation , A 50 Singles : Live Selection ( 2011 ) , and the DVD edition of A Summer Best .
" Seasons " has been remixed by several professional disc jockeys and producers , and has appeared on several remix albums by Hamasaki : the Hex Hector and Bump and Flex remix on ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Non @-@ Stop Mega Mix Version ( 2001 ) and Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 4 + Selection Non @-@ Stop Mega Mix Version ( 2002 ) , the A Eurobeat remix on Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix 2 ( 2001 ) , and the John O 'Callaghan ( musician ) remix on Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 7 Presents Ayu Trance 4 ( 2011 ) . The orchestral acoustic remix , and its instrumental version , was included on her third orchestral remix album , ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Acoustic Orchestra Version ( 2001 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the singles liner notes :
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Arlen Specter =
Arlen Specter ( February 12 , 1930 – October 14 , 2012 ) was an American lawyer and politician who served as United States Senator from Pennsylvania . Specter was a Democrat from 1951 to 1965 , then a Republican from 1965 until 2009 , when he switched back to the Democratic Party . First elected in 1980 , he represented his state in the Senate for 30 years .
Specter was born in Wichita , Kansas , to emigrant Russian Jewish parents . He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and served with the United States Air Force during the Korean War . Specter later graduated from Yale Law School and opened a law firm with Marvin Katz , who would later become a federal judge . Specter served as assistant counsel for the Warren Commission investigating the assassination of John F. Kennedy and helped devise the " single @-@ bullet theory " . In 1965 , Specter was elected District Attorney of Philadelphia , a position that he would hold until 1973 .
During his 30 @-@ year senate career , Specter staked out a spot in the political center . In 2006 , he was selected by Time as one of America 's Ten Best Senators . Specter lost his reelection bid in 2010 to Joe Sestak in the primary election , who then lost to Pat Toomey in the general election . Toomey succeeded Specter on January 3 , 2011 .
Diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma in early 2005 , he continued his work in the Senate while undergoing chemotherapy . He later died of complications of non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma on October 14 , 2012 .
= = Early life and education = =
Specter was born in Wichita , Kansas , the youngest child of Lillie ( née Shanin ) and Harry Specter , who grew up in the Bachkuryne village of Cherkasy Oblast , Ukraine . Specter was Jewish , and wrote in his memoir , Passion for Truth , that his father 's family was the only Jewish family in the village . The family lived at 940 South Emporia Street in Wichita before moving to Russell , Kansas , where he graduated from Russell High School in 1947 . Russell is also the hometown of fellow politician Bob Dole ( who graduated from Russell High School in 1941 ) . Specter said that his father weighed items from his junkyard on a scale owned by Dole 's father Doran Dole ( who owned a granary ) . He said his brother Morton and Dole 's brother Kenny were contemporaries and friends .
Specter 's father served in the U.S. infantry during World War I , and was badly wounded . During the Great Depression , Specter 's father was a fruit peddler , a tailor , and a junkyard owner . After graduating from Russell High School , Arlen Specter studied first at the University of Oklahoma . He transferred to the University of Pennsylvania , majored in international relations , and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1951 . While at Penn , Specter was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity , as well as the Philomathean Society . Specter said the family moved to Philadelphia when his sister Shirley was of a marriageable age because there were no other Jews in Russell .
= = = Military career = = =
During the Korean War , he served stateside in the United States Air Force from 1951 to 1953 and obtained the rank of first lieutenant as an officer in the Air Force Office of Special Investigations Corps .
= = = Early legal career and personal life = = =
In 1953 , he married Joan Levy . In 1979 , she was elected to one of the two allotted minority party at @-@ large seats on the Philadelphia City Council . She held the seat for four terms , until she was defeated for re @-@ election in 1995 by Frank Rizzo , Jr .. The couple had two sons . Specter graduated from Yale Law School in 1956 , while serving as editor of the Yale Law Journal . Afterward , Specter opened a law practice , Specter & Katz , with Marvin Katz , who served as a Federal District Court Judge in Philadelphia , until his death in October 2010 . Specter became an assistant district attorney under District Attorney James C. Crumlish , Jr . , and was a member of the Democratic Party .
= = Early political career = =
= = = Involvement with the Warren Commission = = =
Specter worked for Lyndon Johnson 's Warren Commission , which investigated the assassination of John F. Kennedy , at the recommendation of Representative Gerald Ford , who was then one of the Commissioners . As an assistant for the commission , he co @-@ wrote the proposal of the " single bullet theory , " which suggested the non @-@ fatal wounds to Kennedy and wounds to Texas Governor John Connally were caused by the same bullet . This was a crucial assertion for the Warren Commission , since if the two had been wounded by separate bullets within such a short time frame , that would have demonstrated the presence of a second assassin and therefore a conspiracy . The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations published their report in 1979 stating that their " forensic pathology panel 's conclusions were consistent with the so @-@ called single bullet theory advanced by the Warren Commission . "
= = = His quests for political offices = = =
In 1965 , Specter ran for Philadelphia district attorney against his former boss , incumbent James C. Crumlish , Jr . However , the city 's Democratic leaders , such as Peter Camiel , did not want Specter as their candidate , so he switched parties and ran as a Republican , prompting Crumlish to call him " Benedict Arlen . " Specter defeated Crumlish by 36 @,@ 000 votes . Though he was a supporter of capital punishment , as a prosecutor , he questioned the fairness of the Pennsylvania death penalty statute in 1972 .
In 1967 , he was the Republican Party standard bearer , together with City Controller candidate , Tom Gola , in the Philadelphia mayoral campaign against the Democratic incumbent James Tate . Two of their slogans were , " We need THESE guys to watch THOSE guys " and " They 're younger , they 're tougher , and nobody owns them ! " He served two four @-@ year terms as district attorney for the city of Philadelphia , but was handily defeated in his bid for a third term in 1973 by noted criminal defense attorney Emmett Fitzpatrick .
In 1976 , Specter ran in the Republican primary for the U.S. Senate and was defeated by John Heinz . In 1978 , he was defeated in the primary for Governor of Pennsylvania by Dick Thornburgh . After several years in private practice with the Philadelphia law firm Dechert , Price & Rhoads , Specter ran again for the U.S. Senate in 1980 . This time , he won . He assumed office in January 1981 .
= = Senate career = =
In 1988 , he co @-@ sponsored an amendment to the Fair Housing Act of 1968 , which prohibited discrimination in the rental , sale , marketing , and financing of the nation 's housing . The amendment strengthened the ability of the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity to enforce the Fair Housing Act and expanded the protected classes to include disabled persons and families with children . In 1998 and 1999 , Specter criticized the Republican Party for the impeachment of President Bill Clinton . Believing that Clinton had not received a fair trial , Specter cited Scots law to render a verdict of " not proven " on Clinton 's impeachment . However , his verdict was recorded as " not guilty " in the Senate records .
On October 11 , 2002 , Specter voted in favor of H.J.Res.114 authorizing the Iraq War .
In a 2002 PoliticsPA Feature story designating politicians with yearbook superlatives , he was named the " Toughest to Work For . " In 2003 , the Pennsylvania Report , a subscription @-@ based political newsletter , described Specter as one of the " vanishing breed of Republican moderates " and described his political stance as " ' Pennsylvania first ' middle of @-@ the @-@ road politics " even though he was known as an " avid Republican partisan . "
Soon after the 2004 election , Specter stepped into the public spotlight as a result of controversial statements about his views of the future of the Supreme Court . At a press conference , he stated :
When you talk about judges who would change the right of a woman to choose , overturn Roe v. Wade , I think [ confirmation ] is unlikely . The president is well aware of what happened , when a number of his nominees were sent up , with the filibuster .... And I would expect the president to be mindful of the considerations which I am mentioning .
Activist groups interpreted his comments as warnings to President George W. Bush about the implications of nominating Supreme Court justices who were opposed to the Roe v. Wade decision . Specter maintained that his comments were a prediction , not a warning . He met with many conservative Republican senators , and based on assurances he gave them , he was recommended for the Judiciary Committee 's chairmanship in late 2004 . He officially assumed that position when the 109th Congress convened on January 4 , 2005 .
On March 9 , 2006 , a revision of the USA PATRIOT Act was signed into law . It amended the process for interim appointments of U.S. Attorneys , a clause Specter wrote during his chairmanship of the Senate Judiciary Committee . The change allowed the Bush Administration to appoint interim U.S. attorneys without term limits , and without confirmation by the Senate . The Bush administration used the law to place at least eight interim attorneys into office in 2006 . Specter claimed that the changes were added by staff member Brett Tolman . For more information , see dismissal of U.S. Attorneys controversy .
Specter was very critical of Bush 's wiretapping of U.S. citizens without warrants . When the story first broke , he called the effort " inappropriate " and " clearly and categorically wrong . " He said that he intended to hold hearings into the matter early in 2006 , and had Alberto Gonzales appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee to answer for the program . ( However , Specter declined to force Gonzales to testify under oath . ) On January 15 , 2006 , Specter mentioned impeachment and criminal prosecution as potential remedies if Bush proved to have broken the law , though he downplayed the likelihood of such an outcome .
On April 9 , 2006 , speaking on Fox News about the Bush administration 's leaking of classified intelligence , Specter stated : " The President of the United States owes a specific explanation to the American people . " However , he did vote for the 2008 amendments to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act , which placed federal electronic searches almost entirely within the executive branch .
During the 2007 – 2008 National Football League season , Specter wrote to NFL commissioner Roger Goodell concerning the destruction of New England Patriots “ Spygate ” tapes , wondering if there was a link between the tapes and their Super Bowl victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . On February 1 , 2008 , Goodell stated that the tapes were destroyed because " they confirmed what I already knew about the issue . " Specter released a follow @-@ up statement :
My strong preference is for the NFL to activate a Mitchell @-@ type investigation , I have been careful not to call for a Congressional hearing because I believe the NFL should step forward and embrace an independent inquiry and Congress is extraordinarily busy on other matters . If the NFL continues to leave a vacuum , Congress may be tempted to fill it .
Starting in 2007 , Specter sponsored legislation to fix a long @-@ standing inequity in American law that shut out a majority of U.S. Armed Forces service members from equal access to the U.S. Supreme Court .
In 2007 , Specter co @-@ sponsored the Equal Justice for United States Military Personnel Act of 2007 with Senators Dianne Feinstein ( D @-@ Calif . ) , Hillary Clinton ( D @-@ NY ) and Russ Feingold ( D @-@ Wis . ) . But the bill failed in the 110th Congress , and Specter again co @-@ sponsored the measure in the 2009 111th Congress . In December 2008 , Specter was involved in a controversy as a result of telling " Polish jokes " at New York 's Rainbow Room while speaking at the annual meeting of the Commonwealth Club .
Specter voted in favor of the Senate 's version of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 on February 10 , 2009 ; he was one of only three Republicans to break ranks with the party and support the bill , which was favored by President Barack Obama and was unanimously supported by the Democratic senators . As a result of his support , many in the Republican mainstream began calling for his removal from office .
Specter was instrumental in ensuring that the act allocated an additional $ 10 billion to the National Institutes of Health over the next two years . In late April 2009 , facing a tough Republican primary , Specter switched to the Democratic party giving Democrats a super @-@ majority . He was then denied seniority on Senate committees by his Democratic colleagues .
In October 2009 , Specter called for the repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act , which he had supported in 1996 . In November 2009 , Specter introduced a bill to require televising U.S. Supreme Court proceedings , and explained that " [ t ] he Supreme Court makes pronouncements on constitutional and federal law that have direct impacts on the rights of Americans . Those rights would be substantially enhanced by televising the oral arguments of the Court so that the public can see and hear the issues presented . "
Specter 's career in the United States Senate ended on January 3 , 2011 , after his primary defeat to Joe Sestak . He was succeeded by Pat Toomey , who won the general election against Sestak .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Specter was chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence from 1995 , when the Republicans gained control of the Senate , until 1997 , when he became chairman of the Committee on Veterans Affairs . He chaired that committee until 2001 and again from 2003 to 2005 , during the times the Republicans controlled the Senate . He also chaired the Judiciary Committee from 2005 to 2007 .
= = Campaigns = =
In 1980 , Specter became the Republican nominee for Senate when Republican incumbent Richard Schweiker announced his retirement . He faced the former Mayor of Pittsburgh , Pete Flaherty . Specter won the election by a 2 @.@ 5 % margin . He was later reelected in 1986 , 1992 , 1998 , and 2004 , despite 1992 and 1998 being bad years for Republicans . Specter ran for reelection in 2010 , for the first time as a Democrat , but was defeated in the Primary .
= = = 1996 presidential bid = = =
On March 31 , 1995 , Specter announced his candidacy for President of the United States , to challenge the incumbent Bill Clinton . He entered the race as an alternate to the stereotypical religious conservative image . He was critical of Pat Buchanan , Pat Robertson , and Ralph Reed , saying all three were far too conservative .
His campaign focused on balancing the federal budget , strict crime laws , and establishing relations with North Korea . His candidacy was not expected to succeed in winning the Republican nomination due to the overwhelmingly large number of social conservatives in the Republican Party . He was , however , able to gain support . Fellow Pennsylvania Senator Rick Santorum was supportive of his candidacy . Other supportive Republicans were hopeful Specter could trim the party 's " far @-@ right fringe " . Although his campaign was ultimately unsuccessful at wooing conservatives , it was widely believed he could have had a strong showing among independents . On November 23 , 1995 , before the start of the primaries , Specter suspended his campaign to endorse Kansas Senator Bob Dole .
= = = 2004 campaign = = =
In 2004 , Specter faced a challenge in the Republican primary election from conservative Congressman Pat Toomey , whose campaign theme was that Specter was not fiscally conservative enough . The match @-@ up was closely watched nationally , being seen as a symbolic clash between the conservative and moderate wings of the Republican Party . However , most of the state and national Republican establishment , including the state 's other senator at the time , Rick Santorum , closed ranks behind Specter . Specter was supported by President George W. Bush . Specter narrowly avoided a major upset with 51 % of the primary vote . Once Specter defeated the challenge from the right , he was able to enjoy great support from independents and some Democrats in his race against Hoeffel . Hoeffel trailed Specter in name recognition , campaign funds and poll results . Although the two minor candidates were seen as more conservative than Specter , they were only able to take 4 % of the vote and Specter was easily reelected .
= = = 2010 campaign = = =
Specter was up for re @-@ election to the Senate in 2010 , and expressed his plans to run again . On March 18 , 2009 , Specter said that he was not considering running as an independent . He said , " To eliminate any doubt , I am a Republican , and I am running for reelection in 2010 as a Republican on the Republican ticket . " Subsequently Specter 's 2004 conservative GOP primary challenger , Pat Toomey , announced he would again run for the Republican nomination in the Republican senatorial primary .
However , on April 28 , 2009 , Specter stated that " As the Republican Party has moved farther and farther to the right , I have found myself increasingly at odds with the Republican philosophy and more in line with the philosophy of the Democratic Party . " He said that he was switching party affiliation and would run as a Democrat in the 2010 election .
In the same announcement , Specter also said that he had " surveyed the sentiments of the Republican Party in Pennsylvania and public opinion polls , observed other public opinion polls and have found that the prospects for winning a Republican primary are bleak " . A March 2009 Quinnipiac poll indicated that Specter trailed his likely primary challenger , Pat Toomey , by 14 % ( 41 % for Toomey , 27 % for Specter ) . Additional polling found that 70 % of Pennsylvania Republicans disapproved of his vote in favor of the Stimulus Bill and that 52 percent of Pennsylvania Republicans disapproved of the job he was doing . Following Specter 's switching parties , Republican National Committee chairman Michael Steele criticized his leaving the Republican Party , claiming that Specter had " flipped the bird " at the GOP .
On February 6 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Democratic Party overwhelmingly endorsed U.S. Senator Arlen Specter at the Democratic State Committee 's annual endorsement convention , which was held in Lancaster County , Pennsylvania . He received more votes than Joe Sestak , winning more than 77 % of the Pennsylvania Democratic State Committee members vote , far in excess of the 2 / 3 threshold needed to claim the endorsement . Sestak , however , went on to win the Democratic primary nomination on May 18 .
Following the primary , Specter endorsed Sestak in the general election . Sestak would go on to lose the general election to Toomey .
= = Political views = =
According to the National Journal , Specter voted with Democrats 90 % of the time after switching parties , while , as a Republican , he split his votes between both parties . According to fivethirtyeight.com , during January – March 2009 Specter voted with the Democrats 58 % of the time . Following the support of the stimulus package and the entrance of Pat Toomey in the Republican primary , Specter began to vote 16 % with Democrats . When switching to become a Democrat , he voted 69 % with his new party initially , until Joe Sestak entered the Democratic primary and Specter started to vote 97 % of the time .
= = = Abortion = = =
Specter stated that he was " personally opposed to abortion , " but was " a supporter of a woman 's right to choose . " He received a 20 % rating from NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America in 2005 based on certain votes related to the regulation of abortion ; in 2008 , he received 100 % .
= = = LGBT issues = = =
Specter supported some LGBT rights . He voted to prohibit job discrimination based on sexual orientation , and was a co @-@ sponsor of the Matthew Shepard Hate Crimes Prevention Act . Specter was opposed to same @-@ sex marriage , but was also opposed to a federal ban and supported civil unions . He also became opposed to the Defense of Marriage Act which he once supported . Specter voted in favor of repealing Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell in the lame @-@ duck session of the 111th Congress .
= = = Gun control = = =
Specter strongly opposed most gun control , voting against the Brady Bill , background checks at gun shows , the ban on assault weapons , and trigger locks for handguns .
= = = Affirmative action = = =
He supported affirmative action and voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1991 , receiving a 76 percent rating from the NAACP in 2008 .
= = = Tax cuts and minimum wage = = =
In 1995 he was the only Republican to vote to limit tax cuts to individuals with incomes of less than one million dollars . He voted against CAFTA . Specter also supported an increase in the federal minimum wage . He was a leading supporter of the U.S. Public Service Academy .
= = = Illegal immigration = = =
On immigration , Specter supported a " pathway to citizenship " and a " guest worker program " , which opponents call amnesty . He introduced Senate bill S. 2611 ( the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 ) on April 6 , 2006 , which was passed by the Senate on May 25 , 2006 before reaching a stalemate in the House .
= = = Health care reform = = =
= = = = Public option = = = =
On May 3 , 2009 Specter went on Meet the Press and was asked " Would you support health care reform that puts up a government run public plan to compete with a private plan issued by a private insurance company ? " Specter said no . Two months later , he changed his position .
= = = = Single @-@ payer = = = =
Specter believed a single @-@ payer healthcare system should not be " taken off the table " , according to an interview he had with John King on CNN .
= = = = Votes = = = =
On health care reform , Specter was a cosponsor of the Healthy Americans Act , a proposal he supported during both the 110th and 111th Congresses . Specter voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , the healthcare bill passed through the Senate by every Democratic senator , on a party @-@ line vote .
In May 2012 , New York @-@ Presbyterian Hospital , Columbia University Medical Center and Weill Cornell Medical College presented Specter with the annual Public Service Award for his work in expanding mental health care .
= = = Card check = = =
Specter has received a 61 % rating from the AFL @-@ CIO . He voted for cloture on the Employee Free Choice Act in 2007 . In early 2009 , Specter announced he would not be voting for cloture on the same act in the 111th Congress . After Specter switched parties , he changed his position on the issue again , and wrote a letter to the unions indicating he supported card check legislation .
= = = Privacy ; computers = = =
Spurred by the 2010 Robbins v. Lower Merion School District case , in which two high schools admitted to secretly taking 66 @,@ 000 webcam photos and screenshots of students in their homes on school @-@ issued laptops , Specter held a hearing of the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime and Drugs on March 29 , 2010 . He said : " The issue is one of surreptitious eavesdropping . Unbeknownst to people , their movements and activities were under surveillance . " He said that Lower Merion 's use of laptop cameras for surveillance convinced him that new federal legislation was needed to regulate electronic privacy .
Specter then introduced legislation in April 2010 to amend the federal Wiretap Act to clarify that it is illegal to capture silent visual images inside another person 's home . He said : " This is going to become law . You have a very significant invasion of privacy with these webcams , as more information is coming to light . " Speaking on the floor of the Senate , he said :
Many of us expect to be subject to ... video surveillance when we leave our homes and go out each day — at the ATM , at traffic lights , or in stores , for example . What we do not expect is to be under visual surveillance in our homes , in our bedrooms , and , most especially , we do not expect it for our children in our homes .
= = = Other = = =
The Jewish daily newspaper The Forward reported in the wake of the July 2009 organ trafficking scandal in the U.S. involving Rabbi Levy Izhak Rosenbaum of Brooklyn that an Organ Trafficking Prohibition Act of 2009 , sponsored by Specter , had yet to be officially introduced in the U.S.
Specter criticized the federal government 's policy on cancer , stating the day after Jack Kemp — the 1996 Republican vice presidential nominee and former congressman — died of cancer , that Kemp would still be alive if the federal government had done a better job funding cancer research .
On February 16 , 2011 , Specter wrote a letter to President Obama . He stated that as Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee , Jonathan Pollard should be pardoned . He stated , " Unfortunately , spying is not an uncommon practice even between allies and friendly nations . "
Marking Specter 's entire career in the Senate and , indeed , in all his public offices was one overriding fact : First and foremost , he considered himself essentially a trial attorney rather than a professional politician . During his tenures on Senate committees , his approach to their hearings was very similar to courtroom examinations of trial witnesses .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Post @-@ senate career = =
During the fall of 2011 , Specter was an adjunct professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School , where he taught a course on the relationship between Congress and the U.S. Supreme Court , focusing on separation of powers and the confirmation process . For this course the National Jurist named him as one of the " 23 professors to take before you die " .
= = = Arlen Specter Center for Public Service at Philadelphia University = = =
On December 21 , 2011 , former Senator Arlen Specter donated to Philadelphia University nearly 2 @,@ 700 boxes of historical papers and memorabilia dating from his career as a Philadelphia district attorney to his service as a United States senator , including materials associated with his role as assistant counsel on the Warren Commission . The collection will be jointly managed by the University of Pittsburgh , which will house , organize , and manage the collection . The universities will collaborate on related education programing that will consequently provide access to the archives on both ends of the state . The Specter Collection will also support The Arlen Specter Center for Public Policy at Philadelphia University .
The Center will be a nonpartisan initiative dedicated to promoting greater understanding of public policy issues both foreign and domestic . The Center will strive to accomplish these goals through support for research , educational programming , and exhibitions inspired , in part , by the senator 's career and the permanent collection of his historic papers . The Center will be managed by the Paul J. Gutman Library at Philadelphia University will be located in Roxboro House , which is located nearby on campus .
Parts of Roxboro House date back to 1799 . The Georgian period house constructed of frame and clapboard was expanded in 1810 . At one point in its history , Roxboro House was owned by Dr. Caspar Wistar who published the first American textbook of anatomy in 1811 . Wistar was president of the American Philosophical Society and his friend , Thomas Nuttall , a famous botanist , named the Wisteria vine after him . In 1965 the Philadelphia Historical Commission added this house to its list of registered buildings ( No. 141 ) . Prior to the University 's purchase of the property in 1998 , the house was being used as a bed and breakfast establishment .
= = Illness and death = =
On February 16 , 2005 , Specter announced that he had been diagnosed with an advanced form of Hodgkin 's lymphoma , a type of cancer . Despite this , Specter continued working during chemotherapy . He ended treatment on July 22 . Senator John Sununu ( R @-@ NH ) shaved his head to show solidarity with Specter , who was temporarily bald while undergoing chemotherapy . On April 15 , 2008 , Specter announced his cancer had returned , at a stage " significantly less advanced than his Hodgkin 's disease when it was originally diagnosed in 2005 " . He underwent a second round of chemotherapy , which ended on July 14 , 2008 .
On August 28 , 2012 , it was announced that Specter was battling a " serious form of cancer " and hospitalized . He was diagnosed six weeks earlier with a new form of the disease . On September 7 , 2012 , he was released from a Philadelphia hospital , but was expected to return there for additional treatment .
Specter died from complications of non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , aged 82 , on October 14 , 2012 , at his home in Philadelphia . Statements of condolence were issued by President and Mrs. Obama , Vice President and Mrs. Biden , the Office of the Governor of Pennsylvania , and by many of his colleagues and former opponents in the U.S. Congress , the Pennsylvania legislature , and the city of Philadelphia , among many others . Senator Specter , while he had been accused of alienating both parties due to certain positions he took and due to the two times he switched parties , among other issues , was nonetheless respected by many as a principled statesman who did much for his state and country , including by those in politics and the legislature , both in Pennsylvania and his home state , Kansas , as well as across the U.S. and beyond . He was the longest @-@ serving of Pennsylvania 's U.S. Senators , and it was said that he had done more for the state than anyone else , with the possible exception of Benjamin Franklin himself . As a sign of this respect and out of mourning , President Obama ordered U.S. flags to be lowered to half @-@ staff at public institutions and military bases in Washington , D.C. and the rest of the country on his day of interment .
= Petrillo Music Shell =
James C. Petrillo Music Shell or simply Petrillo Music Shell or Petrillo Bandshell as it is more commonly known , is an outdoor amphitheater / bandstand in Grant Park in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . It serves as host to many large annual music festivals in the city such as Chicago Blues Festival , Chicago Jazz Festival , Taste of Chicago and Lollapalooza . It is also the former host of several smaller ( less than 10 @,@ 000 ) attendance annual events that have moved to the newer Jay Pritzker Pavilion such as the Grant Park Music Festival , Chicago Gospel Music Festival , and Chicago Latin Music Festival . It was formerly located at the South end of Grant Park and was relocated in 1978 .
The shell was commissioned in 1931 by Mayor of Chicago Anton Cermak in the wake of the Great Depression to help lift the spirits of the citizenry with free concerts . The music shell was named after James C. Petrillo , president of the Chicago Federation of Musicians from 1922 to 1962 and president of the American Federation of Musicians from 1940 to 1958 , who created a free concert series in Grant Park in 1935 . Petrillo was a commissioner of the Chicago Park District from 1934 to 1945 . Until the 1990s , the music shell was known for a traditional Independence Day concert celebration coordinated with the city 's fireworks display on July 3 .
= = Location and layout = =
In 1915 , the commissioners of South Park ( Grant Park 's predecessor ) located a temporary wooden bandshell in the Park near Michigan and Congress Avenues . It hosted large events as well as band performances and remained in place for five or six years . In 1931 , Cermak suggested free concerts to lift spirits of Chicagoans during the Great Depression . The Depression and the proliferation of new technological innovations such as records , radios and sound films led to a declining demand for live music and a shrinking job market for musicians . That year , as buildings were being built for the 1933 Century of Progress International Exposition , the Chicago Concert Band Association offered to organize a seventy @-@ person concert band to give free summer concerts if the Park commissioners would build a band shell that had electric lighting and dressing rooms . Construction on the wood and fiber E. V. Buchsbaum design began on a budget of $ 12 @,@ 500 ( $ 194 @,@ 502 in today 's dollars ) , and the opening of free concerts commenced on August 24 , 1931 . Construction was completed in three weeks .
On July 1 , 1935 , Petrillo oversaw the beginning of free concerts in Grant Park at the original bandshell located on the south end of the park across Lake Shore Drive from the Field Museum of Natural History . Originally referred to as the Grant Park Band Shell , the bandshell was renamed and dedicated in honor of Petrillo in 1975 .
There were numerous plans and proposals to replace the original band shell beginning almost as soon as the Festival began . Among the most prominent was a post @-@ WWII ( 1946 ) plan to have a fifteen @-@ thousand @-@ seat butterfly @-@ design retractible canopy band shell on the block immediately east of the Art Institute of Chicago that eventually came to host the second incarnation of the Petrillo Music Shell . In 1953 a referendum was almost held on the November 3 Election Day ballot for a $ 3 million ( $ 26 @.@ 5 ) structure , but at the last minute a bond issue was denied . In 1963 , a plan for a ten thousand seat music bowl was propounded . By the 1970s the original bandshell had deteriorated to the point where " stagehands , performers and even a grand piano had fallen through the stage floor . " Amid the catastrophes , the musicians joked about the need for hard hats . Despite $ 77 @,@ 000 ( $ 300 @,@ 685 ) in 1977 repair expenditures by the city , the performers were considering cancelling the 1978 season .
Protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings , Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since 1836 , which was a year before the city of Chicago was incorporated . In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings . Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park .
In 1972 , plans were in place to build a C. F. Murphy Associates @-@ designed $ 31 million ( $ 112 @.@ 5 million ) concrete @-@ and @-@ fiberglass band shell atop a new underground parking garage , but community groups defended the Ward restrictions , which necessitated the less expensive demountable band shell in at Butler Field . The newly relocated bandshell was built at its current location in 1978 .75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north of the original location . The bandshell was designed to be temporary , but the Park District has never dismantled it . The " semi @-@ permanent " designation averted the Ward prohibitions and cost only $ 3 million ( $ 10 @.@ 9 million ) .
With an official street address at 235 S. Columbus Drive , the music shell encompasses the entire block bounded by Lake Shore Drive to the east , Columbus Drive to the west , East Monroe Street to the north and East Jackson Street to the South . The places it a block east of the Art Institute of Chicago , a block north of Buckingham Fountain , a block south of Daley Bicentennial Plaza and southeast of Millennium Park . The amphitheater and paved surface for public seating is in the southwest corner of the block . This has served as one of the main stages for recent Lollapalooza celebrations .
= = History = =
Concerts began at the band shell in August 1931 . In July 1932 , Franklin Delano Roosevelt made a campaign stop at the bandshell on his way to make his acceptance speech as the Democratic nominee for president at the 1932 Democratic National Convention at Chicago Stadium .
In 1934 , the twenty @-@ two separate parks merged under the Park Consolidation Act , in order to gain New Deal federal funding . Mayor Edward Kelley named Chicago Federation of Musicians President Petrillo to the board of the Chicago Park District . Petrillo suggested a free symphonic concert series in Grant Park . Under the agreement , Petrillo would raise money for the first season and if it was highly attended , the Park District would continue the program . The 1935 first season of the Grant Park Music Festival began on July 1 , 1935 and ran until Labor Day for a total of sixty @-@ five concerts . The Chicago Symphony Orchestra , the Women 's Symphony Orchestra and the Civic Opera Orchestra each performed five or six times . Large concert bands led by Bohumir Kryl , Armin Hand , Max Bendix , George Dasch , Glenn Bainum , and Victor Grabel also performed . By the end of the summer crowds of up to 35 @,@ 000 were attending nightly free concerts . The summer 's total attendance was estimated at 1 @.@ 9 million . This was viewed as a sufficient success that the Park District committed to assuming financial responsibility for the entire ongoing annual outdoor concert series . The concerts for the first season were broadcast on nationwide radio broadcasts .
In 1937 following the death of George Gershwin , the Grant Park Music Festival performed a tribute concert that was aired on a 109 @-@ station nationwide radio network . The Chicago Philharmonic played Pyotr Tchaikovsky 's Pathétique Symphony , Gershwin 's Rhapsody in Blue , and Siegfried 's death music from Richard Wagner 's Götterdämmerung .
The bandshell hosted symbolic events at the time of World War II . The July 1942 celebration of the city 's 10,000th United States Navy recruit with a 500 @-@ sailor representation from Navy Pier to salute the color guard was held at the band shell . In 1944 , a public address system was added and following the war Grant Park usage increased heavily .
Between the scheduling of Van Cliburn 's 1958 Grant Park Music Festival appearance and his actual July 16 appearance , he won the quadrennial International Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow that April . He was catapulted to international fame for winning one of the world 's elite music competitions . As a result , he was greeted with a celebration that included a ticker tape parade down Michigan Avenue , and his Grant Park Music Festival appearance was a major event . The following year , the band shell served as the host location for three concerts for the opening celebration of the 1959 Pan American Games .
In 1968 , the final Grant Park Music Festival concert , which featured Beverly Sills as Violetta in Verdi 's La Traviata was the backdrop for the formation of the protester demonstrations during the 1968 Democratic National Convention . As Richard J. Daley attempted to negotiate with the protesters regarding their march route , he attempted to encourage them to march to the band shell , but the protesters decided to march directly to the host International Amphitheatre .
In 1978 , the relocated band shell began hosting the annual Independence Day fireworks concert featuring the Grant Park Symphony Orchestra . The newly relocated bandshell was able to host new festivals such as Taste of Chicago , an annual July 3 Independence Day fireworks celebration , The Chicago Blues , Jazz and Gospel Festivals . In October 1979 , Pope John Paul II presided over the largest public mass ever held in Chicago on a terraced altar platform that was erected next to the band shell . Joseph Bernardin delivered a homily on the same kind of platform after being promoted to Archbishop of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago . The Dalai Lama has held an event at the band shell and rallies celebrating the National Basketball Association championships by the Chicago Bulls occurred at the band shell . In 1998 , at a Grant Park Music Festival performance , the miniature prototype of the Talaske @-@ designed audio system that would eventually be used at the Jay Pritzker Pavilion was tested .
Since 2005 , the Music Shell has been used as a stage for the annual Lollapalooza festival .
Among the artists who performed with the Grant Park Music Festival at the pavilion in the first decade of the 21st Century are sopranos Kathleen Battle and Dawn Upshaw , and violinists Rachel Barton Pine .
= = Controversies = =
When the Pritzker Pavilion was built members of the Petrillo family wanted it named after James Petrillo . There has been much debate about which concerts and festivals should remain at the Petrillo and which should be moved to the Pritzker Pavilion . The initial plan was that the larger annual music festivals such as the Blues and Jazz Festivals and Taste of Chicago would continue to be held in Petrillo Music Shell because they are too large to be hosted at the Pavilion . However , smaller festivals such as the Chicago Gospel Music Festival have been hosted at the Pavilion since 2005 . There has been public opinion that some of the Blues and Jazz Festival smaller events should be moved to the better and more modern acoustics of the Pavilion . By 2009 , as the city grappled with a budget deficit , it considered realigning parts of the larger festivals with the more modern venue and made definite plans to move some of the smaller ones there .
= Roy Roundtree =
Roy Randolph Round
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tree ( born March 7 , 1989 ) is an American football wide receiver for the Colorado Crush of the Indoor Football League ( IFL ) . He was a 2013 preseason member of the Cincinnati Bengals and played college football for the Michigan Wolverines football team where he spent his redshirt senior season with the 2012 team . In 2012 , he was an All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention selection . He was a 2011 Fred Biletnikoff Award preseason watchlist honoree . He was a Fred Biletnikoff Award preseason watchlist honoree in 2010 , and set Michigan 's single @-@ game receiving record with nine catches for 246 yards against Illinois that November . Roundtree was the team 's leading receiver in both the 2009 and 2010 seasons . He finished first in the Big Ten Conference in receiving yards in 2010 for Conference games , and was a second team All Conference selection . While in high school , he was named the 2007 Ohio Division II Offensive Player of the Year .
= = Early life and high school = =
Roundtree started playing football on the Pee @-@ Wee Dayton Flames in first grade . He played on the team until junior high , joined by his Michigan teammate Michael Shaw , who , because he was eight months older than Roundtree , played in a different level . Roundtree was a two @-@ year starter at Belmont High School in Dayton , Ohio before he transferred to Trotwood @-@ Madison High School , where the team 's head football coach was retired National Football League player Maurice Douglass .
As a freshman , he earned Dayton Daily News Athlete of the Week honors , but in 2004 – 05 , Belmont was classified as an " academic emergency " by the state of Ohio because over a 25 % of the students were considered to be " students with disabilities " , and the school 's standardized test scores were over 50 percent lower than the state benchmarks . With the dismal academic situation and a mediocre athletic program , Belmont left Roundtree dissatisfied , and he transferred to Trotwood before his junior year , where coach Douglass had earned a reputation for developing college ready football players , and where former Flames teammate Domonick Britt was playing quarterback .
At Trotwood , he was a teammate of Shaw and Brandon Moore who would later join him at Michigan . As a junior in 2006 , he posted 48 receptions for 851 yards , and as a senior , he totalled 868 on 52 catches . His four @-@ year totals were 165 receptions for 2 @,@ 637 yards and 28 touchdowns . As a senior , he was selected to the Division II first @-@ team all @-@ state squad , and named Ohio 's offensive player of the year . He was also chosen to play in the Big 33 Football Classic , and ranked as the number 44 , 89 , and 104 wide receiver in the nation by Rivals.com , Scout.com , and ESPN , respectively . In that same year , Trotwood won their first playoff game since 1981 , led by Roundtree 's 13 receptions , 203 yards , and game @-@ winning touchdown . Roundtree feels that his best game in high school was a 12 @-@ reception , 221 @-@ yard , 2 @-@ touchdown performance that helped his team overcome a 21 – 0 deficit .
Roundtree had scholarship offers from Eastern Michigan , Illinois , Purdue , Nebraska and Miami . He was considered a Purdue commit until getting a late scholarship offer from Michigan , which was his preferred school . On signing day , his uncle convinced him to go to Michigan because of its winning tradition . The late switch led Purdue head coach Joe Tiller to cast aspersions on Michigan coach Rich Rodriguez , referring to him as a snake oil salesman .
= = College = =
Roundtree redshirted for the 2008 season . He made his college debut on September 5 , 2009 against the Western Michigan Broncos at Michigan Stadium as a slot receiver . That year he roomed with Trotwood teammates Shaw and Moore . He had just two receptions in the first eight games of the season while playing as a backup . He became a starter for the team 's final four games , and finished as the leading receiver for the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team in terms of both yards and receptions per game , despite the limited playing time . One of the two early @-@ season receptions occurred on October 3 against Michigan State in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game when he caught the game @-@ tying touchdown with two seconds left in regulation to send the game into overtime . He made his first start on October 31 against the Illinois Fighting Illini as a slot receiver . On November 7 , against Purdue he had ten receptions for 126 yards . He also had nine receptions for 116 yards in the November 21 , 2009 game against the rival Ohio State Buckeyes . Following the season , he was named a CollegeFootballNews.com Freshman All @-@ America honorable mention , and a Sporting News Freshman All @-@ Big Ten selection .
Roundtree made the 2010 preseason watchlist for the Biletnikoff Award , which honors the nation 's top wide receiver . He led Michigan 's 2010 team in both receptions , and receiving yards . In the September 11 game versus the rival Notre Dame Fighting Irish , his 15 @-@ yard reception late in the fourth quarter put the ball on the Notre Dame 2 @-@ yard @-@ line . On the next play , Denard Robinson ran in for the game @-@ winning touchdown with 27 seconds remaining . He posted back @-@ to @-@ back 100 @-@ yard receiving games on September 25 , and October 2 , 2010 , recording nine receptions for 119 yards in a home game against the Bowling Green Falcons , and five receptions for 126 yards and a touchdown versus the Indiana Hoosiers . At the midpoint of Michigan 's 12 @-@ game regular season schedule , he ranked fifth in the Big Ten in receptions per game , and seventh in receiving yards . In Michigan 's 67 – 65 victory over Illinois on November 6 , Roundtree broke Jack Clancy 's all @-@ time Michigan single @-@ game receiving yards record when he caught nine passes for 246 yards and two touchdowns , including a 75 @-@ yard touchdown reception on the game 's first play from scrimmage . The record stood until October 19 , 2013 , when Jeremy Gallon posted a Big Ten record 369 yards against Indiana . The performance raised him to fourth in the conference in both yards and receptions ( tied ) per game , and earned him Co @-@ Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week honors . He ended the 2010 regular season third in the Conference in receiving yards , and fourth in receptions for all games . After a slow start , which included negative one yards receiving in the team 's first game , and a total of less than 100 yards in their first three contests , Roundtree led the Big Ten with 83 @.@ 9 receiving yards per conference game . After the regular season , he was named to the All Conference second team by the media . He finished the year , third in the conference in receiving yards per game ( 71 @.@ 92 ) and fourth in receptions per game ( 5 @.@ 54 ) for all games .
Roundtree repeated as a Biletnikoff Award preseason watchlist honoree in 2011 . On September 10 , against Notre Dame , during the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , his only reception was the game @-@ winning 16 @-@ yard touchdown with two seconds remaining in the game . After leading Michigan in pass receptions in 2009 and 2010 , his production fell off in 2011 . In 2011 , Roundtree ranked fourth in receptions for Michigan with 19 catches and third in receiving yards with 355 yards . Following the season , he had offseason knee surgery .
Roundtree followed Junior Hemingway as the second person to wear Desmond Howard 's " Michigan Football Legend " jersey number 21 . On November 10 , 2012 , Roundtree recorded 139 receiving yards against Northwestern , including a 53 @-@ yard reception to set up the game tying field goal and then a 17 @-@ yard reception on the game @-@ winning drive in overtime . Playing in his final game at Michigan Stadium , a 42 @-@ 17 victory over Iowa , Roundtree caught five passes for 83 yards and a touchdown . Roundtree was an All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention by both the coaches and the media . He posted his four highest receiving yardage totals of the season after Devin Gardner replaced Denard Robinson at quarterback . Roundtree was the second leading receiver on the team with 31 receptions for 580 yards , leading the team with an average of 18 @.@ 7 yards per catch . Following the season , Roundtree participated in the January 19 , 2013 Raycom College Football All @-@ Star Classic , making a 39 @-@ yard catch and returning 2 punts .
= = Professional career = =
Roy Roundtree signed an undrafted free agent contract with the Cincinnati Bengals following the 2013 NFL Draft . He was released during the final roster cut on August 31 .
In 2015 , Roundtree signed with the Colorado Ice of the Indoor Football League ( IFL ) . Roundtree made his professional debut on March 15 , 2015 , catching 3 touchdowns , during a 40 @-@ 59 loss to the Sioux Falls Storm .
= = Personal = =
His father was one of his pee wee football coaches . His mother is Sheila Roundtree . Some of his Michigan teammates call him " Tree " , for short . He is the nephew of Jeff Graham . Roundtree was second on the team in receptions ( 46 ) , receiving yards ( 664 ) and receiving touchdowns ( 9 ) .
= Da 'Rel Scott =
Da 'Rel Scott ( born May 26 , 1988 ) is an American football running back for the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . He was selected in the seventh round of the 2011 NFL Draft by the New York Giants . He played college football for the University of Maryland , where he was a starting running back . During the 2008 season , he was the second @-@ leading rusher in the Atlantic Coast Conference , behind Jonathan Dwyer of Georgia Tech .
Scott played interscholastic football as a running back and free safety at Plymouth @-@ Whitemarsh High School . He was moderately recruited , but Scout.com thought he was more suited to the position of wide receiver or cornerback at the intercollegiate level . In 2006 , he enrolled at the University of Maryland , where he was moved to wide receiver , but he spent the entire season on redshirt status . The following season , he saw limited action as a reserve running back behind starters Lance Ball and Keon Lattimore . He also played on special teams as a kickoff returner , which was the coaching staff 's attempt to get him on the field in some capacity because of his speed ( 4 @.@ 31 seconds in the 40 @-@ yard dash and sub 10 @.@ 5 seconds in the 100 meters )
In 2008 , Scott took over as Maryland 's starting running back and spent much of the season as the leading rusher in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) . He was eventually surpassed by Dwyer , although both players were named to the All @-@ ACC first team at the season 's end . Scott also became the 2008 Humanitarian Bowl most valuable player when he broke the University of Maryland bowl game rushing record , and he finished the season with 1 @,@ 133 rushing yards , the seventh Terrapin player to surpass a thousand yards in a single season .
= = Early life = =
Scott was born on May 26 , 1988 in Conshohocken , Pennsylvania to Gloria and Lee Scott , Sr. He has two older brothers , Lee Scott , Jr . , who played football as a defensive back at La Salle , and James , who ran track at Saint Joseph 's . When Da 'Rel Scott was eight years old , his parents had a falling out , which prompted his father to leave the family . Thereafter , Lee Scott , Sr. was no longer involved in raising his sons and would often miss scheduled visits . Da 'Rel Scott said , " He just kept letting me down . Just day by day , I was thinking , ' I need a father figure in my life . ' " In high school , his attitude changed , and he said , " I don 't need him . " Despite the absence of his biological father , Scott grew up with the support of his mother , two brothers Lee and James , cousin Leroy , family friend and youth football coach Mike Shaw , and high school athletic director Charlie Foster .
He attended Plymouth Whitemarsh High School in Plymouth Meeting , Pennsylvania , where he was a four @-@ year letterwinner in football , track , and basketball . In football , Scott was a three @-@ year starter and played as both a tailback and free safety . During his senior year , he rushed for 2 @,@ 523 yards and 38 touchdowns on 232 attempts . As both a junior and senior , he received the Maxwell Award for the conference player of the year . As a senior , The Times Herald named him the area player of the year , the Associated Press named him an all @-@ state player , and he was invited to the Big 33 Football Classic all @-@ star game . SuperPrep named him an all @-@ region player . Rivals.com rated him a four @-@ star prospect and assessed him as the 21st @-@ ranked " athlete " recruit in the nation . Scout.com assessed him as a three @-@ star prospect , and wrote of him , " This kid can flat out fly . He runs a sub 10 @.@ 5 100 meters , and a sub 21 @.@ 0 200 meters . Scott needs to get physically bigger to be a college running back ; he may project better as a wide receiver or cornerback . " Scott received scholarship offers from Georgia Tech , Penn State , Virginia , and his ultimate choice , Maryland . In 2006 , he enrolled at the University of Maryland , where he studied kinesiology .
= = = Track and field = = =
Scott was also a standout track athlete . During his junior year , he won the state championship in the 100 meters , with a time of 10 @.@ 56 seconds . He lettered four years in track and field . As a senior in 2010 , he competed in the 60 meters , posting a personal best of 6 @.@ 87 seconds .
= = College career = =
= = = 2006 season = = =
Scott sat out the 2006 season as a redshirt . After summer training camp , the coaching staff moved Scott to wide receiver , a position that lacked depth , but head coach Ralph Friedgen said that Scott had some difficulty making the adjustment . He was , however , named the offensive scout team player of the week for his performance in the practices before the Florida State game .
= = = 2007 season = = =
During 2007 spring practice , Scott was third on the depth chart , but suffered a left knee injury , which forced him to miss most of camp . During the 2007 season , he played in nine games as a reserve tailback behind Lance Ball and Keon Lattimore and as a kickoff returner . Despite the team 's abundance of running backs , Friedgen wanted to utilize Scott in some capacity because of his speed , which had been recorded at 4 @.@ 25 seconds in the 40 @-@ yard dash . Maryland wide receiver Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey said , " On paper it says I 'm faster , but Da 'Rel , he 's just a different type of animal . " Against Wake Forest , he saw his first action when he returned four kickoffs for 101 yards . Scott 's special teams performance in that game sufficiently impressed head coach Friedgen that he said , " I think I 've got to try to get him involved within the offense . I think he 's a guy that can make some plays for us . " The following week , unranked Maryland upset 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , and Scott made his first career appearance as a tailback . He had three carries for 29 yards . After sitting out the Georgia Tech game because of an ankle injury , he returned four kicks for 68 yards against Virginia , three for 56 yards against Clemson , and two for 40 yards against North Carolina . Against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , Scott caught a short screen pass from quarterback Chris Turner and ran 57 yards for a touchdown . It was his first career reception and first career touchdown . It was one of just two offensive plays for Scott in that game , and incidentally , he was not intended to be in it . Friedgen said :
" When he was in the game , I didn 't even know he was in the game . I called a screen pass . I looked up , and it was Da 'Rel in there . I figured we were just giving Lance a rest , but I asked [ running backs coach Phil ] Zacharias about it Sunday and he started laughing . I said ' Did you put Da 'Rel in for that screen pass ? ' He said , ' Lance 's equipment was broken , so he had to go in the game . ' "
In the loss to Florida State , Scott rushed twice for 17 yards and returned four kickoffs for 132 yards . On one return , Scott gained 60 yards and nearly broke away for a touchdown , but Maryland was unable to capitalize on the gain during the subsequent possession . The next week , Maryland secured bowl eligibility by winning its regular season finale against NC State . Scott returned the opening kickoff 36 yards and recorded 89 yards on eight carries to lead the team in rushing . In the 2007 Emerald Bowl against Oregon State , Scott had one carry for no gain and returned two kickoffs for 36 yards . Scott finished the season as the team 's all @-@ purpose yardage leader with 84 @.@ 2 yards per game and kick return leader with 566 yards , which set a school record for a freshman . Rivals.com named him a freshman All @-@ ACC all @-@ purpose player .
= = = 2008 season = = =
After the graduation of running backs Ball and Lattimore , Scott competed with Morgan Green for the starting position . At the conclusion of spring practice , it appeared they would share the duties , as they had complementary running styles : Scott had breakaway speed , while Green was a hard runner for short @-@ yardage gains . However , Green suffered a quadriceps injury that caused him to fall to the third @-@ string position behind true freshman Davin Meggett .
During the season , Scott played in 12 of 13 games , including 11 starts , and recorded 1 @,@ 133 rushing yards and eight touchdowns . In the first game of the 2008 season against Delaware , Scott ran for 197 yards in his first career start , which was enough to place sixteenth on the list for school all @-@ time single @-@ game rushing . The following week , underdog Middle Tennessee stunned Maryland , 24 – 14 , but Scott set the game @-@ high for rushing with 123 yards . He tallied his career @-@ first rushing touchdown with a 63 @-@ yard run on the second play of the game . Scott " dominated early " against 23rd @-@ ranked California with 19 carries for 87 yards and two touchdowns , but in the third quarter , he suffered a game @-@ ending shoulder injury . His first @-@ half effort helped Maryland take a quick lead and eventually upset California , 35 – 27 . Scott sat out the next game against Eastern Michigan , but returned for the road game at 20th @-@ ranked Clemson . Scott made 23 carries but gained only 39 yards , a mark that was surpassed by receiver Heyward @-@ Bey on one reverse that gained 76 yards to spark a second @-@ half comeback . Head coach Friedgen said :
" I told Da 'Rel he needed to run a little more north – south . Clemson has such good team speed . If you go east – west on them , you 're not going to go very far . I thought he had a couple runs when he tried to bounce it outside . Normally , Da 'Rel can do that . Not against this team . . . I told him this is a game where three yards is a good running play . . . I don 't know if Da 'Rel has been in a game like this , playing the whole game that way in a tough environment . He came out in the second half and said ' I 'm going to go , coach . ' He patted me on the butt . ' Just get me the ball . ' "
Scott tallied the go @-@ ahead touchdown to complete Maryland 's comeback , 20 – 17 . The following week , Maryland fell to a heavy underdog again when a reeling Virginia team engineered a 31 – 0 shutout . Scott , then the leading rusher in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) , had 11 carries but was held to just 36 yards . Despite the setback , Scott retained the lead in the ACC with 96 @.@ 4 rushing yards per game . After a bye week , Maryland shutout 21st @-@ ranked Wake Forest , 26 – 0 . Scott had 18 carries for a game @-@ high of 73 yards , threw a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass , and had three fumbles . In the first quarter , Scott fumbled at the Wake Forest 25 @-@ yard line , but was able to recover the ball . Two plays later , he executed a halfback option , where he took the handoff and threw a nine @-@ yard pass to Heyward @-@ Bey for a touchdown . It was Scott 's first pass attempt and completion . Scott fumbled twice more in the first half , and Wake Forest recovered only to miss a field goal attempt each time . Against NC State , Scott had 23 carries for 163 yards and a 24 @-@ yard touchdown . In the fourth quarter , after the third play of Maryland 's game @-@ winning drive , Meggett replaced Scott , who had re @-@ injured his shoulder . With the sixth win , Maryland attained bowl eligibility . Scott remained the ACC leading rusher with 102 @.@ 6 yards per game . He was deemed questionable before the Virginia Tech game , but did see action . However , the Virginia Tech line held Scott to 11 yards on 10 carries , although he did manage five receptions for 57 yards . Against 17th @-@ ranked North Carolina , Scott recorded 129 rushing yards and a three @-@ yard touchdown run . Maryland entered its penultimate regular season game against Florida State still within reach of the Atlantic Division title , and with it , a berth in the ACC Championship Game . Florida State , however , dashed Maryland 's title hopes in a 37 – 3 rout in which Scott recorded 82 rushing yards , but fumbled twice . In the fourth quarter , defensive end Everette Brown forced Scott to fumble , which was seen as the end to any potential comeback . Against a tough Boston College line , the Maryland rushing attack faltered , which forced quarterback Chris Turner to resort mostly to the pass . Scott rushed 13 times for a gain of just 19 yards .
In the postseason , Maryland accepted an invitation to the Humanitarian Bowl to play the Western Athletic Conference runner @-@ up , Nevada . Before the game , however , head coach Ralph Friedgen caught Scott and six other players breaking curfew . Scott declined to comment to the media about why he had missed curfew , and Friedgen said only that Scott had tried to " help somebody and got put in a bad situation . " Friedgen initially intended to send the offenders back to College Park by bus , but athletic director Deborah Yow convinced him to issue partial @-@ game suspensions instead . Scott was benched until halfway through the third quarter . He said , " I made a bad decision . I felt I had to run with a purpose . " Scott was put into the game on Maryland 's third possession of the half but did not receive a carry until the following series . On his first attempt , he ran for 14 yards and then ran 11 yards on his second . During the next drive , he broke free on a 49 @-@ yard touchdown run . On the next possession , Scott rushed on all four plays and gained 66 yards and another touchdown . Maryland won , 42 – 35 , and Scott was named the Terrapins ' most valuable player of the game . Nevada head coach Chris Ault said , " He just ran through us like we weren 't there . They ran the weak @-@ side gap , we knew that was one of their base plays , and he did a great job . He 's a heck of a back , no question about it . He was breaking tackles , and that 's not only a difference @-@ maker but a morale @-@ changer . " He ran for 174 yards , which broke the school record for rushing in a bowl game previously set by Lu Gambino in the 1948 Gator Bowl . Scott also became just the seventh Maryland player to surpass the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard single @-@ season rushing benchmark . Earlier in the season , Scott set that mark as one of his goals , and he adorned his room with the statistics of the Terrapins who accomplished that feat in the past , such as Chris Downs in 2002 .
Scott spent much of the season as the leading rusher in the ACC , but he was eventually surpassed by Jonathan Dwyer of Georgia Tech and finished second in the conference . In early October , Scott was added to the Maxwell Award watch list . The Atlantic Coast Conference named Scott to the All @-@ ACC first team alongside Dwyer .
= = = 2009 season = = =
During a practice in April 2009 , Scott and cornerback Nolan Carroll collided , which injured both players . Scott suffered a sprained knee which forced him to sit out the Red – White spring game . He entered summer practice at the top of the depth chart , but Davin Meggett 's camp performance was impressive enough to earn a share of the number @-@ one position . In its 2009 preseason issue , Phil Steele 's listed Scott as the 23rd @-@ ranked draft eligible college running back , a preseason first @-@ team All @-@ ACC running back , and one of 19 " darkhorse " contenders for the Heisman Trophy . Athlon Sports named him to their preseason All @-@ ACC second team . Before the season , he was added to the Doak Walker Award and Maxwell Award watch lists .
In the season opener at 12th @-@ ranked California , Scott recorded 13 carries for 90 yards . He scored the Terrapins ' only touchdown on a 39 @-@ yard rush in the third quarter of the 52 – 13 rout , Maryland 's worst opening loss since 1892 . The following week , Scott had 17 carries for 68 yards and a touchdown in an overtime win against James Madison . He recorded a 48 @-@ yard touchdown run against Middle Tennessee , but also two fumbles in the first quarter . Scott finished the game with 13 attempts for 117 yards . , but coach Friedgen relied mostly on Meggett after the second turnover . Scott suffered a broken wrist against Clemson , a game that also saw Maryland left tackle Bruce Campbell injured . He sat out the next five games , before he returned in the penultimate game against Florida State , in which he ran 83 yards on 19 attempts and also had two receptions for 21 yards . The performance prompted Scout.com to note , " It 's almost like this stud running back never missed a game for the Terps … it is impressive to see the junior hard at work and making up for lost time . " In the season finale against Boston College , Maryland opened the game with Scott attempting a pass to wide receiver Torrey Smith on a halfback option play ; it fell incomplete but drew a defensive pass interference call . Scott rushed for 45 yards and a touchdown on 11 attempts , and caught three passes for 20 yards .
= = = 2010 season = = =
In the winter , Scott competed on the indoor track team and ran a 60 @-@ yard dash in 6 @.@ 87 seconds , and he claimed to have regained the speed he had in high school . During spring football camp , he recorded the fastest 40 @-@ yard dash time among the running backs at 4 @.@ 33 seconds . Head coach Ralph Friedgen praised Scott for the strength and size he added in the offseason , and offensive coordinator James Franklin described Scott as a " complete back " . Before the season , Scott was added to the Maxwell Award and Doak Walker Award watch lists .
Maryland entered the 2010 season with Scott and Meggett sharing time as the number @-@ one running back . Head coach Friedgen said , " At this point in time , I would say Scott and Meggett are 1A and 1B . " In the season opener against Navy , Scott recorded 58 yards on ten carries , which included five touches on the opening drive for 36 yards and a five @-@ yard touchdown run . The following week against Division I FCS Morgan State , Scott , Meggett , and redshirt freshman running back D. J. Adams all averaged over five yards per carry in the 62 – 3 rout . Scott amassed eight carries for 42 yards and three receptions for 31 yards . Maryland 's rushing attack struggled in the 31 – 17 loss to West Virginia , and Scott had four carries for six yards and three catches for 26 yards . Against Florida International , he gained 103 yards and scored two touchdowns on 15 carries . Scott scored on a 56 @-@ yard run and a nine @-@ yard run in which he broke three arm tackles . Duke held Scott to 26 yards in the first half , but in the third quarter , he caught a short pass from quarterback Danny O 'Brien and ran down the sideline for a 71 @-@ yard touchdown . O 'Brien said he repeatedly checked down through his available receivers and Scott was his final option . Scott finished with 14 carries for 50 yards .
At Clemson , Scott threw a four @-@ yard touchdown pass to quarterback Danny O 'Brien on a trick play for Maryland 's only score in a 31 – 7 loss . He had four rushing attempts for 18 yards . During that game , Scott became the tenth player in school history to amass 3 @,@ 000 all @-@ purpose yards . At Boston College , Scott rushed nine times for 19 yards and caught one pass for four yards . He also filled in for injured kickoff returner Torrey Smith and had one return for 25 yards . Against Wake Forest , he had eleven carries for 50 yards and one reception for ten yards . At Miami , Scott rushed nine times for 30 yards and had a 12 @-@ yard reception . At Virginia , he carried the ball 11 times for 55 yards and had two catches for eight yards including a two @-@ yard reception for a touchdown . Against 25th @-@ ranked Florida State , Scott rushed ten times for 87 yards and caught two passes for eight yards . Scott was held to negative ten rushing yards on four touches by 23rd @-@ ranked North Carolina State in his final home game on Senior Night , but Maryland still won , 38 – 31 .
In the Military Bowl against East Carolina , Scott rushed for a career @-@ high 200 yards on 13 carries , including two touchdowns on 61- and 91 @-@ yard runs , and was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . He broke the school record for rushing in a bowl game that he previously set in 2008 . His performance was described as " utterly electrifying " , and left his " stock among draft @-@ eligible running backs soaring with NFL scouts " . His 15 @.@ 4 yards per carry was the best single @-@ game performance in school history . Scott ended the 2010 season with 708 rushing yards on 122 attempts and five touchdowns . He finished his college career with 2 @,@ 401 rushing yards on 430 attempts and 17 touchdowns , and 3 @,@ 509 all @-@ purpose yards . Scott ranked seventh in school history in career rushing yards and second in career yards per carry with an average of 5 @.@ 58 .
Scott was invited to play in the East – West Shrine Game on January 22 , 2011 in Orlando . He also participated in the Senior Bowl , and The New York Times praised him for his practice leading up to the game . In the Senior Bowl , Scott recorded five carries for 15 yards , including a touchdown on a one @-@ yard run .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2011 NFL Combine = = =
= = = New York Giants = = =
The New York Giants selected Scott with the 221st overall pick in the 2011 NFL Draft . Giants general manager Jerry Reese said , " We took a flyer on the guy because he is big and fast … We hope this guy develops into a Willie Parker , one of those kinds of things . " At the NFL Combine , Scott ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 34 seconds , the fastest time recorded by any of the participating running backs .
Scott secured a spot on the active roster behind Ahmad Bradshaw and Brandon Jacobs with a strong preseason performance . In the game against the Chicago Bears , he had one carry for a 97 @-@ yard touchdown . Against the New England Patriots , Scott took a snap on a fake punt , which he ran 65 yards for a touchdown . He made his regular season debut in Week 1 against the Washington Redskins , but recorded no statistics . Scott only recorded five carries for 15 yards in 11 games played . He was a member of the Super Bowl XLVI champion team that defeated the New England Patriots by a score of 21 – 17 .
On October 20 , 2012 , Scott was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve due to a knee injury .
On October 1 , 2013 , the Giants waived him after his first career start in the Week 4 loss against the Kansas City Chiefs .
On October 8 , 2013 , the Giants re @-@ signed Scott after running back David Wilson was out with a neck injury .
On October 15 , 2013 , the Giants waived him again after he injured his hamstring in the Week 6 loss against the Chicago Bears .
= = = Winnipeg Blue Bombers = = =
Scott signed with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in April 2015 . He was released by the Blue bombers on January 6 , 2016 .
= = = Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats = = =
Scott was signed by the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats on May 28 , 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Scott motivates himself for games by channeling the anger at his father 's abandonment . He said , " I am always going to have anger because of how he did me . It is always going to be there . It is not going away . No way at all . " While basketball player Michael Jordan was Scott 's childhood sports idol , he says Jordan was not the inspiration for his jersey number of 23 . Scott chose it as a combination of his older brothers ' high school numbers : James wore number 20 , and Lee , Jr. wore number 3 . Scott said , " They were my father . "
= Ian Kinsler =
Ian Michael Kinsler ( born June 22 , 1982 ) is an American professional baseball second baseman for the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He formerly played for the Texas Rangers . He is listed at 6 ft 0 in ( 183 cm ) and 200 lb ( 91 kg ) .
Despite having been drafted in only the 17th round out of college , Kinsler has risen to become a four @-@ time All Star , and a member of the Sporting News ' 2009 list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball . He is known as a five @-@ tool player , hitting for average and power , and excelling in baserunning , throwing , and fielding .
Kinsler has twice hit 30 home runs and stolen 30 bases in the same season ( 2009 and 2011 ) , and is one of 12 ballplayers in major league history who have had multiple 30 – 30 club seasons . In 2011 , he also joined the 20 – 20 club for the third time , one season shy of the major league record for a second baseman . He hit for the cycle in a game in 2009 , while getting hits in all six of his at @-@ bats .
Through 2013 , Kinsler led the Texas Rangers , all @-@ time , career @-@ wise , in stolen bases and power @-@ speed number . In November 2013 , Kinsler was traded to the Detroit Tigers for Prince Fielder . Through 2014 , on defense Kinsler had the best career range factor of any active second baseman in Major League Baseball .
= = Early life and high school = =
Kinsler 's father , Howard , was a warden at a state prison on Tucson 's southeast side . He has been a major influence on Kinsler . When Kinsler was four his father would toss him fly balls , and his dad says Kinsler would " get under them like he 'd been doing it his whole life . "
His father coached him until high school , and was especially tough . When Kinsler was 13 years old , and the best player on a PONY league team coached by his father that was playing for a championship , his dad caught Kinsler rolling his eyes as he gave the team orders . " I benched him , without hesitation " , said his father . With Kinsler on the bench , the team lost the game .
Kinsler had a physical challenge to overcome . " I 've had asthma my whole life " , Kinsler said . " That was tough when I was younger . I woke up a lot and couldn 't breathe , and had to go to the hospital in the middle of the night . It kind of held me back from athletics . I still have it , but I control it . Now I use an atomizer or an inhaler . When I was younger , I used this breathing machine … I hated that thing . I always wanted to run around and be active . "
He graduated in 2000 from Canyon del Oro High School in the Tucson suburb of Oro Valley , Arizona . Kinsler helped lead the baseball team to state titles in 1997 and 2000 . He hit .380 as a junior , to earn second @-@ team All @-@ League honors , and .504 with 5 home runs and 26 stolen bases during his senior year , in which he was named first @-@ team All @-@ State and first @-@ team All @-@ League . Four of his high school teammates have also made it to the major leagues : Brian Anderson ( his best friend in high school ) , Scott Hairston , Chris Duncan , and Shelly Duncan .
= = Draft and college = =
Kinsler was drafted by his home @-@ state Arizona Diamondbacks after high school in 2000 ( 29th round ) , but did not feel ready for the pros . He opted instead to take a college tour . First ( because he had not been recruited by any Division I programs ) he attended Central Arizona College , where he hit .405 with 17 doubles , 37 RBIs , and 24 stolen bases , was named second @-@ team All @-@ ACCAC , and played shortstop alongside future major leaguers Scott Hairston and Rich Harden . The Diamondbacks drafted him again in 2001 ( 26th round ) , but he declined to sign because he felt that playing college baseball a little longer would help him develop his game .
Arizona State coach Pat Murphy then convinced him to transfer to ASU in his sophomore year , promising that he would play shortstop for the Sun Devils . But while he started briefly alongside fellow middle infielder Dustin Pedroia , he ended up spending much of the season on the bench . He was also teammates with Andre Ethier .
University of Missouri Tigers coach Tim Jamison spotted him in a summer league , and convinced him to head east for his junior year . Jamison said : " I saw him take ground balls and thought , defensively , he was as good a middle infielder as I had ever seen . As for his bat , I didn 't really care . " While there , Kinsler had a .335 batting average , .416 on @-@ base percentage , and .536 slugging percentage , with 16 steals in 17 attempts . He was named to the All @-@ Big 12 Conference second team . Jamison noted , " From the day Ian stepped through the doors here , you could see it on his face : He was on a mission . " Playing for the Tigers during the 2002 Fall World Series , he led all hitters with a .619 average ( 13 @-@ for @-@ 21 ) .
Kinsler was then drafted a third time , by the Texas Rangers in the 17th round ( 496th overall ) in 2003 as a shortstop , at the urging of area scout Mike Grouse . Grouse liked Kinsler 's tools , makeup , desire , and gritty approach . In Grouse 's scouting report , he wrote that Kinsler had a great feel for the game , athleticism , solid defensive skills , intensity , and leadership qualities . Grouse knew that Kinsler was probably being underrated by rival scouts , who did not know that Kinsler had played with a foot stress fracture while at Missouri , " so [ Kinsler ] really couldn 't run like I knew he could . I 'd seen him in Wichita the year before , so I knew he was a plus runner . Most people ... didn 't know that , so they probably downgraded him . But I knew it , and I wasn 't telling anybody . " Kinsler , for his part , says : " I thought I was a lot better than a 17th round pick . I thought I belonged in the top 10 rounds . " Kinsler nonetheless agreed to sign with the Rangers on his 21st birthday , for $ 30 @,@ 000 .
Five years later , John Sickels wrote : " Only a handful of players from the 2003 draft are as good as Kinsler , and he 's certainly outperformed many more heralded talents . Scouting and drafting will always be an inexact science / art . " The pick was later lauded as " one of the greatest 17th round picks of all time . "
= = Minor league career ( 2003 – 05 ) = =
= = = 2003 : Entering the pros = = =
Kinsler signed quickly , and broke in as a shortstop in 2003 . He batted .277 in 188 at @-@ bats in his pro debut for the Spokane Indians in the Short @-@ season Northwest League , while leading the team in steals ( 11 ) and triples ( 6 ) . He then spent the 2003 – 04 winter in Arizona , working out with the Rangers ' strength and conditioning coaches . He said : " I was probably 170 pounds , and I decided I needed to lift , put on some weight , and eat as much as I could . And I learned how to hit . "
= = = 2004 : Breakout season = = =
By early 2004 , Kinsler had vaulted to the # 1 spot on Baseball America 's Prospect Hot Sheet . John Sickels of ESPN described him as having " great plate discipline , power , and ... [ being ] a reasonably good defensive shortstop . "
He had a breakout year in 2004 . He split the season between two teams , beginning with the Low @-@ A Clinton Lumberkings , for which he hit .402 / .465 / .692 in 224 at bats . Kinsler was voted to start at shortstop for the Midwest League Western Division All Star team , while he was leading the league in batting , on @-@ base percentage , slugging percentage , hits , doubles , extra @-@ base hits , and runs scored , but did not play as he was promoted . Baseball America rated him the most exciting ballplayer and the # 8 prospect in the league . When a friend asked him what the secret was to his success , he responded : " Dude , I have no idea . "
Kinsler was promoted two levels on June 12 to the Double @-@ A Frisco RoughRiders . " When I first got called up , there were a million things running through my head " , he said . " I was nervous , my hands were sweating . It was really exciting , but I didn 't know what to expect . I was a little nervous that ... all of a sudden I wouldn 't be able to hit . " In June he was named the Rangers ' Minor League Player of the Month . Frisco manager Tim Ireland observed :
I think he 's succeeding because his swing is graceful and effortless . It 's just a smooth swing , and he hits for power because he lets his swing work for him . Defensively , so far he 's shown a real feel for shortstop . He 's got good feet and soft hands , and he throws well enough .... He seems pretty legit to me .
In July , the Rangers agreed to send Kinsler and prospect right @-@ hander Erik Thompson to the Colorado Rockies for Larry Walker , but Walker vetoed the trade .
He ended up hitting .300 / .400 / .480 for Frisco , in 277 at @-@ bats . Those numbers would have placed him fourth in OBP , seventh in slugging percentage , and eighth in the league 's batting race had he received enough plate appearances to qualify for the title ( he was short by about 60 ) . Baseball America rated Kinsler the # 9 prospect in the Texas League .
Overall , in 501 at @-@ bats , Kinsler tied for first in the minor leagues in doubles ( 51 ) , and was seventh in batting average ( .345 ) and ninth in hits ( 173 ) . He also had 20 home runs , 103 runs , 98 RBIs , 18 HBP , and 23 steals . Rangers manager Buck Showalter marveled at Kinsler 's 51 doubles , saying : " Fifty ... A lot of guys don 't have 50 singles . "
Baseball America rated him the No. 4 Rangers prospect , the No. 11 prospect in the minors , and a second @-@ team Minor League All Star . Kinsler was also named a Sports Weekly All Star , and the Rangers ' Tom Grieve Minor League Player of the Year . In addition , he was awarded the first annual Diamond in the Rough Award , which recognizes a minor leaguer who " defies the odds " and rises from obscurity to play himself into prospect status during a breakout season . For his part , Kinsler noted simply : " It is fun to come to the ballpark every day when you are playing good baseball . "
Towards the end of the season , Sickels augmented his scouting report on Kinsler by reporting that he was :
a good athlete , not super @-@ toolsy , but strong for his size with speed a notch above average . His swing looked short , quick , and sharp . Although I 'm told that some people worry that his swing is too long , it looked fine to me . " Long swings " usually show up in the stat line as excessive strikeout totals , but Kinsler is not a whiff king . He works the count well , controlling the strike zone without trouble and not swinging at pitches outside the plate area . His bat has some pop in it , particularly to the gaps , where he rifles frequent extra @-@ base shots . He already has above @-@ average power for a player his size , and I think he has enough bat speed to keep hitting home runs at higher levels . Defensively , he shows slightly above @-@ average range and good hands . His arm strength is average , but he 's accurate with his throws and seems fundamentally sound , although his error rate is higher than ideal ( 20 in 71 games at Frisco ) . He might end up at second base eventually . Kinsler 's running speed is a bit better than average , but he 's fairly aggressive on the bases and will steal if the opportunity is there . Overall , he is a solid all @-@ around player who makes the most of his natural ability .
Kinsler spent the winter of 2004 – 05 playing for the Peoria Saguaros of the Arizona Fall League , improving his versatility by getting work in at second base . There , he hit .306 / .369 / .500 . One scout in Arizona noted that his swing was so effortless , yet generated so much line drive power , that : " It 's like he 's swinging a Wiffleball bat out there . "
= = = 2005 : Transitioning to second base = = =
Invited to the parent club 's 2005 spring training , he hit .327 while slugging .612 . Kinsler spent 2005 at Triple @-@ A with the Oklahoma RedHawks , transitioning from shortstop to second base because that is where the organization anticipated he would play in the future , in the event that Alfonso Soriano no longer played second base for the major league team . That was tough on Kinsler 's ego initially , but the most difficult part of the switch for him was the double play . He was selected to the mid @-@ season Pacific Coast League All Star team in June , and came in a close second to Mitch Jones in the 2005 Triple @-@ A Home Run Derby .
For the season , in 530 at bats he hit .274 with 23 home runs , 102 runs ( tied for tenth in the minor leagues ) , 94 RBIs , and 12 steals in 14 attempts . Kinsler cracked the Baseball America Top 100 Prospects list , ranking 98th . On the side , during the season he kept an on @-@ line journal for MinorLeagueBaseball.com.
= = Major league career = =
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2006 – 13 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 : Rookie = = = =
With Alfonso Soriano having been traded in the off @-@ season , Kinsler won the Rangers ' starting second base job in spring training in 2006 over Mark DeRosa . " Ian Kinsler came as advertised " , said Showalter .
He made his major league debut against the Boston Red Sox on Opening Day on April 3 , 2006 , and got his first major league hit in his first major league at bat , off Curt Schilling . Kinsler said :
The crowd was full ; I had the butterflies going , so to get that hit was huge . The family was in town .... To go out there and face one of the best pitchers of all time , you 've got to be locked in . It 's your first game , your first big league experience — it was unbelievable to face that guy .
He was hitting .476 when he dislocated his left thumb sliding head @-@ first into second base on April 11 , 2006 , and was placed on the disabled list . " I knew it wasn 't good when I looked down and I saw the top part of the thumb pointing in at me " , Kinsler said . He came back 41 games later on May 25 , and went 3 – 4 with a single and two home runs , to lead the Rangers to an 8 – 7 victory over the Oakland Athletics . " I hope the fans don 't expect that much every night " , he joked .
While Kinsler started off the season batting ninth in the lineup , in June Showalter moved him up to seventh . " I think as Ian 's career progresses , he 'll move up in the batting order " , predicted Showalter . For the season , he started 31 games batting seventh , 30 batting eighth , 20 batting sixth , 19 batting ninth , 12 batting second , 3 batting leadoff , 2 batting third , and 1 batting fifth .
Kinsler finished 2006 with a .286 batting average , 14 home runs , 55 RBIs , and a team @-@ leading 11 stolen bases in 423 at @-@ bats . He batted .300 with runners in scoring position , and .300 when the game was tied . He led all AL rookies with 27 doubles , and his .454 slugging percentage was the seventh @-@ best in a season since 2000 by an AL rookie with at least 400 at bats . Defensively , in August he tied a team record by recording five double plays in one game . He also led all American League ( AL ) second basemen in both range factor ( 5 @.@ 58 ) and errors ( 18 ) . He was named Texas Rangers 2006 Rookie of the Year .
= = = = 2007 : 20 – 20 season = = = =
During the 2006 – 07 off @-@ season , Kinsler focused on building up his legs to improve his speed , durability , and agility . In spring training in 2007 , he hit .429 , led the AL in RBIs ( 19 ) , and was sixth in the major leagues in hits ( 27 ) .
His torrid hitting continued into the season , and Kinsler was named the AL Player of the Week for the period ending April 15 . He batted .476 ( 10 @-@ for @-@ 21 ) that week with four home runs , eight RBIs , seven runs scored , and a 1 @.@ 095 slugging percentage . His nine home runs in April tied the team record for that month ( shared by Iván Rodríguez ( 2000 ) , Alex Rodriguez ( 2002 ) , and Carl Everett ( 2003 ) ) , and were the most ever in the season 's first month by a Major League second baseman . Kinsler said : " I 'm trying to put good swings on the ball , and if it goes out , it goes out . " He batted .298 with 22 RBIs for the month , and was also voted the Rangers ' Player of the Month for April .
On July 2 , Kinsler went on the disabled list with a stress fracture in his left foot ; he did not come back until July 31 , and missed 26 games . He tied a major league record on August 25 , when he had eight plate appearances in a nine @-@ inning game ( a 30 – 3 win over Baltimore ) .
In 2007 , Kinsler hit 20 home runs ( leading all AL second basemen ) and was 23 @-@ for @-@ 25 in stolen base attempts ( a 92 % success rate ) . He was one of only six batters in the AL to have at least 20 home runs and 20 stolen bases , along with Alex Rodriguez , Gary Sheffield , Grady Sizemore , B.J. Upton , and Curtis Granderson . He also became the sixth player in franchise history to reach the 20 – 20 plateau , joining Alfonso Soriano ( 2005 ) , Iván Rodríguez ( 1999 ) , Rafael Palmeiro ( 1993 ) , Bobby Bonds ( 1978 ) , and Toby Harrah ( 1975 and 1977 ) . He did it despite his stress fracture , which kept him under 500 at bats . His 23 stolen bases and 96 runs led the Rangers .
Kinsler finished the season seventh in the AL in power / speed number ( 21 @.@ 4 ) , ninth in sacrifice hits ( 8 ) and steals of third base ( 4 ) , and tied for tenth in bunt hits ( 5 ) . He was also tied for fourth in the league in steals of third ( 4 ) , eighth in line drive percentage ( 23 % ) , and tied for ninth in sacrifice hits ( 8 ) . He began to hit higher in the batting order , as he batted second in 48 games , leadoff in 26 , seventh in 24 , sixth in 19 , ninth in 10 , and eighth in 2 . On defense , Kinsler led all major league second basemen in range factor ( 5 @.@ 69 ) , leading the league for the second straight year .
= = = = 2008 : All @-@ Star = = = =
In February 2008 , Kinsler signed a five @-@ year deal worth $ 22 million guaranteed . It will jump to $ 32 million if the Rangers exercise their $ 10 million option for 2013 . He received a raise to $ 500 @,@ 000 in 2008 , and a $ 1 million signing bonus . The contract went to $ 3 million in 2009 and $ 4 million in 2010 , and will go to $ 6 million in 2011 and $ 7 million in 2012 . If the Rangers choose not to exercise their $ 10 million option , Kinsler will receive a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout . If he is traded , both the buyout and the option year will increase by $ 500 @,@ 000 . If the option is exercised , the commitment will have been the largest the Rangers have ever made to a player whom they drafted and developed . " Ian represents the past , present , and future of this organization " , said assistant general manager Thad Levine .
" It 's a lot of money " , Kinsler said . " I 've never imagined being in this position in my life . " " This is a big day for me and my family " , he reflected . " I 've been working my whole life to get to this point , since my dad first started taking me out in the backyard and started throwing the baseball with me . "
Asked what impact the money would have on him , Kinsler said :
I 'm going to play the same regardless of whether I 'm making five dollars or $ 1 trillion . It really doesn 't make a difference to me . I 'm going to go out there and play hard , and money doesn 't bring respect . The way you play the game brings respect . When I finish playing the game , it 's not how much money I made that is going to be my legacy . It 's how I played the game , and what I did on the field .
Kinsler was delighted when Rangers manager Ron Washington ultimately committed to Kinsler being the team 's leadoff hitter in 2008 . " I didn 't think he was the prototype leadoff hitter , but the guy proved me wrong " , Washington said . " He 'll take a walk , or get one run for us with one swing of the bat . He can bunt , he can run , and he can hit the ball to the other side . "
Through mid @-@ May 2008 , Kinsler had the best career stolen @-@ base percentage ( 88 @.@ 5 % ) of anyone in Rangers / Senators history with at least 40 attempts . " It 's part of my game " , said Kinsler . " It 's not one of the first things I 'm known for . " According to scouts , his ability on the basepaths is due to innate instincts and his " twitch speed " rather than his pure running speed . Grouse , who signed him , says that Kinsler also " goes from first to third faster than anyone , because he has that God @-@ given ability to read the ball so well off the bat . "
During a mid @-@ June rain delay at Shea Stadium , Kinsler hopped to his feet , raced from the dugout and dove head @-@ first across the wet tarp covering the infield as though it was a giant Slip ' n Slide . Four teammates followed , receiving a large ovation from the New York Mets fans . Shea Stadium security ushered them off the field , drawing a chorus of boos . " We had some good routines going " , said Kinsler . " It was awesome . "
Kinsler was a 2008 AL All Star at the 79th All Star Game at Yankee Stadium . It was his most exciting moment in baseball to that point . He was a reserve voted in by his peers . In the fan balloting , Dustin Pedroia , who finished with nearly 1 @.@ 3 million votes , beat him by 34 @,@ 243 votes . In the game , Kinsler hit 1 @-@ for @-@ 5 and stole a base . He was called out attempting to steal another base , though replays demonstrated that the umpire had missed the call . The Washington Post and ESPN baseball writer Jayson Stark picked Kinsler as the AL MVP for the first half of the season .
Kinsler had an MLB @-@ best 25 @-@ game hitting streak in June and July . The team @-@ best hitting streak of 28 belongs to Gabe Kapler .
Through July 28 , Kinsler was leading the AL in batting average ( .331 ) , runs ( 90 ) , hits ( 145 ) , total bases ( 232 ) , extra base hits ( 55 ) , at bats ( 438 ) , and plate appearances ( 499 ) . He was also second in doubles ( 37 ) and power / speed number ( 17 @.@ 9 ) , third in sacrifices ( 7 ) , fourth in singles ( 90 ) , sixth in sacrifice flies ( 6 ) , seventh in stolen bases ( 26 ) , triples ( 4 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .392 ) , and eighth in OPS ( .922 ) . " Kinsler " , said Seattle Mariners left fielder Raúl Ibáñez , " is the engine that makes that offense go . "
However , on August 17 he injured the left side of his groin on a defensive play , suffering a sports hernia that ultimately required season @-@ ending surgery . He missed the last 37 games of the season . " I really didn 't have a decision " , Kinsler said . " If I want to fix this injury , then I have to have surgery . "
In 2008 , despite missing the last six weeks of the season , Kinsler was third in the AL in times advanced from first to third on a single ( 17 ) , fourth in batting average ( .319 ) and power / speed number ( 21 @.@ 3 ) , fifth in steals of third base ( 8 ) and " bases taken " ( 23 ; advanced on fly balls , passed balls , wild pitches , balks , etc . ) , sixth in line drive percentage ( 24 % ) and in extra base hit percentage ( 10 @.@ 8 % of all plate appearances ) , eighth in runs ( 102 ) and OPS ( .892 ) , ninth in sacrifice hits ( 8 ) and home runs on the road ( 14 ) , and tenth in stolen bases ( 26 ; while only being caught twice — a 93 % success rate ) and lowest strikeout percentage ( 11 @.@ 5 % of at bats ) .
He hit .413 with runners in scoring position . He was one of only three batters in the AL to have at least 18 home runs and 18 stolen bases in both 2007 and 2008 , along with Alex Rodriguez and Grady Sizemore . His 41 doubles ranked second in franchise history to Alfonso Soriano 's 43 in 2005 . He had a .377 on @-@ base percentage as a leadoff hitter , the third @-@ best mark in the AL , and his .521 slugging percentage was the highest for a leadoff batter in the American League . Kinsler 's .381 on @-@ base percentage as a leadoff hitter over the 2005 – 08 seasons was the fourth @-@ highest in the major leagues .
" Most hitters have [ a location ] that you can exploit " , said All Star pitcher Justin Duchscherer . " This guy has trouble with fastballs in . This guy has trouble with breaking balls down . [ Kinsler ] doesn 't have a hole like that . " In the field , he led all major league second basemen with a 5 @.@ 77 range factor and 123 double plays , but also in errors with 18 .
Kinsler was mentioned as an MVP candidate before his injury by writers at ESPN , the Dallas News , the Los Angeles Times , and the Washington Post . He could have conceivably rivaled Pedroia for MVP , if not for the sports hernia that cut his 2008 campaign short a month and a half . " I think he just missed having an MVP year " , manager Ron Washington said . " If luck [ had been ] on our side and he [ had stayed ] healthy , he would have run away with it . " In the end , he received a single 10th @-@ place vote from Jeff Wilson of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram .
= = = = 2009 : Hitting for the cycle , and joining the 30 – 30 club = = = =
In 2009 , Kinsler was named # 24 on the Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball . A panel of 100 baseball people , many of them members of the Baseball Hall of Fame and winners of major baseball awards , was polled to arrive at the list .
On April 15 , 2009 , in a game against the Baltimore Orioles , Kinsler hit for the cycle , becoming only the fourth Ranger to do so ( and , at the time , the only right @-@ handed Ranger ) . In the same game , Kinsler became only the second player in Ranger history to get 6 hits in a single game ( the first having been Alfonso Soriano , on May 8 , 2004 ) , and the first to do so in a 9 @-@ inning game . His five runs and four extra base hits in the game matched two other team records .
" It was a thing of beauty " , teammate Marlon Byrd said . " I loved it . " Kinsler 's dual feat was the first in the modern baseball era . The last major league player to have six hits in a game while hitting for the cycle was William Farmer Weaver , for the Louisville Colonels on August 12 , 1890 . Kinsler 's 13 total bases were also one base shy of Jose Canseco 's June 13 , 1994 , team record . Only three other players in the prior 55 years had had six hits , five runs , and four extra @-@ base hits in a game , the most recent having been Shawn Green of the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2002 .
Kinsler was named AL co @-@ Player of the Week on April 20 , 2009 . For the week , in 30 plate appearances he led the major leagues in batting average ( .556 ) , hits ( 15 ) , extra base hits ( 7 ) , and runs ( 9 ) , and tied for the lead in doubles ( 4 ) . He also had a .600 on @-@ base percentage and 1 @.@ 000 slugging percentage , with a triple , two home runs , and six stolen bases . " He 's incredible " , said teammate Hank Blalock .
On June 16 against Houston , Kinsler opened the first inning with his ninth career leadoff homer , surpassing the club record of eight , shared by Mike Hargrove , Oddibe McDowell , and Michael Young . On May 21 , Kinsler stole third base in the fifth inning , setting a club record for career steals of third at 18 . Furthermore , at the time Kinsler had never been caught trying to steal third . Rick Paulas of ESPN called Kinsler his " first quarter MVP . "
Through July 1 , Kinsler led the AL in power @-@ speed number ( 17 @.@ 5 ) , was third in home runs ( 19 ) , fourth in runs ( 55 ) and total bases ( 160 ) , sixth in extra base hits ( 38 ) and at bats ( 307 ) , seventh in sacrifice flies ( 4 ) , and ninth in stolen bases ( 16 ) and sacrifices ( 8 ) , while batting .359 against left @-@ handers and .333 with runners on base .
Kinsler narrowly missed making the AL All @-@ Star team . First , though he had led all AL second basemen as of June 30 , with 2 @,@ 170 @,@ 100 fan votes ( fifth @-@ most votes of all AL players , just ahead of Dustin Pedroia 's 2 @,@ 163 @,@ 270 ) , Pedroia passed him on the last day in last @-@ minute voting . Then , he just missed making the team as a reserve in player voting , coming in second again , this time to Toronto 's Aaron Hill . He missed in his third chance , as AL All Star team and Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon did not pick him as a reserve . He missed a fourth opportunity to make the team , in the Sprint Final Vote competition for the final spot on the team , coming in second to Brandon Inge of the Tigers . A fifth opportunity presented itself when Pedroia pulled out of the All Star Game to spend time with his pregnant wife — and as Kinsler had finished second in fan voting , in player voting , and in the Final Vote competition , he appeared a likely candidate to replace his fellow second baseman . But Maddon went with one of his own to replace Pedroia , Tampa Bay 's first baseman Carlos Peña , who was leading the league in homers but batting .228 ( and who had come in fourth in the Final Vote competition , behind Kinsler and Chone Figgins ) . A sixth and final opportunity presented itself when Evan Longoria withdrew because of a finger infection ; but again Maddon ( a former Angels coach ) chose someone else as a replacement , this time Figgins of the Angels , who had come in third in the Final Vote competition ( behind Kinsler ) .
Bleacher Reports ' Andrew Nuschler observed : " Maddon spent his tenure as the AL All Star manager finding new and inventive ways to give Ian Kinsler the middle finger . " And Sports Illustrated 's Jacob Osterhout took note , writing :
It is an absolute travesty that Ian Kinsler is not the starting second baseman for the American League . Dustin Pedroia , who IS the starting second baseman , has hit only three home runs and has 36 RBIs . Kinsler , on the other hand , has hit 20 home runs and has 63 RBIs . The fact that Kinsler isn 't even a reserve makes it hard to take the All Star Game seriously .
At the All Star Game , as a tribute to Kinsler , his teammate and close friend Michael Young wore wristbands with Kinsler 's number 5 .
On July 11 , Kinsler stole third base for the 21st time in his career , building on his team record , without ever having been thrown out . On July 19 , he led off the bottom of the first inning with a home run , and 12 innings later he broke a 3 – 3 tie with a two @-@ run , walk @-@ off home run . Only four times before in major league history had the same batter led off the bottom of the first inning with a home run , and ended the game with another homer . Kinsler suffered a strained left hamstring on July 28 , and missed 11 games while on the disabled list .
Kinsler , who already had 30 stolen bases , hit his 30th home run on September 25 , becoming the only major leaguer to join the 30 – 30 club in 2009 , and the 34th major leaguer ever . He became only the second player in Rangers ' history to have a 30 – 30 season ( joining Alfonso Soriano , who did it in 2005 ) , and joined Soriano ( who also had 30 – 30 seasons in 2002 and 2003 for the Yankees ) and Brandon Phillips ( 2007 ) as the only 30 – 30 second basemen in Major League history . " It 's an incredible accomplishment " , said Michael Young . " I 've played with guys who have had some incredible seasons here , but 30 – 30 is something special . He deserves a lot of credit . He battled all season long . That 's what separates the great players from the good ones . "
He led the AL in power @-@ speed # , with a 31 @.@ 0 . Through 2009 , he had the second @-@ highest steal success rate among active players with at least 100 attempts , at 87 @.@ 5 % ( 91 @-@ of @-@ 104 ) . Carlos Beltrán was the best , at 88 @.@ 3 % . Sharing his philosophy on stealing bases , he said : " It takes the art of stealing away if you do it when you 're four runs up or four runs down , and the opposing team is just worried about getting outs , not stolen bases . The idea is to steal them when you need them . "
He also showed a good eye at the plate . Of 15 Rangers who had at least 100 at bats , his rate of only one strikeout per 8 @.@ 31 at @-@ bats was the best on the team . Similarly , he made contact on 87 % of his swings , the best contact rate on the team .
Playing 144 games , he also had 13 home runs against lefties ( 2nd in the league ) , stole third base 11 times ( 3rd ) , hit 47 % of his hits for extra bases ( 7th @-@ best in the AL ) , was 7th in the AL in stolen bases , scored 101 runs ( 10th ) , and had 5 bunt hits ( 10th ) . On defense he led AL second baseman in " zone runs " s ( 17 ) , was 2nd in assists ( 451 ) and range factor / game ( 4 @.@ 86 ) , and was 5th in putouts ( 249 ) .
= = = = 2010 : All @-@ Star = = = =
In December 2009 , Washington said Kinsler would bat second in 2010 . " I think Kinsler performs better when he 's in the mix hitting at the top of the lineup in the first inning " , Washington said . " When he has to wait to hit , I think it takes a lot away from him . " But by early March , it was reported that he would bat fifth . Washington said , however , that that would not keep Kinsler from running : " I will not slow him down . He is a threat . I will not take away that threat . I 'm not stopping Kins . " On days when Julio Borbon was not batting leadoff , Kinsler was to move up to the top of the lineup . In the end , Kinsler started 60 games batting 3rd , 20 games batting 5th , 16 games batting 6th , and 6 games leading off .
In spring training , while he was batting .400 , Kinsler slipped on a patch of wet grass during pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups . He rolled his right ankle , and suffered a sprain of the ligaments above it ( referred to as a " high ankle sprain " ) , as well as a small bone bruise at the tip of his tibia at the back of his ankle . He missed three weeks of spring training , and began the season on the disabled list . Washington said : " We miss his presence . We miss his threat . We miss what he brings on the defensive end . We miss his leadership . " He made his initial 2010 appearance on April 30 , after having missed the first 20 games of the season .
Batting .304 at the time with a .412 on @-@ base percentage ( 4th in the AL ) , he was selected as a reserve to the 2010 American League All Star team , his second All Star Game . An appreciative Kinsler said : " It 's a huge honor . " He had finished third among AL second basemen in fan voting behind Robinson Canó and Pedroia , but Pedroia was injured , and Kinsler was picked to replace him . He had also finished second among AL second basemen in voting by AL players . On July 29 he went on the disabled list again , this time for a strained left groin , and was not reactivated until September 1 .
Kinsler finished the season batting .286 , with a career @-@ high on @-@ base percentage of .382 . His .985 fielding percentage was 5th @-@ best in the league , and he had the highest career range factor / game of all active major league second basemen ( 5 @.@ 201 ) . With his two stints on the disabled list , he played in only 103 games .
In the first round of the playoffs , against the Tampa Bay Rays , Kinsler batted .444 / .500 / .944 in five games , leading the majors with 3 home runs ( tied ) and 6 RBIs in the division series . He hit safely and scored a run in all five games , joining Boston 's Nomar Garciaparra as the only two players to start their post @-@ season careers with at least one hit — and with at least one hit and one run — in each of five consecutive games . As teammate Nelson Cruz also hit three home runs , it marked the second time in Major League history that two teammates each hit three homers in a postseason series of five games or fewer ( the other two to do it were Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig , in the 1928 World Series ) . For the first two rounds of the playoffs , Kinsler hit safely in 9 of 11 games , and batted .342 with 3 HRs , a playoff @-@ high 9 RBIs , 6 runs , 2 stolen bases , an OBP of .409 , and an OPS of 1 @.@ 067 .
= = = = 2011 : 30 – 30 club , redux = = = =
On April 2 , 2011 , Kinsler became the first player in major league history to hit a lead @-@ off home run in the first two games of a season ( giving him a total of 15 lead @-@ off homers in his career ) . In his next game against the Red Sox , he hit another home run in the third inning . Kinsler and Nelson Cruz also became the first two teammates to homer in each of the first three games in a season . The two also joined Dean Palmer ( 1992 ) as the only Texas ballplayers to ever homer in the first three games of the season .
In September Kinsler tied his own Rangers record , which he set in 2009 , with his seventh leadoff home run of the season . He also hit his 20th career leadoff homer , becoming the 34th player in major league baseball history to have hit at least 20 . Since his first season in 2006 , his 20 lead @-@ off homers were the 6th @-@ most behind Alfonso Soriano ( 31 ) , Hanley Ramírez ( 25 ) , Jimmy Rollins ( 24 ) , Curtis Granderson ( 24 ) , and Rickie Weeks ( 24 ) .
He stole 28 consecutive bases without being caught , breaking his own club record , which he had set in 2007 – 08 .
Kinsler joined the 30 – 30 club , for the second time . He became the 12th player in major league history to have multiple 30 – 30 seasons . The only other infielders in major league history who had had multiple 30 – 30 seasons as of 2011 were Alfonso Soriano , Howard Johnson , and Jeff Bagwell . He also joined the 20 ( home runs ) / 20 ( steals ) club for the third time in his career . Joe Morgan , who did it four seasons , is the only second baseman to have joined the 20 – 20 club more times .
In 2011 Kinsler was 2nd in the American League in runs scored ( 121 ; the fifth @-@ highest season total in Rangers ' history ) , 5th in home runs ( 32 ; a career high ) and walks ( 89 ) , and 9th in stolen bases ( 30 ) and extra base hits ( 70 ) . He was also third in power @-@ speed # ( 31 @.@ 0 ; behind Jacoby Ellsbury and Curtis Granderson ) , and had the best walks @-@ to @-@ strikeouts ratio in the major leagues , with 1 @.@ 25 walks per each strikeout . On defense , his career range factor of 5 @.@ 092 was the highest among active major league second basemen , and in 2011 he led AL second basemen in double plays , with 103 .
His 136 career stolen bases through season @-@ end were third @-@ most in Rangers history , behind Bump Wills ( 161 ) and Toby Harrah ( 143 ) , and his career stolen @-@ base percentage was the third @-@ best rate among active players with at least 120 attempts .
His 124 career home runs were the 5th @-@ most in the first six years of any second baseman 's career , behind Dan Uggla ( 183 ) , Joe Gordon ( 142 ) , Chase Utley ( 130 ) , and Alfonso Soriano ( 126 ) .
On October 4 , in Game 4 of the playoff series against the Rays , Kinsler led off the game with a home run , sparking the Rangers 4 – 3 victory over Tampa Bay to send them to the ALCS .
= = = = 2012 : All @-@ Star = = = =
Kinsler was an All Star again in 2012 , for the third time . For the season , he was second in the AL in plate appearances ( 731 ) , third in at bats ( 655 ) and runs ( 105 ) , fifth in power @-@ speed number ( 20 @.@ 0 ) , sixth in doubles ( 42 ) , and eighth in hit by pitch ( 10 ) .
= = = = 2013 : Rangers ' all @-@ time stolen base leader = = = =
In 2013 , Kinsler struck out once every 10 @.@ 4 plate appearances , making him the third @-@ toughest batter to strike out in the American League , and was the sixth @-@ toughest batter to double up in the league ( 109 @.@ 0 at bats / double play ) . He finished the season tied for fifth among active players in leadoff home runs . He led the Texas Rangers , all @-@ time , career @-@ wise , in stolen bases ( 172 ) , hit by pitch ( 57 ) , and power @-@ speed number ( 163 @.@ 6 ) , and was fifth in runs ( 748 ) , seventh in doubles ( 249 ) and walks ( 462 ) , eighth in home runs ( 156 ) , and ninth in hits ( 1 @,@ 145 ) and RBIs ( 539 ) . Fangraphs ranked him as the 56th @-@ best baserunner in baseball history .
= = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In November 2013 , Kinsler was traded to the Detroit Tigers for Prince Fielder in a one @-@ for @-@ one trade of All @-@ Stars , with the Tigers sending Texas $ 30 million to cover part of the difference in the players ' salaries . There was an ESPN Sunday Night Baseball commercial in 2010 where Kinsler and Fielder were talking about trading each other for Tim Lincecum .
= = = = 2014 : All @-@ Star = = = =
In 2014 , Kinsler was named to his fourth All @-@ Star team , as a replacement for an injured Victor Martinez . For the season he led the American League in at bats ( 684 ) , was 4th in hits ( 188 ) and doubles ( 40 ) , 5th in runs scored ( 100 ; scoring 100 runs for the fifth time in his career ) , and 7th in power @-@ speed number ( 15 @.@ 9 ) . He was the 10th @-@ toughest batter in the American League to strike out ( once per every 9 @.@ 19 plate appearances ) , and was one of seven AL players to hit at least 15 home runs and steal at least 15 bases . On defense , he led the AL in putouts ( 290 ) and was third in assists ( 467 ) and fielding percentage ( .988 ) , among all second basemen . Through 2014 , Kinsler had the best career range factor of any active second baseman in Major League Baseball , at 4 @.@ 881 .
On November 5 , 2014 , Kinsler was awarded the Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award for second base .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
On September 10 , Kinsler recorded his 1,500th career hit , a single off of Bryan Shaw of the Cleveland Indians . For the 2015 season , he hit .296 , his best batting average since posting a career @-@ high .319 mark in 2008 , while collecting 11 home runs and 73 RBIs .
Following the 2015 season , Kinsler was awarded the Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding second baseman in MLB . His 19 Defensive Runs Saved were six better than any other Major League second baseman this season , according to Fangraphs . His 6 @.@ 3 Ultimate Zone Rating was the best in the American League and second only to Miami 's Dee Gordon . His 2 @.@ 6 defensive Wins Above Replacement , according to the Baseball Reference formula , ranked him eighth among all Major League players regardless of position . Kinsler has put up 50 Defensive Runs Saved over the last three seasons , according to The Fielding Bible . The next @-@ best total among Major League second basemen is 29 from Colorado 's DJ LeMahieu .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On July 3 , 2016 , Kinsler hit his 200th career home run off Danny Farquhar of the Tampa Bay Rays . Kinsler became the third active Major League player , and the 40th overall , with 200 home runs , 1 @,@ 000 runs scored , 1 @,@ 600 hits and 200 stolen bases .
= = Personal = =
Kinsler , who is Jewish , and whose father is Jewish while his mother is Catholic , has become a prominent figure in the Jewish community , and enjoys the attention that he attracts from it . He was featured in the 2008 Hank Greenberg 75th Anniversary edition of Jewish Major Leaguers Baseball Cards , licensed by Major League Baseball , commemorating the Jewish major leaguers from 1871 through 2008 . He joined , among others , teammate Scott Feldman , Brad Ausmus , Kevin Youkilis , Ryan Braun , Gabe Kapler , Jason Marquis , Jason Hirsh , John Grabow , Craig Breslow , and Scott Schoeneweis . Kinsler was one of three Jewish players in the 2008 All Star Game , joining Youkilis and Braun . He says that " Youkilis will always say something to me on the bases [ referring to the fact that they are both Jewish ] . ' Happy Passover , ' he 'll throw something at me . " In July 2013 he passed Shawn Green with his 163rd steal , to become the all @-@ time career steals leader among Jewish major leaguers .
Kinsler , who would have been eligible to play for Israel in the 2013 World Baseball Classic because of his Jewish heritage , said : " Wow , I would be happy to play for Team Israel .... The truth is that if a proposal comes from Team USA to play for them , I will have a very difficult decision to make . Youk [ Kevin Youkilis ] , Braun [ Milwaukee 's Ryan Braun ] , and I could make a fantastic team . I am sure that I 'll talk it over with Youk – we always laugh about things like this . "
Kinsler married Tess Brady , his high school sweetheart , on November 18 , 2006 . Their daughter , Rian Brooklynn Kinsler , was born December 5 , 2008 . On June 8 , 2011 , his wife gave birth to a son , Jack Jamisson Kinsler . He was put on paternity leave due to the birth .
In 2008 Kinsler won the Rangers ' Jim Sundberg Community Achievement Award , in recognition of his having devoted a great deal of his personal time to the community .
= = Awards = =
= The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus =
" The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " is the fifth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and originally aired on the Fox network on November 30 , 1997 . Written and directed by series creator Chris Carter , " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files . " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 5 , being watched by 18 @.@ 68 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . The episode was nominated for seven awards at the 1998 Emmys and won one . The entry generally received positive reviews ; some reviewers called it a classic , with others calling it the most striking stand @-@ alone episode of the show 's fifth season .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate reports of a mysterious creature that has impregnated a middle @-@ aged woman . They find that the " monster " , nicknamed The Great Mutato , is the genetic creation of a Frankenstein @-@ like doctor . The Great Mutato is at first ostracized , but later accepted , by his community .
Carter 's story draws heavily on Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein and particularly on James Whale 's 1931 film version of the story . The script had been written specifically with singer Cher and actress Roseanne Barr in mind , but both were unavailable at the time of shooting . Talk @-@ show host Jerry Springer appeared as himself , and Chris Owens — who appeared in later episodes as FBI agent Jeffrey Spender — played The Great Mutato . The episode was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , with a sky backdrop created to imitate the style of old Frankenstein films . Owens wore makeup and prosthetics that took several hours to apply .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins in the guise of a comic book ; FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) receives a letter from Shaineh Berkowitz ( Pattie Tierce ) , a single mother who claims to have been mysteriously impregnated , while unconscious , by an unknown presence 18 years ago , resulting in the birth of her son , Izzy ( Stewart Gale ) . Now , following a similarly unexplained attack , she is pregnant again . She has heard about Mulder 's expertise in the paranormal from The Jerry Springer Show and wants him to investigate . Mulder and his partner , special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , travel to rural Albion , Indiana . They meet Shaineh and her son Izzy and learn that the description of the creature that attacked her , with a lumpy head and two mouths , is very similar to a comic book character invented by Izzy . His monstrous creation , called The Great Mutato , is inspired by a mysterious creature that has been seen by many of the locals . Izzy and his friends take the agents to a wooded area where they see Mutato ( Chris Owens ) from a distance .
They meet an old man who angrily tells them that there are no monsters and sends them to see his son , a geneticist named Francis Pollidori ( John O 'Hurley ) . Dr. Pollidori shows them his experiments studying the Hox gene using the fruit fly Drosophila . This presentation includes images of a fly with legs growing out of its mouth . He tells the agents that the same kind of experiment could , in theory , be performed on humans . Afterward , Mulder tells Scully that he believes that Dr. Pollidori , acting as a modern @-@ day Victor Frankenstein , has created The Great Mutato . Later , Dr. Pollidori 's wife Elizabeth ( Miriam Smith ) is knocked unconscious and is attacked in the same manner as Shaineh . At the crime scene , Mulder and Scully find a chemical residue from an agricultural agent used to anesthetize animals , which leads them to suspect Dr. Pollidori 's father , who is a farmer . Dr. Pollidori comes to his father 's house , angrily confronts him , and murders him . Later , Mutato , who lives with Pollidori Sr. , finds his dead body and tearfully buries it in a barn .
Mulder and Scully go looking for Pollidori Sr. and find a shallow grave and photographs of the dead man with Mutato . Meanwhile , Dr. Pollidori leads an angry mob of townspeople to his father 's house , demanding that Mulder and Scully turn the alleged murderer over to them . The agents find Mutato hiding in the basement as the crowd gathers upstairs . Someone accidentally sets the barn alight and in the ensuing confusion , the mob realize that the agents are protecting the monster in the basement . Mutato speaks to the crowd and explains that he was created 25 years before , and that he is the result of a genetic experiment by Dr. Pollidori . Unbeknownst to his son , Pollidori Sr. rescued Mutato and cared for him , but was unable to provide a friend or a mate for the boy . The old man attempted to emulate his scientist son 's experiments , and tried to create hybrids from his farm animals . Mutato asks Dr. Pollidori to create a female companion for him , but the scientist says that he cannot — that Mutato was a mistake . The townspeople realize that The Great Mutato is not a monster after all and Dr. Pollidori is arrested for the murder of his father . Mulder feels that it is unjust for Mutato not to get a mate and so he demands to see the writer : Izzy . In a fanciful , if not imagined , scene , Mulder and Scully take matters into their own hands and take Mutato , along with the townspeople , to a Cher concert . The episode ends with a shot of Mulder and Scully dancing , which slowly turns back into the comic book seen at the beginning of the episode .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Going into the fifth season of The X @-@ Files , series creator Chris Carter noted , " we knew we were going to be hitting these very dramatic marks which were the mythology episodes , and we wanted to lighten , or leaven , the season with quirky episodes . " Carter wanted to write a Frankenstein @-@ inspired episode , but found it difficult to reconcile Mary Shelley 's unbelievable tale with the style of the show . To achieve his vision , he wrote a script that blurred the real world with the X @-@ Files reality and that had a distinct fantasy element . Carter combined elements of the original story with fairy tales and elements of folk tales . In order to make the episode " as moving " as possible , Carter sought to echo elements of James Whale 's 1931 film version of Frankenstein . He later noted that , by " using modern science , I took an old style , which is black and white , and an old approach , which is a kind of James Whale approach to science fiction , and came up with a story about a love @-@ lorn monster " .
The idea for the genetic engineering story was developed with the help of the series ' science adviser , Anne Simon . Carter visited a friend of Simon , a scientist at Indiana University in Bloomington , who had been able to genetically manipulate flies so that they grew legs from their eyes . After Carter had created the character of The Great Mutato , he discovered that cartoonist Matt Groening had already created a character with the same name — although with different pronunciation — for a comic book entry of The Simpsons . Carter contacted Groening , who gave Carter permission to use the name . Like two @-@ thirds of the episodes of the series , " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the overarching mythology of The X @-@ Files .
= = = Casting = = =
Cher 's music plays a large role in " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " , Chris Carter having written the episode after spending a summer listening to Cher records and developing a fixation on the singer . Carter knew that Cher 's half @-@ sister Georganne LaPiere was a major X @-@ Files fan , and Carter learned through LaPiere that Cher herself was intrigued by the show and would be interested in making an X @-@ Files guest appearance . Sitcom star Roseanne Barr also expressed an interest in guesting on The X @-@ Files , and Carter wrote the part of Shaineh Berkowitz specifically for her . Barr , however , was unavailable at the time of shooting — her projected role was filled by Pattie Tierce — while Cher passed on the proffered cameo appearance performing as herself , a decision for which she later expressed regret : " I wanted them to ask me to come on and act — then they just wanted me to come on and sing ... Just to come on and be myself wasn 't anything I 'd want to do until I saw [ the finished episode ] " — " Had I [ foreseen ] the quality of [ it ] I would have done it in a heartbeat . " Cher did authorize the use of three of her tracks on the episode 's soundtrack including " Walking in Memphis " heard at the episode 's conclusion while ostensibly performed onstage by celebrity impersonator Tracey Bell — filmed in longshot or from the back or overheard — as Cher . Although Bell was credited for the role , Cher 's fans responded to the episode 's premiere with online speculation as to whether the singer had pseudonymously appeared in the episode . Tabloid talk show host Jerry Springer appeared as himself . These casting choices went against a long @-@ standing tradition on The X @-@ Files of only casting actors who were not well @-@ known .
Seinfeld regular John O 'Hurley had auditioned for several roles on the show but Carter had not previously thought of him as " an X @-@ Files actor " . For the part of Dr. Pollidori , however , Carter considered him " the absolute perfect casting choice " . Stewart Gale , who played Izzy Berkowitz , was a non @-@ actor who was sitting on the back of a truck when Carter passed . Carter convinced Gale 's father — who was initially suspicious of the director 's credentials — to let Gale travel to Vancouver to take part in the episode . The characters of Izzy 's friends were also played by inexperienced actors . One was a snake handler on the set of The X @-@ Files feature film — the shooting of which overlapped that of season five — and the other worked at a Vancouver coffee shop that Carter frequented .
The Great Mutato was played by Chris Owens , unrecognizable in heavy makeup . Owens had played a younger version of The Smoking Man in two episodes of season four and was later cast as the recurring character of FBI special agent Jeffrey Spender . During his audition , Owens noted , " Chris said , ' Okay , did you ever see Elephant Man ? ... What I 'm looking for is dignity . He 's got dignity . But he 's definitely mutated ' " . After Owens heeded Carter 's instructions and attempted to bring dignity to the audition , Carter requested that he try it again " with less autism " .
= = = Filming = = =
The first five seasons of The X @-@ Files , including " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " , were filmed in Vancouver . It was the third episode of the program that Carter directed ; He decided to film the episode in black @-@ and @-@ white — in homage to James Whale — which brought more challenges than he expected . The director of photography , Joel Ransom , had to spend longer than usual lighting each scene because of the grayscale . The stormy skies in the episode , added to emulate the atmosphere of old Frankenstein movies , were a visual effect . Carter also used a wide @-@ angle camera lens throughout the episode , which forced the actors to act directly to the camera , rather than to each other . According to Carter , it also enabled him to give scenes in the episode a more surreal staging than was usual for the show .
The makeup for the character of The Great Mutato was designed and created by special effects supervisor Tony Lindala . The Mutato mask went through several design iterations on paper , including 10 – 15 drawings and a color rendition . Constructed from latex , and containing an articulated second mouth , it cost $ 40 @,@ 000 and took between five and seven hours to apply . In addition to the mask , Chris Owens wore contact lenses and dentures . Owens later recalled that " the makeup had taken seven hours , and then I had sat around for three or four . And now I was going to sit in the dark , and I could only see out of one eye . They put a big contact lens in . " Initial versions of the costume were deemed " too human looking " and so a newer design was chosen .
Lindala also created " Baby Mutato " costumes for the twin infants featured in the The Jerry Springer Show scene , but the production crew had difficulty keeping the costumes on the children . Lindala later said , " [ t ] he little babies kept tearing their hair off , we kept gluing it back on " . Lindala was happy that the episode was filmed in black and white because it helped " the prosthetic [ because ] it is difficult to work in a foam piece that long and not recognize it as a painted , opaque , false translucency . " Lindala later called the filming technique the " saving grace " of the episode . In addition , he later submitted his makeup for the episode to the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in an attempt to be nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = = Music and cultural references = = =
The episode was scored by series composer Mark Snow , and was , according to him , his best episode score of the fifth season . He described the main theme as " a very dark , macabre , insidious sort of nasty waltz " . The episode 's main theme is also greatly inspired by The Elephant Man 's theme song by John Morris . Three songs are heard in the versions sung by Cher during the episode : " The Sun Ain 't Gonna Shine Anymore " , " Gypsies , Tramps & Thieves " and " Walking in Memphis " . The latter is played at the end of the episode when the agents take The Great Mutato to a Cher concert . In the episode , the character watches Cher 's 1985 movie Mask , and derives comfort from the loving relationship between Cher 's character and her son , who has a disfiguring genetic bone disorder . At the end of the episode , Mulder and Scully take The Great Mutato from his small town to a Cher concert , where she picks him out of the crowd to dance .
The episode contains several cultural references . First , the episode 's title is a reference to both the subtitle for Shelley 's original novel , The Modern Prometheus , and to the postmodernist school of thought . Postmodernism has been described as a " style and concept in the arts , architecture , and criticism , [ that ] is characterized by the self @-@ conscious use of earlier styles and conventions , a mixing of different artistic styles and media , and a general distrust of theories . " Furthermore , the Frankenstein @-@ like doctor shares the name — albeit with a slightly different spelling — of Shelley 's contemporary , John William Polidori , who was present at the conception of her novel . Several lines in the episode come directly from James Whale 's 1931 movie Frankenstein .
= = Themes = =
" The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " is the most obvious reference to Frankenstein made by the series , although traces of the story are seen elsewhere in the first season episode " Young at Heart " and the sixth season episode " The Beginning " . In addition , the series ' overarching mythology revolves around shadowy Syndicate leaders who salvage alien spacecraft for their own technological use and create human @-@ alien hybrids . The episode contains themes relating to motherhood and sexuality . According to film studies writer Linda Badley , this episode , and season four 's " Home " , foreshadow Scully 's impending motherhood and her realization , in following episodes " Christmas Carol " and " Emily " , that she has been used to create a human @-@ alien hybrid , Emily . Diane Negra , in her book Off @-@ White Hollywood : American Culture and Ethnic Female Stardom , points out that while The Great Mutato impregnates both Shaineh Berkowitz and Elizabeth Pollidori without their consent or knowledge , it is " an oversimplification " to label the monster as a rapist , because both Berkowitz and Pollidori " desire for children through unconventional means " . Thus , Mutato 's acts allow for the two women to get what they desperately desire in a moment of " magical resolution " .
Eric Bumpus and Tim Moranville , in their book Cease Fire , the War Is Over ! , propose that the episode — and by extension , the series as a whole — is a rejection of " modernity 's naturalism " and an acceptance of " post @-@ modernity 's mystic supernaturalism " . The two argue that , while in stereotypical " great science fiction " the monster created usually runs amok , in " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " , the creature is " a lovable success " . Furthermore , the Indiana townspeople represent " the religious nuts [ who ] in the end ... turn out to be right " . Bumpus and Moranville consider them the " secondary heroes " of the episode , right after The Great Mutato himself .
Despite her physical absence from the entry , Cher 's presence can be felt throughout the narrative . Negra argues that Cher 's " flamboyant and self @-@ authored body " is used as a metaphor for " the possibility of self @-@ transformation " . In addition , her voice , heard via songs like " Walking in Memphis " , is associated with the idea of " circumvent [ ing ] patriarchy . " Negra notes that Cher 's music is used in scenes during The Great Mutato 's sexual encounters with women . Negra asserts that " this juxtaposition of sound and image cues our perception that we have entered the realm of carnival where the normal order of things is inverted . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club reasons that the ending was not the actual conclusion of the episode , but rather the fanciful and elaborate happy ending that was concocted by Izzy Berkowitz , the writer of the comic book , after talking to Mulder . In this manner , VanDerWeff notes , " the episode abandons logic and reality and , for lack of a better word , transcends . " Meghan Deans from Tor.com postulates that the entire episode never happened " [ f ] rom a canonical perspective " due to the entry 's comic book setting , the various meta @-@ references and the " happy ending " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " was first broadcast in the United States on November 30 , 1997 , on the Fox network , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on March 29 , 1998 , on Sky One . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 5 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households and 16 percent of households watching television were tuned in . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 68 million viewers . " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " was the eleventh most watched television program for the week ending November 30 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " received generally positive reviews from critics . Mike Duffy , a Knight Ridder correspondent , wrote a largely positive article on the episode , noting that although the episode was special , this did not make it feel like a gimmick . He wrote , " when most shows blow promotional smoke about ' a very special episode , ' it 's best to check the Hollywood Hype @-@ O @-@ Meter for wretched , excessive buzzing [ but ] what sounds like a gimmick — ' a very special black @-@ and @-@ white episode ' loosely based on the horror movie classic Frankenstein actually turns out to be a ripping good ride on ' X @-@ Files ' creator Chris Carter 's wigged @-@ out storytelling train . " A review from the Mobile Register wrote that " Like the very best X @-@ Files episodes , this one combines a generous amount of humor with its horror . " In a review of the entire fifth season , Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly said that " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " was the " most striking " of the season 's stand @-@ alone episodes . Todd VanDerWerff awarded the episode with an " A " grade , and , despite noting the silliness of the story and the fact that most of the characters function as stereotypes , wrote that " ' Prometheus ' just works " . In a 2000 review of season five for the New Straits Times , Francis Dass called " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " a " fun episode " .
Lionel Green of the Sand Mountain Reporter named the entry the greatest episode of the series and called the ending " one of the most uplifting finales in the series . " Writing for the Daily News , Eric Mink gave the episode a rating of four stars and praised it as an outstanding episode in a weak early fifth season of the show . He said that the two leads acted flawlessly and that Chris Owens ' performance as The Great Mutato was especially touching . He concluded that , " [ w ] ith Shelley 's classic as inspiration , Carter and company have created a classic of their own . " Elaine Linere from the Corpus Christi Caller @-@ Times called the episode " brilliantly written " and named it " a classic among many for this always @-@ intriguing , ever @-@ inventive series . " She particularly praised the " heart @-@ tugging , romantic " ending . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called the episode " a memorable X @-@ Files from start to finish " , due in part to its " extraordinary visual flair " and " atmospheric black and white " footage . Furthermore , Gilbert positively critiqued Carter 's writing and directing , saying he " keeps his balance between drama , low @-@ key humor , [ and ] allusive wit " . Margaret Lyons of New York called the entry " one of the great TV episodes of all time " . Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fifth " greatest " episode of the series and wrote that " [ Chris Carter ] plays with style and form , turning the entire episode into a loving homage to Universal monster movies in general and James Whale 's 1931 Frankenstein in particular " . In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " The Post @-@ Modern Prometheus " was presented as the " Best Stand @-@ Alone Episode " . Connie Ogle from The Miami Herald named The Great Mutato one of " the greatest monsters " that were featured on The X @-@ Files .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five and criticized various elements of the episode 's direction . They wrote , " Chris Carter the writer has come up with something playful and light and charming . And Chris Carter the director has stamped all over it and made it so arch and obvious and dull that it kills it stone dead . " Shearman and Pearson praised the idea of " a town which feels like an X @-@ Files audience " , but derided the episode 's comic book setting and wrote that " this play on post @-@ modernism just doesn 't make any sense [ in that format , because ] a comic has action , a way of jumping from frame to frame ... this is languorous and self @-@ indulgent . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She wrote that the episode " falls flatter than the chemical pancakes used to anesthetize the victims of this episode " due to its " collection of situations and observances that bear little relation to each other . " Vitaris also criticized the scene wherein various characters are compared to animals , and commented , " the mean spiritedness of [ the plot ] is mind @-@ boggling " . Finally , she called the episode 's conclusion a " false ending " .
= = = Awards = = =
The episode was nominated for seven awards at the 1998 Emmys by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences , including Outstanding Directing and Outstanding Writing for Chris Carter . Graeme Murray , Greg Loewen and Shirley Inget won the award for Outstanding Art Direction . Carter was also nominated for an award for Outstanding Directing by the Directors Guild of America .
= Tropical Storm Charley ( 1998 ) =
Tropical Storm Charley was the third named storm of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season . Charley was the first of two tropical storms to make landfall in Texas during that season ( Frances being the other ) . The storm originated with a tropical wave that moved off the West African coast on August 9 . The wave moved generally west @-@ northwestward , producing occasional bursts of convection , finally arriving in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico by August 19 , when animated satellite images began to indicate it had possibly developed a low pressure center . Hurricane Hunter investigations into the system the next day revealed that this was not the case . The system lingered for two days , lacking an organized low level center of circulation until early on the morning of August 21 , when advisories were initiated on the tropical depression , 185 miles ( 298 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . The depression became a tropical storm later that day , as it moved steadily west @-@ northwestward , strengthening , and then weakening again before making landfall the next morning around Port Aransas , Texas . The storm moved slowly inland and finally dissipated on the morning of the August 24 near the town of Del Rio , Texas .
Charley 's impacts in Texas and Mexico were locally severe . In Texas , over 2000 homes were destroyed by the locally severe flooding , and 13 people died . In Mexico , over 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain fell in northern areas near the Texas @-@ Mexico border , and seven people were killed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Charley originated with a large swirl of clouds which parted off of the west coast of Africa on August 9 . Lacking deep convection or a well defined center , the wave continued west @-@ northwestward without developing . Ten days later , on August 19 , satellite images indicated the disturbance was beginning to rotate cyclonically over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . A reconnaissance aircraft flew into the system the next day . While strong winds were recorded , no circulation center was present . The following morning , a second flight reported that a center had formed , and the disturbance was designated a tropical depression . Initially , the center was disorganized . However , convection over the depression blossomed , mostly concentrated over the northern semicircle . During the evening of August 21 , the system was named Tropical Storm Charley .
As the system continued west @-@ northwestward , more organized banding features developed , and the storm began to intensify . On August 22 , it reached its peak intensity of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . Subsequent reconnaissance reports indicated that winds had decreased , and the storm made landfall near Corpus Christi , Texas early on August 23 , with maximum sustained winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) . Within hours , Charley was downgraded to tropical depression status as it continued to weaken . By August 24 , Charley had dissipated over the Rio Grande near Del Rio , Texas . Although surface winds had diminished and a closed surface circulation no longer existed , a slow @-@ moving remnant circulation aloft persisted in the Del Rio area and generated flooding rains that were most devastating in that area on August 23 and the 24 .
= = Preparations = =
Tropical storm warnings were issued by the National Hurricane Center coincidentally with the first advisory on the depression , from High Island , Texas to Brownsville . Six hours later , these were extended eastward to Cameron , Louisiana . At landfall on August 22 , the warnings north of Sabine Pass , Texas were expired , and the rest were dropped later that day .
In advance of the storm , thousands of oil workers were evacuated from Gulf of Mexico oil rigs . In Del Rio , some highways and roads were closed after the initial flooding , in anticipation of more flooding as the system stalled over the area . Of the 2000 Laredo , Texas residents ordered to leave their homes in anticipation of the Rio Grande overflowing its banks , only 600 actually did so .
= = Impact = =
Being relatively weak , the storm 's main impact was its heavy rainfall . Prolific , sometimes record amounts fell over much of south central Texas and northern Mexico . Few areas received sustained tropical storm force winds , and the storm surge was insignificant . There were no confirmed tornadoes . Twenty people died , all from drowning , and the storm caused $ 50 million ( 1998 USD ; $ 64 million USD in 2007 ) in damage .
= = = Texas = = =
The storm 's major impact was its very heavy rain . A 90 mile ( 140 km ) wide swath of over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rainfall extended from the Middle Texas Coast west to the Texas @-@ Mexico border . Charley produced 17 inches ( 430 mm ) of rain in Del Rio in a 24 @-@ hour period , a new record daily rainfall for the city . Refugio , Texas received 7 @.@ 2 inches ( 180 mm ) of rain , and Woodsboro , Texas recorded 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . The storm surge on areas of the Texas coast was small . Port O 'Connor recorded a storm surge of 2 @.@ 3 feet ( .7 m ) , while Pleasure Pier was subjected to a 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) surge . There were two reports of sustained tropical storm force winds , 41 miles per hour ( 66 km / h ) and 39 miles per hour ( 63 km / h ) from Rockport , Texas and Galveston , Texas respectively . The maximum wind gust was 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) at Port O 'Connor , Texas . No tornadoes were confirmed by any NWS offices , although one suspected tornado did prompt a tornado warning .
Damage from the storm , while generally light , was severe locally . In Val Verde County , Texas , which took the vast majority of the damage , roughly 2000 houses , mobile homes , and apartments combined were destroyed by flooding . At one point , two @-@ thirds of Del Rio was underwater after a natural dam broke in the San Felipe Creek , flooding the city with a sudden surge of water . The coastal storm surge destroyed several of the dunes on San Jose and Mustang Islands . There was also slight damage on Matagorda Island , where two shelters were destroyed by the surge flooding . Four people , including two toddlers , died when their truck was swept away by floodwaters and nine more drowned in flooding along the San Felipe Creek . Thirteen people died in Texas , all drownings . Charley left $ 50 million ( 1998 USD ; $ 64 million USD in 2007 ) in flood damage across southern Texas . Eight counties in Texas were declared disaster areas .
= = = Mexico = = =
While Mexico was not severely impacted by winds from the storm , heavy rain caused serious flooding in places . Augosto received maximum sustained winds of 52 miles per hour ( 84 km / h ) and recorded a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 003 millibars ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Jimenez received 14 @.@ 53 inches ( 369 mm ) of rainfall . In Ciudad Acuña , Coahuila , 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of flooding occurred as a result of the heavy rains . 450 houses were damaged in the city , and over 2000 people were injured . In Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , heavy rains swelled the Rio Grande and caused significant flooding . 350 families were evacuated , and the city lost power and phone service .
Seven people died in Ciudad Acuña while they were trying to cross a flooded gully .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Several inches of rain fell in parts of Louisiana . Lake Charles , Louisiana received the most , with 1 @.@ 2 inches ( 30 mm ) . Isolated wind gusts reached tropical storm force , and Lake Charles recorded a 43 miles per hour ( 69 km / h ) gust . Charley did not cause any significant damage in Louisiana .
= Blank Page =
" Blank Page " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Christina Aguilera , taken from her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It was written by Aguilera , Chris Braide and Sia Furler , with production done by Braide . Aguilera had worked with Furler on her previous two albums Bionic and Burlesque , both released in 2010 . Following the release of Lotus , Aguilera revealed that Furler is one of her favorite people to work with and that she is very inspiring .
" Blank Page " is a minimalist piano @-@ driven ballad which received frequent comparisons to Aguilera 's 2002 single " Beautiful " . It garnered strong critical acclaim from music critics , who praised its simplistic arrangement as well as Aguilera 's raw and strong vocal performance on the song . Following the release of Lotus , it peaked at number 53 on the South Korea international singles chart . Aguilera performed the song live for the first time at the 39th People 's Choice Awards , where she was awarded with the People 's Voice Award .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film , Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves Like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album , stating that she wanted high quality and " personal " songs for the record . Regarding the creative direction , she revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She further said " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " . " Blank Page " was written by Aguilera , Sia Furler and Chris Braide , the latter of whom also produced the song . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills in California . Braide provided the programming , string arrangement , piano and keyboards .
= = Development = =
Lotus is the third album in which Aguilera and Furler have collaborated on material together for . They first worked together on Aguilera 's sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , on the songs " You Lost Me " and " I Am " , along with Samuel Dixon . " You Lost Me " was released as the final single from Bionic , and peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and number 28 on the Adult Contemporary . Later that year , they reunited to create a song to be included on the Burlesque soundtrack , which is called " Bound to You " . It was nominated in the category of Award for Best Original Song at the 68th Golden Globe Awards in January 2011 . In an interview with VEVO , Aguilera explained the collaborative process between Furler and herself , and why she likes to work with her : Sia and I always done amazing collaborations , she worked with me on the movie soundtrack ' Burlesque , ' which we got a Golden Globe nomination for , we also did a lot of work on my ' Bionic ' record , that was so sentimental , intimate and vulnerable feeling , and that 's what I love about working with her " . Aguilera was interviewed by Billboard when she attended the Billboard Film & TV Music Conference . She revealed that she views " Blank Page " as a more " vulnerable " version of her 2002 song , " Beautiful " . When she was asked by the interviewer who her favorite people were to collaborate with , she responded by solely mentioning Furler and explained what led to her to enjoy working with her :
Sia is one of them . She comes in , singer @-@ songwriter , she just writes the most beautiful amazing ballads . Now she is making a name for herself on a more broad commercial scale with a lot of more dance @-@ driven stuff , and she is just an incredible singer . She came in and she just writes such serious songs , I was like ' Oh she is gunna [ sic ] be such a serious person , and I 'm nervous to meet her , and I just want her to get me and understand that I 'm not a cheesy pop star ' . She comes in and she was all nervous , and she is the most bubbliest person in the world , but once she starts singing and getting into her thing , you 're just sucked into this world of ' wow ' and it 's inspiring to be around people with such creative energy . I love that , that 's the best experience .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Blank Page " is a simplistic piano arranged ballad , which lasts for a duration of 4 : 04 ( four minutes and four seconds ) . Lyrically , the song is about how Aguilera wishes to " wipe the slate clean " with a former lover and " reconcile an old romance " . She knows that she has wronged him , but is asking to be given a second chance . Andrew Hampp for Billboard noted that this sentiment is revealed by Aguilera in the lyrics " If I could do undo that I hurt you / I would do anything for us to make it through " . The song begins with the chords of a piano as Aguilera sings " I know there 's hurt / I know there 's pain / But people change / Lord , knows I 've been no saint / In my own way / Regret choices I 've made / How I do I say I 'm sorry ? / How do I say I 'm sorry ? . " On the chorus , the lyrics are hopeful that she can right any wrongs she may have committed : " Draw me a smile , and save me tonight / I 'll be your blank page waiting for you to bring me to life / Paint me a heart , let me be your art / I am a blank page waiting for life to start / Let our hearts start and beat as one together / Let our hearts start and beat as one forever " . The arrangement of the minimalist piano composition is " fiery " yet " spare " . Aside from garnering innumerable comparisons to Aguilera 's own song " Beautiful " , the composition of " Blank Page " was subject to critique by Jim Farber writing for New York Daily News . He criticised the song for replicating the structure and lyrical content of " Someone Like You " , a song performed by English singer @-@ songwriter Adele :
Only two of the disc 's 11 tracks attempt a genuine expression of vulnerability . Just one , ' Blank Page , ' finds her looking inside and taking some blame . It 's a pretty song , if one that blatantly rides Adele 's coattails . Not only does ' Page ' employ the same piano / voice arrangement as that star 's ' Someone Like You , ' Aguilera apes the precise length of Adele 's notes .
= = Critical reception = =
" Blank Page " garnered strong critical acclaim from music critics , many of whom praised the its simplicity . Writing on behalf of 4Music , Chris Younie wrote that although " Blank Page " is followed by " Sing for Me " , another ballad , the former is " utterly brilliant " and is " ten times better " than the latter . The continued to describe " Blank Page " as being " elegant and confessional " . He praised her raw vocal performance and thought that should it be released as a single , it would have no problem matching the success of " Beautiful " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic complimented the simplicity of the song , writing that Aguilera " seizes the spotlight " and is accompanied by a " spare " piano arrangement . PopCrush critic Michael Gallucci described the song as a " showstopper " and compared it to " Beautiful " due to its minimalist structure . He further that it is a " classic Aguilera performance " as she employs vocal acrobatics . Writing for Billboard , Andrew Hampp thought that " Blank Page " is more likely to reach a wider audience rather than the songs Aguilera wrote with Furler on Bionic ( " You Lost Me " and " I Am " , which he described as " underrated " ) , because of how both of their celebrity profiles have been raised since Bionic 's release in 2010 . Mesfin Fekadu for The Huffington Post concurred with Hampp in the respect that she also thought that " Blank Page " was reminiscent of the songs co @-@ written by Furler on Bionic , which she also described " that album 's highlight " .
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times thought that " Blank Page " , along with " Sing for Me " , depicted " flashes of the old Aguilera " and that her " voice veers volcanic " on the songs as she raise the key as the songs progress . Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club praised ' Blank Page ' and ' Sing for Me ' , writing that " they are minimal piano ballads on which Aguilera discusses working through regret and reclaiming her sense of self , respectively . The spare music lets her still @-@ powerful voice dominate , and her impassioned delivery conveys how meaningful
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. In the 21st century it is managed by English Heritage , and protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as an ancient monument .
= = Architecture = =
Etal Castle originally overlooked a bridge over the River Till , and was protected by the steep banks running to the river . The castle forms a rectangular enclosure , approximately 182 by 162 feet ( 55 by 49 m ) , protected by a well @-@ made , but relatively thin , stone curtain wall , mostly 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) thick . Most of the wall above ground has since been destroyed , with only the foundations remaining .
The residential tower in the north @-@ east corner was entered by a forebuilding , unusual in this region , 17 feet 6 inches by 7 feet 10 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 by 2 @.@ 39 m ) in size and protected by a portcullis . Four storeys tall , each floor of the tower was reached by a spiral staircase and comprised two rooms , one large and one small chamber . The tower is built from sandstone ; the forebuilding and uppermost floor are made of a lighter sandstone than the lower floors and may have been added retrospectively . The ground floor is 46 by 32 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) and originally had a vaulted ceiling . The upper floors were well @-@ lit with large , transomed windows , complete with window seats ; the first and second floors were probably used by the Manners family and had large fireplaces , with the third floor used by the castle staff . The tower was possibly linked to a neighbouring hall complex by a doorway on the first floor , although any such complex has since been lost .
The gatehouse in the south @-@ east corner is 36 feet ( 11 m ) square , and its vaulted passageway was originally protected by a portcullis , gate and a drawbridge . On either side of the passageway were two vaulted guardrooms , 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long and up to 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) wide . On the first floor , since lost , there was a large chamber , 22 by 19 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 by 5 @.@ 8 m ) wide , with an ancillary room , 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) square , and a doorway that led onto some form of forebuilding or platform . The gatehouse has what architectural historian Anthony Emery has described as " flamboyant window tracing " , and the Manners ' coat of arms are carved above the entrance to the gatehouse .
The north @-@ west corner tower is 14 feet by 10 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 by 3 @.@ 20 m ) across on the inside , with an entrance door on the east side , and originally had a loft floor . It remains uncertain if there was a second corner tower built in the south @-@ east corner of the castle complex ; excavations in 1978 in one possible location failed to find any traces , and a geophysical survey in 1998 proved inconclusive .
= Night of the Dead Living =
" Night of the Dead Living " is the ninth episode and first season finale of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 31 , 1993 . In the episode , the homicide squad works the night shift on a summer evening , but no calls come in , leaving the detectives to brood over their personal matters . The teleplay was written by Frank Pugliese based on a story he wrote along with executive producer Tom Fontana . It was directed by Michael Lehmann .
" Night of the Dead Living " was originally intended to be the third episode of the season , but NBC programmers moved it to the end of the season because they felt its slow pace and lack of traditional action was inappropriate early in the series , when the show was trying to woo viewers . The broadcast schedule change led to some consistency and time @-@ line errors , which Homicide producers addressed by adding the words " One hot night , last September ... " to the beginning of the episode . Actress N 'Bushe Wright makes a guest appearance as a cleaning woman who loses her baby in the police station .
Since ratings for Homicide had gradually declined throughout the season , NBC announced a decision about whether the series would be renewed would depend on the Nielsen ratings of the final four episodes , including " Night of the Dead Living " . Nevertheless , it was seen by 6 @.@ 7 million household viewers , marking one of the lowest viewerships of the season . It received generally positive reviews upon its original broadcast , although some mainstream television audiences were turned off by its minimalist approach . It marked the last original episode of Homicide for nine months until the second season premiere , " Bop Gun " . The episode 's teleplay won a Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Achievement in Television Writing for Episodic Drama .
= = Plot summary = =
The episode begins with an unknown person lighting a candle in the homicide squadroom . One by one , the detectives arrive for the night shift on an unusually hot September evening . A furious Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) calls maintenance to complain about the non @-@ working air conditioner and learns it has been shut off for the night . Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) and Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) try to find out who secretly lights the candle every night ; they blow it out a number of times , but it always ends up lit again without anyone noticing . Munch ( Richard Belzer ) loudly complains about his ex @-@ girlfriend breaking up with him . While the other detectives sweat and complain about the heat , a calm and comfortable Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) wears a tie and drinks hot tea without sweating . Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) , who acts uncooperative with his partner Pembleton , says he has found the fingerprints of a man named James Hill who he believes is the murderer in the Adena Watson case . Officer Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) brings in Hill , who turns out to be a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy ( Kenny Blank ) , much to the amusement of the other detectives .
The detectives are shocked at the lack of homicide @-@ related calls they are receiving throughout the night . Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) tries several times throughout the night to call Medical Examiner Blythe ( Wendy Hughes ) and ask her out on a date , but he cannot build up the courage . With encouragement from Howard ( Melissa Leo ) , he finally asks Blythe out and is shocked when she accepts . Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) gets agitated when his daughter calls and wants her boyfriend to sleep over . Gee comforts Crosetti and lets him go home to take care of her . Gee finds a baby boy in a small animal carrier @-@ like cage on the bottom floor of the police department . The baby is very popular with the detectives , who take care of him while they wait for social services to arrive . After the social services worker takes the baby , the cleaning lady Loretta Kenyatta ( N 'Bushe Wright ) hysterically screams somebody kidnapped her baby . The detectives get the baby back for her while Bayliss , infatuated with Loretta , listens to her talk about her life .
Howard gets a call from her sister , who has recently found a tumor on her breast . The sister has just learned her husband has been having an affair . Although Howard is initially hesitant to confide in Felton , he eventually surprises her by offering genuine words of comfort . A drunken man dressed as Santa Claus ( Cleve Wall ) is arrested for threatening his wife and a crowd of people with a water pistol . Later , the detectives get a call that Santa Claus has escaped from custody in the department , and he is found after falling through the ceiling and landing on Munch 's desk . Meanwhile , Pembleton and Bayliss discuss the Watson murder scene . Bayliss insists he has already gone over the information repeatedly , but Pembleton tells him he needs to think outside the box and approach it with from the mind @-@ frame of a criminal . Later , Bayliss reexamines the information and realizes the killer brought Watson down a fire escape , offering a new lead in the case . As the new day dawns , Gee has the detectives assemble on the roof so he can spray them with a garden hose to cool them off .
The episode ends with Munch revealing to Thormann that he lights the candle each night " for all the ones who have been killed , " while Thormann admits that he re @-@ lit it in Munch 's absence because he knew it meant something to him .
= = Production = =
" Night of the Dead Living " was directed by Michael Lehmann . The teleplay was written by Frank Pugliese based on a story he wrote along with executive director Tom Fontana . It was originally intended to be the third episode of the first season , but NBC programmers felt it was too slow @-@ paced to run so early in the season . The episode takes place entirely within the squad room and lacks the traditional action of a typical police series , which NBC executives felt was not appropriate for an early stage when the series was still trying to woo viewers . The programmers also preferred to end the series on the upbeat note of the final scenes in " Night of the Dead Living " , which includes the detectives happily smiling and laughing on the roof of the police department building as Gee sprays them with a hose to relieve the summer heat . In contrast , the originally @-@ planned season finale , " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " , which Homicide producers felt had a sense of resolving season storylines , was a somber episode which ended with a sad image of Bolander quietly singing to himself at a bar over a beer .
Running the episode out of sequence produced several notable continuity errors . For example , Bayliss and Pembleton are still working on the Adena Watson murder , which they had stopped actively investigating in the earlier episode " Three Men and Adena " . Additionally , Officer Thormann is seen onscreen working and healthy , although he was blinded in the earlier episode " Son of a Gun " as a result of a gunshot wound to the head that forced him to leave the police department . These consistency errors were addressed by Homicide producers by adding the words " One hot night , last September ... " to the beginning of the episode , thus establishing the events of the episode took place within the correct timeline of the series , even though the episodes are shown out of order . The Watson case depicted in the episode was based on the real @-@ life 1988 Baltimore slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace , which is chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series .
During " Night of the Dead Living " , Crosetti displays an overriding concern for the safety and welfare of his daughter Beatrice . After Crosetti was revealed to have killed himself in the third season episode " Crosetti " , many viewers claimed suicide was unrealistic for his character based on his feelings about his daughter displayed in this episode . Beatrice is referred to only by name in " Night of the Dead Living " , and would not appear onscreen until she grieved over her father 's death in " Crosetti " . While discussing the mysterious candle with Lewis in the episode , Felton said he generally solves cases with physical evidence , witnesses and confessions , not by investigating motives . This insight into detective work is consistent with the conclusions Simon drew in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , and reviewers have praised Homicide for its realism in portraying detective work from this perspective , which is in stark contrast to other typical police dramas .
N 'Bushe Wright , best known to this point for playing the student activist Claudia Bishop in the NBC drama series I 'll Fly Away , made a guest appearance in " Night of the Dead Living " as the cleaning woman Loretta Kenyatta . Wright was cast in the role based on her performance in Zebrahead ( 1992 ) , a drama film about an interracial romance . A number of songs play on radios in the squad room throughout " Night of the Dead Living " . Among the music featured in the episode were the songs " Lay Down My Life " by Carole King , " Texas Slide " by Jean @-@ Jacques Milteau , " N.Y.C ( Can You Believe This City ? ) " by Charles and Eddie , " Little Boy Blues " and " Break Up " by Gary Fitzgerald , and " Tropic Call " by Mitchell Coodley and Andrew Snitzer .
= = Ratings = =
Ratings for Homicide : Life on the Street gradually declined since the series first premiered . In response , NBC announced to fans that a decision about whether Homicide would be renewed or canceled would depend on how the last four episodes of the season fared in the ratings , including " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " . In its original American broadcast on March 31 , 1993 , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 7 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 7 @.@ 2 rating . It was one of the lowest ratings of the first season of Homicide : Life on the Street , continuing the downward trend of the season . By comparison , the previous episode , " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " , was seen by 7 @.@ 08 million households , while the season premiere , " Gone for Goode " , was watched by more than 18 million households due to a lead @-@ in from Super Bowl XXVII . Homicide ranked low in the Nielsen ratings compared to other shows the week of " Night of the Dead Living " , while its time @-@ slot competitor , the ABC comedy Home Improvement , ranked second for the week with 20 @.@ 39 million household viewers .
At the time that the season finale aired , Homicide producers still did not know whether their show would be renewed for a second season . After the season finale , Homicide : Life on the Street went on a hiatus while the network decided whether the series would be renewed . That hiatus ultimately lasted nine months until the premiere of the second season premiere , " Bop Gun " .
= = Reception = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from commentators , although David P. Kalat , author of Homicide : Life on the Street : The Unofficial Companion , said mainstream television audiences were " somewhat turned off by the minimalist approach " . USA Today writer Matt Roush gave the episode four out of four stars , comparing it to David Mamet 's Glengarry Glen Ross and calling it " minimalist drama ( with ) maximum impact " . Roush wrote , " Imagine a crime show during which no crime occurs . Next to nothing happens . Yet every second counts . " Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times also gave it four out of four stars . He wrote , " If Life on the Street winds up dead after tonight 's episode – the victim of low Nielsen ratings – at least the nine superb actors in the squad will know they made a grand exit . "
The Salt Lake Tribune writer Harold Schindler praised the episode , particularly the " excellent writing , great acting [ and ] super atmosphere " . Rocky Mountain News writer Dusty Saunders called the series " superb " and described Night of the Dead Living as " fascinating character studies of police officers in the squad room " . In a 2007 article , Star Tribune writer Neal Justin included " Night of the Dead Living " in a list of 10 excellent network television episodes dating back 40 years . Justin said the episode proved it was not acting that made for good television , but rather strong writing and acting . Not all reviews were positive . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times praised the series in general , but said the various overlapping subplots in " Night of the Dead Living " – like the Santa Claus suspect , the pre @-@ teen murder suspect and the cleaning woman 's missing baby – felt like gratuitous " oddball routines " . O 'Connor added , " Too much cleverness can be grating . "
Frank Pugliese and Tom Fontana won a Writers Guild of America award for Outstanding Achievement in Television Writing for Episodic Drama for the " Night of the Dead Living " teleplay . The script competed in that category against another Homicide episode , the first season premiere " Gone for Goode " . The " Night of the Dead Living " teleplay also defeated scripts for the shows I 'll Fly Away , Life Goes On , Picket Fences , TriBeCa and Reasonable Doubts .
= = DVD release = =
The first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 .
= Mine ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" Mine " is a song written and performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . Produced by Swift along with Nathan Chapman , it was released as the lead single from Swift 's third studio album , Speak Now ( 2010 ) by Big Machine Records . Following an unauthorized internet leak , the song was released on August 4 , 2010 , two weeks earlier than the intended release date . Swift was inspired to write " Mine " after reflecting on one of her unnamed crushes and explained that the song is about her tendency to run from love . The song contains elements of power @-@ pop and its lyrics speak of the ups and downs of a young love .
Critical reception for " Mine " was mostly positive . Swift was praised for her ability to show a mature perspective on love , although some critics called the song " formulaic " for resonating her earlier works , notably " Love Story " . The song was commercially successful , as well ; it became a top ten hit in Australia , Canada and Japan . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the United States , the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number three , making Swift the second female artist in the history of the Hot 100 to debut multiple tracks in the top five during a calendar year after Mariah Carey did so in 1995 .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Roman White . The video chronicles the romantic relationship between Swift and her love interest played by British actor Toby Hemingway which ends with a marriage . The music video was met with great appraise from contemporary critics who deemed it as " rather sweet , " and " heartwarming . " The song was performed live at numerous venues to promote Speak Now . The music video received the coveted Video of the Year Award in the CMT Music Awards 2011 .
The song was featured on an episode of Glee titled " The Break Up " sung by Naya Rivera ( Santana Lopez ) and was also covered by Maroon 5 .
= = Background and release = =
In an interview with Rolling Stone , Swift revealed that " Mine " was inspired by an unnamed crush in mind , saying " I was reflecting back on a boy I liked at a certain time . " She also told MTV that the song is about what it would be like if she actually let her guard down . During a live Ustream chat with fans on July 20 , 2010 , Swift explained that the song is about " her tendency to run from love " after seeing many relationships end in goodbye and breakups . She continued , " I think I 've developed this pattern of sort of running away when it comes time to fall in love and to stay in a relationship . The song is sort of about finding the exception to that and finding someone who would make you believe in love and realize that it could work out . "
" Mine " was one of the fourteen tracks in Speak Now that was written solely by Swift . She also co @-@ produced the song with Nathan Chapman , who co @-@ produced all of Swift 's studio albums . It was originally planned to be released on August 16 , 2010 , however , after the leak of an unauthorized low @-@ quality mp3 file of the song , Big Machine Records decided to ship the song to country radio and iTunes twelve days earlier than planned on August 4 , 2010 . Swift commented that " a leak is so out of my comfort zone , but it ended up good in the end . It made me so emotional that I started crying . "
= = Composition = =
" Mine " is a country @-@ pop song with a length of three minutes and 52 seconds . KILT @-@ FM described " Mine " as " an uptempo song that 's unmistakably Taylor " with " a big chorus and [ is ] very singable . " Blake Boldt of Engine 145 explained that the song " is a mishmash of ideas bolted together by a terrific power @-@ pop chorus that will stick in your brain after the second or third listen . " The song is set in the time signature of common time , and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from G3 to D5 . It follows the chord progression of C2 – G5 – D5 – C2 – D5 . Alan Macpherson of The Guardian noted that the song " reprises the joyous rush of Swift 's breakthrough hit , " Love Story " , but depicts love as an adult process rather than a teenage dream . "
Dave Heaton of PopMatters described the song as a " song of rebirth " with a " fairly complex " narrative . He summarized the content of the lyrics , writing " [ i ] t starts in the past , at the start of a relationship , and then lets us know it ’ s a flashback . They ’ re sitting on the couch reminiscing . It then jumps back to the beginning and steps us through the couple ’ s years together , but all the while shifting perspective , jumping between their separate memories . " James Dinh of MTV noted that the song " features an uplifting country / pop melody and a big chorus " and it talks about " the wonders of being in a happy relationship after surviving a rocky past . " Priya Elan of The Guardian believed that " Mine " depicts " a stop @-@ start relationship between a normal guy and girl " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly interpreted the song 's message to be about " young love blossoming — in this specific case , young college love . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mostly positive reviews by music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised Swift 's lyrical craftsmanship , calling the song 's couplets " You made a rebel of a careless man 's careful daughter " as a " brilliant throwaway detail . " Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , lauding its catchy yet melodious hook . However , he pointed out that the song reflects her earlier works in the first two albums and he wished that Swift would " try something a little more out of the ordinary . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five , commenting that although the song was " formulaic , " the formula was executed convincingly . Chrissie Dickinson of the Chicago Tribune noted that " Mine " is an epitome of Swift 's classic song @-@ craft , calling it " simple but honest expressions of emotion . " Anthony Benigno of the Daily News said that although the track is reminiscent of Swift 's previous hits , he added , " the song 's origins are grounded more in failed relationships than storybook ones . "
Blake Boldt of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs @-@ down , criticizing Swift 's failure to deliver an expected " big payoff " through the song . He contended that this failure proves that " Swift 's songwriting skills are still raw , still needing that one last polish in order to shine . "
= = Chart performance = =
Two days after its official release , it was estimated that " Mine " would sell approximately 350 @,@ 000 digital downloads with a possible debut in the top three on the Billboard Hot 100 . On the week ending August 21 , 2010 , the song debuted at number one on the Hot Digital Songs due to 297 @,@ 000 digital downloads , which led to its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 at number three . This consequently made Swift the second female artist in the history of the Hot 100 to have multiple tracks debut in the top five during a calendar year ( the first being Mariah Carey ) . With 297 @,@ 000 downloads , " Mine " became the eighth @-@ biggest debut sales week ever for a digital song , and the fourth @-@ best of 2010 . The song also debuted at number 26 on the Hot Country Songs on the week ending August 21 , 2010 , where it peaked at number two , having been blocked by Darius Rucker 's " Come Back Song " at number one on the week ending November 13 , 2010 . " Mine " also reached number one on the Adult Contemporary , number seven on the Adult Pop Songs and number 12 on the Pop Songs . At the end of 2010 , " Mine " was ranked at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 song of the year . On August 21 , 2014 , the song was certified triple platinum by the RIAA . As of November 2014 , " Mine " has sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States .
" Mine " achieved moderate success outside the United States . The song debuted and peaked at number seven in Canada with 15 @,@ 000 digital downloads sold in the week of August 2 , 2010 . It was certified platinum by Music Canada . On the week ending August 22 , 2010 , the song entered in Australia and peaked at number nine . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments exceeding 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending August 9 , 2010 , it debuted at number 30 in New Zealand , and peaked at number 16 the following week after its release . The song debuted and peaked at number 30 on the week ending October 30 , 2010 , on the United Kingdom . In Ireland , it peaked at number 38 and spent a total of two weeks on the chart . In mainland Europe , " Mine " peaked at number 70 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles Chart , number 48 on Belgium ( Flanders ) and number 48 on Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
The accompanying music video for " Mine " was co @-@ directed by Swift and Roman White , who had directed Swift 's previous music videos such as " You Belong With Me " and " Fifteen . " White explained that the video features " a lot of time travel , which would explain how those two crazy kids end up with kids of their own in the end . " He further added that " the song has a lot of dark elements , but it also has a lot of happy elements " and he praised Swift for her involvement with the production of the music video . Swift chose her friend Jaclyn Jarrett , the daughter of professional wrestler Jeff Jarrett , to play the younger version of herself in the video . Kyra Angle , the daughter of professional wrestler Kurt Angle , also made an appearance in the music video . The music video was shot in Kennebunkport , Maine , where several scenes took place in Ram Island Farm , Cape Elizabeth , and Christ Church on Dane Street . Christ Church served as the venue for the wedding scene . The video features Swift getting married to a groom , played by British actor Toby Hemingway , who was cast by Swift after watching Feast of Love . She was impressed with Hemingway and thought " it would be perfect to put him in the video . " The video premiered on August 27 , 2010 , on CMT , in a live half @-@ hour special event which included a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look of the video . Swift returned to Kennebunkport , Maine to share the premiere with local residents , which attracted approximately 800 people , including former President George H. W. Bush , who brought his grandchildren to see Swift .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Swift entering the coffee shop . As she sits down , she notices that couple , opposite where she is sitting , is arguing , reminding Swift about her parents arguing when she was very young . Then the waiter ( Toby Hemingway ) comes by , just to take Swift 's order , who looks up and she infatuates him , resulting in a romantic relationship between the two . They are seen moving in together and unpacking boxes . After some time of dating , he proposes to her on a rowboat , who then cheerfully accepts it . Later , the two are seen arguing , resulting in Swift running away from the house , crying , just like she did when she was younger as she saw her parents arguing . The boyfriend follows her , and the two reconcile the relationship . They get married and have two sons . In the end , time returns to when Swift was ordering her food at coffee shop Throughout the video , there are some scenes of Swift singing the verses of the song while walking barefoot on a green pasture amongst photos of her and her family . The photos are hanging on a white string in between two large trees . Swift is seen with her hair loose and wearing a white dress with a thin belt around the waist .
= = = Reception = = =
The video was met with great praise from critics . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly felt the video was " rather sweet " and " heartwarming " in a sense that the song " seems to have a happy ending . " Leah Collins of the Dose.ca lamented the video for its typical fairytale element even though the plot ended with a blissful marriage . She concluded her review by writing , " Swift happens to include dirty diapers and recreating scenes from The Notebook . " Tamar Anitai of MTV described the video as " a coming @-@ of @-@ age story " where Swift is depicted to endure " many adult life cycle events and major milestones . " In a different perspective , James Montgomery of MTV compared the music video with Katy Perry 's " Teenage Dream , " writing that although both videos are " essentially about the same thing : the fantasies of young , thoroughly modern women , " the fantasies are " about as different as the women presenting them . " The Improper reviewer also compared the music video with Perry 's " Teenage Dream " and noticed that the two music videos presented two contrasting end points , writing " for Swift , it ’ s a marriage , a home and babies . For Perry , it 's independence and the ability to define your own life . " To date , the video has over 212 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
On June 11 , 2010 , Swift performed the song for the first time at a small , intimate concert that aired as a part of CMA Music Festival : Country ’ s Night to Rock on ABC on September 1 , 2010 . She also performed " Mine " and " You Belong With Me " at the 2010 NFL Opening Kickoff event . On October 5 , 2010 , Swift performed the song live on the Italian X Factor . On October 9 , 2010 , she performed an acoustic version of " Mine " during Grand Ole Opry 's 85th birthday celebration . She later performed the song as well as an acoustic cover of Coldplay 's " Viva la Vida " in the BBC Radio 2 studio on October 21 , 2010 .
Swift sang " Mine " on several other occasions . On October 24 , 2010 , Swift appeared on The Paul O 'Grady Show , where she performed the song . On October 25 , 2010 , Swift sang " Mine " with two other songs from Speak Now on Speak Now : Taylor Swift Live From New York City , a special programme which was streamed live on CMT.com , MTV.com , VH1.com and other MTV Networks websites in Europe , Asia , Australia and Latin America to celebrate the release of her new album . She performed the song on Today show concert on October 26 , 2010 . She was scheduled to give a live performance at JetBlue 's T5 Terminal at New York John F. Kennedy International Airport where she sang " Mine " and several songs from Speak Now .
On October 27 , 2010 , she visited Scholastic Corporation headquarters to talk about the importance of reading and writing and perform the song to a 200 grade @-@ schoolers and middle @-@ schoolers at the publisher 's downstairs auditorium . She later performed the song on Live With Regis and Kelly . On November 2 , 2010 , Swift made an appearance on Dancing With the Stars where she performed " Mine " and " White Horse " for the show 's 200th episode . Swift was invited to perform in BBC Radio 1 's first Teen Awards in London , where she sang " Mine , " " Love Story " and " Speak Now . " On November 19 , 2010 , she performed the song on the Japanese program Music Station . " Mine " is the second song on the set for the Speak Now World Tour . On December 8 , 2015 , Swift dedicated a performance of " Mine " to 17 @-@ year old Rachel Erlandsen , who had died in a car crash before she was able to attend Swift 's Australian leg of her 1989 World Tour in Brisbane .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Mine " – 3 : 49
European digital download and UK digital download 1
" Mine " – 3 : 49
UK digital download 2
" Mine " – 3 : 49
" Mine " ( Music Video ) – 3 : 55
Pop Mix digital download
" Mine " ( Pop Mix Version ) – 3 : 50
German and UK CD single
" Mine " – 3 : 49
" Mine " ( US version ) – 3 : 51
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Living for Love =
" Living for Love " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna , Diplo and Ariel Rechtshaid , with additional writing from MoZella and Toby Gad . Originally intended for a Valentine 's Day 2015 release , the song was rush @-@ released as the lead single from the album on December 20 , 2014 , by Interscope Records , after demos recorded for the album leaked on to the internet . An EDM and house track on which Madonna experimented with different musical genres , " Living for Love " contains instrumentation from percussion and piano by singer Alicia Keys , along with a gospel choir . Madonna composed the track as a break @-@ up song , however she wanted to deviate and make the lyrics as uplifting in nature , talking about counteracting negative thoughts with positive responses .
" Living for Love " received positive reviews from critics , who praised its rhythm and lyrics , comparing it to her earlier works . They also considered the song a step @-@ up from her last two lead singles . In the United States , it failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but became Madonna 's 44th number @-@ one hit on the Dance Club Songs chart , tying her with country singer George Strait as the act with most number @-@ one singles on any Billboard chart . Although United Kingdom 's BBC Radio 1 decided not to play it , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 26 , becoming Madonna 's 71st top @-@ forty single , extending her record as the female artist with the most top @-@ forty UK singles . " Living for Love " reached the top @-@ twenty of the charts in Finland , Hungary , Israel , Japan and Lebanon , but was commercially unsuccessful in other nations .
An accompanying music video was directed by the French duo Julien Choquart and Camille Hirigoyen , together known as J.A.C.K. , and was released in February 2015 . The storyline incorporates mythological elements and shows Madonna as a matador , fighting her dancers dressed like minotaurs in a red circular stage . It had numerous costume changes , and was critically appreciated for its empowering theme and transcending gender roles . Madonna first performed the song in a similar matador theme at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards ; it became the most @-@ watched moment of the night . The second performance was at the 2015 Brit Awards , which made headlines due to the singer 's wardrobe malfunction causing her to be pulled down a flight of stairs that made up part of the stage . Alternate versions of " Living for Love " were performed on Le Grand Journal , The Ellen DeGeneres Show and on Madonna 's 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour .
= = Writing and development = =
" Living for Love " was written and produced by Madonna , Diplo and Ariel Rechtshaid , with additional writing from MoZella and Toby Gad . Madonna 's collaboration with Diplo was revealed in May 2014 through an image on her Instagram showing her working on her laptop with him . She had invited him for her annual Oscar party , and he could not make it . So he began texting with her about music and sent some music . Madonna replied with a 20 @-@ page text containing her anecdotes on the music . Following this they started collaborating for the album . In an interview with Idolator , Diplo explained that Madonna had asked him to provide his " craziest record " for the album . Together they wrote and recorded seven songs and Diplo added that " Those records are gonna be crazy @-@ sounding . We really pushed the envelope with some of the stuff we were doing ... [ S ] he was up for anything . I love when an artist gives a producer the confidence he needs to work with them , and Madonna was very open @-@ minded to my ideas ... she was down from day one . " According to Diplo , " Living for Love " had almost 20 versions ranging from a piano ballad to an EDM composition , ultimately Madonna and Diplo compromising on a middle level . Rechtshaid and British singer MNEK also joined for writing sessions with them , improving the verse of the song . Madonna denied that there were 20 versions of the song , admitting it " might be a little too high " , and commented on how she wanted it to sound :
We knew we wanted to make a dance record . But you know , there 's so many different levels of dance music and even different categories of house music . So , it was really like , what 's the bass line gonna sound like ? Is it gonna be really stripped down and sparse , or is it going to be loaded up ? Is it gonna be Chicago house ? Is it gonna be U.K. house ? It 's like , all over the place . Is it gonna be a little bit of one vocal line ? Is it gonna be a whole choir singing ? So we were experimenting and trying out different things . They all sounded good , but at the end of the day , we wanted it to sound timeless , also . Not just something of the moment .
In October 2014 , American singer Alicia Keys confirmed that she worked on Madonna 's upcoming studio album , saying " It was good . I was in here doing a meeting or something and [ Madonna ] was working with Diplo . They were like , ' Oh , maybe you can play some piano on this thing ' . And I was like , ' Alright . I 'll try . If you hate it , you can take it off ' . It was just like that , casual and cool . " Annie from the London Community Gospel Choir provided the female background vocals throughout the song . Madonna also mentioned that new versions would be " coming out , but just not yet " . Describing the song as " one of [ Diplo 's ] more mellow productions " , Madonna composed " Living for Love " as a break @-@ up song , commenting , " lots of people write about being in love and being happy or they write about having a broken heart and being inconsolable . But nobody writes about having a broken heart and being hopeful and triumphant afterwards . So I thought , how can I do this ? I didn 't want to share the sentiment of being a victim . This scenario devastated me , but it just made me stronger " . She complemented saying that " Living for Love " was " kind of like the old me and the new me all mixed in together " .
= = Release = =
The demo version of " Living for Love " leaked onto the Internet in December 2014 , alongside the other twelve demo recordings for Madonna 's then untitled thirteenth studio album . On December 20 , 2014 , the album 's title was confirmed to be Rebel Heart and became available for pre @-@ order on iTunes along with six tracks , including " Living for Love " as the album 's lead single . Madonna stated that the songs were meant to be " an early Christmas gift " . Originally , " Living for Love " was intended to be released on Valentine 's Day 2015 , with the rest of the record slated for a spring release . However , due to the leak of materials , the release date had to be pushed up . She went on to say she would prefer her fans hear the completed versions of some of the songs instead of the incomplete tracks that were circulating .
Gordon Murray from Billboard reported that two versions of the song were sent to US club DJs on December 21 , 2014 : the original version and the instrumental . Interscope sent the song as a " soft sell " on December 22 to radio outlets , and it failed to receive airplay at the Top 40 formats , garnering a total of 10 plays due to the rushed out release and being on a Christmas week , when most programmers were on vacation . The label decided to re @-@ service it to radio after 2015 started , with an official adds date to Top 40 / Mainstream radio stations on February 10 . " Living for Love " was commercially released on February 25 in the United Kingdom . A number of remixes were released for streaming , namely those by Djemba Djemba , Offer Nissim , Mike Rizzo and Drew G.
= = Recording and composition = =
" Living for Love " is an EDM and house song which starts as Madonna sings over a " regal " piano line which is eventually joined by percussion . The song is set in the simple time signature of 4 / 4 , with a tempo of 123 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F minor , with Madonna 's vocals spanning the range from E ♭ 3 to C5 . " Living for Love " has a I – IV – V – I sequence as its chord progression , with the rhythm flowing as Fm – Cm – D ♭ – A ♭ – E ♭ / A ♭ . The song was engineered by Demacio " Demo " Castellon and Nick Rowe , while the former also mixed it . Angie Teo did the additional recording and mixing of the track , with Ann Mincieli . Along with The London Community Gospel Choir , MNEK and Santell also provided backing vocals on the track , while Keys and Gad acted as additional musicians . Dean Piper from The Daily Telegraph explained that the song has " some classic Madonna traits : religious references , a gospel choir , 1990s piano beats and a whirling bass " , and was compared to her 1989 singles , " Like a Prayer " and " Express Yourself " , by Jason Lipshutz from Billboard . Keys ' piano tracks are added alongside the electronic music , up to the gospel chorus , and Madonna counteracting negative thoughts with positive lyrics .
Unlike Madonna 's previous two lead singles , " 4 Minutes " ( 2008 ) and " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " ( 2012 ) , " Living for Love " puts the emphasis on the lyrics and vocals , with the lines on the bridge going like " Took me to heaven , let me fall down / Now that it 's over , I 'm gonna carry on " and a " throbbing drop " in the middle . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described the song as Kiesza meets " Like a Prayer " , and noted that there were many changes from the leaked demo version : the throwback house music being replaced by an 808 pulse sound and Keys ' piano , as well as handclaps and gospel riffing being removed towards the end of the song . For Jon Lisi from PopMatters , " Living for Love " fitted with contemporary pop music releases and the DIY ethic they displayed , starting from Taylor Swift 's " Shake It Off " , to Ariana Grande 's " Break Free " and Katy Perry 's " Roar " . The survivor anthem @-@ like nature of the track was evocative of Madonna 's survival in her music career . With NRJ the singer herself explained the meaning behind the lyrics : " It 's a song having your heart broken but it 's about saying you know what I 'm going to my life goes on , I will carry on , I won 't stop believing in love , I 'll pick up my crown , put it back on my head and I will walk through life proudly believing that love , true love does exist . "
= = Critical response = =
Following its release , " Living for Love " earned critical praise . Lipshutz was appreciative of the song , commending Madonna 's " confident " vocal delivery . He said that the song sounded " like a giddy combination of Madonna 's past and present , and represents an encouraging sign for a 2015 project that was unexpectedly thrown into jeopardy at the end of 2014 . " Stern compared the song to Madonna 's 1992 single " Deeper and Deeper " , noting that unlike the UK dance acts and the teen @-@ pop groups paying homage to 1990s house music , Madonna had lived through that era . Calling the song a " total beast of a collaborative effort " , and ended his review saying " Fuck singing about Tanqueray in the club : This is the Madonna we 've always known and lived to love , with flares of the future and nostalgic nods to the past . " Time 's Jamieson Cox observed that " Living for Love " was tailor @-@ made for radio , with the increase in popularity of house music and the crossover success of British house musicians . Giving the song a rating of three out of five stars , Hardeep Phull from New York Post complimented it for being an " euphoric , gospel @-@ tinged dance track that will rejuvenate even the most beaten @-@ down of souls thanks to its ' love 's gonna lift me up ' refrain . " Phull expected the song to be a hit on the dance and pop charts .
Writing for USA Today , Brian Mansfield complimented the optimistic and " self @-@ assured " nature of the song , adding that " it 's the sort of determined dance anthem Madonna does so well " . The Dallas Morning News ' Hunter Hauk described the song as a " solid melding " of different club musics and appreciated the dance break , and Madonna 's singing attitude , calling it " less prickly or defiant than we see on Instagram these days " . Jeff Miers from The Buffalo News compared " Living for Love " to earlier club anthems , songs which had become commercial success for Madonna . Writing for i @-@ D , Nick Levine described the song as a " perfectly @-@ pitched comeback single : rather than returning with a cheap EDM banger ... When she sings ' I picked up my crown , put it back on my head ' , it feels like a statement of intent . " Lewis Corner from Digital Spy listed it as one of the top ten tracks of the week , adding that the composition made it " an euphoric first cut from ... Rebel Heart " . Jed Gottlieb from Boston Herald described the track 's beats as contemporary , while found the chorus and the hooks to be reminiscent of " old school " Top 40 songs . " True Blue fans will hear a joy and nostalgia in [ the song ] " . Jon Pareles from The New York Times commended " Living for Love " ' s ability to transform " the breakup emotions into an uplifting redemption " . He called it " one of Madonna 's best singles in a decade " . Writing for PopMatters , Lisi found the track to be Madonna 's " most joyous " release since " Express Yourself " .
Daryl Deino from The Inquisitr praised the song for being " epic and uplifting " , believing that it would open up Madonna 's music to a new generation . Jim Farber of New York Daily News found the song to be a return to form for the singer , describing it as " prime mix of club and pop music , with an old @-@ school R & B piano , soaring backup vocals and a melody that keeps lifting you higher . " Zel McCarthy from Vice believed that the song reflected the personalities of its songwriters , feeling that the production and the personable lyrics made it a success . Bernard Zuel from The Sydney Morning Herald believed that " Living for Love " embodied every aspect of Madonna 's life , a mixture of her past , present and future . This view was shared by Lindsay Zoladz from New York , who had criticized the other five songs from the album , but called " Living for Love " as " an unexpectedly perfect balance between the ghosts of Madge past and future " . Dean Piper from The Daily Telegraph called it the " most original " among the songs released , however he was critical of the lyrics saying that they failed " to penetrate your soul " . Cinquemani complemented the changes in the song from the demo version , calling it Madonna 's " most rousing lead single in years " , but lamented the nasal vocals of the singer . Michael Jose Gonzalez from Danish music magazine , Gaffa , found the song to be melodic but reminiscent of the music from Madonna 's tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) .
At their year end ranking of the Top 25 Singles of 2015 , Slant Magazine listed " Living for Love " at number 25 , saying " Overworked and overthought , for sure , but the song 's essence remains in tact , and if Madonna 's message of life after love didn 't register as a commercial comeback on the scale of , say , Cher 's ' Believe ' , it remains a pop @-@ gospel sequel of the highest order . "
= = Chart performance = =
Following the pre @-@ order release of Rebel Heart , " Living for Love " entered the Dance / Electronic Songs chart at number 16 and the Dance / Electronic Digital Songs chart at numbers 12 , with 10 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The next week , " Living for Love " moved to number 13 on the Dance / Electronic Songs chart , with further sales of 11 @,@ 000 copies , and has since peaked at number 9 , thereby becoming the singer 's first top @-@ ten single on the chart . It achieved 587 @,@ 000 streams after the music video premiere and further sales of 17 @,@ 000 copies , becoming the greatest gainer on the Dance / Electronic Digital Songs chart . In January 2015 , " Living for Love " debuted at number 32 on the Dance Club Songs chart , making it the singer 's first appearance since her previous single " Turn Up the Radio " . It then climbed to number 18 and the following week to number 11 as the greatest gainer on the chart for both weeks .
For the issue dated March 7 , 2015 , " Living for Love " became Madonna 's 44th number @-@ one song on the chart . She equaled George Strait — who collected 44 chart @-@ toppers on the Hot Country Songs — as the act with most number @-@ one singles on any Billboard chart . " Living for Love " did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but debuted at number 8 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . It became Madonna 's 29th entry in the Pop Songs chart , debuting at number 36 on February 24 , 2015 . Billboard reported that the debut was due to an increased radio spins from iHeartMedia stations . It also debuted at number 35 on Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart . Madonna became the oldest female artist to enter the Pop Songs chart , since Carly Simon , who reached number 20 as the featured artist on Janet Jackson 's 2002 single , " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " .
Across Europe , the song debuted at number 50 in France , number 12 in Hungary and number 21 in Spain , alongside the other tracks from Rebel Heart . In Japan , the song debuted at number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 for the week ending January 12 , 2015 , climbing to number 26 the following week . In Spain it debuted at number 21 on the Spanish Singles Chart ; after the release of the remixes , they charted separately on the albums chart at number 93 .
In the United Kingdom , BBC Radio 1 decided not to play Madonna 's single as their playlist committee did not think the record was good enough for heavy airplay and because their head of music , George Ergatoudis , thought her fans were older than their target demographic . " The vast majority of people who like Madonna , who like her music now , are over 30 and frankly , we 've moved on from Madonna , " he said . The station was criticized by Madonna herself for promoting age discrimination , and in tweets from musicians Diplo , Madonna 's collaborator on the record , and Boy George . Representatives from Radio 1 said that the songs chosen for their playlist were not chosen on the basis of an artist 's age . " Living for Love " was instead added to the playlist of BBC Radio 2 , which caters to audiences aged 35 and more . BBC News explained that the BBC Trust had asked Radio 1 to cater to younger audiences . According to the Official Charts Company , the song moved towards the top @-@ twenty of the UK Singles Chart with two days of available sales as reported in their mid @-@ week chart report . It ultimately debuted at number 26 on the chart with sales of 17 @,@ 936 copies , becoming Madonna 's 71st top @-@ forty single , extending her record as the female artist with the most top @-@ forty UK singles .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
In December 2014 , Madonna 's manager Guy Oseary announced that a music video was scheduled to be released in early February 2015 . The video was directed by the French duo Julien Choquart and Camille Hirigoyen , together known as J.A.C.K. It was edited by Danny B. Tull , styled by B. Akerlund and choreographed by Megan Lawson . According to Madonna , she wanted to have a cinematic and storytelling aspect with the video adding that :
The thing about that song , it 's such a passionate song . I had to present it in a passionate way , and I used mythology to tell the story , with the story of the Minotaur , the matador , fighting for love . And the color red . And flowers . Horns , and death . And naked men . You know , the important things in life . I don 't want to make every video the same . But I did love the richness of that video . To me it felt like a painting that came to life . That 's what I was trying to do .
Verena Dietzel , creator of the fashion label V @-@ Couture , who specializes in different kinds of corsets , were enlisted to create clothing for the video , as well as a Grammy Awards performance . Dietzel explained that she had initially thought Madonna 's e @-@ mail as spam , however after confirmation from the singer 's assistant stylist , B. Åkerlund , she started working on the designs . Within 48 hours she sewed a new corset , as well as created two new ones , by basing them on the only information provided to her , that of Madonna 's bra @-@ size . She had to search on Google for deducing the rest of the singer 's proportions . In total four different corsets were shipped off to Madonna . Lebanese designer Shady Zeineldine was also contacted by Åkerlund , who visited the designer 's press conference in Los Angeles , and asked him to send his ideas and sketches for the video . After the deal was finalized , he created a custom made matador jacket which Madonna wore in the video . Another dress was a bodysuit , featuring a nude satin @-@ stretch corset covered in three different types of lace , a black chiffon silk top and a satin tie . There was also a red velvet bolero jacket .
The corset was described by Steff Yotka from Style.com as " masculine @-@ feminine mix ... it 's the sort of tight , sexy , gender @-@ bending thing we 've come to expect from [ Madonna ] " . The singer and her team had sent matador references to Zeineldine , who wanted to give a feminine touch to the designs , utilizing numerous laces and nude color palette to highlight the singer 's body curves . Amber Kallor from Style.com explained that Madonna 's make @-@ up in the video was inspired by recent runway shows of Christian Dior and Givenchy . The singer had applied parallel eye liner with her bolero jacket look , as well as sported bobby pin and Princess Leia like buns on her hair . Designer Riccardo Tisci approved of the Minotaur costumes used by the dancers , which used crystal masks designed by Marianna Harutunian and leather horns . He also gave his approval of the gemstones applied on the singer 's face for one sequence in the video .
= = = Release and synopsis = = =
The music video was released on picture messaging application Snapchat on February 5 , 2015 , where it was available for viewing on the application 's " Snap Channel " platform . Madonna became the first artist to premiere her video on Snapchat . The video was deleted after 24 hours , in lieu of Snapchat 's self @-@ destructing ethos , and was later uploaded on Madonna 's Vevo channel . Sara Spary from Marketing Week commended the decision , believing it to be " a major move for Snapchat and the decision by Madonna 's label could pave the way for other label giants to host content on the app as well as other branded content . "
The video begins with a focus light on Madonna 's hand which gradually reveals a circular red stage surrounded by red curtains . Madonna , wearing the red velvet jacket moves around the stage throwing off a cape and does choreographed dance moves . Interspersed are visuals of a male dancer as a Minotaur wearing the horned mask , dancing on the ground and Madonna in the matador dress . She entices the male dancer with the cape as the chorus ends . A flock of male dancers wearing similar horned mask appear and surround Madonna around the stage .
Throughout the second verse Madonna chase the dancers and defeat them in mock fight . One of them pick her up and together they perform a second choreography atop the stage . Madonna is also shown in the bejeweled corset flapping around a red cape . For the final verses and chorus , Madonna in the nude corset dances among the Minotaurs , and ultimately slays them all . The last visual shows the singer standing among the slain bodies of the Minotaurs , throwing off the cape while holding a pair of horns in her left hand . Red roses fall around her and sound of applause is heard as a quote by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche flashes on screen , " Man is the cruelest animal . At tragedies , bullfights and crucifixions he has felt best on earth ; and when he invented hell for himself that was his very heaven . "
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Hugh McIntyre from Forbes commended Madonna 's decision to partner with Snapchat for the video release , because he considered it to be a profit for both parties . For Madonna it would enable her to connect with the younger audience , while for Snapchat , release of a new Madonna video would lead to an older demographic to download the app . Matthew Jacobs from The Huffington Post believed that the music video and its imagery matched with the uplifting nature of the song . He compared parts of the video with " Express Yourself " and " Hung Up " , saying that Madonna emerging victorious among a flock of men dressed as bulls , evoked the leaks of Rebel Heart 's songs . Recalling the self @-@ referential undertones in the videos for " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " and " Girl Gone Wild " , Jacobs explained that " Madonna presents herself as queen of the big top without relying on allusions to her own résumé to prove she is the master of the postmodern pop scene ... This is the Madonna video we 've waited a decade for . " Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra gave another positive review , saying " we haven 't already learned time and again – never underestimate Madonna " and describing the video as a " nice fit " for the song . A writer for The Guardian described the video as a " straightforward performance clip " and believed that the simplistic nature of the video suggested that it was designed for being viewed on mobile devices .
Louis Virtel from HitFix called " Living for Love " as Madonna 's " best video since ' Hung Up ' " . He found references to older Madonna videos , like " Express Yourself " in the " unusual choreography with all of its masculine posturing and grappling " , " Take a Bow " with its bullfighting theme and playing on a familiar imagery from her career , and " Open Your Heart " during the sequences where Madonna fends off the Minotaur dancers . Virtel also commended the choreography , costumes , Madonna 's looks and the cinematography of the video . Along with the " Take a Bow " reference , Billboard 's Joe Lynch called the video as incredible and " lush , arresting " but criticized for the misspelling of Nietzsche at the end . " Rita Kokshanian from InStyle said that the video was " just as good as you could have expected ... And while we were completely transfixed by her killer moves and insane physique , we were equally in awe of her outfits . "
Nathan Smith from Out found the video to be transcending gender roles , with Madonna assuming the role of a matador , a title generally reserved for a man . Also he noted that Madonna demonstrated her " toned and lean physique , demonstrating her unique and unparalleled mastery of the male species " . For Alyssa Tomey from E ! , Madonna " transforms into a fierce and sexy matador in the clip " and dances " her butt off with some seriously acrobatic moves " . Jim Farber from New York Daily News found a contrast with the song 's title and the " battlefield " like portrayal in the video , saying " While it 's sonically exuberant , the song 's lyrics reflect the aftermath of a hard @-@ won battle . " Rachel Pilcher from Yahoo ! found the video to be strange , but believed that it was to be expected from Madonna .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna first performed " Living for Love " at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2015 . She confirmed her appearance at the ceremony , by uploading an image of the Grammy trophy wrapped with black strings like the Internet memes for the cover art of Rebel Heart . The singer was dressed in a one @-@ piece outfit in matador red , surrounded by male dancers as Minotaurs similar to the song 's music video . It was developed by designer Riccardo Tisci for Givenchy and styled by Akerlund . The performance was described as a " beautiful story for why the matadors fight the bulls and that also reflects life " . After being introduced by singers Miley Cyrus and Nicki Minaj , the performance began with images of Madonna on a kabuki screen talking about starting a revolution . She emerged from the screen and started singing , surrounded by the dancers . Near the end , the singer encouraged the audience to sing @-@ along with her , finally being pulled atop the stage on a wire . Dina Gachman from Forbes reported that Madonna 's performance was the most @-@ watched moment of the night . Brittany Spanos from Rolling Stone described it as " the legendary singer was out for blood with her first live performance [ of the song ] " . Shauna Murphy from MTV News observed Illuminati symbolism with the performance , including rituals , organized religion homage and a metaphor for death . MuuMuse 's Bradley Stern listed it as the best performance of the Grammys , saying that " this is how a major pop performance should really look " . Her effort to sing live without Auto @-@ Tune during the choreographed performance was also heavily praised .
Madonna also performed the song at the 2015 Brit Awards , on February 25 . However , in the early stages of the performance , a wardrobe malfunction caused her to be pulled down a flight of stairs that made up part of the stage . It was later revealed that since her cape was tied tightly , when her dancers attempted to remove it from her neck , she fell down to the floor . However Madonna then continued the performance as planned . She later took to Instagram to confirm that she was well , posting " Thanks for the good wishes ! I 'm fine " . Richard Smirke from Billboard praised the performance and Madonna 's recovery , saying that " [ the singer ] didn 't let the fall affect her performance and quickly recovered to deliver a slickly choreographed routine that mirrored the matador theme of her recent Grammy Awards performance . " Madonna explained on The Jonathan Ross Show that she was told to start walking towards the stage further than originally planned . Hence her team thought that the cape could have slid off and tied it tightly round her neck . The singer had two choices when the cape did not come undone , " I could either be strangled or fall , and I chose to fall " . Madonna endured a whiplash and added that she " smacked the back of my head . And I had a man standing over me with a flashlight until about 3 am to make sure I was compos mentis " . The singer jokingly added that she would not use any cape for further performances and attributed her prompt recovery to having good core strength and her daily exercise routine . The accident led to an increase in viewership of the awards show . According to the British Phonographic Industry , the event resulted a 95 % increase in Twitter activity about the show compared with the previous year , with an exchange of 7 @.@ 8 million tweets , while 6 @.@ 8 million viewers tuned in to watch the performance . The singer 's fall was voted the most shocking " Celebrity Moment of 2015 " by UK 's Channel 5 .
On February 26 , 2015 , Madonna appeared on The Jonathan Ross Show in England , which aired on March 14 . She performed an edited version of " Living for Love " wearing a black matador dress . On March 2 , Madonna appeared on France 's Le Grand Journal show , where an edited version of " Living for Love " was also performed . Lionel Nicaise from MCM observed that Madonna did not wear any cape during the performance . Writing for Idolator , Bradley Stern noted that the performance used an " energetic remix " of the song , with MNEK 's vocals in the background . There was also voguing and during one segment Madonna climbed atop a piano to sing the song . Two weeks later , similar performance aired on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in the US , where she was joined by DeGeneres onstage at the end of the performance . Madonna added the song on the third section of the set list of her 2015 – 16 Rebel Heart Tour . The singer had enlisted a Spanish tailoring company from Zaragoza for creating two bullfighter traje de luces costume , along with a cape and matador related costumes for her backing dancers . Set to a remix of the song , the performance had the same choreography as that of the Brit Awards . Jordan Zivitz of Montreal Gazette said that the performance was one of " the evening ’ s minor victories " calling it a " sulphur @-@ scented campiness " , although he saw a smooth transition from " Living for Love " to the next section of the tour .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
MNEK appears courtesy of Virgin EMI Records , a division of Universal Music Operations .
Alicia Keys appears courtesy of RCA Records
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / Songs Music Publishing , LLC , " I Like Turtles " Music and Songs of SMP ( ASCAP ) / EMI April Music , Inc . , MoZella Mo Music ( ASCAP ) / Atlas Music Publishing and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP ) / Lion of God Publishing Co . ( ASCAP ) , Kobalt Songs Music Publishing
Personnel
Personnel adapted from Madonna official website .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Tracy Flick =
Tracy Enid Flick is a fictional character , originating in the 1998 novel Election by Tom Perrotta and portrayed by Reese Witherspoon in the 1999 film adaptation of the same title . Tracy is a smart , ambitious high school student , whose quest to win a school election is nearly derailed by her own ruthlessness and desperation . In both the novel and the film , she is the main antagonist .
Witherspoon 's performance as Tracy was widely acclaimed by critics and garnered her multiple awards and nominations , including a Golden Globe nod . The character has since become an icon , as her driven , focused personality and unpopularity among her peers have led to comparisons with many real @-@ life public figures , particularly female politicians such as Hillary Clinton .
= = Overview = =
Tracy is an overachieving high school junior , preparing for an easy election to the office of student body president after three years of extracurricular toil . Her assumptions of an unopposed victory are dashed when two unexpected challengers enter the race : friendly and popular athlete Paul Metzler ( Chris Klein ) , sidelined from the football team by a skiing accident , and Paul 's younger adopted sister Tammy ( Jessica Campbell ) , a moody , sarcastic rebel . Paul has been coaxed into running by election supervisor Jim McAllister ( Matthew Broderick ) , a well @-@ liked civics teacher nursing a deep resentment towards Tracy since her affair with Jim 's best friend and fellow teacher cost the man his job and family .
As the race continues and Paul 's effortless popularity continues to jeopardize Tracy 's once @-@ sure victory , Tracy 's frustration drives her to commit an act of sabotage against Paul 's campaign by ripping down his posters right before election day . Despite Jim McAllister 's conviction of her guilt , she escapes punishment again through a stroke of pure luck when Tammy claims responsibility for the crime and is subsequently expelled , which was her objective in " confessing . " Tracy wins the election and goes on to attend Georgetown University , her dream school , though she had difficulty fitting in and was disenchanted with her schoolmates . She is later seen working closely alongside a congressman , named Mike Geiger , a Republican from Nebraska , in Washington , D.C.
= = Reception = =
Roger Ebert began his review of Election by noting , " I remember students like Tracy Flick , the know @-@ it @-@ all who always has her hand in the air , while the teacher desperately looks for someone else to call on . In fact , I was a student like Tracy Flick . " He goes on to compare Tracy to Elizabeth Dole : " a person who always seems to be presenting you with a logical puzzle for which she is the answer ... She is always perfectly dressed and groomed , and is usually able to conceal her hot temper behind a facade of maddening cheerfulness . But she is ruthless . She reminds me of a saying attributed to David Merrick : ' It is not enough for me to win . My enemies must lose . ' "
A 2006 profile of the character in The Washington Post called her " wonderfully monstrous . " " In [ director Alexander Payne ] ' s study of her pathologies , Tracy 's will is so fiery and her perfection so total that no one dares stand against her in her goal . " The Stranger wrote , " Like Humbert Humbert , the Reverend Harry Powell , and Baby Jane Hudson before her , Tracy Flick is a real and lasting contribution to the cinematic understanding of the villain , and the feather in Witherspoon 's cap . "
= = Witherspoon 's portrayal = =
In the late 1990s , following her starring roles in the 1996 dramas Fear and Freeway , Witherspoon found herself in an unexpected career slump that led her towards a change in direction . " All my serious dramatic performances suddenly weren 't getting me the jobs or opportunities that I really wanted , " she said in a 2005 interview . " I have stacks and stacks of letters from great directors saying I can 't cast you because you don 't mean anything to the studios . That 's why I turned the boat toward comedy . "
Election 's director Alexander Payne was anxious to cast Witherspoon as Tracy , based on her performances in Freeway and the 1991 film The Man in the Moon , and Witherspoon was equally eager to sign on to the project — but not to play Tracy . Witherspoon was drawn to the part of Tammy Metzler , the cynical outcast who becomes the election 's dark horse presidential candidate . Referring to the scene in which Tammy delivers a shocking campaign speech denouncing the school 's administration and the entire concept of elected student government , Witherspoon said , " That speech alone made me want to play Tammy ! So I was terribly conflicted . " ( Tammy was eventually portrayed by Jessica Campbell . )
To play Tracy , Witherspoon developed a distinct speech pattern combining strident intonations with a chipper Midwestern accent . She also worked on clenching her facial muscles and maintaining a clipped walking pace . " That was just Tracy , it so escapes me how it came out ! " she said . " I just imagined how uptight people carry themselves , and they grind their teeth at night and they clench their jaw because everything has to be just perfect . " Praising her performance , her co @-@ star Matthew Broderick said , " From the first she knew exactly what she wanted--a very aggressive person in a small and cute package ... she comes out very funny and very scary at the same time . "
Witherspoon 's performance as Tracy Flick received widespread critical acclaim , as well as her first Golden Globe Award nomination and several other accolades ( see below ) . However , she later said that her career struggles continued after Election due to public confusion between the character and the actress . " I 'm not Tracy Flick . I couldn 't get jobs for a year after that because people thought I was that crazy and angry and controlling and strange . But yeah , um , I 'm not . " It wouldn 't be until after the box office smash success of Legally Blonde two years later that her career would fully take off .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Comparisons = =
Tracy Flick has been a frequent point of comparison in commentary on real @-@ world political figures . Hillary Clinton has more than once been compared to the character . In a January 2008 video mashup produced by Slate , campaign footage of Clinton was combined with clips from Election to draw a comparison between Clinton 's and Tracy 's feelings about the inferiority of their opponents . The video was widely circulated and praised .
A Christian Science Monitor review of Clinton 's 2003 biography , Living History , quoted an excerpt in which Clinton discussed her participation during high school in a Cultural Values Committee and noted , " There is obviously some truth here , but the tone of the passage reeks of Tracy Flick , the overachieving , overly serious high school student from the film " Election . " Not to belittle the efforts of the Cultural Values Committee , but a brief aside to show that Clinton understands that high school sociopolitics is not exactly on par with race relations would be nice . "
Later in 2008 , following Clinton 's defeat for the Democratic presidential nomination , multiple commentators likened Tracy to the Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee , Alaska governor Sarah Palin . Actress and comedian Tina Fey credited Witherspoon 's performance as Tracy as an influence for Fey 's extremely popular Emmy @-@ winning impersonation of Palin on Saturday Night Live .
Other political figures compared to Tracy include former U.S. vice @-@ president and presidential candidate Al Gore ; Seattle City Council member Heidi Wills ; , Texas senator and 2016 U.S. Presidential candidate Ted Cruz , and New York senator Kirsten Gillibrand , whom Maureen Dowd wrote was nicknamed Tracy Flick by her colleagues for her " opportunistic and sharp @-@ elbowed " manner .
Outside the political arena , several reviews of the 2007 film Rocket Science noted similarities between that film 's character of Ginny , portrayed by Anna Kendrick , and Tracy .
= = As a cultural icon = =
Tracy Flick has been included on a 2007 list on mtv.com of " our 10 favorite high school archetypes from the movies " ( as " The Annoying Overachiever " ) ; a 2008 New York Daily News list of " high @-@ school fast @-@ talkers before Charlie Bartlett " ; and a 2008 E ! Online list of " the top 9 creepiest movie bad guys . " TV writer Dan Harmon has also mentioned in interviews and on his podcast that Tracy Flick was the inspiration for the character of Annie Edison on Community .
= BK Chicken Fries =
BK Chicken Fries are a fried chicken product sold by the international fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King . At the time of their introduction in 2005 , the company had intended Chicken Fries to be one of their larger , adult oriented products made with higher quality ingredients than their standard menu items . Additionally , the product further targeted the snacking and convenience food markets with a specific packaging design that was intended to be easier to handle and fit into automotive cup holders . The product was part of a series of product introductions designed to expand Burger King 's menu with both more sophisticated fare and present a larger , meatier product that appealed to 24- to 36 @-@ year @-@ old adult males . Along with this series of larger , more complex group of menu products , the company intended to attract a larger , more affluent adult audience who would be willing to spend more on the better quality products . They were discontinued in the United States in 2012 , but continued to be sold in some markets , such as Italy . In August 2014 , they were reintroduced for a limited time offering ( LTO ) in North America , leading to their permanent re @-@ addition to the menu in March 2015 in over 30 countries globally .
As one of the company 's major offerings , the chicken fries are sometimes the center of product advertising for the company . The original advertisements were created by the firm of Crispin , Porter + Bogusky and were the subject of both criticism and legal action by the nu metal band Slipknot over claims of intellectual property rights , while later advertising programs started the company on new direction of digital @-@ based , multi @-@ media advertising . With the product 's North American reintroduction in 2014 and 2015 , Burger King utilized a heavy social media campaign to help entice fans of the product back into restaurants . The company has also relied heavily on product tie @-@ ins with the NFL , NCAA and NASCAR to promote the product across different demographic groups . Even though the product has been a prominent part of the menu for the better part of a decade , Burger King has released very few limited @-@ time ( LTO ) variants of the product – its first one being released in the summer of 2015 . Despite being a major product line in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered very few , if any , global trademarks to protect its investment in the product .
= = History = =
BK Chicken Fries were introduced in 2005 as part of a menu expansion that was designed to cater to a more adult demographic looking for dishes that went beyond the standard fast food fare . At the time of the introduction , Burger King was targeting a demographic group it identified as the " super fan " , a group consisting of males between the ages of 18 – 34 that ate at fast food restaurants several times a week . Additionally , the chain was also adding other fare such as its TenderGrill , TenderCrisp and Angus sandwiches , that were designed to offer more complex menu items that would raise average check prices and expand the breadth of its offerings in the fast food market place . The product was discontinued in January 2012 , replaced with Burger King 's version of chicken strips in March of that year .
Following Chicken Fries ' discontinuation , there was a call for the product 's reinstatement from fans of the product on forums such as Reddit ; Business Insider noted that they are one of the 17 most requested fast products that people would like to see returned to menus . Fans of the product also established several social media accounts dedicated to Chicken Fries ' return on Facebook , Twitter , and Tumblr . Additionally , a Change.org petition was created that called on Burger King to reinstate the product to its menu . Perez Hilton 's web site declared that Chicken Fries are one product of many that will never come back , while comedian Daniel Tosh featured a skit during one of the segments of his show , Tosh.0 , to the product 's return . They were re @-@ released in August 2014 as a limited time offering ( LTO ) . The return of the product met with a favorable reaction from those who were advocating for Chicken Fries to return to the Burger King menu . There was disappointment from these groups as well because of the product 's status as a limited time offering . In March 2015 , Burger King permanently re @-@ added Chicken Fries to the menu in a large , international menu expansion in thirty countries .
The product garnered large amounts of attention on the internet after its discontinuation – at its peak the product was being mentioned in one form or another on average once every 40 seconds . In its third @-@ quarter 2014 earnings report , Burger King admitted that the massive social media attention was one of the primary reasons it brought the product back . The positive reaction to the reintroduction included over one million mentions on Twitter . This tied into a major push by the company to utilize social media as a free marketing tool to millennials , who overwhelmingly utilize interactive media to communicate and prefer companies that utilize these tools .
Besides customer demand for the product , another major reason for the reintroduction was due to a significant rise in the cost of beef . During the previous few months leading up to the reintroduction of Chicken Fries , the available cattle stocks had declined since the USDA began record keeping in 1973 . This shortage of ground beef caused a spike in the price of beef to all @-@ time highs in June 2014 , according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics . Additionally , increasing competition from McDonald 's , Wendy 's and other chains in the fast food industry drove Burger King to boost sales by introducing new products along similar lines . Two major competitors had been revamping their menus with products such as variations on the McDouble from McDonald 's and sandwiches based on pretzel @-@ style buns from Wendy 's .
The third reason the product was brought back was because of a new approach by the company was taking regarding LTO products ; instead of putting out large numbers of products that may only appeal to a small audience , it instead would only add a smaller amount of products that have broader market appeal . Chicken Fries were part of that goal , with the re @-@ introduction utilizing a three prong approach : its stated intention to introduce products to those that will have most impact , a bid to appeal to Millennials utilizing social media focused campaigns , and to utilize a former product from its portfolio that the company probably should have thought about before discontinuing . The idea of reintroducing older products is appealing to companies such as Burger King and McDonald 's because it is operationally easier than launching a completely new product by allowing a company to utilize older advertising along with its existing supply chain already which is already established to deliver the product ingredients . The limited @-@ time offers allow chains to bring " new " product the menu without adding permanent complexity to their kitchen operations .
The reintroduction of Chicken Fries proved to be a fortuitous decision for Burger King , the resulting sales bump provided an increase in profits each time they were added to the menu . The 2014 reintroduction was a resounding success for the company , helping Burger King achieve domestic same @-@ store comparable sales rise of 3 @.@ 1 % in 2014 . On the opposite side , McDonald ’ s reported a 4 % decrease for the same period in its domestic same @-@ store sales , which the competitor attributed to " ongoing aggressive competitive activity . " The success of the 2015 reintroduction again helped the chain post positive financial numbers , with the company reporting that the Chicken Fries reintroduction was one of a trio of factors that helped drive second quarter 2015 same @-@ store comparable sales growth up by 7 @.@ 9 % . Again , arch rival McDonald 's reported that its same @-@ store comparable sales fell 2 % for the same time period in the US as its promotions failed to meet financial analysts predictions .
= = Product description = =
BK Chicken Fries are breaded and fried chicken strips , and were available in three sizes during their initial availability period : six- , nine- , and twelve @-@ piece servings . Three and thirty @-@ six @-@ piece sizes were available as limited time offers ( LTO ) . The smaller size was sold à la carte , while larger portion could be purchased as a meal option . While its core audience was adults such as soccer moms or commuters , a children 's meal option was at one time available U.S. that included a six @-@ piece order of the product . The 2014 reissued product was only available in a nine @-@ piece serving , at a recommended price point of USD $ 2 @.@ 89 .
A summer 2015 LTO introduced a spicy variant , called Fiery Chicken Fries , in addition to the standard offering ; the product featured a spicy , pepper @-@ based breading featuring a mix of cayenne pepper , black pepper and other spices that replaced the normal coating . The product was the first variant of BK Chicken Fries added to the company 's menu . In developing the product , Burger King 's chief marketing officer stated that once taste testers described the product as " spicy as shit " , the company realized it had the correct spice mix . Sale of the product would be limited to a one @-@ month period , but the company stated if sales were successful enough it would consider extending the availability beyond the initial time frame .
To accompany the 2015 re @-@ introduction of the product , the chain released a new sauce simply called Chicken Fry Sauce . The new condiment was not widely advertised , with almost all promotion being done through the company 's social media accounts on Twitter and Facebook . The sauce is described as a combination of BBQ sauce and honey mustard , and described by Burger King as " The sauce of all sauces . " The company 's posts were accompanied by the hashtag AskForTheSauce .
= = = Packaging = = =
Part of the product 's format was in its packaging , which was designed to fit in a car cup holder . The BK Chicken Fry box , while square in shape , will sit comfortably in the cup holder and its top , when opened , forms a small tray that is designed to hold dipping sauce . Burger King credits the design of this box with helping to make its Chicken Fries the most popular adult @-@ oriented chicken product in the United States at the time . Since most of the fast food industry 's business is take @-@ out or drive @-@ thru traffic , this allowed the convenience food purchaser to drive and eat with little effort . With the introduction of the BK Chicken Fries , BK began adapting some of its other product packaging so that it could also be placed in an automotive cup holder . In addition to the Chicken Fries container , the company added a trademarked and patented , round French fry container which it calls the " FryPod " , which is a paper cup made from 50 percent recycled materials that is also designed to fit in an automotive cup holder . The package design won an honorable mention at a packaging industry design competition hosted by the Quick Service Restaurant division of the Foodservice and Packaging Institute in 2007 .
The 2015 Fiery Chicken Fries promotion introduced a packaging variant that featured new graphics . The image featured on the box is an angry looking chicken in a Lucha libre @-@ style mask . Other packaging variants that have appeared over the years have included tie @-@ ins to the NFL and SpongeBob SquarePants .
= = Advertising = =
= = = Coq Roq = = =
Coq Roq , also spelled COQ ROQ , was an advertising program created in late 2004 for Burger King by the Miami @-@ based advertising firm Crispin Porter + Bogusky ( CP + B ) . Coq Roq was a fictional " rooster metal " group ( albeit composed of various real @-@ life musicians ) with its own website and associated content . The band 's musical " style " was classified as punk @-@ sounding rock n ' roll , thrash or nu metal . The campaign featured a viral marketing website , television and print campaigns and a fictional MySpace page . The program was similar to other marketing campaigns created by CP + B for Burger King , including the Subservient Chicken , Ugoff , and Sith Sense .
According to CP + B employee Tom Zukoszki , The fictional background information for the band was that they signed with Burger King instead of a major record label . As part of the promotion , a four song LP record was recorded , two music videos produced , and a national ( US ) tour planned . The tour had to be cancelled because the actor playing the lead singer , a Canadian citizen , was unable to enter the United States because he had a criminal record in his home country .
= = = = Members = = = =
Fowl Mouth : vocals
The Talisman : lead guitar
Kabuki : rhythm guitar
Free Range : bass
Sub @-@ Sonic : drums
Firebird : fire breather
= = = 2014 reintroduction = = =
The 2014 reintroduction of the product featured a first for the company , a primarily digital @-@ focused promotion headed by the company 's online media agency Code and Theory . To start off the promotion , the company announced the forthcoming reintroduction a few weeks before the product was set to be released with the simple tweet " You asked . We answered . ChickenFriesAreBack . " The company also expanded its social media footprint specifically for the Chicken Fries promotion , adding new Tumblr and Snapchat accounts to their stable of social media outlets . The idea behind the large social media push was monetary , instead of spending capital on a traditional multi @-@ week , multi @-@ media advertising campaign the company would have product @-@ loyalists spread the word at a fraction of the cost of traditional advertising .
Instead of producing a new series of spots on the television front , the chain reused the commercials originally produced by Crispin , Porter + Bogusky from the initial product run . These commercials were only played on Thursdays , specifically for the social media meme known as Throwback Thursday , events that feature historical personal stories or happenings that are routinely run on various sites such as Facebook or Instagram . The only major change to the advertisements was the addition of the hashtag TBT to the lower left @-@ hand corner of the video .
After the end of the promotional period , Burger King received numerous complaints from fans of Chicken Fries through social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook . One of the major ways the company responded was through personalized responses to these posts . Instead of using an automated response that would paste a standardized message on people 's Twitter feeds , the company instead employed several staff to personally respond to customers voicing displeasure on the LTO nature of the 2014 introduction . The entire 2014 Chicken Fries promotion represented a major shift in the attitude towards advertising for Burger King , moving from a more traditional advertising structure to one focused almost entirely on digitally @-@ based media . This change happened fairly quickly , falling into place over the twelve to eighteen @-@ month period preceding the reintroduction of Chicken Fries to the chain 's menu . Along with the new advertising firm , a new director of digital marketing and social media was newly hired from cosmetics firm L 'Oréal was added , increasing the clout of the digital advertising team within the chain .
= = = 2015 reintroduction = = =
Advertising for the permanent reintroduction of Chicken Fries in early 2015 was again shaped around a large digital @-@ media push headed by its new advertising firm David . However , unlike the 2014 promotion that was almost exclusively digitally @-@ oriented , the 2015 promotion was accompanied with a sizable television and media tie @-@ in to the annual NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship tournament . In the host city of Indianapolis , Burger King sponsored Chicken Fries @-@ branded SUVs that would give free rides to visitors . A series of advertisements for the product and the company 's 2 for $ 5 sandwich promotion ran during the tournament featuring the hash tag WatchLikeaKing , along with a series of NCAA co @-@ branded kid 's meals .
On the digital @-@ front , the company utilized a viral marketing strategy starring a chicken named Gloria . Gloria would be brought to local restaurants to decide if the particular location would sell Chicken Fries that day ; she would be given two feed bowls labeled " Yes " and " no " and depending on which bowl she ate from would decide if the product would be sold there that day . Gloria the chicken had her own truck with her own custom @-@ designed coop . There was a social media presence accompanying the tour with the hashtags RandomGloria and ChickenFries . Additionally , each of the events were live streamed on the product 's webpage , which also included other things such as Gloria 's bio , a map of upcoming events and links to corporate web sites . The Gloria tour did raise the ire of animal rights organization PETA . The group initially responded to the promotion with a one @-@ word tweet , " DESPICABLE , " with the follow up " @ BurgerKing forcing a chicken to decide if her friends will become # ChickenFries . " PETA stated that the concept behind the tour made their jaws drop over perceived cruelty .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Sexual innuendo = = = =
The CP + B produced Coq Roq advertisements followed a pattern of controversy for the company , as previous advertisements produced by CP + B had come under fire for perceived or overt sexual innuendo . An earlier example of this type of advertisement was a promotion for a LTO version of Burger King 's TenderCrisp sandwich which featured Darius Rucker in a commercial singing a variant of Burger King 's Have It Your Way jingle that featured a line about " a train of ladies with a nice caboose , " where caboose was not referring to the last car of a train , but the buttocks of the actresses featured in the commercial . The issues raised by public interest groups in this instance came from complaints over the double entendres and sexual innuendo on the Coq Roq website . Pictures of scantily clad women posing as groupies of the band were featured in one section of the site and sported comments such as " groupies love the Coq " and " Groupies love Coq " . Protests from the public over the sexual innuendo of the comments forced BK to request CB + P to have content be changed to something more appropriate for a family oriented restaurant .
= = = = Slipknot lawsuit = = = =
In August 2005 , CP + B and Burger King became the target of lawyers of the band Slipknot , who alleged the mask @-@ wearing rooster rockers were a blatant copy of the band 's style . The band claimed that CP + B had approached Slipknot 's record company , Roadrunner Records , with an offer to appear in another commercial for Burger King . The band declined on the grounds that they did not want to be associated with a burger chain and they felt that the Coq Roq advertisements were deliberately co @-@ opting the band 's signature look and style in order to influence its fans to purchase the chain 's products . The band issued a cease and desist letter to CP + B and BK requesting the advertisements be pulled . When the two parties declined , the band sued for an undisclosed amount .
CP + B and Burger King then filed counter @-@ suit against Slipknot , stating that the Coq Roq band was fictitious , visually and musically bore little resemblance to Slipknot 's style , and at best was a general parody of heavy metal bands that wear masks or try to achieve a mask @-@ like effect , such as Mushroomhead , KISS or GWAR . Partly mentioned in the counter @-@ suit included the notion that Slipknot were parodies of bands themselves , further citing the specific example of Mushroomhead , who wore near identical style masks and jumpsuits , and had been playing several years before Slipknot even formed , let alone went mainstream . Both suits were eventually dropped , and Burger King ended the campaign shortly after .
= = = Tie @-@ ins = = =
As a product tie @-@ in with the 2005 – 2006 NFL season , Burger King introduced a 36 piece party pack as a limited time offer . This promotion was more general and featured the BK mascot , the Burger King , digitally superimposed into NFL game footage so appeared to be involved in the game . Some of the players the King replaced include Steve Young , Deion Sanders , and Moe Williams . He was also been depicted performing the Lambeau Leap and dumping Gatorade on the head of former Miami Dolphins head coach Don Shula . The primary packaging was altered to include the NFL logo ; the party pack designed to mimic the texture of a football , included the NFL logo and a humorous comment along the line of those found on BK packaging at the time .
During the summer of 2006 , BK introduced the 12 piece size as a product tie @-@ in with NASCAR and its new sponsorship of a NASCAR team . The promotion was part of the company 's new sponsorship deal with NASCAR and the new BK / Michael Waltrip Racing team featuring Waltrip 's 00 car number . Several television ads were produced featuring BK Chicken Fries and Waltrip 's racing team with a fictional pit crew member , the chicken server .
During 2007 , Burger King had another product tie @-@ in with a Nickelodeon show , SpongeBob SquarePants . Again the box was altered , this time so the design of the looked like the character SpongeBob . Later in @-@ store promotions in the U.S. have urged customers to add a six @-@ piece portion to their meal as a snack option .
= = Naming and trademarks = =
The name " BK Chicken Fries " is not registered as a trademark in the markets the product is sold ( US , Canada , the UK , and Europe ) , [ Notes 1 ] however the acronym " BK " is a trademark of Burger King Holdings and is displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in the United States , Europe and New Zealand . [ Notes 2 ] The term " chicken fries " has been trademarked in the United States several times , but never by Burger King . In Canada , " chicken fries " was owned by KFC parent , Yum ! Brands , but its registration was expunged from the records . [ Notes 3 ]
= Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari =
Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari is a free downloadable vehicle combat video game released on January 29 , 2008 by Flashbang Studios . The game requires the Unity plug @-@ in to run , and can be downloaded from the developers ' website . Players assume the role of a Velociraptor wearing a pith helmet and monocle , driving a jeep with a spiked flail attached , and must accrue as many points as possible in a four @-@ minute period by performing stunts and running down other Velociraptor . Each time a Velociraptor is struck , the game 's speed is reduced to slow motion and its catapulted body becomes the focus of the in @-@ game camera . The game operates a global highscore , after each game the player is given a rank for that day and a separate rank compared to the highest ever scores , along with a breakdown of the bonuses they were awarded during play .
The game was developed over a period of eight weeks by a small team of developers , using the Unity game engine . The idea was originally drawn onto a whiteboard , after the drawing remained in the developer 's office for a few days it was decided that it would be the next project undertaken by the team . Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari received positive reviews from gaming websites for its macabre humor and gameplay , though it was noted that the game had not been fully optimized on release , causing the game to run slowly on less modern machines .
A sequel ( working title " Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari HD " ) was in development , but the project was put to rest in 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Players control a monocle- and pith helmet – wearing Velociraptor driving a jeep . The aim of the game is to attain a high score by performing stunts , damaging the jeep during collisions , collecting orbs , and killing the other Velociraptor which run around the area . The vehicle is equipped with a spiked ball and chain which can be deployed from the tailgate as many times as the player wishes . Deploying the spiked ball increases the difficulty of maneuvering the vehicle . The ball can be released from the chain at any time , if done so during a turn the weapon is launched forward . Players kill other Velociraptor by ramming them with the jeep or crushing them with the spiked ball which is dragged behind the vehicle . Slain dinosaurs can be dragged to exporters by the spiked ball and chain to gain extra points . Exporters are teleporting devices which transport the slain dinosaurs to the future .
Bonuses can be earned by achieving specific goals . If stunts or actions are repeated within a time limit , a score multiplier is earned and repeated actions boost the player 's score further . Gameplay takes place in a single tropical jungle area , at the beginning of a game the jeep appears in a random location within the jungle . Stunt ramps are set up throughout the game area , along with the hills and valleys these facilitate long @-@ distance jumps and other stunts . Each game takes four minutes , after the timer counts down to zero , the total score and any bonuses earned are shown . The player 's ranking compared to other games played that day and the all @-@ time highscores are also shown . Specific achievements can be gained by players , which are saved to their online profile , though the game can be played as a ' guest ' , which doesn 't require a game profile to be created .
= = Development = =
Flashbang Studios had planned to earn money from creating casual games so that they could create a quirky game without having to worry about sales and sustaining the studio . Although the company failed to create a financially successful casual game , by creating software for other companies they managed to acquire enough money to undertake an unusual project of their own choosing .
The original concept was drawn on a white board , after the image had been left on the board for several days , the developers decided that it " pretty much had to be the next game . " Initially the studio had intended to incorporate weapons into the game , but first developed the tow chain which would be used to transport slain Velociraptor . The use of a chain was inspired by the controversial game Carmageddon . The chain was designed to be a place @-@ holder , to be replaced by a skinned rope . However , it was decided that the chain itself was acceptable without further modification . Plans to include additional weapons were dropped ; the flail alone proved to be effective enough .
When development began in December 2007 , the studio had employed five full @-@ time team members . Development took eight weeks , though creation of the Velociraptor and jeep models had already been started before development began . Other staff were working on the title before then , but two key members were involved in the Independent Games Festival . A teaser trailer was released on January 18 , 2008 ; quickly garnering interest from gaming blogs such as Kotaku and Destructoid . In an interview the developers hinted that a non @-@ free downloadable version with extra content may be produced , or that advertisements may be introduced to the site . The company also revealed plans to continue developing free games with a development time of four to eight weeks . The most popular of these games will be further developed and released on platforms such as WiiWare , PlayStation Network or Xbox Live Arcade .
= = Reception = =
Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari received a positive reception , reviewers praised the game as fun to play and addictive , particularly in relation to the short development time . Reviewers found issues with slowdown and variable frame rates , though the game was updated after reviewers highlighted the problems . Atomic Gamer 's Brian Beck awarded the game a score of 90 % , calling it " a fun , rewarding game " and citing the lack of restraints with the exception of the time limit . Games journalist John Walker , writing for Rock Paper Shotgun , described the game as " a stupid amount of fun " and found himself " ... fairly stunned it can be played in a browser window . " Reviewers noted some technical problems , John Bardinelli described the game 's controls as " a bit clunky " and noted that even after installing the Unity plug @-@ in the game has " a long load time " regardless of internet connection speed . Brian Beck stated that the game was not " fully optimized " , resulting in players using less modern computers being unable to run the game smoothly .
Jay Is Games ' John Bardinelli found the game 's unusual premise to be the source of its playability , " The raw dose of driving , destruction and dinosaurs is enough to get just about any gamer 's blood pumping " . Despite this , he found the game 's premise of crushing Velociraptor slightly disturbing , but added " there 's just enough fiction to the setting to keep realism at bay . " Bit @-@ tech 's Joe Martin suggested that though longevity could be an issue for serious players , Off @-@ Road Velociraptor Safari is " unmatched " as a game which can be played for short periods of time . Channel 4 described the game as " a real laugh " and " one of our favourite coffee @-@ break games of the moment . " Destructoid 's Hamza Aziz enjoyed the game , " it 's hard not to love it " , but found the slow motion " gets old and frustrating after a while . "
= = Planned sequel = =
A sequel called " Off @-@ Road Velociraptor HD " was planned with a Q4 , 2010 release date . It was available to pre @-@ order off the official site and anyone who purchased the downloadable version of the original received an automatic free pre @-@ order . Later Blurst announced " Off @-@ Road Velociraptor HD " had been canceled due to financial problems and will most likely not see the light of the day .
= Justin Boren =
Justin Matthew Boren ( born April 28 , 1988 ) is an American football guard for the Denver Broncos of the National Football League ( NFL ) . Though a guard in the NFL , Boren played both guard and center during his high school and college football career . In high school , he was widely regarded as one of the top offensive linemen in the country and one of the top football prospects in the state of Ohio . He was selected to play in the U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl and was a Parade All @-@ American and an Associated Press All @-@ Ohio selection . The son of 1982 and 1983 Michigan Wolverines tackles leader Mike Boren , Justin was widely recruited by the nation 's top schools , including both his father 's alma mater , the University of Michigan and its archrival , Ohio State University , Boren 's hometown school .
After an intense recruitment , Boren choose to play at Michigan despite leaning towards attending Ohio State early in his recruitment . He played in several games as a true freshman , making one start . As a sophomore , he became a regular starter , earning 2007 All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention . When head coach Lloyd Carr retired and was replaced by Rich Rodriguez , Boren became unhappy with the new staff and transferred to Ohio State . After transferring he had to sit 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was also required to pay his own tuition , per Big Ten conference rules . He earned recognition as a selection to the 2009 and 2010 All @-@ Big Ten team by both the coaches ( second @-@ team ) and the media ( first @-@ team ) . He was also a 2010 College Football All @-@ America Team second team selection by several selectors . In 2009 , he became the third player ( following Howard Yerges and J. T. White ) to play for both sides of the Michigan – Ohio State rivalry . He was also teammates with his brother , Zach Boren , who was a starting fullback and linebacker for the Buckeyes . His other brother , Jacoby Boren , is currently the starting center at Ohio State .
He was signed by the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League as an undrafted free agent in 2011 . He has since played for the Ravens , Detroit Lions , and Denver Broncos .
= = Early life and high school = =
Boren is Jewish , and was born in Pickerington , Ohio . He was a freshman starter at Pickerington High School Central before transferring to Pickerington High School North the following year . As a high school sophomore , Boren played guard and was an honors student . During his high school years , his father was his harshest critic . As a junior he was listed as a nose guard on defense and an offensive tackle . That season , he earned Division I Associated Press All @-@ Ohio High School Football Team special mention . By the time he was a junior , he was being recruited by both Ohio State , the local school , and Michigan , where his father played . As a senior who bench pressed 450 pounds ( 204 kg ) and squatted 660 pounds ( 299 kg ) , he was regarded as Central Ohio 's most sought after high school football recruit . As a result , he was selected to participate as one of 78 players in the 2006 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl where he started at left offensive guard for the East team . He was also selected to the Associated Press first @-@ team Division I All @-@ Central District and All @-@ Ohio high school football teams as an offensive lineman . After committing to Michigan , he enrolled in classes at the University of Michigan in January of what would have been the end of his senior year in high school along with roommate Carlos Brown . Of all the football prospects from the state of Ohio , Boren was the only one that Ohio State was not able to lure .
= = College career = =
= = = Michigan = = =
Having enrolled in January 2006 , Boren ( and roommate Brown ) were available to participate in 2006 Spring Football . Both players participated in spring practice , which was part of a national trend of more high schoolers enrolling early . Although early enrollment had been occurring for several years , Kevin Grady had been the first at Michigan in 2005 . As a freshman during the 2006 NCAA Division I FBS football season for the 2006 Michigan Wolverines , Boren was injured during training camp , and he did not dress in the season opener . He had suffered a broken leg . Despite being injured through the entire month of September , Boren decided not to redshirt and debuted during the Paul Bunyan Trophy rivalry game against Michigan State on October 7 . Two weeks later , when Rueben Riley got injured against the Iowa Hawkeyes , he played the entire second half . On October 28 , with Riley still injured , he became only the fourth true freshman to start on the Michigan offensive line in the modern era during a victory against Northwestern . The following week against Ball State , Boren saw action after Jake Long got kicked in the helmet . Boren 's final action of the season came against the Indiana Hoosiers on November 11 . During the 2006 season , all of his appearances were at guard . During 2007 Rose Bowl practices at the end of the 2006 season , Boren had practiced exclusively at center .
Boren had been recruited as either a center or a guard , but he preferred to play guard . In spring practice the following year , Boren was moved to center . At the end of the National Collegiate Athletic Association @-@ sanctioned 15 days of spring football practice , he was announced as the starting center , replacing Mark Bihl . This decision was confirmed when training camp started in the fall , even though Boren had never before played center . Thus , the starting offensive line was composed of veterans Long and Adam Kraus on the left and then Boren , right guard Jeremy Ciulla and right tackle Stephen Schilling neither of whom had ever started a game . The 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season was eagerly anticipated for the 2007 Wolverines with returning seniors Long , Mike Hart and Chad Henne in key roles , but the season quickly began to fall apart when the team lost to the two @-@ time defending FCS champion Appalachian State Mountaineers in the opening game . When Ryan Mallett played in place of Henne during the September 15 , Notre Dame rivalry game , left @-@ handed snapper Boren switched positions with right @-@ handed snapper Kraus who otherwise played left guard . The switch occurred after Mallett fumbled two snaps from Boren , whose left @-@ handed snaps were foreign to the right @-@ handed Mallett . The switch caused a little confusion with official starting lineups the following week when Mallett started . On September 22 against Penn State , both Boren and Kraus had casts on their snapping hands and Boren played center despite the fact that Mallett was starting . During Mallett 's October 27 start in the Little Brown Jug game against Minnesota , Kraus started at center . The following week during the Paul Bunyan Trophy against Michigan State , the position switch was made permanent . After the regular season , Boren was recognized as an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten selection . Prior to the 2008 Capital One Bowl , Boren was expected to return to center because Henne had returned to full strength . However , during the game , Boren played guard and Kraus played center . After the season , both Boren and Kraus were named to Jewish Sports Review 's 2007 College Football All @-@ America Team .
After the season , head coach Lloyd Carr was replaced by Rich Rodriguez . Rodriguez ' no huddle spread option offense , which used zone blocking , was a major adjustment for Boren . By the tenth day of spring practice Boren had left the team . Boren made a statement to the press regarding his decision , which included the following excerpt : " Michigan football was a family , built on mutual respect and support for each other from ( former ) Coach ( Lloyd ) Carr on down . We knew it took the entire family , a team effort , and we all worked together . . I have great trouble accepting that those family values have eroded in just a few months . . .That I am unable to perform under these circumstances at the level I expect of myself , and my teammates and Michigan fans deserve , is why I have made the decision to leave . " A month later , Ohio State coach Jim Tressel announced Boren would redshirt for the 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season and become the first player to transfer from Michigan to play for arch rival Ohio State since at least World War II . According to Section 14.5.2.B of the Rules of Eligibility in the Big Ten handbook , Boren is ineligible to be a scholarship athlete after transferring . A little more than a week after Justin announced his transfer , his younger brother Zach committed to Ohio State . Later that summer , Detroit Free Press writer Michael Rosenberg , backed up Boren 's statement about family values : " Rodriguez 's staff uses some of the foulest , most degrading language imaginable . I know coaches curse , and I 'm no prude , but this goes way beyond a few dirty words . He belittles his players . This is a big part of why offensive lineman Justin Boren left the team . He felt his dignity was at stake . "
= = = Ohio State = = =
When Boren arrived at Ohio State at 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and 310 pounds ( 140 kg ) , he was one of the smallest offensive linemen on the team . During his redshirt season , he wore the number 56 . In order to bond with his new teammates such as Alex Boone , he shaved lightning bolts into his head . While redshirtting , he stood out in practice where he performed on the scout team . In fact , during the week leading up to the final regular season game against Michigan , he wore the Winged Football Helmet that Michigan is known for as part of the scout team . The 2008 Ohio State Buckeyes football team included three seniors on the offensive line : Boone , Steve Rehring and Ben Person .
A total of 28 seniors graduated from the football team leaving the 2009 Ohio State Buckeyes football team with five returning starters on offense for the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . However , the team had the number one recruiting class in the nation according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Both Scout.com and Rivals.com agreed with this number one ranking prior to the final signing period and although the offensive line had been the team 's problem in 2008 , the highly touted class included three tackles and a guard plus transfer Boren .
In the spring of 2009 , Hope Boren spoke at signing day about her two sons prospects for at Ohio State : " As a parent , you always try to raise kids who are happy and successful . . . And I know my kids are happy and I think they 'll be successful . " Zach Boren said , " Everyone in the whole family is an Ohio State fan now . . .No one cares about Michigan at all anymore . That was in the past and we 're all looking forward to being Buckeyes and staying Buckeyes for the rest of our lives . " During spring practice , Boren impressed his coaches and teammates ; however , he refused all interview requests . During the summer , when asked about the impending Michigan – Ohio State game he said " My attitude is there are 11 games before that game , . . .I can 't let myself get worked up thinking about that game . I don 't want to take a chance of being unprepared for any of the first 11 games . The week that game gets here , it will be my primary focus . " By then , he was projected to be the starting left guard , and he was expected to be an important part of the team .
Prior to the 2009 season , Boren suffered a knee injury . The injury was not severe because of the knee brace that he was wearing . He recovered in time to be in the starting lineup at left guard along with his younger brother who started at fullback for the September 5 season opener against Navy . The media portrayed Boren as a nasty and intense player , which Boren downplayed . Early in the season , the offensive line struggled . But as the season progressed guards Boren and Bryant Browning teamed up with second @-@ year linemen Michael Brewster , J.B. Shugarts and Mike Adams to form a unit that worked effectively . Boren missed the October 31 non @-@ conference game against New Mexico State due to an unspecified foot injury . When he returned to Michigan Stadium for the season finale , Michigan defensive end Brandon Graham was very vocal about Boren 's departure . At the conclusion of the 2009 Big Ten season , he was named to the All @-@ Big Ten Conference team by both the coaches ( second @-@ team ) and the media ( first @-@ team ) . The following 2010 season , he repeated as a first team media and second team coaches All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He was named as a second team All @-@ American selection by Associated Press , CBS Sports , Rivals.com and Scout.com.
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Boren was one of 56 offensive linemen invited to participate in the February 24 – March 1 , 2011 NFL Scouting Combine . He ranked thirteenth in the bench press with a total of 28 repetitions . He ranked eleventh in the three cone drill with a time of 7 @.@ 57 . Following the draft and the 2011 NFL lockout , Boren was regarded as one of the best available free agents .
= = = Baltimore Ravens = = =
Boren was signed by the Baltimore Ravens on July 26 , 2011 . Boren 's former University of Michigan offensive line coach Andy Moeller was a coach with Baltimore at the time of his signing . He was waived by the team on September 3 , 2011 , but he was signed to the practice squad on September 5 . On January 3 , 2012 , during the first round bye week of the 2011 – 12 NFL playoffs , Boren was activated . On September 1 , 2012 , Boren was assigned to injured reserve . Boren reached an injury settlement with the team before being removed from the roster later that week .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
Boren was named to the practice squad of the Detroit Lions on November 20 , 2012 .
= = = Denver Broncos = = =
On January 7 , 2013 , the Denver Broncos signed Boren to a futures contract . On August 7 , 2013 , Boren was waived / injured by the Broncos . On August 8 , 2013 , he cleared waivers and was placed on the Broncos ' injured reserve list .
= = Personal life = =
Boren 's father , Mike Boren , played football for Michigan from 1980 – 83 and his mother , Hope , ran track there from 1979 – 82 . Boren attended 2005 Michigan Summer Football Camp . Mike led the Wolverines in tackles in 1982 and 1983 . Justin 's youngest brother , Jacoby , was a sophomore at Pickerington Central High School in 2009 . By December 2010 , Jacoby had committed to Ohio State .
= Russian battleship Imperator Pavel I =
Imperator Pavel I ( Russian : Император Павел I - Czar Paul I ) was an Andrei Pervozvanny @-@ class predreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . The ship 's construction was seriously extended by design changes as a result of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and labor unrest after the 1905 Revolution and she took nearly six years to build . Imperator Pavel I was not very active during World War I and her bored sailors were the first to mutiny in early 1917 . The ship was laid up in 1918 and she was scrapped in 1923 .
= = Description = =
Imperator Pavel I was 454 feet ( 138 @.@ 4 m ) long at the waterline and 460 feet ( 140 @.@ 2 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 18 @,@ 902 long tons ( 19 @,@ 205 t ) at deep load . Her hull was subdivided by 17 transverse watertight bulkheads and the engine rooms were divided by a centerline longitudinal bulkhead . She had a double bottom and a metacentric height of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
Imperator Pavel I had two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a total designed output of 17 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 100 kW ) . Twenty @-@ five Belleville boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 285 pounds per square inch ( 1 @,@ 970 kPa ; 20 @.@ 0 kgf / cm2 ) . On sea trials , the engines produced 18 @,@ 596 ihp ( 13 @,@ 867 kW ) and a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . She carried a normal load of 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of coal that provided a range of 1 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ; 1 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) and a maximum load of 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) that gave 2 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 400 km ; 2 @,@ 800 mi ) at the same speed .
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch Model 1895 40 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . These guns had a maximum elevation of 35 ° and could depress to -5 ° . 80 rounds per gun were carried and they could fire one round per minute . Eight of the fourteen 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) Model 1905 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in four twin @-@ gun turret at the corners of the superstructure while six were mounted in casemates in the superstructure . For defense against torpedo boats , Imperator Pavel I carried twelve 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates above the 8 @-@ inch guns in the superstructure . Two underwater 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were mounted , one on each side , and they were provided with six spare torpedoes .
Based on the Russian experience at the Battle of Tsushima , the sides of the ship 's hull were completely protected by Krupp cemented armor . The main waterline belt had a maximum thickness of 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 216 mm ) and the upper belt was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at its thickest . The sides of the main gun turrets were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick and the armor of the casemates ranged from 3 @.@ 1 to 5 inches ( 79 to 127 mm ) in thickness . The greatest thickness of deck armor was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) .
= = Service history = =
Imperator Pavel I was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 27 October 1904 and was slowed by labor trouble in the shipyard from the 1905 Revolution . She was launched on 7 September 1907 and began her sea trials in October 1910 . The ship entered service on 10 March 1911 before her trials were completed in October 1911 . Imperator Pavel I joined the Baltic Fleet on completion and she made a port visit to Copenhagen in September 1912 . The following September she visited Portland , Cherbourg , and Stavanger . At the beginning of World War I she covered Russian minelaying operations at the entrance of the Gulf of Finland . She did little else for the rest of the war as the Russian naval strategy in the Baltic was defensive ; the four Gangut @-@ class dreadnoughts and the two Andrei Pervozvanny @-@ class predreadnoughts were to defend the entrance to the Gulf of Finland . The ship 's lattice masts were cut down in late 1914 and light topmasts were added . Torpedo nets were fitted in early 1915 and the ship 's torpedoes were removed in January 1916 . In late 1916 , four 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were added .
Disgruntled sailors aboard Imperator Pavel I instigated the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in Helsinki on 16 March 1917 , after they received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg , and the ship was renamed Respublika ( Republic ) on 29 April . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have their ships interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Respublika and
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an experimental bike with negative trail has been shown to be self @-@ stable .
In motorcycles , rake refers to the head angle instead , and offset created by the triple tree is used to diminish trail .
A small survey by Whitt and Wilson found :
touring bicycles with head angles between 72 ° and 73 ° and trail between 43 mm and 60 mm
racing bicycles with head angles between 73 ° and 74 ° and trail between 28 mm and 45 mm
track bicycles with head angles of 75 ° and trail between 23 @.@ 5 mm and 37 mm .
However , these ranges are not hard and fast . For example , LeMond Racing Cycles offers both with forks that have 45 mm of offset or rake and the same size wheels :
a 2006 Tete de Course , designed for road racing , with a head angle that varies from 71 ¼ ° to 74 ° , depending on frame size , and thus trail that varies from 51 @.@ 5 mm to 69 mm .
a 2007 Filmore , designed for the track , with a head angle that varies from 72 ½ ° to 74 ° , depending on frame size , and thus trail that varies from 51 @.@ 5 mm to 61 mm .
The amount of trail a particular bike has may vary with time for several reasons . On bikes with front suspension , especially telescopic forks , compressing the front suspension , due to heavy braking for example , can steepen the steering axis angle and reduce trail . Trail also varies with lean angle , and steering angle , usually decreasing from a maximum when the bike is straight upright and steered straight ahead . Trail can decrease to zero with sufficiently large lean and steer angles , which can alter how stable a bike feels . Finally , even the profile of the front tire can influence how trail varies as the bike is leaned and steered .
A measurement similar to trail , called either mechanical trail , normal trail , or true trail , is the perpendicular distance from the steering axis to the centroid of the front wheel contact patch .
= = = = Wheelbase = = = =
A factor that influences the directional stability of a bike is wheelbase , the horizontal distance between the ground contact points of the front and rear wheels . For a given displacement of the front wheel , due to some disturbance , the angle of the resulting path from the original is inversely proportional to wheelbase . Also , the radius of curvature for a given steer angle and lean angle is proportional to the wheelbase . Finally , the wheelbase increases when the bike is leaned and steered . In the extreme , when the lean angle is 90 ° , and the bike is steered in the direction of that lean , the wheelbase is increased by the radius of the front and rear wheels .
= = = = Steering mechanism mass distribution = = = =
Another factor that can also contribute to the self @-@ stability of traditional bike designs is the distribution of mass in the steering mechanism , which includes the front wheel , the fork , and the handlebar . If the center of mass for the steering mechanism is in front of the steering axis , then the pull of gravity will also cause the front wheel to steer in the direction of a lean . This can be seen by leaning a stationary bike to one side . The front wheel will usually also steer to that side independent of any interaction with the ground . Additional parameters , such as the fore @-@ to @-@ aft position of the center of mass and the elevation of the center of mass also contribute to the dynamic behavior of a bike .
= = = = Gyroscopic effects = = = =
The role of the gyroscopic effect in most bike designs is to help steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean . This phenomenon is called precession and the rate at which an object precesses is inversely proportional to its rate of spin . The slower a front wheel spins , the faster it will precess when the bike leans , and vice versa . The rear wheel is prevented from precessing as the front wheel does by friction of the tires on the ground , and so continues to lean as though it were not spinning at all . Hence gyroscopic forces do not provide any resistance to tipping .
At low forward speeds , the precession of the front wheel is too quick , contributing to an uncontrolled bike ’ s tendency to oversteer , start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over . At high forward speeds , the precession is usually too slow , contributing to an uncontrolled bike ’ s tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position . This instability is very slow , on the order of seconds , and is easy for most riders to counteract . Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self @-@ stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled .
Another contribution of gyroscopic effects is a roll moment generated by the front wheel during countersteering . For example , steering left causes a moment to the right . The moment is small compared to the moment generated by the out @-@ tracking front wheel , but begins as soon as the rider applies torque to the handlebars and so can be helpful in motorcycle racing . For more detail , see the section countersteering , below , and the countersteering article .
= = = = Self @-@ stability = = = =
Between the two unstable regimes mentioned in the previous section , and influenced by all the factors described above that contribute to balance ( trail , mass distribution , gyroscopic effects , etc . ) , there may be a range of forward speeds for a given bike design at which these effects steer an uncontrolled bike upright . It has been proven that neither gyroscopic effects nor positive trail are sufficient by themselves or necessary for self @-@ stability , although they certainly can enhance hands @-@ free control .
However , even without self @-@ stability a bike may be ridden by steering it to keep it over its wheels . Note that the effects mentioned above that would combine to produce self @-@ stability may be overwhelmed by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables . This video shows a riderless bicycle exhibiting self @-@ stability .
= = = = Longitudinal acceleration = = = =
Longitudinal acceleration has been shown to have a large and complex effect on lateral dynamics . In one study , positive acceleration eliminates self stability , and negative acceleration ( deceleration ) changes the speeds of self stability .
= = = Turning = = =
In order for a bike to turn , that is , change its direction of forward travel , the front wheel must aim approximately in the desired direction , as with any front @-@ wheel steered vehicle . Friction between the wheels and the ground then generates the centripetal acceleration necessary to alter the course from straight ahead as a combination of cornering force and camber thrust . The radius of the turn of an upright ( not leaning ) bike can be roughly approximated , for small steering angles , by :
<formula>
where <formula> is the approximate radius , <formula> is the wheelbase , <formula> is the steer angle , and <formula> is the caster angle of the steering axis .
= = = = Leaning = = = =
However , unlike other wheeled vehicles , bikes must also lean during a turn to balance the relevant forces : gravitational , inertial , frictional , and ground support . The angle of lean , θ , can easily be calculated using the laws of circular motion :
<formula>
where v is the forward speed , r is the radius of the turn and g is the acceleration of gravity . This is in the idealized case . A slight increase in the lean angle may be required on motorcycles to compensate for the width of modern tires at the same forward speed and turn radius .
For example , a bike in a 10 m ( 33 ft ) radius steady @-@ state turn at 10 m / s ( 36 km / h , 22 mph ) must be at an angle of 45 @.@ 6 ° . A rider can lean with respect to the bike in order to keep either the torso or the bike more or less upright if desired . The angle that matters is the one between the horizontal plane and the plane defined by the tire contacts and the location of the center of mass of bike and rider .
This lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle . The resulting radius can be roughly approximated ( within 2 % of exact value ) by :
<formula>
where r is the approximate radius , w is the wheelbase , θ is the lean angle , δ is the steer angle , and φ is the caster angle of the steering axis . As a bike leans , the tires ' contact patches move farther to the side causing wear . The portions at either edge of a motorcycle tire that remain unworn by leaning into turns is sometimes referred to as chicken strips .
The finite width of the tires alters the actual lean angle of the rear frame from the ideal lean angle described above . The actual lean angle between the frame and the vertical must increase with tire width and decrease with center of mass height . Bikes with fat tires and low center of mass must lean more than bikes with skinnier tires or higher centers of mass to negotiate the same turn at the same speed .
The increase in lean angle due to a tire thickness of 2t can be calculated as
<formula>
where φ is the ideal lean angle , and h is the height of the center of mass . For example , a motorcycle with a 12 inch wide rear tire will have t = 6 inches . If the combined bike and rider center of mass is at a height of 26 inches , then a 25 ° lean must be increased by 7 @.@ 28 ° : a nearly 30 % increase . If the tires are only 6 inches wide , then the lean angle increase is only 3 @.@ 16 ° , just under half .
It has been shown that the couple created by gravity and the ground reaction forces is necessary for a bicycle to turn at all . On a custom built bicycle with spring @-@ loaded outriggers that exactly cancel this couple , so that the bicycle and rider may assume any lean angle when traveling in a straight line , riders find it impossible to make a turn . As soon as the wheels deviate from a straight path , the bicycle and rider begin to lean in the opposite direction , and the only way to right them is to steer back onto the straight path .
= = = = Countersteering = = = =
In order to initiate a turn and the necessary lean in the direction of that turn , a bike must momentarily steer in the opposite direction . This is often referred to as countersteering . With the front wheel now at a finite angle to the direction of motion , a lateral force is developed at the contact patch of the tire . This force creates a torque around the longitudinal ( roll ) axis of the bike , and this torque causes the bike to lean away from the initially steered direction and toward the direction of the desired turn . Where there is no external influence , such as an opportune side wind to create the force necessary to lean the bike , countersteering is necessary to initiate a rapid turn .
While the initial steer torque and steer angle are both opposite the desired turn direction , this may not be the case to maintain a steady @-@ state turn . The sustained steer angle is usually in the same direction as the turn , but may remain opposite to the direction of the turn , especially at high speeds . The sustained steer torque required to maintain that steer angle is usually opposite the turn direction . The actual magnitude and orientation of both the sustained steer angle and sustained steer torque of a particular bike in a particular turn depend on forward speed , bike geometry , tire properties , and combined bike and rider mass distribution . Once in a turn , the radius can only be changed with an appropriate change in lean angle , and this can be accomplished by additional countersteering out of the turn to increase lean and decrease radius , then into the turn to decrease lean and increase radius . To exit the turn , the bike must again countersteer , momentarily steering more into the turn in order to decrease the radius , thus increasing inertial forces , and thereby decreasing the angle of lean .
= = = = Steady @-@ state turning = = = =
Once a turn is established , the torque that must be applied to the steering mechanism in order to maintain a constant radius at a constant forward speed depends on the forward speed and the geometry and mass distribution of the bike . At speeds below the capsize speed , described below in the section on Eigenvalues and also called the inversion speed , the self @-@ stability of the bike will cause it to tend to steer into the turn , righting itself and exiting the turn , unless a torque is applied in the opposite direction of the turn . At speeds above the capsize speed , the capsize instability will cause it to tend to steer out of the turn , increasing the lean , unless a torque is applied in the direction of the turn . At the capsize speed no input steering torque is necessary to maintain the steady @-@ state turn .
= = = = Steering angle = = = =
Several effects influence the steering angle , the angle at which the front assembly is rotated about the steering axis , necessary to maintain a steady @-@ state turn . Some of these are unique to single @-@ track vehicles , while others are also experienced by automobiles . Some of these may be mentioned elsewhere in this article , and they are repeated here , though not necessarily in order of importance , so that they may be found in one place .
First , the actual kinematic steering angle , the angle projected onto the road plane to which the front assembly is rotated is a function of the steering angle and the steering axis angle :
<formula>
where <formula> is the kinematic steering angle , <formula> is the steering angle , and <formula> is the caster angle of the steering axis .
Second , the lean of the bike decreases the actual radius of the turn proportionally to the cosine of the lean angle . The resulting radius can be roughly approximated ( within 2 % of exact value ) by :
<formula>
where <formula> is the approximate radius , <formula> is the wheelbase , <formula> is the lean angle , <formula> is the steering angle , and <formula> is the caster angle of the steering axis .
Third , because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution , tire properties , etc . , bikes can experience understeer or oversteer . When understeering , the steering angle must be greater , and when oversteering , the steering angle must be less than it would be if the slip angles were equal to maintain a given turn radius . Some authors even use the term counter @-@ steering to refer to the need on some bikes under some conditions to steer in the opposite direction of the turn ( negative steering angle ) to maintain control in response to significant rear wheel slippage .
Fourth , camber thrust contributes to the centripetal force necessary to cause the bike to deviate from a straight path , along with cornering force due to the slip angle , and can be the largest contributor . Camber thrust contributes to the ability of bikes to negotiate a turn with the same radius as automobiles but with a smaller steering angle . When a bike is steered and leaned in the same direction , the camber angle of the front tire is greater than that of the rear and so can generate more camber thrust , all else being equal .
= = = = No hands = = = =
While countersteering is usually initiated by applying torque directly to the handlebars , on lighter vehicles such as bicycles , it can also be accomplished by shifting the rider ’ s weight . If the rider leans to the right relative to the bike , the bike leans to the left to conserve angular momentum , and the combined center of mass remains nearly in the same vertical plane . This leftward lean of the bike , called counter lean by some authors , will cause it to steer to the left and initiate a right @-@ hand turn as if the rider had countersteered to the left by applying a torque directly to the handlebars . This technique may be complicated by additional factors such as headset friction and stiff control cables .
The combined center of mass does move slightly to the left when the rider leans to the right relative to the bike , and the bike leans to the left in response . The action , in space , would have the tires move right , but this is prevented by friction between the tires and the ground , and thus pushes the combined center of mass left . This is a small effect , however , as evidenced by the difficulty most people have in balancing a bike by this method alone .
= = = = Gyroscopic effects = = = =
As mentioned above in the section on balance , one effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession . The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel , its spin rate ( forward motion ) , the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars , and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical .
For a sample motorcycle moving at 22 m / s ( 50 mph ) that has a front wheel with a moment of inertia of 0 @.@ 6 kg · m2 , turning the front wheel one degree in half a second generates a roll moment of 3 @.@ 5 N · m . In comparison , the lateral force on the front tire as it tracks out from under the motorcycle reaches a maximum of 50 N. This , acting on the 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft ) height of the center of mass , generates a roll moment of 30 N · m .
While the moment from gyroscopic forces is only 12 % of this , it can play a significant part because it begins to act as soon as the rider applies the torque , instead of building up more slowly as the wheel out @-@ tracks . This can be especially helpful in motorcycle racing .
= = = = Two @-@ wheel steering = = = =
Because of theoretical benefits , such as a tighter turning radius at low speed , attempts have been made to construct motorcycles with two @-@ wheel steering . One working prototype by Ian Drysdale in Australia is reported to " work very well . " Issues in the design include whether to provide active control of the rear wheel or let it swing freely . In the case of active control , the control algorithm needs to decide between steering with or in the opposite direction of the front wheel , when , and how much . One implementation of two @-@ wheel steering , the Sideways bike , lets the rider control the steering of both wheels directly . Another , the Swing Bike , had the second steering axis in front of the seat so that it could also be controlled by the handlebars .
Milton W. Raymond built a long low two @-@ wheel steering bicycle , called " X @-@ 2 " , with various steering mechanisms to control the two wheels independently . Steering motions included " balance " , in which both wheels move together to steer the tire contacts under the center of mass ; and " true circle " , in which the wheels steer equally in opposite directions and thus steering the bicycle without substantially changing the lateral position of the tire contacts relative to the center of mass . X @-@ 2 was also able to go " crabwise " with the wheels parallel but out of line with the frame , for instance with the front wheel near the roadway center line and rear wheel near the curb . " Balance " steering allowed easy balancing despite long wheelbase and low center of mass , but no self @-@ balancing ( " no hands " ) configuration was discovered . True circle , as expected , was essentially impossible to balance , as steering does not correct for misalignment of the tire patch and center of mass . Crabwise cycling at angles tested up to about 45 ° did not show a tendency to fall over , even under braking . X @-@ 2 is mentioned in passing in Whitt and Wilson 's Bicycling Science 2nd edition .
= = = = Rear @-@ wheel steering = = = =
Because of the theoretical benefits , especially a simplified front @-@ wheel drive mechanism , attempts have been made to construct a rideable rear @-@ wheel steering bike . The Bendix Company built a rear @-@ wheel steering bicycle , and the U.S. Department of Transportation commissioned the construction of a rear @-@ wheel steering motorcycle : both proved to be unrideable . Rainbow Trainers , Inc. in Alton , Illinois , offered US $ 5 @,@ 000 to the first person " who can successfully ride the rear @-@ steered bicycle , Rear Steered Bicycle I " . One documented example of someone successfully riding a rear @-@ wheel steering bicycle is that of L. H. Laiterman at Massachusetts Institute of Technology , on a specially designed recumbent bike . The difficulty is that turning left , accomplished by turning the rear wheel to the right , initially moves the center of mass to the right , and vice versa . This complicates the task of compensating for leans induced by the environment . Examination of the eigenvalues for bicycles with common geometries and mass distributions shows that when moving in reverse , so as to have rear @-@ wheel steering , they are inherently unstable . Other , purpose @-@ built designs have been published , however , that do not suffer this problem .
= = = = Center steering = = = =
Between the extremes of bicycles with classical front @-@ wheel steering and those with strictly rear @-@ wheel steering is a class of bikes with a pivot point somewhere between the two , referred to as center @-@ steering , and similar to articulated steering . An early implementation of the concept was the Phantom bicycle in the early 1870s promoted as a safer alternative to the penny @-@ farthing . This design allows for simple front @-@ wheel drive and current implementations appear to be quite stable , even rideable no @-@ hands , as many photographs illustrate .
These designs , such as the Python Lowracer , a recumbent , usually have very lax head angles ( 40 ° to 65 ° ) and positive or even negative trail . The builder of a bike with negative trail states that steering the bike from straight ahead forces the seat ( and thus the rider ) to rise slightly and this offsets the destabilizing effect of the negative trail .
= = = = Reverse steering = = = =
Bicycles have been constructed , for investigation and demonstration purposes , with the steering reversed so that turning the handlebars to the left causes the front wheel to turn to the right , and vica versa . It is possible to ride such a bicycle , but it has been found that riders experienced with normal bicycles find it very difficult to learn , if they can manage it at all .
= = = = Tiller effect = = = =
Tiller effect is the expression used to describe how handlebars that extend far behind the steering axis ( head tube ) act like a tiller on a boat , in that one moves the bars to the right in order to turn the front wheel to the left , and vice versa . This situation is commonly found on cruiser bicycles , some recumbents , and some motorcycles . It can be troublesome when it limits the ability to steer because of interference or the limits of arm reach .
= = = = Tires = = = =
Tires have a large influence over bike handling , especially on motorcycles , but also on bicycles . Tires influence bike dynamics in two distinct ways : finite crown radius and force generation . Increase the crown radius of the front tire has been shown to decrease the size or eliminate self stability . Increasing the crown radius of the rear tire has the opposite effect , but to a lesser degree .
Tires generate the lateral forces necessary for steering and balance through a combination of cornering force and camber thrust . Tire inflation pressures have also been found to be important variables in the behavior of a motorcycle at high speeds . Because the front and rear tires can have different slip angles due to weight distribution , tire properties , etc . , bikes can experience understeer or oversteer . Of the two , understeer , in which the front wheel slides more than the rear wheel , is more dangerous since front wheel steering is critical for maintaining balance . Also , because real tires have a finite contact patch with the road surface that can generate a scrub torque , and when in a turn , can experience some side slipping as they roll , they can generate torques about an axis normal to the plane of the contact patch .
One torque generated by a tire , called the self aligning torque , is caused by asymmetries in the side @-@ slip along the length of the contact patch . The resultant force of this side @-@ slip occurs behind the geometric center of the contact patch , a distance described as the pneumatic trail , and so creates a torque on the tire . Since the direction of the side @-@ slip is towards the outside of the turn , the force on the tire is towards the center of the turn . Therefore , this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the side @-@ slip , away from the direction of the turn , and therefore tends to increase the radius of the turn .
Another torque is produced by the finite width of the contact patch and the lean of the tire in a turn . The portion of the contact patch towards the outside of the turn is actually moving rearward , with respect to the wheel 's hub , faster than the rest of the contact patch , because of its greater radius from the hub . By the same reasoning , the inner portion is moving rearward more slowly . So the outer and inner portions of the contact patch slip on the pavement in opposite directions , generating a torque that tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the turn , and therefore tends to decrease the turn radius .
The combination of these two opposite torques creates a resulting yaw torque on the front wheel , and its direction is a function of the side @-@ slip angle of the tire , the angle between the actual path of the tire and the direction it is pointing , and the camber angle of the tire ( the angle that the tire leans from the vertical ) . The result of this torque is often the suppression of the inversion speed predicted by rigid wheel models described above in the section on steady @-@ state turning .
= = = = High side = = = =
A highsider , highside , or high side is a type of bike motion which is caused by a rear wheel gaining traction when it is not facing in the direction of travel , usually after slipping sideways in a curve . This can occur under heavy braking , acceleration , a varying road surface , or suspension activation , especially due to interaction with the drive train . It can take the form of a single slip @-@ then @-@ flip or a series of violent oscillations .
= = = Maneuverability and handling = = =
Bike maneuverability and handling is difficult to quantify for several reasons . The geometry of a bike , especially the steering axis angle makes kinematic analysis complicated . Under many conditions , bikes are inherently unstable and must always be under rider control . Finally , the rider 's skill has a large influence on the bike 's performance in any maneuver . Bike designs tend to consist of a trade @-@ off between maneuverability and stability .
= = = = Rider control inputs = = = =
The primary control input that the rider can make is to apply a torque directly to the steering mechanism via the handlebars . Because of the bike 's own dynamics , due to steering geometry and gyroscopic effects , direct position control over steering angle has been found to be problematic .
A secondary control input that the rider can make is to lean the upper torso relative to the bike . As mentioned above , the effectiveness of rider lean varies inversely with the mass of the bike . On heavy bikes , such as motorcycles , rider lean mostly alters the ground clearance requirements in a turn , improves the view of the road , and improves the bike system dynamics in a very low @-@ frequency passive manner . In motorcycle racing , leaning the torso , moving the body , and projecting a knee to the inside of the turn relative to the bike can also cause an aerodynamic yawing moment that facilitates entering and rounding the turn .
= = = = Differences from automobiles = = = =
The need to keep a bike upright to avoid injury to the rider and damage to the vehicle even limits the type of maneuverability testing that is commonly performed . For example , while automobile enthusiast publications often perform and quote skidpad results , motorcycle publications do not . The need to " set up " for a turn , lean the bike to the appropriate angle , means that the rider must see further ahead than is necessary for a typical car at the same speed , and this need increases more than in proportion to the speed .
= = = = Rating schemes = = = =
Several schemes have been devised to rate the handling of bikes , particularly motorcycles .
The roll index is the ratio between steering torque and roll or lean angle .
The acceleration index is the ratio between steering torque and lateral or centripetal acceleration .
The steering ratio is the ratio between the theoretical turning radius based on ideal tire behavior and the actual turning radius . Values less than one , where the front wheel side slip is greater than the rear wheel side slip , are described as under @-@ steering ; equal to one as neutral steering ; and greater than one as over @-@ steering . Values less than zero , in which the front wheel must be turned opposite the direction of the curve due to much greater rear wheel side slip than front wheel have been described as counter @-@ steering . Riders tend to prefer neutral or slight over @-@ steering . Car drivers tend to prefer under @-@ steering .
The Koch index is the ratio between peak steering torque and the product of peak lean rate and forward speed . Large , touring motorcycles tend to have a high Koch index , sport motorcycles tend to have a medium Koch index , and scooters tend to have a low Koch index . It is easier to maneuver light scooters than heavy motorcycles .
= = = Lateral motion theory = = =
Although its equations of motion can be linearized , a bike is a nonlinear system . The variable ( s ) to be solved for cannot be written as a linear sum of independent components , i.e. its behavior is not expressible as a sum of the behaviors of its descriptors . Generally , nonlinear systems are difficult to solve and are much less understandable than linear systems . In the idealized case , in which friction and any flexing is ignored , a bike is a conservative system . Damping , however , can still be demonstrated : under the right circumstances , side @-@ to @-@ side oscillations will decrease with time . Energy added with a sideways jolt to a bike running straight and upright ( demonstrating self @-@ stability ) is converted into increased forward speed , not lost , as the oscillations die out .
A bike is a nonholonomic system because its outcome is path @-@ dependent . In order to know its exact configuration , especially location , it is necessary to know not only the configuration of its parts , but also their histories : how they have moved over time . This complicates mathematical analysis . Finally , in the language of control theory , a bike exhibits non @-@ minimum phase behavior . It turns in the direction opposite of how it is initially steered , as described above in the section on countersteering
= = = = Degrees of freedom = = = =
The number of degrees of freedom of a bike depends on the particular model being used . The simplest model that captures the key dynamic features , called the " Whipple model " after Francis Whipple who first developed the equations for it , has four rigid bodies with knife edge wheels rolling without slip on a flat smooth surface , and has 7 degrees of freedom ( configuration variables required to completely describe the location and orientation of all 4 bodies ) :
x coordinate of rear wheel contact point
y coordinate of rear wheel contact point
orientation angle of rear frame ( yaw )
rotation angle of rear wheel
rotation angle of front wheel
lean angle of rear frame ( roll )
steering angle between rear frame and front end
Adding complexity to the model , such as rider movement , suspension movement , tire compliance , or frame flex , adds degrees of freedom . While the rear frame does pitch with leaning and steering , the pitch angle is completely constrained by the requirement for both wheels to remain on the ground , and so can be calculated geometrically from the other seven variables . If the location of the bike and the rotation of the wheels are ignored , the first five degrees of freedom can also be ignored , and the bike can be described by just two variables : lean angle and steer angle .
= = = = Equations of motion = = = =
The equations of motion of an idealized bike , consisting of
a rigid frame ,
a rigid fork ,
two knife @-@ edged , rigid wheels ,
all connected with frictionless bearings and rolling without friction or slip on a smooth horizontal surface and
operating at or near the upright and straight @-@ ahead , unstable equilibrium
can be represented by a single fourth @-@ order linearized ordinary differential equation or two coupled second @-@ order differential equations , the lean equation
<formula>
and the steer equation
<formula>
where
<formula> is the lean angle of the rear assembly ,
<formula> is the steer angle of the front assembly relative to the rear assembly and
<formula> and <formula> are the moments ( torques ) applied at the rear assembly and the steering axis , respectively . For the analysis of an uncontrolled bike , both are taken to be zero .
These can be represented in matrix form as
<formula>
where
<formula> is the symmetrical mass matrix which contains terms that include only the mass and geometry of the bike ,
<formula> is the so @-@ called damping matrix , even though an idealized bike has no dissipation , which contains terms that include the forward speed <formula> and is asymmetric ,
<formula> is the so @-@ called stiffness matrix which contains terms that include the gravitational constant <formula> and <formula> and is symmetric in <formula> and asymmetric in <formula> ,
<formula> is a vector of lean angle and steer angle , and
<formula> is a vector of external forces , the moments mentioned above .
In this idealized and linearized model , there are many geometric parameters ( wheelbase , head angle , mass of each body , wheel radius , etc . ) , but only four significant variables : lean angle , lean rate , steer angle , and steer rate . These equations have been verified by comparison with multiple numeric models derived completely independently .
The equations show that the bicycle is like an inverted pendulum with the lateral position of its support controlled by terms representing roll acceleration , roll velocity and roll displacement to steering torque feedback . The roll acceleration term is normally of the wrong sign for self @-@ stabilization and can be expected to be important mainly in respect of wobble oscillations . The roll velocity feedback is of the correct sign , is gyroscopic in nature , being proportional to speed , and is dominated by the front wheel contribution . The roll displacement term is the most important one and is mainly controlled by trail , steering rake and the offset of the front frame mass center from the steering axis . All the terms involve complex combinations of bicycle design parameters and sometimes the speed . The limitations of the benchmark bicycle are considered and extensions to the treatments of tires , frames and riders , and their implications , are included . Optimal rider controls for stabilization and path @-@ following control are also discussed .
= = = = Eigenvalues = = = =
It is possible to calculate eigenvalues , one for each of the four state variables ( lean angle , lean rate , steer angle , and steer rate ) , from the linearized equations in order to analyze the normal modes and self @-@ stability of a particular bike design . In the plot to the right , eigenvalues of one particular bicycle are calculated for forward speeds of 0 – 10 m / s ( 22 mph ) . When the real parts of all eigenvalues ( shown in dark blue ) are negative , the bike is self @-@ stable . When the imaginary parts of any eigenvalues ( shown in cyan ) are non @-@ zero , the bike exhibits oscillation . The eigenvalues are point symmetric about the origin and so any bike design with a self @-@ stable region in forward speeds will not be self @-@ stable going backwards at the same speed .
There are three forward speeds that can be identified in the plot to the right at which the motion of the bike changes qualitatively :
The forward speed at which oscillations begin , at about 1 m / s ( 2 @.@ 2 mph ) in this example , sometimes called the double root speed due to there being a repeated root to the characteristic polynomial ( two of the four eigenvalues have exactly the same value ) . Below this speed , the bike simply falls over as an inverted pendulum does .
The forward speed at which oscillations do not increase , where the weave mode eigenvalues switch from positive to negative in a Hopf bifurcation at about 5 @.@ 3 m / s ( 12 mph ) in this example , is called the weave speed . Below this speed , oscillations increase until the uncontrolled bike falls over . Above this speed , oscillations eventually die out .
The forward speed at which non @-@ oscillatory leaning increases , where the capsize mode eigenvalues switch from negative to positive in a pitchfork bifurcation at about 8 m / s ( 18 mph ) in this example , is called the capsize speed . Above this speed , this non @-@ oscillating lean eventually causes the uncontrolled bike to fall over .
Between these last two speeds , if they both exist , is a range of forward speeds at which the particular bike design is self @-@ stable . In the case of the bike whose eigenvalues are shown here , the self @-@ stable range is 5 @.@ 3 – 8 @.@ 0 m / s ( 12 – 18 mph ) . The fourth eigenvalue , which is usually stable ( very negative ) , represents the castoring behavior of the front wheel , as it tends to turn towards the direction in which the bike is traveling . Note that this idealized model does not exhibit the wobble or shimmy and rear wobble instabilities described above . They are seen in models that incorporate tire interaction with the ground or other degrees of freedom .
Experimentation with real bikes has so far confirmed the weave mode predicted by the eigenvalues . It was found that tire slip and frame flex are not important for the lateral dynamics of the bicycle in the speed range up to 6 m / s . The idealized bike model used to calculate the eigenvalues shown here does not incorporate any of the torques that real tires can generate , and so tire interaction with the pavement cannot prevent the capsize mode from becoming unstable at high speeds , as Wilson and Cossalter suggest happens in the real world .
= = = = Modes = = = =
Bikes , as complex mechanisms , have a variety of modes : fundamental ways that they can move . These modes can be stable or unstable , depending on the bike parameters and its forward speed . In this context , " stable " means that an uncontrolled bike will continue rolling forward without falling over as long as forward speed is maintained . Conversely , " unstable " means that an uncontrolled bike will eventually fall over , even if forward speed is maintained . The modes can be differentiated by the speed at which they switch stability and the relative phases of leaning and steering as the bike experiences that mode . Any bike motion consists of a combination of various amounts of the possible modes , and there are three main modes that a bike can experience : capsize , weave , and wobble . A lesser known mode is rear wobble , and it is usually stable .
= = = = = Capsize = = = = =
Capsize is the word used to describe a bike falling over without oscillation . During capsize , an uncontrolled front wheel usually steers in the direction of lean , but never enough to stop the increasing lean , until a very high lean angle is reached , at which point the steering may turn in the opposite direction . A capsize can happen very slowly if the bike is moving forward rapidly . Because the capsize instability is so slow , on the order of seconds , it is easy for the rider to control , and is actually used by the rider to initiate the lean necessary for a turn .
For most bikes , depending on geometry and mass distribution , capsize is stable at low speeds , and becomes less stable as speed increases until it is no longer stable . However , on many bikes , tire interaction with the pavement is sufficient to prevent capsize from becoming unstable at high speeds .
= = = = = Weave = = = = =
Weave is the word used to describe a slow ( 0 – 4 Hz ) oscillation between leaning left and steering right , and vice versa . The entire bike is affected with significant changes in steering angle , lean angle ( roll ) , and heading angle ( yaw ) . The steering is 180 ° out of phase with the heading and 90 ° out of phase with the leaning . This AVI movie shows weave .
For most bikes , depending on geometry and mass distribution , weave is unstable at low speeds , and becomes less pronounced as speed increases until it is no longer unstable . While the amplitude may decrease , the frequency actually increases with speed .
= = = = = Wobble or shimmy = = = = =
Wobble , shimmy , tank @-@ slapper , speed wobble , and death wobble are all words and phrases used to describe a rapid ( 4 – 10 Hz ) oscillation of primarily just the front end ( front wheel , fork , and handlebars ) . Also involved is the yawing of the rear frame which may contribute to the wobble when too flexible . This instability occurs mostly at high speed and is similar to that experienced by shopping cart wheels , airplane landing gear , and automobile front wheels . While wobble or shimmy can be easily remedied by adjusting speed , position , or grip on the handlebar , it can be fatal if left uncontrolled .
Wobble or shimmy begins when some otherwise minor irregularity , such as fork asymmetry , accelerates the wheel to one side . The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity , and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated . If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure occurs . The oscillation frequency can be changed by changing the forward speed , making the bike stiffer or lighter , or increasing the stiffness of the steering , of which the rider is a main component .
= = = = = Rear wobble = = = = =
The term rear wobble is used to describe a mode of oscillation in which lean angle ( roll ) and heading angle ( yaw ) are almost in phase and both 180 ° out of phase with steer angle . The rate of this oscillation is moderate with a maximum of about 6 @.@ 5 Hz . Rear wobble is heavily damped and falls off quickly as bike speed increases .
= = = = = Design criteria = = = = =
The effect that the design parameters of a bike have on these modes can be investigated by examining the eigenvalues of the linearized equations of motion . For more details on the equations of motion and eigenvalues , see the section on the equations of motion above . Some general conclusions that have been drawn are described here .
The lateral and torsional stiffness of the rear frame and the wheel spindle affects wobble @-@ mode damping substantially . Long wheelbase and trail and a flat steering @-@ head angle have been found to increase weave @-@ mode damping . Lateral distortion can be countered by locating the front fork torsional axis as low as possible .
Cornering weave tendencies are amplified by degraded damping of the rear suspension . Cornering , camber stiffnesses and relaxation length of the rear tire make the largest contribution to weave damping . The same parameters of the front tire have a lesser effect . Rear loading also amplifies cornering weave tendencies . Rear load assemblies with appropriate stiffness and damping , however , were successful in damping out weave and wobble oscillations .
One study has shown theoretically that , while a bike leaned in a turn , road undulations can excite the weave mode at high speed or the wobble mode at low speed if either of their frequencies match the vehicle speed and other parameters . Excitation of the wobble mode can be mitigated by an effective steering damper and excitation of the weave mode is worse for light riders than for heavy riders .
= = = Riding on treadmills and rollers = = =
Riding on a treadmill is theoretically identical to riding on stationary pavement , and physical testing has confirmed this . Treadmills have been developed specifically for indoor bicycle training . Riding on rollers is still under investigation .
= = = Other hypotheses = = =
Although bicycles and motorcycles can appear to be simple mechanisms with only four major moving parts ( frame , fork , and two wheels ) , these parts are arranged in a way that makes them complicated to analyze . While it is an observable fact that bikes can be ridden even when the gyroscopic effects of their wheels are canceled out , the hypothesis that the gyroscopic effects of the wheels are what keep a bike upright is common in print and online .
Examples in print :
" Angular momentum and motorcycle counter @-@ steering : A discussion and demonstration " , A. J. Cox , Am . J. Phys . 66 , 1018 – 1021 ~ 1998
" The motorcycle as a gyroscope " , J. Higbie , Am . J. Phys . 42 , 701 – 702
The Physics of Everyday Phenomena , W. T. Griffith , McGraw – Hill , New York , 1998 , pp. 149 – 150 .
The Way Things Work . , Macaulay , Houghton @-@ Mifflin , New York , NY , 1989
= = Longitudinal dynamics = =
Bikes may experience a variety of longitudinal forces and motions . On most bikes , when the front wheel is turned to one side or the other , the entire rear frame pitches forward slightly , depending on the steering axis angle and the amount of trail . On bikes with suspensions , either front , rear , or both , trim is used to describe the geometric configuration of the bike , especially in response to forces of braking , accelerating , turning , drive train , and aerodynamic drag .
The load borne by the two wheels varies not only with center of mass location , which in turn varies with the amount and location of passengers and luggage , but also with acceleration and deceleration . This phenomenon is known as load transfer or weight transfer , depending on the author , and provides challenges and opportunities to both riders and designers . For example , motorcycle racers can use it to increase the friction available to the front tire when cornering , and attempts to reduce front suspension compression during heavy braking has spawned several motorcycle fork designs .
The net aerodynamic drag forces may be considered to act at a single point , called the center of pressure . At high speeds , this will create a net moment about the rear driving wheel and result in a net transfer of load from the front wheel to the rear wheel . Also , depending on the shape of the bike and the shape of any fairing that might be installed , aerodynamic lift may be present that either increases or further reduces the load on the front wheel .
= = = Stability = = =
Though longitudinally stable when stationary , a bike may become longitudinally unstable under sufficient acceleration or deceleration , and Euler 's second law can be used to analyze the ground reaction forces generated . For example , the normal ( vertical ) ground reaction forces at the wheels for a bike with a wheelbase <formula> and a center of mass at height <formula> and at a distance <formula> in front of the rear wheel hub , and for simplicity , with both wheels locked , can be expressed as :
<formula> for the rear wheel and <formula> for the front wheel .
The frictional ( horizontal ) forces are simply
<formula> for the rear wheel and <formula> for the front wheel ,
where <formula> is the coefficient of friction , <formula> is the total mass of the bike and rider , and <formula> is the acceleration of gravity . Therefore , if
<formula>
which occurs if the center of mass is anywhere above or in front of a line extending back from the front wheel contact patch and inclined at the angle
<formula>
above the horizontal , then the normal force of the rear wheel will be zero ( at which point the equation no longer applies ) and the bike will begin to flip or loop forward over the front wheel .
On the other hand , if the center of mass height is behind or below the line , such as on most tandem bicycles or long @-@ wheel @-@ base recumbent bicycles , as well as cars , it is less likely that the front wheel can generate enough braking force to flip the bike . This means they can decelerate up to nearly the limit of adhesion of the tires to the road , which could reach 0 @.@ 8 g if the coefficient of friction is 0 @.@ 8 , which is 40 % more than an upright bicycle under even the best conditions . Bicycling Science author David Gordon Wilson points out that this puts upright bicyclists at particular risk of causing a rear @-@ end collision of they tailgate cars .
Similarly , powerful motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel to lift the front wheel off the ground in a maneuver called a wheelie . A line similar to the one described above to analyze braking performance can be drawn from the rear wheel contact patch to predict if a wheelie is possible given the available friction , the center of mass location , and sufficient power . This can also happen on bicycles , although there is much less power available , if the center of mass is back or up far enough or the rider lurches back when applying power to the pedals .
Of course , the angle of the terrain can influence all of the calculations above . All else remaining equal , the risk of pitching over the front end is reduced when riding up hill and increased when riding down hill . The possibility of performing a wheelie increases when riding up hill , and is a major factor in motorcycle hillclimbing competitions .
= = = Braking according to ground conditions = = =
When braking , the rider in motion is seeking to change the speed of the combined mass m of rider plus bike . This is a negative acceleration a in the line of travel . F = ma , the acceleration a causes an inertial forward force F on mass m . The braking a is from an initial speed u to a final speed v , over a length of time t . The equation u - v
= at implies that the greater the acceleration the shorter the time needed to change speed . The stopping distance s is also shortest when acceleration a is at the highest possible value compatible with road conditions : the equation s =
ut + 1 / 2 at2 makes s low when a is high and t is low .
How much braking force to apply to each wheel depends both on ground conditions and on the balance of weight on the wheels at each instant in time . The total braking force cannot exceed the gravity force on the rider and bike times the coefficient of friction µ of the tire on the ground. mgµ >
= Ff + Fr . A skid occurs if the ratio of either Ff over Nf or Fr over Nr is greater than µ , with a rear wheel skid having less of a negative impact on lateral stability .
When braking , the inertial force ma in the line of travel , not being co @-@ linear with f , tends to rotate m about f . This tendency to rotate , an overturning moment , is resisted by a moment from mg .
Taking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time :
When there is no braking , mass m is typically above the bottom bracket , about 2 / 3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels , with Nr thus greater than Nf .
In constant light braking , whether because an emergency stop is not required or because poor ground conditions prevent heavy braking , much weight still rests on the rear wheel , meaning that Nr is still large and Fr can contribute towards a .
As braking a increases , Nr and Fr decrease because the moment mah increases with a . At maximum constant a , clockwise and anti @-@ clockwise moments are equal , at which point Nr =
0 . Any greater Ff initiates a stoppie .
Other factors :
Downhill it is much easier to topple over the front wheel because the incline moves the line of mg closer to f . To try to reduce this tendency the rider can stand back on the pedals to try to keep m as far back as possible .
When braking is increasing the center of mass m may move forward relative to the front wheel , as the rider moves forward relative to the bike , and , if the bike has suspension on the front wheel , the front forks compress under load , changing the bike geometry . This all puts extra load on the front wheel .
At the end of a brake maneuver , as the rider comes to a halt , the suspension decompresses and pushes the rider back .
Values for µ vary greatly depending on a number of factors :
The material that the ground or road surface is made of .
Whether the ground is wet or dry .
The smoothness or roughness of the ground .
The firmness or looseness of the ground .
The speed of the vehicle , with friction reducing above 30 mph ( 50kph ) .
Whether friction is rolling or sliding , with sliding friction at least 10 % below peak rolling friction .
= = = Braking = = =
Most of the braking force of standard upright bikes comes from the front wheel . As the analysis above shows , if the brakes themselves are strong enough , the rear wheel is easy to skid , while the front wheel often can generate enough stopping force to flip the rider and bike over the front wheel . This is called a stoppie if the rear wheel is lifted but the bike does not flip , or an endo ( abbreviated form of end @-@ over @-@ end ) if the bike flips . On long or low bikes , however , such as cruiser motorcycles and recumbent bicycles , the front tire will skid instead , possibly causing a loss of balance . Assuming no loss of balance , it is possible to calculate optimum braking performance depending on the bike 's geometry , the location of center of gravity of bike and rider , and the maximum coefficient of friction .
In the case of a front suspension , especially telescoping fork tubes , the increase in downward force on the front wheel during braking may cause the suspension to compress and the front end to lower . This is known as brake diving . A riding technique that takes advantage of how braking increases the downward force on the front wheel is known as trail braking .
= = = = Front wheel braking = = = =
The limiting factors on the maximum deceleration in front wheel braking are :
the maximum , limiting value of static friction between the tire and the ground , often between 0 @.@ 5 and 0 @.@ 8 for rubber on dry asphalt ,
the kinetic friction between the brake pads and the rim or disk , and
pitching or looping ( of bike and rider ) over the front wheel .
For an upright bicycle on dry asphalt with excellent brakes , pitching will probably be the limiting factor . The combined center of mass of a typical upright bicycle and rider will be about 60 cm ( 24 in ) back from the front wheel contact patch and 120 cm ( 47 in ) above , allowing a maximum deceleration of 0 @.@ 5 g ( 5 m / s2 or 16 ft / s2 ) . If the rider modulates the brakes properly , however , pitching can be avoided . If the rider moves his weight back and down , even larger decelerations are possible .
Front brakes on many inexpensive bikes are not strong enough so , on the road , they are the limiting factor . Cheap cantilever brakes , especially with " power modulators " , and Raleigh @-@ style side @-@ pull brakes severely restrict the stopping force . In wet conditions they are even less effective . Front wheel slides are more common off @-@ road . Mud , water , and loose stones reduce the friction between the tire and trail , although knobby tires can mitigate this effect by grabbing the surface irregularities . Front wheel slides are also common on corners , whether on road or off . Centripetal acceleration adds to the forces on the tire @-@ ground contact , and when the friction force is exceeded the wheel slides .
= = = = Rear @-@ wheel braking = = = =
The rear brake of an upright bicycle can only produce about 0 @.@ 25 g ( ~ 2 @.@ 5 m / s2 ) deceleration at best , because of the decrease in normal force at the rear wheel as described above . All such bikes with only rear braking are subject to this limitation : for example , bikes with only a coaster brake , and fixed @-@ gear bikes with no other braking mechanism . There are , however , situations that may warrant rear wheel braking
Slippery surfaces or bumpy surfaces . Under front wheel braking , the lower coefficient of friction may cause the front wheel to skid which often results in a loss of balance .
Front flat tire . Braking a wheel with a flat tire can cause the tire to come off the rim which greatly reduces friction and , in the case of a front wheel , result in a loss of balance .
Front brake failure .
Recumbent bicycles . Long @-@ wheelbase recumbents require a good rear brake as the CG is near the rear wheel .
= = = = Braking technique = = = =
Expert opinion varies from " use both levers equally at first " to " the fastest that you can stop any bike of normal wheelbase is to apply the front brake so hard that the rear wheel is just about to lift off the ground , " depending on road conditions , rider skill level , and desired fraction of maximum possible deceleration .
= = Suspension = =
Bikes may have only front , only rear , full suspension or no suspension that operate primarily in the central plane of symmetry ; though with some consideration given to lateral compliance . The goals of a bike suspension are to reduce vibration experienced by the rider , maintain wheel contact with the ground , and maintain vehicle trim . The primary suspension parameters are stiffness , damping , sprung and unsprung mass , and tire characteristics . Besides irregularities in the terrain , brake , acceleration , and drive @-@ train forces can also activate the suspension as described above . Examples include bob and pedal feedback on bicycles , the shaft effect on motorcycles , and squat and brake dive on both .
= = Vibration = =
The study of vibrations in bikes includes its causes , such as engine balance , wheel balance , ground surface , and aerodynamics ; its transmission and absorption ; and its effects on the bike , the rider , and safety . An important factor in any vibration analysis is a comparison of the natural frequencies of the system with the possible driving frequencies of the vibration sources . A close match means mechanical resonance that can result in large amplitudes . A challenge in vibration damping is to create compliance in certain directions ( vertically ) without sacrificing frame rigidity needed for power transmission and handling ( torsionally ) . Another issue with vibration for the bike is the possibility of failure due to material fatigue Effects of vibration on riders include discomfort , loss of efficiency , Hand @-@ Arm Vibration Syndrome , a secondary form Raynaud 's disease , and whole body vibration . Vibrating instruments may be inaccurate or difficult to read .
= = = In bicycles = = =
The primary cause of vibrations in a properly functioning bicycle is the surface over which it rolls . In addition to pneumatic tires and traditional bicycle suspensions , a variety of techniques have been developed to damp vibrations before they reach the rider . These include materials , such as carbon fiber , either in the whole frame or just key components such as the front fork , seatpost , or handlebars ; tube shapes , such as curved seat stays ; and special inserts , such as Zertz by Specialized , and Buzzkills by Bontrager .
= = = In motorcycles = = =
In addition to the road surface , vibrations in a motorcycle can be caused by the engine and wheels , if unbalanced . Manufacturers employ a variety of technologies to reduce or damp these vibrations , such as engine balance shafts , rubber engine mounts , and tire weights . The problems that vibration causes have also spawned an industry of after @-@ market parts and systems designed to reduce it . Add @-@ ons include handlebar weights , isolated foot pegs , and engine counterweights . At high speeds , motorcycles and their riders may also experience aerodynamic flutter or buffeting . This can be abated by changing the air flow over key parts , such as the windshield .
= = Experimentation = =
A variety of experiments have been performed in order to verify or disprove various hypotheses about bike dynamics .
David Jones built several bikes in a search for an unrideable configuration .
Richard Klein built several bikes to confirm Jones 's findings .
Richard Klein also built a " Torque Wrench Bike " and a " Rocket Bike " to investigate steering torques and their effects .
Keith Code built a motorcycle with fixed handlebars to investigate the effects of rider motion and position on steering .
Schwab and Kooijman have performed measurements with an instrumented bike .
Hubbard and Moore have performed measurements with an instrumented bike .
= Piper Maru =
" Piper Maru " is episode 15 of season 3 of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 9 , 1996 . The episode was written by executive producer Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Rob Bowman . " Piper Maru " is one of those which helped to explore the series ' overarching mythology . Its introduction of the black oil became a storyline milestone for the series . The black oil would later go on to play a much larger role in the series , including playing a pivotal role in the 1998 X @-@ Files movie . " Piper Maru " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 16 @.@ 44 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , a French salvage ship sends a diving crew to recover a mysterious wreckage from World War II , but the crew falls prey to a bizarre illness forcing FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to investigate the source . Their investigation brings them face @-@ to @-@ face with Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) .
" Piper Maru " was written to showcase two visual images Chris Carter had wanted to include in a script " since the beginning of the show " . The first of these was that of a deep @-@ sea diver finding a still @-@ living pilot trapped in the wreckage of a World War II @-@ era fighter plane and the second was that of a black @-@ and @-@ white flashback taking place in a submarine . The title of the episode is a reference to the first and middle name of Gillian Anderson 's daughter , who had been born during the production of the second season .
= = Plot = =
Piper Maru , a French salvage vessel , is exploring the Pacific Ocean . Gauthier , a member of the ship 's crew , dives down into the sea and finds a sunken fighter plane from World War II . He is shocked to find a man alive in the plane 's cockpit , with what looks like black oil in his eyes . When Gauthier returns to the surface , he has become possessed by the black oil .
In Washington , Walter Skinner tells agent Dana Scully that the FBI 's investigation into her sister 's murder has been made inactive , despite the evidence that had been recovered . Fox Mulder tells Scully about the Piper Maru , which had laid anchor at the same coordinates as another ship believed to have salvaged a UFO ; when the Piper Maru came to port in San Diego , her crew was found suffering from radiation burns . Aboard the ship , the agents find traces of the black oil on Gauthier 's diving suit . Upon viewing a video of the dive , Scully identifies the sunken plane as a P @-@ 51 Mustang . Meanwhile , Gauthier returns home and searches for something . When his wife Joan arrives , the black oil passes itself along to her .
Scully visits an old friend of her father 's , Commander Christopher Johanson , seeking information about the plane . Johanson admits that he had been sent to find a sunken bomber aboard the submarine Zeus Faber , and recalls how many aboard the sub suffered from radiation burns while he joined a mutiny against his commanding officer , who succumbed to the black oil . Meanwhile , Mulder visits Gauthier 's home and finds him passed out , covered in the black oil ; he has no memory of his experience . Mulder finds a letter from a salvage broker , and visits the broker 's " secretary " Jeraldine . Mulder follows Jeraldine after her office is invaded by several armed men .
Both Mulder and Joan follow Jeraldine to Hong Kong , where Mulder learns that she is a middleman selling government secrets . Mulder tracks down Jeraldine and handcuffs himself to her . Arriving at her office , Mulder finds Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) waiting inside , having been selling the contents of the digital tape . Krycek escapes through a window while Jeraldine is shot by a group of men coming down the hallway . Mulder unlocks the handcuffs and escapes . Meanwhile , Joan walks down the hall and encounters the men , creating a flash that causes them all to suffer from the radiation burns .
Meanwhile , Skinner is initially confronted by several men , including the Gray @-@ Haired Man , and is told not to pursue Melissa Scully 's case any further . Skinner is later shot by Luis Cardinal . After Mulder catches Krycek in an airport , he tells him the tape is in a locker back in Washington and that he 'll give it to him in exchange for letting him go . Mulder lets Krycek go to the bathroom , where he is confronted by Joan . As he departs the bathroom to leave with Mulder , Krycek 's eyes show he is now infected with the black oil .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Conception of the episode originated in two visual images series creator Chris Carter had wanted to include in a script " since the beginning of the show " . The first of these was that of a deep @-@ sea diver finding a still @-@ living pilot trapped in the wreckage of a World War II @-@ era fighter plane ; and the second was that of a black @-@ and @-@ white flashback taking place in a submarine . Director Rob Bowman shared with Carter his experiences diving , feeling that an episode based on finding " something creepy " underwater would be a good idea . Carter also wanted the episode to feature the re @-@ emergence of the " MJ documents " last seen in the earlier " Paper Clip " .
Frank Spotnitz began working on the episode immediately after writing the earlier third season episode " 731 " , fleshing out the rest of the concept while on a flight out of Minneapolis . Spotnitz ended up writing his ideas on a magazine , not having brought paper with him , and included in his outline the investigation of Scully 's sister 's murder and the reintroduction of Alex Krycek . The title of the episode is a reference to the first and middle name of Gillian Anderson 's daughter , who had been born during the production of the second season . The name Gauthier , used for the French diver and his wife , was a reference to special effects producer David Gauthier .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
The episode 's cold open was filmed in a water tank , using a replica P @-@ 51 Mustang plane which had been designed by the art director . Bowman also needed to direct a scene in which Gillian Anderson would react to a memory of playing with her sister as a child ; the scene involved digitally compositing the children playing into Anderson 's footage . Bowman asked Anderson to act towards a tree as though it were her sister , later telling her " I 'm going to tell everybody I can that you just did that great reaction to a tree " . Bowman also reshot the episode 's ending , as originally Duchovny and Lea were to walk past the camera and continue off @-@ screen . Feeling this was not effective , he replaced this with a walking shot which continued straight towards and into the camera , noting that " Nick will jump in front of a truck if he think it will make a scene better " .
The on @-@ screen appearances of the black oil were achieved through visual effects , with the shimmering oil effect being digitally placed over the actors ' corneas in post @-@ production . The crew went through various iterations to find the two " right " types of fluids . According to physical effects crewman David Gauthier , they used a mix of oil and acetone , which he believed gave the substance a more globular look . Special effects technician Mat Beck was able to digitally bend the oil effect around the shape of the actors ' eyes .
The man in the plane in the teaser , Robert Maier , worked as a construction coordinator on the show , and felt that his part in the episode fulfilled a " life @-@ long dream " of working as a stuntman . Nicholas Lea 's name was purposely left until the ending credits in order to preserve the sense of surprise .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Piper Maru " premiered on the Fox network on February 9 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 27 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 16 @.@ 44 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Piper Maru " received positive reviews from critics . In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated an A. The review described " Piper Maru " as featuring " a tough and sentimental Scully " , noting that " action @-@ packed detective work by Mulder enhance [ s ] an already crackling scenario . " Reviewer Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A and wrote positively of the unfolding mythology , noting that the " great thing about " Piper Maru " is that it still belongs to the period of time when the mythology episodes were exposing us to more pieces of the puzzle , fitting in various things that we were meant to incorporate into the whole . This is the first time we meet the black oil , but it 's obvious that others know all about it " . Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode eight out of ten , and complimented the introduction of the black oil , writing " this episode is a good introduction to the black oil virus , providing a bridge from the mythology elements earlier in the season to the larger scope of the conspiracy to be revealed . " Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the sixth " greatest " episode of the series , describing it as " thrilling " , " pacey " and " balanced " .
The introduction of the sentient black oil in this episode has also been met with positive criticism . The oil has been described as " the most original and frightening creation of The X @-@ Files ' mythology " , as " one of the best parts of the show " and has been listed as number two on Den of Geek 's " Top 10 X @-@ Files Baddies " countdown , where it was described as " a central part " of the series ' mythology .
Gillian Anderson considered the episode an emotionally difficult one , saying " Piper Maru was challenging . There was something about it – having to pull from the past ... how it brought the present and the past together . It was just good to play . " Director Kim Manners complimented Anderson 's performance , stating " you look at season one and look at season three and that girl exploded as an actress in terms of talent and capability . " The 2004 film Alien vs. Predator featured an icebreaker named the Piper Maru , the naming of the ship being a nod to this episode .
= British anti @-@ invasion preparations of the Second World War =
British anti @-@ invasion preparations of the Second World War entailed a large @-@ scale division of military and civilian mobilisation in response to the threat of invasion by German armed forces in 1940 and 1941 . The British army needed to recover from the defeat of the British Expeditionary Force in France , and 1 @.@ 5 million men were enrolled as part @-@ time soldiers in the Home Guard . The rapid construction of field fortifications transformed much of the United Kingdom , especially southern England , into a prepared battlefield . The German invasion plan , Operation Sea Lion , was never taken beyond the preliminary assembly of forces . Today , little remains of Britain 's anti @-@ invasion preparations . Only reinforced concrete structures such as pillboxes are common .
= = Political and military background = =
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland ; two days later , Britain and France declared war on Germany , launching the Second World War . Within three weeks , the Red Army of the Soviet Union invaded the eastern regions of Poland in fulfilment of the secret Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact with Germany . A British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) was sent to the Franco @-@ Belgian border , but Britain and France did not take any direct action in support of the Poles . By 1 October , Poland had been completely overrun .
There was little fighting over the months that followed . In a period known as the Phoney War , soldiers on both sides trained for war and the French and British constructed and manned defences on the eastern borders of France .
On 9 April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark and Norway . This operation preempted the British ' own plans to invade Norway . Denmark surrendered immediately , and , after a short @-@ lived attempt by the British to make a stand in the northern part of the country , Norway also fell . The invasion of Norway was a combined forces operation in which the German war machine projected its power across the sea ; this German success would come to be seen by the British as a dire portent .
On 7 and 8 May 1940 , in the British House of Commons , the Norway Debate revealed intense dissatisfaction with and outright hostility toward the government of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . Two days later , with events moving swiftly , Chamberlain resigned and was succeeded by Winston Churchill .
On 10 May 1940 , Germany invaded France . By that time , the BEF consisted of 10 infantry divisions in three corps , a tank brigade and a Royal Air Force detachment of around 500 aircraft . The BEF was pinned by a German diversionary attack through Belgium and then isolated by the main attack that came through the Ardennes forest . Well @-@ equipped and highly mobile Panzer divisions of the Wehrmacht overran the prepared defences . There was some fierce fighting , but most of the BEF withdrew to a small area around the French port of Dunkirk .
As things had gone badly for the allies in France , it became evident that some thought needed to be given to the possibility of having to resist an attempted invasion of Britain by German forces .
= = British armed forces = =
= = = British Army = = =
The evacuation of British and French forces ( Operation Dynamo ) began on 26 May with air cover provided by the RAF at heavy cost . Over the following ten days , 338 @,@ 226 French and British soldiers were evacuated to Britain . Most of the personnel were brought back to Britain , but many of the army 's vehicles , tanks , guns , ammunition and heavy equipment and the RAF 's ground equipment and stores were left behind in France . Some soldiers even returned without their rifles . A further 215 @,@ 000 were evacuated from ports south of the Channel in Operation Ariel during June .
In June 1940 the British Army had 22 infantry divisions and one armoured division . The infantry divisions were , on average , at half strength , had only one @-@ sixth of their normal artillery , ( over 600 medium guns , both 18 / 25 and 25 pounder , and 280 howitzers were available , with a further 100 25 pounders manufactured in June , over 300 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers – 900 were modified in 1940 alone – and a number of 60 pounder howitzers and their modified 4 @.@ 5 inch version as well as antiquated examples of the 6 inch howitzer recovered from reserve after the loss of current models in France , with several hundred additional 75 @-@ mm M1917 guns and their ammunition arriving from the US ) , and were almost totally lacking in transport ( just over 2 @,@ 000 carriers were available , rising to over 3 @,@ 000 by the end of July ) . There was a critical shortage of ammunition such that none could be spared for practice . However , records show that the British possessed over 290 million rounds of .303 ammunition of various types on 7 June , rising to over 400 million in August . VII Corps was formed to control the Home Forces ' general reserve , and included the 1st Armoured Division . In a reorganisation in July , the divisions with some degree of mobility were placed behind the " coastal crust " of defended beach areas from The Wash to Newhaven in Sussex . The General Headquarters Reserve was expanded to two corps of the most capable units . VII Corps was based at Headley Court in Surrey to the south of London and comprised 1st Armoured and 1st Canadian Divisions with the 1st Army Tank Brigade . IV Corps was based at Latimer House to the north of London and comprised 2nd Armoured , 42nd and 43rd Infantry divisions .
Estimates of the numbers of tanks in Britain after the fall of France vary ; Viscount Cranbourne stated in the House of Lords ( in 1942 ) that Britain only had 50 infantry tanks and 200 light tanks armed only with machine guns , and these figures have become the basis of the myth that the British Army in June 1940 had very few tanks . But Churchill stated that there were 102 cruiser tanks , 132 infantry tanks and 252 light tanks left in Britain after the fall of France . Churchill also stated " in the last half of September we were able to bring into action on the south coast front sixteen divisions of high quality of which three were armoured divisions or their equivalent in brigades " . An official history gave the figures for tank numbers on 10 June 1940 as 103 cruisers and 142 infantry tanks . Other sources indicate that these had more than doubled by the end of July . Whatever the exact numbers in August 1940 the British Government felt sufficiently confident in Britain 's ability to repel an invasion ( and in its tank production factories ) that it sent 52 cruiser and 50 infantry tanks to Egypt . At this time Britain 's factories were almost matching Germany 's output in tanks and by 1941 they would surpass them .
= = = Home Guard = = =
On 14 May 1940 , Secretary of State for War Anthony Eden announced the creation of the Local Defence Volunteers ( LDV ) — later to become known as the Home Guard . Far more men volunteered than the government expected and by the end of June , there were nearly 1 @.@ 5 million volunteers . There were plenty of personnel for the defence of the country , but there were no uniforms ( a simple armband had to suffice ) and equipment was in critically short supply . At first , the Home Guard was armed with guns in private ownership , a knife or bayonet on a pole , Molotov cocktails and improvised flamethrowers .
By July 1940 the situation had improved somewhat with uniforms , a modicum of training and the arrival of hundreds of thousands of rifles and millions of rounds of ammunition from the USA . New weapons were developed that could be produced cheaply without consuming materials that were needed to produce armaments for the regular units . An early example was the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenade ( a glass bottle filled with highly flammable material of which more than six million were made ) , and the No. 73 Grenade ( an anti @-@ tank grenade resembling a Thermos flask ) .
The sticky bomb was a glass flask filled with nitroglycerin and given an adhesive coating allowing it to be glued to a passing vehicle . In theory , it could be thrown , but in practice it would most likely need to be placed — thumped against the target with sufficient force to stick — requiring courage and good fortune to be used effectively . An order for one million sticky bombs was placed in June 1940 , but various problems delayed their distribution in large numbers until early 1941 , and it is likely that fewer than 250 @,@ 000 were produced .
A measure of mobility was provided by bicycles , motorcycles , private vehicles and horses . A small number of units were equipped with armoured cars , some of which were of standard design , but many were improvised locally from commercially available vehicles by the attachment of steel plates .
Later in 1941 , more sophisticated weapons were made available such as the Blacker Bombard anti @-@ tank weapon , the Northover Projector ( a black @-@ powder mortar ) , and the Smith Gun ( a small artillery gun that could be towed by a private motorcar ) .
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
In mid @-@ 1940 , the principal concern of the Royal Air Force , together with elements of the Fleet Air Arm , was to contest the control of British airspace with the German Luftwaffe . For the Germans , achieving at least local air superiority was an essential prerequisite to any invasion .
If the German air force had prevailed and attempted a landing , a much @-@ reduced Royal Air Force would have been obliged to operate from airfields well away from the southeast of England . Any airfield that was in danger of being captured would have been made inoperable and there were plans to remove all portable equipment from vulnerable radar bases and completely destroy anything that could not be moved . Whatever was left of the RAF would have been committed to intercepting the invasion fleet in concert with the Royal Navy — to fly in the presence of an enemy that enjoys air superiority is very dangerous . However , the RAF would have kept several advantages , such as being able to operate largely over friendly territory , as well as having the ability to fly for longer as , until the Germans were able to operate from airfields in England , Luftwaffe pilots would still have to fly significant distances to reach their operational area .
A contingency plan called Operation Banquet required all available aircraft to be committed to the defence . In the event of invasion almost anything that was not a fighter would be converted to a bomber – student pilots , some in the very earliest stages of training , would use around 350 Tiger Moth and Magister trainers to drop 20 lb ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) bombs from rudimentary bomb racks .
Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War the Chain Home radar system began to be installed in the south of England , with three radar stations being operational by 1937 . Although the German High Command suspected that the British may have been developing these systems , Zeppelin test flights had proved inconclusive . As a result , the expanding Chain Home radar system , and aircraft @-@ based radar first fielded in 1940 , became a vital piece of Britain 's defensive capabilities during the Battle of Britain .
= = = Royal Navy = = =
Although much larger in size and with many more ships , the Royal Navy , unlike the Kriegsmarine , had many commitments , including against Japan and the defence of Scotland and Northern England . The Royal Navy could overwhelm any force that the German navy could muster but would require time to get its forces in position since they were dispersed , partly because of the aforementioned commitments and partly to reduce risk of air attack . On 1 July 1940 , one cruiser and 23 destroyers were committed to escort duties in the Western Approaches , plus 12 destroyers and one cruiser on the Tyne and the aircraft carrier Argus ( I49 ) . More immediately available were ten destroyers at the south coast ports of Dover and Portsmouth , a cruiser and three destroyers at Sheerness on the River Thames , three cruisers and seven destroyers at the Humber , 9 destroyers at Harwich , and two cruisers at Rosyth . The rest of the Home Fleet — five battleships , three cruisers and nine destroyers — was based far to the north at Scapa Flow . There were , in addition , many corvettes , minesweepers , and other small vessels . By the end of July , a dozen additional destroyers were transferred from escort duties to the defence of the homeland , and more would join the Home Fleet shortly after .
At the end of August , the battleship HMS Rodney was sent south to Rosyth for anti @-@ invasion duties . She was joined on 13 September by her sister ship HMS Nelson , the battlecruiser HMS Hood , three anti @-@ aircraft cruisers and a destroyer flotilla . On 14 September , the old battleship HMS Revenge was moved to Plymouth , also specifically in case of invasion . In addition to these major units , by the beginning of September the Royal Navy had stationed along the south coast of England between Plymouth and Harwich , 4 light cruisers and 57 destroyers tasked with repelling any invasion attempt , a force many times larger than the naval escorts that the Germans had available .
= = Field fortifications = =
The British engaged upon an extensive programme of field fortification .
On 27 May 1940 a Home Defence Executive was formed under General Sir Edmund Ironside , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Home Forces , to organise the defence of Britain . At first defence arrangements were largely static and focused on the coastline ( the coastal crust ) and , in a classic example of defence in depth , on a series of inland anti @-@ tank ' stop ' lines . The stop lines were designated Command , Corp and Divisional according to their status . The longest and most heavily fortified was the General Headquarters anti @-@ tank line , GHQ Line , which ran across southern England , wrapped around London and then ran north to Yorkshire . It was intended to protect the capital and the industrial heartland of England . Another major line was the Taunton Stop Line , which defended against an advance from England 's south @-@ west peninsula . London and other major cities were ringed with inner and outer stop lines . Some 50 known stop lines were constructed in Britain , though some of the less important lines were just demolition belts and not all lines were completed .
Military thinking shifted rapidly . Given the lack of equipment and properly trained men , Ironside had had little choice but to adopt a strategy of static warfare , but it was soon perceived that this would not be sufficient . Ironside has been criticised for having a siege mentality , but some consider this unfair , as he is believed to have understood the limits of the stop lines and never expected them to hold out indefinitely .
However , Prime Minister Churchill was not satisfied with Ironside 's progress , especially with regard to the creation of a mobile reserve . Anthony Eden , the Secretary of State for War , suggested that Ironside should be replaced by General Brooke ( later Viscount Alanbrooke ) . On 17 July 1940 Churchill spent an afternoon with Brooke and was soon convinced that they were in close agreement as to how best to defend the nation . On 19 July Brooke replaced Ironside .
Brooke 's appointment coincided with more trained men and better equipment becoming available . Under Brooke , new strategies and tactics were devised . More concentration was placed on defending the coastal crust , while inland a hedgehog defence strategy of defended localities and anti @-@ tank islands was established , each having all @-@ round defence . Many of these anti @-@ tank islands were established along the already constructed stop lines , where existing defences could be integrated into the new strategy and , especially , at towns and villages where there was a Home Guard to provide personnel .
= = = Coastal crust = = =
Any German invasion of Britain would have to involve the landing of troops and equipment somewhere on the coast , and the most vulnerable areas were the south and east coasts of England . Here , Emergency Coastal Batteries were constructed to protect ports and likely landing places . They were fitted with whatever guns were available , which mainly came from naval vessels scrapped since the end of the First World War . These included 6 inch ( 152 mm ) , 5 @.@ 5 inch ( 140 mm ) , 4 @.@ 7 inch ( 120 mm ) and 4 inch ( 102 mm ) guns . These had little ammunition , sometimes as few as ten rounds apiece . At Dover , two 14 inch ( 356 mm ) guns known as Winnie and Pooh were employed . There were also a small number of land based torpedo launching sites .
Beaches were blocked with entanglements of barbed wire , usually in the form of three coils of concertina wire fixed by metal posts , or a simple fence of straight wires supported on waist @-@ high posts . The wire would also demarcate extensive minefields , with both anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines on and behind the beaches . On many of the more remote beaches this combination of wire and mines represented the full extent of the passive defences .
Portions of the Romney Marsh , which was the planned invasion site of Operation Sea Lion , were flooded and there were plans to flood more of the Marsh if the invasion were to materialise .
Piers , ideal for landing of troops , and situated in large numbers along the south coast of England , were disassembled , blocked or otherwise destroyed . Many piers were not repaired until the late 1940s or early 1950s .
Where a barrier to tanks was required , Admiralty scaffolding ( also known as beach scaffolding or obstacle Z.1 ) was constructed . Essentially , this was a fence of scaffolding tubes 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high and was placed at low water so that tanks could not get a good run at it . Admiralty scaffolding was deployed along hundreds of miles of vulnerable beaches .
An even more robust barrier to tanks was provided by long lines of anti @-@ tank cubes . The cubes were made of reinforced concrete 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) to a side . Thousands were cast in situ in rows sometimes two or three deep .
The beaches themselves were overlooked by pillboxes of various types ( see British hardened field defences of the Second World War ) . These were sometimes placed low down to get maximum advantage from enfilading fire whereas others were placed high up making them much harder to capture . Searchlights were installed at the coast to illuminate the sea surface and the beaches for artillery fire .
Many small islands and peninsulas were fortified to protect inlets and other strategic targets . In the Firth of Forth in east central Scotland , Inchgarvie was heavily fortified with several gun emplacements , which can still be seen . This provided invaluable defence from seaborne attacks on the Forth Bridge and Rosyth Dockyard , approximately a mile upstream from the bridge . Further out to sea , Inchmickery , 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) north of Edinburgh , was similarly fortified . The remnants of gun emplacements on the coast to the north , in North Queensferry , and south , in Dalmeny , of Inchmickery also remain .
= = = Lines and islands = = =
The primary purpose of the stop lines and the anti @-@ tank islands that followed was to hold up the enemy , slowing progress and restricting the route of an attack . The need to prevent tanks from breaking through was of key importance . Consequently , the defences generally ran along pre @-@ existing barriers to tanks such as rivers and canals ; railway embankments and cuttings ; thick woods ; and other natural obstacles . Where possible , usually well @-@ drained land was allowed to flood , making the ground too soft to support even tracked vehicles .
Thousands of miles of anti @-@ tank ditches were dug , usually by mechanical excavators , but occasionally by hand . They were typically 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide and 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) deep and could be either trapezoidal or triangular in section with the defended side being especially steep and revetted with whatever material was available .
Elsewhere , anti @-@ tank barriers were made of massive reinforced concrete obstacles , either cubic , pyramidal or cylindrical . The cubes generally came in two sizes : 5 or 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 or 1 @.@ 1 m ) high . In a few places , anti @-@ tank walls were constructed — essentially continuously abutted cubes .
Large cylinders were made from a section of sewer pipe 3 to 4 feet ( 91 to 122 cm ) in diameter filled with concrete typically to a height of 4 to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) , frequently with a dome at the top . Smaller cylinders cast from concrete are also frequently found .
Pimples , popularly known as Dragon 's teeth , were pyramid shaped concrete blocks designed specifically to counter tanks which , attempting to pass them , would climb up exposing vulnerable parts of the vehicle and possibly slip down with the tracks between the points . They ranged in size somewhat , but were typically 2 feet ( 61 cm ) high and about 3 feet ( 91 cm ) square at the base . There was also a conical form .
Cubes , cylinders and pimples were deployed in long rows , often several rows deep , to form anti @-@ tank barriers at beaches and inland . They were also used in smaller numbers to block roads . They frequently sported loops at the top for the attachment of barbed wire . There was also a tetrahedral or caltrop @-@ shaped obstacle , although it seems these were rare .
Where natural anti @-@ tank barriers needed only to be augmented , concrete or wooden posts sufficed .
Roads offered the enemy fast routes to their objectives and consequently they were blocked at strategic points . Many of the road @-@ blocks formed by Ironside were semi @-@ permanent . In many cases , Brooke had these removed altogether , as experience had shown they could be as much of an impediment to friends as to foes . Brooke favoured removable blocks .
The simplest of the removable roadblocks consisted of concrete cylinders of various sizes but typically about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high and 2 feet ( 61 cm ) in diameter ; these could be manhandled into position as required . However , these would be insufficient to stop armoured vehicles . One common type of removable anti @-@ tank roadblock comprised a pair of massive concrete buttresses permanently installed at the roadside ; these buttresses had holes and / or slots to accept horizontal railway lines or rolled steel joists ( RSJs ) . Similar blocks were placed across railway tracks because tanks can move along tracks almost as easily as they can along roads . These blocks would be placed strategically where it was difficult for a vehicle to go around — anti @-@ tank obstacles and mines being positioned as required — and they could be opened or closed within a matter of minutes .
There were two types of socket roadblocks . The first comprised vertical lengths of railway line placed in sockets in the road and was known as hedgehog . The second type comprised railway lines or RSJs bent or welded at around a 60 ° angle , known as hairpins . In both cases , prepared sockets about 6 inches ( 152 @.@ 40 mm ) square were placed in the road , closed by covers when not in use , allowing traffic to pass normally .
Another removable roadblocking system used mines . The extant remains of such systems superficially resemble those of hedgehog or hairpin , but the pits are shallow : just deep enough to take an anti @-@ tank mine . When not in use , the sockets were filled with a wooden plug allowing traffic to pass normally .
Bridges and other key points were prepared for demolition at short notice by preparing chambers filled with explosives . A Depth Charge Crater was a site in a road ( usually at a junction ) prepared with buried explosives that could be detonated to instantly form a deep crater as an anti @-@ tank obstacle . The Canadian pipe mine ( later known as the McNaughton Tube after General Andrew McNaughton ) was a horizontally bored pipe packed with explosives – once in place this could be used to instantly ruin a road or runway . Prepared demolitions had the advantage of being undetectable from the air — the enemy could not take any precautions against them , or plot a route of attack around them .
Crossing points in the defence network – bridges , tunnels and other weak spots – were called nodes or points of resistance . These were fortified with removable road blocks , barbed wire entanglements , and land mines . These passive defences were overlooked by trench works , gun and mortar emplacements , and pillboxes . In places entire villages were fortified using barriers of scaffolding , sandbagged positions and loopholes in existing buildings .
Nodes were designated ' A ' , ' B ' or ' C ' depending upon how long they were expected to hold out . Home Guard troops were largely responsible for the defence of nodal points and other centres of resistance such as towns and defended villages . Category ' A ' nodal points and anti @-@ tank islands usually had a garrison of regular troops .
The rate of construction was frenetic : by the end of September 1940 , 18 @,@ 000 pillboxes and countless other preparations had been completed .
= = = Airfields and open areas = = =
Open areas were considered vulnerable to invasion from the air : a landing by paratroops , glider @-@ borne troops or powered aircraft which could land and take off again . Open areas with a straight length of 500 yards ( 460 m ) or more within five miles ( 8 km ) of the coast or an airfield were considered vulnerable . These were blocked by trenches or , more usually , by wooden or concrete obstacles , as well as old cars .
Securing an airstrip would be an important objective for the invader . Airfields , considered extremely vulnerable , were protected by trench works and pillboxes which faced inwards towards the runway , rather than outwards . Many of these fortifications were specified by the Air Ministry and defensive designs were unique to airfields — these would not be expected to face heavy weapons so the degree of protection was less and there was more emphasis on all @-@ round visibility and sweeping fields of fire . It was difficult to defend large open areas without creating impediments to the movement of friendly aircraft . Solutions to this problem included the pop @-@ up Picket Hamilton fort — a light pillbox that could be lowered to ground level when the airfield was in use .
Another innovation was a mobile pillbox that could be driven out onto the airfield . This was known as the Bison and consisted of a lorry with a concrete armoured cabin and a small concrete pillbox on the flat bed . Constructed in Canada , a ' runway plough ' , assembled in Scotland , survives at Eglinton Country Park . It was purchased by the army in World War II to rip up aerodrome runways and railway lines if an invasion took place as means of causing disruption , making them useless to the occupying forces . It was used at the old Eglinton Estate , which had been commandeered by the army , to provide its army operators with the necessary experience . It was hauled by a powerful Foden Trucks tractor , possibly via a pulley and cable system .
= = = Hardened field defences = = =
The field fortifications constructed throughout Britain included large numbers of hardened field defences : mostly in the form of pillboxes .
In May 1940 , the Directorate of Fortifications and Works ( FW3 ) was set up at the War Office . Its purpose was to provide a number of basic pillbox designs which could be constructed by soldiers and local labour at appropriate defensive locations . In the following June and July FW3 issued 6 basic designs for rifle and light machine gun pillboxes , designated Type 22 to Type 27 . In addition , there were designs for gun emplacements suitable for either the Ordnance QF 2 pounder or the Hotchkiss 6 pounder gun ( designated Type 28 ) and a design for a hardened medium machine gun emplacement .
There were also designs for pillbox @-@ like structures for various purposes including light anti @-@ aircraft positions , observation posts and searchlight positions to illuminate the shoreline .
A small number of pillboxes had been constructed in the First World War and where possible these were integrated into the defence plans . Some pillboxes may pre @-@ date the publication of the FW3 designs , but in any case some local commanders introduced modifications to the standard FW3 designs or introduced designs of their own . These non @-@ standard design pillboxes may be produced in some numbers or completely ad hoc designs suited to local conditions . Other designs were produced as commercial ventures .
About 28 @,@ 000 pillboxes and other hardened field fortifications were constructed in the United Kingdom of which about 6 @,@ 500 still survive .
= = Other defensive measures = =
Other basic defensive measures included the removal of signposts , milestones ( some had the carved details obscured with cement ) and railway station signs making it more likely that an enemy would become confused . Petrol pumps were removed from service stations near the coast and there were careful preparations for the destruction of those that were left . Detailed plans were made for destroying anything that might prove useful to the invader such as port facilities , key roads and rolling stock . In certain areas non @-@ essential citizens were evacuated . In the county of Kent , 40 % of the population was relocated ; in East Anglia , the figure was 50 % .
Perhaps most importantly , the population was told what was expected from them . In June 1940 , the Ministry of Information published If the Invader Comes , what to do — and how to do it . It began :
The first instruction given quite emphatically is that , unless ordered to evacuate , " THE ORDER IS ' STAY PUT ' " [ capitalisation as in original ] . The roads were not to be blocked by refugees . Further warnings were given not to believe rumours and not to spread them , to be distrustful of orders that might be faked and even to check that an officer giving orders really is British . Further : keep calm and report anything suspicious quickly and accurately ; deny useful things to the enemy such as food , fuel , maps or transport ; be ready to block roads — when ordered to do so — " by felling trees , wiring them together or blocking the roads with cars " ; to organise resistance at shops and factories ; and , finally :
On 13 June 1940 the ringing of church bells was banned ; henceforth they would only be rung by the military or the police to warn that an invasion — generally meaning by parachutists — was in progress .
It is clear that more than merely passive resistance was expected — or at least hoped for — from the population . Churchill considered the formation of a Home Guard Reserve , given only an armband and basic training on the use of simple weapons such as Molotov cocktails . The reserve would only have been expected to report for duty in an invasion . Later , Churchill wrote how he envisaged the use of the sticky bomb : " We had the picture in mind that devoted soldiers or civilians would run close up to the tank and even thrust the bomb upon it , though its explosion cost them their lives [ Italics added for emphasis ] . " He also later recorded how he intended to use the slogan " You can always take one with you . "
In 1941 , in towns and villages invasion committees were formed to cooperate with the military and plan for the worst should their communities be isolated or occupied . The members of committees typically included representatives of the local council , the Air Raid Precautions service , the fire service , the police , the Women 's Voluntary Service and the Home Guard , as well as officers for medicine , sanitation and food . Plans of these committees were kept in secret War Books although few remain . Detailed inventories of anything useful were kept : vehicles , animals and basic tools , and lists were made of contact details for key personnel . Plans were made for a wide range of emergencies , including improvised mortuaries and places to bury the dead . Instructions to the Invasion Committees stated : " ... every citizen will regard it as his duty to hinder and frustrate the enemy and help our own forces by every means that ingenuity can devise and common sense suggest . "
When the UK went to war on 3 September 1939 , the strength of the Metropolitan Police stood at 18 @,@ 428 , which was 900 officers short of full strength . Due to the threat of invasion three reserve groups were mobilised , the first consisted of 2 @,@ 737 police pensioners who were re @-@ engaged , a second reserve of 5 @,@ 380 Special Constables serving on a temporary full @-@ time basis for the duration of the war , and 18 @,@ 868 War Reserve Constables employed on the same basis as the Special Constables . On the same day as the Battle of Dunkirk , Scotland Yard issued a memorandum detailing the police use of firearms in wartime . This detailed the planned training for all officers in the use of pistols and revolvers , as it was decided that even though the police were non @-@ combatant , they would provide armed guarding at sites deemed a risk from enemy sabotage , and would assist the British Armed Forces in the event of an invasion . Because of the possibility of the police assisting the armed forces , firearms and ammunition supplied to divisions were increased . On 1 June 1940 , 3 @,@ 500 Ross Rifles , which had last seen service in 1916 , and 72 @,@ 384 rounds of .303 ammunition were received from the military and were distributed among divisions . Thames division had the smallest rifle allocation with 61 , and " S " Division the largest with 190 . Fifty rifles were also issued to the London Fire Brigade , and Port of London Authority Police .
= = Guns , petroleum and poison = =
In 1940 , weapons were critically short ; there was a particular scarcity of anti @-@ tank weapons , many of which had been left in France . Ironside had only 170 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns , but these were supplemented by 100 Hotchkiss 6 @-@ pounder guns dating from the First World War , improvised into the anti @-@ tank role by the provision of solid shot . By the end of July 1940 , an additional 900 75mm field guns had been received from the USA , — the British were desperate for any means of stopping armoured vehicles . The Sten submachine gun was developed to replace infantry weapons left in France , and to supplement supplies from America of the Thompson submachine gun .
One of the few resources not in short supply was petroleum oil ; supplies intended for Europe were filling British storage facilities . Considerable effort and enthusiasm was put into making use of petroleum products as a weapon of war . The Army had not had flame @-@ throwers since the First World War , but a significant number were improvised from pressure greasing equipment acquired from automotive repair garages . Although limited in range , they were reasonably effective .
There were many ideas for using petroleum on a larger scale and although many proved fruitless a number of practical weapons were developed .
A mobile flame trap comprised surplus bulk storage tanks on trucks , the contents of which could be hosed into a sunken road and ignited . A static flame trap was prepared with perforated pipes running down the side of a road connected to a 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 730 L ; 720 US gal ) elevated tank . Usually gravity sufficed but in a few cases a pump assisted in spraying the mixture of oil and petrol .
A flame fougasse comprised a 40 gallon light steel drum filled with petroleum mixture and a small , electrically detonated explosive . This was dug into the roadside with a substantial overburden and camouflaged . Ammonal provided the propellant charge , it was placed behind the barrel and , when triggered , caused the barrel to rupture and shoot a jet of flame 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide and 30 yards ( 27 m ) long . They were usually deployed in batteries of four barrels and would be placed at a location such as a corner , steep incline or roadblock where vehicles would be obliged to slow .
Variants of the flame fougasse included the demigasse , a barrel on its side and left in the open with explosive buried underneath ; and the hedge hopper : a barrel on end with explosive buried underneath a few inches deep and slightly off centre . On firing , the hedge hopper barrel was projected ten feet ( 3 m ) into the air and over a hedge or wall behind which it had been hidden . 50 @,@ 000 flame fougasse barrels were installed at 7 @,@ 000 sites mostly in southern England and at a further 2 @,@ 000 sites in Scotland .
Early experiments with floating petroleum on the sea and igniting it were not entirely successful : the fuel was difficult to ignite , large quantities were required to cover even modest areas and the weapon was easily disrupted by waves . However , the potential was clear . By early 1941 a flame barrage technique was developed . Rather than attempting to ignite oil floating on water , nozzles were placed above high @-@ water mark with pumps producing sufficient pressure to spray fuel which produced a roaring wall of flame over , rather than on , the water . Such installations consumed considerable resources and although this weapon was impressive , its network of pipes was vulnerable to pre @-@ landing bombardment ; General Brooke did not consider it effective . Initially ambitious plans were cut back to cover just a few miles of beaches .
It seems likely the British would have used poison gas against troops on beaches . General Brooke , in an annotation to his published war diaries , stated that he " ... had every intention of using sprayed mustard gas on the beaches " . Mustard gas was manufactured as well as chlorine , phosgene and Paris Green . Poison gases were stored at key points for use by Bomber Command and in smaller quantities at many more airfields for use against the beaches . Bombers and crop sprayers would spray landing craft and beaches with mustard gas and Paris Green .
= = Deception and disinformation = =
In addition to hiding real weapons and fortifications , steps were taken to create the impression of the existence of defences that were not real . Drain pipes stood in place of real guns , dummy pillboxes were constructed , and uniformed mannequins kept an unblinking vigil .
Volunteers were encouraged to use anything that would delay the enemy . A young member of the Home Guard ( LDV ) recalled :
In the villages use was made of any existing walls or buildings , loopholes for firing or passing heavy chains and cables through to form barriers strong enough to slow down or stop soft skinned vehicles . The chains and cables could also be made into psychological barriers to tanks by attaching an imitation bomb to them , an impression which could be augmented by running a length of cable from it to a position out of sight of a tank commander . These positions could be made even more authentic by breaking up the surface immediately in front of the obstacle and burying an old soup plate , or similar object . For occasions where time did not permit the passing of cables and chains we had concrete cylinders the size of a 45 gallon oil or tar barrel ready to roll into a roadway or other gap . These generally had a large metal loop cemented into one end through which a cable could be passed to link several together . Again , suspicious looking parcels could be attached to strengthen the illusion .
In 1938 , a section funded by MI6 was created for propaganda , headed by Sir Campbell Stuart . It was allocated premises at Electra House and was dubbed Department EH . On 25 September 1939 the unit was mobilised to Woburn Abbey where it joined a subversion team from MI6 , known as Section D , and by July these teams became a part of the newly created Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . These SOE elements went on to form the core of the Political Warfare Executive in 1941 . Their task was to spread false rumours and conduct psychological warfare . Inspired by a demonstration of petroleum warfare , one false rumour stated that the British had a new bomb : dropped from an aircraft , it caused a thin film of volatile liquid to spread over the surface of the water which it then ignited . Such rumours were credible and rapidly spread . American broadcaster William Shirer recorded large numbers of burns victims in Berlin ; though it is not clear what he personally saw , it seems likely his reports were influenced by rumours . The interrogation of a Luftwaffe pilot revealed the existence of such weapons was common knowledge , and documents found after the war showed the German high command were deceived . The rumour seemed to take on a life of its own on both sides leading to persistent stories of a thwarted German invasion , in spite of official British denials . On 15 December 1940 , The New York Times ran a story claiming that tens of thousands of German troops had been ' consumed by fire ' in two failed invasion attempts .
= = Planned resistance = =
The War Office did not treat the threat of invasion seriously until the collapse of France in May 1940 . The Secret Intelligence Service had , however , been making plans for this eventuality since February 1940 , creating the core of a secret resistance network across the country . This remained in existence until at least 1943 and comprised both intelligence and sabotage units . In May 1940 , SIS also began to distribute arms dumps and recruit for a larger civilian guerrilla organisation called the Home Defence Scheme . This was deeply resented by the War Office who created the Auxiliary Units as a more respectable military alternative .
Auxiliary Units were a specially trained and secret organisation that would act as uniformed commandos to attack the flanks and rear of an enemy advance . They were organised around a core of regular army ' scout sections ' , supported by patrols of 6 - 8 men recruited from the Home Guard . Although approval for the organisation had been given in June 1940 , recruiting only began in early July . Each patrol was a self @-@ contained cell , expected to be self @-@ sufficient . There was , however , no means of communicating with them once they had gone to ground , which greatly reduced their strategic value . Each patrol was well @-@ equipped and was provided with a concealed underground operational base , usually built in woodland and camouflaged . Auxiliary Units were only expected to operate during an organised military campaign , with an expected lifespan of 14 days . They were not , therefore , intended to operate as a long term resistance organisation . The latter was the responsibility of the Secret Intelligence Service Section VII , which would have only begun to expand its operations once the country had actually been occupied , thus confining knowledge of its existence only to those men and women who would have been available at the time .
In addition , the Auxiliary Units included a network of civilian Special Duties personnel , recruited to provide a short @-@ term intelligence gathering service , spying on enemy formations and troop movements . Reports were to be collected from dead letter drops and , from 1941 , relayed by civilian radio operators from secret locations . The wireless network did , however , only become operational from 1941 and was based upon a very rigid system which meant that it was unlikely to survive more than a few days following invasion . More important in 1940 for intelligence gathering were the mobile patrols of the GHQ Liaison Unit ( ' Phantom ' ) , which were staffed by skilled linguists and equipped with powerful wireless sets for direct communication with GHQ .
= = Offensive anti @-@ invasion operations = =
The War Cabinet and the Chiefs of Staff Committee were not content to sit and wait for the Germans to make the first move ; considerable efforts were to attack by air and sea the enemy shipping which had been assembled in occupied ports between The Hague and Cherbourg , starting in July 1940 . These attacks became known as the " Battle of the Barges " . Some notable operations are shown below :
12 August : Five Handley Page Hampdens attacked the Ladbergen Aqueduct on the Dortmund @-@ Ems Canal . The waterway was blocked for ten days , impeding the movement of barges towards the Channel ports .
8 September : Two cruisers and ten destroyers swept along the French coast and bombarded Boulogne harbour . In a separate operation , 3 Motor Torpedo Boats attacked a convoy of small vessels off Ostend ; two of the MTBs then entered the harbour and torpedoed two transport ships .
10 September : Three destroyers found a convoy of invasion transports off Ostend and sank an escort vessel , two trawlers that were towing barges and one large barge .
13 September : Three destroyers sent to bombard Boulogne but the operation was cancelled due to bad weather . A further twelve destroyers swept parts of the French coast .
15 September : Sergeant John Hannah gained the Victoria Cross during a raid by RAF bombers on invasion barges at Antwerp .
17 September : A major attack by Bomber Command on ports along the occupied coast . 84 barges were damaged at Dunkirk .
26 September : Operation Lucid , a plan to send fire ships into the harbours at Calais and Boulogne to destroy invasion barges , was abandoned when one of the old tankers that were to be used had engine failure .
30 September : The monitor HMS Erebus fired seventeen 15 @-@ inch shells into Calais docks .
4 October : Second attempt at Operation Lucid , this time cancelled because of bad weather .
7 October : Third attempt at Lucid , cancelled when the destroyer carrying the force commander hit a mine and had to be towed home .
10 – 11 October : Operation Medium , the bombardment of invasion transports in Cherbourg . During the 18 minute bombardment , 120 15 @-@ inch shells were fired by the battleship HMS Revenge , and a total of 801 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells were fired by her escorting destroyers . German coastal artillery replied for 30 minutes without hitting any of the warships .
Between 15 July and 21 September , German sources stated that 21 transport vessels and 214 barges had been damaged by British air raids . These figures may have been under @-@ reported .
= = The threat recedes = =
After the evacuation of Dunkirk , people believed that the threatened invasion could come at almost any time . Churchill was at times personally pessimistic about Britain 's chances for victory , telling Hastings Ismay on 12 June 1940 that " [ y ] ou and I will be dead in three months ' time " . German preparations would require at least a few weeks , but all defensive precautions were made with an extreme sense of urgency . In the summer of 1940 , an invasion attempt could have occurred at any time , but some times were more likely than others : the phase of the moon , the tides and , most of all , the weather were considerations . The weather usually deteriorates significantly after September , but an October landing was not out of the question . On 3 October , General Brooke wrote in his diary : " Still no invasion ! I am beginning to think that the Germans may after all not attempt it . And yet ! I have the horrid thought that he may still bring off some surprise on us . "
The Battle of Britain had been won , and on 12 October 1940 , unknown to the British , Hitler rescheduled Sealion for the spring of 1941 . By that spring , the state of Britain 's defences had much improved , with many more trained and equipped men becoming available and field fortifications reaching a high state of readiness . With national confidence rising , Prime Minister Churchill was able to say : " We are waiting for the long promised invasion . So are the fishes ... "
When Germany invaded the Soviet Union , on 22 June 1941 , it came to be seen as unlikely that there would be any attempted landing as long as that conflict was undecided — from the British point of view at the time , the matter hung in the balance . In July 1941 , construction of field fortifications was greatly reduced and concentration given to the possibility of a raid in force rather than a full @-@ scale invasion .
On 7 December 1941 , a Japanese carrier fleet launched a surprise air attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor ; the USA entered the war on Britain 's side . With America 's Germany first strategic policy , resources flooded into the UK , effectively ending the danger of invasion after two years .
= = Effectiveness = =
General Brooke frequently confided his concerns to his private diary . When published , he included additional annotations written many years later :
... I considered the invasion a very real and probable threat and one for which the land forces at my disposal fell far short of what I felt was required to provide any degree of real confidence in our power to defend these shores . It should not be construed that I considered our position a helpless one in the case of an invasion . Far from it . We should certainly have a desperate struggle and the future might well have hung in the balance , but I certainly felt that given a fair share of the fortunes of war we should certainly succeed in finally defending these shores . It must be remembered that if my diary occasionally gave vent to some of the doubts which the heavy responsibility generated , this diary was the one and only outlet for such doubts .
The question of whether the defences would have been effective in invasion is vexed . In mid @-@ 1940 , the preparations relied heavily upon field fortifications . The First World War made it clear that assaulting prepared defences with infantry was deadly and difficult , but similar preparations in Belgium had been overrun by well @-@ equipped German Panzer divisions in the early weeks of 1940 and with so many armaments left at Dunkirk , British forces were woefully ill @-@ equipped to take on German armour . On the other hand , while British preparations for defence were ad hoc , so were the German invasion plans : a fleet of 2 @,@ 000 converted barges and other vessels had been hurriedly made available and their fitness was debatable ; in any case , the Germans could not land troops with all their heavy equipment . Until the Germans captured a port , both armies would have been short of tanks and heavy guns .
The later experiences of the Canadian Army during the disastrous Dieppe Raid of 1942 , American forces on Omaha Beach on D @-@ Day and taking on Japanese defenders on Pacific Islands showed that under the right conditions , a defender could exact a terrible price from assaulting forces , significantly depleting and delaying enemy forces until reinforcements could be deployed to appropriate places via the sea and inland .
In the event of invasion , the Royal Navy would have sailed to the landing places , possibly taking several days . It is now known that the Germans planned to land on the southern coast of England ; one reason for this site was that the narrow seas of the English Channel could be blocked with mines , submarines and torpedo boats . While German naval forces and the Luftwaffe could have extracted a high price from the Royal Navy , they could not have hoped to prevent interference with attempts to land a second wave of troops and supplies that would have been essential to German success — even if , by then , the Germans had captured a port essential for bringing in significant heavy equipment . In this scenario , British land forces would have faced the Germans on more equal terms than otherwise and it was only necessary to delay the German advance , preventing a collapse until the German land forces were , at least temporarily , isolated by the Royal Navy and then mounting a counterattack .
Scholarly consideration of the likely outcome of invasion , including the 1974 Royal Military Academy Sandhurst war game , agree that while German forces would have been able to land and gain a significant beachhead , intervention of the Royal Navy would have been decisive and , even with the most optimistic assumptions , the German army would not have penetrated further than GHQ Line and would have been defeated .
Following the failure to gain even local air superiority in the Battle of Britain , Operation Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely . Hitler and his generals were aware of the problems of an invasion . Hitler was not ideologically committed to a long war with Britain and many commentators suggest that German invasion plans were a feint never to be put into action .
While Britain may have been militarily secure in 1940 , both sides were aware of the possibility of a political collapse . If the Germans had won the Battle of Britain , the Luftwaffe would have been able to strike anywhere in southern England and with the prospect of an invasion , the British government would have come under pressure to come to terms : the extensive anti @-@ invasion preparations demonstrated to Germany and to the people of Britain that whatever happened in the air , the United Kingdom was both able and willing to defend itself .
= = = Official documents = = =
Consolidated Instructions to Invasion Committees in England and Wales ( July 1942 ) HM Government .
Barrel Flame Traps , Flame Warfare . Military Training Pamphlet No. 53 . Part 1 . War Office . July 1942 .
= = = Collections = = =
" The National Archives " . Repository of UK government records . Retrieved 3 August 2010 .
" WW2 People 's War " . BBC . Retrieved 3 August 2010 . – an online archive of wartime memories contributed by members of the public and gathered by the BBC .
Sylvester , Rachel ; Coates , Sam . " The Times and The Sunday Times Archive " . London . Retrieved 3 August 2010 . – subscription required
= Alt.tv.simpsons =
alt.tv.simpsons ( called " a.t.s. " by regular readers ) is a usenet newsgroup dedicated to discussing the American television program The Simpsons . Created in 1990 , the newsgroup became a popular community in the early 1990s , and continues to exist as of 2014 . It is known for reviewing episodes and nitpicking minor details on the show .
The writers of The Simpsons know about the forum and have on several occasions read the comments made on it . The character Comic Book Guy is often used in the show to lampoon and respond to the newsgroups fans . In interviews some writers have admitted that they do not like being scrutinized , but other writers have participated in the discussions on the forum . Independent commentators call the forum an example of an " active audience " and have claimed The Simpsons is tailor @-@ made for such a forum .
= = History = =
The newsgroup was created by Gary D. Duzan during the third week of March 1990 , four months after the first airing
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of VX originally present was sufficient to account for the death of the sheep . " Even after the report surfaced , the Army maintained that it did not accept responsibility for the incident and did not admit negligence . As late as 1997 , one year before the report went public , U.S. Department of Defense officials stated that " the reason it ( the report ) was never published is because it wasn 't particularly revealing . " Deseret News reported in June 1994 that Ray Peck , who owned the sheep that were killed , was outside working during the May 13 , 1968 , incident ; members of his family developed nervous @-@ system illnesses that were similar to those reported by people exposed to low levels of VX in lab experiments . Also , the probe showed that medical tests the Army had used to claim humans were not affected are now considered inconclusive , and the Pecks had shown other signs of low @-@ level VX exposure .
= Anthony Field =
Anthony Donald Joseph Field , AM ( born 8 May 1963 ) is an Australian musician and actor . He is best known as a member of the children 's group The Wiggles and the 1980s and 1990s pop band The Cockroaches . While still a teenager , he helped found The Cockroaches with his brothers , Paul and John . The Cockroaches recorded two albums and enjoyed moderate success , interrupted by Field 's service in Australia 's regular army , until they disbanded in the late 1980s .
Field attended Macquarie University to receive training in early childhood education , and founded The Wiggles with fellow students Murray Cook , Greg Page and former bandmate Jeff Fatt in 1991 . He worked as a preschool teacher for two years before the success of The Wiggles led him to focus on children 's music full @-@ time . Despite Field 's strong dislike of touring , The Wiggles became one of the most successful and active groups in Australia . Field , who wore blue while performing with the group , was responsible for the production aspects of their stage and television shows , CDs , and DVDs . His issues with chronic pain and depression , which almost forced him out of the group at the height of their success , are well @-@ documented .
= = Early life and education = =
Field was born in Kellyville , New South Wales . He is the youngest of seven children , and grew up in north western Sydney . He came from a long line of musicians , especially the women in his family . His great @-@ great aunt was " Queenie Paul " , known for performing at the Tivoli Theatre in Sydney , and his grandmother Kathleen accompanied silent movies in the mining town of Cobar . Field 's mother , Marie , made sure that all of her seven children learned how to play at least one musical instrument . He attended the all @-@ boys boarding school St. Joseph 's College , which his great @-@ grandfather Paddy Condon , an Italian immigrant and master stonemason , helped build . In 1979 , while they were students at St. Joseph 's , he and his brothers Paul and John formed the pop group The Cockroaches .
He was inspired by his sister Colleen to study Early Childhood Education , and became convinced that teaching preschool children " was my calling " . He was also attracted to the field 's freedom , artistic nature , and lack of discipline , which was different from his experience in boarding school . Field put off university when The Cockroaches became successful , but he was dissatisfied with touring and plagued by " perhaps irrational , but very real , feelings of inadequacy and depression " . By his mid @-@ twenties , he decided that he did not want to tour any longer , so he took two breaks . His first break was as an infantry soldier , medic , and rifleman in the 5th / 7th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , Australia 's regular army from 1982 to 1985 . He played the bagpipes in parades and on training missions , but ended his military service in July 1985 and suffered from a bad back as a result of his training . He also went backpacking in the U.K. , listening to roots music , to children 's music by artists like Raffi , and to recordings of children 's books .
When The Cockroaches disbanded in the early 1990s , Field enrolled at Macquarie University . While at university , he decided to record an album of children 's music , enlisting the assistance of fellow student and guitarist Murray Cook , former Cockroaches roadie and vocalist Greg Page , former bandmate and keyboardist Jeff Fatt , and Macquarie instructor and composer Phillip Wilcher , who later left the group .
= = The Wiggles = =
The Wiggles recorded their first CD in 1991 ; it sold 100 @,@ 000 copies . Field worked as a preschool teacher for two years before the success of The Wiggles and their extensive touring schedule , which he strongly disliked , forced him to quit . After the production of their second album , The Wiggles adopted colour @-@ coded skivvies to wear on stage . According to Field , he wore blue because Cook and Fatt already owned shirts in their colours of red and purple respectively , so he and Page " met in a Sydney department store and literally raced to see who got the blue shirt " . Page ended up wearing a yellow skivvy and Field originally wore a green polo shirt , but changed to blue to avoid clashing with Dorothy the Dinosaur .
Each Wiggle developed a " schtick " based on their actual behaviours , which evolved into caricatures , and served the same purpose as the uniforms in differentiating their characters and making them memorable to young children ; Field 's was eating . Field created and played the original Captain Feathersword ; the role was taken over by Paul Paddick in 1993 . Field also played Wags the Dog .
By the mid @-@ 1990s , despite the success of The Wiggles , Field reported being suicidal and " frequently gripped by anxiety , sadness , and negativity " . By mid @-@ 2004 , shortly after his marriage and the birth of his first child , Field 's serious medical issues , worsened by their heavy tour schedule , caused him to consider quitting or re @-@ inventing The Wiggles , despite their great success in the U.K. and North America . After meeting chiropractor James Stoxen in Chicago in 2004 , Field improved his health to the point that he was able to continue . He began to hire teams of chiropractors for himself , his fellow bandmembers , and castmembers in every city they performed , which he credited with making it possible for them to fulfill their touring requirements . In early 2013 , Field became the only original member of the group to remain after Fatt , Cook , and Page retired . He remained in the group because he wanted to continue to educate children and as Wiggles manager Paul Field stated , " to placate American , British and Canadian business partners " .
Field 's musical influences include Lightning Hopkins , Elvis Presley , and the Rolling Stones . He plays several instruments , including the tin whistle , bagpipes , guitar , drums , trumpet , violin , percussion instruments and didgeridoo , and has been known to sing in a deep rich bass voice . Field , with input from the other members , produced most of the Wiggles ' music , DVDs , and live shows .
= = Personal life = =
In 1999 , Field was named " Bachelor of the Year " in Cleo Magazine . In 2003 , he married Michaela Patisteas , a former dancer whose family owned Griffiths Coffee in Melbourne . They have three children , who have joined the Field family business by appearing in several of The Wiggles ' TV shows and videos . Beginning in 2007 , Field , who is a registered breeder of Miniature Fox Terriers , did some voiceover work for the TV show " RSPCA Animal Rescue , " for Channel 7 in Australia .
Field , in describing his enthusiasm for competitive sports , has stated , " My love of cricket is abiding " , a sport that " instills the same loyalty and passions in me as I know baseball does for many in North America " . He is a fan of the Australian rugby league club the Wests Tigers . He is also a fan of singer Julio Iglesias . As Field 's fitness improved , to the point that his training regimen became comparable to that of an elite athlete , he gained an interest in gymnastics and acrobatics .
Field went public about his experience with clinical depression in mid @-@ 2007 to draw more attention to the condition . He has stated that " being on the road is a dangerous job for someone with depression , " but has dealt with it through diet , exercise , talking about it , and having a good support system ( including his father before his death in 1998 , his wife , and his friend Murray Cook ) . He chronicled his health struggles and how he overcame them in his 2012 book How I Got My Wiggle Back .
Field is a devout Catholic , something that he reported helped him deal with his chronic health issues and depression , especially the spiritual practices of prayer and devotion to the Virgin Mary as expressed by Our Lady of Guadalupe . He has two large tattoos on his arms : one is the Virgin Mary with the words " My life is in your hands " in Spanish ; the other is a heart with the words , " My love , my heart " in Spanish . The names of his wife and his three children are also tattooed on his arms . He admits that he got his tattoo of the Virgin , which he hid from fans for a long time , during a visit to Mexico while on tour in North America , in the middle of a bout with chronic pain and dental problems , as he put it , " in a moment of madness " .
Field was made a Member of the Order of Australia on 26 January 2010 " for service to the arts , particularly children 's entertainment , and to the community as a benefactor and supporter of a range of charities " .
= Globalization and women in China =
The study of the impact of globalization on women in China examines the role and status of Chinese women relative to the political and cultural changes that have taken place in the 20th century as a consequence of globalization . Globalization refers to the interaction and integration of people , products , cultures and governments between various nations around the globe ; this is fostered by trade , investment , and information technology . Globalization affected women 's rights and the gender hierarchy in China , in aspects of domestic life such as marriage and primogeniture , as well as in the workplace . These changes altered the quality of life and the availability of opportunities to women at different junctures throughout the modern globalization process .
The dynamics of gender inequity are correlated with the ideological principles held by the ruling political regime . The imperial era was dominated by the social paradigm of Confucianism , which was a pervasive philosophy throughout the Orient . Confucian ideals emphasized morality , character , social relationship , and the status quo . Confucius preached jen ( humanity ) and the equality and educability of all people ; Neo @-@ Confucianists and Imperial leaders used his beliefs in social hierarchy , particularly in the family setting , for the physical and social oppression of women . As the Chinese government began to re @-@ assimilate themselves into the global community in the late 19th to early 20th century , it shifted away from conventional Confucian ideals and women ’ s role in society changed as well . After Mao Zedong established the People ’ s Republic of China in 1949 , a change in traditional gender roles came about . Mao ’ s death marked the beginning of the current communist administration and an influx of international communications in the areas of commerce , politics and social ideals . Since the 1980s , under the new communist party , the women ’ s rights movement has gained momentum and has become a national issue and a sign of modernization .
In rural areas , women traditionally work alongside their family to produce crops like tea and rice . In urban areas , women work in factories , living away from home . Most of these factory workers are young girls that send their income to their families . To help maintain the rights of women in factories , labor unions and organizations were built . In their homes , women take care of their children and cook .
= = Western bias = =
Western scholarship has historically used ideas of subordinance and victimization to characterize traditional Chinese womanhood . These beliefs were largely constructed on the basis of ideological and political agendas , and were widely accepted despite their ethnocentrism . Early European writings pertaining to Chinese women were produced by missionaries and ethnologists at the conclusion of the 19th century . The goal of the missionaries was to “ civilize China , ” and highlighting weakness and victimization provided for the continuance of their work . This belief prompted scholars to use female subordination as a means to validate Western ideas about Chinese culture and Confucian principles .
In the 1970s , as the feminist movements were forming , they began to affect the literature surrounding women in China . Studies on Chinese women from this period were concerned with women ’ s liberation , and were sympathetic to the feminist movement . This sentiment largely influenced the topics and methodology of the research . With this shift in perspective , the focus of discourse remained on subordination , patriarchal oppression , and victimization . These studies examined such issues as foot binding and the chastity of widows . Literature formulated by feminist writers did nothing to dispel the myth of the weak , subservient woman . These works provided a new bias that had not before been articulated . Feminists believed that Chinese women were a part of a “ universally subordinated womanhood " . This line of thinking illustrates the cultural superiority inherently felt by Western women . Writings on Chinese woman rarely account for differences in time , ethnicity , class , region or age , preferring to describe the status of women as a static , unitary fixture of Chinese culture , despite the political and geographic boundaries that defined different regions and the economic and social changes that occurred throughout history .
= = History of female oppression = =
= = = Traditional roles and Confucianism = = =
From the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC @-@ 220 CE ) until the modern period ( 1840 – 1919 ) , scholars and rulers developed a male @-@ dominated patriarchal society in China . Confucianism was at the root of the development of the patriarchal society in China , and emphasized the distinctions between the sexes and the roles they have within the family . These ideologies continued through the Tang dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907 ) , and girls were taught from a very young age to be submissive to their fathers , then to their husbands , and later to their sons . During the Song Dynasty ( 960 @-@ 1297 ) , Confucian scholars further developed the patriarchal tradition with more restrictions for females , including foot binding for girls at a very young age .
= = = Married life = = =
The traditional Chinese marriage system is organized by the parents of the groom and bride in order to obtain alliances between the two families to ensure the continuance of the family line . There were three types of marriages that emerged in the late Chou Dynasty ( 951 @-@ 960 ) . In these three marriages , the Chinese woman 's main function was to produce children . The first marriage was called a capture marriage , in which the groom would go to his prospective bride 's house at dusk to " kidnap " her . The second type of marriage was called a purchase marriage , in which women were paid for by their husbands . Once women were purchased , they became their husband 's possession and could be traded or sold . The third type of marriage was the arranged marriage , which was accomplished by a matchmaker who acted as a go @-@ between for both families . If there was not a matchmaker , the marriage could be deemed unacceptable and the husband had the right to dissolve the marriage . The married woman 's role at home depended upon the social rank of her spouse , but the prime mission of married women , regardless of their social status , was to bear a son in order to carry on the family name . In addition , a married woman was to be obedient to her in @-@ laws as if they were her own parents .
The marriage law of 1950 was issued after the founding of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 . It declared the abolition of the feudal marriage system characterized by arranged and forced marriage , male superiority , and the disregard for the interests of children . This law also asserted the rights of adults to divorce , which embraced the free @-@ choice marriage , and helped transfer power from the older to the younger generations .
= = = May Fourth Movement = = =
The " New Culture " movement began in China around 1916 following the unsuccessful activities of the 1911 Revolution to establish a republican government , and continued through the 1920s . The May Fourth Movement , which took place on May 4 , 1919 , was a demonstration led by students at the National Peking University against the government , in which they protested the abolition of Confucianism and changes in the traditional value system . Many believed that the solution to China 's problems would be to adopt Western notions of equality and democracy . Since the movement stressed group efforts and propaganda , women were involved in numerous collective tasks such as publication , drama production , and fund raising , which helped them gain more social contact with men and win respect .
= = Domestic life of a Chinese woman = =
= = = Foot binding = = =
Foot binding is the process in which the arch of a woman 's feet is broken and the toes are wrapped up against the foot to create a smaller looking foot with an acute arch . These " fists of flesh " were seen as attractive and arousing for men and the practice was passed down as a prerequisite to marriage from mother to daughter across generations . Special shoes were made to accentuate the small size of the women 's feet . This process was painful and often confined women to their rooms . Few lower class women were able to have their feet bound because they needed to be able to walk normally to accomplish house work . Bound feet came to be an indication of high class and wealth for women . Chinese male reformers during the imperialism period recognized the liberation of the Chinese women as something necessary for their own sake . The humiliation that China had gone through on an international level was turned on the Chinese “ women ” . Naturally , the foot binding was recognized as “ national shame , ” and people found it as a serious problem to be disappeared , thus raging anti @-@ footbinding campaigns in the 1890s to the 1900s . Moreover , the new government that came in after the 1911 revolution banned foot binding practice . Thus , it started to disappear in the coastal areas in 1900 to 1920 . However , the practice was still popular within the interior areas of China till the 1930s and even in the 1950s . The practice has been outlawed multiple times since its inception in the 13th century . It was finally banned as the Communists came to power around 1949 .
= = = Trafficking of women = = =
Women are sold through gangs of women traffickers who kidnap and transport young women and girls across large distances from their homes . Their papers and documentation are taken from them . These women are purchased by men who bar them from leaving the home for fear of the women escaping . Some of these women feel a sense of duty to the family once they have committed to them and had children . They also have no means of escape . This practice has been banned by the government since Mao Zedong and the Communists came to power . Men who buy wives are subject to time in jail , and those convicted for trafficking women face execution .
= = = Confucianism and Communism = = =
Under Confucianism the typical family was patriarchal because men have the capability to pass on the family name and carry on the lineage of the ancestors ; women were expected to be subservient . As the Communist regime changed the structure of Chinese society through economic reform , the structure of the Chinese family was altered . " The Four Olds " ( sijiu ) - old ideas , old habits , old customs , old cultures - were discouraged and were replaced by Communist ideology particularly during the Cultural Revolution . The economy was shifted to total government control with few chances to own private property and communal property . Collectivization destroyed " clan @-@ based " systems and had a great effect on motivation of workers and family loyalties .
The traditional social structure was further degraded by the Cultural Revolution . The Red Guards turned members of a family against one another as they sought out " class enemies " to be sent for " re @-@ education , " ultimately resulting in a loss of family ties . Women were elevated to equal status as men through a series of laws which prohibited practices such as arranged marriages , concubinages , dowries , and child betrothals . Under these marriage laws , women enjoyed joint property in marriage and could file for a divorce .
As a result of Communist rule in China , the social status of women improved greatly . Women were empowered to work outside the home . Communist rule also brought about the end of practices such as foot binding , child marriages , prostitution , and arranged marriages . China has seen a decrease in domestic violence due to government @-@ supported grassroots programs to counter these practices . Women in rural areas remain largely uneducated .
= = = Population control = = =
During the reform period , the Communist regime in China regulated birth control . The party legalized abortion in 1953 and then created public birth control study groups in 1954 . There was a push for a limit on childbirth in 1956 , which had no immediate effect on the population . In 1979 , the One Child Policy was implemented and is still in effect today .
Another instance of population control is the prevalence of female infanticide . Due to the One Child Policy , most families want a boy rather than a girl . Since the 1980s , roughly 200 @,@ 000 female infants would be killed per year because of the preference for male children and the advancement in technologies such as ultrasound , which help to find out the sex of the fetus . In addition to female infanticide , girls are being unregistered or are abandoned by their families , which stops them from receiving education and legal benefits the government offered . These methods of controlling population have resulted in a huge gender gap in China .
= = Chinese women in the workplace = =
= = = History of working women = = =
In the imperial era , women were prohibited from having official positions . It was unimaginable for women to hold these positions because during this time women underwent foot bindings , which prevented them from doing any sorts of physical labor . They held jobs that required minimal physical activity like domestic chores and producing textiles to sell or use .
During Mao 's rule ( 1949 – 1976 ) , Chinese women were needed for their manual labor for farming and for urban industrialization . To compensate for their hard work , they were provided access to education and politics . The Chinese government supported women 's education . The percentage of girls attending school was 96 @.@ 2 % compared to below 20 % before the People 's Republic ( 1949 ) . The Chinese government has tried to decrease the amount of women illiterates while promoting adult and vocational schools . The amount of illiterates has gone down from 90 % in 1949 and 32 % from 1993 . In the first 30 years of Communist rule women 's discrimination was decreasing , but they did not have jobs that had real decision @-@ making power .
Now in the present day , there are more employed Chinese women . They receive the same amount of money for the same amount of work that they do . The Chinese government has made great efforts to achieve a high level of economic status for women . Since 1949 , with the founding of the People ' Republic , the rate for employed women has risen . Chinese women account for 44 % of the work force and 34 @.@ 5 % account for the women 's work force in the world .
= = = Rural areas = = =
The key role women have in farming is to maintain ownership of the main sources of production in rural areas . In traditional China. women were not allowed to own land . Land was inherited through the sons , and if there was no son in the family , it was taken by a close male relative . In less populated areas , women do more agricultural work than men because of shifting cultivation . In more populated areas , men do more work than women because extensive plough cultivation is used . During the busy periods of planting , transporting , and harvesting , women are brought onto the field to work rather than working in the house . Female involvement is high in the double @-@ cropping rice area . Women also play a role in tea cultivation . Other types of work women perform in the countryside include pig and poultry rearing , spinning , weaving , basket @-@ making , and other handicrafts . This type of work supplements agricultural income .
= = = Urban areas = = =
China 's economic policies laid the basis of the industrialization drive in export @-@ oriented development , and its reliance on low @-@ wage manufacturing to produce consumer goods for the world market . Young migrant women left their homes in rural settings to work in urban industrial areas . Work included export @-@ oriented industrialization , manufacturing in electronics and toy assembly , sewing in garment production , and mixed assembly and sewing in the footwear industry . Hong Kong and Shenzhen were cities established as centers of export @-@ oriented industrialization , and migrant women workers have made up 70 % of Shenzhen 's three million people .
Private sector employers are reluctant to hire women because Chinese law requires that the employer cover maternity leave and childbirth costs .
= = = = Reasons for migrant labor = = = =
A recent phenomenon , the migration of rural Chinese workers began in 1984 when the Regulations of Permanent Residence Registration became less punitive and allowed people to move to find employment . People left rural areas to escape poverty , and females left due to the lack of local opportunities for women . In the cities , women could find new , low @-@ paid factory @-@ based jobs that did not require highly skilled workers . According to national statistics , the ratio of male to female migrant workers averages 2 : 1 , and an estimated 30 @-@ 40 million of the migrant women work in the cities , namely Hong Kong and Shenzhen .
In 2003 , 70 % of the 5 @.@ 5 million migrant workers were females in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone . In the Nanshan district of Shenzhen , females comprised 80 % of the workforce with the average age of 23 . Young female workers are preferred over older females or males for several reasons . First , as married women are less mobile , female migrant workers are younger and more likely to be single than their male counterparts . Young rural women are preferred for these jobs primarily because they are less likely to get pregnant , and are able and willing to withstand longer working hours , have “ nimble fingers , and will be less experienced in asking for their statutory rights . In many cases , migrant women sign contracts stating that they will not get pregnant within their period of employment . ”
In the interest of the family , rural females are sent to find urban employment over male counterparts , mainly to supplement familial income at home and to support the males , who are more likely to attend college . The male standard of education in China is higher ; particularly when a family is under financial stress , females are more likely to drop out of school to generate income for the family . Because females have lesser impact on the family ’ s long @-@ term financial stability , their rights for opportunities development are consequently unequal .
This new system allowed rural residents to migrate , it did not allow them to change their residence or accept any benefits in the cities . This resulted in a growing population of migrant laborers without the minimal benefits of residency including medical care , housing , or education . Many migrants , particularly less educated , younger women are unaware of their rights . Today , up to 90 % of migrants work without contracts , in violation of the Chinese labour law .
= = = = Degradation = = = =
Women factory workers are known as " dagongmei " ( working girls ) . They are traditionally young women migrants who experience a segmented labor market in informal and low @-@ wage employment sectors . Workers in export @-@ oriented factories receive minimum wage and minimum overtime pay , they pay for meals and lodging at the factory , and they pay fines for breaking factory rules . The average daily wage , for a 12 @-@ hour day in a toy factory , in the mid @-@ 1990s was $ 1 @.@ 10 USD for migrant women workers in Shenzhen .
These conditions create " maximum surplus appropriation " ; workers ' daily lives revolve around factory production and are dependent on the regional economy . The state disallows local unionization and has the All @-@ China Federation of Trade Unions ( ACFTU ) as the legitimate forum of worker representation . Without the right to form unions and with the state sanctioned ACFTU , migrant women workers find it hard to effectively gain suitable rights and treatment from the factory management . The 2003 statistics from the People 's University show 90 % of migrants work without contracts , directly violating the Chinese Labour Law . According to the ACFTU , migrant workers are owed over 100 billion Yuan in back wages .
Organizations are now attempting to assist and empower female migrant workers through training and education on their labor @-@ related rights . Legal clinics have begun to assist female migrants in filing claims against employers and local labor bureaus . One case of female worker exploitation in the Hua Yi garment factory in Beijing resulted in mistreatment by management as well as withholding pay for at least 24 women . After filing complaints , in collaboration with the Center for Women 's Law Studies and Legal Services of Beijing University , the women received 170 @,@ 000 Yuan in back wages and compensation .
Relations between workers and employers represent both the immediate need of manufacturing plants for large quantities of low wage laborers , and the insecurities young workers face in relocating long distances to life in factory dormitories . Hiring single young women serve needs of management . The employment of young females allow management to exhibit maximum control and authority over the labor force . Compared to older women and male workers , young single women are susceptible to the authority and demands of management . The common manipulation of " factory as family " by owners and managers suggests how workers hold a subliminal status within the factory environment . Uneven power relations inside the factory result in demands from management for personal services from women workers , from hair washing to sex .
= William O 'Connell Bradley =
William O 'Connell Bradley ( March 18 , 1847 – May 23 , 1914 ) was a politician from the US state of Kentucky .
He served as the 32nd Governor of Kentucky and was later elected by the state legislature as a U.S. senator from that state . The first Republican to serve as governor of Kentucky , Bradley became known as the father of the Republican Party in Kentucky .
As a Republican in a heavily Democratic state , Bradley found little success early in his political career . He was defeated for a seat in the United States House of Representatives and in the United States Senate twice each . After rising to national prominence with his speech seconding the presidential nomination of Ulysses S. Grant at the 1880 Republican National Convention , he was nominated for governor in 1887 . Although he lost the contest to Simon Bolivar Buckner , he reduced the usual Democratic majority substantially . He was again nominated for governor in 1895 . Capitalizing on divisions in the Democratic Party over the issue of free silver , he defeated Parker Watkins Hardin in the general election . His term was marked by political struggles and violence . He was an advocate for blacks and did much to advance their status in the state , but was unable to enact much of his reform agenda because of a hostile Democratic majority in the state legislature .
Republican William S. Taylor was elected to succeed Bradley in the contentious 1899 gubernatorial election . When Democratic nominee William Goebel and his running mate J. C. W. Beckham challenged the election results , Bradley formed part of the legal team for the Republicans . The case was appealed to the Supreme Court , which found in favor of the Democrats . Despite being a member of the state 's minority party , Bradley was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1907 . Again , divisions within the Democratic Party played a role in his election . Bradley 's opposition to Prohibition made him more palatable to some Democrats than their own candidate , outgoing Governor Beckham . Beckham refused to withdraw in favor of a compromise candidate , and after two months of balloting , four Democratic legislators crossed party lines and elected Bradley . Bradley had a largely undistinguished career in the Senate . On the day he announced he would not seek re @-@ election to his Senate seat , he was involved in a streetcar accident . He died from his injuries on May 23 , 1914 .
= = Early life = =
William O 'Connell Bradley was born near Lancaster in Garrard County , Kentucky , on March 18 , 1847 . He was the youngest child of Robert McAfee and Nancy Ellen ( Totten ) Bradley . The couple also had six daughters , five of whom survived infancy , and one other son , who died as an infant . Bradley 's sister , Catherine Virginia ( Bradley ) Morrow , married Judge Thomas Z. Morrow , who made an unsuccessful run for the governorship of Kentucky in 1883 ; their son , Edwin P. Morrow , was elected the 40th governor of Kentucky in 1917 .
While Bradley was still a child , the family moved to Somerset , Kentucky , where Bradley was educated by private tutors and at a private school . After the outbreak of the Civil War , he twice dropped out of school and ran away to join the Union Army , first serving as a recruiting officer in Somerset , then enlisting as a private soldier in Louisville . Both times , his father removed him from the service because of his young age . Despite having only this few months of service to his credit , he was referred to as " Colonel Bradley " by many for the rest of his life .
In 1861 , Bradley became a page in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He studied law under his father , one of Kentucky 's leading criminal defense lawyers . Although Kentucky law required that anyone taking the bar examination be at least twenty @-@ one years old , Bradley was allowed by a special provision of the state legislature to take it at age eighteen . This arrangement was contingent on Bradley 's being judged competent by two circuit judges . Despite having no college education , Bradley passed the exam and was licensed in 1865 , joining his father 's firm in Lancaster . He later received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Kentucky University ( now Transylvania University ) .
On July 13 , 1867 , Bradley married Margaret Robertson Duncan , and subsequently converted from Baptism to Presbyterianism , his wife 's faith . The couple had two children , George Robertson Bradley and Christine ( Bradley ) South .
= = Early political career = =
Bradley 's political career began in 1870 , when he was elected prosecuting attorney of Garrard County . A Republican in the heavily Democratic Eighth District , Bradley was defeated by Milton J. Durham for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1872 . In 1875 , his party honored him with a nomination to serve in the U.S. Senate , even though he was too young to legally qualify for the office . Nevertheless , he received the vote of every Republican in the state legislature . The following year , he again lost to Durham for a seat in the House of Representatives , but received 3 @,@ 000 more votes than any Republican candidate had ever received in that district . He refused his party 's nomination for the Senate in 1878 and 1882 , and declined a nomination for state attorney general in 1879 because of ill health .
Bradley was unanimously chosen as a delegate @-@ at @-@ large to six consecutive Republican National Conventions . At the 1880 Republican National Convention in Chicago , he was unanimously chosen to second Roscoe Conkling 's nomination of Ulysses S. Grant for a third term as president . His rousing oratory gained him the attention of prominent leaders of his party . At the 1884 convention , he was instrumental in defeating a motion to curtail Southern states ' representation . President Chester A. Arthur chose Bradley to help recover financial damages from postal officials involved in the Star Route Frauds in 1885 , but Bradley resigned this responsibility over differences with U.S. Attorney General Benjamin H. Brewster regarding the prosecution of these cases .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1887 = =
At their nominating convention in Louisville on May 11 , 1887 , Kentucky Republicans nominated Bradley for Governor of Kentucky to oppose Democrat Simon B. Buckner , a former Confederate general . In his acceptance speech , Bradley implored Kentuckians to realize that the Civil War was over and to discontinue their practice of electing ex @-@ Confederate Democrats to public office . His platform included proposals for education , implementing of a high protective tariff , and developing the state 's resources . He pointed out that , though Kentucky contained more coal than Pennsylvania , the state bought half of its coal from that state . A similar situation existed with regard to lumber . He was also critical of excessive spending during the preceding Democratic administrations . Among his cited examples of extravagance were the creation of a state bureau of agriculture and the construction of a new state penitentiary . Democratic mismanagement of the state 's affairs had resulted in able , young Kentuckians leaving the state to seek their fortunes because of a lack of opportunity at home , Bradley lamented .
During the campaign , Buckner relied on party strength and personal popularity to give him an advantage over Bradley , a decidedly superior orator . In the only debate between the two , held at Grayson , Bradley attacked Democrats for creating " useless offices " such as railroad commissioners . He defended the Republican proposal of a high protective tariff and advocated federal aid for education . When Buckner took the platform , he began by asking if Bradley had charged in an earlier speech that one of Buckner 's speeches had been written by former governor J. Proctor Knott . Bradley acknowledged that he had heard that Knott had written the speech and that he ( Bradley ) had repeated this claim in one of his speeches . Buckner rebuked Bradley for circulating this " infamously false " charge , and withdrew his agreement to participate in any further joint debates . He then delivered a discourse attacking the protective tariff and federal aid for education .
True to his word , Buckner never again met Bradley in a joint debate . Rumors began to circulate that Buckner was afraid to meet Bradley in debate again , and Bradley did little to dispel these rumors . The Democrats were not completely united throughout the campaign , with prominent members of the party , including Milton J. Durham and State Senator Albert Seaton Berry , criticizing the Democratic record in the state . The Democratic Henderson Gleaner was also critical , opining " We should be ashamed of ourselves . " Throughout the state , Bradley hammered the issue of the blind trust afforded the perennial Democratic officeholders , specifically calling for an examination of the treasury . Though Bradley lost the election by more than 16 @,@ 000 votes , he made the best showing of any Republican gubernatorial candidate to that time and garnered strong support from the state 's black voters . His concerns about the state treasury proved valid : When Buckner ordered an audit of the treasurer 's books in 1888 , Treasurer James " Honest Dick " Tate fled with $ 250 @,@ 000 from the state treasury . He was never found .
In 1888 , Bradley 's name was again put before the General Assembly as a candidate for the U.S. Senate , but he was defeated by James B. Beck by a vote of 94 – 31 . Later that year , he received 103 of 832 votes for the Vice @-@ Presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican National Convention , losing the nomination to Levi P. Morton . Upon the unsolicited recommendation of Senator Beck , President Benjamin Harrison nominated Bradley as Minister to Korea in 1889 , but Bradley declined the nomination , opting to remain in Kentucky and pursue future political opportunities there . He was elected to the Republican National Committee three times between 1890 and 1896 . In 1896 , he was the Kentucky delegation 's choice for Presidential nominee .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1895 = =
Bradley declared his candidacy early for the Republican gubernatorial nomination in 1895 , and no real challenger emerged prior to the Republicans ' nominating convention . Consequently , Bradley was nominated in a relatively harmonious convention . The major issue of the campaign was whether the country should maintain a monetary system based on the gold standard or allow the coinage of silver at a ratio of 16 to 1 , commonly called the free silver position . At their convention , the Republicans adopted a platform that was unequivocally in favor of the gold standard .
Democrats were divided on the monetary issue . Their eventual nominee , Parker Watkins Hardin , was known to be a free silver supporter , but he pledged to abide by whatever platform the convention adopted . That platform was ambiguous with regard to the gold and silver question ; it praised President Grover Cleveland and his treasury secretary , native Kentuckian John G. Carlisle , both gold supporters , and endorsed the national Democratic platform of 1892 . Most believed this meant the platform favored gold , although silverites like Ollie M. James contended that the 1892 platform favored silver . Consequently , most Democrats left the convention not knowing where their nominee would stand on the money question .
The campaign opened in Louisville on August 19 , 1895 . In his first address , Hardin came out squarely for free silver , ensuring the division of his party for the rest of the campaign . Bradley reprised much of his argument from the 1887 campaign against Buckner . He charged mismanagement of state government by Democrats , citing Tate 's defalcation as evidence . He also stressed Hardin 's association with Tate ; Hardin had been the state 's attorney general when Tate absconded , and the two were known to be friends . He denounced free silver and again called for a high protective tariff . He blamed Democratic President Cleveland for the national depression .
In the third debate , held in Hopkinsville , Hardin countered Bradley 's offensive against him on the money issue by charging that the election of a Republican would lead to " Negro domination " of the state . This put Bradley in a dilemma . If he refused to acknowledge blacks ' influence on the party , he would lose their votes ; if he acknowledged it , he would lose many white voters . Bradley attempted to ignore the racial question in Hopkinsville and during the next two debates , instead intensifying his criticism of Hardin on the money question and his association with Tate . In the sixth joint debate , held August 30 at Eminence , some members of the audience began to heckle Bradley , who was hoarse from previous debates . After attempting to restart his opening statement four times , Bradley left the platform , and the next day announced he would not participate in any further joint debates as a result of the incident . Many believed Bradley was looking for a reason to end the debates in order to dodge the racial question , and the incident at Eminence gave him the opportunity . Some black Republicans resented Bradley 's attempt to dodge the racial question and encouraged fellow blacks not to support Bradley but vote for Populist Thomas S. Pettit instead .
In the general election , Bradley carried the vote of many Gold Democrats . He also drew a number of votes from those who sympathized with the views of the American Protective Association , an anti @-@ immigrant , anti @-@ Catholic organization . Some estimates placed the organization 's membership at 14 @,@ 000 in Louisville alone ; it also had strength in the urban centers of Paducah , Lexington , Ashland , Covington , and Frankfort . Democrats were also hurt by economic factors , including the national economic problems and a severe drought in the state . Bradley was elected the first Republican governor of Kentucky , defeating Hardin by a vote of 172 @,@ 436 to 163 @,@ 524 . Pettit , the Populist candidate , drew 16 @,@ 911 votes , most of them from Democrats in western Kentucky . Turnout in the election was 85 % . More votes than potential voters were registered in 18 counties , nine of which went for Bradley and nine for Hardin .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Bradley was inaugurated December 10 , 1895 . During his term , Republicans controlled the Kentucky House of Representatives , while Democrats controlled the Kentucky Senate . This led to infighting between the two houses of the General Assembly and between the General Assembly and the governor . On joint votes , such as the election of U.S. Senators , the parties were even with sixty @-@ eight members each ; two Populists were also members of the Assembly , one who supported the Democrats and another who supported the Republicans .
= = = Legislative session of 1896 = = =
In the first legislative session of Bradley 's term , 75 bills were filed , including a ban on the manufacture and sale of cigarettes , a measure to make carrying a concealed weapon a felony , and a bill banning gambling at racetracks and church fairs . Competing measures affecting pool halls were introduced – one would have lifted most of the restrictions on their operation while another would have banned them altogether . Bradley added an anti @-@ lynching law to the legislative agenda . However , none of these bills were acted on ; the vast majority of the Assembly 's attention during the session was focused on the election of a U.S. Senator .
Many Democrats were anxious to return Senator J. C. S. Blackburn to his seat in Congress , but some were instead supporting ex @-@ Governor John Y. Brown . Democratic state senator Albert Berry was also making overtures about being considered for the seat . Republican legislators nominated W. Godfrey Hunter for the seat , and ultimately , Blackburn and Hunter emerged as the leading candidates . The Gold Democrats refused to back Blackburn , a free silver supporter , instead opting for ex @-@ Governor James B. McCreary . On ballot after ballot , no candidate received a majority , though Blackburn received 65 votes once , leaving him just two votes shy of election . Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle was put forward as a compromise candidate , but never received more than 61 votes . Other proposed compromise candidates included Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Henry Watterson , congressman Walter Evans , ex @-@ Governor Buckner , Judge William H. Holt , and Augustus E. Willson .
Free silver Democrats challenged Hunter 's naturalization . It was finally concluded that Hunter , an Englishman , was naturalized under provisions of a federal law that allowed him to omit the standard preliminaries because of his service as a surgeon in the U.S. Army . Over the course of the contest , Hunter was also indicted for bribery , but was acquitted in short order for lack of evidence . Voting proceeded over several days , and demonstrators in the chamber galleries became disruptive in their support of various candidates . A Kentucky Post account from March 7 , 1896 , recorded that good @-@ humored legislators began pelting each other with paper wads during the day 's deliberations . This attempt at levity escalated until wrapped transcripts of the governor 's message to the legislature were flying through the air . By March 11 , tensions had reached the point that armed Democratic supporters were standing outside the state house in an attempt to intimidate Republican lawmakers and discourage them from entering . Attempts were made to unseat several legislators in the General Assembly , leading to threats of violence . Observers were banned from the gallery , and everyone entering the state house was searched for weapons .
Bradley called the militia to Frankfort to maintain order , and considered adjourning the session to an opera house in Louisville where more security could be provided . Some leading Democrats in Louisville lauded Bradley for preserving order , but Democratic lawmakers in the Senate sought the passage of resolutions to convict Bradley of interference with the election , fine him $ 500 , and sentence him to six months in jail . These same legislators also threatened to imprison Lieutenant Governor William Jackson Worthington , allowing Democratic President pro tem of the Senate William Goebel to become acting governor . A committee was appointed to investigate Bradley , but the resolutions to convict and imprison him were not passed . On March 16 , Governor Bradley declared martial law in the capital . The session adjourned later that day without having elected a senator . Among the session 's few accomplishments were bills creating two reform houses in the state and providing for free turnpikes and gravel roads . A bill forbidding the employment of children of school age who had not attended at least twelve weeks of school during the year passed over Bradley 's veto . In an effort to embarrass the governor , the Senate refused to pass a revenue bill , leaving the governor with no money to run the state . Following the session , a Northern Kentucky newspaper opined " It is hard to conceive how a legislature would go about accomplishing less than this present one has . "
Bradley called a special session in March 1897 to resume the balloting for senator . He appointed Andrew T. Wood to fill the vacancy in case the legislators did not elect a senator in time for the congressional session to begin . The Republicans continued supporting Hunter , Free Silver Democrats still backed Blackburn , and Gold Democrats nominated businessman Henry L. Martin of Woodford County . When continued deadlock between Hunter and Blackburn ensued , Hunter withdrew his name from consideration . Republicans nominated St. John Boyle , but the gridlock continued unabated . After several ballots , Boyle also withdrew , and Republicans put forth lawyer and State senator William Joseph Deboe in his place . Deboe was elected on the 112th ballot , becoming the first Republican senator from the Commonwealth .
= = = Advocacy for blacks = = =
Bradley did much to advance the cause of blacks in Kentucky . He denounced racially motivated lynchings and demanded that county officials prosecute racial violence . He called a special legislative session in March 1897 to consider an anti @-@ lynching bill that imposed penalties including a fine of up to $ 500 and removal from office for any peace officer who did not prevent a lynching or mob violence . It further empowered peace officers to recruit able @-@ bodied men to help protect prisoners and fined them for failing to do so , if necessary . Despite the politically divided legislature , the bill quickly passed both houses of the General Assembly and Bradley signed it on May 11 , 1897 . In January 1898 , Bradley accepted an invitation to speak before the Anti @-@ Mob and Lynch Law Association in Springfield , Ohio . During Bradley 's four @-@ year term , twenty @-@ five lynchings were committed in the state , down from fifty @-@ six during the term of his predecessor .
One high @-@ profile case that illustrated Bradley 's opposition to racial violence was that of ex @-@ slave George Dinning . After being emancipated , Dinning saved enough money to purchase a farm in Simpson County . On January 27 , 1897 , a mob of 25 armed white men came to Dinning 's farm , accused him of stealing hogs and chickens , and demanded he leave the county within 10 days . Dinning denied being a thief and insisted several people in the county would vouch for his good character . The mob , enraged by Dinning 's resistance , began firing on his house and wounded him twice . Dinning retrieved a gun from his house and fired into the mob , killing one man . The mob fled , and the next day , Dinning turned himself in to local officials . While he was in their custody , the mob returned to his farm , drove his family from their house , looted it , and razed it to the ground .
The Simpson County sheriff moved Dinning to Bowling Green and eventually to Louisville to prevent him from being lynched . Governor Bradley dispatched a squad of the state militia to protect him while his trial proceeded . Despite the fact that the case involved a black man killing a white man , most observers believed Dinning would be acquitted on grounds of self @-@ defense . The jury , however , convicted Dinning of manslaughter and sentenced him to seven years of hard labor . Immediately , Bradley 's office was flooded with requests for him to intervene on Dinning 's behalf . The requests came from blacks and whites , some of them ex @-@ Confederates . Dinning 's attorney , Augustus E. Willson , formally requested a pardon , and Bradley issued it 10 days after the conviction . Bradley opined that Dinning had acted reasonably under the circumstances and that it was a shame that no members of the mob were charged . After being freed , Dinning relocated to Indiana and hired ex @-@ Confederate Bennett H. Young to file a federal lawsuit against some members of the mob that had identified themselves during his trial . The trial was held in Louisville , and Dinning was awarded $ 50 @,@ 000 in damages .
In his address to the state legislature in January 1898 , Bradley advocated the repeal of the state 's Separate Coach Law , which provided separate streetcars for whites and blacks . He appointed substantial numbers of blacks to patronage positions in government beyond the janitorial jobs they usually received . He named Edward E. Underwood as the first black person on the board of trustees for Kentucky State College ( later the University of Kentucky ) . Because of his devotion to black advancement , Bradley was the only white person included in William Decker Johnson 's 1897 compilation Biographical Sketches of Prominent Negro Men and Women of Kentucky .
= = = Other matters of Bradley 's term = = =
The election of Republican president William McKinley in 1896 deepened the Democrats ' resolve to oppose the Republican governor and his allies . Moreover , when the legislature convened in 1898 , the Democratic majority in both houses was overwhelming . Bradley 's message to the General Assembly in 1898 called for numerous reforms including spending cuts to reduce government waste , putting the state 's charitable institutions under control of a non @-@ partisan board , and reforms to public education and legal system .
The legislature largely ignored the governor 's message in favor of partisan concerns . A pure food and drug law was enacted without his signature . His veto of controversial legislation regulating railroad rates , however , was sustained . Both houses passed a resolution calling for the resignation of Senator William Lindsay , a Gold Democrat who did not support William Jennings Bryan 's presidential bid , on grounds that he no longer represented the interests of his party . Lindsay responded that he represented the people of Kentucky and refused to resign his seat .
Another of Bradley 's concerns in his message to the legislature was the condition of the Governor 's Mansion . In his address , he declared " As to the Executive Mansion , for years its floors have been propped up to prevent them from falling , and it required more than seven hundred feet of weather strips to make it comfortable in the winter . The present site is disagreeable , the view from one side overlooks the walls of the penitentiary , and from the other the smokestack of a large flouring mill nearby . " Instead of addressing Bradley 's concerns , the General Assembly passed a " ripper bill " taking control of the mansion from the governor and putting it under the supervision of the Court of Appeals . On February 10 , 1899 , the mansion caught fire as a result of a faulty flue in the governor 's bedroom . The day was so cold that the fireman had difficulty keeping the water in their hoses unfrozen , and the mansion suffered extensive damage . Though the mansion was insured and a reporter for the Courier @-@ Journal opined that the sensible thing to do would be to demolish the old structure and construct a new one or purchase another house in Frankfort to serve as the governor 's mansion , the legislature was disinclined to make more than minimal accommodations for a Republican governor . Consequently , the mansion was once again repaired . The Bradleys stayed with a neighbor in Frankfort immediately after the fire . Thereafter , Governor Bradley stayed in Frankfort 's Capitol Hotel , while Mrs. Bradley and daughter Christine returned to the family 's home in Lancaster . The family re @-@ occupied the residence prior to the end of Bradley 's term .
Bradley struggled to end violent feuds that continued in the eastern part of the state . During his term , the so @-@ called " Tollgate Wars " were ongoing . In many rural areas that could not afford to build good roads , private companies had built the roads and attempted to recover the costs and turn a profit by charging tolls . Poor residents of the areas , however , maintained that the tolls were excessive , especially in light of the national depression . They began to call for " free roads " , but their calls went unheeded by the state and national governments . Many then resorted to violence , burning toll houses and threatening and attacking toll collectors . Bradley called for harsh action against this lawlessness , but the Democratic General Assembly , sympathetic to the plight of the poor residents of the state , refused to act . By the end of Bradley 's term , most of the violence had ended , as companies sold their stock to local groups or simply abandoned their roads due to the violence .
Kentucky 's four infantry regiments and two cavalry units that served in the Spanish – American War were beset by poor sanitation and disease in the army camps where they were stationed . The units saw little action in the war , but 84 men died as a result of the poor conditions . When the time came for the troops to return home , Bradley found that the state had no money to pay for the hospital trains needed for their trip . Bradley personally borrowed money from a bank to secure their passage , and trusted that the General Assembly would reimburse him .
= = = Goebel Election Law ; gubernatorial election of 1899 = = =
On February 1 , 1898 , Senate President Pro Tem William Goebel sponsored a measure later referred to as the Goebel Election Law . The bill created a Board of Election Commissioners , appointed by the General Assembly , who were responsible for choosing election commissioners in all of Kentucky 's counties . The Board was empowered to examine election returns and rule on the results . The power to decide the outcome of disputed elections remained with the General Assembly , pursuant to Section 153 of the state constitution . Because the General Assembly was heavily Democratic and Goebel was considered a likely Democratic aspirant for the governorship in the 1899 election , the bill was attacked as blatantly partisan and self @-@ serving , even by some Democrats . Nevertheless , Goebel was able to hold enough members of his party together to override Bradley 's veto , making the bill law .
A proposal was made to call a special session to repeal the law , and Bradley was in favor of the action , but a poll of the legislators showed that too many of them were noncommittal to justify the call . Republicans organized a test case against the law , but the Kentucky Court of Appeals found it constitutional . As leader of the party , Goebel essentially hand @-@ picked the members of the Election Commission . He chose three staunch Democrats – W. S. Pryor , former chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals ; W. T. Ellis , former U. S. Representative from Daviess County ; and C. B. Poyntz , former head of the state railroad commission .
As Bradley 's term drew to a close , potential Republican candidates to succeed him were initially few . Some saw Kentucky 's 18 @,@ 000 @-@ vote plurality for William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 presidential election as a sure sign that the state would vote Democratic in 1899 . Others were not interested in being on the defensive against the inevitable Democratic attacks on Bradley 's administration . Still others were intimidated by the prospect of being defeated by the machinery of the Goebel Election Law . Sitting attorney general William S. Taylor was the first to announce his candidacy and soon secured the support of Senator Deboe . Later candidates included Hopkins County judge Clifton J. Pratt and sitting state auditor Sam H. Stone . The former was Bradley 's choice , but Taylor was a skilled political organizer and was able to create a strong political machine amongst the county delegations . He seemed the favorite to win the nomination .
The Republican nominating convention convened on July 12 in Lexington . Angry that his party had not more seriously considered his candidate , Bradley did not attend . Black leaders in the party threatened to follow Bradley and organize their own nominating convention , as they believed Taylor represented the " lily @-@ white " branch of the party . Taylor attempted to hold the party together by making one of the black leaders permanent secretary of the convention and promising to appoint other black leaders to his cabinet if elected . He also tried to bring Bradley back to the convention by promising to nominate Bradley 's nephew , Edwin P. Morrow , for secretary of state . Bradley refused the offer . In the face of Taylor 's superior organization , all the other candidates withdrew in a show of party unity , allowing Taylor to be nominated unanimously .
Bradley had initially been cool toward Taylor , but he agreed to tour the state with Republican leader Augustus E. Willson after Goebel , the eventual Democratic nominee , made a similar tour with William Jennings Bryan , who was wildly popular in the state . Although he insisted he only wanted to defend his administration from Democratic attacks , Henry Watterson suggested that Bradley was seeking to enlist Taylor 's support for his anticipated senatorial bid . Bradley began his tour of the state in Louisville , charging that Democrats had to import an orator for their candidate because all of the state 's best men had deserted him . He also encouraged blacks not to desert the Republican Party . He contrasted his appointments of blacks to his cabinet with the Democrats ' support of the Separate Coach Bill . Throughout his speech , Bradley defended his administration and never once mentioned Taylor . Finally , he closed with the line " And go to the polls and elect Taylor ! " As Bradley exited the stage , Willson whispered to him , " Bradley , that 's the slickest thing you ever did in your life . " As they continued to tour the state , Bradley and Willson often drew crowds larger than those assembled for Taylor .
As the campaign drew to a close , both Republicans and Democrats warned of the possibility that electoral fraud and violence would be perpetrated by the other side . Louisville mayor Charles P. Weaver , a Goebel Democrat , added 500 men to the city 's police force just before the election , leading to charges that voter intimidation would occur in that city . Bradley countered by ordering the state militia to be ready to quell any disturbances across the state . On election day , the headline of the Courier @-@ Journal proclaimed " Bayonet Rule " .
For all the claims about the potential for violence , election day , November 7 , remained mostly calm across the state . Fewer than a dozen people were arrested statewide . Voting returns were slow , and on election night , the race was still too close to call . When the official tally was announced , Taylor had won by a vote of 193 @,@ 714 to 191 @,@ 331 . Former governor John Y. Brown , nominated by a dissident group of Democrats , had garnered 12 @,@ 040 votes , and Populist candidate John G. Blair had captured 2 @,@ 936 . Though the Board of Elections was thought to be controlled by Goebel , it rendered a surprise 2 – 1 decision to certify the election results . The Board 's majority opinion claimed that they did not have any judicial power and were thus unable to hear proof or swear witnesses , leaving them without grounds to invalidate any votes . Taylor was inaugurated on December 12 , 1899 .
Following his term as governor , Bradley moved to Louisville and resumed his legal practice . Shortly after Bradley left office , Goebel and his running mate , J. C. W. Beckham , challenged the results of the 1899 election in the General Assembly , per the state constitution . All the candidates for the state 's minor offices contested as well . Bradley and his colleague Augustus Willson formed part of the legal team that represented the Republicans before the General Assembly and in court , where they challenged the legality of the Goebel Election Law and , later , the actions of the General Assembly 's contest committee .
Republicans around the state expected the General Assembly 's contest committee to recommend disqualification of enough ballots to make Goebel governor . Armed men from eastern Kentucky filled the capital , awaiting the contest committee 's findings . On the morning of January 30 , as Goebel and two friends walked toward the capitol building , a shot rang out , and Goebel fell wounded . He was taken to a nearby hotel to be treated for his wounds . As expected , the contest committee recommended invalidating enough votes to make Goebel governor , and the General Assembly voted to certify the recommendation . Goebel was sworn in as governor , but he died on February 3 . Beckham then took the oath of office and continued the legal challenge against Taylor and his lieutenant governor , John Marshall .
In federal court , Bradley argued on behalf of the Republican minor officers that the Goebel Election Law deprived citizens of their right to vote . The right to vote , he claimed , was inherent in the Fourteenth Amendment 's guarantee of " liberty " , and could not be taken from any citizen without due process . Federal judge William Howard Taft ruled that the Republicans would have to seek remedy in the state courts . After a protracted legal battle , all of the minor officers were unseated except Attorney General Clifton J. Pratt .
The cases of Taylor and Marshall were appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then to the Supreme Court of the United States . In the case of Taylor v. Beckham , Bradley countered Democrats ' claims that the federal courts should not have jurisdiction by citing Thayer v. Boyd , a similar case in which the court had assumed jurisdiction . He further quoted authorities who opined that an elected office was property , using this to contend that Taylor 's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment had been violated , thus giving the court jurisdiction . Also , Bradley asserted , the election of some members of the General Assembly 's contest committee would hinge on the decision of that very committee . At least one member of the committee was known to have wagered on the election 's outcome . These facts should have nullified the decision of the committee and the Assembly on the grounds that it had left some members as judges of their own cases , Bradley argued . Finally , Bradley cited irregularities in the proceedings of the contest committee , including giving insufficient time for the review of testimony provided in written form by Taylor and Marshall 's legal representation . The court refused to intervene in the case , however , because it found that there were no federal questions involved . The lone justice dissenting from that opinion was Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan .
= = Later life and death = =
On a joint ballot of the General Assembly in 1900 , Bradley was defeated for a seat in the U.S. Senate by a vote of 75 – 54 . After the unseating of Taylor , the state Republican party split into factions , with Godfrey Hunter at the head of one and Bradley at the head of the other . The two factions formed a tentative alliance to nominate Danville law professor John W. Yerkes in the special election called after Goebel 's assassination , but Yerkes lost to Democratic nominee J. C. W. Beckham . At the 1904 Republican National Convention , Bradley was chosen to second the nomination of Theodore Roosevelt for president .
Factionalism again marked the Republican nominating convention in 1904 . Bradley and his faction backed Augustus E. Willson for governor , while Hunter and Yerkes favored Louisville businessman Morris B. Belknap , the son @-@ in @-@ law of former governor Simon Buckner . When convention officials ruled against a county delegation committed to Willson , he withdrew from the contest . Bradley was angered as Belknap was nominated on the first ballot and subsequently lost to J. C. W. Beckham , who was allowed to seek a second term because a court ruled he had not been elected to a full term in 1900 .
= = = Career in the Senate = = =
In 1907 , Republicans nominated Willson for governor , and he was elected . This victory again emboldened Republicans in the General Assembly , who nominated Bradley for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1908 . The Democrats countered by nominating outgoing Governor Beckham . Though the Democrats had a majority in the General Assembly , seven Democratic legislators refused to vote for Beckham because he favored Prohibition . Instead , they voted for other candidates , leaving no one with a majority . As balloting continued over the course of two months with no winner , some Democrats urged Beckham to withdraw in favor of a more palatable candidate . He refused , and after twenty @-@ nine ballots , four Democrats who favored Bradley 's " wet " position defied allegiance to their party , electing him by a 64 – 60 margin . None of the four were re @-@ elected to their seats in the legislature , though one eventually became Bradley 's private secretary .
During the Sixty @-@ first and Sixty @-@ second Congresses , Bradley was chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Justice . He was also chairman of the Committee to Investigate Trespassers upon Indian Land during the Sixty @-@ first Congress , and the chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims during the Sixty @-@ third Congress . Historian James C. Klotter opined that during Bradley 's career in the Senate , he was " better known for his oratory than for his legislative accomplishments " . He disappointed blacks by supporting the Taft administration 's policy of not appointing blacks to patronage positions in the states where they resided .
In the 1908 presidential election , Bradley supported Charles W. Fairbanks for the Republican nomination , while Willson favored William Howard Taft . Disharmony marred the state nominating convention , and despite being a newly minted senator , Bradley was not chosen as a delegate to the Republican National Convention . This infuriated Bradley and ended his alliance with Willson . In the 1911 Republican nominating convention , Bradley did not support Edward C. O 'Rear , the party 's eventual gubernatorial nominee . He did little to support O 'Rear in the general election , and former governor James B. McCreary was elected .
On May 14 , 1914 , Bradley announced his intent to retire from politics upon the completion of his term , owing to the decline of his general health . Hurrying to board a streetcar following his announcement , Bradley suffered a serious fall , sustaining two broken fingers , head trauma , and internal injuries . After briefly attempting to return to his duties , he became bedfast , and died on May 23 , 1914 . His official cause of death was listed as uraemia . Upon Bradley 's death , both houses of Congress passed resolutions expressing their sympathy , and promptly adjourned out of respect . His body was returned to Frankfort for burial , but in accordance with the wishes of Bradley and his family , did not lie in state . He was buried in the state cemetery in Frankfort .
= Irresistible ( Jessica Simpson song ) =
" Irresistible " is a song by American recording artist Jessica Simpson that Sony Music released on April 12 , 2001 , as the lead single from her second studio album of the same name . Its title and concept were proposed by singer @-@ songwriter Pamela Sheyne , while Arnthor Birgisson , an acquaintance of Sony chief executive officer Tommy Mottola , and his partner Anders Bagge developed the melody and co @-@ wrote the verses with Sheyne . The lyrics are more sexually suggestive than Simpson 's previous songs .
The song , composed in the key of C major , is a mid @-@ tempo R & B number with dance @-@ pop , teen pop and funk influences . Instruments featured in the song include strings , synthesizers , percussion , and acoustic piano . The lyrics center on the tension between a young woman 's sexual desires and her inhibitions . A So So Def remix of the piece features Lil ' Bow Wow and Jermaine Dupri , and incorporates samples of Kool & the Gang 's " Jungle Boogie " ( 1973 ) .
The accompanying music video , directed by Simon Brand , has a James Bond theme and features scenes of Simpson dressed as a spy . A music video for the So So Def remix was also filmed , featuring appearances by Dupri and Lil ' Bow Wow inter @-@ cut with scenes of Simpson . She performed the song as part of the set list of her DreamChaser Tour ( 2001 ) and Reality Tour ( 2004 ) . The single was also promoted with live performances on various televised appearances and the MTV Total Request Live Tour ( 2001 ) . " Irresistible " was featured on the Disney Channel Original Series Lizzie McGuire ( 2001 ) .
Critics gave " Irresistible " mostly negative reviews noting the similarity to Pink 's " There You Go " ( 2000 ) . Although a few praised the song for its theme and production , most criticized Simpson 's singing style , the sexual nature of the song 's lyrics , and the over @-@ use of digital sound enhancers . The song reached number eleven on the UK Singles Chart and number fifteen on the United States Billboard Hot 100 , while peaking within the top twenty in nine other countries . Despite not charting within the top twenty in Australia , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of more than 35 @,@ 000 copies within the country . The song ranked on the Billboard Hot 100 and Australian year @-@ end charts at numbers sixty @-@ three and fifty , respectively .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Irresistible " ( also registered as " Irresistable " with the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ) was written specifically for Simpson by Swedish composers Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson , in collaboration with English singer @-@ songwriter Pamela Sheyne , who also contributed vocals for the demo . Initial recording of the song was done at the Murlyn Studios , Stockholm , for which Sheyne provided the background vocals with the final recording being done at Sony Music Studios , New York City . In an interview , Birgisson commented on the collaboration with Sheyne saying that :
" Pam came up with the title ' Irresistible ' , and as she started talking about the whole concept we immediately became inspired and began working on the music . You know , when we hear a concept or a title that we like — no matter if it 's ours or somebody else 's — both Anders and I get a feel for the song 's vibe ; a feel for whether a keyboard or guitar should be used to give it a certain character , be it upbeat or melancholic . So , when Pam mentioned the title , we immediately came up with the tempo and the whole feeling of the song , and then she came up with the lyrics . There was a really good flow to that song . We played around with the melody , put down the demo , and it was done . "
Vocals were recorded and engineered by Robert Williams using a Sony C @-@ 800G Studio Tube condenser microphone while post @-@ recording editing , via the Pro Tools software , was done by Peter Wade Keusch . Mats Berntoft played the guitar on the track , while Bagge mixed the song . Ted Jensen mastered it at Sterling Sound , New York City .
= = Composition = =
" Irresistible " is a moderately paced R & B song composed in the verse – chorus – bridge form with a play time of three minutes and thirteen seconds . The song draws influence mostly from the dance @-@ pop genre while infusing elements of funk music , and Latin rhythms . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in common time , in a key of C major . The tempo is ninety @-@ four beats per minute , with a chord progression of Am – Dm7 – F – E7 . Simpson 's vocals in the song span over two octaves from the low note of F3 to the high note of E5 . Cashbox Canada commented that Simpson adopts " breathy vocals " for the song , and it has a " gently danceable backing while Chuck Taylor of Billboard noted that Simpson 's vocals in the song were " funk @-@ fortified " . The Dallas Morning News ' Teresa Gubbins observed that the track possesses a rat @-@ a @-@ tat @-@ tat beat , similar to " There You Go " ( 2000 ) by singer Pink . The song features a string section by Stockholm Session Strings as well as spoken passages by Simpson and a midsection breakdown .
" Irresistible " is a groove @-@ laden song , following a musical setting that is beat @-@ oriented . In an interview with Associated Press , Simpson said that " Irresistible " is " very sexy , more grown @-@ up . I think you 're going to see a new side of Jessica Simpson . " Lyrically , according to Birgisson , the song carries some feminine viewpoints that Sheyne had managed to incorporate through her contribution . Ben Graham , the author of Maximum Jessica Simpson , noted that the lyrics suggest that Simpson finds it hard to keep her famous virginity image intact . This can be inferred from the lines " I know that I 'm supposed to make him wait / Let him think I like the chase / But I can 't stop fanning the fire / I know I meant to say no . " Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In pointed out that the verses " I can 't stop fanning the fire [ ... ] Now inescapable " refer to an " imminent sexual compromise " . " She knows she shouldn 't give in , but seems past the point of no return , " he explained . However , Taylor stated that lyrically , the song demands for " total fulfillment " . The version featured on Lizzie McGuire soundtrack replaces the lyric " When he makes me weak with desire " with " When he makes me want to move closer " and " But I can 't stop fanning the fire / I know I meant to say no " with " But it 's time to stop this emotion / Right now I 'm gonna say no . "
= = Remixes and release = =
" Irresistible " was commissioned for remixes from So So Def Recordings , Hex Hector , and Dezrok . The So So Def remix of the song , produced by Jermaine Dupri , features American rapper Lil ' Bow Wow and Dupri himself . It samples the Kool & the Gang 's song , " Jungle Boogie " ( 1973 ) . Another remix of the song was produced by American producer Hex Hector . According to Slant Magazine , the Hex Hector remix of the song uses full @-@ throated vocals by Simpson , and includes disco @-@ influenced string arrangement , which is comparable to the musical style of Giorgio Moroder , and utilizes beats from a Roland TR @-@ 808 . Ron Thal , the current lead guitarist of the hard rock band Guns N ' Roses , plays guitar on the remix tracks . Both of the remixes are included on Simpson 's remix extended play ( EP ) This Is the Remix ( 2002 ) . Brendan Frederick of Complex wrote that while the remix could not do anything to complement the original track 's chart performance , it helped achieve a " gimmicky redemption " . He also noted that although the samples were used in the song " Satisfy You " by Puff Daddy about one and a half year ago , the remix of " Irresistible " sounded " kinda [ sic ] sweet " .
Sony Music Entertainment released " Irresistible " in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 12 , 2001 . In the United States , " Irresistible " was first commissioned as a radio @-@ only single , on April 17 , 2001 . Later , a promotional CD single was issued , containing the album version of the song . A vinyl was also released , on June 26 , 2001 , which includes the remixes of the song . In France , the single was released on April 27 , 2001 , as a maxi @-@ single and vinyl . The pressing contains the album version as the A @-@ side , and the So So Def remix as the B @-@ side . Sony Music released a CD single of " Irresistible " in Germany , on June 25 , 2001 . Sony Music Holland released the song as a single in the Netherlands on June 23 , 2001 . In Australia , " Irresistible " was released on July 2 , 2001 , as a CD single . The same day , it was released in Sweden through Sony Music . The song is also included on the Italian compilation album Festivalbar ( 2001 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" Irresistible " was received with mostly negative reviews by music critics . Although a few critics called the song a " peppy " number , others commented that they did not like the song , and criticized the sexuality of its lyrics and the over @-@ usage of digital sound manipulators . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic stated that the song and " A Little Bit " , the second single released from the parent album , were a " double @-@ punch " and picked the former song as a standout from the album . Cashbox Canada , ranking the song at number ten on " Top 10 Love Songs : The Crush " , praised it as " an ode to love at step one " . Similarly , Chuck Taylor of Billboard reviewed " Irresistible " favorably , calling it " a sexy , uptempo romp about new found love that proves Simpson 's pop intuition . " In another review , Taylor complimented the contemporary appeal of the track and felt that it would be a staple at radios . He also noticed that the breakdown and spoken passages of the song gave it a " street edge " , something not previously heard from Simpson . Teresa Gubbins of The Dallas Morning News had mixed feelings towards the song in her review , writing that its sound might help Simpson get attention on urban radios , but did nothing to demonstrate her voice . Larry Printz of The Morning Call also expressed a similar view of the song , stating that the song " is loaded with platitudes , but [ it 's ] easy on the ears . "
However , Siobhan Grogan of NME magazine stated " to the delight of lonely men everywhere , she tells us she 's ' weak with desire ' and knows ' I 'm meant to say no ' — and the mind boggles at how she 'd have turned out if she 'd spent her teens glugging cider on a street corner . " Chuck Campbell of Daily News viewed the song as " gurgling " and noted that Simpson was singing it breathlessly . An editor of The Advocate remarked that the track sounded more manufactured than composed . Craig Seymour of The Buffalo News wrote that he felt " Irresistible " was a " limp seduction tune " . Similarly , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the single could have been easily reprocessed for a " new virginity ad campaign . " The Northern Echo 's Hayley Gyllenspetz dismissed the song , elaborating that it sounded similar to the works of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . She added , " If only this 21- year @-@ old songbird had done something original she may indeed have been irresistible . " An editor of The Malay Mail echoed Gyllenspetz 's comment , writing that the track sounded like a typical Aguilera pop @-@ Latino piece . In 2003 , " Irresistible " won a Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) " Pop Music Award " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = North America = = =
" Irresistible " experienced moderate commercial success worldwide , reaching the top forty of the charts in eleven countries . In the United States , the song initially debuted at number five on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , on the issue dated May 5 , 2001 . Three weeks later , it debuted at number sixty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . In mid @-@ July the single reached its peak position of number fifteen on the Hot 100 and stayed on the chart for twenty weeks . Its peak position in the chart was thanks to the airplay , largely due to its release as an radio @-@ only single rather than the traditional CD single .
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" Irresistible " became Simpson 's second top @-@ twenty single in the US , following " I Wanna Love You Forever " ( 1999 ) . The song also reached number three on Billboard Pop Songs chart , her highest peak at the time , and her second single to reach the top five . Although it did not chart on the Hot Dance Club Play chart , " Irresistible " reached number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales , on the issue dated July 14 , 2001 . On the 2001 Billboard year @-@ end charts , the song was ranked at number sixty @-@ three on the Hot 100 Singles . In Canada , " Irresistible " debuted at number sixteen on the Canadian Singles Chart , on the issue of August 4 , 2001 and stayed on the Top 100 for fifteen weeks . The song also reached number fifteen on the Canadian Nielsen BDS Airplay chart . As the date , " Irresistible " has sold 37 @,@ 000 physical copies and 345 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads according to Nielsen Soundscan . It is her fifth best @-@ selling digital single in the United States .
= = = Europe and Oceania = = =
Abroad , in the United Kingdom , " Irresistible " debuted at number eleven on the UK Singles Chart for the week of July 14 , 2001 , and stayed on the chart for six weeks . It became her third top @-@ twenty single there . In Ireland , the song made its first appearance on the chart at number eighteen during the week of July 5 , 2001 , a position which became its peak in that country . During the week of July 15 , 2001 , the single debuted at number twenty @-@ one on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart and stayed on the chart for eleven weeks . It was later certified gold by Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units within the country . It reached number fifty on the ARIA year @-@ end singles chart . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number forty @-@ five , however dropping to number fifty the following week . It eventually peaked at number forty @-@ one .
In Norway , " Irresistible " debuted at number eighteen on the VG @-@ lista charts . It descended to number twenty @-@ one the next week , before reaching its peak position of number sixteen during the fourth week on the chart . The song reached number two on the Ultratip chart of Belgium 's Wallonia region , and number forty @-@ six on the Belgium Flanders Ultratop 50 chart . It also reached number fifty in Austria , thirty @-@ three in Germany and seventeen in Sweden . In Switzerland , the single debuted at number twenty @-@ three , on the issue dated July 1 , 2001 . The next week peaked at number twenty and stayed on the chart for fourteen weeks . In the Netherlands , " Irresistible " reached a peak of number fifty @-@ four on the Mega Single Top 100 chart . In Romania , the song reached number seventeen on the Romanian Singles Chart , and stayed on the chart for twenty @-@ six weeks . It made number fifty @-@ three on the country 's year @-@ end charts . Due to its appearance on several European charts , the song peaked at number nineteen on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , as compiled by Billboard .
= = Music video = =
Fraser Middleton of The Evening Times wrote that Simpson captured a " girl next door " image with her previous album and the music videos for its accompanying singles . Although the album was successful , Columbia Records felt it was far from the successes of her contemporaries , Aguilera and Spears and that Simpson needed to make some changes to her image . As a part of the change , she lost weight , dressed in a more sexy style and learned dance . Simpson said the video is a kind of " comic strip girl come to life " further explaining that the video was something she had never done before .
The music video was directed by Colombian film director Simon Brand , in Los Angeles between April 6 and April 8 , 2001 , and was choreographed by Dan Karaty . Shot in a set with futuristic backdrops , Simpson assumes the role of a spy on a mission in the video . It begins with Simpson exiting a helicopter then entering a building to compromise evidence in a laboratory there . Simpson takes the elevator which opens onto a pathway . While she is walking , a gadget appears on the floor followed by a small explosion . In the next scene , Simpson walks through a water tunnel , out of which she is pulled by a robotic hand . As the video progresses , Simpson is shown dancing in a room full of mirrors . Scenes of ninjas climbing up a rope hanging from top of the building are inter @-@ cut with scenes of Simpson dancing until the laboratory explodes . Simpson is next shown dancing on the rooftop alongside the ninjas before a helicopter arrives and Simpson boards it .
The video premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live on May 9 , 2001 . Upon the premiere , critics gave the music video mixed reviews . People magazine called the video " humptastic " , referring to Simpson 's progressive sexual image from her previous videos , while an editor for The Irish Independent wrote that Simpson looked " incredibly sexy " in the video . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor also reviewed the video positively , writing the video will " add to the allure " of Simpson becoming a " sex @-@ symbol " . Similarly , Melissa Ruggeri of The Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch also gave a positive review , writing that the term " Irresistible " fitted the video . However , Siobhan Grogan of NME magazine wrote that Simpson has no apprehension " about ' forgetting ' most of her clothes for the video " . Craig Seymour of The Buffalo News criticized Simpson 's ungraceful performance on the video , which was echoed by Jon Bream and Chris Riemenschneider of The Star Tribune who felt Simpson was trying too hard to be a sexpot in the video . The video reached number two on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) countdown , and number seventeen on MuchMusic Canada 's Top 30 Countdown . In the So So Def remix music video , which featured additional direction from Cameron Casey and followed the same plot as the unmixed version , scenes of Lil ' Bow Wow and Dupri rapping are intercut with scenes of Simpson performing the song .
= = Live performances = =
" Irresistible " was included on the setlist of her DreamChaser Tour ( 2001 ) and Reality Tour ( 2004 ) . In the book People in the News : Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey , Terri Dougherty wrote that Simpson wanted the DreamChaser Tour to feature her as a singer and dancer , following the model laid down by performers like Britney Spears . Therefore , Simpson made the choreography more risqué by adding backup dancers and performing dance moves in revealing outfits . The song was also performed on MTV 's Total Request Live Tour in which she was supported by six backup dancers . Her performance was commended by The Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch , who wrote that her voice " soared , " but criticised by The Buffalo News ' Andrea Kibler and St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch 's Kevin C. Johnson , both of whom opined that Simpson was lip @-@ syncing the whole song .
Simpson performed the song on The Rosie O 'Donnell Show on May 11 , 2001 . On June 1 , she performed at the summer concert Zootopia , organized by Radio Z100 . Six days later , she performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On June 11 , she appeared on an episode of MuchMusic in Canada , and sang " Irresistible " . On June 16 , she performed it at Wango Tango , an annual all @-@ day concert organized by KIIS @-@ FM , in California . On July 4 , 2001 , it was performed at the Macy 's 4th of July Fireworks Spectacular , for the celebration of Independence Day . In December 2001 , Simpson joined the cast of KBKS @-@ FM 's Jingle Bell Bash in Seattle .
In late 2001 , Simpson sang the song as part of MTV 's Spring Break program , held in Cancún , Mexico . She later performed the song at The Monkey Club in Paris , France . " Irresistible " was sung during the 2001 Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , along with " A Little Bit " . In 2002 , Simpson sang " Irresistible " at Rockin ' for the USA , a music special honoring the United States Armed Forces . In 2004 , Simpson went out on her second headlining tour , the Reality Tour , to promote her third studio album In This Skin ( 2003 ) . The tour , unlike the DreamChaser Tour , had no dance production . On the Houston stop of the North American leg of the tour , Simpson performed " Irresistible " at the end of the show , before singing " With You " , a song from In This Skin , as the encore . However , on the Ohio stop , she performed the song after " Underneath " , another song from In This Skin . Her performance was approved by Dustin J. Seibert of The Cincinnati Enquirer , who wrote that " Simpson 's reliance on her high @-@ octane voice and bubbly personality set her apart from some of her pop counterparts . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services =
Michelle Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services , also known as the omnibus autism proceeding ( OAP ) , was a court case involving the family of Michelle Cedillo , a girl with autism whose parents sued the United States government because they believed that her autism was caused by her receipt of both the measles @-@ mumps @-@ and @-@ rubella vaccine ( also known as the MMR vaccine ) and thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines . The omnibus proceeding required the petitioners to present three test cases for each proposed mechanism by which vaccines had , according to them , caused their children 's autism ; Michelle was the first such case for the MMR @-@ and @-@ thimerosal hypothesis .
The family sought compensation from the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program ( NVICP ) , but in order to qualify they were required to prove that it was more likely than not that their children 's autism was caused by their vaccines . The scientific community had concluded that vaccines did not cause autism years before the first cases were heard , and concern was therefore expressed that the relatively lax evidentiary standards of the NVICP could lead to compensation being awarded in spite of the compelling scientific evidence to the contrary . This , some vaccine supporters argued , might have serious adverse public health effects by discouraging vaccine manufacturers from producing more childhood vaccines . Though the NVICP had existed since 1988 , it was not designed to handle the thousands of cases it received from 1999 to 2007 , which led to the establishment of the Omnibus Autism Proceeding in 2002 .
The trial opened on June 11 , 2007 in Washington , DC . The Cedillos ' six expert witnesses argued that thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines degraded Michelle 's immune system , which in turn made it possible for the weakened measles virus in the MMR vaccine to cause a persistent infection leading to autism . In support of this hypothesis , the Cedillos ' witnesses relied on the reported detection of measles virus in Michelle 's gastrointestinal tract by John O 'Leary 's Unigenetics laboratory in Dublin . However , the government 's expert witnesses conclusively demonstrated that O 'Leary 's positive results were caused by contamination in the Unigenetics lab rather than an actual infection .
On February 12 , 2009 , the special masters ruled that the Cedillos were not entitled to compensation as they had failed to demonstrate that thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines in combination with the MMR vaccine could cause autism . The special masters concluded , among other things , that the government 's experts were considerably more qualified than those testifying on behalf of the families , with special master George Hastings stating that " the Cedillos have been misled by physicians who are guilty , in my view , of gross medical misjudgment . "
= = Background = =
The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program was established in 1988 in the United States by the passing of the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act , and is funded by a 75 @-@ cent tax on each vaccine dose . The program 's aims were to maintain a steady supply of vaccines while , at the same time , allowing victims of vaccine injury to be compensated more efficiently than was previously possible . The program operates according to a no @-@ fault principle . The family of Michelle Cedillo sought compensation from this program . Cedillo , a then 12 @-@ year @-@ old female wheelchair user from Yuma , Arizona , was involved in the first of three test cases chosen by the government to represent the approximately 4 @,@ 900 other vaccine @-@ autism cases that had been brought before the court . Michelle Cedillo was born on August 30 , 1994 , and received thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines during the first fifteen months of her life . On December 20 , 1995 , she received an MMR vaccine . Theresa and Michael Cedillo filed a vaccine injury claim on behalf of their daughter on December 9 , 1998 for encephalopathy , but on January 14 , 2002 , changed their petition to a causation @-@ in @-@ fact claim , meaning they were arguing that Michelle developed autism as a result of the combined effects of thimerosal and the MMR vaccine . They did this as a result of a meeting that had taken place the previous year , between Theresa Cedillo and Andrew Wakefield , at a Defeat Autism Now ! conference .
In 2001 , many other families also filed suit in the NVICP , also because they believed their children 's autism had been caused by vaccines and they were therefore entitled to compensation . The following year , the Office of Special Masters of the United States Court of Federal Claims held a series of meetings to decide how to deal with these claims , and that July , issued an order establishing the Omnibus Autism Proceeding . According to the Cedillos , Michelle was developmentally normal until she received her MMR vaccine at the age of 15 months , at which point she developed a 105 @-@ degree fever , began vomiting and developed diarrhea . Michelle was diagnosed with autism 18 months after receiving her MMR vaccine . According to the Washington Post , the legal standard to which the cases were subjected in this trial meant that " the outcome will hinge not on scientific standards of evidence but on a legal standard of plausibility — what one lawyer for the families called ' 50 percent and a feather ' . " It was in 2002 that , given the large number of litigants seeking compensation from the NVICP , the Omnibus Autism Proceeding was established . Its aim was to resolve pending vaccine @-@ autism claims " aggressively but fairly . "
= = Overview = =
Prior to the Cedillo case beginning , the scientific community had conducted considerable research into the hypothesized link between either the MMR vaccine and autism or thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines and autism . This research had consistently come to the conclusion that no such link existed . However , some vaccine supporters , such as Paul Offit , argued that the standards for proving a vaccine had " caused " an adverse effect in the NVICP were far too low , and that the court might therefore find in favor of the Cedillos anyway . They also argued that if this happened , the vaccine manufacturers might be discouraged from manufacturing childhood vaccines , which might lead to more frequent vaccine shortages .
In the Cedillo case , her family claimed that Michelle was normal until receiving her vaccines , as evidenced by a number of videos of her between the age of 6 and 8 months . They also argued that thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines degraded her immune system , which made it possible for the measles virus to infect her and cause autism and the other health problems from which she suffers , which include inflammatory bowel disease , glaucoma and epilepsy . The evidence presented for this consisted primarily of the detection of measles virus in Michelle Cedillo 's GI tract . According to the testimony of Marcel Kinsbourne , a pediatric neurologist and professor of psychology at the New School , the vaccine strain of measles virus caused autism by " ... infect [ ing ] the gut and enter [ ing ] the brain , causing dysfunction of astrocytes and other brain cells , which in turn provokes high levels of the neurotransmitter glutamate , causing a state of overstimulation which manifests itself in the symptoms of autism . "
= = = Plaintiff 's case = = =
The witnesses testifying on behalf of the state whose testimony attracted the most attention were Éric Fombonne , a psychiatrist at McGill University , Jeffrey Brent , a medical toxicologist at the University of Colorado Health Sciences Center , and Stephen Bustin of Queen Mary University of London . Other experts who testified on behalf of the state included Edwin Cook , a psychiatrist , Diane Griffin , a virologist at Johns Hopkins University , Stephen Hanauer , a gastroenterologist , Christine McCusker , a pediatric immunologist , Brian Ward , a virologist who , along with Fombonne , published some research which failed to replicate the Unigenetics lab 's results , and Max Wiznitzer , a pediatric neurologist .
Those who testified on behalf of the plaintiffs were H. Vasken Aposhian , a toxicologist at the University of Arizona , Arthur Krigsman , a gastroenterologist at Thoughtful House , Karin Hepner , a molecular biologist at Wake Forest University , Vera Byers , a retired immunologist , Ronald C. Kennedy , a virus immunologist at Texas Tech University and Marcel Kinsbourne , a retired pediatric neurologist .
On June 11 , 2007 , the plaintiffs presented their first argument , in which they contended that Michelle Cedillo , as well as other children with autism , suffered from a " mercury efflux disorder " which was described by Aposhian , their first expert witness , as " a problem with getting a metal , in this case mercury , out of a cell . " As evidence that such disorders have been documented before , he pointed to Wilson 's disease . Aposhian based this claim , in part , on three peer @-@ reviewed papers . The first such study was co @-@ authored by Boyd Haley , and concluded that hair of children with autism contained less mercury than that of children without autism . Aposhian stated that " we know that the hair is an excretory organ and that the hair is reflective of the mercury or the metal in the blood , and the blood is a reflection of the mercury in the tissues , and so the fact that the children with autism had less mercury in their hair was a hint or indication that perhaps there was mercury efflux disorder . " The second of these studies was conducted by James B. Adams , and found that baby teeth of children with autism had more than twice as much mercury as those of children without autism . Aposhian cited this study as evidence that " autistic children have a greater body burden of mercury . " Another study which Aposhian used to back up this statement was one conducted by Jeff Bradstreet and Mark Geier , which gave dimercaptosuccinic acid , a chelating agent , to children and concluded that children with autism excreted much more mercury thereafter than children without autism . Aposhian also cited a number of in vitro studies as evidence that thimerosal could cause immune system dysregulation .
The following day , the plaintiffs presented their second argument , namely that the measles vaccine had caused intestinal damage . Their witness that day was gastroenterologist Arthur Krigsman , who testified that his opinion in the case depended on whether measles virus had really been detected in the intestinal tissue of Michelle Cedillo and other children with autism by the Unigenetics lab , using a study conducted by him , Dr. Hepner , Steve Walker , and Jeff Segal as evidence that the Unigenetics lab 's results were reliable . This study , however , was still in its preliminary stages at the time of the trial , and had only been presented as a poster at the International Meeting for Autism Research the year before , and Walker himself warned that " We haven 't done anything to demonstrate that the measles virus is causing autism or even causing bowel disease . "
On the trial 's third day , the plaintiffs presented their next argument , which was that the Uhlmann paper , which had reported the presence of vaccine @-@ strain measles virus in the GI tract of childrenwith autism , used reliable PCR techniques to detect said virus . Their witness for that day was molecular biologist Karin Hepner , who testified that " ... the positive and negative controls used by the Uhlmann authors [ led by Dr. John J. O 'Leary , who runs the Unigenetics lab in Dublin ] were appropriate , that the operating procedure employed in the testing was appropriate to minimize the possibility of " contamination , " and that the " assays " utilized were appropriately selected and implemented . " She also contended that the two studies that had failed to replicate the Uhlmann paper 's results were flawed for two reasons : because they looked at cells of children with autism rather than in their GI tract , and because they did not test children with autism with gastrointestinal dysfunction .
Immunologist Vera Byers testified that Michelle Cedillo had a dysregulated immune system , which allowed the measles virus to persist in her system , and that her malfunctioning immune system was in part a result of the virus itself . She also stated that this dysregulation was caused by " a combination of genetics and the measles virus vaccination and the thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines that she had received . "
Viral immunologist Ronald C. Kennedy testified that Michelle Cedillo had a " selective immune dysfunction " . He also , like Dr. Hepner , testified that the Unigenetics lab was reliable and followed appropriate measures to prevent contamination , stating " that the laboratory of Dr. John O 'Leary , Dr. Orla Sheils , and their colleagues has a good reputation . " Kennedy also testified that he attended a meeting during which Dr. Cotter orally reported that his testing reached results similar to those reported by Uhlmann . However , he also acknowledged that this lab never published sequencing data , which is in line with the fact that the Uhlmann paper does not mention the sequencing process .
Retired pediatric neurologist Marcel Kinsbourne testified that Michelle was developing normally until December 20 , 1995 , when she was vaccinated with the MMR vaccine , and that the fever and rash she experienced shortly thereafter was caused by this vaccine . He also testified that Michelle had regressive autism , and that " since Michelle has experienced both chronic gastrointestinal problems and the chronic neurologic disorder known as autism , the most reasonable conclusion is that a single causative agent--i.e. , the vaccine @-@ strain measles virus--is the cause of both chronic conditions . "
= = = Opposing arguments = = =
One of the key lines of evidence presented by the Cedillo family was that Michelle was developmentally normal before she received the MMR vaccine . This , they claimed , was evident from videos taken of her when she was 6 to 8 months old . However , Eric Fombonne testified that Michelle " ... displayed early signs of autism clearly visibly on family video taken prior to her receiving the MMR vaccine . "
Jeffrey Brent , the past president of the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology , was invited to testify about the potential role of thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines in triggering Michelle 's autism . He stated that " there was not a single study indicating that any form of mercury could cause serious neurological symptoms in the dosages that were used in vaccines " and criticized Aposhian 's use of in vitro studies and his equating them to what happens in the actual animal , arguing that " the exposure to a cell in a petri dish was far more likely to cause damage than an equivalent dosage in a living system . " With regard to specific in vitro studies , Brent argued that the Goth study was flawed because it tested thimerosal on mouse cells , not human cells ; because these cells were exposed not to ethylmercury , as the human body would be after receiving a thimerosal @-@ containing vaccine since thimerosal is quickly metabolized to ethylmercury , but to thimerosal itself , and because the cells were exposed to far higher concentrations of thimerosal than could ever occur as a result of the administration of thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines . Brent highlighted similar problems with the Agrawal study , noting that the cells in that study , like those in the Goth study , were exposed to thimerosal , not ethylmercury , and to much higher doses than found in vaccines . He also examined the Bradstreet and Geier study and the Holmes study , noting that " much better studies from other investigators could not replicate the results of either the Holmes study or the Bradstreet / Geier study , " citing two other peer @-@ reviewed papers which had concluded that hair mercury levels were not significantly different between study participants with autism and controls , as well as a study which had concluded that children with autism had no chelatable heavy @-@ metal body burden whatsoever . Brent also pointed out that , like another of Bradstreet 's studies , the Bradstreet @-@ Geier study had been published in a non @-@ indexed journal , the Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons , which he described as " very much of a fringe journal with lots of alternative agendas , and it 's not even indexed by the National Library of Medicine . " Brent concluded by testifying that thimerosal could not have degraded Michelle 's immune system to the extent that when she was vaccinated with MMR nine months later , it caused brain damage , saying " That couldn 't possibly be the case . " In the second set of the proceedings , which pertained to thimerosal alone ( as opposed to thimerosal working in conjunction with MMR ) , Brent testified , with regard to Jordan King and one other child with autism who also served as a test case in this trial , that there was " absolutely no reason to chelate them for any mercury @-@ related reason . "
Many of the plaintiff 's experts also relied on the reported detection of measles virus RNA in Michelle 's intestinal tissue . This claim was based on results from O 'Leary 's Unigenetics lab , and was examined by Stephen Bustin , a world @-@ renowned expert on polymerase chain reaction who has authored a number of scientific papers on the subject , as well as a book entitled A @-@ Z of Quantitative PCR . He pointed out that this is based on results from the O 'Leary lab , and concluded , based on a 2002 paper by Uhlmann that described their PCR methodology , that this lab contained a lot of contaminating DNA , and that the assays were actually detecting this DNA rather than the RNA which makes up the measles virus . Bustin pointed out that , among other things , O 'Leary 's Unigenetics lab which published this study neglected to use controls , and also did not discuss contamination . For this reason , Bustin concluded that " the positive results from the Unigenetics laboratory are spurious and likely to be the result of contamination or false positives , " citing two other peer @-@ reviewed papers as evidence for this claim . In addition , Bustin and Bertus Rima both testified that Cotter was unable to replicate the Unigenetics lab 's results , in contrast to Kennedy 's claim that they were able to replicate these results .
Byers ' testimony was countered by that of Christine McCusker , who testified that " Dr. Byers had compared the results from several of the tests on Michelle to a set of " normal " values for such tests . The normal values utilized by Dr. Byers , however , were for adults , not children " and that " when she herself instead compared Michelle 's results to an age @-@ adjusted set of normal values , Michelle 's results fell within the normal ranges , " with McCusker noting in her expert report that the only marker of Th2 cell activity that was assessed in Michelle 's case , namely serum Immunoglobulin E level , was entirely normal . Additionally , Ward 's expert report stated that Byers ' expert report contained " many statements that appear to be entirely unsubstantiated . "
Kinsbourne 's testimony was countered by that of Ward , who noted that if Kinsbourne were correct and persisting measles virus were causing autism , then it ought to be detectable in the blood , since Kinsbourne himself had stated that MV would travel throughout the body via the bloodstream ; he also criticized Kinsbourne 's expert report for citing Bradstreet et al . ' s case series which had been published in the Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons . With regard to this study , Ward said that " the cerebrospinal antibody data from the three ASD children included in this manuscript actually argue powerfully AGAINST a persistent measles infection in the brains of these children . " Ward also noted that Krigsman had cited research conducted by Vijendra K. Singh of Utah State University which had concluded that more than 80 % of children with autism had elevated measles antibodies . However , Ward stated in his expert report that " Unless virtually all cases of autism are caused by measles virus ( a position expressly excluded by the MRC , IOM and Cochrane reports ) , then Singh 's work must be in error or there must be an alternate explanation for this finding . We have recently tested anti @-@ measles antibodies in children with ASD and found no differences with control children . " Another point of contention was a paper by Paul Ashwood , which had been cited by Kinsbourne in his expert report ; however , as Ward noted , Kinsbourne had neglected to mention that Ashwood 's paper concluded that " the overwhelming majority of epidemiological , population studies indicate there is no established correlation between vaccinations and autism . " Additionally , Ward noted that this paper made no mention of the potential link between MMR and autism .
= = = Decision = = =
On February 12 , 2009 , the three special masters each ruled against the petitioners ' causation claims . In his decision , George Hastings noted that , unlike Aposhian , Jeffrey Brent , who testified that there was no evidence that children with autism were uniquely susceptible to mercury exposure , was a medical doctor . Hastings also described Dr. Brent 's testimony as " persuasive . " In addition , with regard to the theory that some children are genetically hypersusceptible to mercury toxicity , Hastings concluded that the " petitioners have failed to demonstrate that this theory has any validity . " According to Hastings ' decision , Byers ' testimony " was far outweighed by the testimony of Dr. Brent and respondent 's other witnesses ... " ; he also concluded that " her insistence that it was acceptable to use adult norms to measure the immune function of infants and young children was , frankly , incredible . " Hastings also wrote that Kennedy made the same mistake that Byers made — namely , comparing the measurements of Michelle 's immune system to the parameters for adults , and that while Kennedy testified that Cotter 's results were evidence of the Unigenetics lab 's testing , that " no conclusions can reasonably be drawn " regarding these results , noting that they had not yet been published . After examining Kinsbourne 's testimony , Hastings concluded that it contained " ... contradictions and inconsistencies ... concerning the appropriate time period between MMR vaccination and onset of autism symptoms , " and also noted that Kinsbourne had not included measles virus as a cause of autism in a chart he wrote for a textbook , but had done so in the proceedings .
Hastings , in his decision , noted that " all of the petitioners ' causation theories depend upon the validity of certain testing that purported to find evidence of persisting measles virus in the biological materials of Michelle and a number of other children with autism . " However , Hastings concluded that this testing was " not reliable . " In his decision , he noted that the authors of the D 'Souza paper first performed PCR on PBMCs from children with autism , which resulted in a large proportion of apparently positive results . However , " the D 'Souza group ... subjected those apparently positive samples to additional testing techniques in order to determine whether the PCR testing using the Uhlmann primers was truly identifying measles virus and only measles virus . ... The application of those two techniques revealed that all but nine of the samples that had initially tested positive by the PCR test using the Uhlmann primers were , in fact , not measles virus . " With regard to the 9 remaining samples , the D 'Souza paper performed sequencing on 7 of those samples . This step " demonstrated that the material , which in the PCR testing had appeared to be measles virus material , was in fact not measles virus material , but human genetic material . "
With regard to the Michelle Cedillo case in general , Hastings concluded that " The evidence was overwhelmingly contrary to the petitioners ' contentions . " He also said that the Cedillo family had been " misled by physicians who are guilty , in my view , of gross medical misjudgment . " The Cedillos appealed this case in March 2009 , but the court upheld its dismissal thereof in August 2010 .
= = Impact = =
In response to the second rulings in 2010 , SafeMinds stated , " The denial of reasonable compensation to families was based on inadequate vaccine safety science and poorly designed and highly controversial epidemiology . " Similarly , Rebecca Estepp of the Coalition for Vaccine Safety said in a statement , " The deck is stacked against families in vaccine court . Government attorneys defend a government program , using government @-@ funded science , before government judges , " and Generation Rescue 's J.B. Handley argued that " the courts won 't concede something that will bring down the vaccination program . "
On the other hand , vaccine scientists praised the ruling , with Paul Offit stating " the autism theory had ' already had its day in science court and failed to hold up . ' " Additionally , Autism Speaks said that " the proven benefits of vaccinating a child to protect them against serious diseases far outweigh the hypothesized risk that vaccinations might cause autism . Thus , we strongly encourage parents to vaccinate their children to protect them from serious childhood diseases . " The Department of Health and Human Services released a statement saying that " Hopefully , the determination by the special masters will help reassure parents that vaccines do not cause autism . " Similarly , the chairman of the American Medical Association stated that the " recent rulings by the Special Masters of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims provide even more overwhelming evidence that there is no association between vaccines and autism or related disorders . "
After the ruling , Keelan and Wilson wrote that , in contrast to those who argued that the proceedings gave unnecessary publicity to the scientifically unsupported vaccine @-@ autism hypothesis , " the NVICP was successful in its management of these proceedings and met the intent of the original legislation to protect the integrity of the vaccine supply , maintain public confidence in immunization , and provide those injured with a fair hearing . "
= Podoserpula =
Podoserpula is a genus of fungi in the family Amylocorticiaceae . The genus contains two species : the type , P. pusio , commonly known as the pagoda fungus , and the " Barbie pagoda " , P. miranda , officially published in 2013 . Podoserpula species produce fruit bodies consisting of up to a dozen caps arranged in overlapping shelves , attached to a central axis . Its unique shape is not known to exist in any other fungi . Four varieties of P. pusio are known , which differ in their sizes , spore morphology , and distribution . The genus is known to occur in Australia and New Zealand , Venezuela , Madagascar , and New Caledonia .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Craterellus pusio was first described by Miles Joseph Berkeley in an 1859 publication by James Hooker . Otto Kuntze transferred it to the genus Merulius in 1891 . Until the 1960s , however , it was known as Craterellus multiplex , a species described by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke and George Edward Massee in 1889 , and moved to Cantharellus by Curtis Gates Lloyd in 1920 . In 1958 , British mycologist R.W.G. Dennis collected the species in Venezuela during an expedition financed by the Percy Sladen Memorial Trust . Derek Reid , attempting to identify the species , rediscovered Berkeley 's name , which had priority , and described the new genus Podoserpula for it in 1963 while simultaneously describing four varieties of it .
Reid considered the genus allied to Leucogyrophana , then thought to belong to the family Coniophoraceae . Marinus Anton Donk , in a monograph published the next year , agreed and placed it close to Serpula and Coniophora ; these genera are now known to represent early @-@ diverging lineages in the Boletales order . However , the white spore print and small , smooth , and hyaline spores are not characteristic of species in the Coniophoraceae . In a large @-@ scale phylogenetic analysis published in 2006 , Podoserpula nested far from them in the Plicaturopsis clade , an evolutionarily related group of early @-@ diverging members of the Agaricales order . Other taxa in this clade include Plicaturopsis and Sclerotium rolfsii . The entire clade was later separated into three smaller orders , Podoserpula becoming a member of the Amylocorticiales along with mostly corticioid genera such as Amylocorticium and Serpulomyces .
A new species , Podoserpula miranda , was proposed in 2009 by a group of New Caledonian mycologists for a species of that South Pacific archipelago . The name was provisional ( not validly published ) , however , as the description was in French ( the code of nomenclature mandates Latin ) and lacked a required designation of a type specimen . It was validly published in 2013 .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Podoserpula species have an unusual form unknown in other fungi . The fruit bodies , which grow to a height of 1 – 18 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) , consist of up to a dozen cup @-@ shaped ( spathulate ) to kidney @-@ shaped ( reniform ) caps arranged in multiple tiers and attached to a central stem . Caps are joined to the main axis by short , flattened , stem @-@ like attachments . The variety tristis , in contrast , has caps that are more circular and appear to be pierced either centrally or off to the side . The surface of the caps is smooth and often brightly colored . The hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing surface ) on the underside of the caps is pink and has a folded and corrugated surface . Close to the area of attachment between the cap and the stem @-@ like connection to the main axis are swellings resembling warts or blisters . Individual caps resemble somewhat those of the European species Plicaturopsis crispa .
Podoserpula has a monomitic hyphal structure , meaning that it only contains generative hyphae , which are relatively undifferentiated and can develop reproductive structures . These hyphae are thin @-@ walled , hyaline ( translucent ) , branched , and up to 10 μm thick . They have distinct , often swollen , clamp connections at the septa . The spores are small , typically 2 @.@ 75 – 6 by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 μm , smooth , hyaline , and vary in shape from roughly elliptical to somewhat spherical . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) can be either two- or four @-@ spored , and are club shaped , with a clamp connection at the base . Podoserpula has neither cystidia nor gloeocystidia .
Podoserpula pusio var. pusio is the nominate variety . Its fruit bodies are rarely greater than 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) tall . Variety austro @-@ americana is the largest of the varieties , reaching heights up to 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) . Other than its size and geographical distribution , it is roughly similar to var. pusio . Variety ellipsospora has elongated elliptical spores typically measuring 4 – 5 by 2 @.@ 75 – 3 @.@ 5 μm . Variety tristis has caps whose upper surfaces are colored pale fawn , and the main axis of the fruit bodies pierces through the cap .
Podoserpula miranda grows to a height of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . It differs from P. pusio var. pusio in having thinner flesh , up to six funnel @-@ shaped caps whose size diminishes approaching the top , and a bright pink coloration in the folds of the hymenium .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Podoserpula pusio grow on the ground , on well @-@ rotted stumps , or among decaying tussock grass . They are presumed to be saprobic , and obtain nutrients by breaking down larger organic molecules found in the soil or in decaying wood . P. miranda in contrast , is thought to be ectomycorrhizal , as it appears to associate with Arillastrum gummiferum , the predominant canopy tree in the forests where it is found .
The nominate variety is found in Australasia , but in 1997 it was reported in a protected area near Antananarivo in Madagascar , and in 2009 on the Falkland Islands . Variety ellipsospora occurs in Australia , var. tristis in New Zealand , and var. austro @-@ americana is known from Venezuela .
= Paul Bako =
Gabor Paul Bako II ( / ˈbɑːkoʊ / ; born June 20 , 1972 ) is a retired catcher in Major League Baseball . Bako is an example of a baseball " journeyman " , having played for 11 different major league teams during his 12 @-@ year career . He is officially listed at 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) .
Bako attended high school and college in his home state of Louisiana , winning two conference championships at the University of Southwest Louisiana . After reaching the majors with the American League 's Detroit Tigers in 1998 , Bako spent seven seasons in the National League , playing with six different teams . He returned to the American League with the Baltimore Orioles and the Kansas City Royals , then played for the Cincinnati Reds and the Philadelphia Phillies for one season each .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = High school and college = = =
In 1990 , Bako was drafted out of Lafayette High School — who later retired his number 6 — with the ninth pick of the sixth round by the Cleveland Indians . He chose not to sign , and attended the University of Southwest Louisiana . In his college career , Bako caught for the Ragin ' Cajuns during two consecutive conference championship seasons : 1991 in the American South Conference , when they finished with a 49 – 20 record , 14th @-@ best among Division I squads ; and 1992 in the Sun Belt Conference , when Southwestern Louisiana 's pitching staff amassed a 3 @.@ 50 earned run average , 29th @-@ best in Division I. In 1993 , he was named to the second team of the all @-@ Sun Belt Conference baseball team , and was selected by the Cincinnati Reds in the fifth round of the 1993 June draft .
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Bako began his professional career with the Pioneer Baseball League 's Billings Mustangs , a rookie @-@ league farm team of the Reds located in Montana . During the 1993 season , Bako amassed a .314 batting average , second @-@ highest on the team that season behind Chris Sexton . Bako walked 22 times , stole 5 bases , and batted in 30 runs , while excelling defensively compared to the other catcher on the team . His fielding percentage was .988 , and he posted only four errors that season . He was also named a Pioneer League All @-@ Star .
Bako moved on to the high @-@ A Winston @-@ Salem Spirits in the Carolina League for the 1994 and 1995 seasons . He struggled during the 1994 season , batting only .204 with three home runs and 26 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . 1995 was more successful , with an 81 @-@ point boost in batting average ( .285 ) , seven home runs and 11 doubles . After the season , Baseball America rated him the top @-@ ranked catching prospect in the Reds farm system .
Bako 's 1995 performance earned him a promotion to the Southern League 's Chattanooga Lookouts , the Reds AA @-@ level affiliate , for 1996 , where he was named a Southern League All @-@ Star . He was second on the team in strikeouts ( 93 ) and fifth among regulars with a .294 batting average . He hit a career @-@ high eight home runs during that season , adding 27 doubles and 48 RBIs in 360 at bats . In 1997 , playing for the Indianapolis Indians , Bako was a teammate of brothers Aaron and Bret Boone . That year , he batted .243 and matched his previous year 's career @-@ high home run total . He had 78 hits in 321 at @-@ bats . Bako 's game management earned him a reputation , even in the minor leagues . Brett Tomko , who played with Bako in the minors in 1996 as a member of the Lookouts and in 1997 with Indianapolis , recalled one of their mound conversations :
Bako : Are you really trying out here ? Tomko : What do you mean ? Bako : Because your stuff is horrible today and if you don 't try a little harder , you 're not going to make it out of this inning .
On November 11 , 1997 , Bako was traded by the Reds to the Detroit Tigers in an offseason deal that included Donne Wall . After playing 13 games with the Tigers AAA @-@ level affiliate — the Toledo Mud Hens — in 1998 , Bako was called up to the Major League club .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = 1998 – 2000 = = = =
Bako made his major league debut with the Tigers on April 30 , 1998 , going 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 with three strikeouts . His first Major League hit , a bases loaded double , came the next day off Bill Swift , when he went 2 @-@ for @-@ 5 against the Seattle Mariners in a 17 – 3 Tigers win . He hit his first major league home run on May 15 against the Oakland Athletics ; it came off Mike Mohler in the bottom of the sixth inning with two runners ( Damion Easley , Joe Randa ) on base . He also went 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 against the New York Yankees on July 21 . Bako 's rookie season was arguably his most successful : he posted a .272 batting average , hit three home runs , batted in 30 runs , and collected 106 total bases . After the season , the Tigers traded Bako to the Houston Astros in a seven @-@ player deal that included Brad Ausmus .
Bako appeared in 73 games for the 1999 Astros ; he got at least one hit in his first six games with Houston after beginning the season in the minor leagues , highlighted by a 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 performance on April 30 , the anniversary of his debut . He added another 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 game to his résumé on July 29 against the Colorado Rockies . Bako hit .256 with two home runs , 17 RBIs , and 16 runs scored in the 1999 season ; he was part of Houston 's roster for the 1999 National League Division Series , but did not play . After one game for the Astros in 2000 , Houston traded Bako to the Florida Marlins . He played his first game for Florida on April 13 , going 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 with a strikeout . Bako played for the Marlins until July 20 , batting .242 with 14 RBIs . He was waived on July 21 and claimed by the Atlanta Braves , who acquired Bako from their division rivals . He batted .190 with the Braves and played in his first career game at first base in the last two months of the 2000 season .
= = = = 2001 – 2004 = = = =
Bako remained with the Braves for the 2001 season , where he was the backup to Javy López . He batted .212 , amassing the third @-@ highest ( 20 ) walk total among Atlanta 's bench players and batting in 15 runs . His top performances of the season were a 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 game against the Montréal Expos in August and a 2 @-@ for @-@ 3 night — with 2 walks — in October against Florida . Bako appeared in three games during the 2001 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , his first playoff appearances , and three more during the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . In Game 3 of the NLDS , Bako went 2 @-@ for @-@ 2 with a two @-@ run home run in the second inning ; he also batted in a third run on a squeeze bunt in the fourth .
In a trade of catchers , the Braves acquired Henry Blanco from the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for Bako and José Cabrera . Bako played in 87 games for the Brewers in 2002 , his most extensive playing time since his rookie season ; behind him , the team used four additional catchers . Bako batted .235 with four home runs for the season . His top performance of the year was against the Minnesota Twins in interleague play ; Bako went 3 @-@ for @-@ 5 with a two @-@ run home run in the top of the fourth inning and a bases @-@ loaded single to drive in a third run .
After the 2002 season , Milwaukee traded Bako to the Chicago Cubs , where he spent two complete seasons ; 2003 and 2004 were the only consecutive seasons that Bako spent with the same organization . Over his two years , he backed up Damian Miller and Michael Barrett , and was reunited with former Braves teammate Greg Maddux in 2004 . In his first Chicago season , Bako batted .229 with 22 walks and 13 doubles ; a 4 @-@ for @-@ 5 performance in his second game of the year was his best of the season . In that game , he batted three times against the Reds with the bases loaded , notching a triple , two singles and six RBIs . Bako batted only .203 for the Cubs in 2004 . He hit one home run and eight doubles , displaying his defense with a .989 fielding percentage . His top performance that year was in the second game of a doubleheader against Florida , when he went 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 and batted in two runs .
= = = = 2005 – 2009 = = = =
As a free agent , Bako signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers for the 2005 season . He batted .250 for the Dodgers in 13 games with two doubles and four RBIs . He backed up both Jason Phillips and Dioner Navarro in 2005 , but underwent season @-@ ending surgery on his anterior cruciate ligament in June of that season . The Dodgers granted Bako free agency after the season , and he signed with the Kansas City Royals in December 2005 . After beginning the 2006 season in the minor leagues , Bako returned to the majors with the Royals , where he batted .209 backing up John Buck . He played in 60 games with the Baltimore Orioles in 2007 , amassing five extra @-@ base hits and batting .205 . He tied for the highest total of walks off the Orioles bench and batted in eight runs for the season .
On February 1 , 2008 , Bako signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Cincinnati Reds . At the end of spring training , he was added to the 40 @-@ man roster . Though he batted only .217 , Bako appeared in a career @-@ high 99 games in 2008 , hitting six home runs and notching 35 RBIs . On January 30 , 2009 , the Chicago Cubs signed Bako to a one @-@ year contract . However , he was unconditionally released near the end of spring training . On May 18 , Bako signed a minor league deal with the Philadelphia Phillies , and was called up from the Reading Phillies to the Major League roster on June 9 . He became the Phillies only backup catcher when the Phillies waived " folk hero " Chris Coste on July 10 ; Coste had broken into the big leagues for the first time with Philadelphia at age 33 . The next day , Bako came to the plate in the bottom of the ninth inning against Pittsburgh Pirates closer Matt Capps with the score tied , 7 – 7 ; the Phillies had been behind by four runs before home runs by Matt Stairs and Ryan Howard tied the game . With the bases loaded , Bako hit a single through the left side of the infield , driving in the winning run ( Raúl Ibáñez ) and sealing the Phillies fourth consecutive victory in a season @-@ high ten @-@ game winning streak . After the acquisition of starting pitcher Cliff Lee , Bako caught all of his first five starts with the Phillies , when Lee posted a 5 – 0 record and an 0 @.@ 68 earned run average . Bako said , " With as many strikes as he throws and as many weapons as he has , it 's a lot of fun to catch him . " Manager Charlie Manuel , however , denied that Bako was scheduled to be Lee 's personal catcher , as he had done for Maddux in 2001 . " [ Bako ] ' s [ sic ] not his personal catcher ... Of course you guys will write whatever you want to write . If you want him to be his personal catcher , go right ahead . But I 'll handle it anyway , so it doesn 't matter . "
As the 2009 season wore on , regular catcher Carlos Ruiz spent some time recuperating from an injury , allowing Bako expanded playing time near the end of the season . From September 18 to 29 , Bako played in all but one of the team 's games ; his best stretch was from September 24 through September 27 , when he went 6 @-@ for @-@ 13 with two RBId over three games . He finished the year with a .224 batting average . After winning the National League East for the third consecutive year , the Phillies faced the Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series , the Los Angeles Dodgers in the National League Championship Series , and the New York Yankees in the World Series ; Bako did not appear in any games during the postseason . After the 2009 season , Bako filed for free agency ; considered retirement , according to teammate Scott Eyre ; and did not play during the 2010 season .
= = After baseball = =
As of 2011 , Bako is currently an equipment representative for the Marucci Bat Company , based in Baton Rouge , Louisiana . He and former Orioles first baseman David Segui are part @-@ owners of the company .
= = Personal = =
Bako lives in his hometown of Lafayette , Louisiana , during the offseason . He has a wife , Laurie , and two children : a son named Will and a daughter , Abbey .
= Miley : The Movement =
Miley : The Movement is a 2013 documentary television film about American entertainer Miley Cyrus , following her return to the music industry in the lead @-@ up to her fourth studio album Bangerz ( 2013 ) . It premiered on October 2 , 2013 , on MTV , shortly before the release of her record , for which the documentary served as a promotional tool . The documentary depicts Cyrus finalizing details regarding its launch , making public appearances for additional promotion , and rehearsing for her controversial performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards .
Miley : The Movement received generally mixed reviews from mainstream critics , who appreciated Cyrus ' seemingly genuine commentary , but were disappointed by its failure to fully discuss her recent controversies and public criticisms . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by approximately 1 @.@ 6 million viewers in the United States . An extended version of the documentary was broadcast by MTV on October 6 , 2013 .
= = Background and production = =
It was first announced that Cyrus would appear in a documentary broadcast by MTV in July 2013 ; an official statement published by the network elaborated that it would " [ follow ] Cyrus as she works on the album and delves deep into the transformation she has experienced over the past few years . " Its title was announced on September 10 , with a broadcast date confirmed for October 2 . It premiered shortly before the release of Cyrus ' fourth studio album Bangerz , for which the documentary served as a promotional tool . An official trailer was released by MTV on September 18 . Miley : The Movement was screened to mainstream critics the week prior to its official release , although it was further reworked before being broadcast on the network .
= = Synopsis = =
Miley : The Movement commences with Cyrus stating " I don 't apologize for anything . " Shortly after , she comments that " For me , the movement needs to be something bigger than just a record . For me , a movement is something that represents , like , taking over the world . " Cyrus notably avoids specifically naming her former television series Hannah Montana , instead calling it " my show " when flashback pictures of her earlier career was shown , presumably to distance herself from the franchise . However , she commented that after its conclusion " I made one movie , and I never wanted to do it again . I want to make music for the rest of my life . " Having been filmed after Bangerz was recorded , the documentary instead depicts Cyrus finalizing details including its album artwork and track listing . A brief discussion in a recording studio with Britney Spears , who is featured on the track " SMS ( Bangerz ) " is additionally included .
Cyrus ' former fiancé Liam Hemsworth , whom she had been in a highly publicized relationship with before ending her engagement in September 2013 , and father Billy Ray Cyrus are not mentioned during the program in an intentional effort to " focus on music and professional footage . " Cyrus ' mother Tish frequently appears during Miley : The Movement , and on one occasion describes her initial hesitation after Cyrus befriended hip hop producers and recording artists Juicy J , Pharrell Williams , and Mike Will Made It . Cyrus is seen making promotional appearances for further promotion of Bangerz in the three months before its release . The preparation for her controversial performance of " We Can 't Stop " at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards serves as a recurring theme ; she expresses concern that the track itself charted lower than Cyrus expected on the iTunes Store immediately after its release , experiences a brief illness during rehearsals , and becomes upset after her planned entrance to the event did not come to fruition . The final performance itself is not shown , although Cyrus briefly addresses criticism and describes it as " a strategic hot mess . "
= = Reception = =
Miley : The Movement received generally mixed reviews from mainstream critics . Writing for E ! , Bruna Nessif provided a favorable review ; she opined that the documentary was " pretty entertaining " and reminded the general public that Cyrus " takes her job very seriously and still gets nervous . " Andrew Asare from Entertainment Weekly felt that Cyrus ' footage with her mother and Spears were among " her most candid moments " , although noted the absences of her father and Hemsworth . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa gave a positive review , appreciating that Cyrus " surprises with her words , not her twerks . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today opined that Cyrus appeared " good @-@ humored and grateful to her fans " throughout the documentary , but questioned if her evolving image and public persona would become " yet another cautionary tale . "
In a mixed review , Kia Makarechi from The Huffington Post was critical of the decision to avoid mentioning Hemsworth and toning @-@ down of the criticism Cyrus received after the MTV Video Music Awards . She implied that MTV treated Cyrus like " an honest @-@ to @-@ god civil rights advocate " , although felt that Spears ' appearance was among the only " redeeming moments " of the documentary . Kate Dries from Jezebel suggested that frequent flashback footage of Cyrus ' idols Madonna and Spears implied that MTV was " clearly proud " that all three women generated controversies at the MTV Video Music Awards in years past . Writing for Refinery29 , Leila Brillson felt that " very little was clarified " by Miley : The Movement , and suggested that the documentary suffered from its lack of focus .
In its original broadcast in the United States on October 2 , 2013 , Miley : The Movement was watched by approximately 1 @.@ 6 million viewers , and earned a 0 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . An expanded version of the program with an additional thirty minutes of content was broadcast by MTV on October 6 , 2013 ; it contained behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage that was excluded from the original version , and expanded upon existing segments .
= Preggers =
" Preggers " is the fourth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on September 23 , 2009 , and was written and directed by executive producer Brad Falchuk . " Preggers " sees glee club member Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) join the football team and admit his homosexuality to his father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) . Cheerleader Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) discovers she is pregnant and tells her boyfriend Finn ( Cory Monteith ) the baby is his , when in fact the father is his best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) . Faculty members Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) and Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) team up in an effort to bring down the glee club , luring away a disillusioned Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , who quits when club director Will ( Matthew Morrison ) refuses to award her a solo song . This episode features the first appearance of O 'Malley as Burt Hummel .
" Preggers " features covers of two songs , and several dance performances of Beyoncé Knowles ' " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . A studio recording of Michele 's cover of " Taking Chances " was released as a single , available for digital download and features on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . The scene in which Kurt comes out to his father was based on the personal experience of series creator Ryan Murphy . Murphy 's intention was to move away from previous shows he has worked on in which gay characters have not been given happy endings , by allowing Kurt to succeed and be accepted .
The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 64 million United States viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times praised the show 's fast pacing ; however , the New York Times 's Mike Hale felt that key characters were not given enough screen time . The football team 's performance of " Single Ladies " and Kurt 's coming out to his father were generally well received ; however , Rachel 's actions garnered little sympathy , and several reviewers commented negatively on Quinn 's pregnancy , with Eric Goldman of IGN deeming it " a very soap opera plotline " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) is caught dancing to Beyoncé Knowles 's " Single Ladies " by his father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , and claims that it is a football exercise , and that he is now part of the team . Fellow glee club member and football quarterback Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) helps Kurt to practice , and finds him to be a skilled kicker . Finn convinces coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) to let Kurt try out for the team . Ken is delighted to find such an asset for the team and adds Kurt as the kicker .
Finn 's girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) tells him she is pregnant , claiming her pregnancy as a result of Finn 's premature ejaculation when they made out in Quinn 's hot tub . Finn worries that his future prospects will be diminished by fatherhood . He asks glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) to coach the football team at dancing , believing it will help them to improve , increasing his chances of securing a football scholarship . Finn confides Quinn 's news to his best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) , who later confronts Quinn , claiming to be the baby 's father , since she said she was a virgin when they had sex . Quinn rejects Puck , calling him a " Lima loser " who could never support her and the baby like Finn . Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) reveals to her sister Kendra ( Jennifer Aspen ) that she experienced a hysterical pregnancy and is not really carrying Will 's baby . Kendra suggests that they acquire a baby , and when Terri learns of Quinn 's pregnancy from Will , she confronts her , asking questions about her prenatal care .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) approaches former glee club director Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) and enlists him in her plan to sabotage the club . She blackmails Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) into appointing Sandy as the school 's new Arts director , and together they hold auditions for a school production of Cabaret , hoping to entice away the glee club 's star , Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . Rachel feels slighted when Will awards Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) a solo that she wanted , so she auditions for the musical and is given the lead role . When Will refuses to reassign the solo to Rachel , she quits the club .
The football team puts their dance training into practice by performing the " Single Ladies " routine in the middle of a game , confusing and distracting the opposition , and with Kurt 's help is able to win . Buoyed by his success , Kurt comes out to his father Burt and tells him that he 's homosexual ; Burt tells him he knew all along and loves Kurt just the same .
= = Production = =
" Preggers " was written and directed by Glee 's executive producer and co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk . Kurt Fuller guest stars as local news station owner Mr. McClung . The episode features covers of " Taking Chances " by Celine Dion and " Tonight " from West Side Story . Beyoncé Knowles ' " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " is also featured in several dance performances . Kurt 's backup dancers for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " are series regular Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) and recurring character Brittany ( Heather Morris ) . Dancer Morris was one of Beyonce 's backup dancers for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " appearing on The Today Show , Ellen , and others . A studio recording of " Taking Chances " was released as a single , available for digital download , and appeared on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 1 . The track charted at number 79 in Australia , 73 in Canada and 71 in the United States .
The scene in which Kurt comes out to his father was taken verbatim from series creator Ryan Murphy 's own life . Murphy felt that the scene was " a great thing to put on television " , as , while audiences have seen gay characters isolated and attacked , they have rarely seen them ultimately winning and triumphing . He commented that : " The show is about making you feel good in the end . It 's about happy endings and optimism and the power of your personal journey and making you feel that the weird thing about me is the great thing about me . I ’ ve done other shows with gay characters , and I will say that in many of those cases , the gay characters didn 't have a happy ending . And I thought you know what ? Enough . " Colfer has commented that his biggest challenge was in ensuring the scene felt " honest " and not comical or " used as a punchline " . He explained : " I think it 's probably the first time a character 's sexuality has been respected and almost dignified in a way , and I think that 's really important , and there needs to be more of that on TV . "
= = Reception = =
" Preggers " was watched by 6 @.@ 64 million United States viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . It was the twenty @-@ second most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 39 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 804 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 397 million on E4 , and 407 @,@ 000 on timeshift ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most watched episode of the series at the time . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom for the Los Angeles Times reviewed the episode positively , praising the football team 's performance of the " Single Ladies " dance and Kurt coming out to his father . Malcom also commented positively on the show 's fast pacing ; however , Mike Hale of the New York Post was less favorable , deeming the episode " overstuffed with story lines " . He felt that key characters did not receive enough screentime , and that : " There was so much exposition going on that there didn ’ t seem to be much room for laughs . "
Tim Stack for Entertainment Weekly wrote that , although the dancing in the episode was fun , " Preggers " was lacking in " big singing moments " apart from Rachel 's performance of " Taking Chances " . He deemed Quinn 's pregnancy " a good dramatic twist " , but hoped that it would not be a long @-@ lasting storyline . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 . He called the " Single Ladies " performance " a memorable TV moment " , and wrote that Quinn 's pregnancy was a " very soap opera plotline " however commented : " luckily Glee is the kind of show to handle it with humor . "
James Poniewozik for Time deemed Kurt 's coming out " beautifully handled " , commenting : " the fact that Dad ( Mike O 'Malley , who has turned out to be a pretty good character actor ) ends up not being the boor we think he 's going to be is one of the first signs that Glee is growing up as a series , that having established a world of primary @-@ color stereotypes , it 's now willing to subvert those expectations . " Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal criticized Rachel 's actions in the episode , and felt that : " Rachel has become insufferable . The disagreements with Mr. Schue about her own development as a bona fide triple @-@ threat have branded her as an overbearing prima donna to the rest of Glee . "
The comedic pairing of Sue and Sandy attracted some praise , with Stack deeming them " the best villains ever " . Goldman said that : " Tobolowsky is terrific in this role , as Sandy manages to make everything he says [ ... ] sound amazingly disturbing . " Hale criticized Lynch as Sue , however , writing that she gave a " one @-@ note performance " , suggesting that she had been miscast in the role .
= House of Hasan @-@ Jalalyan =
The House of Hasan @-@ Jalalyan ( Armenian : Հասան @-@ Ջալալյաններ ) was an Armenian dynasty that ruled the region of Khachen ( Greater Artsakh ) from 1214 onwards in what are now the regions of lower Karabakh , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and small part of Syunik . It was named after Hasan @-@ Jalal Dawla ( Հասան @-@ Ջալալ Դոլա ) , an Armenian feudal prince from Khachen . The Hasan @-@ Jalalyan family was able to maintain its autonomy throughout several centuries of foreign domination of the region by Seljuk Turks , Persians and Mongols as they , as well as the other Armenian princes and meliks of Khachen , saw themselves of holding the last bastion of Armenian independence in the region .
Through their many patronages of churches and other monuments , the Hasan @-@ Jalalyans helped cultivate Armenian culture throughout the region . By the late 16th century , the Hasan @-@ Jalalyan family had branched out to establish melikdoms in Gulistan and Jraberd , making them , along with Khachen , Varanda and Dizak , a part of what was then known as the " Melikdoms of Khamsa . "
= = Origins = =
Hasan @-@ Jalal traced his descent to the Armenian Aranshahik dynasty , a family that predated the establishment of the Parthian Arsacids in the region . Hasan @-@ Jalal 's ancestry was " almost exclusively " Armenian according to historian Robert H. Hewsen , a professor at Rowan University and an expert on the history of the Caucasus :
In the male line , ( 1 ) the princes ( who later became kings ) of Siunik . Through various princesses , who married his ancestors , Hasan @-@ Jalal was descended from ( 2 ) the kings of Armenia or the Bagratuni Dynasty , centered at Ani ; ( 3 ) the Armenian kings of Vaspurakan of the Artsruni dynasty , centered in the region of Van ; 4 ) the princes of Gardman ; ( 5 ) the Sassanid dynasty of Persia , and ( 6 ) the Arsacids , the second royal house of Albania , itself a branch of ( 7 ) the kings of ancient Parthia .
Much of Hasan @-@ Jalal Dawla 's family roots were entrenched in an intricate array of royal marriages with new and old Armenian nakharar families . Hasan @-@ Jalal 's grandfather was Hasan I ( also known as Hasan the Great ) , a prince who ruled over the northern half of Artsakh . In 1182 , he stepped down as ruler of the region and entered monastery life at Dadivank , and divided his land into two : the southern half ( comprising much of Khachen ) went to his oldest son Vakhtank II ( also known as Tangik ) and the northern half went to the youngest , Gregory " the Black . " Vakhtank II married Khorishah Zakarian , who was herself the daughter of Sargis Zakarian , the progenitor of the Zakarid line of princes . When he married the daughter of the Aṛanshahik king of Dizak @-@ Balk , Mamkan , Hasan @-@ Jalal also inherited his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lands .
In the late 1960s and into the 1970s , Hasan @-@ Jalal ’ s origins became a part of a larger debate revolving around the history of Artsakh between Armenian and Azerbaijani scholars . In addition to the position held almost solely by Azerbaijani historians that much of Artsakh at the time was under heavy Caucasian Albanian influence , they also contend that the population and monuments were not Armenian but Caucasian Albanian in origin ( this argument has also been employed against Armenian monuments in the region of Nakhichevan ) . Among the foremost revisionists who expounded these views were Ziya Bunyadov and Farida Mamedova . Mamedova herself asserted that Hasan @-@ Jalal , based upon her interpretation of an inscription carved into the Gandzasar Monastery by the prince , was Caucasian Albanian . Armenian historians as well as experts of the region such as Hewsen , reject her conclusions , along with the notion held in Azerbaijan , that the Armenians " stole " Caucasian Albania ’ s culture .
= = Reign under Hasan @-@ Jalal Dawla = =
= = = Culture = = =
With the surrender of Ani to the Byzantine Empire in 1045 and the Byzantine annexation of Kars in 1064 , the final independent Armenian state in historic Armenia , Bagratuni kingdom , came to an end . However , despite foreign domination of the region , which became more pronounced after the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the battle of Manzikert in 1071 , Armenians in eastern Armenia were able to maintain autonomy in the two mountainous kingdoms of Syunik and Lori and in the principality of Khachen . From the early to mid @-@ 12th century , the combined Georgian and Armenian armies were successful in pushing the Turks out of Eastern Armenia , thereby establishing a period of relative peace and prosperity until the appearance of the Mongols in 1236 .
Khachen used to be a part of Syunik until numerous Turkic invasions severed it from the rest of the kingdom . The reign of the Hasan @-@ Jalalyan family was concentrated around the Terter and the Khachenaget rivers . Hasan @-@ Jalal 's birth date is unknown ;
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and bass ( track 7 )
Kate Bush – vocals ( track 3 )
L. Shankar – violin ( tracks 4 , 8 )
Larry Klein – bass guitar ( tracks 5 , 6 )
Youssou N 'Dour – vocals ( track 5 )
Michael Been – backing vocals ( track 5 )
Jim Kerr – backing vocals ( track 5 )
Ronnie Bright – bass vocals ( track 5 )
Djalma Correa – surdo , congas and triangle ( track 6 )
Jimmy Bralower – LinnDrum kick ( track 7 )
Bill Laswell – bass guitar ( track 9 )
Nile Rodgers – guitar ( track 9 )
Laurie Anderson – vocals ( track 9 )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Eurasian sparrowhawk =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) , also known as the northern sparrowhawk or simply the sparrowhawk , is a small bird of prey in the family Accipitridae . Adult male Eurasian sparrowhawks have bluish grey upperparts and orange @-@ barred underparts ; females and juveniles are brown above with brown barring below . The female is up to 25 % larger than the male – one of the largest differences between the sexes in any bird species . Though it is a predator which specialises in catching woodland birds , the Eurasian sparrowhawk can be found in any habitat and often hunts garden birds in towns and cities . Males tend to take smaller birds , including tits , finches , and sparrows ; females catch primarily thrushes and starlings , but are capable of killing birds weighing 500 g ( 18 oz ) or more .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk is found throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of the Old World ; while birds from the northern parts of the range migrate south for winter , their southern counterparts remain resident or make dispersive movements . Eurasian sparrowhawks breed in suitable woodland of any type , with the nest , measuring up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) across , built using twigs in a tree . Four or five pale blue , brown @-@ spotted eggs are laid ; the success of the breeding attempt is dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male brings her food . The chicks hatch after 33 days and fledge after 24 to 28 days .
The probability of a juvenile surviving its first year is 34 % , with 69 % of adults surviving from one year to the next . Mortality in young males is greater than that of young females and the typical lifespan is four years . This species is now one of the most common birds of prey in Europe , although the population crashed after the Second World War . Organochlorine insecticides used to treat seeds before sowing built up in the bird population and the concentrations in Eurasian sparrowhawks were enough to kill some outright and incapacitate others ; affected birds laid eggs with fragile shells which broke during incubation . However , its population recovered after the chemicals were banned , and it is now relatively common , classified as being of Least Concern by BirdLife International .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk 's hunting behaviour has brought it into conflict with humans for hundreds of years , particularly racing pigeon owners and people rearing poultry and gamebirds . It has also been blamed for decreases in passerine populations . The increase in population of the Eurasian Sparrowhawk coincides with the decline in House Sparrows in Britain . Studies of racing pigeon deaths found that Eurasian sparrowhawks were responsible for less than 1 % . Falconers have utilised the Eurasian sparrowhawk since at least the 16th century ; although the species has a reputation for being difficult to train , it is also praised for its courage . The species features in Teutonic mythology and is mentioned in works by writers including William Shakespeare , Alfred , Lord Tennyson and Ted Hughes .
= = Taxonomy = =
Within the family Accipitridae , the Eurasian sparrowhawk is a member of the large genus Accipiter , which consists of small to medium @-@ sized woodland hawks . Most of the Old World members of the genus are called sparrowhawks or goshawks . The species ' name dates back to the Middle English word sperhauk and Old English spearhafoc , a hawk which hunts sparrows . The Old Norse name for the Eurasian sparrowhawk , sparrhaukr , was thought to have been coined by Vikings who encountered falconry in England . English folk names for the Eurasian sparrowhawk include blue hawk , referring to the adult male 's colouration , as well as hedge hawk , spar hawk , spur hawk and stone falcon .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk was described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work , Systema Naturae , as Falco nisus , but moved to its present genus by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 . The current scientific name is derived from the Latin accipiter , meaning ' hawk ' and nisus , the sparrowhawk . According to Greek mythology , Nisus , the king of Megara , was turned into a sparrowhawk after his daughter , Scylla , cut off his purple lock of hair to present to her lover ( and Nisus ' enemy ) , Minos .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk forms a superspecies with the rufous @-@ chested sparrowhawk of eastern and southern Africa , and possibly the Madagascan sparrowhawk . Geographic variation is clinal , with birds becoming larger and paler in the eastern part of the range compared to the west . Within the species itself , six subspecies are generally recognised :
A. n. nisus , the nominate subspecies , was described by Linnaeus in 1758 . It breeds from Europe and west Asia to western Siberia and Iran ; northern populations winter south to the Mediterranean , north @-@ east Africa , Arabia and Pakistan .
A. n. nisosimilis was described by Samuel Tickell in 1833 . It breeds from central and eastern Siberia east to Kamchatka and Japan , and south to northern China . This subspecies is wholly migratory , wintering from Pakistan and India eastwards through South @-@ East Asia and southern China to Korea and Japan ; some even reach Africa . It is very similar to , but slightly larger than , the nominate subspecies .
A. n. melaschistos was described by Allan Octavian Hume in 1869 . It breeds in mountains from Afghanistan through the Himalayas and southern Tibet to western China , and winters in the plains of South Asia . Larger and longer tailed than nisosimilis , it has dark slate @-@ coloured upperparts , and more distinct rufous barring on the underparts .
A. n. wolterstorffi , described by Otto Kleinschmidt in 1900 , is resident in Sardinia and Corsica . It is the smallest of all the races , darker on the upperparts and more barred below than the nominate subspecies .
A. n. granti , described by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1890 , is confined to Madeira and the Canary Islands . It is small and dark .
A. n. punicus , described by Erlanger in 1897 , is resident in north @-@ west Africa , north of the Sahara . It is very similar to nisus , being large and pale .
= = Description = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a small bird of prey with short , broad wings and a long tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees . Females can be up to 25 % larger than males and weigh up to twice as much . Marked size difference in this direction is unusual in higher vertebrates but typical in birds of prey , and most marked in birds of prey which hunt birds .
The adult male is 29 – 34 cm ( 11 – 13 in ) long , with a wingspan of 59 – 64 cm ( 23 – 25 in ) and a mass of 110 – 196 g ( 3 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 9 oz ) . He has slate @-@ grey upperparts ( sometimes tending to bluish ) , with finely red @-@ barred underparts , which can look plain orange from a distance ; his irides are orange @-@ yellow or orange @-@ red . The female is much larger at 35 – 41 cm ( 14 – 16 in ) long , with a wingspan of 67 – 80 cm ( 26 – 31 in ) , and a mass of 185 – 342 g ( 6 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 1 oz ) . She has dark brown or greyish @-@ brown upperparts , and brown @-@ barred underparts , and bright yellow to orange irides . The juvenile is warm brown above , with rusty fringes to the upperparts ; and coarsely barred or spotted brown below , with pale yellow eyes ; its throat has dark streaks and lacks a mesial ( midline ) stripe .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk 's pale underparts and darker upperparts are an example of countershading , which helps to break up the bird 's outline . Countershading is exhibited by birds of prey which hunt birds and other fast @-@ moving animals . The horizontal barring seen on adult Eurasian sparrowhawks is typical of woodland @-@ dwelling predatory birds , while the adult male 's bluish colour is also seen in other bird @-@ eating raptors , including the peregrine falcon , the merlin and other Accipiters .
A study , using stuffed bird models , found that small birds are less likely to approach common cuckoos ( a brood parasite ) which have barred underparts like the Eurasian sparrowhawk . Eurasian reed warblers were found to be more aggressive to cuckoos which looked less hawk @-@ like , meaning that the resemblance to the hawk helps the cuckoo to access the nests of potential hosts .
The Eurasian sparrowhawk 's small bill is used for plucking feathers and pulling prey apart , rather than killing or cutting . Its long legs and toes are an adaptation for catching and eating birds . The outer toe is " fairly long and slender " ; the inner toe and back toe are relatively short and thick . The middle toe is very long and can be used to grasp objects , while a protuberance on the underside of the toe means that the digit can be closed without leaving a gap , which helps with gripping .
The flight is a characteristic " flap @-@ flap @-@ glide " , with the glide creating an undulating pattern . This species is similar in size to the Levant sparrowhawk , but larger than the shikra ( the calls are however different ) ; the male is only slightly larger than the merlin . Because of the overlap in sizes , the female can be confused with the similarly @-@ sized male northern goshawk , but lacks the bulk of that species . Eurasian sparrowhawks are smaller , more slender and have shorter wings , a square @-@ ended tail and fly with faster wingbeats . A confusion species in China is the besra , although A. n. melaschistos is considerably larger .
In Great Britain , Eurasian sparrowhawks living further north are bigger than their more southerly counterparts , with wing length ( the most reliable indicator of body size ) increasing by an average of 0 @.@ 86 mm ( 0 @.@ 034 in ) in males , and 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) in females , for each degree further north .
= = Lifespan and demography = =
The oldest known wild Eurasian sparrowhawk lived more than two decades ; it was found dead in Denmark 20 years and 3 months after having been ringed . The typical lifespan is four years . Data analysis by the British Trust for Ornithology shows that the proportion of juveniles surviving their first year of life is 34 % ; adult survival from one year to the next is 69 % . Birds in their first year of life weigh less than adults , and are especially light in the first two months after reaching independence . There is probably high mortality , especially for young males , during this time . A study in southern Scotland suggested that the greater mortality in young male birds may be due to their smaller size and the smaller size of their prey , which means that they can " last less long between meals . " Their size also means that their range of prey is restricted . It has been estimated that a female Eurasian sparrowhawk of average weight could survive for seven days without feeding – three days longer than a male of average weight .
A study of female Eurasian sparrowhawks found " strong evidence " that their rate of survival increased for the first three years of life , and declined for the last five to six years . Senescence ( ageing ) was the cause of the decline as the birds became older .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A widespread species throughout the temperate and subtropical parts of the Old World , the Eurasian sparrowhawk is resident or breeds in an estimated global range of 23 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km2 ( 9 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and had an estimated population of 1 @.@ 5 million birds in 2009 . Although global population trends have not been analysed , numbers seem to be stable , so it has been classified as being of Least Concern by IUCN . The race granti , with 100 pairs resident on Madeira and 200 pairs on the Canary Islands , is threatened by loss of habitat , egg @-@ collecting and illegal hunting , and is listed on Annex I of the European Commission Birds Directive . It is one of the most common birds of prey in Europe , along with the common kestrel and common buzzard . The Norwegian and Albanian populations are declining and , in many parts of Europe , Eurasian sparrowhawks are still shot . However , this low @-@ level persecution has not affected the populations badly . In the UK , the population increased by 108 % between 1970 – 2005 , but saw a 1 % decline over 1994 – 2006 . In Ireland it is the most common bird of prey , breeding even near the city centre of Dublin , where it frequents parks and large gardens .
This species is prevalent in most woodland types in its range , and also in more open country with scattered trees . Eurasian sparrowhawks prefer to hunt the edges of wooded areas , but migrant birds can be seen in any habitat . The increased proportion of medium @-@ aged stands of trees created by modern forestry techniques have benefited Accipiter nisus , according to a Norwegian study . Unlike its larger relative the northern goshawk , it can be seen in gardens and in urban areas and will even breed in city parks .
Eurasian sparrowhawks from colder regions of northern Europe and Asia migrate south for the winter , some to north Africa ( some as far as equatorial east Africa ) and India ; members of the southern populations are resident or disperse . Juveniles begin their migration earlier than adults and juvenile females move before juvenile males . Analysis of ringing data collected at Heligoland , Germany , found that males move further and more often than females ; of migrating birds ringed at Kaliningrad , Russia , the average distance moved before recovery ( when the ring is read and the bird 's whereabouts reported subsequently ) was 1 @,@ 328 km ( 825 mi ) for males and 927 km ( 576 mi ) for females .
A study of Eurasian sparrowhawks in southern Scotland found that ringed birds which had been raised on " high grade " territories were recovered in greater proportion than birds which came from " low grade " territories . This suggested that the high grade territories produced young which survived better . The recovery rate also declined with increased elevation of the ground . After the post @-@ fledging period , female birds dispersed greater distances than did males .
= = Food , feeding and predation = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk is a major predator of smaller woodland birds , though only 10 % of its hunting attacks are successful . It hunts by surprise attack , using hedges , tree @-@ belts , copses , orchards and other cover near woodland areas ; its choice of habitat is dictated by these requirements . It also makes use of gardens in built @-@ up areas , taking advantage of the prey found there .
It waits , hidden , for birds to come near , then breaks cover and flies out fast and low . A chase may follow , with the hawk even flipping upside @-@ down to grab the victim from below or following it on foot through vegetation . It can " stoop " onto prey from a great height . Ian Newton describes seven modes of hunting used by Eurasian sparrowhawks :
Short @-@ stay @-@ perch @-@ hunting
High soaring and stooping
Contour @-@ hugging in flight
Still @-@ hunting
Low quartering
Hunting by sound
Hunting on foot
Male Eurasian sparrowhawks regularly kill birds weighing up to 40 g ( 1 @.@ 4 oz ) and sometimes up to 120 g ( 4 @.@ 2 oz ) ; females can tackle prey up to 500 g ( 18 oz ) or more . The weight of food consumed by adult birds daily is estimated to be 40 – 50 g ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 oz ) for males and 50 – 70 g ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 oz ) for females . During one year , a pair of Eurasian sparrowhawks could take 2 @,@ 200 house sparrows , 600 common blackbirds or 110 wood pigeons . Species that feed in the open , far from cover , or are conspicuous by their behaviour or coloration , are taken more often by Eurasian sparrowhawks . For example , great tits and house sparrows are vulnerable to attack . Eurasian sparrowhawks may account for more than 50 % of deaths in certain species , but the extent varies from area to area .
Males tend to take tits , finches , sparrows and buntings ; females often take thrushes and starlings . Larger quarry ( such as doves and magpies ) may not die immediately but succumb during feather plucking and eating . More than 120 bird species have been recorded as prey and individual Eurasian sparrowhawks may specialise in certain prey . The birds taken are usually adults or fledglings , though chicks in the nest and carrion are sometimes eaten . Small mammals , including bats , are sometimes caught but insects are eaten only very rarely .
Small birds are killed on impact or when squeezed by the Eurasian sparrowhawk 's foot , especially the two long claws . Victims which struggle are " kneaded " by the hawk , using its talons to squeeze and stab . When dealing with large prey species which peck and flap , the hawk 's long legs help . It stands on top of its prey to pluck and pull it apart . The feathers are plucked and usually the breast muscles are eaten first . The bones are left , but can be broken using the notch in the bill . Like other birds of prey , Eurasian sparrowhawks produce pellets containing indigestible parts of their prey . These range from 25 to 35 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 38 in ) long and 10 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) wide and are round at one end and more narrow and pointed at the other . They are usually composed of small feathers , as the larger ones are plucked and not consumed .
During hunting , this species can fly 2 – 3 km ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 9 mi ) per day . It rises above tree level mostly to display , soar above territory and to make longer journeys . A study in a forested area of Norway found that the mean size of the home ranges was 9 @.@ 2 km2 ( 3 @.@ 6 sq mi ) for males , and 12 @.@ 3 km2 ( 4 @.@ 7 sq mi ) for females , which was larger than studies in Great Britain had found , " probably due to lower land productivity and associated lower densities of prey species in the [ Norwegian study area ] " .
A study looked at the effect on the population of blue tits in an area where a pair of Eurasian sparrowhawks began to breed in 1990 . It found that the annual adult survival rate for the tits in that area dropped from 0 @.@ 485 to 0 @.@ 376 ( the rate in adjacent plots did not change ) . The size of the breeding population was not changed , but there were fewer non @-@ breeding blue tits in the population . In woodland , Eurasian sparrowhawks account for the deaths of a third of all young great tits ; the two alarm calls given by great tits when mobbing a predator , and when fleeing from a nearby hawk , are within the optimum hearing range of both prey and predator ; however , the high @-@ pitched alarm call given when a distant flying Eurasian sparrowhawk is seen " can only be heard well by the tit . " Research carried out in Sussex , England , found that the impact of Eurasian sparrowhawk predation on grey partridges was highest when the partridge density was lowest , while a 10 @-@ year study in Scotland found that Eurasian sparrowhawks did not select the common redshanks they predated according to the waders ' size or condition , probably because of the hawks ' surprise @-@ attack hunting technique .
Another study found that the risk of predation for a bird targeted by a Eurasian sparrowhawk or northern goshawk increased 25 @-@ fold if the prey was infected with the blood parasite Leucocytozoon , and birds with avian malaria were 16 times more likely to be killed .
= = = Predators = = =
Natural predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk include the barn owl , the tawny owl , the northern goshawk , the peregrine falcon , the golden eagle , the eagle owl , the red fox , the stone marten and the pine marten .
= = Breeding = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk breeds in well @-@ grown , extensive areas of woodland , often coniferous or mixed , preferring forest with a structure neither too dense nor too open , to allow a choice of flight paths . The nest can be located in the fork of a tree , often near the trunk and where two or three branches begin , on a horizontal branch in the lower canopy , or near the top of a tall shrub . If available , conifers are preferred . A new nest is built every year , generally close to the nest of the previous year , and sometimes using an old wood pigeon ( A. n. melaschistos frequently uses the old nests of jungle crows ) nest as a base ; the male does most of the work . The structure , made of loose twigs up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long , has an average diameter of 60 cm ( 24 in ) . When the eggs are laid , a lining of fine twigs or bark chippings is added .
During the breeding season , the adult male Eurasian sparrowhawk loses a small amount of weight while feeding his mate before she lays eggs , and also when the young are large and require more food . The weight of the adult female is highest in May , when laying eggs , and lowest in August after the breeding cycle is complete . A study suggested that the number of eggs and subsequent breeding success are dependent on the female maintaining a high weight while the male is feeding her .
Sexual maturity is reached at between 1 – 3 years . Most Eurasian sparrowhawks stay on the same territory for one breeding season , though others keep the same one for up to eight years . A change of mate usually triggers the change in territory . Older birds tend to stay in the same territory ; failed breeding attempts make a move more likely . The birds which kept the same territories had higher nest success , though it did not increase between years ; females which moved experienced more success the year after changing territory .
= = = Eggs = = =
The eggs are pale blue with brown spots and each measure 35 – 46 x 28 – 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 x 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 4 inches ) , and weigh about 22 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 79 oz ) of which 8 % is shell in a healthy egg . Usually a clutch of four or five eggs is laid . The eggs are generally laid in the morning with an interval of 2 – 3 days between each egg . If a clutch is lost , up to two further eggs may be laid that are smaller than the earlier eggs .
= = = Young = = =
The altricial , downy chicks hatch after 33 days of incubation . After hatching , the female cares for and feeds the chicks for the first 8 – 14 days of life , and also during bad weather after that . The male provides food , up to six kills per day in the first week increasing to eight per day in the third and 10 per day in the last week in the nest , by which time the female is also hunting .
By 24 – 28 days after hatching , the young birds start to perch on branches near the nest and take their first flight . They are fed by their parents for a further 28 – 30 days , staying close to the nest while growing and practicing flying . At this stage they are extremely vocal , and their cries to their parents can often be heard a considerable distance away . The young hawks disperse after their parents stop provisioning them . Though they receive the same amount of food , male chicks ( roughly half the size of females ) mature more quickly and seem to be ready to leave the nest sooner . In a study in the Forest of Ae , south @-@ west Scotland , it was found that 21 % of nestlings over two days old died , with the causes of death being starvation , wet weather , predation and desertion by the parents . The parasite Leucocytozoon toddi can be passed from parent to nestling at the nest , possibly because of the number of birds sharing a small space , thus allowing transmission .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Pollutants = = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk population in Europe crashed in the second half of the 20th century . The decline coincided with the introduction of cyclodiene insecticides – aldrin , dieldrin and heptachlor – used as seed dressings in agriculture in 1956 . The chemicals accumulated in the bodies of grain @-@ eating birds and had two effects on top predators like the Eurasian sparrowhawk and peregrine falcon : the shells of eggs they laid were too thin , causing them to break during incubation ; and birds were poisoned by lethal concentrations of the insecticides . Sub @-@ lethal effects of these substances include irritability , convulsions and disorientation . In west Germany , around 80 % of nests before the 1950s produced young , but only 54 % were successful in the 1960s and ' 70s .
In the United Kingdom , for example , the species almost became extinct in East Anglia , where the chemicals were most widely used ; in western and northern parts of the country , where the pesticides were not used , there were no declines . The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds bought its Coombes Valley nature reserve in Staffordshire because it was the only Eurasian sparrowhawk breeding site left in the English Midlands .
In the UK , the use of cyclodienes as seed dressings for autumn @-@ sown cereals was banned in 1975 and the levels of the chemicals present in the bird population began to fall . The population has largely recovered to pre @-@ decline levels , with an increase seen in many areas , for example northern Europe . In Sweden , the population also decreased drastically from the 1950s , but recovered again once organochlorines were banned in the 1970s .
In the UK , the failure rate at the egg stage had decreased from 17 % to 6 % by the year 2000 , and the population had stabilised after reaching a peak in the 1990s . A study of the eggs of Dutch Eurasian sparrowhawks found that contamination with Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene ( DDE ) – a " very persistent compound " produced when DDT breaks down – continued into the 1980s , though a decline in the number of clutches with broken eggs during the 1970s suggested decreasing levels of the chemical .
Body tissue samples from Eurasian sparrowhawks are still analysed as part of the Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme conducted by the UK government 's Joint Nature Conservation Committee . Although the average liver concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) in Eurasian sparrowhawks were lower in birds that died in 2005 compared to those that died in 2004 , there was not a significant or consistent decline in residues between 2000 – 2005 .
= = = Conflict with human interests = = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk 's adaptation for feeding on birds has brought it into conflict with humans ; in the 19th century it was described as " the great enemy of small quadrupeds and birds , and often very destructive to young chicks in poultry @-@ yards in the breeding season " and " very destructive to partridges . " Writing for gamekeepers in 1851 , T.B. Johnson recommended that : " The nest of this bird should be diligently sought ... and destroyed , shooting the parent birds first , if possible . "
It was written in 1870 that " The sparrowhawk is perhaps only the true enemy of the game @-@ preserver ; though at the same time it is probable that if the good and evil it does were justly weighed , the balance would be in favour of the hawk , its favourite quarry being the wood pigeon , which is now increasing to an extent injurious to agriculture . " 18th century parish records for Aldworth , Berkshire , in southern England , show that payments were made for 106 Eurasian sparrowhawks ' heads , at the same time as efforts were being made to control the numbers of sparrows .
The species suffered heavy persecution by 18th century European landowners and gamekeepers , but withstood attempts to eradicate it . For example , on the estate at Sandringham in Norfolk , 1 @,@ 645 ' hawks ' were killed between 1938 and 1950 , with 1 @,@ 115 taken between 1919 – 1926 at Langwell and Sandside in Caithness , Scotland .
The population was able to quickly replace lost birds – there is a high proportion of non @-@ breeding , non @-@ territorial birds able to fill vacant territories . The habitat conserved with gamebirds in mind also suited this species and its prey ; gamekeepers ' more successful efforts to wipe out the northern goshawk and pine marten – predators of the Eurasian sparrowhawk – may have benefited it . The population increased markedly when this pressure was relaxed , for example during the First and Second World Wars .
In the United Kingdom , research into the effect of predators on bird populations has been " a contentious issue , " with " perceived conflict between the interests of nature conservationists and those involved in game shooting . " Declines in the populations of some British songbirds since the 1960s have coincided with considerable changes in agricultural practices and also large increases in the numbers of Eurasian sparrowhawks and European magpies . When the Eurasian sparrowhawk population declined because of organochlorine use , there was no great increase in the populations of songbirds . In a 1949 – 1979 study of 13 passerine species breeding in a 40 – acre ( 16 @-@ hectare ) oakwood at Bookham Commons , Surrey , England , none was present in significantly greater numbers when Eurasian sparrowhawks were absent from the wood .
Many studies , mostly short @-@ term , failed to find an effect on songbird populations caused by predatory birds such as Eurasian sparrowhawks . But analysis of long @-@ term , large @-@ scale national data from the UK 's Common Bird Census demonstrated that the declines in farmland songbird populations since the 1960s are unlikely to have been caused by increased predation by Eurasian sparrowhawks and magpies . The results of the study indicated that patterns of year @-@ to @-@ year songbird population change were the same at different sites , whether the predators were present or not . Another study , which examined the effects of predators – including the Eurasian sparrowhawk and introduced grey squirrel – on UK passerine populations , found that " whilst a small number of associations may suggest significant negative effects between predator and prey species , for the majority of the songbird species examined there is no evidence that increases in common avian predators or grey squirrels are associated with large @-@ scale population declines . "
Racing pigeon owners in Great Britain have said for many years that Eurasian sparrowhawks and peregrine falcons " cause serious and escalating losses " of pigeons and some have called for these birds of prey to be killed or removed from areas surrounding homing pigeon lofts .
In Scotland , a two @-@ year study published in 2004 , and funded by Scottish Natural Heritage and the Scottish Homing Union ( SHU ) , found there was " no evidence that birds of prey cause major losses of racing pigeons at lofts or during races . " It reported that 56 % of racing pigeons were lost each year but that the proportion taken by Eurasian sparrowhawks – " often blamed for major losses " – was less than 1 % , with at least 2 % taken by peregrine falcons . The study was carried out by the Central Science Laboratory ; researchers worked with SHU members who provided data , information on pigeon rings found at peregrine falcon nests and pigeon carcasses .
From January to April 2009 , the Scottish Government conducted a trial translocation of Eurasian sparrowhawks from around racing pigeon lofts in Glasgow , Edinburgh , Kilmarnock , Stirling and Dumfries . The trial , which cost £ 25 @,@ 000 , was supported by the Scottish Homing Union , representing the country 's 3 @,@ 500 pigeon fanciers . The experiment was originally scheduled for early in 2008 but was postponed because it would have impinged on the birds ' breeding season . It was criticised by the government 's own ecological adviser , Dr Ian Bainbridge , the government body Scottish Natural Heritage and organisations including the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals .
The findings , released in January 2010 , showed that only seven Eurasian sparrowhawks had been removed from the area from five pigeon lofts . One hawk returned twice to the area of the loft , while new birds began to visit two other lofts . The report found that “ The quantity and quality of the observational data collected meant that it was impossible to draw any firm conclusions ” and the government stated that “ no further research involving the trapping or translocation of raptors ” would take place , while the SHU maintained that it was " very optimistic that licensed trapping and translocation could at last provide some protection . "
= = = Falconry = = =
The Eurasian sparrowhawk has been used in falconry for centuries and was favoured by Emperor Akbar the Great ( 1542 – 1605 ) of the Mughal Empire . There is a tradition of using migrant Eurasian sparrowhawks to catch common quail in Tunisia and Georgia , where there are 500 registered bazieri ( sparrowhawkers ) and a monument to bazieri in the city of Poti . Eurasian sparrowhawks are also popular in Ireland . At Cap Bon in Tunisia , and in Turkey , thousands are captured each year by falconers and used for hunting migrant common quails . Although they were formerly released at the end of the season , many are now kept because of the scarcity of migrants .
In 17th century England , the Eurasian sparrowhawk was used by priests , reflecting their lowly status ; whereas in the Middle Ages , they were favoured by ladies of noble and royal status because of their small size . The falconer 's name for a male Eurasian sparrowhawk is a " musket " ; this is derived from the Latin word musca , meaning ' a fly ' , via the Old French word moschet . The famous list in the mediaeval Book of Saint Albans refers to the female sparrowhawk as the " priest 's bird " and the musket as " the clerk 's bird " .
" An austringer [ falconer ] undertaking to train a sparrowhawk should be in doubt that he is taking on one of the most difficult hawks available . " A female Eurasian sparrowhawk is considered a bad choice for a novice and the male is very difficult and demanding , even for an experienced handler . They have been described as " hysterical little hawks " but are also praised as courageous and providing " sport of the highest quality . " Philip Glasier describes Eurasian sparrowhawks as " in many ways superior to hunting with a larger short @-@ wing [ hawk ] " and " extremely hard to tame . " They are best suited for small quarry such as common starlings and common blackbirds but are also capable of taking common teal , Eurasian magpies , pheasants and partridges . A 19th century author remarked that this species was " the best of all hawks for landrails " , now known as corn crakes . In 1735 , the Sportsman 's Dictionary noted that " ... she will serve in the winter as well as in the summer , and will fly at all kind of game more than the falcon . If a winter sparrowhawk prove good , she will kill the pye , the chough , the jay , woodcock , thrush , black @-@ bird , fieldfare , and divers [ e ] other birds of the like nature . "
= = = In culture = = =
In Teutonic mythology , the sparrowhawk , known as krahui or krahug , is a sacred bird in Old Bohemian songs and lives in a grove of the gods . Holy sparrowhawks perch on the branches of an oak tree that grows from the grave of a murdered man , and " publish the foul deed . " In some areas of England , it was believed that the common cuckoo turned into a Eurasian sparrowhawk in winter . The name Spearhafoc ( later Sparhawk , Sparrowhawk ) was in use as a personal name in England before the Norman conquest in 1066 .
In 1695 , John Aubrey wrote in his Miscellanies :
'Not long before the Death of King Charles II a sparrow @-@ hawk escaped from the Perch , and pitched on one of the Iron Crowns of the White Tower , and entangling its string in the Crown , hung by the heels and died . T 'was considered very ominous , and so it proved.'
The musket , or musquet , originally a kind of crossbow bolt , and later a small cannon , was named after the male Eurasian sparrowhawk because of its size . The British Gloster Aircraft Company named one of their Mars series craft the Sparrowhawk .
In William Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor , Mrs Ford greets Robin , Falstaff 's page , with the words " How now , my eyas musket " , eyas musket meaning a lively young man ( an eyas is a hawk nestling ) . The British Poet Laureate Ted Hughes wrote a poem entitled Sparrow Hawk which refers to this species . Hermann Hesse mentioned this bird in his book Demian and the bird is also referred to in One Thousand and One Nights by Richard Francis Burton :
Good sooth my bones , wheneas they hear thy name
Quail as birds quailed when Nisus o 'er them flew
The Eurasian sparrowhawk was written about by Alfred , Lord Tennyson :
A sparhawk proud did hold in wicked jail
Music 's sweet chorister , the Nightingale
To whom with sighs she said : ' O set me free ,
And in my song I 'll praise no bird but thee.'
The Hawk replied : ' I will not lose my diet
To let a thousand such enjoy their quiet.'
= Luis Muñoz Rivera =
Luis Muñoz Rivera ( July 17 , 1859 – November 15 , 1916 ) was a Puerto Rican poet , journalist and politician . He was a major figure in the struggle for political autonomy of Puerto Rico .
In 1887 , Muñoz Rivera became part of the leadership of a newly formed Autonomist Party . In 1889 , he successfully ran a campaign for the position of delegate in the district of Caguas . Subsequently , Muñoz Rivera was a member of a group organized by the party to discuss proposals of autonomy with Práxedes Mateo Sagasta , who would grant Puerto Rico an autonomous government following his election . He served as Chief of the Cabinet of this government .
On August 13 , 1898 , the Treaty of Paris transferred possession of Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States and a military government was established . In 1899 , Muñoz Rivera resigned his position within the cabinet and remained inactive in politics for some time . In 1909 , he was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico and participated in the creation of the Jones @-@ Shafroth Act , proposing amendments before its final approval . Shortly after , Muñoz Rivera contracted an infection and traveled to Puerto Rico , where he died on November 15 , 1916 . His son , Luis Muñoz Marín would subsequently become involved in politics , becoming the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico .
= = Early life = =
Luis Muñoz Rivera was born in Barranquitas , Puerto Rico , to Luis Muñoz Barrios and Monserrate Rivera Vazquez . He was the couple 's first child and a banquet was offered in celebration . He came from a middle @-@ class family and was not part of Puerto Rico 's elite . His father came from one of the first patriarchal lines in Puerto Rico 's politics .
( His Paternal Grandfather ) decided to make his career in the army and received several recognitions after participating against Simón Bolívar during the Admirable Campaign , and followed his commanding officer Miguel de la Torre to Puerto Rico . He settled in a 400 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) farm in Cidra , Puerto Rico , married María Escolástica Barrios and fathered twelve children . He became the town 's first mayor from 1818 to 1820 and again in 1840 to 1850 .
During Muñoz Rivera 's childhood , Barranquitas was a small rural town . The family 's house was moderately large for the time ; it was built with wood and its roof was made with zinc . When he was four , his mother home @-@ schooled him with books from a private library owned by his father . By the age of ten , Muñoz Rivera completed the education offered in the town 's school , and finished first in his class . He was educated in Spanish and French , and took music classes with Jorge Colombani . His father hired private tutors to continue his instruction . Muñoz Rivera was a serious student with a strong interest in Miguel de Cervantes ' works , in particular Don Quixote . Other authors that he studied include Fernando de Herrera , Tirso de Molina , Luis de Góngora , and Lope de Vega .
When Muñoz Rivera was twelve years old , his mother fell ill and died . By this time , the family had grown to include nine more siblings , whom he taught . By the age of fourteen , Muñoz Rivera was managing legal documents , working with the local church clergy , and helping in his father 's store . There were no institutions of higher learning on the island at that time , and most families sent their children to Cuba ( University of la Habana , founded in 1728 ) , Spain or North America to complete their university education . Muñoz Rivera wanted to travel to Spain and study law , but his father wanted him to take care of the family 's business .
= = Political career = =
= = = Early involvement in politics and poetry = = =
Early in his life , Muñoz Rivera began writing poetry . However , he did not publish any of his work until he was 23 years old . In 1882 , Mario Braschi , an editor working for a newspaper named El Pueblo , accepted to publish a poem titled ¡ Adelante ! . Braschi advised Muñoz Rivera to continue writing , urging him to concentrate on science and politics , instead of authoring love poems . Muñoz Rivera then began writing about Puerto Rico 's political status , promoting the necessity of an autonomous government .
Even though his father was a member of the Conservative Party , Muñoz Rivera decided to follow his uncle , Vicente Muñoz Barrios ideals and in 1883 joined the Liberal Party . While working within the organization , Muñoz Rivera established a store along Quintín Negrón Sanjurjo , which had limited success . He gained the confidence of the Liberal Party and was named president of Barranquitas ' committee and became a member of the municipal council . In 1885 , Muñoz Rivera ran for a position in the Juana Diaz district 's representation in the Provincial Assembly , but he was not elected . That same year , he began publishing his writings in newspapers and magazines , including El Clamor del Pueblo , La Revista de Puerto Rico and El Pueblo . Other poems published by Muñoz Rivera were : Retamas , Tropicales , Horas de Fiebre , El paso del déspota , Minha terra , Cuba rebelde , A cualquier compatriota , Las campanas , Turba multa , Alea jacta est , Judas , El general , Abismos , Patriota , Himno , Parias and Poemas Liricos .
= = = Establishing an autonomous government = = =
In January 1887 , members of the Liberal Party organized a convention in Coamo where they discussed the reorganization of the party . In this activity he met Román Baldorioty de Castro , who became his mentor , regarding Muñoz Rivera as a " disciple " . A new party called the Autonomist Party was created following this reunion , which also included José Celso Barbosa and José de Diego . The organization 's ideology pursued the creation of a separate government for Puerto Rico , while keeping some relationship with Spain .
The Autonomist Party 's base grew rapidly , in part due to Muñoz Rivera 's writings and speeches directed toward the jíbaro population . The Conservative Party considered this a threat and closed the newspapers where he published his work , sending part of their staff to jail in Fort San Felipe del Morro . After Francisco Cepeda Taborcias , editor of La Revista de Puerto Rico 's was jailed , the position was offered to Muñoz Rivera , who accepted it . After being released from prison , Cepeda criticized Baldorioty de Castro 's policies . Cepeda was elected secretary of the party and Baldorioty de Castro was named honorary president . This action angered Muñoz Rivera , who challenged him to a duel . Cepeda originally accepted the challenge , but later declined the same once the preparations were underway , losing his position within the party 's hierarchy .
As 1887 progressed , the conflicts between liberals and conservatives worsened , with governor Palacio ordering the arrest of more than a hundred liberals . The political tension increased and the year became known as " The Terrible Year " . Palavio also prohibited any person from leaving Puerto Rico with the intention of preventing any actions from Spain . However , the liberals were able to send Juan Arrillaga Roque to Madrid , where he made the situation public . Upon learning of this , Alfonso XII replaced Palacio with Juan Contreras Martinez . In 1889 , Muñoz Rivera was nominated as the Liberal Party 's delegate for the district of Juana Diaz . However , his father was nominated for the same position by the Conservative Party and he moved his nomination to the district of Caguas out of respect . He won the election , which was admitted with the conservatives ' opposition .
On July 1 , 1890 , he founded the party 's newspaper , La Democracía , in Ponce , Puerto Rico . The publication was mostly directed towards politics , but it also included poetry and stories published by Puerto Rican artists . The newspaper brought immediate controversy , which eventually led to Muñoz Rivera 's arrest . Protest were organized throughout Puerto Rico and he was released after his father paid 15 @,@ 000 pesetas as bond . Muñoz Rivera sold his half of the store , in order to raise funds for the publication 's establishment .
In 1893 , he married Amalia Marín in a ceremony that took place in Ponce Cathedral . Later that year , he traveled to Spain to learn about its political system . There he realized that Práxedes Mateo Sagasta , president of the Fusion Party , was the better option to help in this task . While in Spain , Muñoz Rivera received notice that his father had died , which heavily affected him . Upon returning to Puerto Rico , he published an article about his father in La Democracia . He subsequently noticed that his travel had caused controversy within the Autonomist Party , which became divided between followers of Barbosa and Muñoz Rivera , with the two factions becoming known as Muñocistas and Barbosistas .
Barbosa 's group opposed allying with Sagasta , claiming that he was a monarchist while they were supporting the establishment of a republic . Meanwhile , Muñoz Rivera participated in the writing of the Plan de Ponce which proposed administrative autonomy for the island . After several debates , the Autonomist Party agreed to send four men to reunite with Libera Fusion Party in the organization 's behalf , including Muñoz Rivera . Sagasta proposed that if he won the premiership of Spain , Puerto Rico would receive a Chapter of Autonomy which would give it the same degree of sovereignty that the Spanish provinces had . Upon learning of this , most of the Barbosistas resigned , forming a new institution named the Orthodox Autonomist Party . Sagasta became Spain 's prime minister following the power vacuum that occurred after the assassination of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo , and in December 1897 he granted the promised autonomous government . Muñoz Rivera changed the party 's name to Liberal Party of Puerto Rico and served as Secretary of Grace , Justice and Government and Chief of the Cabinet for the independent government of Puerto Rico .
= = = American invasion and military government = = =
On February 18 , 1898 , Muñoz Rivera 's son , Luis Muñoz Marín , was born . By this time the family had moved to Old San Juan , where Luis was born . On February 16 , 1898 , Barbosa rushed to Muñoz Rivera 's home . He had just learned that the American vessel USS Maine had sunk off the coast of Cuba , which would most likely spark a war between Spain and the United States . Barbosa expected the American government to grant Puerto Rico autonomy if they gained control . However , Muñoz Rivera was saddened by the news , knowing that the United States was planning to build a canal in Panama , and that Puerto Rico would be a strategic location to protect the structure . Barbosa insisted that this would not happen , continuing his support towards a military operation .
On May 12 , 1898 , the United States Navy bombarded San Juan , initiating the Puerto Rican Campaign . Initially , the Liberal Party supported the Spanish government , although several members agreed with Barbosa . Muñoz Rivera took possession of Chief of the Cabinet 's position for the Autonomous Government on July 21 . Four days later , on July 25 , the United States Army landed in Guánica led by Nelson A. Miles , beginning the land offensive . On August 13 , the signing of the Treaty of Paris was made public , bringing a halt to all military offensives in Puerto Rico . As part of this amnesty , Spain ceded Cuba and Puerto Rico , converting the archipelago into a possession of the United States under military governorship . The Barbosistas welcomed the American government , but Muñoz Rivera expected them to keep Puerto Rico as a possession . He refused to cooperate with the military government and returned to Barranquitas , where he wrote a poem titled Sísifo , comparing Puerto Rico 's political situation to Sisyphus ' punishment . He subsequently returned to San Juan , accepting a request made by John R. Brooke to continue in his office within the new cabinet . Muñoz Rivera assisted in establishing an insular police . Brooke was replaced by Guy Vernon Henry as military governor . Following this change , both men began having violent discussions , with each one trying to push their positions . Muñoz Rivera would vocally debate several of Brooke 's decisions , with both communicating via an interpreter .
On February 4 , 1899 , he resigned from the position of president of the Council of Secretaries . Puerto Rico was experiencing a serious economic crisis , many problems arising from the population 's inability to communicate with the Americans . Universal election suffrage was canceled , reducing the voting population by more than 85 % . Henry eventually dissolved the Cabinet , removing the final remnants of recognition of the autonomous government established under Spanish rule . Muñoz Rivera opposed the military structure and promoted autonomy . Later that year , he founded the newspaper El Territorio , which voiced the concerns of landowners that were being affected by a blockade imposed by the United States . On April 12 , 1900 , William McKinley signed the Foraker Act , which proposed the end of the military government and the establishment of a civil government . A Supreme Court was created with five members , all of which were American functionaries appointed by the United States President . The position of Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico was also enacted . The Barbosistas considered this law an advance , eventually creating a new institution named the Republican Party of Puerto Rico . Muñoz Rivera published heavy criticism towards them in El Diario , which angered the members of the new organization . Rumors of an assassination attempt became widespread , and several of his friends visited his house armed . A discussion between both sides concluded with gunfire , leaving no one injured , some of the perpetrators escaped . Muñoz Rivera and those present were arrested and charged with " armed assault " , but the charge was dropped when he established that he acted in self @-@ defense . The Foraker act failed to prevent the monopolization of land , and allowed four American corporations to control of most of Puerto Rico 's agricultural terrains .
= = Last years and death = =
The United States eventually designed a program to " Americanize " Puerto Rico . One day while working for an article in El Diario , a friend of Muñoz Rivera brought a newspaper informing that all education in Puerto Rican public schools would be taught in English . He was surprised by the announcement , expressing that the plan would fail due to lack of teachers with knowledge in the language . Muñoz Rivera began publishing articles directed towards the jíbaro population , in which he promoted self @-@ government for Puerto Rico .
In 1901 , a group of statehood supporters broke into the El Diario 's building , vandalizing most of the equipment . Following this incident , the family moved to Caguas where he reopened La Democracia . After receiving further threats from the statehood movements , Muñoz Rivera decided to move to New York City , not before leaving the paper 's editing in charge of one of his followers . There he founded the bilingual newspaper Puerto Rico Herald , in which he heavily criticized the United States ' stance on Puerto Rico . During the following years , the family constantly traveled between both locations . Muñoz Rivera , together with Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón , Antonio R. Barceló and José de Diego , founded the Union of Puerto Rico party , which won the election in 1904 . Following the party 's victory , he was selected as a member the House of Delegates .
In 1910 , Muñoz Rivera ran for Resident Commissioner in the United States House of Representatives representing the Union of Puerto Rico party , and served from 1911 to 1916 . After spending nearly a year perfecting his English , Muñoz Rivera began forming friendships with some congressmen . Among these were Henry L. Stimpson and Felix Frankfurter . In 1915 Muñoz Rivera proposed granting Puerto Rico greater autonomy without requesting independence from the United States , and equal rights without becoming a state . His proposal was greeted by opposition from many members of his party including José de Diego . Still in the end , his party agreed on his proposal .
On March 2 , 1917 , the Jones @-@ Shafroth Act was signed , granting United States citizenship to Puerto Ricans and creating a bicameral Legislative Assembly . Still , he was not pleased with the Jones Act since the judicial and executive branches were still controlled by the United States . On March 16 , 1916 , he gave a speech in the house floor that seemed to argue in favor and against American citizenship . He declared that if the earth were to swallow the island , Puerto Ricans would prefer American citizenship to any citizenship in the world . But as long as the island existed , the residents preferred Puerto Rican citizenship .
Shortly afterwards , he became ill and returned to Puerto Rico to recuperate . In late 1916 , Eduardo Georgetti , a friend of the family , summoned his wife and son to Puerto Rico and informed them that he was suffering from an infection that had begun in the galbladder , before expanding throughout his body . Luis Muñoz Rivera died on November 15 , 1916 in the town of San Juan , before the Jones Act was enacted into law . When he died , the town 's bells were tolled and La Borinqueña was sung by those present . The funeral procession began five days after his death It traveled throughout Puerto Rico and was attended by thousands of people along the way . Some Jíbaros traveled between municipalities to attend more than one part of the activity . At his request , Muñoz ' remains were buried at San Antonio De Paduas Cemetery in Barranquitas , Puerto Rico .
= = Legacy and honors = =
Muñoz Rivera 's son , Luis Muñoz Marín , also became an important figure in politics , taking part in the foundation of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico . He was elected in 1948 as the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico in 1948 .
In 1923 , the municipality of Ponce erected a statue in honor of Munoz Rivera and renamed the northern plaza of the city 's main square Plaza Muñoz Rivera for him . * Sixteen Puerto Rican schools were named for Muñoz .
= Hugh Culverhouse =
Hugh Franklin Culverhouse , Sr. ( February 20 , 1919 – August 26 , 1994 ) was the longtime owner of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was a successful tax lawyer , and his real estate investments made him one of the nation 's wealthiest men . His work brought him into contact with National Football League team owners , and his failed purchase of the Los Angeles Rams placed him in line to become the owner of the fledgling Buccaneer franchise . He owned the team from its inception until his death .
Culverhouse became one of the most influential team owners in the NFL , and was credited with modernizing the league , even while his teams were rarely competitive on the field . He oversaw the league 's course of direction through two player strikes , and the modern league 's financial stability is in great part due to his leadership . He held influence for over a decade , before stepping back due to criticism of what other owners saw as his overly @-@ secretive ways .
Culverhouse was initially lauded for bringing professional football to the Tampa Bay area , but eventually came to be blamed for the team 's struggles . His refusal to pay Doug Williams at a salary level comparable to that of the league 's top quarterbacks insulted fans , and was seen as the beginning of the team 's decline during the 1980s . It further led to the belief that Culverhouse was unconcerned with fielding a winning team , as long as it was financially profitable . The Buccaneers ' NFL @-@ record streak of fourteen consecutive losing seasons cemented this perception , although Culverhouse did make several notable attempts to improve the team .
Culverhouse was diagnosed with cancer in 1992 , and died in 1994 . His apparent attempt to exclude his wife from his inheritance led to posthumous revelations of extramarital affairs . Ensuing lawsuits caused an ownership crisis that almost required the team to relocate to another city , before the Glazer family stepped forward with a purchase offer .
= = Early life = =
A native of Birmingham , Alabama , Culverhouse attended the University of Alabama , where he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity ( Psi chapter ) . On the University of Alabama boxing team , he competed together with future governor George Wallace , an experience to which he attributed his confidence in later life . He graduated in 1941 . After serving in the Army Air Corps in World War II , he earned a law degree from his alma mater in 1947 . He immediately took a job as an assistant state attorney general , serving there for two years . After serving in the Korean War , he became legal counsel for the Internal Revenue Service , where he prosecuted many of the cases resulting from the organized crime investigations of Senator Estes Kefauver . He resigned from the IRS in 1962 after a decade of service , and moved to Jacksonville , Florida , where he entered private practice , specializing in tax law . Although he was considered to be one of the nation 's top tax lawyers , one whose cases were sometimes cited by the Supreme Court of the United States , his fortune was built on real estate investments . Listed by Forbes magazine as one of the 250 wealthiest people in the United States , he eventually had investments in 37 companies and was worth over $ 380 million at his death . He served as a personal representative of President Gerald Ford , bearing the title of U.S. Ambassador , at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria . The University of Alabama 's Culverhouse College of Commerce and Business Administration is named for him .
Culverhouse 's investments included several banks , Provincetown @-@ Boston Airlines , the Palmer Ranch real estate development near Sarasota , Florida , and movie productions including A Chorus Line and The Emerald Forest . He was criticized over a planned extension of Interstate 75 into South Florida , as its route went directly past land owned by numerous powerful investors , including Culverhouse , Governor Bob Graham , State Attorney General Jim Smith , and the Arvida Corporation .
= = Ownership of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers = =
In 1972 , Culverhouse had a handshake deal to buy the Los Angeles Rams from owner Dan Reeves for $ 17 million , only to learn that Reeves later sold the team to Robert Irsay for $ 19 million . When Irsay then traded teams with Baltimore Colts owner Carroll Rosenbloom , Culverhouse sued , claiming that the others had conspired to prevent his purchase of the team . An out @-@ of @-@ court settlement guaranteed Rosenbloom 's aid in getting an expansion franchise for Culverhouse . The opportunity came two years later , when the league expanded to Seattle and Tampa . Culverhouse was offered the Seattle expansion franchise , but declined it due to his residence in Jacksonville . Philadelphia construction company owner Thomas McCloskey was originally awarded the Tampa franchise , but soon found the business arrangement to be different than what he had expected , and backed out of the deal . Culverhouse was then awarded the franchise by the Art Rooney @-@ chaired NFL Expansion Committee , ahead of Fort Lauderdale furniture chain ( and future Boston Celtics ) owner Harry T. Mangurian , Jr . The name " Tampa Bay Buccaneers " was chosen as a nod to the team representing not only the city of Tampa , but the entire Florida Suncoast area ; and to the pirates who once inhabited the area .
Culverhouse quickly became one of the most influential NFL owners ; he served as a member of the Player Club Relations Committee that handled player grievances , and of the NFL Congressional Committee . He was a member of the Executive Committee that handled negotiations during the 1982 NFL strike , an experience that earned him great praise from NFL negotiator Jack Donlan . Donlan praised Culverhouse 's logic , analytical , and problem @-@ solving skills , and his effectiveness " at getting his way " . Culverhouse was credited with having a big hand in the owners ' course of direction during the strike , and was responsible for recruiting Donlan as negotiator . He repeated the role during the 1987 players ' strike , after which NFLPA President Gene Upshaw described him as " formidable " , and said that " at times , the whole league seemed to flow from this one guy " . He was chairman of the NFL Finance Committee and the Management Council Executive Committee . His efforts were instrumental in bringing Super Bowl XVIII to Tampa , despite a lack of adequate hotel space in the city . Culverhouse was also a pioneer in using computers to handle team finances and scouting reports . He was a member of the four @-@ man committee that stripped ownership of the New England Patriots from the Sullivan family when their debt became too great . Patriots founder Billy Sullivan later accused Culverhouse of blocking his effort to propose a stock sale that would have eased the debt . Culverhouse distanced himself from the NFL power core in later years , stung by other owners ' criticisms of the Management Council . NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue credited Culverhouse for building much of the strength and unity of the modern NFL .
= = = General criticism = = =
Culverhouse was criticized by other team owners as the team prepared for its debut season , who said that his involvement in day @-@ to @-@ day team operations was reminiscent of the owners of the expansion Falcons and Saints , teams which had yet to qualify for the playoffs after a decade of play . Buccaneer employees were described as living in an " atmosphere of fear " , especially after the firings during the 1977 offseason of executives who had been involved with unpopular decisions that Culverhouse had supported at the time . In one case , marketing director Bill Marcum was fired due to public backlash over the team 's $ 12 ticket prices for an exhibition in Jacksonville , even though Culverhouse had set the ticket prices , and Marcum had opposed them .
= = = Conflict of interest accusations = = =
Culverhouse was named one of the executors of Rosenbloom 's estate , and after Rosenbloom 's death , Culverhouse continued a business relationship with his widow , Georgia . Georgia 's marriage to composer Dominic Frontiere took place at Culverhouse 's home , with Culverhouse himself , a notary public , performing the ceremony . The relationship , in which Culverhouse served as an advisor to the Los Angeles Rams while maintaining ownership of the Buccaneers , was criticized as a conflict of interest . The Los Angeles Coliseum Council accused the Rams of seeking Culverhouse 's counsel when several players held out during the 1980 preseason ; the Buccaneers won a 10 – 9 victory over that same unprepared Rams team early that season . Culverhouse also oversaw a reorganization of the Rams ' front office ; the relationship earned him the nickname of " Godfather " of the Rams . Culverhouse and Frontiere were two of the owners named in a lawsuit brought by Al Davis , who alleged that their campaign contributions to Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia were an attempt to buy his support in helping to prevent Davis ' planned move of the Oakland Raiders to Los Angeles .
Culverhouse 's relationships with other NFL owners were occasionally , as in his relationship with the Rams , alleged to constitute conflicts of interest . His $ 3 million loan to help Philadelphia Eagles owner Leonard Tose with his gambling debts was one example , as it violated the NFL constitution and bylaws . On other occasions , he was criticized for his overly @-@ secretive ways as NFL Finance Committee Chairman , as other league owners found it difficult to obtain information on how league finances were being spent . In particular , owners were upset about not being informed about money given to NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle in a 5 @-@ year extension of his contract . The extension was awarded to him by the Finance Committee as a reward for negotiation of the league television contract in 1982 , even though Rozelle had five years remaining on his current contract .
= = = Loss of popular support = = =
Culverhouse was described as late as 1982 as a rare owner who was popular with players , coaches , and fans . He was commended for allowing his staff to handle football operations without interference , and for having the patience to allow John McKay to follow through with his building plan despite the franchise 's 0 – 26 start . This changed after events surrounding the 1982 players ' strike . A report issued by the National Football League Players Association prior to the start of negotiations revealed that the Buccaneers had the fifth @-@ highest gross income of all NFL teams , while their average salary was only the 21st @-@ highest . This directly contradicted statements made by Culverhouse in 1980 , in which he told players that they were on one of the three highest @-@ paid teams . The NFLPA figures showed that the Buccaneers were actually the third lowest @-@ paying team , based on total salaries as a percentage of gross income . Culverhouse was then accused of trying to divide the players during the strike , when some of the team 's assistant coaches contacted players to ask whether they would be willing to return to the team should training facilities be reopened .
Culverhouse was considered to have drawn a closer friendship than an owner should to his coach , having guaranteed John McKay employment for life . When the team began to lose , area fans blamed McKay , and felt that there was no hope for any change . He was , however , credited with recognizing the need for a change in leadership , as he went outside of the organization in seeking a replacement when McKay retired . He then upset fans by broadcasting advertisements thanking fans for their support , while simultaneously raising ticket prices . \
However , while Culverhouse 's relationship with Tampa had been problematic for years , the Bo Jackson 1986 draft debacle permanently ruined the owner 's reputation in his home city . Jackson , the Heisman Trophy @-@ winning running back from Auburn , was the consensus # 1 player headed into the draft . But Jackson disliked Culverhouse from their first meeting , later writing in his book " Bo Knows Bo " that the Bucs ' owner had a miserable record and also that after Jackson 's agents requested Tampa Bay not pick him , the Bucs refused all trade offers ( including what Jackson described as a generous offer from Al Davis ) and later told Jackson they would cut their contract offer in half if he didn 't accept a below @-@ market deal . Jackson announced he would play major league baseball instead , signing a contract with the Kansas City Royals and leaving the Bucs as the NFL 's laughingstock .
= = Doug Williams = =
Culverhouse 's treatment of quarterback Doug Williams caused resentment not only on the team , but in the entire Bay Area community . Williams led the Buccaneers to the playoffs in three of his five years with the team , and was considered to be their single most important player . However , he was only paid $ 120 @,@ 000 a year , which ranked 42nd among NFL quarterbacks , was less than what some teams ' third @-@ string quarterbacks made , and was lower than the salary of Terdell Middleton , a running back who had two total carries in his two years in Tampa Bay . After the 1982 season , Williams asked for a $ 600 @,@ 000 contract that would pay him among the league 's top quarterbacks . Culverhouse refused to budge from his initial offer of $ 400 @,@ 000 , which he said would make Williams one of the five highest @-@ paid quarterbacks in the league . Williams ' agent disputed this , saying that Culverhouse 's offer was substantially less than what several other quarterbacks made . With negotiations at a standstill , the Buccaneers traded the following season 's first @-@ round draft pick to the Cincinnati Bengals in exchange for Jack Thompson , a backup quarterback who had been unable to unseat Ken Anderson , as an insurance policy should Williams prove impossible to sign , or have trouble recovering from offseason knee surgery . Williams interpreted this as a sign that the team did not want him , and instead signed a contract with the Oklahoma Outlaws of the United States Football League .
His hard line with Williams created the perception that Culverhouse was more concerned with profits than with putting a winning team on the field . It aroused suspicions that Culverhouse 's main concern was the Buccaneers ' salary structure , and that this was related to the frequency with which the team traded away its first @-@ round draft choices . Williams ' comments that he would have been treated differently had he been white resonated with the Bay Area African American community , who saw the Buccaneers ' ensuing on @-@ field woes as retribution , boycotted Buccaneer games by the thousands , and commented that Culverhouse throws parties that cost more than what Williams was asking for . The Buccaneers missed Williams ' confidence and ability to make big plays at key times , and lost their first nine games in 1983 , when they had been expected to contend for the playoffs . They finished 2 – 14 , the first of what would be 14 consecutive losing seasons — the longest since the merger between the NFL and the All @-@ America Football Conference in 1950 — and would not have another winning season in Culverhouse 's lifetime . They would lose 10 or more games in 13 of those years , including 12 in a row from 1983 to 1994 — an NFL record . The timing of the situation coincided with the ascendance of the Tampa Bay Bandits , who led the USFL in attendance with a wide @-@ open , crowd @-@ pleasing offense led by local hero Steve Spurrier , while the Buccaneers were losing games with a conservative offense that fans found boring . Attendance having dropped sharply , Culverhouse then further alienated fans by berating them , accusing them of apathy .
= = = Attendance and television availability = = =
The long losing streak further penalized fans , as the NFL blackout policy usually prevented poorly attended Buccaneer home games from being shown on local television . No Buccaneer home games were televised on local stations for several years following November 29 , 1982 , including a game on January 1 , 1983 that sold out , but not in time to lift the blackout . In total , the Buccaneers had a streak of 32 consecutive blackouts before a November 9 , 1986 game against the then @-@ reigning Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears sold out in time to allow for local television . At one point , the CBS television network , which had the rights to NFC television broadcasts , correctly anticipated poor seasons from all of the Southern ( Buccaneers , Falcons , and Saints ) teams , and reorganized their viewing markets in such a way that Buccaneers games were not broadcast anywhere in the state of Florida . Culverhouse went so far as to dictate that Miami Dolphins games also be blacked out , sometimes even when Buccaneer games were sellouts . He further inflamed fans in 1989 by proposing to move some of the team 's games to Orlando , due to poor attendance . Several local radio stations responded with billboards saying " Hugh gotta go ! " , and with a picture of a screw next to Culverhouse 's name . The Tampa Chamber of Commerce countered with a billboard thanking Culverhouse for bringing Super Bowl XXV to Tampa .
= = = Profitability = = =
Although enjoyment factored into Culverhouse 's purchase of the Buccaneers , it was first and foremost a business decision which he expected to be profitable . He admitted to being known for his frugality , due to moves such as wearing outdated clothing , and having the One Buc Place walls painted white to avoid having to spend money on projection screens . This was not initially a problem for the franchise , even though the budget airplane that Culverhouse chartered for the team almost crashed after their very first game ; original coach John McKay reported in 1978 that Culverhouse had never blocked any deals , even those involving a great amount of money . Later , however , the team let go or traded away many of its players who were highly paid and / or demanded more money , including Dave Pear , Doug Williams , Ricky Reynolds , Reggie Cobb , Mark Carrier , and Jeris White . First @-@ round draft choices were frequently traded for players who were not considered to be of equal value , as when the team traded for often @-@ injured defensive end Wally Chambers without requiring that he first pass a physical examination . Frustration over being beaten by players he had pleaded with Culverhouse to sign contributed to the resignation of McKay . He also fired well @-@ regarded personnel director Ken Herock , when Herock demanded to be paid in line with his value around the league .
Despite the losing and the poor attendance , the Buccaneers were one of the NFL 's most profitable teams for most of Culverhouse 's ownership . In 1989 , only the Chicago Bears had higher profits than the 5 – 11 Buccaneers , who profited $ 6 @.@ 3 million with the league 's second @-@ lowest payroll , while the Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers lost $ 16 @.@ 2 million . The team attributed their low salaries to the players ' youth , stating that it was the coaches who had made the decision to use younger players , who drew lower salaries than veterans . This contributed to the perception that Culverhouse was not committed to fielding a quality team , although the rookie contracts he gave to Vinny Testaverde and Paul Gruber were so high as to upset other team owners , while he made Ray Perkins one of the five highest @-@ paid NFL head coaches . He also offered Bill Parcells $ 6 @.@ 5 million to coach the team , offered draft pick Bo Jackson a five @-@ year , $ 7 million contract that was at the time the highest in NFL history for a rookie , paid Keith McCants an NFL @-@ record $ 2 @.@ 5 million signing bonus , and paid Steve Young $ 6 million in salary , plus another $ 1 million for the buyout of his USFL contract .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Culverhouse was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1992 . After a successful operation to remove a tumor and part of his lung , he began chemotherapy a few months later , when a routine exam revealed a recurrence of the cancer . Despite his health problems , he remained a hard worker until the end , and even went hunting in Tanzania only four days after having part of his lung removed . An experimental procedure failed to stop the cancer , and he died on August 25 , 1994 , at the Medical Center of Louisiana at New Orleans . He was survived by wife Joy , daughter Gay , and son Hugh , Jr .
= = = Sale of the Buccaneers = = =
Several investors stepped forward with offers to buy the Buccaneers after Culverhouse 's death , including Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos , New York Yankees owner ( and Tampa resident ) George Steinbrenner , and Massachusetts developer Socrates Babacas . In response to the ensuing publicity , the trust administering Culverhouse 's estate then issued a statement that the team was not for sale . They reversed their position two months later , as a poor early @-@ season record led to declining fan support and revenues . The decision to sell the franchise came on the same day that Joy filed a $ 25 million claim against Hugh 's estate . Hugh had paid $ 16 million for the franchise , which was now valued at $ 142 million . With Barnett Bank filing claims for $ 20 @.@ 8 million against the Culverhouse estate , the trustees came very close to accepting Angelos ' $ 200 million offer , which would have involved relocating the team to Baltimore , Maryland . Fearful of losing the team , civic leaders presented a proposal guaranteeing ticket sales of at least 55 @,@ 000 for all home games for the next two years . The team was eventually sold to Palm Beach , Florida businessman Malcolm Glazer for $ 192 million , at that moment the largest price ever paid for a professional sports franchise .
= = = Lawsuits over the Culverhouse estate = = =
Before Culverhouse 's death , his wife , Joy , had signed a post @-@ nuptial agreement to surrender her half of the estate . This was done on the advice of lawyer Fred F. Cone , Jr . , who would later become one of the three trustees handling the Culverhouse estate . Joy charged that the trustees were mishandling the estate , and not paying her share . She filed a malpractice suit against Cone for advising her to give up her marital rights , and a second suit asking for accounting of the estate and removal of the trustees . She said that Hugh and Cone advised her to sign the agreement for tax reasons , and falsely claimed that Culverhouse was on the brink of bankruptcy . She charged that the three trustees , Cone , Jack Donlan , and Stephen F. Story , paid themselves $ 4 @.@ 35 million in bonuses for arranging the Buccaneers ' sale , sums far in excess of what Culverhouse himself had specified , and that they paid Story a sum that was comparable to the salary of a Fortune 500 executive for managing the estate and included a 10 @-@ year golden parachute clause . She also alleged that the value of Culverhouse 's estate had been misrepresented to her at the time that she signed the agreement . The lawsuits made the details of the Culverhouse estate public . When it was discovered that the trust had paid hush money to a mistress of Hugh 's , Joy 's lawyer alleged that Hugh had planned to divorce Joy , and that the trust was created to deprive her of her rightful assets . Court depositions revealed three extramarital affairs , including Susan Brinkley , wife of broadcaster David Brinkley . The suits were eventually settled , with each of the three trustees being paid $ 3 million to remove themselves from the handling of his estate , and Joy being allowed to appoint her own trustees . Joy then said of Hugh , " I 'd like to pull him out of the grave and shoot him with every bullet I could get " .
= = Philanthropy = =
In contrast with his frugal ways in business , Culverhouse frequently contributed to the community . Some of his notable donations include :
A $ 4 @.@ 6 million gift to the University of South Florida , which established the Culverhouse Chair in Education at the University of South Florida Sarasota @-@ Manatee and was the largest donation in school history ;
$ 600 @,@ 000 to the University of Florida , for the establishment of the Hugh F. Culverhouse Eminent Scholars Chair in Federal Taxation ;
$ 500 @,@ 000 to the Stetson University College of Law , for a visiting @-@ professor chair .
$ 10 million to the University of Alabama , the largest gift in school history
3 acres ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) of vacant Tarpon Springs , Florida land to Habitat for Humanity
The first $ 1 million pledged for the construction of the Straz Center for the Performing Arts .
Culverhouse was also a member of the board of trustees who administered the annual Florida Prize award for outstanding work in the visual or performing arts .
= Palm Island , Queensland =
Palm Island is an Aboriginal community located on Great Palm Island , also called by the Aboriginal name " Bwgcolman " , an island on the Great Barrier Reef in North Queensland , Australia The settlement is also known by a variety of other names including " the Mission " , Palm Island Settlement or Palm Community .
Palm Island is often termed a classic " tropical paradise " given its natural endowments , but it has had a troubled history since the European settlement of Australia . For much of the twentieth century it was used by the Queensland Government as a settlement for Aboriginals considered guilty of such infractions as being " disruptive " , being pregnant to a white man or being born with " mixed blood " .
The community created by this history has been beset by many problems and has often been the discussion point of political and social commentators . Of significant sociological concern is a lack of jobs and housing . Since its creation as an Aboriginal reserve , Palm Island has been considered synonymous with Indigenous disadvantage and violence . At the same time it has been at the forefront of political activism which has sought to improve the conditions and treatment of Australia 's Indigenous peoples as well as redress injustices visited on them broadly as a race and on Palm Island specifically .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ settlement = = =
In Manbarra folklore the Palm Island group were formed in the Dreamtime from the broken up fragments of an ancestral spirit , Rainbow Serpent .
The island was named by explorer James Cook in 1770 as he sailed up the eastern coast of Australia on his first voyage . It is estimated that the population of the island at the time of Cook 's visit was about 200 Manbarra people . Cook sent some of his men to Palm Island and ' they returned on board having met with nothing worth observing.'
From the 1850s locals were recruitment targets to leave the island to be involved with bêche @-@ de @-@ mer and pearling enterprises with Europeans and Japanese .
By the end of the 19th century the population had been reduced to about 50 . In 1909 the Chief Protector of Aborigines visited the Island , apparently to check on the activities of Japanese pearling crews in the area , and reported the existence of a small camp of Aborigines .
In 1916 Queensland 's Chief Protector of Aborigines found Palm Island to be ' the ideal place for a delightful holiday ' and that its remoteness also made it suitable for use as a penitentiary ' for ' individuals we desire to punish ' .
= = = ' Penal settlement ' 1920s – 60s = = =
In 1914 the Government established an Aboriginal settlement on the Hull River near Mission Beach on the Australian mainland . On 10 March 1918 , the structures were destroyed by a cyclone and were never rebuilt . Subsequently , the settlement relocated to Palm Island with the new population referred to as the Bwgcolman people . In the first two decades of its establishment the population of Indigenous inmates increased from 200 to 1 @,@ 630 . People from at least 57 different language speaking regions throughout Queensland were relocated to Palm .
By the early 1920s Palm Island had become the largest of the Government Aboriginal settlements . Administrators found its location attractive as Aboriginal people could be isolated , but Palm Island quickly gained a reputation amongst Aborigines as a penal settlement . They were removed from across Queensland as punishment ; being " disruptive " , falling pregnant to a white man or being born with " mixed blood " were included in infringements which could lead to the penalty of being sent to Palm Island . New arrivals came after being sentenced by a court , or released from prison , or were sent by administrators of other missions wishing to weed out their more ill @-@ mannered or disruptive Aboriginals . These removals to the Palm Island Mission continued until the late 1960s .
On arrival , children were separated from their parents and then segregated by gender . Aborigines were forbidden to speak their language and from going into " white " zones . Every day activity was highly controlled by administrators including nightly curfews and the vetting of mail .
In the 1930s a local doctor highlighted malnutrition on the island , and demanded that the Government triple rations for the islanders and that children be provided with fruit juice , but the request was denied .
A bell tower was built to dictate the running of the mission . It would ring each morning at eight ; a signal for everyone to line up for parade in the mission square . Those who failed to line up had their food allocation cut . At nine each evening the bell would ring again signalling the shutting down of the island 's electricity . The bell tower still stands in the local square to this day , a relic of Palm 's history . It was recorded at the time that there was almost military @-@ like discipline in the segregation between white and black , and that inmates " were treated as rather dull retarded children " .
In 1927 a hospital was built at nearby Fantome Island ; Aborigines were sent there mainly for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases . In 1936 Fantome Island became a medical clearing station where people sent to Palm Island were examined and treated if necessary . A leprosarium was established on Fantome in 1939 . After World War II the hospital was closed , and by 1965 only the leprosarium remained on Fantome , it was administered by a Roman Catholic nursing order until 1973 when the inhabitants were moved to Palm Island .
The administrators had complete and unaccountable control over the lives of residents , punishments included the shaving of the girls ' heads . On a surprise inspection of the Palm Island Prison during an official visit in the late 1960s , Senator Jim Keeffe and academic Henry Reynolds discovered two 12- to 13 ‑ year ‑ old schoolgirls incarcerated in the settlement 's prison by the senior administrator on the island ( the superintendent ) , because " they swore at the teacher " .
The following letter was written to a new bride by the ' Protector ' ;
" Dear Lucy , Your letter gave me quite a shock , fancy you wanting to draw four pounds to buy a brooch , ring , bangle , work basket , tea set , etc , etc . I am quite sure Mrs. Henry would expend the money carefully for you , but I must tell you that no Aborigine can draw 4 / 5 of their wages unless they are sick and in hospital and require the money to buy comforts ... However , as it is Christmas I will let you have 1 / 5 / – out of your banking account to buy lollies with . "
= = = ' Path to self governance ' 1986 – present = = =
On 26 October 1986 ownership of the island was transferred to a newly formed Palm Island Community Council under a Deed of Grant in Trust from the Queensland government .
Self @-@ appointed " president " of Palm Island , Jeremy Geia , symbolically declared independence from Australia in 2001 . The " Peoples Democratic Republic of Palm Island " was an expression of grievances against the Australian and Queensland Governments for neglect of Palm Islanders . There were concerns at the time that this activism would interfere in a major Government investigation into sexual abuse by making victims too uncomfortable to come to the mainland for examination .
In 2001 The Palm Island State Emergency Services Cadet Group was formed .
The Palm Island Community Council became the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council in 2004 under the Queensland Local Government ( Community Government Areas ) Act . Like the other Aboriginal Shire Councils that were created , this Act gave the Council full status as a Local Government on a par with other Councils in Queensland .
= = Notable events = =
= = = 1930 Palm Island Tragedy = = =
In 1930 , the Superintendent of the settlement shot and wounded two people , and set fire to several buildings , killing his two children . Later in the day , the Superintendent was shot dead . An official inquiry by the Queensland Attorney General followed . Those involved in the shooting of the Superintendent , including the Deputy Superintendent and the Palm Island Medical Officer , were charged with murder . During the trial the Crown Prosecutor was directed by the trial judge to drop the charges , stating that the shooting was justified .
= = = World War 2 use as a Catalina airbase = = =
In July 1943 the US Navy built a Naval Air Station at Palm Island , with facilities to operate and overhaul Catalina flying boats and patrol boats . The air station was built at Wallaby point , an isolated area of Palm Island , overlooking a large stretch of sheltered water in Challenger Bay , which was ideal for flying boat operations . The station was built by two officers and 122 enlisted men of Company C of the 55th Naval Construction Battalion ( Seabee ) that arrived 6 July 1943 , and a similar detachment that left Brisbane later with 1 @,@ 500 tons of construction material .
A 1 @,@ 000 man camp was constructed at the point . Concrete flying boat ramps to the ocean were built with a tarmac parking area for up to 12 flying boats . Moorings for 18 flying boats were provided in Challenger Bay , and 3 nose hangars were also built . Coral aggregate from coral reefs at low tide was used to manufacture concrete .
A series of fuel tanks were constructed to hold 60 @,@ 000 barrels of aviation fuel . Steel rail lines were installed to launch the PBY Catalinas back into the water .
By September 1943 the majority of the facilities were finished , and large numbers of operational and maintenance personnel began to arrive to commission the station . The Palm Island US Naval Air Station was fully operational from 25 October 1943 , and could repair an average of four aircraft per day . The last personnel of the 55th Seabees left Palm Island on 8 November 1943 .
US Navy Patrol Squadron 101 , Patrol Wing 10 , with 8 PBY Catalinas as briefly stationed at Palm Island in December 1943 , before relocating to Perth .
US Navy Patrol Squadron VP @-@ 11 arrived at the station in late December 1943 where they were taken off combat duties . The squadron comprised 13 PBY @-@ 5 Catalinas , 46 officers and 99 enlisted men . They carried out training and routine flights between Port Moresby , Samarai and Brisbane . They were assigned to Fleet Air Wing 17 while at Palm Island , and left in February 1944 .
The Naval Air Station closed in May 1944 . On 18 June 1944 one hundred seventy seven men and four officers of Company B , 91st Naval Construction Battalion ( Seabee ) , arrived from Milne Bay to dismantle station 's buildings and facilities , removeing and crating over 5 @,@ 000 tons of materials and equipment and loading it aboard ship before departing 31 August 1944 and their return to Brisbane .
The remains of the steel rails and submerged wrecks of a number of Catalinas can still be seen today . Live ammunition is occasionally found by locals .
= = = 1957 Strike = = =
All Islanders were required to work 30 hours each week , and up until the 1960s no wages were paid for this work . The catalyst for the strike was the attempted deportation of Indigenous inmate Albie Geia who committed the offence of disobeying the European overseer . The strike continued for five days and was broken with dawn raids to remove the families involved by boat to the mainland .
Seven families were banished from the Palm Island in 1957 for taking part in a strike organised to protest against the Dickensian working conditions imposed by the Queensland Government under the reserve system . Athlete Cathy Freeman 's mother , Cecilia Barber , and the family of strike ringleader Frederick William Doolan including Billy Doolan Jnr. were among those banished from the island .
In a 2007 commemorative ceremony the Queensland Government apologised to the surviving wives of two of the strikers for the actions of the Government in the 1950s .
= = = Wilson 's criminological analysis = = =
In 1985 then Associate Professor of Sociology Paul Wilson published a criminological analysis of criminal statistics averaged over the period of January 1977 to May 1984 .
Wilson considered the Palm Island rates to be a gross underestimate , as the figures provided by the Legal Aid Office only counted cases that went to court , whereas the Queensland rates , provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics , were based on reported incidents .
The Palm Island figures demonstrated that 86 % of violence involved the offender exhibiting heavy drinking patterns and in most cases the victim was also drinking . 38 % of incidents involved people who were married or in a de facto relationship , and , of those , 90 % of the offenders were male .
Wilson attributed the extreme crime rates to historical , social , economic , housing and educational factors , and an " alcohol culture " that perceived not drinking to be antisocial . Further contributing factors were the employment circumstances of Palm Island and the destruction of society and traditional culture and structures . He cited research rejecting an Aboriginal propensity for violence and contrasted the Aurukun community where no homicides had been recorded in the period from the 1950s .
At the time alcohol was limited to beer sold in the canteen between the hours of 5 pm and 9 pm . Spirits were banned , however there was a flourishing sly @-@ grog trade .
= = = Kukamunburra remains returned = = =
A burial site and headstone is located in the " Mission " area of Palm Island . It tells the story of a young Palm Island man of the 19th Century called Kukamunburra who was renamed " Tambo " by a circus agent for the " Barnum , Bailey and Hutchinson 's Greatest show on earth " . He was toured along with eight other Murris , three of whom were from Hinchinbrook Island and five from Palm .
In 1884 Kukamunburra died at 21 years old of pneumonia in Cleveland , United States of America . The rest of the circus group carried on to the European leg of the tour ; by the end of 1885 only three of the Murris were still alive .
Kukamunburra 's body was embalmed ; 109 years later , in 1993 , the body was discovered in a local funeral parlour . His remains were returned to his homeland and buried on Palm Island in February 1994 .
= = = Palm Island Vision Plan = = =
In December 1997 Queensland Health and the Palm Island Council initiated the Palm Island Public Mental Health Project aimed at overcoming serious social problems , particularly the suicide rate .
This Project led to the May 1998 community development of a planning document , Palm Island Vision Plan . The planning document contained a series of visions and objectives as well as the nominated action group responsible for actioning each of them .
Objectives included strategies to address a broad range of issues such as ; significantly ' Aboriginalising ' the local hospital within ten years , establishing a whole @-@ of @-@ government forum , economic development strategy and a program to combat youth suicide .
The Queensland Health initiative gained momentum and support throughout 1998 and 1999 implementing a consultative process and it was met with optimism from a cross section of the community . Unfortunately the project did not gain full support from other Departments and had objectives and timeframes which were in retrospect seen as unrealistically ambitious . The project failed to secure funding for training for the community ‘ facilitators ’ and key people were forced to withdraw . The project became unsustainable by the end of 1999 due to ad hoc funding and high demand on human resources .
A subsequent Federal ( Dillon ) report alleged that Queensland Health employees appeared to question the program 's worth and began to undermine it . In response to a perception of this undermining , community leaders reaffirmed their commitment to the Vision Plan and requested the Department to instruct their Palm Island employees to ‘ cease denigrating it ’ in November 1999 . By February 2000 Queensland Health withdrew from the project .
The Dillon Report acknowledged that both the community and Queensland Health had invested a considerable amount into this project to provide developmental support to residents . However it observed that the project was overly ambitious and the strain this placed on staff and resources meant that it was not likely to succeed . Particularly where the projects objectives came into conflict with government bureaucracy which presented conflicts for Queensland Health .
= = = Compensation by Queensland Government for underpaid wages = = =
In 1999 the Queensland Government apologised and gave $ 7 @,@ 000 compensation each to former Indigenous Palm Islander employees in recompense for underpaid wages between 1975 and 1986 . The payment was ordered by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission in a case first brought to the Commission by seven Palm Islanders in 1986 .
= = = Guinness Book of Records controversy = = =
The 1999 edition of the Guinness Book of Records brought international attention to Palm Island when it named the island the most violent place on earth outside a combat zone . To support this claim it stated statistics such as a murder rate 15 times higher than that of the entire state of Queensland , a life expectancy of 40 years , the highest rate of youth suicide per capita in the world , and a total of 40 suicide fatalities over a period of only five years .
The Australian newspaper hypothesised that the Guinness Book of Records statement was based on an article in a London newspaper . The article from The Sunday Times stated that Palm Island had one of the highest crime rates in the world and that " boys ride bareback on horses through the near @-@ derelict civic centre as infants ambush passing cars with slingshots . " It referred to violence statistics and stated that " the white overseers " left the island in 1985 removing most of the island 's assets and resources , only allowing a pub to remain . The Sunday Times claimed that up to 30 people live in each house , without sufficient drinking water .
The Guinness Book of Records figures were strongly disputed at the time by the Queensland Government , the Police Commissioner and the Palm Island Community Council . However , it was conceded by the Queensland Aboriginal Policy Minister , Judy Spence , that Palm Island " can be violent at times " , particularly for women and children , but that the situation was being improved .
= = = Legal action in relation to pearl farming = = =
Zen Pearls Pty Ltd and Indian Pacific Pearls Pty Ltd ( both controlled by Michael Crimp ) established pearl farms in 1998 with the permission of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( which controls the sea waters around the islands ) , despite the opposition of , at least some , of the people of Palm Island . On 24 September 1998 the Manbarra elders passed a resolution opposing the farms on the basis of ;
" the historical and cultural significance of the Juno Bay site for both the Manbarra and Bwgcolman Peoples , the sense of trespass on traditional ownership rights , concerns that the cultural connection to the area would slip away and a strong feeling that the provision of a small number of employment opportunities offered by the pearling operations would not adequately compensate the damage to cultural values . "
Subsequently the Park Authority refused to extend the pearl farming permits and Crimp took action before the Administrative Appeals Tribunal to have this decision reversed . On 15 March 2004 the Tribunal agreed that the permits should be terminated but allowed the existing pearling operations to continue to 1 December 2005 . This decision was substantially upheld by the Federal Court on 21 October 2004 .
= = = 2004 death in custody controversy and riot = = =
Australian Aboriginal Palm Island resident , Mulrunji ( known as Cameron Doomadgee while alive ) , aged 36 , died in November 2004 in a police cell on Palm Island , one hour after being picked up for allegedly causing a public nuisance . The family of the deceased were informed by the Coroner that the death was the result of " an intra @-@ abdominal haemorrhage caused by a ruptured liver and portal vein " .
A week after the death the results of the autopsy report were read to a public meeting by then Palm Island Council Chairwoman Erykah Kyle . A succession of angry young Aboriginal men subsequently spoke to the crowd and encouraged immediate action be taken against the police . Mulrunji 's death was repeatedly branded " cold @-@ blooded murder " , and a riot erupted . The local courthouse , police station and police barracks were burned down and 18 local police and their families were forced to withdraw and barricade themselves in the hospital . Later the same day approximately 80 police from Townsville and Cairns were flown to Palm to restore order .
In April 2005 , in response to the riot , Premier Beattie established the Palm Island Select Committee to investigate issues leading to the riot and other problems . Their report was tabled on 25 August 2005 , detailing 65 recommendations which seek to reduce violence and overcrowding , and improve standards of education and health . In achieving these objectives , issues such as drug and alcohol abuse and unemployment would also be addressed .
In late September 2006 , coroner Christine Clements found that Doomadgee was killed as a result of punches by the Senior Sergeant arresting officer . Despite the finding of the coroner , Leanne Clare , the Queensland Director of Public Prosecutions ( DPP ) , announced on 14 December 2006 that no charges would be laid . After media and public pressure , the Queensland Attorney @-@ General appointed former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales , Sir Laurence Street to review the decision . The Street Review resulted in the overturning of the DPP 's decision , with a finding that there was sufficient evidence to prosecute for manslaughter . A high profile trial in the Townsville Supreme Court ensued . In June 2007 the jury found the Senior Sergeant not guilty of manslaughter and assault charges . On 24 October 2008 , a jury found Lex Wotton , a two @-@ time councillor on the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council , guilty of inciting the 2004 riot that resulted in the destruction of the island 's police station , the courthouse , and an officer 's residence . Wotton then was sentenced to seven years in prison , reduced to six years for time already served .
= = Governance = =
Local government on the island is provided by the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council , created under the Local Government ( Community Government Areas ) Act ( 2004 ) . Previously , Palm Island was a community council without the same powers as other Queensland Shire Councils . It was constituted under the authority of the Queensland Community Services ( Aborigines ) Act 1984 as the Palm Island Aboriginal Council and had a Deed of Grant in Trust ( DOGIT ) for ten islands in the Palm Island Group .
The Current civic Cabinet consists of the Mayor , Deputy Mayor and three Councilors :
Mayor : Alfred Lacey ( Administration & Finance , Alcohol Management , Youth Affairs , Health , Government Coordination & Community Engagement )
Deputy Mayor : Raymond Sibley ( Education , Land , Sea & Environment , Housing )
CEO : Ross Norman
Councilors ( undivided council without divisions ) :
Ruth Gorringe ( Commerce & Economic Development , Education , Employment & Training , Health )
Zina Prior ( Commerce & Economic Development , Sports & Recreation , Land , Sea & Environment , Housing )
Mick Thaiday ( Community Justice , Cultural Heritage Events & Planning , Emergency Services , Planning & Infrastructure )
The structure of the Aboriginal Shire Council ( or Community Council as it was previously ) has been criticised for the following reasons :
Comparatively broad responsibility : it holds responsibility for policy portfolios which go far beyond what is expected of other Local Government Authorities , such as being the trustee of the DOGIT land , the provision of housing infrastructure , previously the running of the canteen and currently the running of the general store , law and justice , health , maintenance of culture and language , etc . The Council is designed under the model of a mainstream Local Government Authority which structurally does not provide the latitude to address those functions which are not normally expected of mainstream Councils .
Culturally inappropriate decision making : The Organisation is not designed to deal with cultural issues or complex social problems ; the normal Indigenous decision @-@ making processes and protocols such as consultation and input from family groupings are not structurally accommodated .
Unrealistic local expectations : It is of concern that even greater expectations are put on the Community Council by their own constituents . The Council is seen to have responsibility for all the community 's needs and issues , ignoring the legislative limitations of the Council , the complexity of issues impacting on the community , the impact of past and present governments ' policies and the skill level of respective Councillors . This leads to Palm Island Councillors having far higher expectations put on them than mainstream Councillors and deflects responsibility away from Government Agencies , which could lead to Councillors considering that their role was a do ' what @-@ ever ' was required to meet the diverse needs of residents .
Red tape : The Council is overburdened with accountability and reporting requirements which detract from the role of consulting with constituents over their needs and aspirations and strategies to address them .
Final transition to full Shire Council status was completed in January 2007 . The Shire 's core business is the provision of housing . It recently conducted an audit of its houses and the people living in them ; the audit found that 120 new homes were needed , however the Council primarily relies on income from rent and Government subsidies and can only afford to build one or two new houses a year . The Council has jurisdiction over the islands of the Palm Island Group other than Orpheus and Pelorus Islands .
Palm Island falls in the federal Division of Herbert and the Electoral district of Townsville . Peter Lindsay ( Liberal Party of Australia ) is the Federal Member and Mike Reynolds ( Australian Labor Party ) is the State Member .
Peter Lindsay has claimed that Palm Island is a hopelessly dysfunctional community and that either the Island economy / landholdings should be mainstreamed or the Indigenous population should be relocated to the mainland . The Palm Island Council and Mike Reynolds reacted with outrage calling the idea racist and lacking cultural competency , the Queensland Government has ruled out forced relocation .
= = Economy = =
There is no freehold land title on Palm Island , with property owned by either the Local or State Government . More than 90 % of the adult population is unemployed . There is no industry on the island despite rich natural resources such as crayfish worth $ 150 each and enormous tourism potential .
Carpentaria Land Council chief executive Brad Foster in 2004 summarised their economic standing thus ; " This island has 4000 residents , and the services applicable to a community with 500 people . That has to change and businesses have to be able to invest here , make profits , employ and train locals – get part of the real world . "
Cost of living is relatively very high on Palm Island due to the remoteness of island living and the general lack of private enterprise . At the island store bread costs approximately $ 4 @.@ 20 a loaf , about twice the average in Australia . Goods in general , particularly essential food items , cost considerably more than similar products in mainstream Queensland , sometimes two to three times higher . The cost of living issue is exacerbated by economic loss to alcohol , drug dependence and gambling , and the fact that crops and livestock are not cultivated locally on the island .
Around the island there are failed or abandoned ventures , the relics of which are still there ; a piggery , chicken farm , disused stockyards , market garden and a joinery works .
A presently abandoned oyster farm is an example of one of the failed ventures on Palm Island . The natural environment of Palm Island and adjacent Halifax Bay is ideal for the aquaculture of oysters , shrimp , prawns and mackerel . Over a five @-@ year period in the 1970s Applied Ecology Pty Ltd ( an organisation designed to assist Aboriginal communities to develop sustainable industries , funded by the Government ) established an oyster lease on Palm Island . At one point the lease had $ 600 @,@ 000 worth of oysters . Unfortunately due to alleged poor management and lack of interest among the community the oyster lease fell into disrepair . The farm is purported to have cost $ 20 million .
Research by the Centre for Tropical Urban and Regional Planning at James Cook University has concluded that Palm Island has most of the resources it needs to be largely self @-@ sufficient through housing , agriculture and tourism . However Barry Moyle the Chief Executive Officer of the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council and former Mayor of Johnstone Shire Council suggests that the tourism potential of the island is hindered by the negative reputation that Palm Island is considered to have . Moyle asserts that once potential tourists get past that negative image " they will find really nice and beautiful people , with a rich culture , living on this untouched tropical gem of North Queensland " . Further , according to Moyle , " it could be considered a big ask that people will get past the perception that the people are all no @-@ hoper alcoholics and perpetrators of domestic violence , which is considered to be the general reputation that Palm Islanders have in broader Australia . Locals say that there are bad eggs , but that is the same in all communities . "
= = = Land title = = =
Native Title claims do not apply to most residents as they are not the original inhabitants of the land , the general community ( Bwgcolman people ) do have a strong historical connection to the land , most having been born there . Having historical ( as opposed to traditional ) rights recognised is a legally grey area . Free hold title does not apply either ; most land is controlled by the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council . The land is held by the Council for the benefit of the community in trust , through a " Deed of Grant in Trust " ( DOGIT ) . This in practice means that , for example , a third party would not be able to lease and develop land on Palm Island without the permission of the community and even then leases are limited to 30 years .
A basic three bedroom house costs approximately $ 350 @,@ 000 to $ 400 @,@ 000 to build on Palm Island ( not including sewerage , power , phone and water , and the cost of the land ) . Federal Minister Mal Brough has stated that building prices on Palm ( or in indigenous communities in general ) are over inflated and that it could be done for half the cost . All homes are on crown land and are owned by the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council and are rented at a Government @-@ subsidised rate of $ 44 to $ 60 a week to residents . There are 320 rental houses under this arrangement .
Most businesses are owned by the Council and land title restrictions hinder private investment ; approval to build a house or start a business can take up to three years .
There is widespread frustration with the land title system . Privatising home ownership and the creation of a market economy with long term leases is seen by some commentators as the best option to move forward on Palm . This proposal is described as giving Indigenous people " skin in the game " and empowerment . In the period 1999 to 2007 35 houses were replaced due to damage . Noel Pearson of the Cape York Institute for Policy and Leadership argues that housing degradation in these communities has more to do with overcrowding and poor construction than it does with poor tenancy . However he adds that Aboriginal people naturally take much better care of property that they have constructed or paid for themselves , than they do that which has been handed to them ' on a plate ' and which they have had little personal engagement in . The push for privatisation of title was led by the Australian Government ( through Mal Brough , Indigenous Affairs Minister ) , Noel Pearson , and some families on the island ( the community is very divided on this issue ) . The proposal had partial ( or cautious ) support from the then Federal Australian Labor Party Opposition .
However other Islanders are suspicious of these moves as an opportunity for the more powerful families to gain more power through land ownership or even worse a way of taking land off the Palm Islanders , who in desperation may sell to the highest bidding developer even if that bid significantly undervalues the land in question . Professor Mick Dodson , director of the Centre for Indigenous Studies at the ANU , argues that the people on Palm Island do not have the financial capacity to compete in the housing market on a commercial basis : He asserts that the only solution to the problem of overcrowding lies in increasing the level of public housing , there are not the jobs to build capacity among locals to become home owners .
There is an alternative option under the push for privatising landholdings which addresses fears of the land being lost from the community : a closed market system where caveats restricting ownership to members of the community are placed on 99 @-@ year leases . This would mean that land could be bought and sold but only between Palm Islanders . It is unclear whether this arrangement would allow for mortgages as the banks who give the loans are outside the community and would require security for their loan that they can legally collect .
Traditional ownership of the Manbarra people complicates debate about Palm Island land title . There is no registered Native Title claim and only seven traditional owners still live on the island , however there could be a valid claim . Professor Dodson argues that the historical international experience is that once communal title is extinguished then the indigenous people lose the land permanently . Minister Brough argues that 100 @-@ year leases will not extinguish Native Title over the land .
The Queensland Government , which has constitutional responsibility for land tenure , holds the position that this issue is extremely complex and that it will not be bullied by the Commonwealth . The former state Minister for Indigenous Affairs , Warren Pitt , in 2007 said that all parties have matured since Native Title was introduced and can recognise that while the issues are complex , the betterment of Aboriginal people can be realised .
= = Law and order = =
Palm Island has an extreme level of theft , domestic violence , sexual assaults against children and abject drunkenness . This behaviour is attributed locally to boredom , aimlessness , lack of education , absence of role models and a complete loss of self @-@ worth . Another important factor is bitter family divisions which rule the social fabric of the island and a complex web of historical disputes between those families , some going back decades . Criminologist Dr Paul Wilson found Palm Island to have one of the highest rates of violent crime in the world . He suggested that the problems could be tied to repression of the past and colonial practices . In the December 2004 to December 2005 period there were 76 admissions to the hospital for assault involving residents , 26 times the standard Queensland rate .
These figures do not necessarily reflect the war @-@ like violence that is commonly associated with Palm Island . St Michael 's Catholic School Principal , Lil Mirtl , has stated that people visiting or living on the Island just need to take sensible precautions such as not walking alone at night , similar to precautions that people should exercise in most places .
The most successful program implemented to reduce the high levels of crime is the Palm Island Community Justice Group . The Justice Group has existed since 1992 ; it is a committee of elders on the island who , it is said , have far more influence over young offenders on the island than the police or courts . The Justice group has a statutory role within the judicial system in administering justice on the island . The group is funded by the Queensland Government to administer the program , created in response to the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody , with the aim of keeping indigenous children on Palm out of the criminal justice system . Under the program , the Palm Island community is encouraged to devise their own systems for dealing with offenders . In the three years after the Community Justice Group was established , Palm Island juveniles appearing before magistrates courts fell by a third . Police and the courts often refer offenders to the Community Justice Group .
" These older ones have the wisdom and knowledge , and they can sit around the table and talk , and bring feuding parties together . .. When they come before us they can 't bluff us , because it 's black on black . " Peena Geia , Chairwoman of the Community Justice Group , 2001
In December 2001 , the Community Justice Group assisted a five @-@ day investigation by a team of Queensland police and Department of Families officers . The investigation discreetly collected information from islanders about suspected child sexual abuse in the community , resulting in a number of arrests . The investigation was accompanied by a series of allegations suggesting that almost 100 % of girls between 13 and 16 years old had contracted sexually transmitted diseases . It was also alleged that girls as young as 12 had been trading sex for cigarettes and alcohol and that children as young as five were being molested .
There are various other local programs which have assisted with lowering the crime rate of Palm Island : The Men 's Group , coordinated by former Mayor Robert Blackley , runs a prison cell visitors program , a support service , and a children 's night patrol . In 2000 , the Palm Island Council used a $ 40 @,@ 000 state government grant to establish a community @-@ run re @-@ orientation program for youths to help reduce youth crime and suicide , by relocating wayward youths to a new youth and cultural camp where they would be taught their culture , language and art on neighbouring Fantome Island , a former leprosarium . The Coolgaree nippers club is the first indigenous club in Surf Lifesaving Queensland ; Coolgaree is affiliated to Arcadian surf lifesaving club in the first year of the nippers club operating ( 1999 ) juvenile crime rates on Palm Island dropped from 186 offences to 99 .
Tony Fitzgerald QC investigated alcohol abuse in indigenous communities and was shocked by the extent of the statewide problem . He recommended to the Queensland government that unless things improved dramatically within a period of three years , that alcohol should be banned in consultation with the communities . Like other community councils ( in 2001 ) , the Palm Island Community Council relied on revenue generated by alcohol sales at the hotel ; the investigation report recommended this perceived conflict of interest end .
The Queensland Department of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Policy commissioned a further report in 2005 and , as a result of its recommendations , the islands in the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council became the 19th Queensland community to become a restricted area for possession of alcohol from 19 June 2006 . These restrictions include a limit of one carton of beer disembarking from the ferry service . The alternative source of alcohol is the Palm Island Hotel / canteen , for either on @-@ site consumption or on a retail basis . Alcohol sales from the canteen are again restricted to one carton per person , or per vehicle .
= = Demographics = =
At the 2006 census Palm Island had 1 @,@ 984 residents , 93 @.@ 4 % of whom are of indigenous origin . However , there are various conflicting estimates of the population size ; 3 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 500 residents is a figure which has been regularly quoted by local , state and federal politicians . There is controversy over the common practice of referring to Palm Island as the largest Indigenous community in Australia , with census figures from 2001 and 2006 showing the Yarrabah community as slightly larger .
The indigenous population generally identify with either the Bwgcolman ( historical connection with Palm Island ) or Manbarra ( traditional connection ) people . Compared with other parts of Australia , the Palm Island community is young with 35 @.@ 6 % under 15 and only 6 @.@ 4 % over 55 . Only 5 @.@ 1 % of the population describe themselves as being non @-@ religious compared with 18 @.@ 7 % of Australians , 42 @.@ 6 % are Catholic ( 25 @.@ 8 % Australia wide ) , 23 @.@ 2 % Anglican and 11 @.@ 2 % being other Protestant .
The community , consisting of approximately 42 mainland and Torres Strait Islander clan or family groups , suffers from chronic alcohol , drug and domestic abuse , has an unemployment rate of 90 % and an average life expectancy of 50 years , thirty less than the Australian average .
The 2006 census was conducted on 8 August ; unlike mainstream Australia , Palm Island figures were not be based on forms filled out by each household on census evening . Instead Palm Island was singled out for the population to be verbally interviewed individually over a ten @-@ day period due to past controversy about the accuracy of census details for Palm Island . Between ten and fifteen Indigenous census interviewers took the households ' details from one adult from each house , interviews took between an hour and an hour and a half each and were conducted during business hours .
= = Culture and sport = =
Many residents consider that the introduction of Western culture and the subsequent Mission policies of prohibiting the expression of traditional cultural has seriously eroded the cultural base of Palm Island . Many of the contemporary issues of substance abuse , law and order problems and the high suicide rate have been attributed in part to this absence of culture .
Amongst sporting activities on Palm Island boxing features prominently ( both men 's and women 's ) in 2006 11 young Palm Islanders represented Queensland at national boxing championships for the first time . The Barracudas are the local rugby league team , with Vern Daisy as a notable ex @-@ player . In June 2005 the inaugural 3 on 3 Basketball competition was held , attracting over 300 locals .
Many of the sporting activities are actively supported by or managed through the Queensland Police Citizens Youth Welfare Association facility ; the Palm Island Community and Youth Centre ( PICYC ) . The Centre was opened by the then Premier Peter Beattie in February 2005 over strong community objections due to animosity towards the Queensland Police following the November 2004 death in custody and the Police response to the subsequent riot . Having moved on from a dispute between the State Government and the Palm Island Council over who should run the facility , the situation has become very positive and cooperative , the Centre is used for its intended purpose of youth and community engagement through sport and education . Adults and youth use the facility heavily , including a gym for boxing training , facilities for ; women 's aerobics , ballroom dancing , Indoor Volleyball , 5 on 5 Indoor Soccer , Old @-@ time Dancing , and a mix of conventional and traditional games .
The PICYC , home to the Palm Island Police Citizens Youth Club , is considered to be a great success story , especially considering its controversial beginnings soon after the 2004 death in custody and riot . The Centre is mostly staffed by community members who teach the younger generation both traditional and life skills such as weaving and cooking in a safe and comfortable environment . The Centre has an atmosphere of respect and traditional culture which tries to build children 's confidence and self @-@ esteem . Additionally to the sporting activities , the Centre hosts community growth projects , services and facilities such as a radio service ( Bwgcolman Radio ) , an Internet Café , TAFE cooking classes , after @-@ school and vacation care , monthly discos , drumming groups ( $ 8 @,@ 000 worth of drums donated by the Queensland Police ) , Family Movie Nights , and Bingo . The PICYC employs a paid staff of nine locals and one volunteer .
= = Infrastructure = =
Palm Island has no urban planning to speak of ( most of the town has not been surveyed ) , although they officially have names there are no street signs or even traffic signs which are standard on most other Queensland roads .
Facilities operated by the State Government on the island include a hospital , a Prep to Grade 10 school , the Palm Island Community and Youth Centre ( PICYC ) , a sewage treatment plant , a local supermarket store and ( new ) police station and courthouse .
The Palm Island Council operates the Palm Island Hotel ( also known as the Coolgaree Bay Hotel and previously known as the canteen ) , the community 's only outlet with a liquor license . The Council owns various other local services and businesses such as the garage and the Commonwealth Bank agency .
Private retail enterprise on the Island is limited to a butcher , a fish @-@ and @-@ chip shop , a clothes shop , the Post Office and a BP service station that sells petrol at about $ .50 a litre more than Townsville . Non @-@ Government services which are standard for population bases of this size in Australia are absent on Palm Island include a baker , hairdresser and newsagent .
In 2004 the army completed $ 10 million worth of work constructing a permanent water @-@ supply dam on the island and upgrading a number of roads . Other transport infrastructure includes Palm Island Airport on the South @-@ West of the Island from which Skytrans flies to and from Townsville up to four times each day . Palm Island 's pier is in Challenger Bay , a ferry @-@ boat service operated by Sunferries makes a return trip from Townsville four times a week . A barge service operates twice a week from Townsville operated by Palm Island Barge Services bringing food , machinery and fuel to the island . Also there is another barge that operates from Lucinda .
Transport on Palm Island is primarily walking with few private cars on the island , in 2005 the Police Citizens Youth Club ( PCYC ) , with Queensland Transport , purchased a 23 @-@ seat community bus which runs a school bus service and transport to PCYC events .
= = Education = =
Education infrastructure is comparatively high on Palm Island for a remote low population base . There is State and private primary education locally and secondary education offered up to year twelve on the Island and a campus of the Barrier Reef Institute of TAFE . Some students chose to board on the main land at private schools .
However educational outcomes are adversely affected by problems faced in home life , particularly ; being exposed to serious alcohol and other substance abuse , family violence , exposure to suicides and attempted suicides , balancing cultural and educational demands , living with poverty , child abuse and overcrowded housing . These problems can result in high rates of absenteeism , low self @-@ esteem and little concentration on education . Alternatively , school can be a haven from these external problems ; there are many dedicated educators and concerned parents interested in contributing to an effective , viable and culturally appropriate education system on Palm .
The island has two schools ; St Michael 's Catholic School ( Prep to grade 7 ) and the Education Queensland Bwgcolman Community School ( Prep to Grade 12 ) . The Bwgcolman Community School includes the Bwgcolman Community Library which is jointly managed and funded by the Council and State Government .
The Bwgcolman Community School has 350 students with 50 Indigenous and 27 non @-@ Indigenous staff . Palm Island , like most Aboriginal communities , has difficulties with school attendance , the Principal of St. Michael 's has stated that absenteeism averages about 30 % among their 160 students . A 2005 test at Bwgcolman school ( leaked to the media ) showed that the primary school students score " significantly less " than Queensland average in literacy and numeracy . St Michael 's have a program of teaching students " dainty " ( Australian English ) as a third language in addition to the communally spoken " Island English " and the particular language group that the child belongs to .
= = Health = =
Palm Island is serviced by the Joyce Palmer Health Service based at the Palm Island Hospital , completed in 2000 , which has an emergency department and a 15 @-@ bed general ward . The service is named for Joyce Palmer , a health worker who commenced her work in the 1940s at the Island 's old grass hospital , and provided health care to the people of Palm Island for over 40 years .
The hospital provides a primary level of acute care services and provides secondary services such as community health , X @-@ ray , pharmacy , dental , child health , sexual health , and antenatal and specialist clinics . There are two doctors based on Palm Island . Critical patients are stabilised and transferred to Townsville Hospital by Royal Flying Doctors Service or the Air Sea Rescue . There is a community mental health team based at the Palm Island Hospital with nurses and indigenous health workers . A consultant psychiatrist visits for one day every 6 weeks .
The Queensland Ambulance Service ( QAS ) began operations on Palm Island in 2000 and took over from the hospital based service . Presently staffed by two paramedics and three ambulance attendants , they average approx 2200 cases per year . One paramedic is qualified as a Paramedic Practitioner and practices under the guidelines of paramedic practitioners giving the community more health resources and options – this officer assists with sexual health cases and general medical cases including suturing at the local Joyce Palmer Health Service . The QAS is also involved in teaching First Aid to the community , " Adopt an Ambo " programs with both schools , motivational camps for teenagers and local football competitions and works closely with allied health services on the island . The QAS has also started a stinger prevention program with stinger stations having been established in different locations around the island . Funding has been raised to provide stinger suits to the communities children and adults through the PCYC and through funding grants obtained for the cause with the main one being the medicare benefit fund . A Joint Emergency Services Complex has now been completed and is located opposite the CDEP and at the old piggery site at the Farm Area – this complex house 's the Qld Ambulance Service , The Qld Rural Fire Brigade and the Local SES unit , and is fully functional .
Despite the healthcare facilities , a report tabled in the Queensland Parliament on 21 April 2006 claimed that conditions at Palm Island resembled those of a third world country .
In 1979 an outbreak of hepatoenteritis , also known as the Palm Island mystery disease , was reported and described a hepatitis @-@ like illness ( associated with dehydration and bloody diarrhoea ) in 138 children and 10 adults of Indigenous descent . This was proposed to have been caused by the toxin cylindrospermopsin , which was released from lysed cyanobacterial cells after the addition of excessive doses of copper sulfate to the water supply of Solomon Dam to target a bloom of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii . A later report alternatively proposed that the excess copper in the water was the cause of the disease . The excessive dosing was following the use of least @-@ cost contractors to control the algae , who were unqualified in the field .
In December 1934 there was a major outbreak of Influenza with a large number of residents hospitalised .
= Interstate 270 ( Maryland ) =
Interstate 270 ( abbreviated I @-@ 270 ) is a 34 @.@ 70 @-@ mile ( 55 @.@ 84 km ) auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Maryland that travels between I @-@ 495 ( the Capital Beltway ) just north of Bethesda , Montgomery County and I @-@ 70 in the city of Frederick in Frederick County . It consists of the 32 @.@ 60 @-@ mile ( 52 @.@ 46 km ) mainline as well as a 2 @.@ 10 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 38 km ) spur that provides access to and from southbound I @-@ 495 . I @-@ 270 is known as the Washington National Pike , and makes up the easternmost stretch of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Highway . Most of the southern part of the route in Montgomery County passes through suburban areas around Rockville and Gaithersburg that are home to many biotech firms . This portion of I @-@ 270 is up to twelve lanes wide and consists of a local @-@ express lane configuration as well as high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes that are in operation during peak travel times . North of the Gaithersburg area , the road continues through the northern part of Montgomery County , passing Germantown and Clarksburg as a six- to eight @-@ lane highway with a HOV lane in the northbound direction only . North of here , I @-@ 270 continues through rural areas into Frederick County and toward the city of Frederick as a four @-@ lane freeway .
The freeway was built between 1953 and 1960 as the Washington National Pike between Bethesda and Frederick and carried U.S. Route 240 ( US 240 ) , which was rerouted off what is now Maryland Route 355 ( MD 355 ) between these two points . With the creation of the Interstate Highway System a few years later , the road was designated as I @-@ 70S along with US 240 . There were plans to extend I @-@ 70S to I @-@ 95 in Washington , D.C. on the North Central Freeway from the Capital Beltway ; however , they were cancelled in the 1970s due to opposition from residents in the freeway ’ s path . The concurrent US 240 designation was removed in 1972 and I @-@ 70S became I @-@ 270 in 1975 . Increasing traffic levels led to a $ 200 million widening of the road in Montgomery County to its current configuration and further increased traffic . Many improvements are slated for I @-@ 270 , including the construction of three new interchanges and the widening of the route between Shady Grove Road and Frederick that would add high @-@ occupancy vehicles lanes and high @-@ occupancy toll lanes .
= = Route description = =
= = = Montgomery County = = =
I @-@ 270 heads northwest from an interchange with I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) and MD 355 ( Rockville Pike ) in suburban Bethesda , Montgomery County as a six @-@ lane freeway . The left lane on each side is used as a high @-@ occupancy vehicle lane ( HOV lane ) in the northbound direction between 3 : 30 and 6 : 30 PM weekdays and in the southbound direction between 6 : 00 and 9 : 00 AM weekdays . At the southern terminus , I @-@ 270 only has access to and from the eastbound direction of I @-@ 495 . The road turns west and comes to an interchange with MD 187 ( Old Georgetown Road ) . From there , I @-@ 270 continues west as a ten @-@ lane freeway and merges with I @-@ 270 Spur , which provides access to and from southbound I @-@ 495 . Past this interchange , I @-@ 270 continues north as a twelve @-@ lane freeway with an HOV lane and five travel lanes in each direction . The route passes through wooded suburban areas , where prior to the cloverleaf interchange with Montrose Road ( MD 927 ) , I @-@ 270 takes on a local @-@ express lane configuration with the outer two lanes serving as local lanes and the inner three lanes and the HOV lane serving as express lanes . Past Montrose Road , I @-@ 270 continues north into the Rockville area , turning northwest before it comes to a single @-@ point urban interchange with MD 189 ( Falls Road ) , where the highway sees 253 @,@ 620 vehicles daily . The road continues to a modified cloverleaf interchange with MD 28 ( Montgomery Avenue ) . Past MD 28 , the freeway passes numerous business parks and some wooded areas before coming to an interchange with Shady Grove Road .
Past this interchange , I @-@ 270 leaves Rockville and heads into Gaithersburg , where it intersects I @-@ 370 , a road that provides access to a park and ride lot at the Shady Grove Metro station and MD 200 ( the Intercounty Connector ) , which heads east to I @-@ 95 in Laurel . Past I @-@ 370 , the local lane configuration ends in the southbound direction , which now has an HOV lane and four travel lanes while the northbound direction still has an HOV lane , three express lanes , and two local lanes . I @-@ 270 continues past more suburban development before coming to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with MD 117 ( West Diamond Avenue ) . Past this interchange , the southbound HOV restrictions end and I @-@ 270 continues north with four travel lanes in the southbound direction and an HOV lane , three express lanes and two local lanes in the northbound direction before reaching MD 124 ( Quince Orchard Road ) . Past MD 124 , the local lanes in the northbound direction ends , and I @-@ 270 head northwest as an eight @-@ lane freeway with four southbound lanes and an HOV lane and three travel lanes northbound . It passes through wooded areas , leaving Gaithersburg , and comes to an interchange with Middlebrook Road . The freeway narrows to six lanes again past at this interchange , with three lanes in each direction including a northbound HOV lane . I @-@ 270 continues into the Germantown area and interchanges with MD 118 ( Germantown Road ) . A short distance later , after passing by some business parks , I @-@ 270 comes to an interchange with MD 27 ( Ridge Road ) and Father Hurley Boulevard . Past MD 27 , I @-@ 270 heads into more rural areas of woods with some farm fields , paralleled by a set of power lines . The road interchanges with MD 121 ( Clarksburg Road ) in Clarksburg and the northbound HOV restriction ends past this interchange , with I @-@ 270 continuing north as a four @-@ lane freeway . The power lines stop paralleling the route and it continues through more rural areas of woods and farms , running closely parallel to MD 355 . The median widens , with trees in the middle , and I @-@ 270 has weigh stations on both sides . The highway reaches Hyattstown , where it has an interchange with MD 109 ( Old Hundred Road ) .
= = = Frederick County = = =
A short distance past the MD 109 interchange , I @-@ 270 crosses into Frederick County , continuing northwest through rural woodland and farmland . It reaches the Urbana area , where the route has an interchange with MD 80 ( Fingerboard Road ) . The highway briefly runs along the east side of MD 80 past this interchange before continuing through agricultural areas . It features a scenic overlook in the northbound direction as the road passes through Monocacy National Battlefield , which was the site of the Battle of Monocacy Junction . I @-@ 270 eventually leaves the battlefield area and continues into the commercial outskirts of Frederick . Here , the road interchanges with MD 85 ( Buckeystown Pike ) near the Francis Scott Key Mall . I @-@ 270 continues through commercial areas before coming to its northern terminus at an interchange with I @-@ 70 and US 40 ( Baltimore National Pike ) . Past this interchange , the freeway continues north as the Frederick Freeway , a part of US 40 that interchanges with US 15 and US 340 a short distance north of I @-@ 270 ’ s northern terminus .
= = History = =
In 1947 , plans were made to construct a freeway called the Washington National Pike parallel to US 240 ( present @-@ day MD 355 ) between Bethesda and Frederick . In 1953 , the US 240 freeway was completed between MD 121 in Clarksburg and US 15 ( now MD 85 ) in Frederick . A year later , the freeway was extended down to MD 118 in Germantown . The US 240 freeway was extended south to MD 28 in Rockville in 1956 . Also , the US 240 freeway was completed from US 15 north to US 40 . The US 240 freeway was extended south to Montrose Road in 1958 . I @-@ 70S was designated onto the US 240 freeway in 1959 . In 1960 , I @-@ 70S / US 240 was extended south to the Capital Beltway . With the completion of this freeway , MD 355 was designated onto the original alignment of US 240 . The construction of the Washington National Pike resulted in suburban growth along the corridor between Washington , D.C. and Frederick , with several federal agencies including the United States Atomic Energy Commission , the National Bureau of Standards , and the National Institutes of Health moving their headquarters to Montgomery County . A western spur that provided access to southbound I @-@ 495 was eventually built and became I @-@ 270 .
I @-@ 70S was projected to continue past the Capital Beltway into Washington , D.C. on the North Central Freeway to connect directly to I @-@ 95 . Plans for this freeway initially began in 1959 when a freeway was called for along the Georgia Avenue corridor . In the mid @-@ 1960s , a study was proposed for the freeway that recommended several different routings between Washington , D.C. and the Capital Beltway . By 1966 , a route for the North Central Freeway was planned along a Baltimore & Ohio Railroad line running through the northeastern part of Washington and Takoma Park north to the Capital Beltway . In a 1971 study by DeLeuw , Cather Associates and Harry Wesse & Associates , LTD , I @-@ 70S was planned to run from its southern terminus at I @-@ 495 and run concurrent with that route before turning south on the North Central Freeway and ending at I @-@ 95 in Washington . The routing of the freeway through residential areas of Washington drew opposition from residents of the Takoma Park , Brookland , and Michigan Park neighborhoods who were successful in getting the freeway cancelled through their neighborhoods in 1970 . The North Central Freeway within Maryland was cancelled by the MDSHA in 1972 due to opposition from officials in Montgomery County . In 1
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Derby County Vieira scored his first goal for the club to earn Arsenal a point . The team then faced Nottingham Forest , which marked Stuart Pearce debut as caretaker manager . Arsenal , without Seaman , Adams , Dixon and Vieira , succumbed to a 2 – 1 defeat , following the dismissal of Wright . The poor form over Christmas continued : Arsenal were held to a goalless draw away to Sheffield Wednesday on Boxing Day and twice let their lead against Aston Villa slip , in spite of playing " ... the best 45 minutes of football the Premiership has seen this season . " On New Year 's Day , Wright scored his 200th English league goal in Arsenal 's 2 – 0 win against Middlesbrough ; he began a three @-@ game suspension thereafter , because of his red card against Nottingham Forest . Disciplinary problems continued to beset the club : Bergkamp 's dismissal , in the team 's defeat to Sunderland on 11 January 1997 , was Arsenal 's fifth in ten matches . Wenger admitted the disciplinary record was in danger of damaging their title challenge , adding , " The other strange fact is that three out of five dismissals have been strikers , when that sort of thing normally happens to defenders . To me , that shows our strikers must be taking their fair share of kicks . When teams play Arsenal , the games are physical and we have to defend ourselves . " Arsenal kept up with Manchester United and Liverpool with a win over Everton on 19 January 1997 ; the result kept them three points behind top spot , with a game in hand . At Upton Park , the team recorded their sixth victory in seven visits to West Ham and moved second , behind " the advancing Manchester United " .
February saw Arsenal 's title challenge take a turn for the worse , as the team went on a four @-@ match winless run . Back @-@ to @-@ back draws against Leeds United and Tottenham Hotspur , was followed by defeat to Manchester United . In the latter match , television footage showed Wright aiming a two @-@ footed challenge on opposition goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel , who was advancing to gather the ball in his half . The police stepped in to keep the players apart after the final whistle and informed the referee of the incident , which was to be later included in his report . Wright protested his innocence and complained he was subject to racial abuse by Schmeichel – at which point the FA intervened and met with representatives of both clubs . Both players eventually agreed to end their feud and by April released statements highlighting this . The month ended with a home defeat to Wimbledon , which prompted Wenger to rule out their championship hopes : " ' Yes , for the title of course , ' he replied when asked if the result had ended the team 's interest in the Premiership , ' but for Europe , no . ' " After 28 games , Arsenal were in fourth position having played two more games than Newcastle in third and one more than Manchester United , who were six points clear in first .
= = = March – May = = =
Bergkamp and Wright scored a goal apiece in Arsenal 's 2 – 0 win against Everton on the first day of March . The team won by an identical scoreline at home to Nottingham Forest a week later and kept a third consecutive cleansheet against Southampton ; midfielders Stephen Hughes and Paul Shaw both got themselves on the scoresheet . Defeat at home to Liverpool on 24 March 1997 was marred by a dubious penalty awarded to striker Robbie Fowler . The player himself " stood and mouthed : ' No penalty ! ' " given Seaman made no contact in the penalty box , but the referee unaltered his decision . Although Fowler 's spotkick was later saved , the ball rebounded to Jason McAteer , who scored . Wenger ruled the team out of the title race again , by saying after the match , " Everybody knows now that it was not a penalty , but I can understand that a referee took a wrong decision . That 's football and it eliminates our chance of the championship . "
Wright scored his 27th goal of the season , away at Chelsea in the first week of April ; it took him seven goals short of breaking Cliff Bastin 's career record at Arsenal . A win against Leicester City was Arsenal 's fifth league win in six matches and boosted the club 's chances of finishing second , which came with a spot in the Champions League . Wenger assessed that it was " not impossible to win the title " , adding " but when you see Manchester United winning again , realistically you would like to be in their position . " A last @-@ minute equaliser for Blackburn Rovers against Arsenal on 19 April 1997 was controversial given the manner the opposition had scored ; with Hughes cramped , Vieira kicked the ball out in order for his teammate to be treated . It was anticipated " by the game 's conventions " , Blackburn should have thrown the ball back unchallenged , but striker Chris Sutton forced a corner . The result prompted Wenger to rule out any chance of winning the league : " The best team [ Manchester United ] has won . But the race for second place is still open and for many weeks I have thought that was the best we could achieve . " A further draw against Coventry City , who were fighting to stay another season in the top @-@ flight , moved Arsenal to within four points of Manchester United . They had however played two games more than the incumbent champions and one more than Liverpool sitting in third . Robbie Elliott scored the winner for Newcastle United against Arsenal on 3 May 1997 , which reignited their chances of finishing second . Arsenal ended their league campaign against Derby County , who staged their final match at the Baseball Ground . In spite of winning by three goals to one , having played with ten men for the majority of the game , they missed out on second by goal difference to Newcastle .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the competition in the third round , by virtue of their Premier League status . Their opening match was a score draw against Sunderland , which highlighted the team 's shortcomings in attack , as Wright was out of the side . In the replay staged at Roker Park , Bergkamp scored the opener early in the second half , in what he described as " ... not only a beautiful goal , it was an important goal " . The player received the ball from Merson and with the Sunderland defence closing in , twice dragged the ball with his studs , before curling it beyond goalkeeper Lionel Pérez ' reach . Hughes increased the team 's lead on the hour mark , by heading the ball in at the far post ; it was his first goal at senior level . Arsenal exited the cup in the fourth round , with defeat to fellow Premier League side Leeds United . Striker Rod Wallace scored the only goal of the match .
= = Football League Cup = =
Together with the other clubs playing in European competitions , Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round . The team were drawn to face First Division Stoke City , on the week of 21 October 1996 . The tie ended 1 – 1 and was subject to a replay ; Wright equalised for Arsenal after Mike Sheron gave Stoke a first half lead . Arsenal won the replay by five goals to two , but exited the cup in the fourth round against league rivals Liverpool – the result marked the first time in four years that Arsenal had conceded four goals . Wenger described Bould 's dismissal for a second bookable offence as " hard " , before congratulating his opponents : " Liverpool are the best team we have played against since I 've been at Arsenal . We didn 't deserve to lose to Manchester United but we did deserve to lose to Liverpool . "
= = UEFA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the UEFA Cup in the first round , a competition which they qualified for by virtue of finishing fifth the previous league season . They were drawn to play German team Borussia Mönchengladbach , twice winners of the cup in the 1970s . In the first leg , staged at Highbury , Arsenal lost Bergkamp through injury before the half @-@ hour ; the player was replaced by fellow Dutchman Glenn Helder . Monchengladbach took the lead in the 37th minute , after Peter Nielsen 's forward pass met Andrzej Juskowiak , who slipped the ball past an advancing Seaman . Moments after the second half commenced , the away team doubled their lead : captain Stefan Effenberg had taken advantage of Linighan 's defensive mistake , which allowed him to shoot . Although Seaman saved the first shot , Effenberg followed up and placed the ball into the top corner of the net . Merson half the deficit in the 54th minute , but Stephan Paßlack increased Monchengladbach 's advantage with ten minutes to go ; he headed the ball unchallenged past Seaman . Wright scored Arsenal 's second goal of the match in stoppage time , on a night where Houston admitted it was " my worst night in Europe " .
A fortnight later , Arsenal played the second leg , with Adams returning to the side , deployed in a five @-@ man defence . This did not keep Monchengladbach quiet , for it was they who scored the opening goal , through Juskowiak . Wright replied for Arsenal two minutes before the break and the team brought the aggregate scoreline level , when Merson " pump [ ed ] home a cracking 25 @-@ yard drive into the top right @-@ hand corner . " Effenberg equalised , by which point Arsenal had made attacking substitutions to score a third goal . Late in the match , Juskowiak scored his second on the counter , to help Monchengladbach win 6 – 4 on aggregate score . Wenger , who was in attendance , did not precede over the match officially , but suggested " one or two changes " to caretaker manager and later assistant Pat Rice during the interval .
= = Squad statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 28 players during the 1996 – 97 season and there were 12 different goalscorers . There were also five squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . Bould and Wright featured in 40 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign ; Winterburn started in all 38 league matches . Parlour made the most appearances as a substitute with 15 .
The team scored a total of 76 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Wright , with 30 goals , followed by Bergkamp who scored 14 goals . Four Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Wright , Bergkamp , Bould and Adams .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= Nikolai Kulikovsky =
Nikolai Alexandrovich Kulikovsky ( 5 November 1881 – 11 August 1958 ) was the second husband of Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia , the sister of Tsar Nicholas II and daughter of Tsar Alexander III .
He was born into a military landowning family from the south of the Russian Empire , and followed the family tradition by entering the army . In 1903 , he was noticed by Grand Duchess Olga during a military review , and they became close friends . Olga wanted to divorce her first husband , Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg , and marry Kulikovsky , but neither her husband nor her brother , the Tsar , would allow it .
During World War I , Olga eventually obtained a divorce and married Kulikovsky . They had two sons . Her brother was deposed in the Russian Revolution of 1917 , and Kulikovsky was dismissed from the army by the revolutionary government . The Kulikovskys were forced into exile , and he became a farmer and businessman in Denmark , where they lived until after World War II . In 1948 , they emigrated to Canada as agricultural immigrants , but within four years of their arrival they had sold their farm and moved into a small suburban house . He became increasingly disabled by back pain , and died in 1958 aged 76 .
= = Early life = =
Nikolai Kulikovsky was born into a military family from the Voronezh province of Russia . His grandfather was a general during the Napoleonic Wars , and his family owned two large estates in the Ukraine . He rode from an early age , became an expert horseman , and was educated at Petrograd Real College of Gurevich , followed by the Nikolai Cavalry College , from where he graduated with a degree .
He joined the Blue Cuirassier regiment of the imperial Russian cavalry shortly before 1903 . Grand Duke Michael , the younger brother of Tsar Nicholas II , was the regiment 's honorary colonel . In April 1903 , during a military parade at the Pavlovsk Palace , Grand Duchess Olga , the youngest sister of Nicholas and Michael , saw Kulikovsky and begged Michael to arrange the seating at a casual luncheon so that she and Kulikovsky were adjacent . The Grand Duchess was already married to Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg , who was covertly believed by his friends and family to be homosexual . A few days after her brief meeting with Kulikovsky , Olga asked Oldenburg for a divorce , which he refused with the qualification that he would reconsider his decision after seven years .
Kulikovsky was appointed as captain in the Blue Cuirassiers and posted to the provinces . By 1906 , he and Olga were corresponding regularly , when Olga 's husband Duke Peter appointed Kulikovsky as his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . With Peter 's permission , Kulikovsky moved into the 200 @-@ room residence in Sergievskaya Street , Saint Petersburg , that Peter shared with Olga . According to a fellow officer , gossip about a possible romance between Kulikovsky and the Grand Duchess , based on little more than their holding hands in public , spread through high society .
= = Marriage and revolution = =
Though Olga repeatedly asked Tsar Nicholas II to allow her to divorce , her brother refused on religious and dynastic grounds ; he believed marriage was for life and that royalty should marry within royalty . When their brother , Grand Duke Michael , eloped with his mistress , Natasha Wulfert , the Tsar and Olga were scandalized along with the rest of society . Natasha was a commoner who had been divorced twice , and one of her former husbands was an officer in the same regiment as Kulikovsky . Michael was banished from Russia , and the likelihood of the Tsar ever granting Olga 's divorce , or permitting her to marry a commoner , looked remote .
At the outbreak of World War I , Kulikovsky was sent to the front with his regiment . Michael was recalled from abroad , and Olga went to work in a military hospital as a nurse . Olga continued to press the Tsar to allow her divorce . In a letter she wrote , " ... finish with the divorce now during the war while all eyes and minds are occupied elsewhere — and such a small thing would be lost in all the greater things " . The war went badly for the Russian imperial forces , and the Central Powers , led by Germany , advanced into Russia . Fearful for Kulikovsky 's safety , Olga pleaded with the Tsar to transfer him to the relative safety of Kiev , where she was stationed at a hospital . In 1916 , after visiting her in Kiev , the Tsar officially annulled her marriage to Duke Peter , and she married Kulikovsky on 16 November 1916 , in the Kievo @-@ Vasilievskaya Church on Triokhsviatitelskaya ( Three Saints Street ) in Kiev . Only the officiating priest , Olga 's mother the Dowager Empress Marie , Olga 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Grand Duke Alexander , two fellow nurses from the hospital in Kiev and four officers of the Akhtyrsky regiment , of which Olga was honorary colonel , attended . Their two @-@ week honeymoon was spent in a farmhouse in Podgorny that had belonged to family friends of the Kulikovskys . After visiting Kulikovsky 's parents and grandmother in Kharkov , Olga and Kulikovsky returned to Kiev .
During the war , internal tensions and economic deprivation in Russia continued to mount and revolutionary sympathies grew . After Nicholas II was deposed in early 1917 , many members of the Romanov dynasty , including Nicholas and his immediate family , were held under house arrest . The new government retired Kulikovsky from the army with the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel . Dowager Empress Marie , Grand Duke Alexander , Grand Duchess Olga , and Kulikovsky managed to escape to the Crimea where they lived for a time before they too were placed under house arrest at one of the imperial estates . As a commoner , Kulikovsky was permitted more freedom of movement than the Romanovs , and was occasionally able to leave the estate in a pony @-@ cart , which allowed him to run errands , obtain food , and seek news of the outside . On 12 August 1917 , Olga and Kulikovsky 's first child and son , Tikhon , was born in the Crimea . He was named after one of the Grand Duchess 's favorite saints , Tikhon of Zadonsk . Although the grandson of an emperor and the nephew of another , Tikhon received no titles because his father was a commoner .
As newspapers were banned and letters infrequent , the Romanovs under house arrest knew little of the fate of Tsar Nicholas and his family . Nicholas , his wife , and their children , were originally held at their official residence , the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo , but the provisional government under Alexander Kerensky relocated them to Tobolsk , Siberia . Eventually , in July 1918 , after being transferred to Yekaterinburg , Nicholas and his family were killed by their Bolshevik guards . In the Crimea , the Grand Duchess 's family were condemned to death by the Yalta revolutionary council but the executions were stayed by the Sevastopol council , who refused to act without orders from Moscow . In March 1918 , German forces advanced on the Crimea , and the revolutionary guards were replaced by German ones .
When Germany surrendered to the Allies of World War I in November 1918 , the German troops evacuated , allowing the surviving members of the imperial family time to escape abroad . The British warship HMS Marlborough rescued the Dowager Empress Marie and some of her family from the Crimea but Grand Duchess Olga and Kulikovsky decided to stay in Russia and travelled to the Caucasus region , where the Bolsheviks had been pushed back by the White Army . During the journey , a coupling on the train carriage in which they were travelling developed a fault , possibly from sabotage , and Kulikovsky crawled over the carriage roofs to reach the driver and stop the train . In the Caucasus , Kulikovsky took a job working on a farm as he was unable to secure a military posting in the White Army because the commanding general , Anton Denikin , wished to avoid association with the Romanovs . In a rented farmhouse at the large Cossack village of Novominskaya Olga and Kulikovsky 's second son , Guri , was born on 23 April 1919 . He was named after Guri Panaev , who had been killed serving in Olga 's Akhtyrsky regiment . As the White Army was pushed back and the Red Army approached , the family set out on what would be their last journey through Russia ; they travelled to Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don , and from there took refuge at Novorossiysk in the residence of the Danish consul , Thomas Schytte , who informed them of Dowager Empress Marie 's safe arrival in Denmark .
After a brief stay with the Danish consul , the family were shipped to a refugee camp on the island of Büyükada in the Dardanelles Strait near Istanbul , Turkey , where the Kulikovsky family shared three rooms with eleven other adults . After two weeks , they were evacuated to Belgrade in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The Yugoslav Regent Alexander Karageorgevich , later to become King Alexander I , offered them a permanent home there , but Dowager Empress Marie summoned her daughter to Denmark . The Grand Duchess complied , and the family arrived in Copenhagen on Good Friday 1920 . They lived with Kulikovsky 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Dowager Empress Marie , at first at the Amalienborg Palace and then at the royal estate of Hvidøre . Kulikovsky and Marie did not get along ; he was resentful of his wife acting as Marie 's secretary and companion , and Marie was distant toward him .
= = Danish residency and exodus = =
Without a role or rank , Kulikovsky brooded in Denmark , becoming moody and listless . A spinal injury sustained during the war , for which he had to wear a corset , remained unhealed . In 1925 , Kulikovsky accompanied his wife to a Berlin nursing home to meet Anna Anderson , who claimed to be Olga 's niece , Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia . According to Harriet von Rathlef , who witnessed the meeting , while Olga and Anderson conversed , he sat in a corner and sulked . Although Olga felt sympathy for Anderson , if only because she was ill , she eventually denounced her as an impostor . Possibly , she was pressured to do so by Kulikovsky and Dowager Empress Marie .
Marie died on 13 October 1928 , and the Kulikovskys moved out of Hvidøre . After a brief stay in the Amalienborg Palace , the Kulikovskys moved to Holte , near Klampenborg , where a Danish millionaire , Gorm Rasmussen , engaged Kulikovsky to manage his stables . Hvidøre and some of Marie 's jewellery were sold . With Olga 's inheritance , Kulikovsky and his family were able to purchase Knudsminde Farm , several miles outside of Copenhagen . Kulikovsky was appointed to the board of a Russian insurance company based in Copenhagen , and oversaw the running of the farm . The farm @-@ estate became a center for the Russian monarchist and anti @-@ Bolshevik community in Denmark .
On 9 April 1940 , neutral Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and was occupied for the rest of World War II . As Olga 's sons , Tikhon and Guri , served as officers in the Danish Army , they were interned as prisoners of war , but their imprisonment in a Copenhagen hotel lasted less than two months . Other Russian émigrés , keen to fight against the Soviets , enlisted in the German forces . Despite her sons ' internment and her mother 's Danish origins , Olga was implicated in her compatriots ' collusion with German forces , as she continued to meet and extend help to Russian émigrés fighting against communism . After the surrender of Germany in 1945 , the Soviet Union wrote to the Danish government accusing the Grand Duchess of conspiracy against the Soviet authorities . With the end of the war , Soviet troops occupied the easternmost part of Denmark , and Olga grew fearful of an assassination or kidnap attempt . She decided to move her family across the Atlantic to the relative safety of rural Canada , a decision with which Kulikovsky complied .
= = Later life = =
In May 1948 , the Kulikovskys travelled to London by Danish troopship . They were housed in a grace @-@ and @-@ favour apartment at Hampton Court Palace while arrangements were made for their journey to Canada as agricultural immigrants . On 2 June 1948 , Kulikovsky , Olga , Tikhon and his Danish @-@ born wife Agnete , Guli and his Danish @-@ born wife Ruth , Guli and Ruth 's two children , Xenia and Leonid , and Olga 's companion and former maid Emilia Tenso ( " Mimka " ) departed Liverpool on board the Empress of Canada . After a rough crossing , the ship docked at Halifax , Nova Scotia . The family proceeded to Toronto , where they lived until they purchased a 200 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) farm in Halton County , Ontario , near Campbellville . Kulikovsky was relieved to move out of Toronto , and escape media attention .
By 1952 , the farm had become a burden to the elderly couple . Their sons had moved away ; labour was hard to come by ; Kulikovsky suffered increasing back pain and disability , and some of Olga 's remaining jewellery was stolen . The farm was sold , and Kulikovsky , Olga , and Mimka , moved to a smaller 5 @-@ room house at 2130 Camilla Road , Cooksville , Ontario , a suburb of Toronto ( now amalgamated into the city of Mississauga ) . Mimka suffered a stroke that left her an invalid , and Olga nursed her until Mimka 's death in 1954 . Neighbours and visitors to the region , including foreign and royal dignitaries , took interest in Olga as the " last Romanov " , and visited their small home , which was also a magnet for Romanov impostors whom both Kulikovsky and Olga considered a menace . Welcome visitors included Princess Marina , Duchess of Kent , the daughter of Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia , in 1954 .
By 1952 , Kulikovsky had shrunk more than 4 inches ( 10 cm ) from his peak height of 6 ft 2 inches ( 188 cm ) . He distrusted conventional medicine and tried homeopathy instead . By 1958 , he was virtually paralyzed , and had difficulty sleeping . At the end of his life he was sleeping on the sofa in the living room of the couple 's Cooksville house , to avoid waking his wife . He died there on the night of 11 August 1958 . His estate was valued at 12 @,@ 123 @.@ 47 Canadian dollars , about 98 @,@ 000 Canadian dollars as of 2012 . The Grand Duchess died two years later , and was interred next to her husband in York Cemetery , Toronto .
= Gurdon Bill Store =
The Gurdon Bill Store is located in Ledyard , Connecticut . In 1818 , the land for the store was purchased by Gurdon Bill and his partner , Philip Gray . In 1819 , Gray sold his interest in the store for $ 500 . Bill operated the store until his death in 1856 and the store is believed to have made its final transaction in 1868 . It has not been used since it was sold to the Congregational Society in 1875 , retaining its historical integrity . The store is a 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story gable @-@ roofed clapboarded structure built upon fieldstone and stone blocks . It has some unusual architecture in the form of a pent @-@ roof and three @-@ part window shutters . Clouette describes the store as " the best preserved early 19th @-@ century store known in Connecticut . " The Gurdon Bill Store was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 12 , 1982 .
= = Design = =
The Gurdon Bill Store is named for Gurdon Bill , who was born in 1784 . The land was originally purchased by Bill and his partner , Philip Gray , in 1818 . Clouette notes that four years later , Bill was the sole owner of the property ; a record from 1819 says Gray sold his interest in the store to Bill for $ 500 . Bill continued to run the store until shortly before his death in 1856 . At age 21 , Bill went to Plainfield Academy and later went on to work with various merchants before setting up the store in North Groton , later incorporated as Ledyard , Connecticut . Clouette notes a brief passage of the store out of the Bill family , soon reacquired , before it was sold to the Congregational Society in 1875 . The Congregational Society has made limited use of the store , preserving its historical integrity . Local historians speculate that the store 's final transaction was made in 1868 ; afterwards the store was boarded up and left essentially unused .
Built in 1818 , the Gurdon Bill Store is a 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) by 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story clapboarded store . The walls extend higher up than the ceiling to an attic for additional storage space . The wood @-@ shingled gable roof also has a smaller pent roof on the front facade that projects about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) beyond the wall , which is unusual in New England architecture . The foundation of the store is built upon fieldstone and has stone blocks above the ground ; the store has a full cellar . The main facade has two large twelve @-@ by @-@ twelve light sliding sash windows on the left side that can be covered with three @-@ part batten shutters . The main door is a Dutch door with a plain frame and to its right is a smaller six @-@ by @-@ six sash window without a batten shutter . The rear facade is plain and devoid of any windows . The north end of has four windows , two for the attic , and the south end has only two windows for the attic , all with six @-@ over @-@ six sash .
The interior consists of one large room on the south end , from the main entrance , and two smaller connecting rooms on the north . The walls of the main room have wide @-@ board horizontal panels and a large L @-@ shaped counter running parallel to the south and west walls . Behind the counter are tiers of pine shelving and on the west wall are built @-@ in drawers with simple wooden pulls and open bins on the bottom . The east wall has a plank bench . The two connected rooms on the north are similar with both having " plastered walls , a narrow beaded board for pegs or hooks , simple sliding shutters on the windows , beaded post casings , and brick diagonal fireplaces . "
= = Importance = =
Clouette writes , " The Gurdon Bill Store is the best preserved early 19th @-@ century store known in Connecticut . There are earlier store buildings and more elegant ones , but it would appear that the Bill Store is unique in retaining so many of its original features intact , particularly in the interior . " It was submitted to the National Historic Register of Places under criteria A for being a " country store " which supplied items that local farmers needed , but could not produce or manufacture . The building also was submitted for its well @-@ adapted and well @-@ preserved architectural integrity . The store also has an unusual pent @-@ roof and three @-@ part window shutters , the purpose of which is not entirely known .
Locally , the Gurdon Bill Store was rumored to have been a tavern or an inn , although no evidence or record indicates such a use , and it was apparently a waystation for stagecoaches . A historical marker in the immediate vicinity ties the Gurdon Bill store to the birthplace of Samuel Seabury , America 's first Episcopal bishop . No conclusive evidence for this claim exists .
= Crash Bandicoot : Warped =
Crash Bandicoot : Warped ( known in Europe and Australia as Crash Bandicoot 3 : Warped ) is a 3D platform game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation . It was released in North America on November 4 , 1998 , and in Europe and Japan in December 1998 . It was re @-@ released for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up on August 23 , 1999 and for the Platinum Range in 2000 . The game was later made available for the PlayStation Store in North America on February 7 , 2008 , and in Europe on October 23 , 2008 . At E3 2016 , it was confirmed that Sony and Activision will be releasing this game and the other two original Crash Bandicoot titles in a collection , completely remastered from the ground up , for the PlayStation 4 , in 2017 .
The game 's story takes place immediately after the events of the preceding game : Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back . The ruins of a space station called the Cortex Vortex owned by the series antagonist , Doctor Neo Cortex , crash @-@ lands on Earth and unleashes an evil entity known as Uka Uka , Aku Aku 's evil younger twin brother , who joins with Cortex and the time @-@ obsessed Doctor Nefarious Tropy and they plan to gather powerful Crystals in their original places in time and use their energy to enslave the Earth . The game follows the main characters Crash and Coco Bandicoot as they travel through time and prevent the villains from gathering the Crystals by collecting them themselves .
Crash Bandicoot : Warped was universally praised by critics , who noted a high quality in many areas , including gameplay , graphics and audio . The game went on to sell 7 @.@ 13 million units as of 2002 , and thus is the ninth best @-@ selling PlayStation video game of all time . In Japan , the game surpassed the sales of its two predecessors and became the first non @-@ Japanese PlayStation title to sell over one million units in the country .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash Bandicoot : Warped is a platform game in which the player controls Crash and Coco Bandicoot , who must travel back in time and gather the 25 Crystals from the previous game in their original places in time before the antagonists of the story do so . Much of the game takes place in the Time @-@ Twisting Machine , which acts as the hub area of the game . The Time @-@ Twisting Machine is split up into five chambers ; only the first chamber is initially available . Each chamber has five buttons that open portals to different levels . The goal in each level is to find and obtain the Crystal hidden in the area . In some levels , the Crystal will be located at the end of a level or must be earned by completing a specific challenge . Some levels contain a " Bonus Platform " that leads to a special bonus area , where the player must navigate through a separate area and collect everything in sight . As no lives are lost in the bonus areas , the bonus areas can be played through as often as the player desires until the bonus area can be cleared . After completing all five levels in a chamber , a sixth button that opens a portal to a boss level will appear . By defeating the boss , the next chamber will become available for play . When all 25 Crystals are found and all five boss characters are defeated , the game is won .
Crash and Coco start the game with five lives . A life is lost when they are struck by an enemy attack or suffer any other type of damage . More lives can be earned by collecting 100 " Wumpa Fruits " or breaking open a special crate to collect a life . If the player runs out of lives , the game is over . However , it can be continued by selecting " Yes " at the " Continue ? " screen . Crash has the ability to jump into the air and land on an enemy character , spin in a tornado @-@ like fashion to knock enemies off @-@ screen , slide across the ground and perform a body slam to break certain objects . These abilities can be expanded on by defeating boss characters , often resulting in more powerful attacks or increased jumping and running prowess .
Boxes play a prominent role in Crash Bandicoot : Warped and can be broken with all of Crash 's techniques . Boxes contain helpful items or can augment Crash 's mobility . Check Point boxes allow the player to return to a specific point in the stage upon losing a life . TNT Boxes explode after a three @-@ second fuse when jumped on , while Nitro Boxes explode upon any physical contact . All of the Nitro Boxes in a level can be detonated at once if a green @-@ colored box with an exclamation point ( ! ) on it is touched ; contact with this box is necessary in obtaining the level 's Gem , as Nitro Boxes count towards the total number of boxes broken in the level .
Besides Crystals , Gems and Colored Gems can be collected for extra accomplishment . Gems are rewarded to the player if all of the crates in a level are broken open or if a secret area is completed . There is a total of 45 Gems in the game . Colored Gems are found in special levels and lead to hidden areas . There are five Colored Gems in the game . " Relics " can be won by re @-@ entering a level where the Crystal has already been retrieved . To obtain a Relic , the player must initiate the " Time Trial " mode by touching the floating stopwatch near the beginning of the level and race through a level in the pre @-@ designated time displayed before entering a level . Scattered throughout the level are yellow crates with the numbers 1 , 2 or 3 on them . When these crates are broken , the timer is frozen for the number of seconds designated by the box . As no lives are lost in the Time Trial mode , the level can be played through as often as the player desires . Sapphire , Gold and Platinum Relics can be won depending on how low the player 's final time is . The first five Relics the player receives unlocks access to a level in the " Secret Warp Room " . Every five Relics thereafter open up another level in the Secret Warp Room . The levels in the Secret Warp Room must be won before the game can be completed .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Much of the game takes place in the Time @-@ Twisting Machine , which allows the characters to travel to different periods in time . The levels that take place in the Middle Ages are populated by wizards , rams , knights and frogs that transform into princes upon being kissed . The prehistoric levels take place in a Jurassic swamp and feature a Velociraptor hatchling that can be mounted and ridden , restless pterodactyls and a gigantic triceratops that pursues Crash throughout the level . The Arabian levels take place on the rooftops and are overrun with swordsmen , scorpions and genies who seek to stuff Crash into their lamps . The Egyptian levels are set during the heyday of the Great Pyramids and are populated by mummies , pyramid construction crews , scarabs and cobras ; in addition to the various enemies , the tombs are also overrun with traps . The future levels take place in " Neo York " , a city under Cortex 's rule that features laser cannons , robots , flying saucers , force fields and moving platforms . The " Lost Highway " levels , in which Crash pilots a motorcycle , take place in a 1950s America highway , where Crash must race against Cortex 's hot rodders to win Crystals , avoiding construction barricades and cops along the way . The World War I levels take place in the skies of Europe and alternatively feature Crash and Coco as the player character . In these levels , Cortex 's fleet of dirigibles must be shot down to obtain the Crystal . The Atlantis levels are split up into two different types ; the first type features Crash as the player character , who must don scuba gear and find the Crystals in the Atlantean ruins , which are rife with sharks , depth charges and poisonous blowfish . The second type features Coco as the player character , who must ride a jetski and gather the Crystals on the surface of the water , avoiding pirates and water mines as she does so . The Great Wall of China levels feature Coco as the player character and are played riding on the back of a tiger cub while avoiding doddery pan carriers and Chinese dragons .
= = = Characters = = =
The titular protagonist of the game is Crash Bandicoot , a mutated bandicoot who must travel through time and stop Doctor Neo Cortex from gathering the Crystals . He is aided by Aku Aku , an ancient witch doctor mask who protects Crash from harm and gives him sage advice between levels . Also helping Crash is his younger sister Coco Bandicoot , who gathers the Crystals on the Great Wall of China , on the surfaces above Atlantis and in the skies of World War I Europe . The main antagonist of the game is Uka Uka , the evil twin brother of Aku Aku . Uka Uka was previously locked away by Aku Aku to protect the world from his villainy , but has been freed because of the bumblings of Doctor Neo Cortex , the antagonist of the previous two games . Aiding Uka Uka and Doctor Cortex is Doctor Nefarious Tropy , the self @-@ proclaimed master of time and the creator of the Time Twisting Machine used to gather Crystals and Gems in different time periods . Other antagonistic characters include Tiny Tiger , a tall , hulking beast who battles Crash in the Colosseum ; Dingodile , a half @-@ dingo half @-@ crocodile hybrid with a large flamethrower ; and Doctor N. Gin , a bad @-@ tempered scientist with an unexploded missile in his head .
= = = Story = = =
After the Cortex Vortex , a space station owned by Doctor Neo Cortex , is destroyed by Doctor Nitrus Brio 's laser beam device , pieces of the station crash into a tropical mountain . This sets free an evil entity known as Uka Uka , the mastermind behind Cortex 's previous schemes . Uka Uka confronts Cortex and calls him out for failing to retrieve the crystals and gems , both of which are a great source of world energy . However , feeling generous after being freed from prison , Uka Uka recruits Doctor Nefarious Tropy to join him and Cortex in their latest plan . Tropy has created the Time @-@ Twisting Machine , a time machine that allows the villains to travel through time to find the gems and crystals at their original points in the timeline .
At the home of the Bandicoots , Aku Aku senses Uka Uka 's emergence and orders Crash and Coco inside . Aku Aku tells the two that Uka Uka is his evil twin brother and that he was locked in an underground prison centuries ago by Aku Aku to protect the world from his malice . Crash , Coco and Aku Aku go to the Time @-@ Twisting Machine , where Aku Aku gives Crash and Coco the task of recovering the Crystals before Uka Uka and Doctor Cortex do so . Crash and Coco proceed to travel through time and collect the crystals and gems , thwarting Cortex 's minions ( including Tiny Tiger , Dingodile and Doctor N. Gin ) along the way . Doctor Nefarious Tropy is also defeated , throwing the Time @-@ Twisting Machine into disarray . Having obtained the crystals and gems throughout time , Crash eventually faces off against Cortex in the Time @-@ Twisting machine 's core while Uka Uka and Aku Aku fend each other off . Following Cortex 's defeat , the Time @-@ Twisting Machine implodes on itself , the heroes manage to escape from the calamity whereas Cortex and Tropy are transformed into infants and along with Uka Uka are left to remain in a prison of time .
= = Development = =
Production of Crash Bandicoot : Warped began on January 1998 , with Naughty Dog given only 10 ½ months and a budget of $ 2 @.@ 2 million to complete the game . Programmers Andy Gavin , Stephen White and Greg Omi created three new gameplay engines for the game . Two of the three new engines were three @-@ dimensional in nature and were created for the airplane and jet @-@ ski levels ; the third new engine was created for the motorcycle levels in the style of a driving simulator . The new engines combined make up a third of the game , while the other two @-@ thirds of the game consist of the same engine used in the previous games . Jason Rubin explained that the " classic " engine and game style was preserved due to the success of the previous two games and went on to say that " were we to abandon that style of gameplay , that would mean that we would be abandoning a significant proportion of gamers out there . " An arbitrary plane z @-@ buffer was created for the jet @-@ ski and flooded Egyptian hallway levels of the game . To create a completely fluid feel for the water on these levels , an environment map that reflects the sky was fitted onto the surface of the water . A real shadow was given to the Crash character at the request of the Sony Computer Entertainment America producers , who were " sick of that little discus that 's following him around . " To create an " arcade " experience in the airplane levels and to differentiate them from flight simulators , the enemy planes were programmed to come out in front of the player and give the player ample time to shoot them before they turn around and shoot the player rather than come up behind the player and hit them from behind . The Relic system was introduced to give players a reason to return to the game after it has been completed .
The soundtrack of the game was produced by David Baggett and Mark Mothersbaugh and composed by Josh Mancell of Mutato Muzika . The sound effects were created by Mike Gollum , Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears of Universal Sound Studios . Clancy Brown voiced the dual role of Doctor Neo Cortex and Uka Uka , while Brendan O 'Brien voiced the dual role of Doctor N. Gin and Tiny the Tiger . Additionally , Michael Ensign voiced Doctor Nefarious Tropy , William Hootkins voiced Dingodile and Mel Winkler voiced Aku Aku . A small sampling of the game 's levels were prominently displayed at Sony 's Electronic Entertainment Expo booth in Atlanta , Georgia . Around this time , the video game industry wondered if Crash Bandicoot : Warped was just more of the same of the previous installment . The release of Crash Bandicoot : Warped was accompanied by marketing campaigns by Sony and Pizza Hut . The Japanese version of Crash Bandicoot : Warped was one of the first video games to support the PocketStation , a peripheral that downloads minigames from PlayStation games . A playable game demo of the Insomniac Games game Spyro the Dragon is available in the final product and can be accessed by entering a code at the title screen .
= = = Character and level design = = =
American Exitus artist Charles Zembillas , who was a character designer and art director for the previous two games , reprised his role for Crash Bandicoot : Warped . The antagonist Uka Uka was created as a presence that would cause Doctor Neo Cortex to cower in fear . The emotion sketches depicting Cortex begging for forgiveness inspired the shot design and animation for the game 's cinematic introductory sequence . Because the game 's plot involved time travel , the time @-@ traveling secondary antagonist Doctor Nefarious Tropy was conceptualized . Zembillas drew the first sketches of Tropy ( and the doodle he created as Naughty Dog was describing the character to him ) on January 22 , 1998 . Tropy 's wearable time @-@ traveling device was conceptualized early on in the character 's design evolution and initially appeared as a belt @-@ like contraption that featured a digital read out displaying the year Tropy intended to travel to . Tropy 's piston @-@ driven , smog @-@ generating time machine was made to reflect his unhealthy obsession with time . The Dingodile character was conceptualized by Naughty Dog employee Joe Labbe , who requested a character that was a cross between a dingo and a crocodile . Zembillas drew the first sketches of Dingodile on February 4 , 1998 . At certain points , the character alternatively wore an Australian style hat , had a " mop of scruffy hair " and walked on all fours . Naughty Dog initially wanted Dingodile to be a fire @-@ breathing character before Zembillas suggested giving him a flamethrower to make him " much more interesting " . The final sketches of Dingodile were drawn on February 12 , 1998 .
When conceiving Coco Bandicoot 's companion in the Chinese levels , it was decided that a " cute and huggable critter " that fit the Chinese theme was needed . A panda bear was originally considered but was rejected due to its similarity to the polar bear seen in Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back . A tiger cub , Pura , was chosen as an alternative . When creating the triceratops chase sequences in the prehistoric levels , a minion of Doctor Cortex was initially animated riding the beast . Whenever the triceratops got stuck , it would thrash the minion around . The rider was ultimately removed for technical reasons . The Tyrannosaurus hatchling that Crash mounts in the prehistoric levels was drawn with chicken @-@ like proportions by Naughty Dog 's Bob Rafei . The shark seen in the game 's underwater levels was one of Jason Rubin 's first PowerAnimator models . The model was originally built for the first Crash Bandicoot game , but wasn 't used until Crash Bandicoot : Warped .
The " time @-@ travel @-@ around @-@ the @-@ world " theme of Crash Bandicoot : Warped allowed the Naughty Dog artists to stretch beyond the limits imposed by the island themed setting of the previous games ; each time theme has distinctly unique structures and color palettes . To demonstrate the effect that color has on the mood of an environment , level sketches , such as those of the Arabian or Medieval levels , were recolored to alter the depicted time of day from day to night . Naughty Dog aimed to visually distinguish Crash Bandicoot : Warped from previous installments by " opening up the environment " and allowing greater distances to be visible without draw @-@ in or fog ; to achieve the image of endless rolling hills and distant castles seen in the Medieval levels , level of detail was accounted for by introducing new technologies into the game engine and changing the way some of the background elements were constructed . The most detailed textures of Crash Bandicoot : Warped are located in the Egyptian Tomb levels in the form of decorative paintings . To keep the image of an endless highway in the motorcycle levels from being boring , roadside details such as cacti and telephone poles were added to the scenery . Additionally , distant mesas were added to help break up the horizon . To give the desert highway some character , full @-@ service gas stations and diners were added to the roadside to evoke a " 1950s America " flavor . The Great Wall of China is portrayed during its construction stage to add visual variety and provide gameplay obstacles . Initial ideas for the submerged Atlantis stage varied from an ancient Roman @-@ esque city in ruins to a high @-@ tech submerged city of alien origin .
= = Reception = =
Crash Bandicoot : Warped was met with critical acclaim . Johnny Ballgame of GamePro concluded that the game was " a very strong contender for PlayStation game of the year " and that the " rowdy rowdy " gameplay will keep your head spinning for days . " Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine considered the game to be " the best 2.5D platformer ever released . " Ryan MacDonald of GameSpot said that Crash Bandicoot : Warped is " easily the best Crash yet , " describing how all of its aspects were superior to previous installments in the series , and concluded that the game was " the most fun I 've had with a 3D platform game in a long , long time . " Mark Cooke of Game Revolution called the game " a barrage of good things " and said that the game 's elements " all come together perfectly . " Scott Alan Marriott of Allgame ( " All Game Guide " at the time ) considered the game to be " so impressive to watch that you 'll have to keep one hand firmly below your chin to keep it from falling to the floor . "
The game 's graphics were lauded by critics . Johnny Ballgame praised the game 's graphics as " incredibly clean " and " detailed " , citing the water in the jet ski levels as " the most realistic @-@ looking waves of any PlayStation game we 've seen so far " . Randy Nelson called the game " drop @-@ dead gorgeous " , detailing that " the textures are impeccable , the animation 's top @-@ notch , and the special effects kick some serious booty . " Ryan MacDonald called the game " one of the most beautiful PlayStation games ever " , citing the game 's " smooth " character animations , " bright " and " colorful " landscapes , " gorgeous " lighting effects and a " refreshingly fast and steady " frame rate . Mark Cooke praised the game 's " smooth " and " cartoonish " animation as " top of the line , bested by no other game " and its " limitless " rendering distance and " beautiful " 3D models as " the pinnacle of PlayStation rendering " . However , he criticized the absence of death animations for the enemy characters . Scott Alan Marriott described the graphics as " unbelievable " and said that " everything is crystal clear , colorful , smoothly animated and extremely detailed . "
The game 's audio was also critically praised . Johnny Ballgame said that the sound " gets you pumped to play , especially the wicked drum beats that blare when you 're charging through a level with the invincibility mask . " He also commented positively on the other audio effects , such as " the boiling lava " , " the raging pterodactyls " and the " zany movie voice @-@ overs " . Randy Nelson was thankful for the game 's increased musical diversity in comparison to Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back . Ryan MacDonald praised the music , sound effects and character voice @-@ overs as " outstanding " and " extremely well done " and noted that the onscreen lip @-@ synching is " almost perfectly matched to the voice . " Mark Cooke said that the game 's " over @-@ exaggerated " voice @-@ acting is " like those in good cartoons , and sometimes even better " , and cited an " equally cartoonish " aspect in the music . Scott Alan Marriott described the voice @-@ acting as " five @-@ star quality all the way " and noted that the music " captures the level setting ( s ) perfectly . "
As of 2002 , Crash Bandicoot : Warped has sold over 5 @.@ 7 million units worldwide , making it the tenth best @-@ selling PlayStation video game of all time . The game 's success resulted in its re @-@ release for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up on August 23 , 1999 and for the Platinum Range in 2000 . Crash Bandicoot : Warped was a bestseller in Japan , and was the first non @-@ Japanese PlayStation title to receive a " Platinum Prize " in Japan for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units .
= Charles Payne House =
The Charles Payne House is an historic site at 25 Brown Street in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . The house was built in 1855 – 56 by Charles Payne and later expanded with the addition of two ells and a porch . The one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story Gothic @-@ Italianate vernacular cottage is architecturally significant as a 19th @-@ century vernacular cottage in a picturesque setting . Though the round @-@ head picket fence and entry gates were later removed , the property retains a large shaded garden on with ample street frontage . The Charles Payne House was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = History = =
The house was constructed by Charles Payne , an engraver who founded the firm of Payne & Taylor for calico printers in 1849 . In 1849 , Payne becan to purchase parcels of land that he would later construct the house on . The main block of the house was erected in 1855 – 1856 and later expanded with a north wing in the mid @-@ 1870s . The final major addition was an ell on the west side of the house , the date of construction occurred prior to 1902 . Though the house has been the subject of some alterations , these changes are largely inconspicuous .
= = Design = =
The Charles Payne House is a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half story Gothic @-@ Italianate vernacular cottage that has a spacious garden founded on the site of a long @-@ removed house . The house 's gable end faces the street with a rear ell and the other ell perpendicular to the main block on the west side . Centered on the east end of the roof is a cross gable which is visually offset by the dormer on the west . The house has a small gable @-@ roofed vestibule on the east side , aligned underneath the cross @-@ gable . The rear ell has an attached porch that spans its length . A single story bay hexagonal bay window protrudes from the facade . The distinguishing feature of the Payne house is the wood trim exterior , consisting of hood mould on the paired windows on the south , four kinds of bargeboards and bracketed cornices on the rear ell 's east side . The interior of the Charles Payne House is not covered in detail by any survey , but has three mantelpieces on the first floor , two displaying Gothic Revival influence in their wooden designs and the third , located in the rear ell , made of grey marble with a round @-@ head opening . Though not mentioned in the nomination , a photo shows one of the wooden mantlepieces filled with brick and rendered unusable at the time . The setting of the house was important to the National Register nomination , which specifically highlighted its shaded garden and fencing . At the time of the nomination , an ornamental round head picket fence surrounded the property and access was through a double @-@ leaf lattice work gate . By 2013 , the picket fence and entrance gate had been removed , but the property still retains the street frontage for its garden .
= = Significance = =
According to the National Register of Historic Places , the Charles Payne house is architecturally significance as an " unusually picturesque and well @-@ preserved example of the small vernacular cottages erected during the middle years of the nineteenth @-@ century in Pawtucket " . The nominated property included the Charles Payne house , the surrounding yard , fence and garden , all of which contributed to the picturesque setting of the nomination . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= New Jersey Route 44 =
Route 44 is a state highway located in Gloucester County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 10 @.@ 28 mi ( 16 @.@ 54 km ) from Barker Avenue in Bridgeport to a cul @-@ de @-@ sac at a ramp from southbound Interstate 295 ( I @-@ 295 ) and U.S. Route 130 ( US 130 ) in Thorofare . The route , which is mostly a two @-@ lane undivided road , passes through the communities of Gibbstown and Paulsboro in the northern part of the county , a short distance south of the Delaware River . Route 44 generally runs a short distance to the north of I @-@ 295 / US 130 for much of its length .
In 1923 , Route 17S was legislated along the current route followed by Route 44 today , running between Penns Grove and Westville . The only portion of Route 17S ever built ran from Penns Grove to Salem . Route 44 was designated in 1927 to replace Route 17S between Penns Grove and Westville . By the 1940s , Route 44 was extended south to Salem and US 130 was designated concurrent with the route north of Penns Grove . Several spurs of Route 44 had existed or were planned prior to 1953 , including Route S44 , which ran concurrent with US 322 to the ferry between Bridgeport and Chester , Pennsylvania ; Route S44A , a never @-@ built bypass of Camden ; and Route 44T , which was to run from a tunnel under the Delaware River in Paulsboro east to Route 42 . In 1953 , Route 44 was replaced by US 130 north of Deepwater and by Route 49 south of there . After two bypasses were built for US 130 around Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville , Route 44 was redesignated along the former US 130 . After I @-@ 295 was completed in the 1960s , US 130 returned to its original alignment in Carneys Point and replaced that portion of Route 44 .
= = Route description = =
Route 44 begins at an intersection with Barker Avenue and Main Street in Logan Township , heading to the east on Crown Point Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road . Shortly after beginning , the route heads through wooded areas a short distance to the north of Conrail 's Penns Grove Secondary and intersects County Route ( CR ) 671 . The road turns northeast and comes to an interchange with US 130 and continues closely parallel to the railroad line as it passes through more rural areas with some homes , coming to a junction with CR 684 . Route 44 enters Greenwich Township upon crossing the marshy Repaupo Creek and becomes a local road called West Broad Street . The route passes over the railroad tracks and continues east into residential and commercial areas of Gibbstown , intersecting CR 607 / CR 673 and CR 680 within the town .
At the intersection with CR 653 , Route 44 enters Paulsboro and passes more developed areas , soon meeting CR 678 . The route intersects CR 667 in the center of Paulsboro before crossing the Mantua Creek on a lift bridge and entering wetlands within West Deptford Township . Here , the road heads into a mix of rural lands and development , crossing CR 656 and the Little Mantua Creek . Route 44 intersects the Mid @-@ Atlantic Parkway , which provides access to I @-@ 295 and US 130 a short distance to the south , before continuing into inhabited areas . Here , the road crosses the Conrail line and CR 643 . The route becomes a four @-@ lane road and has access ramps to and from southbound I @-@ 295 / US 130 prior to coming to a crossroads with CR 640 in Thorofare . Past CR 640 , the route closely parallels I @-@ 295 / US 130 and crosses Woodbury Creek . Route 44 passes a mobile home park before coming to an end at cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has an access ramp to southbound Route 44 from southbound I @-@ 295 / US 130 .
= = History = =
What is now Route 44 was originally legislated as Route 17S in 1923 , a route that was to run from Penns Grove to Westville . By 1927 , however , the only portion of Route 17S that had existed was a road that ran from Penns Grove south to Salem . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering that occurred that year , Route 44 was designated to run from Penns Grove to Westville , replacing what had been legislated as Route 17S . By the end of the 1930s , Route 44 was extended south from Penns Grove to Salem and US 130 was also designated along with Route 44 north of Penns Grove by 1941 .
Prior to 1953 , several spurs of Route 44 existed or were planned . Route S44 was designated in 1939 as a connection from Route 44 in Bridgeport to the ferry across the Delaware River to Chester , Pennsylvania , and was concurrent with US 322 . The S44 designation was removed in 1953 to avoid the concurrency with US 322 . In 1974 , the Commodore Barry Bridge was built , bypassing the ferry , and the old alignment of US 322 became Route 324 . Route S44A was planned in 1938 as an eastern bypass of Camden from Route 45 in Brooklawn to Route 40 ( now Route 70 ) and Route 41 in Delaware Township ( now Cherry Hill ) , mostly along what is now CR 551 . The bypass was never built , although part of what would have been the bypass north of Haddonfield is now Route 41 . Route 44T was planned in 1938 as an approach to a never @-@ built tunnel under the Delaware River near Paulsboro . Originally , the route was to run from the tunnel east to the intersection of Route 41 and Route 47 in Deptford Township . In 1939 , the planned route was extended east to Route 42 between Blackwood and Williamstown .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 44 was replaced by US 130 north of the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach in Deepwater and by Route 49 south of there . However , US 130 was moved to new freeway alignments around Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . The bypassed alignments of US 130 , originally unnumbered , eventually became Route 44 . After I @-@ 295 was built in the 1960s , it bypassed the portion of the US 130 freeway in Bridgeport and was designated along the US 130 freeway north to Westville and around Carneys Point . US 130 was moved back onto its old alignment in Carneys Point , replacing that portion of Route 44 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Gloucester County .
= 1990 New York Giants season =
The 1990 New York Giants season was one of the most successful seasons in the professional football franchise 's history . The Giants , who play in the National Football Conference ( NFC ) of the National Football League ( NFL ) , won their sixth championship — and second Super Bowl — in franchise history during the season . Led by linebacker Lawrence Taylor and quarterbacks Phil Simms and Jeff Hostetler , the Giants posted a 13 – 3 record and defeated the Chicago Bears and the two time defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers in the NFC playoffs . In Super Bowl XXV they defeated the Buffalo Bills 20 – 19 in Tampa Stadium , against a patriotic backdrop inspired by the recently started Gulf War . The story of the season is the subject of a recent book , When the Cheering Stops , by defensive end Leonard Marshall and CBSsports.com co @-@ writer William Bendetson .
After making the playoffs in 1989 , the Giants entered the 1990 season as one of the favorites to win the Super Bowl , although most believed they stood little chance of preventing a threepeat by the 49ers . They began the season with a 27 – 20 win over the Philadelphia Eagles , then won their next nine games before losing a rematch to Philadelphia 31 – 13 in week 12 . The Giants also lost close games to the 49ers on the road and Bills at home in the regular season , before defeating both teams in playoff rematches . In Week 15 during the game against Buffalo , starting quarterback Phil Simms was injured and ultimately lost for the season with a broken foot . He was replaced by Hostetler , who won the final two regular season games prior to the playoffs . The Giants defense led the NFL in fewest points allowed ( 211 ) , and the team set an NFL record by committing only 14 turnovers in the regular season . After the season , six Giants were selected to the Pro Bowl .
In 2007 , ESPN.com ranked the 1990 Giants ' defense as the sixth @-@ greatest in NFL history , noting that the team " allowed only 13 @.@ 2 points a game against a very tough schedule – they played against seven playoff teams during the regular season . Led by Hall of Fame linebacker Lawrence Taylor , New York 's defense also came through in the playoffs , holding the Bears to just three points in the divisional playoff game . Then they allowed a tough 49ers offense just two field goals and one TD , and set up the game @-@ winning score by forcing a late fumble to win the NFC title 15 – 13 . In Super Bowl XXV , the Giant defense held its own against the Bills ' no @-@ huddle offense , and New York won 20 – 19 . "
= = Off @-@ season = =
= = = NFL Draft = = =
The Giants had 11 selections in the 12 round 1990 NFL Draft , as opposed to the normal 12 , and took running back Rodney Hampton in the first round with the # 24 overall selection . They took defensive end Mike Fox out of West Virginia University in the second round ( # 51 overall ) and linebacker Greg Mark ( # 79 overall ) out of the University of Miami in the third round .
= = Roster = =
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Regular season = =
All times in North American Eastern Time . ( UTC – 4 and UTC – 5 during Standard Time )
= = = Game summaries = = =
= = = = Week 1 : vs. Philadelphia Eagles = = = =
The Giants started the season with a 27 – 20 win against the Philadelphia Eagles . Despite sitting out training camp and the preseason in a contract dispute , linebacker Lawrence Taylor started against the Eagles and finished with three sacks and a forced fumble . The Giants defense forced three turnovers and held the Eagles to 83 rushing yards . The Giants offense scored three touchdowns in a 13 @-@ minute span in the third and early fourth quarters , but head coach Bill Parcells felt its performance was lackluster overall , " Our runners didn 't run the way we wanted them to . They were a little impatient . There were five or six vivid examples of cutting back too soon . You just have to give the play a chance and let it go where it 's supposed to . "
= = = = Week 2 : at Dallas Cowboys = = = =
In temperatures reaching 122 degrees on the artificial turf at Texas Stadium , the Giants played the Dallas Cowboys on September 16 . In a matchup featuring the Giants , who went 12 – 4 in 1989 , and the Cowboys , who went 1 – 15 in 1989 , the Giants dominated from the outset , and used their backup players heavily throughout the game . Lawrence Taylor batted a Troy Aikman pass high into the air that he returned for a touchdown . The Giants defense held the Cowboys to 20 rushing yards and 156 yards of total offense , while their offense gained 369 . In addition , the Cowboys totaled only nine first downs , averaged 1 @.@ 8 yards a rush attempt , and were dominated by the Giants in time of possession ; 41 minutes 40 seconds to 18 minutes 20 seconds . Despite the 28 – 7 victory , Giants center Bart Oates still felt the Giants offense could improve their play , " [ w ] e missed a lot of assignments . We rushed the ball O.K. , but not like we did against Buffalo in preseason . Phil was pressured some . There were plenty of things we didn 't do . "
= = = = Week 3 : vs. Miami Dolphins = = = =
In the first time the Giants had played the Miami Dolphins since that team 's record 1972 season , Miami held the ball for only 19 minutes and 42 seconds , and totalled only 158 yards of total offense against the Giants defense on September 23 . The Giants offense set the tone by holding the ball for 10 minutes and 25 seconds on the opening drive , leading to a field goal by Raul Allegre . They defeated the Dolphins 20 – 3 in front of 76 @,@ 483 fans at Giants Stadium . Parcells was criticized by the local media for playing Taylor in the final moments , despite the lopsided score , after he injured his hamstring . The Giants defense held the Dolphins passing game , led by eventual Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino , to 119 total yards , and 3 @.@ 6 yards per pass attempt .
= = = = Week 4 : vs. Dallas Cowboys = = = =
The Giants faced the Dallas Cowboys in week four in front of 75 @,@ 923 fans at Giants Stadium . The Giants defense held the Cowboys to 51 rushing yards on 20 attempts , and the Giants controlled the ball for 35 minutes and 38 seconds of the game . Giants quarterback Phil Simms threw three touchdowns , and backup Jeff Hostetler ran for a 12 @-@ yard score late in the fourth quarter . Although the Giants league @-@ leading defense gave up 284 yards , 84 came on the Cowboys ' final possession when the Giants played a prevent defense . Simms threw touchdown passes to Mark Ingram , and Rodney Hampton , and the Giants built a 31 – 10 early in the fourth quarter , before pulling their starters and allowing a Dallas touchdown .
= = = = Week 6 : at Washington Redskins = = = =
The Giants used their bye week to allow injured players such as linebacker Carl Banks , running back Rodney Hampton , special teamer Reyna Thompson , defensive lineman Erik Howard and offensive tackle Jumbo Elliott to recover from their injuries . They played the Washington Redskins in Washington , D.C. the following week . The Giants forced four turnovers and won despite losing the time of possession battle to the Redskins 35 minutes 28 seconds to 24 minutes 32 seconds . Defensive coordinator Bill Belichick singled out free safety Greg Jackson , who had two interceptions , after the 24 – 20 win . " Jackson must have had 10 interceptions in practice , and if ever the cliche held true about a player playing the way he practices , it was so this week . "
= = = = Week 7 : Vs Phoenix Cardinals = = = =
In week seven , the Giants faced the Phoenix Cardinals in front of 76 @,@ 518 fans at Giants Stadium . They rushed for 151 yards on 31 carries , and committed only four penalties for 24 yards . Their defense held the Cardinals to 96 passing yards and 221 yards of total offense . With 5 minutes 38 seconds left in the game , the Cardinals — 13 @-@ point underdogs going into the game — extended their lead over the Giants to 19 – 10 , and had knocked Simms out of the game . However , the Giants came back with a 38 @-@ yard touchdown from Jeff Hostetler to Stephen Baker , and Hostetler then led a late drive culminating in a game @-@ winning 40 @-@ yard field goal by Matt Bahr to win 20 – 19 . The Giants responses were subdued in their locker room after the win . " It wasn 't pretty , " said Taylor . " But you don 't ask how to win , you just win . "
= = = = Week 8 : Vs Washington Redskins = = = =
At home in front of 75 @,@ 321 fans , the Giants played the Washington Redskins in week eight . Each team totaled 16 first downs , four punts , five penalties , and the margin in time of possession was less than a minute . However , the Giants committed zero turnovers and forced the Redskins into three . Giants cornerback Everson Walls intercepted two passes — including one that he returned for his first career touchdown — and free safety Greg Jackson intercepted another . The first interception , by Walls , set up a Giants touchdown to give them a 14 – 0 lead in the second quarter . Jackson then intercepted a pass in the endzone in the third quarter to preserve a 14 – 10 lead , and Walls returned his second interception 28 yards for a touchdown that made the score 21 – 10 and put the game of reach in the fourth quarter .
= = = = Week 9 : At Indianapolis Colts = = = =
at Hooiser Dome , Indianapolis , Indiana
The Giants improved to 8 – 0 with a 24 – 7 win over the Indianapolis Colts in front of 56 @,@ 688 in the Hoosier Dome . The Giants defense held the Colts to 11 first downs , 181 total yards , and 55 rushing yards . Simms completed 17 of 21 for 172 yards , with no touchdowns , one interception . Simms ' interception ended a streak of 150 passes without an interception . Defensive end Leonard Marshall sacked Colts quarterback Jeff George twice , Dave Duerson returned a fumble for a touchdown , and the Giants defense held George to 160 yards passing on 37 pass attempts . The Giants controlled the game from the start , ending the first half leading 17 – 0 , and ahead of the Colts 206 to 45 in total yards , 13 to 1 in first downs , and 20 : 57 to 9 : 03 in time of possession .
= = = = Week 10 : At Los Angeles Rams = = = =
at Anaheim Stadium , Anaheim , California
The Giants traveled to California to face the Los Angeles Rams on November 11 . They defeated the Rams 31 – 7 in front of 64 @,@ 632 fans in Anaheim Stadium , led by Simm 's efficient passing . Going into the game the Rams had beaten the Giants three times in two years , including eliminating the Giants in the 1989 playoffs . Although the Giants defense was only able to sack Rams quarterback Jim Everett twice , they forced him into 17 of 36 passing for 186 yards , zero touchowns , and three interceptions . " It 's hard to sack him " , Belichick said . " But we kept the pressure on . We had the same coverage we used the last eight years . Nothing radically different . "
= = = = Week 11 : Vs Detroit Lions = = = =
The Giants defeated the Detroit Lions 20 – 0 in week 11 to improve their record to 10 – 0 , and set a franchise record for wins to start to a season . Simms threw a 57 @-@ yard touchdown pass to receiver Mark Ingram in the second quarter to run the score to 17 – 0 . After the Giants kicked a field goal to make the score 20 – 0 , the teams played a scoreless second half . The shutout was the Giants defense first of the season , and coach Parcells commented , " [ t ] he defense played very well . The offense played well when I let them . We played conservatively in the second half . We played pretty much error @-@ free . We didn 't do anything stupid . "
= = = = Week 12 : At Philadelphia Eagles = = = =
at Veterans Stadium , Philadelphia
The Giants were dealt their first 1990 regular season loss in a 31 – 13 defeat against the Philadelphia Eagles on November 25 to set their record at 10 – 1 . The Eagles broke open a close game by scoring two touchdowns in 22 seconds in the fourth quarter . The game was marked by several scuffles and after the game some of the Giants players complained of the tactics used by the Eagles . The Eagles amassed 179 rushing yards and 405 total yards , and punted the ball just twice in the victory . Eagles quarterback Randall Cunningham rushed for 66 yards while completing 17 of 31 passes for 229 yards , two touchdowns , and zero interceptions . Taylor , who recorded three sacks and seven tackles in the Giants season opening victory over the Eagles , was held to one tackle in the loss .
= = = = Week 13 : At San Francisco 49ers = = = =
at Candlestick Park , San Francisco , California
The San Francisco 49ers matched the Giants with their own 10 – 0 start in the 1990 season . Although both teams lost in week 12 to stand at 10 – 1 , their week 13 matchup was still highly anticipated . The game took place in front of 66 @,@ 092 fans at Candlestick Park . The 49ers scored the only touchdown of the game in the second quarter on a 23 @-@ yard pass from Joe Montana to John Taylor . With four minutes left , they stopped the Giants on four passes from the 49ers ' 9 @-@ yard line and went on to win , 7 – 3 , after which 49ers safety Ronnie Lott and Simms had a heated verbal exchange . The Giants defense performed well in the loss . They held the 49ers to 152 passing yards , 88 rushing yards , and limited All @-@ Pro Wide receiver Jerry Rice to one reception for 13 yards . 49ers defensive end Charles Haley recorded five tackles , 1 @.@ 5 sacks , and two forced fumbles in the victory .
= = = = Week 14 : Vs Minnesota Vikings = = = =
The Giants hosted the Minnesota Vikings in week 14 . Led by Taylor , who recorded 12 tackles and two sacks , the Giants defense held the Vikings to 132 passing yards . Taylor also forced a fumble by Vikings quarterback Rich Gannon and pressured Gannon into an interception by Gary Reasons at the Viking 17 @-@ yard line , which positioned Matt Bahr for the game @-@ clinching 18 @-@ yard field goal . In addition , Taylor gave several inspirational speeches to his teammates . " He told us : ' I 'm going to start playing the way we 're supposed to play . If anybody wants to come along , fine , ' " inside linebacker Steve DeOssie said . " He changed our attitude . " The Giants won 23 – 15 to improve to 11 – 2 . Prior to this game , Parcells had been hospitalized for kidney stones .
= = = = Week 15 : Vs Buffalo Bills = = = =
In what would turn out to be a preview of Super Bowl XXV , the Giants lost at home to the Buffalo Bills 17 – 13 in week 15 . The game was played in inclement weather , which caused 10 @,@ 295 no @-@ shows at Giants Stadium . They led the Bills in total yards ( 313 to 264 ) , rushing yards ( 157 to 65 ) , first downs ( 20 to 13 ) and time of possession ( 37 minutes 59 seconds to 22 : 01 ) , but lost nonetheless . Simms broke his foot during the game , causing him to miss the remainder of the season , and was replaced by Jeff Hostetler , who had engineered the Giants ' week seven 4th quarter comeback versus Phoenix . The Bills built a 14 – 10 second quarter lead behind 74 and 78 yard touchdown drives . The teams alternated field goals to make the score 17 – 13 . However , the Giants could not score in the fourth quarter despite mounting drives to the Bills ' 18 and 23 yard lines . This was Lionel Manuel 's last game as a Giant , as he was waived afterwards .
= = = = Week 16 : At Phoenix Cardinals = = = =
at Sun Devil Stadium , Tempe , Arizona
The Giants played the Phoenix Cardinals in Tempe , Arizona in week 16 . Their defense allowed 452 yards , and Cardinals quarterback Timm Rosenbach threw for three touchdowns and set a new career high with 381 yards passing . The Giants noticed in the week leading up to the game that teams had success running with their fullback against the Cardinals , and in the game , Giants ' fullback Maurice Carthon set a career high with 67 rushing yards on 12 carries . They also installed several plays to take advantage of quarterback Jeff Hostetler 's scrambling ability . Hostetler threw for 191 yards and ran for 31 in his first start of the season . The Giants held on to win 24 – 21 when two of the Cardinals fourth quarter drives resulted in interceptions and their final drive was ended by a Taylor sack . The win clinched the NFC 's # 2 seed ( over the Chicago Bears ) and first @-@ round bye for the playoffs .
= = = = Week 17 : At New England Patriots = = = =
at Foxboro Stadium , Foxboro , Massachusetts
The Giants travelled to Massachusetts to face the New England Patriots at Foxboro Stadium in week 17 . The game was a de facto home game , as many Giants fans made the trip up to Foxborough to sell the stadium out . The game had no playoff implications for the Giants , who could not surpass the 49ers for the # 1 seed in the NFC playoffs . The Giants rushed for a season high yards 213 yards , led by Hostetler 's 82 yards on 10 carries . The Patriots ' Jason Staurovsky missed a potential game @-@ tying 42 @-@ yard field goal in the fourth quarter , and Hostetler then ran a 30 @-@ yard bootleg on a key third down play to allow the Giants to run out the clock and secure the victory 13 – 10 .
= = = Standings = = =
= = Playoffs = =
The Giants finished the regular season having committed an NFL record low 14 turnovers , and their defense led the league in fewest points allowed ( 211 ) . Following the season , six Giants — defensive lineman Erik Howard , center Bart Oates , offensive guard William Roberts , linebackers Pepper Johnson and Lawrence Taylor , and special teamer Reyna Thompson — were selected to the Pro Bowl .
= = = NFC Divisional Playoff : Vs Chicago Bears = = =
The Giants defeated the Chicago Bears 31 – 3 at home in the NFC Divisional playoff game on January 13 , 1991 . Ottis Anderson rushed for 80 yards on 21 carries , and the Giants rushed for 194 yards overall , and dominated the Bears in time of possession ; 38 minutes and 22 seconds to 21 minutes and 38 seconds . Parcells at the suggestion of Belichick used a four @-@ man defensive line most of the game — as opposed to their traditional 3 @-@ 4 defense — confusing the unprepared Bears who had trouble with their blocking assignments . The Giants were 4 for 4 on fourth down plays and converted 6 of 14 third downs . The Giants defense stopped the Bears on the goal line on a fourth down attempt in the second quarter , and held Bears quarterback Mike Tomczak to 17 of 36 passing for 205 yards , and two interceptions , and running back Neal Anderson to a season @-@ low 19 yards on 12 carries . Hostetler threw for two touchdowns and ran for a third .
= = = NFC Championship Game : At San Francisco 49ers = = =
at Candlestick Park , San Francisco , California
The Giants advanced to face the two @-@ time defending champion San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship game on January 20 , 1991 in front of 65 @,@ 750 fans at Candlestick Park . The game was a rematch of the 7 – 3 49ers win one month earlier . The teams alternated field goals in the first and second quarter to make the score 6 – 6 at halftime . Less than five minutes into the third quarter 49ers Joe Montana threw a 61 @-@ yard touchdown pass to receiver John Taylor to give the 49ers a 13 – 6 lead . A Giants ' field goal made the score 13 – 9 at the end of the third quarter . With 9 : 42 remaining in the game , Leonard Marshall sacked Montana and knocked him from the game due to several injuries . The Giants got the ball back , but were stopped on a key third down and one . On fourth down , Parcells called a fake punt , which resulted in a long run by Gary Reasons to set up another Giants ' field goal , making the score 13 – 12 . The 49ers gained possession of the ball and attempted to run out the clock , but nose tackle Erik Howard made a key play , fighting through a double @-@ team to knock the ball out of running back Roger Craig 's possession . Lawrence Taylor caught the fumble in mid @-@ air , which gave the ball to the Giants at their own 43 @-@ yard line . Hostetler completed passes to Bavaro and Baker which took them to the San Francisco 24 @-@ yard line . Matt Bahr then made his fifth field goal from the 25 @-@ yard line a few plays later as time expired , giving the Giants a 15 – 13 victory .
= = = Super Bowl XXV = = =
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Super Bowl XXV took place amidst a background of war and patriotism in front of 73 @,@ 813 fans at Tampa Stadium , in Tampa , Florida . The Gulf War had begun less than two weeks previous and the nation rallied around the Super Bowl as a symbol of America . Adding to the patriotism was Whitney Houston 's stirring rendition of the National Anthem , which became known as one of the greatest renditions in Super Bowl history . The game lived up to the stirring Anthem , as it went down as the most competitive Super Bowl in history . The Giants got off to a quick 3 – 0 lead . However , the Bills scored the next 12 points , on a field goal , a touchdown by backup running back Don Smith , and a safety after Jeff Hostetler was sacked in the end zone by Bruce Smith , to give the Bills a 12 – 3 lead . The Giants then ran a drive that took nearly 8 minutes , and culminated in a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Hostetler to Stephen Baker making the score 12 – 10 at halftime .
The Giants received the second half kickoff and mounted a record @-@ setting drive , during which they converted on five third down plays . The opening drive ran for over 9 minutes ( a Super Bowl record ) and culminated in a 1 @-@ yard touchdown run by Ottis Anderson , giving the Giants a 17 – 12 lead . The signature play of the drive came on a third down play , when Giants receiver Mark Ingram appeared about to be tackled well short of a first down . However , Ingram evaded several tacklers , and dragged one defender just enough to get the Giants the first down , and kept the drive alive . By this time , the Giants strategy to handle the Bills offense had become clear : keep them off the field . Indeed , the Giants two touchdown drives consumed over 17 minutes .
The Bills struck back quickly . On the first play of the fourth quarter , Thurman Thomas ran for a 31 @-@ yard touchdown that put the Bills back in front , 19 – 17 . A few possessions later , the Giants drove down to the Bills 4 yard line , but were unable to score a touchdown and had to settle for a 21 @-@ yard field goal by Matt Bahr that gave the Giants a 20 – 19 lead . Both teams exchanged possessions before the Bills began one final drive . The Bills drove down to the Giants 30 @-@ yard line to set up what would be a potentially game @-@ winning 47 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Scott Norwood . Just before the kick , ABC showed a graphic indicating that , on grass that season , Norwood had only made 3 – of – 7 field goals from at least 40 yards , and that the 47 @-@ yarder would be Norwood 's longest ever on grass . A few moments later , in what became the game 's signature moment , Norwood 's attempt missed wide right , and the Giants won their second Super Bowl in five years , 20 – 19 .
The Giants set a Super Bowl record for time of possession with a mark of 40 : 33 , and Ottis Anderson was named MVP of the game after rushing for 102 yards and a touchdown .
= = Season Facts = =
This year was the second of four times that the Giants faced a team in the regular season that they later played in the Super Bowl . The Giants are 2 – 2 in the regular season and 4 – 0 in the Super Bowl .
The Giants played the Miami Dolphins for the first time since their first meeting in 1972 .
The Giants set a NFL Record for the fewest turnovers in a 16 game season with 14 .
The Giants had a 13 @-@ game regular season winning streak : 3 wins in 1989 and 10 wins in 1990 .
The Giants 10 – 0 start was their best start in team history and their 13 – 3 final standings was their second best finish in a 16 game season .
The Giants victory over the Chicago Bears in the NFC Divisional Playoff Game was their first win over the Bears in the playoffs since 1956 .
= = Awards and honors = =
Ottis Anderson , Super Bowl Most Valuable Player
Reyna Thompson , 1990 All @-@ Madden Team
Reyna Thompson , 1990 NFC Pro Bowl selection
Eric Howard , 1990 All @-@ Madden Team
Matt Bahr , 1990 All @-@ Madden Team
= 102d Intelligence Wing =
The United States Air Force 's 102d Intelligence Wing ( 102 IW ) , of the Massachusetts Air National Guard , is a military intelligence unit located at Otis Air National Guard Base , Massachusetts . Its primary subordinate operational unit is the 101st Intelligence Squadron . According to the Air Force , the history of the 102d begins with the 318th Fighter Group , which was active during World War II . After the war , the 318th was inactivated , and eventually the 102d Fighter Wing was formed , which had a direct lineage link . In 1946 , the 102d was activated at Logan International Airport where it stayed until 1968 , when it moved to Otis Air Force Base . Beginning in 1946 , the wing began regular patrols of the Northeastern United States which took place in conjunction with Air Force active duty units . In 1968 , the 102d was moved to Otis , where it continued its regular patrols until 1973 .
During the time that the wing had a flying mission , the wing deployed to many locations around the globe to assist in missions for the Air Force . In 1961 , the wing deployed to France during the Berlin Crisis . Twenty eight years later , the wing deployed to Panama during Operation Coronet Nighthawk . It also participated in Operation Northern Watch , helping to patrol the No @-@ Fly Zone north of the 36th parallel in Iraq . During the 11 September attacks , the 102d Fighter Wing deployed the first Air Force aircraft toward New York City , but they arrived too late to stop the attacks .
Over the years , the wing has controlled many other Air National Guard units . Following the inactivation of the 67th Fighter Wing in November 1950 , the wing was put in charge of a few fighter units on the Atlantic Coast . In 1976 , the wing even became responsible for the 147th Fighter Interceptor Group , located in Texas .
Military downsizing through the Base Realignment and Closure ( BRAC ) process removed the wing 's F @-@ 15C Eagles beginning in 2007 , leaving the 102d with an intelligence gathering mission . If activated to federal service , the Wing is gained by the United States Air Force Air Force Intelligence , Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency , and is one of three Air National Guard wings under this agency . As commonwealth militia units , the units in the 102d Intelligence Wing are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command . They are under the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts National Guard unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States .
= = Mission = =
According to their home page , the 102d 's mission is " to provide world wide precision intelligence and command and control , along with trained and experienced airmen for expeditionary combat support and homeland security . " In addition , the website says that their Air Force based mission is in line with the ability of joint force commanders to keep pace with information and incorporate it into a campaign plan . In addition to its strictly military role , the wing shares the overall Air National Guard mission of providing assistance during national emergencies such as natural disasters and civil disturbances .
= = History = =
The 102d Intelligence Wing traces its roots to the 318th Fighter Group which was formed in 1942 . It fought in the Pacific as part of bomber escort missions to Japan , and participated in aircraft carrier operations , rarely experienced by the Army Air Force . The 318th returned to the United States after the war , was inactivated on 12 January 1946
The wartime 318th Fighter Group was re @-@ designated as the 102d Fighter Group , and was allotted to the Massachusetts Air National Guard on 24 May 1946 . It was organized at Logan Airport , Boston , and was extended federal recognition on 22 October 1946 by the National Guard Bureau . The 102d Fighter Group was bestowed the lineage , history , honors , and colors of the 318th Fighter Group .
From October 1946 the 102nd ( previously the 69th Fighter Wing ) was commanded by General Louis E. Boutwell until his death in July 1947 . From July 1947 until 1956 the 102nd was commanded by Brigadier General Lyle E. Halstead .
= = = Cold War = = =
In the post @-@ war era the National Guard Bureau began a major expansion of its air units . Massachusetts was allotted the 67th Fighter Wing , which consisted of the 101st Fighter Squadron , the 131st Fighter Squadron , the 132nd Fighter Squadron , the 202nd Air Service Group , 601st Signal Construction Company , 101st Communications Squadron , 101st Air Control Squadron , 151st Air Control and Warning Group , 567th Air Force Band , 101st Weather Flight and the 1801st Aviation Engineer Company . The 67th Wing was assigned to Air Defense Command .
Guard units were generally neglected when the United States Air Force was created . Despite the introduction of jet fighters , the Guard units were left with generally overused World War II propeller aircraft , and had few funds for training . As the Cold War intensified , the Air Force looked to the Guard to fill United States @-@ based interception missions and started overhauling their organization . Although the Massachusetts Air National Guard wasn 't federalized for the Korean War , many airmen volunteered for active duty and flew in Korea . On 1 November 1950 , the 67th Fighter Wing was inactivated and replaced by the 102d Fighter Wing , including just the 101st and 131st squadrons and their associated support units , and at some point before 1961 the wing was renamed a Tactical Fighter Wing . Additionally , the wing kept the 567th , and the 1801st . The squadrons were issued F @-@ 84B Thunderjets , but these were recalled and replaced by F @-@ 51 Mustangs which were flown until 1954 when the F @-@ 94 Starfire replaced the Mustangs . In 1952 the 253rd Combat Communications Group was activated and added to the 102d . In 1958 the Wing converted to the F @-@ 86H Sabre .
From 1956 to 1976 , the 102d was commanded by Brigadier General Charles W. Sweeney , pilot of the B @-@ 29 Superfortress Bockscar that dropped the Fat Man nuclear bomb on Nagasaki , Japan . During his tenure , the wing developed from a rather new unit to the mainstay of air defense in the Northeastern United States .
= = = = Berlin Wall Crisis = = = =
On 16 August 1961 , when the Berlin Wall crisis was unfolding , several United States Air Force Reserve units were notified of their pending recall to active duty . On 1 October the wing and its three squadrons , the 101st , 131st and 138th were placed on active duty at Otis Air Force Base .
In late October , the 102d departed Logan for Phalsbourg @-@ Bourscheid Air Base , Phalsbourg , France . The wing had 82 Sabres , plus two C @-@ 47 Skytrains and six T @-@ 33 Shooting Stars for support and training purposes . During the crisis , the wing controlled the 102d Tactical Fighter Group , the 104th Tactical Fighter Group , and the 174th Tactical Fighter Group from New York . The 102d 's primary mission was to provide close air support to NATO ground forces , including the Seventh Army , and air interdiction . During the blockade , the 102d did not incur any losses . Starting on 5 December 1961 the 102d began deploying to Wheelus Air Base , Libya for gunnery training .
During its time in Europe , the 102d participated in several United States Air Force and North Atlantic Treaty Organization exercises , including a deployment to Leck Air Base , West Germany near the Danish border . At Leck , ground and support crews from both countries exchanged duties , learning how to perform aircraft maintenance and operational support tasks .
The 102d returned to the United States in August 1962 . Regular Air Force personnel and a group of Air National Guard personnel who volunteered to remain on active duty formed the 480th Tactical Fighter Squadron of the newly activated 366th Tactical Fighter Wing .
= = = = Relocation to Otis = = = =
In 1968 , the 102d Tactical Fighter Wing moved to Otis Air Force Base , and was reassigned from the Air Defense Command to the Tactical Air Command the next year . The wing flew the F @-@ 84F Thunderstreak from 1964 until June 1971 , when a squadron of F @-@ 100D Super Sabres was transferred directly from units fighting the Vietnam War . These were superseded soon after by the Mach 2 F @-@ 106 Delta Darts and on 10 June 1972 , the unit became the 102d Air Defense Wing . On 30 December 1973 , Otis Air Force Base was inactivated and transferred to the Massachusetts Air National Guard as Otis Air National Guard Base .
The wing intercepted Soviet Tupolev Tu @-@ 95 Bear bombers on many occasions , the first of which occurred off Long Island on 25 April 1975 . Many of these incidents involved escorting the Bears to Cuba . The wing occasionally shadowed drug smuggling aircraft , and on one occasion was scrambled to escort an unidentified object , which later turned out to be a weather balloon .
In 1976 , the 102d Fighter Interceptor Group was inactivated and reformed as the 102d Fighter Interceptor Wing . It assumed authority for the 177th Fighter Interceptor Group at Atlantic City Air National Guard Base and the 12
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six that night , all twenty one planes were put into the air .
= = = = = Conspiracy link = = = = =
After the initial shock of the attacks had passed , questions arose about how the military handled the hijacking and subsequent response with the jets . Some thought that the jets had been purposely kept from flying immediately to New York City . The questions arising from the response time of the jets come from the practice of Cold War era policies which prohibited the immediate response to an emergency like a hijacking . First responder and pilot Daniel Nash said that he could not recall being told that the North Tower was hit but he did remember seeing the smoke over 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) away . It is also claimed by conspiracists that the calculations of North American Aerospace Defense Command were incorrect because according to their own calculations , the planes were flying at 24 % of their maximum speed . This statement takes into account the time in which the planes were in a holding pattern over military airspace . The jets were also prohibited from going supersonic over land by Federal Aviation Administration rules . These rules are meant to prevent damage to buildings from the shock wave a sonic boom produces .
= = = Global War on Terror = = =
= = = = Operation Noble Eagle = = = =
More than 600 wing members were mobilized for Operation Noble Eagle , and the wing began flying around @-@ the @-@ clock combat air patrol missions immediately thereafter . This continued until February 2002 . On 22 December 2001 the wing escorted American Airlines Flight 63 as a direct result of Richard Reid trying to blow up a plane .
In the buildup to the invasion of Afghanistan , six F @-@ 15s and 161 personnel were sent to the Persian Gulf region . The wing also patrolled the skies of the Northeastern United States during this time period . The wing though never deployed for Operation Iraqi Freedom . The wing converted from the F @-@ 15A / B to the F @-@ 15C / D in 2004 . These planes came from Kadena Air Base .
= = = = BRAC 2005 = = = =
The Base Realignment and Closure 2005 commission originally planned to close Otis Air National Guard Base and dissolve the 102d . Locals argued that this would leave a huge gap in the national air defenses . Commission officials , after visiting the base , decided to keep it open , but the 102d would still lose its planes , only this time they were only going to the 104th Fighter Wing , based at Barnes Municipal Airport .
In May 2006 it trained with the Israeli Air Force 's 115 Squadron .
The wing hosted the Cape Cod Air Show & Open House , its last air show with the F @-@ 15C Eagle at the end of Air Force Week in August 2007 . The wing shared a commonality with the 101st Air Refueling Wing , the 103d Fighter Wing , and the 104th Fighter Wing , which due to commission decisions , also changed the type of planes that they flew . Beginning in 2007 , the F @-@ 15s began moving to Barnes Municipal Airport . With the grounding of the F @-@ 15 Eagles , the 158th Fighter Wing , which is based in Vermont took over the role of patrolling the Northeast 's skies earlier than expected . This interruption of the F @-@ 15 's flight , coinciding with the transitioning of the fighter jets to the 104th Fighter Wing , created some issues .
On 24 January 2008 , the 102d Fighter Wing flew its last patrol mission . The unit 's wing commander , Colonel Anthony Schiavi , led the flight , accompanied by Major Daniel Nash , who was one of the first responders for 9 / 11 . Fire trucks were on hand when the team landed a half @-@ hour later , giving the planes and the pilots the customary ceremonial hose @-@ down for the last time .
= = = = New mission = = = =
When it was announced that the wing would be restructured and Otis Air National Guard Base would remain open , discussions began about the future of the 102d . Staff of the 102d and those at Massachusetts Air National Guard headquarters considered a plan centered on the idea that the wing could transition to an intelligence mission to support the growing War on Terror . The idea hit a roadblock when it was announced that the funds which the wing could use to convert into its new mission had been depleted .
Eventually , Governor Deval Patrick announced that the wing would adopt an intelligence role as soon as the aircraft left .
Original Base Realignment and Closure commission plans only hinted at a Distributed Common Ground System being created at Otis . These plans did not include the air guardsmen affected by the loss of their jobs . The issue was resolved when the Air Force announced its plans , right before the F @-@ 15s started to leave for Barnes .
The 102d Fighter Wing was formally re @-@ designated the 102d Intelligence Wing on 6 April 2008 and was planned to reach full operational capacity in 2010 .
Members of the wing had the option of moving with the F @-@ 15s to Barnes , but most decided to stay behind and train for new missions . The crash trucks went to Barnes , leaving the brush breakers of the Massachusetts Military Reservation behind . The buildings formerly occupied by the fighter wing , including the hangars , will be occupied by the intelligence mission .
On 6 November 2009 , ground was broken on new facilities for the 102d Intelligence Wing . The building will eventually replace the temporary facilities that the wing is now operating in .
= = Units assigned = =
= = = Current = = =
= = = Former = = =
= Glam ( song ) =
" Glam " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera , taken from her sixth studio album Bionic ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Aguilera , Claude Kelly and C. " Tricky " Stewart , with production was handled by Stewart . The song talks about getting glam and sexy before a night out . According to Aguilera and Kelly , " Glam " was a throwback to Madonna 's " Vogue " ( 1990 ) .
At first , the track was planned to be the lead single from Bionic , however " Not Myself Tonight " was released instead . " Glam " received mixed reviews from music critics , with some praised it as one of the best uptempo tracks on the album , while others named it dull and criticized that the song was not as good as " Vogue " . Upon the release of Bionic , " Glam " peaked at number two on the South Korean International Download Chart and number 42 on the main South Korean Download Chart .
= = Background and composition = =
In January 5 , 2010 , Aguilera announced that " Glam " would be released as the lead single from Bionic during an interview with Marie Claire magazine . She described the song as a " tentative " and " poppy " throwback to Madonna 's " Vogue " ( 1990 ) . On an interview with Vibe , co @-@ writer Claude Kelly described the song as " a party anthem but at the same time has underlying messages " . On March 23 , 2010 , after a 24 @-@ hour countdown on her official website ended , it was revealed that " Not Myself Tonight " would be released as the first single from the album , instead of " Glam " .
Recorded at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California , " Glam " was written by Aguilera , Claude Kelly and Christopher Stewart , while the production was handled by Tricky Stewart . The song is preceded by a word @-@ spoken interlude titled " Love & Glamour " . " Glam " was described by MTV News as " a poppy , hip @-@ hop inflected throwback to Madonna 's ' Vogue . ' " . Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt called it a " finger @-@ snappy ' 90s flashbacks " . Lyrically , it talks about high fashion , getting glam and sexy before a night out . At a part of the song , she dispenses fashion tips and sings , " Don 't let the clothes wear you ! " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Glam " received mixed reviews from music critics . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post named it " a great moment on the album " . Mesfin Fekadu from Boston.com website agreed , calling it " one of the disc 's best uptempo tracks " . USA Today editor Elysa Gardner gave the song a positive review , writing that " [ Aguilera ] chants deadpan before letting loose a creamy belt that evokes an earthier version of Whitney Houston in her prime " . UK newspaper The Scotsman wrote that the song " is her blatant bid to produce a Vogue for our times " , while Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine labelled " Glam " as a " top @-@ heavy cocktail that mixes one part ' Vogue ' with two parts ' Technologic ' " .
Brad Steirn from MuuMuse named it " dud " , while Michael Cragg from musicOMH called it " dated " . Omar Kholeif of PopMatters wrote a negative review , stating " Christina isn 't afraid to shake , thrust , and hustle , as she professes on ' Glam ' , an obvious homage to ' Vogue ' that isn 't nearly as catchy or sultry as it thinks it is . " Jordan Richardson from Blogcritics agreed , writing that " The track is a frustrating and uncomfortable ode to Madonna 's ' Vogue , ' but Aguilera fails in recreating any of the slinkiness of the track she 's trying to emulate " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Recording – The Boom Boom Room , Burbank , California
Vocal recording – The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Bionic , RCA Records .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of the album Bionic , " Glam " debuted at number 62 on the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart on the chart issue dated June 13 – 19 , 2010 . It additionally entered the Gaon International Digital Chart at number 3 . " Glam " was the 35th best @-@ selling international single on the Gaon Chart in 2010 , with 354 @,@ 259 digital copies sold .
= Emperor penguin =
The emperor penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri ) is the tallest and heaviest of all living penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica . The male and female are similar in plumage and size , reaching 122 cm ( 48 in ) in height and weighing from 22 to 45 kg ( 49 to 99 lb ) . The dorsal side and head are black and sharply delineated from the white belly , pale @-@ yellow breast and bright @-@ yellow ear patches . Like all penguins it is flightless , with a streamlined body , and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat .
Its diet consists primarily of fish , but can also include crustaceans , such as krill , and cephalopods , such as squid . In hunting , the species can remain submerged up to 18 minutes , diving to a depth of 535 m ( 1 @,@ 755 ft ) . It has several adaptations to facilitate this , including an unusually structured haemoglobin to allow it to function at low oxygen levels , solid bones to reduce barotrauma , and the ability to reduce its metabolism and shut down non @-@ essential organ functions .
The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter , emperor penguins trek 50 – 120 km ( 31 – 75 mi ) over the ice to breeding colonies which may include thousands of individuals . The female lays a single egg , which is incubated by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed ; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony . The lifespan is typically 20 years in the wild , although observations suggest that some individuals may live to 50 years of age .
= = Taxonomy = =
Emperor penguins were described in 1844 by English zoologist George Robert Gray , who created the generic name from Ancient Greek word elements , ἀ @-@ πτηνο @-@ δύτης [ a @-@ ptēno @-@ dytēs ] , " without @-@ wings @-@ diver " . Its specific name is in honour of the German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster , who accompanied Captain James Cook on his second voyage and officially named five other penguin species . Forster may have been the first person to sight the penguins in 1773 – 74 ; he recorded a sighting of what he believed to be A. patagonicus but , given the location , may well have been A. forsteri .
Together with the similarly coloured but smaller king penguin ( A. patagonicus ) , the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus Aptenodytes . Fossil evidence of a third species — Ridgen 's penguin ( A. ridgeni ) — has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene , about three million years ago , in New Zealand . Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus Aptenodytes is basal ; in other words , that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species . Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago .
= = Description = =
Adult emperor penguins stand up to 110 – 130 cm ( 43 – 51 in ) tall . The weight ranges from 22 @.@ 7 to 45 @.@ 4 kg ( 50 to 100 lb ) and varies by sex , with males weighing more than females . It is the fifth heaviest living bird species , after only the larger varieties of ratite . The weight also varies by season , as both male and female penguins lose substantial mass while raising hatchlings and incubating their egg . A male emperor penguin must withstand the Antarctic cold for more than two months to protect his egg from extreme cold . During this entire time he doesn 't eat anything . Most male penguins will lose about 12 kg ( 26 lb ) while they wait for their chicks to hatch . The mean weight of males at the start of the breeding season is 38 kg ( 84 lb ) and that of females is 29 @.@ 5 kg ( 65 lb ) . After the breeding season this drops to 23 kg ( 51 lb ) for both sexes .
Like all penguin species , emperor penguins have streamlined bodies to minimize drag while swimming , and wings that are more like stiff , flat flippers . The tongue is equipped with rear @-@ facing barbs to prevent prey from escaping when caught . Males and females are similar in size and colouration . The adult has deep black dorsal feathers , covering the head , chin , throat , back , dorsal part of the flippers , and tail . The black plumage is sharply delineated from the light @-@ coloured plumage elsewhere . The underparts of the wings and belly are white , becoming pale yellow in the upper breast , while the ear patches are bright yellow . The upper mandible of the 8 cm ( 3 in ) long bill is black , and the lower mandible can be pink , orange or lilac . In juveniles , the auricular patches , chin and throat are white , while its bill is black . Emperor penguin chicks are typically covered with silver @-@ grey down and have black heads and white masks . A chick with all @-@ white plumage was found in 2001 , but was not considered to be an albino as it did not have pink eyes . Chicks weigh around 315 g ( 11 oz ) after hatching , and fledge when they reach about 50 % of adult weight .
The emperor penguin 's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February ( the Antarctic summer ) , before the yearly moult in January and February . Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds , taking only around 34 days . Emperor penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a third of their total length , and before old feathers are lost , to help reduce heat loss . New feathers then push out the old ones before finishing their growth .
The average yearly survival rate of emperor penguins has been measured at 95 @.@ 1 % , with an average life expectancy of 19 @.@ 9 years . The same researchers estimated that 1 % of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of 50 years . In contrast , only 19 % of chicks survive their first year of life . Therefore , 80 % of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older .
= = = Vocalization = = =
As the species has no fixed nest sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick , emperor penguins must rely on vocal calls alone for identification . They use a complex set of calls that are critical to individual recognition between parents , offspring , and mates , displaying the widest variation in individual calls of all penguins . Vocalizing emperor penguins use two frequency bands simultaneously . Chicks use a frequency @-@ modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents .
= = = Adaptations to cold = = =
The emperor penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any bird species ; air temperatures may reach − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) , and wind speeds may reach 144 km / h ( 89 mph ) . Water temperature is a frigid − 1 @.@ 8 ° C ( 28 @.@ 8 ° F ) , which is much lower than the emperor penguin 's average body temperature of 39 ° C ( 102 ° F ) . The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat loss . Feathers provide 80 – 90 % of its insulation , and it has a layer of sub @-@ dermal fat which may be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick before breeding . This resultant blubber layer impedes the mobility of emperor penguins on land compared to their less fat @-@ insulated cousins , the Magellanic penguins . While the density of contour feathers is approximately 9 per square centimetre , a combination of dense afterfeathers and down feathers ( plumules ) likely play a critical role for insulation . Muscles allow the feathers to be held erect on land , reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin . Conversely , the plumage is flattened in water , thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer . Preening is vital in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water @-@ repellent .
The emperor penguin is able to thermoregulate ( maintain its core body temperature ) without altering its metabolism , over a wide range of temperatures . Known as the thermoneutral range , this extends from − 10 to 20 ° C ( 14 to 68 ° F ) . Below this temperature range , its metabolic rate increases significantly , although an individual can maintain its core temperature from 38 @.@ 0 ° C ( 100 @.@ 4 ° F ) down to − 47 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Movement by swimming , walking , and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism ; a fourth process involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes , which is induced by the hormone glucagon . At temperatures above 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , an emperor penguin may become agitated as its body temperature and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss . Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the exposure of its body surface to the air by 16 % , facilitating further heat loss .
= = = Adaptations to pressure and low oxygen = = =
In addition to the cold , the emperor penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives — markedly increased pressure of up to 40 times that of the surface , which in most other terrestrial organisms would cause barotrauma . The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air @-@ filled , which eliminates the risk of mechanical barotrauma .
While diving , the emperor penguin 's oxygen use is markedly reduced , as its heart rate is reduced to as low as 15 – 20 beats per minute and non @-@ essential organs are shut down , thus facilitating longer dives . Its haemoglobin and myoglobin are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations ; this allows the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in loss of consciousness .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66 ° and 77 ° south latitudes . It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to 18 km ( 11 mi ) offshore . Breeding colonies are usually located in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs shelter them from the wind . Three land colonies have been reported : one ( now disappeared ) on a shingle spit at the Dion Islands on the Antarctic Peninsula , one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in the Australian Antarctic Territory , and most recently one at Amundsen Bay . Since 2009 , a number of colonies have been reported on shelf ice rather than sea ice , in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late .
The northernmost breeding population is on Snow Island , near the northern tip of the Peninsula . Individual vagrants have been recorded on Heard Island , South Georgia , and in New Zealand .
The total population was estimated in 2009 to be at around 595 @,@ 000 adult birds , in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub @-@ Antarctic ; around 35 % of the known population lives north of the Antarctic Circle . Major breeding colonies were located at Cape Washington , Coulman Island in Victoria Land , Halley , Cape Colbeck , and Dibble Glacier . Colonies are known to fluctuate over time , often breaking into " suburbs " which move apart from the parent group , and some have been known to disappear entirely . The Cape Crozier colony on the Ross Sea dropped drastically in size between the first visits by the Discovery Expedition in 1902 – 03 and the later visits by the Terra Nova Expedition in 1910 – 11 ; it was reduced to a few hundred birds , and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf . By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically , but by 2009 was again reduced to a small population of around 300 .
= = = Conservation status = = =
In 2012 the emperor penguin was uplisted from a species of least concern to near threatened by the IUCN . Along with nine other species of penguin , it is currently under consideration for inclusion under the US Endangered Species Act . The primary causes for an increased risk of species endangerment are declining food availability , due to the effects of climate change and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations . Other reasons for the species 's placement on the Endangered Species Act 's list include disease , habitat destruction , and disturbance at breeding colonies by humans . Of particular concern is the impact of tourism . One study concluded that emperor penguin chicks in a crèche become more apprehensive following helicopter approach to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) .
Population declines of 50 % in the Terre Adélie region have been observed due to increased adult mortality , especially of males , during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s , which resulted in reduced sea @-@ ice coverage . On the other hand , egg hatching success rates declined when the sea @-@ ice extent increased . The species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic changes . In 2009 , the Dion Islands colony , which has been extensively studied since 1948 , was reported to have disappeared at some point over the previous decade , the first confirmed loss of a colony .
A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found that emperor penguins could be pushed to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change . The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at Terre Adélie , Antarctica . The study forecasted an 87 % decline in the colony 's population , from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to four hundred breeding pairs in 2100 .
In June 2014 a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution concluded that emperor penguins are at risk from global warming , which is melting the sea ice . This study predicted that by 2100 all 45 colonies of emperor penguins will be declining in numbers , mostly due to loss of habitat . Loss of ice reduces the supply of krill , which is a primary food for emperor penguins .
= = Behaviour = =
The emperor penguin is a social animal in its nesting and its foraging behaviour ; birds hunting together may coordinate their diving and surfacing . Individuals may be active day or night . A mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the nesting area and ocean foraging areas ; the species disperses into the oceans from January to March .
The American physiologist Gerry Kooyman revolutionized the study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he published his results from attaching automatic dive @-@ recording devices to emperor penguins . He found that the species reaches depths of 265 m ( 869 ft ) , with dive periods of up to 18 minutes . Later research revealed a small female had dived to a depth of 535 m ( 1 @,@ 755 ft ) near McMurdo Sound . It is possible that emperor penguins can dive even deeper , as the accuracy of the recording devices is diminished at greater depths . Further study of one bird 's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to 150 m ( 490 ft ) in water around 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) deep , and shallow dives of less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , interspersed with deep dives of more than 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) in depths of 450 to 500 m ( 1 @,@ 480 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) . This was suggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom .
Both male and female emperor penguins forage for food up to 500 km ( 311 mi ) from colonies while collecting food to feed chicks , covering 82 – 1 @,@ 454 km ( 51 – 903 mi ) per individual per trip . A male returning to the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open water , known as polynyas , around 100 km ( 62 mi ) from the colony .
An efficient swimmer , the emperor penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes while swimming . The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth . Its average swimming speed is 6 – 9 km / h ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 6 mph ) . On land , the emperor penguin alternates between walking with a wobbling gait and tobogganing — sliding over the ice on its belly , propelled by its feet and wing @-@ like flippers . Like all penguins , it is flightless . The emperor penguin is a very powerful bird . In one case , a crew of six men , trying to capture a single male penguin for a zoo collection , were repeatedly tossed around and knocked over before all of the men had to collectively tackle the bird , which weighs about half as much as a man .
As a defence against the cold , a colony of emperor penguins forms a compact huddle ( also known as the turtle formation ) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds , with each bird leaning forward on a neighbour . As the wind chill is the least severe in the center of the colony , all the juveniles are usually huddled there . Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and add themselves to its leeward edge , producing a slow churning action , and giving each bird a turn on the inside and on the outside .
= = = Diet = = =
The emperor penguin 's diet consists mainly of fish , crustaceans and cephalopods , although its composition varies from population to population . Fish are usually the most important food source , and the Antarctic silverfish ( Pleuragramma antarcticum ) makes up the bulk of the bird 's diet . Other prey commonly recorded include other fish of the family Nototheniidae , the glacial squid ( Psychroteuthis glacialis ) , and the hooked squid species Kondakovia longimana , as well as Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba ) . The emperor penguin searches for prey in the open water of the Southern Ocean , in either ice @-@ free areas of open water or tidal cracks in pack ice . One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around 50 m ( 164 ft ) , where it can easily spot sympagic fish like the bald notothen ( Pagothenia borchgrevinki ) swimming against the bottom surface of the sea @-@ ice ; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish . It then dives again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to breathe .
= = = Predators = = =
The emperor penguin 's predators include birds and aquatic mammals . Southern giant petrels ( Macronectes giganteus ) are the predominant land predator of chicks , responsible for up to 34 % of chick deaths in some colonies though they often scavenge dead penguins as well . The south polar skua ( Stercorarius maccormicki ) mainly scavenges for dead chicks , as the live chicks are too large to be attacked by the time of its annual arrival in the colony . Occasionally , a parent may defend their chick from attack , although it may be more passive if the chick is sickly .
The only known predators thought to attack healthy adults , and who attack emperor penguins in the water , are both mammals . The first is the leopard seal ( Hydrurga leptonyx ) , which takes some adult birds , as well as fledglings soon after they enter the water . Orcas ( Orcinus orca ) , mostly take adult birds , although they will attack penguins of any age in or near water .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Emperor penguins are able to breed at around three years of age , and usually commence breeding around one to three years later . The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter , in March and April , when all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas , often walking 50 to 120 km ( 31 to 75 mi ) inland from the edge of the pack ice . The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths ; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by using lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths .
The penguins start courtship in March or April , when the temperature can be as low as − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) . A lone male gives an ecstatic display , where it stands still and places its head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for 1 – 2 seconds ; it then moves around the colony and repeats the call . A male and female then stand face to face , with one extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it ; they both hold this posture for several minutes . Once in pairs , couples waddle around the colony together , with the female usually following the male . Before copulation , one bird bows deeply to its mate , its bill pointed close to the ground , and its mate then does the same .
Emperor penguins are serially monogamous . They have only one mate each year , and stay faithful to that mate . However , fidelity between years is only about 15 % . The narrow window of opportunity available for mating appears to be an influence , as there is a priority to mate and breed which often precludes waiting for the appearance of the previous year 's partner .
The female penguin lays one 460 – 470 g ( 1 @.@ 01 – 1 @.@ 04 lb ) egg in May or early June ; it is vaguely pear @-@ shaped , pale greenish @-@ white , and measures around 12 cm × 8 cm ( 4 3 ⁄ 4 in × 3 1 ⁄ 4 in ) . It represents just 2 @.@ 3 % of its mother 's body weight , making it one of the smallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in any bird species . 15 @.@ 7 % of the weight of an emperor penguin egg is shell ; like those of other penguin species , the shell is relatively thick , which minimizes risk of breakage .
After laying , the mother 's nutritional reserves are exhausted and she very carefully transfers the egg to the male , before immediately returning to the sea for two months to feed . The transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult , and many couples drop the egg in the process . When this happens , the chick inside is quickly lost , as the egg cannot withstand the freezing temperatures on the icy ground . The male spends the dark winter incubating the egg in his brood pouch , balancing it on the tops of his feet , for 64 consecutive days until hatching . The emperor penguin is the only species where this behaviour is observed ; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating . By the time the egg hatches , the male will have fasted for around 115 days since arriving at the colony . To survive the cold and winds of up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) , the males huddle together , taking turns in the middle of the huddle . They have also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat . In the four months of travel , courtship , and incubation , the male may lose as much as 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , from a total mass of 38 to 18 kg ( 84 to 40 lb ) .
Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete , as the shell of the egg is thick . Newly hatched chicks are semi @-@ altricial , covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth . If the chick hatches before the mother 's return , the father feeds it a curd @-@ like substance composed of 59 % protein and 28 % lipid , which is produced by a gland in his oesophagus . The young chick is brooded in what is called the guard phase , spending time balanced on its parent 's feet and sheltered in the brood pouch .
The female penguin returns at any time from hatching to ten days afterwards , from mid @-@ July to early August . She finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for the chick , feeding it by regurgitating the food that she has stored in her stomach . The male then leaves to take his turn at sea , spending around 24 days there before returning . The parents then take turns , one brooding while the other forages at sea . If the incubating parent is not relieved by its partner before its own energy reserves are depleted , then it returns to the sea to re @-@ feed , abandoning its doomed egg or chick at the colony site . Abandoned chicks do not survive .
About 45 – 50 days after hatching , the chicks form a crèche , huddling together for warmth and protection . During this time , both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks . A crèche may comprise up to several thousand birds densely packed together and is essential for surviving the low Antarctic temperatures .
From early November , chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage , which takes up to two months and is often not completed by the time they leave the colony ; adults cease feeding them during this time . All birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December or January and spend the rest of the summer feeding there .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The species has been bred outside Antarctica at SeaWorld San Diego ; more than 20 individuals have hatched there since 1980 . Considered a flagship species , 55 individuals were counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in 1999 . The first emperor penguin was hatched at Laohutan Ocean Park in Dalian in northeastern China in August 2010 . In Japan , the species is housed at Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium and Wakayama Adventure World , with successful hatching in the latter place .
= = = Penguin rescue , rehabilitation and release = = =
In June 2011 , a juvenile emperor penguin was found on the beach at Peka Peka , north of Wellington in New Zealand . He had been consuming 3 kg of sand , which he had mistaken for snow , as well as sticks and stones , and had to undergo a number of operations to remove these and save his life . Following recovery , on 4 September , the juvenile , named " Happy Feet " ( after the 2006 film ) , was fitted with a tracking device and released into the Southern Ocean 80 km north of Campbell Island . However , 8 days later scientists lost contact with the bird , suggesting that the transmitter had fallen off ( considered likely ) or that he had been eaten by a predator ( considered less likely ) .
= = = Cultural references = = =
The species ' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has been described in print and visual media . Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard , the Antarctic explorer , said : " Take it all in all , I do not believe anybody on Earth has a worse time than an emperor penguin " . Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005 , the French documentary La Marche de l 'empereur , which was also released with the English title March of the Penguins , told the story of the penguins ' reproductive cycle . The subject has been covered for the small screen four times by the BBC and presenter David Attenborough : first in episode five of the 1993 series on the Antarctic Life in the Freezer , again in the 2001 series The Blue Planet , once again in the 2006 series Planet Earth , and finally Frozen Planet in 2011 .
The computer @-@ animated movie Happy Feet ( 2006 ) features emperor penguins as its primary characters , with one in particular that loves to dance ; although a comedy , it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by overfishing . The computer @-@ animated movie Surf 's Up ( 2007 ) features a surfing emperor penguin named Zeke " Big @-@ Z " Topanga . More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps – Australia , Great Britain , Chile and France have each issued several . It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 franc stamp as part of an Antarctic expedition series . Canadian band The Tragically Hip composed the song " Emperor Penguin " for their 1998 album Phantom Power .
= Alabama ( band ) =
Alabama is an American country , Southern rock and bluegrass band formed in Fort Payne , Alabama in 1969 . The band was founded by Randy Owen ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) and his cousin Teddy Gentry ( bass guitar , background vocals ) , soon joined by their other cousin , Jeff Cook ( lead guitar , fiddle , keyboards ) . First operating under the name Wildcountry , the group toured the Southeast bar circuit in the early 1970s , and began writing original songs . They changed their name to Alabama in 1977 and following the chart success of two singles , were approached by RCA Records for a record deal .
Alabama 's biggest success came in the 1980s , where the band had over 27 number one hits , seven multi @-@ platinum albums and received numerous awards . Alabama 's first single on RCA Records , " Tennessee River " , began a streak of number one singles , including " Love in the First Degree " ( 1981 ) , " Mountain Music " ( 1982 ) , " Dixieland Delight " ( 1983 ) , " If You 're Gonna Play in Texas ( You Gotta Have a Fiddle in the Band ) " ( 1984 ) and " Song of the South " ( 1987 ) . The group 's popularity waned slightly in the 1990s , although they continued to receive hit singles and multi @-@ platinum record sales . Alabama disbanded in 2006 following a farewell tour and two albums of inspirational music , but reunited in 2011 and have continued to record and tour worldwide .
The band 's blend of traditional country music and Southern rock combined with elements of gospel , and pop music gave it a crossover appeal that helped lead to their success . They also toured extensively and incorporated production elements such as lighting and " sets " inspired by rock concerts into their shows . The band has over 30 number one country records on the Billboard charts to their credit and have sold over 75 million records , making them one of the world 's best @-@ selling bands of all time . AllMusic credited the band with popularizing the idea of a country band , and wrote that " it 's unlikely that any other country group will be able to surpass the success of Alabama . "
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years : 1969 – 79 = = =
Alabama was formed by guitarists Randy Owen and Jeff Cook , and bassist Teddy Gentry , three cousins born and raised near Fort Payne , Alabama , an area with strong country music roots . Owen and Gentry grew up on separate cotton farms on Lookout Mountain ( a plateau that stretches across northeastern Alabama , through northwest Georgia and into Tennessee ) , learning guitar together and singing in church before the age of six . Gentry and Owen played in numerous groups during the 1960s , ranging from pop to bluegrass . Cook joined the band in 1969 , forming the group Young Country , which first jammed together around Christmas . Cook also played in numerous bands and was a rock and roll disk jockey . The three cousins all shared vocal duties , with another cousin , drummer Jackie Owen , completing the group 's first lineup . The band 's first performance was at a high school talent contest ( playing a Merle Haggard song ) , for which they won first prize and tickets to the Grand Ole Opry . Despite this , all were busy with prior commitments to pursue music : Owen still in high school , Cook working for Western Electric , and Gentry laying carpets full @-@ time . The band grew further inactive when Cook went to college and Owen into the military .
The group became a professional band in 1972 , adding drummer Bennett Vartanian and changing their name to Wildcountry . During this time , the group accepted a position playing at the nearby Canyonland theme park . The park would bring in established stars , such as Jerry Wallace , Bobby Bare , and Narvel Felts , and the band would back them , afterwards performing a one @-@ hour dance set . After a while , with opportunities for the band slim , a discouraged Cook took a government job in Anniston , Alabama . Owen was studying English at Jacksonville State University , and Cook had an electronics job . The trio shared at $ 56 @-@ a @-@ month apartment in Anniston , working to keep the band afloat with night and weekend gigs . The group decided to become professional musicians in 1973 , and began performing at bars throughout the Southeast . In March , the band relocated to Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , performing six nights a week at a club named The Bowery for tips . They made their best money performing cover songs of Lynyrd Skynyrd and Merle Haggard . The group could not secure a record contract , and began to self @-@ finance recordings . The group borrowed $ 4 @,@ 000 from a Fort Payne bank to record and release their own albums to sell at shows . Vartanian dropped out of the group , and following a rotation of four more drummers , they settled on Rick Scott in 1974 .
The group sent out demo tapes to record companies but received few responses until executives at GRT Records signed the band to a one @-@ record contract , issuing their debut single , " I Want to Be with You Tonight " , in 1977 . GRT was more interested in the band as songwriters , and convinced the group to change their name to the Alabama Band , later shortened to Alabama . The song only reached number 78 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , and GRT declared bankruptcy the following year . Due to a hidden clause in their contract , Alabama was forbidden from recording with another label . For the next two years , the band raised money to buy out their contract , and they began recording again in 1979 . Following self @-@ recorded efforts Wildcountry ( 1976 ) and Deuces Wild ( 1977 ) , Alabama Band No. 3 became the band 's third album , and the band performed over 300 shows on the road that year . The group hired independent radio promoters to receive radio play for the single " I Wanna Come Over " , and they sent hand @-@ written letters to program directors and DJs nationwide . It received the attention of Dallas @-@ based MDJ Records , who signed the band . Scott left the group at this time , and was replaced by Mark Herndon , a rock drummer later credited with bringing the band their signature sound . " I Wanna Come Over " , became their first radio hit , reaching the top 40 in the Billboard country chart .
= = = Mainstream success and superstardom : 1980 – 85 = = =
The group 's next single , " My Home 's in Alabama " , received an even better response , reaching the top 20 . Their early chart successes led to an invitation to appear at the " New Faces " show at Nashville 's annual Country Radio Seminar , along with other new acts , such as Reba McEntire . The band had to perform with studio musicians , rather than as a band , and left the session believing they had destroyed their chances . Despite this , the group drew interest from several labels , among those RCA Records , with whom they signed in April 1980 . Their first single on RCA , " Tennessee River " , was produced by Harold Shedd and was their first to hit number one on the Billboard country chart , beginning a streak of over 30 number one hits . Cashbox named the band the New Vocal Group of the Year , marking the band 's first award . In July 1980 , the band left their long @-@ time gig at the Bowery , promoting their single , which they initially believed to be fluke . The success took the band by surprise , and soon became " all but consuming . "
Alabama enjoyed a great deal of creative freedom at RCA ; they followed up " Tennessee River " with " Why Lady Why " , despite the objections of executives and trade publications , The song became their second number one on the charts . They toured extensively , headlining small clubs and opening for bigger acts in major venues . In addition , the group also received television exposure on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and The Merv Griffin Show . In February 1981 , Alabama released its second major label album , Feels So Right ; it peaked at number 16 on the Billboard 200 and stayed for more than three years , longer than any other Alabama album . " Old Flame " was their next number one in February 1981 , followed by " Feels So Right " in May , and " Love in the First Degree " that October . That year , Alabama received a great deal of industry attention : Billboard named them New Group for the Year , Radio & Records called them Group of the Year , and the Academy of Country Music ( ACM ) deemed the band the Vocal Group of the Year . The quintet performed on the 1981 Country Music Association Awards , where it received both Instrumental Group of the Year and Vocal Group of the Year . Although the band received unprecedented success , Owen 's personal life was " falling apart " : his father died while he was on the road , affecting him greatly .
Mountain Music , released in February 1982 , is considered their final release before a significant upgrade in production and sound . All three of the album 's singles reached number one : " Mountain Music " in May 1982 , followed two months later by " Take Me Down " that July , and " Close Enough to Perfect " in October . That year , both Mountain Music and Feels So Right would go quadruple platinum ; by late 1982 , the band had sold over six million albums , despite just two years on the national circuit . " Christmas in Dixie " , a seasonal song released in 1982 , charted on two of Billboard magazine 's music popularity charts in six different calendar years . Alabama became the first group to win CMA 's prestigious Entertainer of the Year award , which they collected three years in a row , from 1982 to 1984 . The group received a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , for Mountain Music .
The Closer You Get ... , released in March 1983 , was certified platinum within two months , and also won the Grammy for Best Country Performance . Each of the album 's singles — " Dixieland Delight " , " The Closer You Get " , and " Lady Down on Love " — were number ones in both the U.S. and Canada . Roll On was Alabama 's next LP , and its four singles , " Roll On ( Eighteen Wheeler ) " , " When We Make Love " , " If You 're Gonna Play in Texas ( You Gotta Have a Fiddle in the Band ) " , " ( There 's A ) Fire in the Night " , all went to the top in both countries . 40 @-@ Hour Week ( 1985 ) continued the band 's string of multinational successes , with " 40 Hour Week ( For a Livin ' ) " and " Can 't Keep a Good Man Down " peaking at number one in both territories , with only the lead single , " There 's No Way " , falling short in Canada ( although it peaked at number two ) . 40 @-@ Hour Week was one of Alabama 's most popular albums , crossing over in the pop album charts . Alabama Christmas , a collection of nine holiday songs plus " Christmas in Dixie " , became Alabama 's debut on the compact disc that September ; it was also the centerpiece of a retail and television promotion ( sponsored by the Nashville Network ) .
= = = Continued success : 1986 – 2002 = = =
RCA issued an Alabama Greatest Hits compilation in January 1986 , which went over five times platinum , making the band the most successful country act of the 1980s . The Touch followed in September 1986 , and although considered one of the weakest in the band 's catalogue , it did have two number one hits : " " You 've Got " the Touch " and " Touch Me When We 're Dancing " . Their next record , Just Us , received a similar critical response , but produced two number ones : " Face to Face " and " Fallin ' Again " . They also contributed their vocals to " Deep River Woman " , a single by Lionel Richie , from Richie 's third solo album Dancing on the Ceiling . Released in December 1986 , the single peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and number 71 on the Hot 100 .
By the late 1980s , Alabama 's sales slowed down considerably , with only their major albums going gold . The group 's popularity was mostly eclipsed by more traditional @-@ sounding artists such as Ricky Skaggs , Randy Travis , George Strait , and Dwight Yoakam . Despite this , they continued to be a popular touring act , and the band issued their first live album , Alabama Live , in 1988 . For 1989 's Southern Star , the band decided to part ways with longtime producer Shedd , instead splitting production duties between Josh Leo and Larry Lee , and the other half with Barry Beckett . " Song of the South " was another number one , and the album 's remaining singles — " If I Had You " , " High Cotton " , and " Southern Star " — were number ones in both the U.S. and Canada . That year , Alabama were named by Billboard the Country Artist of the 1980s and the ACA voted the band the Artist of the Decade .
Although their popularity continued to decline during the 1990s , their albums still reached gold and platinum status . The 1990 album Pass It on Down featured three number one singles : " Jukebox in My Mind " , " Forever 's as Far as I 'll Go " , and " Down Home " . According to AllMusic , by the time the band released 1992 's American Pride , " they were among the genre 's aging veterans . " Richard Carlin of Country Music : A Biographical Dictionary , suggested that the group 's harmonies sounded dated to the new audience . " I 'm in a Hurry ( And Don 't Know Why ) " became the album 's biggest hit , reaching number one ; the album 's other singles still fared very well , with " Take a Little Trip " , " Once Upon a Lifetime " , and " Hometown Honeymoon " peaking within the top three . Cheap Seats followed in 1993 , with " Reckless " becoming Alabama 's final number one , although most of the band 's singles afterward peaked within the top ten . The band 's 1995 album , In Pictures , represented their eighteenth gold album , more than the total for any other country act to that point . In 1996 , the group remained finalists in the Vocal Group of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards . The band released Dancin ' on the Boulevard in 1997 , exploring R & B and beach music . Singles " Sad Lookin ' Moon " and " Dancin ' , Shaggin ' on the Boulevard " were top five hits in the U.S. and Canada . The following year , the group released For the Record , a two @-@ disc greatest hits compilation that contained two new singles — " How Do You Fall in Love " and " Keepin ' Up " . Both new tracks were hits on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart , peaking at number two and fourteen , respectively .
For their fifteenth studio release , Twentieth Century ( 1999 ) , the band recorded a cover of " ( God Must Have Spent ) A Little More Time on You " by the boy band ' N Sync in 1999 , in a move that was considered an attempt to " stay relevant . " The single nonetheless hit number one in Canada , number three on the US country charts , and number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 . When It All Goes South ( 2001 ) followed in 2001 . " If I never did another CD , this is the one I will always point to as the one that I was happy with the most , " said Owen at the time of its release . Despite this , the album 's singles did not fare well in comparison to past successes , with only the title track becoming a top 15 hit , representing the band 's last career peak .
= = = Farewell tour and reunion : 2003 – present = = =
Alabama announced the American Farewell tour in May 2002 at the Country Music Association Awards ( CMAs ) , encompassing 40 tour dates , sponsorships , special events , and a TV special . Owen spoke then on the decision to part ways : " When you get down to it , there are many , many factors involved — some of them very personal . It 's really about the integrity of the group , the dignity of the group . " Owen later admitted the group was exhausted after twenty years of nonstop touring and recording , and " everybody needed some time . " The tour collected $ 15 million in box office before it even began , and Alabama performed to packed arenas from June to November 2003 . Due to " extraordinary fan response and overwhelming ticket demand , " the tour was extended for an additional 30 shows , running between February and June 2004 . The group performed their " final " show in October 2004 in Bismarck , North Dakota , with Herndon jokingly declaring " I need a job " as the concert closed . In the ensuing years , Owen stayed active as a solo act , Cook with his Allstar Goodtime Band and Gentry as a producer and with his band Rockit City .
Herndon and the other group members had had a difficult relationship during the band 's career . While he was present in each press photo and a photo of him once hung at Alabama 's fan club and museum , Owen contended that he was never an official member of the group . He claimed his inclusion in photos was the label 's idea , and that Herndon was a paid employee of the band , rather than a member . In May 2008 , the other members of the group sued drummer Mark Herndon for $ 202 @,@ 670 in money allegedly overpaid to him three years earlier after the band 's farewell tour concluded . This money was factored into the net profit and given to Herndon before accounting was completed , an allegation Herndon has denied . The band did not sue Herndon until he requested money from the multiple live albums and songs that the band had released but never paid Herndon for playing on . Owen stated that RCA desired Herndon in the band so their image could be comparable to the Beatles . Despite their troubles , he stated they had no hard feelings in an interview years later : " I don ’ t have one thing against him in any way in the world . "
Owen was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2010 , but he was later given a clean bill of health , which led to the band 's reunion , without Herndon . Following a series of tornados destroying homes and businesses throughout their state in 2011 , Alabama assembled a benefit concert in Birmingham , called Bama Rising . Featuring the band 's first set since 2004 , alongside Luke Bryan , Sheryl Crow and Brad Paisley , the concert raised $ 2 @.@ 1 million . " I guess we realized that maybe we missed the playing ... and five or six years had gone by and we were like , ' Maybe that wasn 't as bad as we remember it being , ' " said Gentry . In celebration of the group 's 40th anniversary , Alabama resumed touring in 2013 for the Back to the Bowery tour , referencing the Myrtle Beach club where they first became professional musicians . They also undertook a short cruise , The Alabama & Friends Festival at Sea , which left for the Bahamas on Norwegian Cruise Line 's Norwegian Pearl ship . In addition , the band released Alabama & Friends , a tribute album encompassing covers from newer artists such as Jason Aldean and Florida Georgia Line , in addition to two new tracks by Alabama .
The band released their first new studio album in 14 years , Southern Drawl , on September 18 , 2015 via BMG Chrysalis .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Alabama 's music mixes both country , rock , and pop , particularly evident in their musical concept : the group was one of the first country bands to achieve significant airplay . Despite their influences from other genres , the band was most inspired by country music , which is most evident in their " harmonies , songwriting , and approach . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine writes that the band is " indebted to country , particularly the Bakersfield sound of Merle Haggard , bluegrass , and the sound of Nashville pop . " The band echoed its country upbringing in one of its first trade articles : " We 're country first and crossover second . If crossovers come , that 's great , but we 'd rather have a No. 1 @.@ country song than be lost in the middle of both country and pop charts , " said Owen .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , the band increasingly moved toward a general pop @-@ rock sound , " going for splashier productions with a more heavily amplified sound . " Alabama 's lyrics often centered on their homeland . Their first hit single , " Tennessee River " , recounts being " born across the river in the mountains I call home , " while " Dixieland Delight " chronicles cruising down a rural Tennessee byway .
= = Chart records , sales , and awards = =
= = = Multiplatinum certifications = = =
Alabama is among the world 's best @-@ selling bands of all time , having sold a combined 75 million albums and singles . Alabama 's best @-@ selling studio album is Mountain Music ( 1982 ) , while two greatest hits albums — Greatest Hits ( 1986 ) and For the Record ( 1998 ) — are among their highest in individual sales , with all three totaling five million in sales . Alabama received multiplatinum success for several albums ; albums currently certified quadruple platinum include Feels So Right , The Closer You Get ... , and Roll On , while Alabama 's double platinum records include My Home 's in Alabama , 40 @-@ Hour Week , Alabama Christmas and Greatest Hits Volume III .
= = = Awards = = =
Alabama is the most awarded band in the history of country music , with over 200 awards from a variety of organizations . In 1981 , Alabama won both the Vocal Group of the Year and Instrumental Group of the Year honors from the CMAs . It also won the ACM 's Vocal Group of the Year award , and Billboard 's New Group of the Year honors . The group won the CMA 's prestigious Entertainer of the Year award for three consecutive years ( 1982 – 84 ) , and the ACM 's Entertainer of the Year award five times ( 1982 – 86 ) . In 1989 , Alabama was named Artist of the Decade by the ACM . In addition , Alabama has also received the NARM Gift of Music award , the Alabama Hall of Fame Distinguished Service award , the Country Radio Broadcasters Humanitarian Award , the Prince Matchabelli National Hero Award , the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award , and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Impact = = =
Alabama has been credited with " substantially broadening country 's audience while becoming one of the most popular acts in American musical history " by Michael McCall of The Encyclopedia of Country Music . The band was notable for its three @-@ person lead ( as " most other country acts focused on a soloist accompanied by an anonymous band " ) , their collective hair length and facial hair ( which would have been deemed unacceptable just a decade earlier ) , and their prominent electric bass and drums . They had a slightly edgier sound than other groups , and both played their own instruments and wrote their own songs . Alabama mostly appealed to a younger audience , although their clean @-@ cut image appealed to the more conservative , older country audience as well . Kurt Wolff described the band 's appeal : " They 're just rebel enough for the young folks , but their parents also dig the boys ' pretty harmonies , sentimental soft spots , and old @-@ fashioned family values . " Alabama gave prominence to their hometown of Fort Payne , and also raised awareness for environmental issues .
The band 's incorporation of rock and roll into their sound was an inspiration for groups such as Restless Heart , Shenandoah , Exile , Diamond Rio , Lonestar , Ricochet , and the Mavericks . According to Irwin Stambler and Grelun Landon , authors of Country Music : The Encyclopedia , the group 's diminishing sales in the late 1980s reflected competition from country bands that would not have received recognition had it not been for Alabama paving the way . For their part , these groups credited Alabama with providing a massive influence on their careers . Prior to Alabama 's unprecedented chart success , most country hit singles belonged to solo artists or duets . Many Alabama singles and albums represented crossover appeal on the pop charts .
Despite their successes , Alabama 's career was loathed by music critics of the day , citing the " vacuous songs and watered @-@ down , middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road arrangements " that blurred lines between country and pop . The Baltimore Sun once argued the band " render [ s ] country music all but indistinguishable from pop " and thus " trivializes some of country 's most hallowed traditions . " Indeed , reviewers such as Wolff consider the band 's " overriding problem " their calculated sound , which leads many contemporary music critics to label the band mediocre .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Beginning in 1982 and continuing until 1997 , Alabama sponsored the June Jam , a music festival in Fort Payne , which at its peak drew 60 @,@ 000 fans and raised millions for local charities . The group also held " Fan Appreciation Days , " weekend events that included a golf tournament and a songwriters concert that raised money for charities in Fort Payne . Owen spearheaded " Country Cares for Kids , " an annual country radiothon that raised over $ 70 million for St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital in Memphis , Tennessee .
= = Band members = =
Current members
Randy Owen – lead vocals , rhythm guitar ( 1969 – 2004 , 2006 – 07 , 2011 – present )
Teddy Gentry – bass guitar , background vocals ( 1969 – 2004 , 2006 – 07 , 2011 – present )
Jeff Cook – lead guitar , background vocals , fiddle , keyboards ( 1969 – 2004 , 2006 – 07 , 2011 – present )
Former members
Mark Herndon – drums , percussion ( 1979 – 2004 )
Rick Scott – drums , percussion ( 1974 – 79 )
Bennett Vartanian – drums , percussion ( 1972 – 74 )
Don Perkey - drums , percussion ( 1975 – 78 )
Jackie Owen – drums , percussion ( 1969 – 72 )
Timeline
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Studio albums
Wild Country ( 1976 )
Deuces Wild ( 1977 )
Alabama Band No. 3 ( 1979 )
My Home 's in Alabama ( 1980 )
Feels So Right ( 1981 )
Mountain Music ( 1982 )
The Closer You Get ... ( 1983 )
Roll On ( 1984 )
40 @-@ Hour Week ( 1985 )
The Touch ( 1986 )
Just Us ( 1987 )
Southern Star ( 1989 )
Pass It On Down ( 1990 )
American Pride ( 1992 )
Cheap Seats ( 1993 )
In Pictures ( 1995 )
Dancin ' on the Boulevard ( 1997 )
Twentieth Century ( 1999 )
When It All Goes South ( 2001 )
Songs of Inspiration ( 2006 )
Songs of Inspiration II ( 2007 )
Angels Among Us : Hymns and Gospel Favorites ( 2014 )
Southern Drawl ( 2015 )
= = = Number one singles = = =
Alabama amassed over 40 number one hit singles ( on a variety of industry charts ) and 12 top @-@ 10 albums , including ten that peaked at number one on Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart . The group had 33 number ones on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart , which are as follows :
1980 : " Tennessee River " ; " Why Lady Why "
1981 : " Old Flame " ; " Feels So Right " ; " Love in the First Degree "
1982 : " Mountain Music " ; " Take Me Down " ; " Close Enough to Perfect "
1983 : " Dixieland Delight " ; " The Closer You Get " ; " Lady Down on Love "
1984 : " Roll On ( Eighteen Wheeler ) " ; " When We Make Love " ; " If You 're Gonna Play in Texas ( You Gotta Have a Fiddle in the Band ) "
1985 : " ( There 's A ) Fire in the Night " ; " There 's No Way " ; " 40 Hour Week ( For a Livin ' ) " ; " Can 't Keep a Good Man Down "
1986 : " She and I " ; " Touch Me When We 're Dancing "
1987 : " ' You 've Got ' the Touch "
1988 : " Face to Face " ( duet with K.T. Oslin ) ; " Fallin ' Again "
1989 : " Song of the South " ; " If I Had You " ; " High Cotton "
1990 : " Southern Star " ; " Jukebox in My Mind "
1991 : " Forever 's as Far as I 'll Go " ; " Down Home "
1992 : " I 'm in a Hurry ( And Don 't Know Why ) "
1993 : " Reckless "
2011 : " Old Alabama " ( with Brad Paisley )
= Brockway Mountain Drive =
Brockway Mountain Drive is an 8 @.@ 883 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 296 km ) scenic roadway just west of Copper Harbor in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the United States . Drivers can access the road from state highway M @-@ 26 on either end near Eagle Harbor to the west or Copper Harbor to the east in the Keweenaw Peninsula . The drive runs along the ridge of Brockway Mountain on the Keweenaw Fault and climbs to 1 @,@ 320 feet ( 402 m ) above sea level , 720 feet ( 220 m ) above the surface of Lake Superior . Several viewpoints along the route allow for panoramas of Copper Harbor , Lake Superior , and undeveloped woodland . On a clear day , Isle Royale is visible approximately 50 miles ( 80 km ) in distance from the top of the mountain .
Brockway Mountain was named for Daniel D. Brockway , one of the pioneer residents of the area . The road was constructed by the county road commission with funding through Depression @-@ era work programs in 1933 . It was briefly used as a connection for the parallel state highway after it opened . Since it opened , Brockway Mountain Drive has been recognized nationally and locally in several media outlets for its picturesque qualities , usually in profiles of Keweenaw County , the Upper Peninsula or other scenic drives .
= = Route description = =
The road can be accessed from either Eagle Harbor or Copper Harbor and serves as a scenic loop off M @-@ 26 . The western end starts at M @-@ 26 near Lake Bailey and Agate Harbor . Brockway Mountain Drive ascends along the ridgeline of the Keweenaw Fault . Immediately south of the road , Upson Creek runs parallel to the cliff face as it drains Lake Upson . Two and a half miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from the western end , there is a parking area for the Oren Krumm Trail , part of the Brockway Mountain Audubon Sanctuary . The drive is lined with low stone walls , built as part of the original construction of the roadway .
Upon reaching the top of the mountain , drivers are greeted with a full panoramic view of the surrounding area , allowing views of Lake Superior , Copper Harbor , Eagle Harbor and the surrounding lakes and forests . Freighters occasionally can be seen traversing Lake Superior , and on clear days Isle Royale can be spotted nearly 50 miles ( 80 km ) in the distance .
Continuing eastward , the drive descends down the mountain toward Copper Harbor . The roadway twists and turns as it alternately climbs and descends several smaller hills along the ridgeline . Along the drive , several viewpoints provide the opportunity to pull off and take in the surroundings . A few of them lie directly adjacent to the face of the bluff where the mountain quickly rises from the surrounding land . Near the eastern end , there are two sharp hairpin turns , the first of which has a scenic overlook and parking area . This spot overlooks Copper Harbor and the nearby Copper Country Trail National Scenic Byway portion of US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) just to the east . From here , the road makes its steep descent down from the ridge , through the second turn and ends at M @-@ 26 on the western edge of town .
This road is one of the highest scenic roadways above sea level in the US between the Rocky and Allegheny mountains . During the winter , Brockway Mountain Drive is closed to cars as the Keweenaw County Road Commission does not plow the road ; instead the drive is used as a snowmobile trail . According to the commission , 200 vehicles per day use the roadway on average . There are no posted speed limits along the roadway , however in the words of a former Keweenaw County Sheriff 's Department deputy , " the nature and design of the road was such that the ' problem ' of people driving too fast ... was basically ' self @-@ correcting ' . "
= = History = =
Brockway Mountain is a 1 @,@ 320 @-@ foot ( 400 m ) volcanic landform on the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Copper Harbor . The top of the mountain is 720 feet ( 220 m ) above the level of Lake Superior . The peak was named for Daniel D. Brockway , local pioneer settler , postmaster and state road commissioner . Brockway moved to Copper Harbor in 1846 at the beginning of the area 's copper boom . He built the first permanent structure in the community , a hostelry named The Brockway House , which was used by the miners and scientists in the area . By the time of his death on May 9 , 1899 , the ridge west of town had been named in his honor .
A road to the summit of Brockway Mountain was first proposed in the 1920s by Warren H. Manning , a renowned landscape architect . Manning was in the Keweenaw at the time to design Agassiz Park in Calumet and suggested the road while visiting the area . The road was designed in 1932 with three different options considered . The first involved the construction of the current road from near the Silver River on the west to the summit . It followed a route used by the previous Military Road that connected Fort Wilkins to Fort Howard ; traffic would have to turn around to descend Brockway Mountain . Another option included a route from the summit southwest across the Upson Creek Valley to a second summit on the nearby Mount Lookout , a total of about 16 miles ( 26 km ) . The third option was that of the current route down the mountain to the west .
Construction of Brockway Mountain Drive began in early 1933 by the Keweenaw County Road Commission with federal highway funding designed to provide meaningful work to the many copper miners who became unemployed during the Great Depression . Rather than provide welfare , the government provided work for the jobless . The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was the agency on the federal level responsible for the project . Up to 300 laborers were employed for a wage of 25 ¢ / hr ( equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 57 / hr in 2015 ) . The work required to build the road was carried out by manual labor , with the assistance of a team of horses , in a project designed to maximize the numbers of men employed . The grading and leveling of the road surface was done by hand ; no survey instruments were used to level the roadway . The road was opened for public use that October 14 , at a preliminary cost of $ 30 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 68 million in 2015 ) . That same year , the Skytop Inn opened on top of the mountain . During 1934 , additional work was done to the roadway to build the stone walls . Motorists were restricted to one @-@ way traffic , and the road was only open to the public on Sundays and holidays . In the interim , the road was temporarily used as a connection between completed segments of the parallel state highway , numbered M @-@ 129 at the time . This highway , now part of M @-@ 26 , was built starting in July 1933 but was not completed through the area until October 1934 . The KCRC declared the road initially finished on June 14 , 1935 , at a cost of $ 40 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 83 million in 2015 )
According to historian LeRoy Barnett , " this county highway quickly became one of the most popular motoring destinations in the Midwest . " The Ironwood Daily Globe reported that in December 1938 , " at least one million persons " had traveled on Brockway Mountain Drive in the first five years it was open , sparking a tourism boom in the area . The eastern end of the roadway was paved in 1938 , with the final two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) done in 1940 . The first Skytop Inn was built at the summit of Brockway Mountain in 1935 . A replacement structure was built in 1965 . During the first few winters of 1946 / 47 and 1947 / 48 , a ski hill was operated down the roadway on the western end .
In February 2013 , Eagle Harbor Township purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ) at the top of Brockway Mountain with plans to refit the Skytop Inn to serve as a visitors center . The building was the oldest gift shop in Keweenaw County and owned by the same family from the time of its construction until it was sold in 2013 . The following August , Governor Rick Snyder helped to dedicate the summit as part of the Keweenaw Coastal Wildlife Corridor , a protected area in the raptors ' annual migration flight path . The area is now owned by the township after assistance by The Nature Conservancy and local donors .
= = Scenic opportunities = =
During the spring , particularly in April , hawks migrate along the length of the Keweenaw Peninsula headed across Lake Superior . They flock together along the cliffs and ridges of Brockway Mountain . The top of the mountain is a semi @-@ alpine climate with strong winds , and guide books advise visitors to bring windbreaker jackets , even in the summer . The peak is also known as an excellent star @-@ gazing location because there are no electric lights to interrupt the darkness . The surrounding mountainsides are privately owned , mostly by Champion International Paper . The company receives reduced taxes in exchange for keeping the land open for recreational uses . The Michigan Nature Association owns 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of property on Brockway Mountain itself . There are over 700 species of flowers including trillium and orchids . The peak bloom is in June , and some of the wildflowers on display are not found elsewhere in the state . Motorcycle Cruiser magazine featured a piece on Copper Harbor in February 2010 that suggested visiting Brockway Mountain at dawn saying that " the vista at the peak is amazing and it 's worth the early morning rise . " The area is renowned as a fall foliage destination ; color season starts by the second week of September and ends in October .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Many locales in the Keweenaw Peninsula are frequently praised for their beauty and pristine appearances and Brockway Mountain Drive is no exception . The road has been recognized in numerous publications , dating back to the 1950s . The Milwaukee Sentinel profiled the " famous Brockway Mountain Drive " in 1956 in an article about a tourism boom to the region . More attention was focused on the roadway when Milwaukee 's other newspaper , the Milwaukee Journal , spotlighted the region in 1961 stating , " the road along the Brockway Mountain fault follows the Keweenaw Peninsula 700 ft [ 210 m ] above Lake Superior , past ghost copper mines [ toward ] restored Fort Wilkins " . The New York Times had similar praise in 1962 , saying " a side trip that should not be missed is the Brockway Mountain Drive ... for a panoramic view of the forest and the blue waters of Lake Superior . " The Chicago Tribune called the overlook " breathtaking " in 1986 , and the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that views from Brockway " rival [ ed ] any in New England " in 1990 . The Pioneer Press of St. Paul profiled the area in 2005 saying that the tourists " cruise along Brockway Mountain Drive , renowned for fall color . " The staff of MLive , the online news presence of Booth Newspapers in Michigan , highlighted the height of the roadway , the view to Isle Royale , and the birdwatching opportunities in a profile of the area in 2007 .
In April 1994 and April 2001 , the route along US 41 and Brockway Mountain Drive was selected as " one of the best fall color views and mountain biking areas " by Michigan Living . It was also named the " most beautiful bike ride in the United States " by Bicycling magazine in February 1995 . The Star Tribune in Minneapolis said that a visit to the drive " is worth the whole trip by itself , with a twisting road leading up to the crest , with panoramic views of fall colors . " The drive was also included in the coverage of the Copper Country Trail , a designation applied to the neighboring US 41 by the Federal Highway Administration as a part of the National Scenic Byway program . NBC 's Today featured Brockway Mountain Drive in September 2007 as part of a segment on " great and unusual fall foliage destinations " . In May 2010 , local residents of the Upper Peninsula chose the road as the region 's " favorite natural wonder " in a poll conducted by WLUC @-@ TV .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Keweenaw County .
= Dopamine =
Dopamine ( contracted from 3 @,@ 4 @-@ dihydroxyphenethylamine ) is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families that plays several important roles in the brain and body . It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical L @-@ DOPA , which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys . Dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most multicellular animals .
In the brain , dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter — a chemical released by neurons ( nerve cells ) to send signals to other nerve cells . The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways , one of which plays a major role in reward @-@ motivated behavior . Most types of reward increase the level of dopamine in the brain , and most addictive drugs increase dopamine neuronal activity . Other brain dopamine pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones . These pathways and cell groups form a dopamine system which is neuromodulatory .
Outside the central nervous system , dopamine functions in several parts of the peripheral nervous system as a local chemical messenger . In blood vessels , it inhibits norepinephrine release and acts as a vasodilator ( at normal concentrations ) ; in the kidneys , it increases sodium excretion and urine output ; in the pancreas , it reduces insulin production ; in the digestive system , it reduces gastrointestinal motility and protects intestinal mucosa ; and in the immune system , it reduces the activity of lymphocytes . With the exception of the blood vessels , dopamine in each of these peripheral systems is synthesized locally and exerts its effects near the cells that release it .
Several important diseases of the nervous system are associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system , and some of the key medications used to treat them work by altering the effects of dopamine . Parkinson 's disease , a degenerative condition causing tremor and motor impairment , is caused by a loss of dopamine @-@ secreting neurons in an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra . Its metabolic precursor L @-@ DOPA can be manufactured , and in its pure form marketed as Levodopa is the most widely used treatment for the condition . There is evidence that schizophrenia involves altered levels of dopamine activity , and most antipsychotic drugs used to treat this are dopamine antagonists which reduce dopamine activity . Similar dopamine antagonist drugs are also some of the most effective anti @-@ nausea agents . Restless legs syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) are associated with decreased dopamine activity . Dopaminergic stimulants can be addictive in high doses , but some are used at lower doses to treat ADHD . Dopamine itself is available as a manufactured medication for intravenous injection : although it cannot reach the brain from the bloodstream , its peripheral effects make it useful in the treatment of heart failure or shock , especially in newborn babies .
= = Structure = =
A dopamine molecule consists of a catechol structure ( a benzene ring with two hydroxyl side groups ) with one amine group attached via an ethyl chain . As such , dopamine is the simplest possible catecholamine , a family that also includes the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine . The presence of a benzene ring with this amine attachment makes it a substituted phenethylamine , a family that includes numerous psychoactive drugs .
Like most amines , dopamine is an organic base . As a base , it is generally protonated in acidic environments ( in an acid @-@ base reaction ) . The protonated form is highly water @-@ soluble and relatively stable , but can become oxidized if exposed to oxygen or other oxidants . In basic environments , dopamine is not protonated . In this free base form , it is less water @-@ soluble and also more highly reactive . Because of the increased stability and water @-@ solubility of the protonated form , dopamine is supplied for chemical or pharmaceutical use as dopamine hydrochloride — that is , the hydrochloride salt that is created when dopamine is combined with hydrochloric acid . In dry form , dopamine hydrochloride is a fine colorless powder .
= = Biochemistry = =
= = = Synthesis = = =
Dopamine is synthesized in a restricted set of cell types , mainly neurons and cells in the medulla of the adrenal glands . The metabolic pathway is :
L @-@ Phenylalanine → L @-@ Tyrosine → L @-@ DOPA → Dopamine
The direct precursor of dopamine , L @-@ DOPA , can be synthesized indirectly from the essential amino acid phenylalanine or directly from the non @-@ essential amino acid tyrosine . These amino acids are found in nearly every protein and so are readily available in food , with tyrosine being the most common . Although dopamine is also found in many types of food , it is incapable of crossing the blood – brain barrier that surrounds and protects the brain . It must therefore be synthesized inside the brain to perform its neuronal activity .
L @-@ Phenylalanine is converted into L @-@ tyrosine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase , with molecular oxygen ( O2 ) and tetrahydrobiopterin as cofactors . L @-@ Tyrosine is converted into L @-@ DOPA by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase , with tetrahydrobiopterin , O2 , and iron ( Fe2 + ) as cofactors . L @-@ DOPA is converted into dopamine by the enzyme aromatic L @-@ amino acid decarboxylase ( also known as DOPA decarboxylase ) , with pyridoxal phosphate as the cofactor .
Dopamine itself is used as precursor in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters ( and hormones ) norepinephrine and epinephrine . Dopamine is converted into norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase , with O2 and L @-@ ascorbic acid as cofactors . Norepinephrine is converted into epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase with S @-@ adenosyl @-@ L @-@ methionine as the cofactor .
Some of the cofactors also require their own synthesis . Deficiency in any required amino acid or cofactor can impair the synthesis of dopamine , norepinephrine , and epinephrine .
= = = Degradation = = =
Dopamine is broken down into inactive metabolites by a set of enzymes — monoamine oxidase ( MAO ) , catechol @-@ O @-@ methyl transferase ( COMT ) , and aldehyde dehydrogenase , acting in sequence . Both isoforms of monoamine oxidase , MAO @-@ A and MAO @-@ B , effectively metabolize dopamine . Different breakdown pathways exist but the main end @-@ product is homovanillic acid , which has no known biological activity . From the bloodstream , homovanillic acid is filtered out by the kidneys and then excreted in the urine .
In clinical research on schizophrenia , measurements of homovanillic acid in plasma have been used to estimate levels of dopamine activity in the brain . A difficulty in this approach however , is separating the high level of plasma homovanillic acid contributed by the metabolism of norepinephrine .
Although dopamine is normally broken down by an oxidoreductase enzyme , it is also susceptible to oxidation by direct reaction with oxygen , yielding quinones plus various free radicals as products . The rate of oxidation can be increased by the presence of ferric iron or other factors . Quinones and free radicals produced by autoxidation of dopamine can poison cells , and there is evidence that this mechanism may contribute to the cell loss that occurs in Parkinson 's disease and other conditions .
= = Functions = =
= = = Cellular effects = = =
Dopamine exerts its effects by binding to and activating cell surface receptors . In mammals , five subtypes of dopamine receptors have been identified , labeled from D1 to D5 . All of them function as metabotropic , G protein @-@ coupled receptors , meaning that they exert their effects via a complex second messenger system . These receptors can be divided into two families , known as D1 @-@ like and D2 @-@ like . For receptors located on neurons in the nervous system , the ultimate effect of D1 @-@ like activation ( D1 and D5 ) can be excitation ( via opening of sodium channels ) or inhibition ( via opening of potassium channels ) ; the ultimate effect of D2 @-@ like activation ( D2 , D3 , and D4 ) is usually inhibition of the target neuron . Consequently , it is incorrect to describe dopamine itself as either excitatory or inhibitory : its effect on a target neuron depends on which types of receptors are present on the membrane of that neuron and on the internal responses of that neuron to the second messenger cAMP . D1 receptors are the most numerous dopamine receptors in the human nervous system ; D2 receptors are next ; D3 , D4 , and D5 receptors are present at significantly lower levels .
= = = = Storage , release , and reuptake = = = =
Inside the brain , dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator , and is controlled by a set of mechanisms common to all monoamine neurotransmitters . After synthesis , dopamine is transported from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles by a solute carrier — a vesicular monoamine transporter , VMAT2 . Dopamine is stored in these vesicles until it is ejected into the synaptic cleft . In most cases , the release of dopamine occurs through a process called exocytosis which is caused by action potentials , but it can also be caused by the activity of an intracellular trace amine @-@ associated receptor , TAAR1 . TAAR1 is a high @-@ affinity receptor for dopamine , trace amines , and certain substituted amphetamines that is located along membranes in the intracellular milieu of the presynaptic cell ; activation of the receptor can regulate dopamine signaling by producing reuptake inhibition and neurotransmitter efflux and inhibiting neuronal firing through a diverse set of mechanisms .
Once in the synapse , dopamine binds to and activates dopamine receptors . These can be postsynaptic dopamine receptors , which are located on dendrites ( the postsynaptic neuron ) , or presynaptic autoreceptors ( e.g. , the D2sh and presynaptic D3 receptors ) , which are located on the membrane of an axon terminal ( the presynaptic neuron ) . After the postsynaptic neuron elicits an action potential , dopamine molecules quickly become unbound from their receptors . They are then absorbed back into the presynaptic cell , via reuptake mediated either by the dopamine transporter or by the plasma membrane monoamine transporter . Once back in the cytosol , dopamine can either be broken down by a monoamine oxidase or repackaged into vesicles by VMAT2 , making it available for future release .
In the brain the level of extracellular dopamine is modulated by two mechanisms : phasic and tonic transmission . Phasic dopamine release , like most neurotransmitter release in the nervous system , is driven directly by action potentials in the dopamine @-@ containing cells . Tonic dopamine transmission occurs when small amounts of dopamine are released without being preceded by presynaptic action potentials . Tonic transmission is regulated by a variety of factors , including the activity of other neurons and neurotransmitter reuptake .
= = = Nervous system = = =
Inside the brain , dopamine plays important roles in executive functions , motor control , motivation , arousal , reinforcement , and reward , as well as lower @-@ level functions including lactation , sexual gratification , and nausea . The dopaminergic cell groups and pathways make up the dopamine system which is neuromodulatory .
Dopaminergic neurons ( dopamine @-@ producing nerve cells ) are comparatively few in number — a total of around 400 @,@ 000 in the human brain — and their cell bodies are confined in groups to a few relatively small brain areas . However their axons project to many other brain areas , and they exert powerful effects on their targets . These dopaminergic cell groups were first mapped in 1964 by Annica Dahlström and Kjell Fuxe , who assigned them labels starting with the letter " A " ( for " aminergic " ) . In their scheme , areas A1 through A7 contain the neurotransmitter norepinephrine , whereas A8 through A14 contain dopamine . The dopaminergic areas they identified are the substantia nigra ( groups 8 and 9 ) ; the ventral tegmental area ( group 10 ) ; the posterior hypothalamus ( group 11 ) ; the arcuate nucleus ( group 12 ) ; the zona incerta ( group 13 ) and the periventricular nucleus ( group 14 ) .
The substantia nigra is a small midbrain area that forms a component of the basal ganglia . This has two parts — an input area called the pars compacta and an output area the pars reticulata . The dopaminergic neurons are found mainly in the pars compacta ( cell group A8 ) and nearby ( group A9 ) . In humans , the projection of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the dorsal striatum , termed the nigrostriatal pathway , plays a significant role in the control of motor function and in learning new motor skills . These neurons are especially vulnerable to damage , and when a large number of them die , the result is a parkinsonian syndrome .
The ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) is another midbrain area . The most prominent group of VTA dopaminergic neurons projects to the prefrontal cortex via the mesocortical pathway and another smaller group projects to the nucleus accumbens via the mesolimbic pathway . Together , these two pathways are collectively termed the mesocorticolimbic projection . The VTA also sends dopaminergic projections to the amygdala , cingulate gyrus , hippocampus , and olfactory bulb . Mesocorticolimbic neurons play a central role in reward and other aspects of motivation .
The posterior hypothalamus has dopamine neurons that project to the spinal cord , but their function is not well established . There is some evidence that pathology in this area plays a role in restless legs syndrome , a condition in which people have difficulty sleeping due to an overwhelming compulsion to constantly move parts of the body , especially the legs .
The arcuate nucleus and the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection — the tuberoinfundibular pathway which goes to the pituitary gland , where it influences the secretion of the hormone prolactin . Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland . Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is secreted into the hypophyseal portal system of the median eminence , which supplies the pituitary gland . The prolactin cells that produce prolactin , in the absence of dopamine , secrete prolactin continuously ; dopamine inhibits this secretion . In the context of regulating prolactin secretion , dopamine is occasionally called prolactin @-@ inhibiting factor , prolactin @-@ inhibiting hormone , or prolactostatin .
The zona incerta , grouped between the arcuate and periventricular nuclei , projects to several areas of the hypothalamus , and participates in the control of gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone , which is necessary to activate the development of the male and female reproductive systems , following puberty .
An additional group of dopamine @-@ secreting neurons is found in the retina of the eye . These neurons are amacrine cells , meaning that they have no axons . They release dopamine into the extracellular medium , and are specifically active during daylight hours , becoming silent at night . This retinal dopamine acts to enhance the activity of cone cells in the retina while suppressing rod cells — the result is to increase sensitivity to color and contrast during bright light conditions , at the cost of reduced sensitivity when the light is dim .
= = = = Basal ganglia = = = =
The largest and most important sources of dopamine in the vertebrate brain are the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area . These structures are closely related to each other and functionally similar in many respects . Both are components of the basal ganglia , a complex network of structures located mainly at the base of the forebrain . The largest component of the basal ganglia is the striatum . The substantia nigra sends a dopaminergic projection to the dorsal striatum , while the ventral tegmental area sends a similar type of dopaminergic projection to the ventral striatum .
Progress in understanding the functions of the basal ganglia has been slow . The most popular hypotheses , broadly stated , propose that the basal ganglia play a central role in action selection . The action selection theory in its simplest form proposes that when a person or animal is in a situation where several behaviors are possible , activity in the basal ganglia determines which of them is executed , by releasing that response from inhibition while continuing to inhibit other motor systems that if activated would generate competing behaviors . Thus the basal ganglia , in this concept , are responsible for initiating behaviors , but not for determining the details of how they are carried out . In other words , they essentially form a decision @-@ making system .
The basal ganglia can be divided into several sectors , and each is involved in controlling particular types of actions . The ventral sector of the basal ganglia ( containing the ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area ) operates at the highest level of the hierarchy , selecting actions at the whole @-@ organism level . The dorsal sectors ( containing the dorsal striatum and substantia nigra ) operate at lower levels , selecting the specific muscles and movements that are used to implement a given behavior pattern .
Dopamine contributes to the action selection process in at least two important ways . First , it sets the " threshold " for initiating actions . The higher the level of dopamine activity , the lower the impetus required to evoke a given behavior . As a consequence , high levels of dopamine lead to high levels of motor activity and impulsive behavior ; low levels of dopamine lead to torpor and slowed reactions . Parkinson 's disease , in which dopamine levels in the substantia nigra circuit are greatly reduced , is characterized by stiffness and difficulty initiating movement — however , when people with the disease are confronted with strong stimuli such as a serious threat , their reactions can be as vigorous as those of a healthy person . In the opposite direction , drugs that increase dopamine release , such as cocaine or amphetamine , can produce heightened levels of activity , including at the extreme , psychomotor agitation and stereotyped movements .
The second important effect of dopamine is as a " teaching " signal . When an action is followed by an increase in dopamine activity , the basal ganglia circuit is altered in a way that makes the same response easier to evoke when similar situations arise in the future . This is a form of operant conditioning , in which dopamine plays the role of a reward signal .
= = = = Reward = = = =
In the reward system , reward is the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces appetitive behavior ( also known as approach behavior ) – and consummatory behavior . A rewarding stimulus is one that has the potential to cause an approach to it and a choice to be made to consume it or not . Pleasure , learning ( e.g. , classical and operant conditioning ) , and approach behavior are the three main functions of reward . As an aspect of reward , pleasure provides a definition of reward ; however , while all pleasurable stimuli are rewarding , not all rewarding stimuli are pleasurable ( e.g. , extrinstic rewards like money ) . The motivational or desirable aspect of rewarding stimuli is reflected by the approach behavior that they induce , whereas the pleasurable component of intrinstic rewards is derived from the consummatory behavior that ensues upon acquiring them . A neuropsychological model which distinguishes these two components of an intrinsically rewarding stimulus is the incentive salience model , where " wanting " or desire ( less commonly , " seeking " ) corresponds to appetitive or approach behavior while " liking " or pleasure corresponds to consummatory behavior . In human drug addicts , " wanting " becomes dissociated with " liking " as the desire to use an addictive drug increases , while the pleasure obtained from consuming it decreases due to drug tolerance .
Within the brain , dopamine functions partly as a " global reward signal " , where an initial phasic dopamine response to a rewarding stimulus encodes information about the salience , value , and context of a reward . In the context of reward @-@ related learning , dopamine also functions as a reward prediction error signal , that is , the degree to which the value of a reward is unexpected . According to this hypothesis of Wolfram Schultz , rewards that are expected do not produce a second phasic dopamine response in certain dopaminergic cells , but rewards that are unexpected , or greater than expected , produce a short @-@ lasting increase in synaptic dopamine , whereas the omission of an expected reward actually causes dopamine release to drop below its background level . The " prediction error " hypothesis has drawn particular interest from computational neuroscientists , because an influential computational @-@ learning method known as temporal difference learning makes heavy use of a signal that encodes prediction error . This confluence of theory and data has led to a fertile interaction between neuroscientists and computer scientists interested in machine learning .
Evidence from microelectrode recordings from the brains of animals shows that dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area ( VTA ) and substantia nigra are strongly activated by a wide variety of rewarding events . These reward @-@ responsive dopamine neurons in the VTA and substantia nigra are crucial for reward @-@ related cognition and serve as the central component of the reward system . The function of dopamine varies in each axonal projection from the VTA and substantia nigra ; for example , the VTA – nucleus accumbens shell projection assigns incentive salience ( " want " ) to rewarding stimuli and its associated cues , the VTA – orbitofrontal cortex projection updates the value of different goals in accordance with their incentive salience , the VTA – amygdala and VTA – hippocampus projections mediate the consolidation of reward @-@ related memories , and both the VTA – nucleus accumbens core and substantia nigra – dorsal striatum pathways are involved in learning motor responses that facilitate the acquisition of rewarding stimuli . Some activity within the VTA dopaminergic projections appears to be associated with reward prediction as well .
While dopamine has a central role in mediating " wanting " — associated with the appetitive or approach behavioral responses to rewarding stimuli , detailed studies have shown that dopamine cannot simply be equated with " liking " or pleasure , as reflected in the consummatory behavioral response . Dopamine neurotransmission is involved in some but not all aspects of pleasure @-@ related cognition , since pleasure centers have been identified both within the dopamine system ( i.e. , nucleus accumbens shell ) and outside the dopamine system ( i.e. , ventral pallidum and parabrachial nucleus ) . For example , direct electrical stimulation of dopamine pathways , using electrodes implanted in the brain , is experienced as pleasurable , and many types of animals are willing to work to obtain it . Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychosis reduce dopamine levels and tend to cause anhedonia , a diminished ability to experience pleasure . Many types of pleasurable experiences — such as sex , enjoying food , or playing video games — increase dopamine release . All addictive drugs directly or indirectly affect dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens ; these drugs increase drug " wanting " , leading to compulsive drug use , when repeatedly taken in high doses , presumably through the sensitization of incentive @-@ salience . Drugs that increase dopamine release include stimulants such as methamphetamine or cocaine . These produce increases in " wanting " behaviors , but do not greatly alter expressions of pleasure or change levels of satiation . However , opiate drugs such as heroin or morphine produce increases in expressions of " liking " and " wanting " behaviors . Moreover , animals in which the ventral tegmental dopamine system has been rendered inactive do not seek food , and will starve to death if left to themselves , but if food is placed in their mouths they will consume it and show expressions indicative of pleasure .
= = = Outside the nervous system = = =
Dopamine does not cross the blood – brain barrier , so its synthesis and functions in peripheral areas are to a large degree independent of its synthesis and functions in the brain . A substantial amount of dopamine circulates in the bloodstream , but its functions there are not entirely clear . Dopamine is found in blood plasma at levels comparable to those of epinephrine , but in humans , over 95 % of the dopamine in the plasma is in the form of dopamine sulfate , a conjugate produced by the enzyme sulfotransferase 1A3 / 1A4 acting on free dopamine . The bulk of this dopamine sulfate is produced in the mesentery that surrounds parts of the digestive system . The production of dopamine sulfate is thought to be a mechanism for detoxifying dopamine that is ingested as food or produced by the digestive process — levels in the plasma typically rise more than fifty @-@ fold after a meal . Dopamine sulfate has no known biological functions and is excreted in urine .
The relatively small quantity of unconjugated dopamine in the bloodstream may be produced by the sympathetic nervous system , the digestive system , or possibly other organs . It may act on dopamine receptors in peripheral tissues , or be metabolized , or be converted to norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine beta hydroxylase , which is released into the bloodstream by the adrenal medulla . Some dopamine receptors are located in the walls of arteries , where they act as a vasodilator and an inhibitor of norepinephrine release . These responses might be activated by dopamine released from the carotid body under conditions of low oxygen , but whether arterial dopamine receptors perform other biologically useful functions is not known .
Beyond its role in modulating blood flow , there are several peripheral systems in which dopamine circulates within a limited area and performs an exocrine or paracrine function . The peripheral systems in which dopamine plays an important role include the immune system , the kidneys and the pancreas .
In the immune system dopamine acts upon receptors present on immune cells , especially lymphocytes . Dopamine can also affect immune cells in the spleen , bone marrow , and circulatory system . In addition , dopamine can be synthesized and released by immune cells themselves . The main effect of dopamine on lymphocytes is to reduce their activation level . The functional significance of this system is unclear , but it affords a possible route for interactions between the nervous system and immune system , and may be relevant to some autoimmune disorders .
The renal dopaminergic system is located in the cells of the nephron in the kidney , where all subtypes of dopamine receptors are present . Dopamine is also synthesized there , by tubule cells , and discharged into the tubular fluid . Its actions include increasing the blood supply to the kidneys , increasing the glomerular filtration rate , and increasing the excretion of sodium in the urine . Hence , defects in renal dopamine function can lead to reduced sodium excretion and consequently result in the development of high blood pressure . There is strong evidence that faults in the production of dopamine or in the receptors can result in a number of pathologies including oxidative stress , edema , and either genetic or essential hypertension . Oxidative stress can itself cause hypertension . Defects in the system can also be caused by genetic factors or high blood pressure .
In the pancreas the role of dopamine is somewhat complex . The pancreas consists of two parts , an exocrine and an endocrine component . The exocrine part synthesizes and secretes digestive enzymes and other substances , including dopamine , into the small intestine . The function of this secreted dopamine after it enters the small intestine is not clearly established — the possibilities include protecting the intestinal mucosa from damage and reducing gastrointestinal motility ( the rate at which content moves through the digestive system ) .
The pancreatic islets make up the endocrine part of the pancreas , and synthesize and secrete hormones including insulin into the bloodstream . There is evidence that the beta cells in the islets that synthesize insulin contain dopamine receptors , and that dopamine acts to reduce the amount of insulin they release . The source of their dopamine input is not clearly established — it may come from dopamine that circulates in the bloodstream and derives from the sympathetic nervous system , or it may be synthesized locally by other types of pancreatic cells .
= = Medical uses = =
Dopamine as a manufactured medication is sold under the trade names Intropin , Dopastat , and Revimine , among others . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines . It is most commonly used as a stimulant drug in the treatment of severe low blood pressure , slow heart rate , and cardiac arrest . It is especially important in treating these in newborn infants . It is given intravenously . Since the half @-@ life of dopamine in plasma is very short — approximately one minute in adults , two minutes in newborn infants and up to five minutes in preterm infants — it is usually given in a continuous intravenous drip rather than a single injection .
Its effects , depending on dosage , include an increase in sodium excretion by the kidneys , an increase in urine output , an increase in heart rate , and an increase in blood pressure . At low doses it acts through the sympathetic nervous system to increase heart muscle contraction force and heart rate , thereby increasing cardiac output and blood pressure . Higher doses also cause vasoconstriction that further increases blood pressure . Older literature also describes very low doses thought to improve kidney function without other consequences , but recent reviews have concluded that doses at such low levels are not effective and may sometimes be harmful . While some effects result from stimulation of dopamine receptors , the prominent cardiovascular effects result from dopamine acting at α1 , β1 , and β2 adrenergic receptors .
Side effects of dopamine include negative effects on kidney function and irregular heartbeats . The LD50 , or lethal dose which is expected to prove fatal in 50 % of the population , has been found to be : 59 mg / kg ( mouse ; administered intravenously ) ; 950 mg / kg ( mouse ; administered intraperitoneally ) ; 163 mg / kg ( rat ; administered intraperitoneally ) ; 79 mg / kg ( dog ; administered intravenously ) .
A fluorinated form of L @-@ DOPA known as fluorodopa is available for use in positron emission tomography to assess the function of the nigrostriatal pathway .
= = Disease , disorders , and pharmacology = =
The dopamine system plays a central role in several significant medical conditions , including Parkinson 's disease , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , schizophrenia , and addiction . Aside from dopamine itself , there are many other important drugs that act on dopamine systems in various parts of the brain or body . Some are used for medical or recreational purposes , but neurochemists have also developed a variety of research drugs , some of which bind with high affinity to specific types of dopamine receptors and either agonize or antagonize their effects , and many that affect other aspects of dopamine physiology , including dopamine transporter inhibitors , VMAT inhibitors , and enzyme inhibitors .
= = = Aging brain = = =
A number of studies have reported an age @-@ related decline in dopamine synthesis and dopamine receptor density ( i.e. , the number of receptors ) in the brain . This decline has been shown to occur in the striatum and extrastriatal regions . Decreases in the D1 , D2 , and D3 receptors are well documented . The reduction of dopamine with aging is thought to be responsible for many neurological symptoms that increase in frequency with age , such as decreased arm swing and increased rigidity . Changes in dopamine levels may also cause age @-@ related changes in cognitive flexibility .
Other neurotransmitters , such as serotonin and glutamate also show a decline in output with aging .
= = = Parkinson 's disease = = =
Parkinson 's disease is an age @-@ related disorder characterized by movement disorders such as stiffness of the body , slowing of movement , and trembling of limbs when they are not in use . In advanced stages it progresses to dementia and eventually death . The main symptoms are caused by the loss of dopamine @-@ secreting cells in the substantia nigra . These dopamine cells are especially vulnerable to damage , and a variety of insults , including encephalitis ( as depicted in the book and movie " Awakenings " ) , repeated sports @-@ related concussions , and some forms of chemical poisoning such as MPTP , can lead to substantial cell loss , producing a parkinsonian syndrome that is similar in its main features to Parkinson 's disease . Most cases of Parkinson 's disease , however , are idiopathic , meaning that the cause of cell death cannot be identified .
The most widely used treatment for parkinsonism is administration of L @-@ DOPA , the metabolic precursor for dopamine . L @-@ DOPA is converted to dopamine in the brain and various parts of the body by the enzyme DOPA decarboxylase . L @-@ DOPA is used rather than dopamine itself because , unlike dopamine , it is capable of crossing the blood @-@ brain barrier . It is often co @-@ administered with an enzyme inhibitor of peripheral decarboxylation such as carbidopa or benserazide , to reduce the amount converted to dopamine in the periphery and thereby increase the amount of L @-@ DOPA that enters the brain . When L @-@ DOPA is administered regularly over a long time period , a variety of unpleasant side effects such as dyskinesia often begin to appear ; even so , it is considered the best available long @-@ term treatment option for most cases of Parkinson 's disease .
L @-@ DOPA treatment cannot restore the dopamine cells that have been lost , but it causes the remaining cells to produce more dopamine , thereby compensating for the loss to at least some degree . In advanced stages the treatment begins to fail because the cell loss is so severe that the remaining ones cannot produce enough dopamine regardless of L @-@ DOPA levels . Other drugs that enhance dopamine function , such as bromocryptine and pergolide , are also sometimes used to treat Parkinsonism , but in most cases L @-@ DOPA appears to give the best trade @-@ off between positive effects and negative side @-@ effects .
Dopaminergic medications that are used to treat Parkinson 's disease are sometimes associated with the development of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome , which involves the overuse of dopaminergic medication and medication @-@ induced compulsive engagement in natural rewards like gambling and sexual activity . The latter behaviors are similar to those observed in individuals with a behavioral addiction .
= = = Drug addiction and psychostimulants = = =
Cocaine , substituted amphetamines ( including methamphetamine ) , Adderall , methylphenidate ( marketed as Ritalin or Concerta ) , MDMA ( ecstasy ) and other psychostimulants exert their effects primarily or partly by increasing dopamine levels in the brain by a variety of mechanisms . Cocaine and methylphenidate are dopamine transporter blockers or reuptake inhibitors ; they non @-@ competitively inhibit dopamine reuptake , resulting in increased dopamine concentrations in the synaptic cleft . Like cocaine , substituted amphetamines and amphetamine also increase the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft , but by different mechanisms .
The effects of psychostimulants include increases in heart rate , body temperature , and sweating ; improvements in alertness , attention , and endurance ; increases in pleasure produced by rewarding events ; but at higher doses agitation , anxiety , or even loss of contact with reality . Drugs in this group can have a high addiction potential , due to their activating effects on the dopamine @-@ mediated reward system in the brain . However some can also be useful , at lower doses , for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and narcolepsy . An important differentiating factor is the onset and duration of action . Cocaine can take effect in seconds if it is injected or inhaled in free base form ; the effects last from 5 to 90 minutes . This rapid and brief action makes its effects easily perceived and consequently gives it high addiction potential . Methylphenidate taken in pill form , in contrast , can take two hours to reach peak levels in the bloodstream , and depending on formulation the effects can last for up to 12 hours . These slow and sustained actions reduce the addiction potential and make it more useful for treating ADHD .
A variety of addictive drugs produce an increase in reward @-@ related dopamine activity . Stimulants such as nicotine , cocaine and methamphetamine promote increased levels of dopamine which appear to be the primary factor in causing addiction . For other addictive drugs such as the opioid heroin , the increased levels of dopamine in the reward system may only play a minor role in addiction . When people addicted to stimulants go through withdrawal , they do not experience the physical suffering associated with alcohol withdrawal or withdrawal from opiates ; instead they experience craving , an intense desire for the drug characterized by irrit
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Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Gary Alesbrook – trumpet
Matt Sibley – saxophone
= = Singles chart positions = =
= 2005 Sugar Bowl =
The 2005 Sugar Bowl was a postseason American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Auburn Tigers at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans , Louisiana , on January 3 , 2005 . It was the 71st edition of the annual Sugar Bowl football contest . Virginia Tech represented the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) in the contest , while Auburn represented the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . In a defensive struggle , Auburn earned a 16 – 13 victory despite a late @-@ game rally by Virginia Tech .
Virginia Tech was selected as a participant in the game after winning the ACC football championship during the team 's first year in the conference . Tech , which finished 10 – 2 in the regular season prior to the Sugar Bowl , defeated 16th @-@ ranked Virginia and ninth @-@ ranked Miami en route to the game . Auburn finished the regular season undefeated at 12 – 0 . The Tigers defeated fourth @-@ ranked LSU and fifth @-@ ranked Georgia during the course of the season , and were one of five teams to finish the regular season undefeated ; the others were Southern California , Oklahoma , Utah , and Boise State , with USC and Oklahoma being selected to play in the Bowl Championship Series national championship game . Auburn , by virtue of its lower ranking in the BCS poll , was left out of the national championship and was selected to play in the Sugar Bowl .
Pre @-@ game media coverage of the game focused on Auburn being left out of the national championship game , a point of controversy for Auburn fans in the weeks leading up to the game . Much was made of that and the success of Auburn running backs Carnell Williams and Ronnie Brown , each of whom was considered among the best at his position . On the Virginia Tech side , senior quarterback Bryan Randall had a record @-@ breaking season . Both teams also had high @-@ ranked defenses , and Tech 's appearance in the 2000 Sugar Bowl also was mentioned in the run @-@ up to the game .
The 2005 Sugar Bowl kicked off on January 3 , 2005 , at 8 : 00 p.m. EST . Early in the first quarter , the Tigers took a 3 – 0 lead . Following an interception by the Auburn defense , the Tigers were extended their lead to 6 – 0 . In the second quarter , another field goal resulted in three points for the Tigers . At halftime , Auburn led , 9 – 0 . Auburn opened the second half with its only touchdown drive of the game , giving Auburn a 16 – 0 lead , which it held into the fourth quarter . In that quarter , Tech scored its first touchdown of the game but did not convert the two @-@ point try , making the score 16 – 6 . Late in the quarter , Tech quarterback Bryan Randall cut Auburn 's lead to 16 – 13 on an 80 @-@ yard pass that resulted in another touchdown . With almost no time remaining in the game , Virginia Tech attempted an onside kick to have another chance on offense . When Auburn recovered the kick , the Tigers ran out the clock and secured the win . In recognition of his game @-@ winning performance , Auburn quarterback Jason Campbell was named the game 's most valuable player .
Despite Auburn 's victory and undefeated season , they were not named national champions . That honor went to the University of Southern California , which defeated Oklahoma in the 2005 national championship game , 55 – 19 . Three voters in the final Associated Press poll of the season voted Auburn the number one team in the country , but their votes were not enough to deny USC a national championship , as voted by members of the Associated Press and Coaches ' polls . Several players from each team were selected in the 2005 NFL Draft and went on to careers in the National Football League .
= = Team selection = =
Virginia Tech and Auburn each earned automatic spots in a BCS bowl game due to their status as conference champions , and were selected by the 2005 Sugar Bowl . Virginia Tech finished the season 10 – 2 and was named ACC football champion its first year in the conference . Auburn , meanwhile , finished the season undefeated at 12 – 0 , and was named champion of the SEC . Controversy erupted around Auburn 's selection , as the Tigers had been denied a spot in the national championship game in favor of two other undefeated teams : the University of Southern California ( USC ) and Oklahoma .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies entered the 2004 college football season having gone 8 – 5 in 2003 , culminating with a 52 – 49 loss to California in the 2003 Insight Bowl . The 2003 season had also been Virginia Tech 's final year in the Big East Conference , and Tech began the new season in the Atlantic Coast Conference . Tech started the season unranked for the first time since 1998 , and was picked to finish sixth ( out of 11 ACC teams ) in the annual ACC preseason poll , held in July . The Hokies ' first game in their new conference was a non @-@ conference contest at FedEx Field in Landover , MD. against the top @-@ ranked USC Trojans . Tech lost , 24 – 13 , but recovered to win its next game — against lightly regarded Western Michigan — in blowout fashion , 63 – 0 . In its first conference game in the ACC , the Hokies beat Duke , 47 – 17 , to improve to a 2 – 1 record . Their first win in the ACC was followed by their first loss , however , as the Hokies lost the next week to North Carolina State , 17 – 16 , when Tech kicker Brandon Pace missed a last @-@ second field goal .
Following the loss , Virginia Tech was 2 – 2 on the season , and faced the potential of being ineligible for a postseason bowl game if it did not improve its winning percentage . The Hokies won their next eight games , finishing the season with a 10 – 2 record . With late @-@ season wins over perennial rival , 16th @-@ ranked Virginia , and fellow ACC newcomer , ninth @-@ ranked Miami , Virginia Tech clinched the ACC football championship ( the last year in which it would be decided without a conference championship game ) and a bid to a Bowl Championship Series game . Because the ACC 's normal bowl destination , the Orange Bowl , was hosting the national championship game , Virginia Tech was selected to attend the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans , Louisiana , instead .
= = = Auburn = = =
Auburn , like Virginia Tech , had gone 8 – 5 during the 2003 college football season , and entered the 2004 season with high expectations . The Tigers were using a new offensive scheme — the West Coast offense — and boasted two highly rated running backs on offense . In its first game of the 2004 season , the 18th @-@ ranked Auburn football team overwhelmed the University of Louisiana @-@ Monroe , 31 – 0 . It was Auburn 's first shutout since 2002 . One week later , the Tigers backed up their good start with an emphatic 43 – 14 victory over Southeastern Conference foe Mississippi State University . In the third week of the season , Auburn faced its first challenge of the young season , against the fourth @-@ ranked Louisiana State Tigers . In a hard @-@ fought defensive struggle , Auburn won , 10 – 9 , when a missed extra point was replayed after a penalty .
After an easy 33 – 3 victory over The Citadel , Auburn faced eighth @-@ ranked Tennessee . The Tigers ' defense forced six turnovers en route to a 34 – 10 victory . With the victory over Tennessee , Auburn reeled off another four victories and became a prominent candidate for inclusion in the national championship game . In the 11th week of the season , Auburn faced the fifth @-@ ranked Georgia Bulldogs . After a defensive effort that held Georgia scoreless until late in the fourth quarter , the third @-@ ranked Tigers won a 24 – 6 victory . After defeating Alabama in their final regular @-@ season game , Auburn entered the SEC championship game undefeated and in third place nationally . Although the Tigers defeated the Volunteers , 38 – 28 , in the conference championship game , Auburn remained in third place because both USC and Oklahoma also remained undefeated . With USC and Oklahoma selected to play in the national championship game , Auburn was forced into the Sugar Bowl . With the winner of the BCS Championship Game guaranteed first place in the Coaches Poll , Auburn fans held hopes that the combination of an overwhelming Tigers victory in the Sugar Bowl with Oklahoma defeating USC with a weak performance would cause enough voters in the AP Poll to put Auburn ahead of Oklahoma in their final poll . The result would have been a split national championship similar to what occurred the previous season .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the game , media coverage of the game focused on Auburn 's exclusion from the national championship game , a controversial point for Auburn fans and other observers in the weeks leading up to the game . In addition , both teams boasted high @-@ ranked defenses that had performed well during the year . Much was made of that fact and the success of Auburn running backs Carnell Williams and Ronnie Brown , each of whom were considered among the best players at their position . On the Virginia Tech side , senior quarterback Bryan Randall performed well for the Hokies during the regular season and was predicted to continue his success in the Sugar Bowl .
= = = Rankings controversy = = =
Shortly after the final pre @-@ bowl game Bowl Championship Series standings were released on December 4 , Auburn was among several teams disgruntled with the system . One of these was California , which only lost to top @-@ ranked USC , but was denied a bid to the prestigious Rose Bowl after Texas vaulted it in the rankings despite having the same record . The Golden Bears were forced to attend the less @-@ attractive Holiday Bowl instead . The Auburn Tigers , meanwhile , had completed their first 12 @-@ win regular season and won their first conference championship in 15 years , but in the final BCS rankings , Auburn was third , behind USC and Oklahoma . It was the first time since the creation of the BCS in 1998 that three major @-@ conference college football teams were undefeated at the conclusion of the regular season . Some pundits and fans considered Auburn 's failure to reach the championship game to be based on the fact that the Tigers had started with a lower ranking at the beginning of the season . The Tigers had been ranked 17th at the beginning of the season , while USC had been ranked first and Oklahoma second , the same spots they occupied at the end of the regular season .
Sportswriters also pointed to the Tigers ' tougher conference schedule when compared to those of USC and Oklahoma . SEC commissioner Mike Slive remarked , " If Auburn goes through this league undefeated , they deserve to play for the national championship . " Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer , in the runup to the game , seemingly agreed with the assessment , saying , " We started out playing Southern Cal and I believe this Auburn team is better . " Some writers also indicated USC 's five @-@ point win — in which the Trojans struggled — over rival UCLA as an indicator that the Tigers could be the better team . In the end , such arguments were unable to sway voters , who ranked USC first , Oklahoma second , and Auburn third in all of the major polls decided by human voters . The Utes , who were also undefeated at the conclusion of the regular season , received limited attention because they were a member of a non @-@ BCS conference .
Due to the controversy surrounding Auburn 's failure to be given a chance to play for the national championship and controversies involving teams lobbying for improved ratings in the poll , the Associated Press sent a cease @-@ and @-@ desist order to BCS officials , forbidding them the use of the AP Poll in calculating BCS ratings .
= = = Auburn offense = = =
Auburn head coach Tommy Tuberville was named the Associated Press Coach of the Year on December 24 , due in large part to his success in using Auburn 's new West Coast offense to drive the Tigers to an undefeated 12 – 0 regular season . In response to his success , Auburn administrators agreed to a seven @-@ year , $ 16 million contract extension with Tuberville prior to the Sugar Bowl . Tuberville planned an offense that finished the regular season averaging 33 @.@ 4 points and 430 @.@ 8 yards of total offense per game .
Heading Auburn 's offense on the field was quarterback Jason Campbell . Campbell finished the regular season with 2 @,@ 511 yards and 19 touchdowns , one short of tying the Auburn record for most touchdowns in a single season . Campbell was second in the Southeastern Conference in passing yards per game ( 209 @.@ 2 ) , and was a first @-@ team All @-@ SEC selection .
Auburn 's rushing offense was led by two highly regarded running backs : Carnell Williams and Ronnie Brown . The two men , combined with quarterback Campbell , ran for 15 @,@ 739 yards and 129 career touchdowns prior to the Sugar Bowl . Williams led the SEC in all @-@ purpose yardage ( 137 @.@ 2 yards per game ) and average yards per punt return ( 11 @.@ 7 ) . He finished the regular season with 1 @,@ 104 rushing yards and 13 touchdowns . The touchdown mark was the most recorded by a running back in the SEC that year . For his accomplishments , Williams was named a first @-@ team All @-@ SEC pick . Despite missing most of his first two seasons due to injuries , he ranked second on Auburn 's all @-@ time rushing list with 3 @,@ 770 yards — behind only NFL and MLB star Bo Jackson . Williams also had the most rushing touchdowns in Auburn history ( 45 ) and was Auburn 's leading scorer in school history ( 276 points ) . Brown accumulated 845 rushing yards and caught 34 passes for 314 yards during the season prior to the Sugar Bowl . He finished with eight touchdowns and was named a second @-@ team All @-@ SEC pick . His 34 receptions were 10 more than he earned in his first three seasons combined .
Despite the attention focused on Auburn 's two star running backs , the team also boasted a capable corps of wide receivers as well . Prior to the game , Auburn receiver Ben Obomanu said , " When you have your running game making big plays and the defense has to load the box ( defensive line ) to make plays and try to stop the running game , that opens up things in the passing game . " Auburn averaged more yards passing ( 241 @.@ 4 per game ) than running ( 189 @.@ 4 per game ) .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Heading into the Sugar Bowl , the Virginia Tech offense was led by quarterback Bryan Randall , who completed 149 of 268 passes ( 55 @.@ 6 percent ) for 1 @,@ 965 yards , 19 touchdowns , and seven interceptions . He also rushed for 466 yards and held Tech career records for total offense and passing yards . His 37 consecutive starts also are a school mark for a quarterback . In the preseason , Randall competed for the first @-@ string quarterback spot with Marcus Vick until the latter was suspended from Tech for a semester after a criminal conviction . In the weeks leading up to the Sugar Bowl , Randall was named the Virginia Division I Offensive Player of the Year by the Roanoke Times and was named the ACC Player of the Year .
Tech 's rushing offense featured two running backs who shared time on the field : Mike Imoh and Cedric Humes . During the regular season , Imoh rushed the ball 152 times for 704 yards , an average of 4 @.@ 6 yards per carry . He scored four touchdowns and set a school record for rushing yards in a game when he ran for 243 yards in Virginia Tech 's game against North Carolina . Humes was on the field slightly less than Imoh , but earned 595 yards and five touchdowns on 124 carries . Tech offensive tackle Jimmy Martin was expected to play in the game after recovering from a high ankle sprain .
On special teams , Tech 's Jim Davis blocked three field goals during the regular season , and teammate Darryl Tapp blocked a punt . Tech 's success on special teams was at least partially due to head coach Frank Beamer 's emphasis on that aspect of the game , a strategy known as " Beamerball . " Due to Tech 's acumen on special teams , Auburn was forced to spend extra time in preparing its special teams to face Virginia Tech in the Sugar Bowl .
The Sugar Bowl was a homecoming for Tech punter Vinnie Burns , who played high school football 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the Louisiana Superdome , site of the Sugar Bowl . In addition , Burns ' father , Ronnie Burns , was a longtime Sugar Bowl committee member , and Vinnie committed to attend Virginia Tech while the Hokies were in New Orleans to play in the 2000 Sugar Bowl , that year 's national championship game .
= = = Auburn defense = = =
Before the Sugar Bowl , Auburn had the top @-@ ranked scoring defense in the country ( allowing 11 @.@ 2 points per game ) , the fifth @-@ ranked total defense ( allowing 269 @.@ 5 total yards per game ) , eighth in passing defense ( allowing 163 yards passing per game ) , and 16th in rushing defense ( allowing 106 @.@ 5 yards rushing per game ) . Cornerback Carlos Rogers was one of the key players on the defensive squad . Rogers , who won the Jim Thorpe Award — given annually to the best defensive back in the country — earned consensus All @-@ America honors and was a finalist for the Bronco Nagurski Award and a semifinalist for the Chuck Bednarik Award , each given to the best defensive college football player in the United States .
Linebacker Travis Williams had the most tackles on the team during the regular season , finishing with 76 . He also tied for third on the team in tackles for loss ( nine ) , had two interceptions , two sacks , and was named a second @-@ team All @-@ SEC selection .
Senior safety Junior Rosegreen , freshman end Stanley McClover and junior nose guard Tommy Jackson were first @-@ team all @-@ SEC picks , signifying they were the best players at their position in the conference . Rosegreen had five interceptions during the regular season , including four in Auburn 's game against Tennessee . That single @-@ game performance tied the SEC record and set the Auburn record for the most interceptions in one game . Jackson finished the regular season with 49 tackles , six tackles for loss , and one sack .
Linebacker Antarrious Williams was scheduled to miss the game after undergoing surgery to repair a dislocated bone suffered in the Tigers ' game against Georgia . Williams had 44 tackles during the regular season , and had been replaced by Derrick Graves in the SEC championship game . Graves was expected to do so again in the Sugar Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
At the conclusion of the regular season , Virginia Tech 's defense was ranked third nationally in scoring defense ( 12 @.@ 6 points allowed per game ) , fourth in total defense ( 269 @.@ 5 total yards allowed per game ) and fifth in pass defense ( 149 @.@ 8 passing yards allowed per game ) . The Tech defense featured two highly regarded cornerbacks , Jimmy Williams and Eric Green , who finished the regular season with 50 tackles and 31 tackles , respectively . Williams also had four interceptions ( the most on the team ) , including one returned for a touchdown , and was named first @-@ team All @-@ ACC . Green , meanwhile , had one interception . Auburn wide receiver Courtney Taylor praised the two players highly in an interview before the game , saying , " Those cornerbacks are amazing to me every time I look at them . I think , ' God , those guys are very athletic . ' We 're going to have our hands full . "
Linebacker Mikal Baaqee was first on the team in tackles , recording 63 during the regular season . Fellow linebacker Vince Hall ranked second , with 62 .
On the defensive line , defensive tackle Jonathan Lewis was considered a key player . Though limited by a cast protecting a broken pinky finger suffered during Virginia Tech 's game against Virginia , Lewis was expected to continue to perform well . Heading into the Sugar Bowl , Lewis had 38 tackles , including 10 tackles for loss and four sacks . Also on the defensive line was Darryl Tapp , who led the team in sacks , tackles for loss , and quarterback hurries . Tapp earned first @-@ team All @-@ ACC honors and had 55 tackles and one interception during the regular season .
= = Game summary = =
The 2005 Sugar Bowl kicked off at 8 : 00 p.m. EST on January 3 , 2005 , in New Orleans , Louisiana . Official attendance was listed as 77 @,@ 349 . Mike Tirico , Tim Brant , Terry Bowden , and Suzy Shuster were the announcers for the television broadcast , which was aired on ABC . About 10 million households watched the game on television in the United States , giving the game a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 and making it the 24th most popular Bowl Championship Series game in terms of television ratings . The game was also broadcast on ESPN Radio , and was commentated by Mark Jones , Bob Davie , and Holly Rowe . Spread bettors favored Auburn to win the game by seven points .
Pregame entertainment was provided by Bowl Games of America , a group composed of more than 2 @,@ 000 performing @-@ arts bands , dance teams , and cheer groups from across the United States . Together , they performed the song " God Bless America . " The traditional pregame singing of the national anthem was sung by Brad Arnold from the band 3 Doors Down . Dick Honig was the referee , the umpire was Jim Krogstad , and the linesman was Brent Durbin .
= = = First quarter = = =
Following the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss , Auburn elected to kick off to Virginia Tech to begin the game , ensuring the Tigers would have possession to begin the second half . Tech began the first drive of the game from its 20 @-@ yard line following a touchback . The Hokies initially had success moving the ball , as quarterback Bryan Randall rushed for seven yards on the game 's first play , then completed a four @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Eddie Royal two plays later for a first down . The Auburn defense recovered , however , and the Hokies did not gain another first down and were forced to punt . Auburn recovered the ball and began its first drive of the game from its 26 @-@ yard line . On the Tigers ' first play , quarterback Jason Campbell threw a long pass to Cooper Wallace for 35 yards . This was followed by another long play as running back Ronnie Brown ran for 31 yards . After the initial shock of the Auburn offense , the Virginia Tech defense firmed up , and Auburn 's next three plays were stopped for losses or minimal gains . Facing a fourth down at the Virginia Tech six @-@ yard line , Auburn sent in kicker John Vaughn , who kicked a 23 @-@ yard field goal for the game 's first points . With 8 : 35 remaining in the first quarter , Auburn took an early 3 – 0 lead .
Following the post @-@ field goal kickoff , the Virginia Tech offense attempted to answer Auburn 's quick score . Unfortunately for the Hokies , their second drive fared even worse than the first . Tech committed a 10 @-@ yard penalty , suffered an eight @-@ yard loss on a play , then had a Bryan Randall pass intercepted by Auburn safety Junior Rosegreen . Rosegreen returned the ball 31 yards , and put Auburn 's offense into good field position for its second drive of the game . Auburn also suffered an early penalty in its drive , but moved the ball with another long play — a 23 @-@ yard pass to Courtney Taylor — to recover . Again , however , the Virginia Tech defense recovered to force Auburn into a fourth down and a field goal attempt . Vaughn returned to the field and kicked a 19 @-@ yard field goal , giving Auburn a 6 – 0 lead with 1 : 06 remaining in the quarter .
With time in the quarter running out , Virginia Tech fielded the post @-@ score kickoff and executed a quick series of plays , gaining a first down before time ran out . At the end of the first quarter , Auburn held an early 6 – 0 lead .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the second quarter in possession of the ball and driving down the field . Bryan Randall completed a 10 @-@ yard pass for another first down , but after Tech failed to gain another , the Hokies were forced to punt . Auburn reciprocated by going three and out and punting the ball back to Virginia Tech . In its first full drive of the second quarter , the Hokies had their best drive of the first half . After a holding penalty nullified a long kickoff return , Tech began at its 24 @-@ yard line . Randall completed a nine @-@ yard pass to tight end Jeff King , then ran for another nine yards on a quarterback scramble . He followed the first @-@ down run by completing three consecutive long passes of 16 yards , 13 yards , and 31 yards , respectively . The last pass , to wide receiver Josh Hyman , drove Virginia Tech inside the Auburn two @-@ yard line . There , however , the Tech offense faltered . On three plays , Tech failed to cross the goal line , gaining only one yard in the process . Facing fourth down and needing just one yard for a touchdown , Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to attempt to gain the touchdown , rather than send in his kicker for a field goal attempt . The attempted touchdown pass by Randall fell incomplete , and Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs without scoring any points .
Auburn 's offense took over at its one @-@ yard line after Tech 's failure to score . Jason Campbell orchestrated a successful drive that took Auburn from the shadow of its own end zone , completing passes of 16 yards , 15 yards , and 37 yards in the process . Inside the Virginia Tech red zone , however , the Auburn offense again stumbled . As it had in its two previous scoring drives , Auburn was forced to send in kicker John Vaughn despite being inside the Virginia Tech 10 @-@ yard line . Vaughn 's 24 @-@ yard kick was successful , and with 1 : 50 remaining in the second quarter , Auburn extended its lead to 9 – 0 .
With little time remaining before halftime , Virginia Tech used a hurry @-@ up offense . Randall completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to Eddie Royal and ran for 22 yards on his own , but threw three consecutive incomplete passes to end the drive . Tech was forced to punt the ball away , and the first half came to an end . At halftime , Auburn led , 9 – 0 .
= = = Halftime = = =
The halftime show was presented by Bowl Games of America , a collection of dance troupes , marching bands , and cheerleading squads from across the United States . Together , the organizations presented a pirate @-@ themed show based on the character of Jean Lafitte , a noted brigand who lived in New Orleans — site of the game — during the War of 1812 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Auburn received the ball to begin the second half . The Tigers started the first drive of the second half at their 22 @-@ yard line . Carnell Williams and Ronnie Brown alternated carries as Auburn gained 17 yards in their first three plays . Jason Campbell completed a pass for a five @-@ yard loss , then , on the fifth play of the drive , completed a 53 @-@ yard pass to Anthony Mix . The pass was the longest play of the game , and drove the Tigers inside the Virginia Tech red zone . Three plays later , Campbell connected with Devin Aromashodu on a five @-@ yard pass for the game 's first touchdown . With 10 : 39 remaining in the third quarter , Auburn had taken a 16 – 0 lead .
After Auburn 's kickoff , Virginia Tech started its first drive of the second half at its 20 @-@ yard line . Down by 16 points , Tech needed to score . The Hokies gained a quick first down , but a five @-@ yard penalty and a sack of Bryan Randall prevented Tech from gaining another . The Hokies were forced to punt , and Auburn took over at its 44 @-@ yard line . Despite having good field position , the Tigers went three and out . Following the punt , Virginia Tech reciprocated by also going three and out . With 3 : 47 remaining in the quarter , Auburn began an offensive drive from its 35 @-@ yard line . From the beginning of the drive , however , the Tigers had problems . The first play of Auburn 's drive was a 10 @-@ yard penalty against the Tigers . The second resulted in a one @-@ yard loss by Ronnie Brown , who attempted to rush through the middle of the defensive line . On the third play , Virginia Tech cornerback Jimmy Williams intercepted an errant pass by Jason Campbell . Though Williams was unable to advance the ball , the Hokies still took over on offense , and with 2 : 38 remaining in the quarter , had their best field position since the first half .
The first play of the Tech drive resulted in a 12 @-@ yard gain as Josh Hyman rushed for 12 yards and a first down on an end @-@ around . Running back Cedric Humes was stopped for a loss on the first play after Hyman 's rush , but earned 10 yards on two subsequent rushes , setting up a fourth down . Needing one yard for a first down , behind by 16 points , and with time running down in the quarter , Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to attempt the first down play rather than kick a field goal . Humes again rushed the ball , and as time ran out in the third quarter , picked up enough ground for the first down . With one quarter of play remaining , Auburn led Virginia Tech 16 – 0 , but the Hokies had picked up a first down inside the Auburn 10 @-@ yard line to begin the fourth quarter .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball , and facing a first down at the Auburn 10 @-@ yard line . In three consecutive plays , however , the Hokies only picked up a total of four yards . Needing six yards to get a touchdown , Virginia Tech sent in kicker Brandon Pace to attempt a 23 @-@ yard field goal . Despite the short distance , Pace missed the kick . With 13 : 56 remaining in the game , Auburn still held a 16 – 0 lead .
Following the missed field goal , Auburn took over on offense at its six @-@ yard line — the point from which Tech had missed the kick . Ronnie Brown picked up 13 yards and a first down on three rushes . Carnell Williams then picked up three yards , and Jason Campbell threw a seven @-@ yard pass that gave Auburn another first down . A five @-@ yard penalty against Virginia Tech pushed Auburn 's offense near midfield , and Ronnie Brown returned to the field , rushing the ball four consecutive times for 16 yards and driving the Tigers into Virginia Tech territory . Facing a fourth down and one yard , Auburn elected to give the ball to Brown again . On the one @-@ yard run , however , Brown fumbled the ball , which was recovered by Virginia Tech 's Mikal Baagee with 8 : 38 remaining .
Virginia Tech 's offense came on to the field desperately needing to score quickly . Though the deficit was only 16 points , and could be made up with two touchdowns and two two @-@ point conversions , the limited time remaining meant the task would be difficult , even if Virginia Tech scored quickly . The Hokies began the drive with a 17 @-@ yard pass by quarterback Bryan Randall . Justin Hamilton rushed for five yards , and Randall completed a six @-@ yard pass for another first down . The Tigers helped matters by committing a 15 @-@ yard penalty , which put the Hokies inside Auburn territory . Three plays later , Randall capitalized on the opportunity by completing a 29 @-@ yard pass to Josh Morgan for a touchdown and the Hokies ' first points of the game . Tech attempted a two @-@ point conversion , but the pass attempt fell incomplete . With 6 : 57 remaining , Virginia Tech now trailed 16 – 6 .
After receiving the post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Auburn began to run out the clock . The Tigers failed to pick up a first down , and after going three and out , punted the ball back to Virginia Tech . The Hokies started their drive at their two @-@ yard line , and Randall began it successfully by completing a 20 @-@ yard pass , rushing for 10 yards , then completing a five @-@ yard pass to bring the Hokies near midfield . On the fourth play of the drive , however , Randall was intercepted by Auburn 's Derrick Graves . The Tigers , their offense again on the field , began running out the clock again . Tech attempted to interrupt Auburn 's clock management by calling timeouts after each play , stopping the clock with each timeout . Virginia Tech forced Auburn into a three and out , and the Tigers again punted the ball away with 2 : 13 remaining .
After the ball rolled into the end zone for a touchback , Virginia Tech began its final drive at its 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the drive , Bryan Randall completed an 80 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Josh Morgan . The score plus the extra point cut Auburn 's lead to 16 – 13 . With time in the game almost exhausted , Virginia Tech was forced to attempt an onside kick in order to have a chance to get another offensive drive . Because the Hokies had used their final timeouts to stop the clock on Auburn 's previous drive , Auburn would be free to run out the game 's final minutes . Despite the hopes of Virginia Tech for a last @-@ second miracle , the Auburn Tigers recovered the kick , allowing them to run out the clock and clinch a 16 – 13 victory .
= = Final statistics = =
Auburn quarterback Jason Campbell completed 11 of 16 passes for 189 yards , one touchdown , and one interception , and was named the game 's most valuable player . Despite his performance , he was neither the leading scorer on his team nor the overall best performer in the game . Auburn kicker John Vaughn was successful on all three of his field goal attempts and also succeeded on his sole extra point kick in the game , resulting in 10 Auburn points . On the opposite side of the ball , Virginia Tech quarterback Bryan Randall completed 21 of his 38 passes for 299 yards , two touchdowns , and two interceptions . Virginia Tech kicker Branden Pace missed his sole field goal attempt of the game , a 23 @-@ yard kick .
On the ground , Auburn running back Ronnie Brown led all rushers with 68 yards on 14 carries . Second was Auburn 's Carnell Williams , who gained 61 yards on 19 carries . Bryan Randall was the Hokies ' leading rusher , accumulating 45 yards on nine carries . Tech 's two running backs , Mike Imoh and Cedric Humes , were stymied by the Auburn defense and managed just 26 yards on 12 combined carries . Virginia Tech wide receiver Josh Morgan finished the game with three receptions for 126 yards and two touchdowns , making him the game 's most prolific receiver . Auburn 's Courtney Taylor was second , with five catches for 87 yards , and Tech 's Josh Hyman was third with five catches for 71 yards .
For the defense , Virginia Tech cornerback Jimmy Williams was the top performer . Williams had 10 tackles , including 3 @.@ 5 tackles for loss , and one interception . Tech 's Mikal Baaqee had eight tackles and one fumble recovery , making him the game 's second @-@ leading tackler . Auburn defender Derrick Graves was the most prolific tackler for the Tigers , making seven tackles and catching one interception of an errant Bryan Randall pass . Three players had one sack — two for Virginia Tech and one for Auburn .
= = Postgame effects = =
With the win , Auburn finished the season undefeated , with 13 wins and zero losses . Virginia Tech 's loss gave it a final record of 10 – 3 .
The victory gave Auburn fans hope that if Oklahoma won the 2005 BCS National Championship Game , a split national championship would result . By contract , the winner of the BCS National Championship Game is voted number one in the USA Today Coaches ' Poll . In contrast , the Associated Press poll has no such restriction . Auburn 's thin margin of victory over Tech put the prospect of split national title in doubt , though not out of reach . USC 's blowout 55 – 19 victory over Oklahoma , however , made it likely that USC would be the overwhelming choice for first place . When the final college football polls of the season were released , USC was voted number one by a large margin , though three voters in the Associated Press poll voted Auburn first . More than three years after the game , ESPN sportswriter Ted Miller rated the game second on his list of victims of the BCS system , just behind USC being left out of the championship game in 2003 .
The Tigers lost 18 players due to graduation , and several juniors elected to enter the 2005 NFL Draft as well . During the first round of the draft , Auburn had four players selected : Ronnie Brown , with the second overall pick , Carnell Williams ( fifth ) , Carlos Rogers ( ninth ) , and Jason Campbell ( 25th ) . Virginia Tech had three players selected in the 2005 draft : Eric Green ( 75th ) , Vincent Fuller ( 108th ) , and Jon Dunn ( 217th ) . Virginia Tech 's appearance in the Sugar Bowl helped its recruiting efforts in the state of Virginia , with eight of the state 's top recruits ( ranked by the Roanoke Times newspaper ) , pledging to attend Tech .
The visiting fans of Auburn and Virginia Tech injected tens of millions of dollars into the New Orleans economy , despite high food , travel , and lodging costs that forced some fans to cut discretionary spending during their trips .
= Goodbye , My Friend =
" Goodbye , My Friend " is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 49th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Ron Weiner and directed by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 5 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include John Lithgow , Patti LuPone , Christopher Nicholas Smith , and Phoebe Strole .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) tries to adopt the baby of a pregnant teen ( Strole ) she meets . Meanwhile , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) learns that Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) has never celebrated his birthday and asks Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) to share her birthday celebration with Tracy . At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) goes on a guy 's night out with the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) writers — Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) .
" Goodbye , My Friend " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 3 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) befriends a pregnant teen , Becca ( Phoebe Strole ) . When she sees Becca reading adoption literature and that she is upset with the baby 's father , Liz realizes this may be her chance to adopt a baby . Liz creates a job for Becca as the TGS with Tracy Jordan youth consultant . Liz believes that encouraging Becca to follow her dream as a singer will lead her to give up her baby to Liz . However , when Becca 's boyfriend , Tim ( Christopher Nicholas Smith ) , comes to the 30 Rock building , Liz realizes that Becca and Tim should be together so that they can raise their child together , and tells them to make their relationship work .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) decides to spend time with the TGS writers , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) . At Jack 's home , they watch the movie Harry and the Hendersons . Jack and Frank bond over the fact that they both grew up with deadbeat fathers . Frank admits to Jack that he attended Fordham Law for a semester , but dropped out due to family issues . The next day , Jack decides to help him achieve his dream of becoming a lawyer by getting him a full @-@ ride scholarship to Columbia Law School . In return , Frank invites Jack over for dinner . During dinner , while Frank is out of the room , his mother , Sylvia Rossitano ( Patti LuPone ) , tells Jack that Frank 's father is in hiding as he is a lawyer for the mob , and that she does not want her son to follow in those footsteps . For Frank 's sake , Jack tells Frank to forget about becoming a lawyer , and to return to being a writer on TGS .
At the same time , Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) birthday is approaching . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) appeals to Jenna to allow Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) birthday celebration to be combined with hers , as Tracy has never celebrated a birthday . Jenna dislikes the idea , but plays along . On her birthday , Jenna , upset that no one pays attention to her , decides to fake an injury to get sympathy , to no avail . To get attention , Jenna is seen riding a wheelchair , but this fails , so she gets fed up with everyone . Tracy sees Jenna jumping out of a wheelchair to get attention and tells her that his birthday wish was that she get better , after seeing her wear a back brace at the birthday party .
= = Production = =
" Goodbye , My Friend " was written by Ron Weiner and directed by John Riggi , both co @-@ executive producers on 30 Rock . This episode was Weiner 's third writing credit , having written the episodes " Secrets and Lies " and " Señor Macho Solo " , and this was Riggi 's first 30 Rock directed episode . " Goodbye , My Friend " originally aired in the United States on March 5 , 2009 , on NBC as the thirteenth episode of the show 's third season and the 49th overall episode of the series .
According to Judah Friedlander , in the DVD commentary for this episode , he had to cut his hair , when Frank Rossitano gets a make @-@ over , preparing to return to law school . Friedlander revealed that a couple of lines between Frank and Jack Donaghy were cut out from the airing , in which the two are discussing the Western film Shane ( 1953 ) . Actress Phoebe Strole guest starred in the episode as Becca , a character Liz Lemon befriends . This episode references Liz 's desire to become a mother , which began in the show 's first season , and continued in this season when she attempts to adopt a child in the season premiere episode " Do @-@ Over " .
In January 2009 , it was confirmed that singer Patti LuPone would play Frank 's mother on 30 Rock , and in this 30 Rock episode , she played Sylvia Rossitano . LuPone later reprised the role in the May 6 , 2010 , episode " The Moms " for the show 's fourth season . During the read @-@ through for " Goodbye , My Friend " , series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey read the part of Frank 's mother . According to Friedlander , Fey was " hilarious " during the read @-@ through and " people wanted to put her in a wig so that she play the part " . Actor John Lithgow played himself ; throughout this episode he is lost inside the 30 Rock building .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes repeated references to the 1987 film Harry and the Hendersons , in which actor John Lithgow starred . When Liz sees Lithgow in the 30 Rock building , after he asked her a question , she tells him " Ugh ! Fine , Lithgow , I 'll do the right thing ! God ! " to which Lithgow replies " I guess someone 's been watching The World According to Garp " , a movie that also starred Lithgow . Kenneth says that he saw a birthday party celebrated by prisoners on the television drama Oz . After seeing Becca eating baby food , Liz tells her that the baby cannot taste anything , as it gets its nutrients from its mother , to which Becca says " I am going to post a reply to juno32 and tell her she 's a giant ass wipe " , a reference to the 2007 comedy @-@ drama Juno in which the title character is faced with an unplanned teenage pregnancy .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Goodbye , My Friend " was watched by 7 @.@ 3 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . This episode earned a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 share in the 18 and 49 demographic , meaning that 3 @.@ 8 percent of all people in that group , and 9 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was an increase from the previous episode , " Larry King " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 4 million American viewers .
Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett enjoyed the episode , and said that Frank and Jack 's " Harry and the Hendersons @-@ inspired story line " was the strongest of the episode . Barrett enjoyed Patti Lupone 's cameo , but said that John Lithgow 's " might have been the most awesome 30 Rock cameo EVER ! His aimless wandering [ in the 30 Rock building ] offered a perfect way to weave the Hendersons element into Liz 's baby mama struggles . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin said " Goodbye , My Friend " was a " beautiful , elegant bit of plotting , [ and ] the episode 's various threads came together , united by the shining example set forth by [ Harry and the Hendersons ] . " Rabin gave the episode an A − . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich opined that this was a " better show " than the previous episode " Larry King " . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad commented that Tina Fey 's Liz " was kinda creepy in this episode " , regarding her manipulation of Becca , though , " it was very funny all around and that 's all that matters " .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger commented that this episode " felt really flat " , citing that the plots " were fine , but they needed to be taken further " and that they " were almost there , but needed one more pass through the script . " IGN contributor Robert Canning said that his favorite storyline in the episode was Jack and Frank 's , and enjoyed Lupone 's role , but noted that the episode " lacked that familiar 30 Rock punch and tight rhythm " , and gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 out 10 rating . Rick Porter of Zap2it said that " Goodbye , My Friend " had its " usual share of brilliantly funny moments , but I 'm not sure whether I can fully get behind an episode that hangs an entire subplot on the subtleties of Harry and the Hendersons . " He observed that Liz 's " baby fever " came of out of nowhere , as the show had not referenced Liz 's desire of becoming a mother for some time . Porter wrote that Jenna 's fake injury was mostly a throwaway , " but it did bring my favorite line of the night " , in regards to Tracy explaining that he does not have a birth certificate and therefore has never had a birthday . " I don 't need it . I buy myself all the presents I need . And because of my drinking , I 'm often surprised . "
= Birket Israel =
Birket Israel ( trans . Pool of Israel ) also Birket Israil or Birket Isra 'in , abbreviated from Birket Asbât Beni Israìl ( trans . Pool of the Tribes of the Children of Israel ) was a public cistern located on the north @-@ eastern corner of the Temple Mount , in Jerusalem . The structure is believed to have been built by the Romans for use as a water reservoir and also to protect the northern wall of the Temple Mount . Arab locals have known it by this name since at least 1857 .
By the mid @-@ 19th century it had gone out of use as a reservoir ; being partly filled with rubbish and reused as a vegetable garden . In 1934 it was filled in and is now known as el @-@ Ghazali Square . It is currently in mixed use for shops , as a car park , and as a transshipment point for refuse .
= = Construction = =
According to Muslim tradition , the reservoir was constructed by Ezekiel or Hezekiah , King of Judah . Some archaeologists have determined that the cistern was possibly built during the Herodian period to improve Jerusalem 's water supply . Others estimate the date of construction later , in around 130 CE . This view is held by Charles Warren who recorded that although some kind of fosse must have existed at the spot at a very early period , since there is no description of the pool in the works of Josephus , " and it is very improbable that he world have omitted to mention so enormous a reservoir had it existed in his time " , it was most probably constructed by Roman emperor Hadrian during his restoration of Jerusalem . This is further attested to since the masonry of the birket is inferior in character and resembles the later Roman work in Syria . Additionally , this reservoir appears to be mentioned by the Bordeaux Pilgrim ( section 4 ) as already existing , and " would therefore most naturally be referable to Hadrian . "
It was constructed in the bed of the western fork of the Kidron Valley that traverses the north @-@ west quarter of the city . It formed Jerusalem 's largest reservoir , measuring 109 @.@ 7 m ( 360 ft ) by 38 @.@ 4 m ( 126 ft ) with a maximum depth of 26 m ( 85 ft ) . The cistern contained a total capacity of 120 @,@ 000 cubic meters and for centuries it formed part of Jerusalem 's rainwater storage system . The pool also served as a moat , protecting the northern wall of the Temple Mount .
The eastern and western ends of the pool were partially rock @-@ cut and partly masonry . The masonry at the eastern end formed a great dam 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) thick , the lower part of which was continuous with an ancient eastern wall of the Temple compound . The sides of the pool were lined entirely with masonry because it was built across the width of a valley . The original bottom of the reservoir was covered with a layer of about 19 inches of very hard Roman concrete and cement . There was a great conduit at the eastern end of the pool built of massive stones , and connected with the pool by a perforated stone with three round holes 5 ½ inches in diameter . The position of this outlet shows that all water over a depth of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) must have flowed away .
= = Association with the Pool of Bethesda = =
The Birket Israel cistern was frequented by Christian pilgrims during the 19th century , it being previously identified as the " Sheep Pool " or Pool of Bethesda of John 5 : 2 ; a double @-@ pool with five porches , where the sick came to be cured . This link was based on the premise that the nearby St. Stephen 's Gate occupied the site of the Sheep Gate mentioned in the New Testament . It was reinforced by the co @-@ location of the names ' Birket Israel ' and the ' Pool of Bethesda ' on maps and plans of Jerusalem ; and in drawings and paintings , such as those made by David Roberts in 1893 .
According to Kopp , the Pool of Bethesda became associated with a Byzantine church by 450 CE ; then a 6th @-@ century church , which by the arrival of the Crusaders , in 1099 , was known as the " Church of St. Anne " . A new Church of St. Anne was built in the 12th century CE ; the church and the pool fell into disuse after the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . The church was converted into madrasah and Christian pilgrims were redirected to nearby Birket Israel on the other side of what is now called the " Via Dolorosa " . Ownership of the whole site of the Church of St. Anne passed to France after the Crimean War , in 1856 ; and discoveries made in around 1870 led to the belief that the real Pool of Bethesda was actually located in the grounds of the Church of St. Anne .
= = Later uses = =
By the mid @-@ 19th century , Birket Israel was no longer being used as a reservoir ; and towards the end of the 19th century it was being rapidly filled with refuse and part of it was being used as a vegetable garden . In 1934 the pool was filled in because its condition posed a threat to public health .
Being located just inside the Lions ' Gate , one of the major entries to the Old City , the East Jerusalem Development Company initially intended to excavate the reservoir and build a multi @-@ storey car park at the site . This post @-@ 1967 plan was rejected by the waqf authorities who own the plot because they feared that clearance work at the base of the Temple Mount would endanger the Haram compound . Subsequently , in 1981 a small square equipped with benches was constructed on part of the covered pool .
Today the area is known as el @-@ Ghazali Square and is used as a car park and collection point for refuse before it is dumped outside the city . Some small shops also exist at the site .
= Capture of Grenada ( 1779 ) =
During the Anglo @-@ French War , the Capture of Grenada was an amphibious expedition in July 1779 . Charles Hector , comte D 'Estaing led French forces against the British @-@ held West Indies island of Grenada . Having landed on July 2 , the assault occurred on the night of July 3 @-@ 4 . The French forces assaulted the British fortifications on Hospital Hill , overlooking the island capital Saint George 's . They captured cannons and turned them against Fort George . Governor Lord Macartney opened negotiations to surrender .
Admiral d 'Estaing controversially rejected Macartney 's terms of capitulation , insisting on adopting the harsh terms he had written . Macartney rejected those terms , choosing instead to surrender unconditionally . D 'Estaing thereafter permitted his forces to loot the town , and Macartney was sent to France as a prisoner of war .
On July 5 , French forces were reembarked on the fleet when word arrived that a British fleet under Admiral John Byron was approaching . The two fleets battled the next day . The French severely damaged several British ships . Both fleets , however , returned to their bases . Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris , France returned Grenada to British control at the end of the war .
= = Background = =
Following the entry of France into the American War of Independence as an American ally in early 1778 , French Admiral the comte D 'Estaing arrived in the West Indies in early December 1778 in command of a fleet consisting of 12 ships of the line and a number of smaller vessels . At about the same time a British fleet under Admiral William Hotham also arrived , augmenting the West Indies fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington . The British then captured French @-@ held St. Lucia , despite d 'Estaing 's attempt at relief . The British used St. Lucia to monitor the French on Martinique , where d 'Estaing was based .
The British fleet was further reinforced in January 1779 by ten ships of the line under Admiral John Byron , who assumed command of the British Leeward Islands station . Throughout the first half of 1779 both fleets received further reinforcements , after which the French fleet was superior to that of the British . Furthermore , Byron departed St. Lucia on 6 June in order to provide escort services to British merchant ships gathering at St. Kitts for a convoy to Europe , leaving d 'Estaing free to act . D 'Estaing and the French governor @-@ general at Martinique , the marquis de Bouillé , seized the opportunity to begin a series of operations against nearby British possessions .
Their first target , the isle of Saint Vincent , fell on 18 June , and d 'Estaing turned his attention to other islands . He had hoped to capture Barbados , a key British possession , but after making no progress against the prevailing easterly trade winds , he turned his attention instead to Grenada .
= = British defences = =
Grenada was at the time one of Britain 's richest colonies , producing significant quantities of sugar on its plantations . Lord Macartney , the British governor , had been alerted to the possibility of a French attack . He made repeated requests for support to Admiral Byron and the British commander at St. Kitts , but was told that Saint Vincent was the principal French interest , and that Byron would bring relief should Grenada be attacked .
Macartney had at his disposal 101 soldiers drawn from the 48th Regiment of Foot and 24 artillery men . He also had over 400 militia and volunteers , but he did not consider these forces dependable , especially since one third of them were of French extraction . He ordered the construction of significant fortifications on Hospital Hill , a prominence overlooking the island capital St. George 's . The steep hillsides were fortified by stone walls , and the hilltop had a palisade surrounding a series of entrenchments .
= = French capture = =
The French fleet anchored off the Grenada coast just north of St. George 's on 2 July . The troops that d 'Estaing landed that day consisted of the 1 @,@ 400 man Irish Dillon Regiment and 700 troops drawn from the regiments Champagne , Foix , Auxerrois , and Hainault . With the arrival of the French , Macartney ordered his forces to withdraw behind the fortifications of Hospital Hill . D 'Estaing spent 3 July reconnoitering the British position . Concerned that Byron might appear at any time , he decided to launch an attack on Hospital Hill . He first sent a parley flag to Macartney demanding his surrender ; the British governor rejected the demand .
D 'Estaing 's plan of attack called for three columns to attack the back side of the fortifications with bayonets , while a small fourth detachment made a demonstration from a location where the British might more reasonably expect an attack . On the evening of 3 July these formations moved out . The columns , each numbering 300 men , were led by Arthur Dillon , his brother Édouard , and the comte de Noailles . Arthur Dillon 's column was also accompanied by an advance guard of 180 under the comte de Durat , and the demonstration force numbered just 200 . At 4 : 00 am on the 4th the demonstration force opened fire , while the three columns charged up Hospital Hill . The British defenders panicked , and most of them fled down the hill to the apparent safety of Fort George .
The British , in their haste to leave the premises , neglected to spike some of the cannons ( by driving a metal spike into the touchhole , rendering the cannon inoperative ) . They also abandoned many valuables that had been brought up on the heights for safekeeping . The French used the captured cannons to fire upon Fort George . Realising the situation was hopeless , Macartney raised the white flag . The French took about 700 prisoners , and claimed casualties of 36 killed and 71 wounded . British reports , however , claimed the French casualties numbered closer to 300 . The French also claimed as prizes 30 merchant ships anchored in the harbour .
Admiral d 'Estaing rejected Macartney 's proposed terms of capitulations , countering with a list of articles that he had drafted . Macartney found d 'Estaing 's proposed articles " not merely unprecedented and humiliating , but so ensnaring and uncertain in their nature , extent , and aim that they might at any time supply a pretext for taking away the lives , together with the fortunes , of the capitulants . " His council was unanimous in rejecting the proposed capitulation , and the British chose to surrender unconditionally instead . As a consequence , d 'Estaing permitted his troops to pillage St. George 's . Among the items taken or destroyed were most of Macartney 's silver and plate , much of his clothing , and his personal papers . ( The latter came as a particularly harsh blow to the governor , for copies of those papers sent to St. Lucia with his wife for safeguarding were destroyed by fire . ) When d 'Estaing invited Macartney to dine with him , the governor apologised for his garb , noting that the coat he was wearing was the only one left him . Macartney and other leading Grenadians were also refused parole , and were sent to France as prisoners of war .
= = Aftermath = =
Admiral Byron had been alerted to the capture of Saint Vincent on 1 July , and was en route with a force to retake it when he learnt of the attack on Grenada . He immediately sailed there , arriving on the morning of 6 July . D 'Estaing , alerted to Byron 's intentions on the 5th , embarked most of the troops and weighed anchor at 4 : 00 am on the 6th . The fleets battled off Grenada , with d 'Estaing prevailing over Byron 's disorganized attack . There were no further major actions in the West Indies before d 'Estaing sailed north and led an unsuccessful siege of British @-@ held Savannah , Georgia in September .
D 'Estaing 's successes in capturing Grenada and defeating Byron made him immensely popular in France . Playwright and actor Pierre @-@ Germain Parisau wrote Veni , Vidi , Vici , ou La Prise de Grenade containing a reenactment of the capture . D 'Estaing did not see the popular work , but John Paul Jones attended a performance during a visit to Paris .
During their occupation , the French began construction of a series of fortifications on Richmond Hill . Designed to defend against an attack like theirs , its cannons pointed to the landward rather than seaward side . These defences were completed by the British after 1783 .
Both Grenada and Saint Vincent remained in French hands until the end of the war , when they were returned to Britain under the terms of the 1783 Treaty of Paris . The rule of the comte de Durat , who was appointed governor by d 'Estaing , was reported by British residents to be harsh and oppressive . After the British resumed control , they cracked down on the predominantly Roman Catholic French @-@ speaking population , leading to discontent and an exodus of French Grenadians to Trinidad . These religious and cultural divisions in Grenadian society contributed to the rise of local resistance which culminated in the nearly @-@ successful Fédon Rebellion in 1795 – 96 .
= Bronwen Knox =
Bronwen Knox ( born 16 April 1986 in Brisbane , Queensland ) is an Australian water polo centre back / centre forward . She attended Hartwick College and Griffith University , earning a Bachelor of Biomedical Science , and works as a laboratory assistant . She started playing water polo when she was fourteen . She played for the National Water Polo League 's Queensland Breakers before switching to the Victorian Tigers for the 2012 season . In 2013 – 14 season she played for the Greek powerhouse Olympiacos in the European competitions , winning the LEN Trophy .
She has represented Australia as a member of Australia women 's national water polo team on both the junior and senior levels . She has won the gold medal at the 2006 FINA World Cup , the silver medal at the 2007 World Championship , the 2010 FINA World Cup and the 2010 FINA World League , and the bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2008 FINA World League . She was a member of the Australia women 's Olympic team that won a bronze medal in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London .
= = Personal = =
Knox was born on 16 April 1986 in Brisbane , Queensland . Her grandfather was William Knox , a prominent Queensland politician . Her parents are Andrew and Helen , and she has four siblings named Kirsty , Tom , Hamish and Meredith . Her parents and siblings were in Beijing to watch her win a bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics . She is 182 cm ( 6 ft 0 in ) tall , weighs 85 kilograms ( 13 st 5 lb ) , is right handed and has a tattoo featuring the Olympic rings . She lives in Brisbane , Queensland , and has resided in Windsor , Queensland .
Knox attended Hartwick College in New York on a water polo scholarship , and Griffith University , where she earned a Bachelor of Biomedical Science . She currently works as a laboratory assistant .
= = Water polo = =
Knox plays centre back / centre forward and prefers to wear cap number six . She started playing water polo as a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old for a local Brisbane side . She has served as a member of the Australian Water Polo Athlete 's Commission .
= = = Club team = = =
Knox played club water polo for the Queensland Breakers in the Australian National Water Polo League . She was with the team in 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . The annual match between the KFC Breakers and the Barracudas is considered by The Courier @-@ Mail as a grudge match . She participated in the 2008 game with her team . In 2010 , they played in the finals tournament , and she was named to the league finals ' All Star team . As of 2012 , she plays for the Victorian Tigers in the same league .
In 2013 – 14 season she played for the Greek powerhouse Olympiacos in the European competitions , winning the LEN Trophy . Knox was the hero of the final against Firenze ( 10 – 9 ) , scoring Olympiacos ' winning goal with a spectacular shot with only 23 seconds to go .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Knox has represented Australia at the junior national level . In 2002 , she was a member of the national youth girls team that toured the United States in June , and competed in an international series in Sydney in August . In 2004 , she was a member of the team that toured Europe in July and August . She was a member of Australia 's junior national team in 2005 , and she was on the junior side that competed in the VI FINA World Junior Championships in Perth in January of that year . The team defeated Greece 10 – 4 for the bronze medal , with its only loss a 4 – 5 loss to the United States .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Knox is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team , nicknamed the Stingers . She received her first call up to Australia 's senior team to compete at the 2005 World Championships in Canada , where she scored her first international goal in her first game , which was against Germany . In 2006 , she was part of the gold medal winning side at the FINA World Cup in Tianjin , China , and the silver medal winning team at the World Championships in Melbourne in 2007 .
Knox was part of Australia 's Oceania Olympic qualification campaign in 2008 . In an 18 – 1 victory over New Zealand during the qualifiers , she scored three goals . In 2008 , Knox was named to the team that competed at the FINA world league preliminary round in Tianjin , China , and competed in the Women 's International Series . In a 2008 Asia @-@ Oceania qualifier against China for the World League Super Finals , she played in the 11 – 9 win that went to a penalty shoot out , scoring three of the goals for Australia . The World League Finals were held in Spain , and Australia ultimately took home a bronze medal .
Knox was the captain of the team that won a bronze medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Her team ended up in the bronze medal match after losing 8 – 9 to the United States in the semi finals and playing against Hungary for the bronze . Earlier in the Olympics , her team had tied with the Hungarians .
In 2009 , Knox was a member of a team that competed at the FINA World Championships . She played in the semi @-@ finals game against New Zealand that Australia won 14 – 4 , scoring four goals . Knox was the captain of the national team in December 2010 and May 2011 . In February 2010 , she attended a national team training camp in the Gold Coast in preparation for the team 's appearance at the April Commonwealth Championships . In May 2010 , she was a member of the team that competed at the FINA World League Asia @-@ Oceania zone held in Osaka , Japan , and Tianjin , China . She went on to compete in the FINA World League Finals in La Jolla , California , and Australia took home a silver medal .
In August 2010 , Knox was a member of the Australian national side at a training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport . During the camp , she participated in a series of scrimmages against the United States . That month , she also represented Australia at the Six Nations Cup that was held in Sydney . She was a member of the Stingers squad that competed in the 2010 FINA World Cup . She was again the captain during this tournament , and on the second day of the competition , helped lead her team to a 7 – 5 victory of the United States . She competed Australia 's 10 – 8 defeat of Russia . Her coach was quoted in The Age about her performance in the match , saying " Bronwen Knox was excellent at centre back and the pressure allowed us to get steals and counter @-@ attacks . " In the team 's 10 – 8 final victory over the United States , she scored two goals . In April 2011 , she attended a training camp at the Australian Institute of Sport where the coach was " selecting a team for the major championships over winter . " In 2011 , she was one of five Queensland women to compete for the Australian Stingers in the FINA World League competition held in Auckland , New Zealand . In a May 2011 match against China , she scored three goals in a 9 – 7 game that saw Australia score six goals in the second period .
In July 2011 , Knox was a member of the Australian Stingers that competed in the 2011 FINA World Championships in Shanghai as a field player . In preparation for this tournament , she attended a team training camp in Perth , Western Australia . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Stingers . In February 2012 , she was named to a member of the 2012 Summer Olympics training squad . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years . In the first game of the test series on 21 February 2012 that Australia won 13 – 5 , she scored three goals .
= Hurva Synagogue =
The Hurva Synagogue , ( Hebrew : בית הכנסת החורבה , translit : Beit ha @-@ Knesset ha @-@ Hurva , lit . " The Ruin Synagogue " ) , also known as Hurvat Rabbi Yehudah he @-@ Hasid ( " Ruin of Rabbi Judah the Pious " ) , is a historic synagogue located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem .
The synagogue was founded in the early 18th century by followers of Judah heHasid , but it was destroyed by Muslims a few years later in 1721 . The plot lay in ruins for over 140 years and became known as the Ruin , or Hurva . In 1864 , the Perushim rebuilt the synagogue , and although officially named the Beis Yaakov Synagogue , it retained its name as the Hurva . It became Jerusalem 's main Ashkenazic synagogue , until it too was deliberately destroyed by the Arab Legion after the withdrawal of Israeli forces during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War .
After Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan in 1967 , a number of plans were submitted for the design of a new building . After years of deliberation and indecision , a commemorative arch was erected instead at the site in 1977 , itself becoming a prominent landmark of the Jewish Quarter . The plan to rebuild the synagogue in its 19th @-@ century style received approval by the Israeli Government in 2000 , and the newly rebuilt synagogue was dedicated on March 15 , 2010 .
= = Early history = =
The Hurva Synagogue today stands off a plaza in the centre of Jerusalem 's Jewish Quarter . Excavations carried out at the site in July and August 2003 revealed evidence from four main settlement periods : First Temple ( 800 – 600 BCE ) , Second Temple ( 100 CE ) , Byzantine and Ottoman . Three bedrock @-@ hewn mikvehs ( ritual baths ) were uncovered there dating from the 1st century . The earliest tradition regarding the site is of a synagogue existing there at the time of the second @-@ century sage Judah the Prince . By the 13th century , the area had become a courtyard , known as Der Ashkenaz ( the Ashkenazic Compound ) , for the Ashkenazic community of Jerusalem . In 1488 , Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura described a large courtyard containing many houses for exclusive use of the Ashkenazim , adjacent to a " synagogue built on pillars , " referring to the Ramban Synagogue . The Ramban Synagogue had been used jointly by both Ashkenazim and Sephardim until 1586 , when the Ottoman authorities confiscated the building . Thereafter , the Ashkenazim established a synagogue within their own , adjacent courtyard .
= = Judah heHasid and aftermath : 1700s = =
In the winter of 1700 , a group of around 500 Ashkenazim led by Judah heHasid arrived from Europe . They were mystics who were intent on advancing the arrival of the Messianic Era by settling in Jerusalem and leading ascetic lives . A few days after their arrival in the city , heHasid died , and without a leader , their messianic hopes dissipated and the community began to disintegrate . Those who remained managed to build forty dwellings and a small synagogue in the Ashkenazic Compound . Soon after , they endeavoured to construct a larger synagogue , but the task proved expensive . They found themselves having to bribe the Ottoman authorities in order to enable them to proceed with their building project . Unexpected costs relating to the construction , financial hardships and the burden of various other taxes drained their funds . They became impoverished and were forced to take loans from local Arabs , eventually falling into severe debt . Pressure and threats from the creditors led to a meshulach ( rabbinical emissary ) being sent to abroad to solicit funds for repayment of the loans . In late 1720 , with the debts still outstanding , the Arab lenders lost patience and set the synagogue and its contents alight . The leaders of the community were imprisoned and shortly after , all the Ashkenazim were banished from the city . Over the course of time , shops were built in the courtyard and the synagogue was left desolate , in a pile of rubble . It thus became known as the " Ruin of Rabbi Judah heHasid " .
= = Efforts of the Perushim : 1812 – 37 = =
Between 1808 and 1812 another group of ascetic Jews , known as Perushim , immigrated to Palestine from Lithuania . They were disciples of the Vilna Gaon and had settled in the city of Safed to the north . Some had wished to settle in Jerusalem and reclaim the Ashkenazic Compound . They were worried , however , that descendants of the Arab creditors still held the old promissory notes relating to the century @-@ old debts incurred by he @-@ Hasid 's followers and that a new group of Ashkenazic immigrants would possibly inherit responsibility for repayment . The descendants of a group of Hasidim who made aliyah in 1777 also presented a problem . They apparently objected to any effort by the Perushim to take control of the synagogue ruin , claiming it had never belonged to the Perushim or their ancestors . The Hasidim claimed they had closer ties with the original owners and that their rights to the parcel of land were greater .
Nevertheless , in late 1815 , leader of the Safed Perushim , Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Shklov , arrived in Jerusalem with a group of followers . They directed their main efforts to rebuilding he @-@ Hasid 's synagogue , which had symbolised the expulsion of the Ashkenazim from Jerusalem . By this , they intended to demonstrate the re @-@ establishment of Ashkenazic presence in the city . Rebuilding one of Jerusalem 's ruins would also have symbolic kabbalistic significance . The " repairing " of an earlier destruction would represent the first step of rebuilding the entire city , a prerequisite for the arrival of the Messiah .
In 1816 they " pleaded with the powers in the city of Constantinople to obtain a royal decree that the Arabs residing in Jerusalem would not be permitted to enforce the debts of the Ashkenazim " , but nothing came of it . A year later , several leaders of the group , including Avraham Shlomo Zalman Zoref and Solomon Pach , travelled to Constantinople endeavouring to obtain such a firman ( imperial decree ) . Two years later , in 1819 , their efforts were realised and the century @-@ old debts were cancelled . The group acquired a legal document delineating the entire site acquired by he @-@ Hasid in 1700 . The area now included dilapidated dwellings and shops built by the creditors ' heirs on part of the site . Next , they had to secure another firman that would permit construction at the site , including the building of a large synagogue . Two successive missions in 1820 and 1821 to obtain the firman from the sultan 's court failed .
Still awaiting imperial permission to build in the courtyard , the Perushim wished to rely on an old firman given to the Jews in 1623 , which stated that there could be no objection to them building in their own quarters . Having received a supporting document issued by the Qadi of Jerusalem in March 1824 , it was possible for them begin rebuilding the dwellings in the courtyard . In practice , however , construction never materialised as they were unable to exercise their authority over the plot of land . This was apparently due to confrontation with the Arab squatters and the local government 's disregard of the documents proving their ownership of the courtyard .
In 1825 , following the disruption the group were experiencing , Shapira travelled to Europe once again . He hoped to secure the necessary firman , which would place the courtyard firmly in the Perushim 's possession , and also to raise funds to cover the costs incurred trying to redeem the courtyard . His mission , however , was unsuccessful , as was a later mission attempted in 1829 by Shlomo Zalman Zoref , a Lithuanian @-@ born silversmith .
= = = Egypt gives building consent = = =
With the annexation of Jerusalem by Egypt in 1831 , a new opportunity arose for the Perushim . They petitioned Muhammad Ali regarding the rebuilding of the synagogue , but concerns about deviating from longstanding Muslim tradition and the Pact of Umar ( which restricted the repair or construction of non @-@ Muslim houses of worship ) meant permission was not forthcoming . However , five months after the earthquake of May 1834 , the prohibition was relaxed and the Sephardim were allowed to carry out repair works to their existing synagogues . This consent gave rise to further efforts by the Ashkenazim to receive authorisation to rebuild theirs .
On 23 June 1836 , after traveling to Egypt , Zoref , together with the backing of the Austrian and Russian consuls in Alexandria , obtained the long @-@ awaited firman . It seems he was successful in gaining support of the Austrian consul and Muhammad Ali by invoking the name of Baron Salomon Mayer von Rothschild of Vienna . Muhammad Ali was hopeful that by giving his permission to rebuild the Ruin , Rothschild would be inclined to forge financial and political ties with him , which would in turn secure political support of Austria and France . In fact , Rothschild 's involvement was a ruse . As soon as Zoref received the firman , he contacted Zvi Hirsch Lehren of the Clerks ' Organisation in Amsterdam , requesting that funds his brother had pledged towards the building of synagogues in Palestine be applied to the Ruin . But Lehren had doubts as to what exactly the firman permitted . Explicit authorisation for construction of a large synagogue was absent . ( A letter from the leaders of the Amsterdam community to Moses Montefiore in 1849 confirms that permission for a synagogue in the Ashkenasic Compound had not been sanctioned ; they had only been allowed to build dwellings in the area . )
= = = Menachem Zion Synagogue = = =
In spite of the doubts highlighted in relation to the construction of a synagogue , the Perushim , confidently in possession of the ambiguous firman , began clearing away the rubble from the Ruin courtyard in September 1836 . As the foundations of he @-@ Hasid 's original synagogue were revealed , they discovered a few old documents dating from 1579 , signed by Israel ben Moses Najara . After much debate , they decided not to rebuild the Ruin , but initially erect a small structure on the edge of the Ashkenasic compound . The Arab creditors , however , still refused to relinquish the claims they had on the Jews and continued to interfere with the works . Zoref , claiming that the Ashkenazim currently in Jerusalem were not related in any way to those who had borrowed the money at the turn of the 18th century , was forced to appear in court requesting a further ruling cancelling the debts . He mentioned that an injunction had already been passed that absolved the Ashkenazim from repaying the debt and maintained that the Turkish Statute of Limitations cancelled out the debts of Judah heHasid 's followers . Although the court ruled in the Ashkenazim 's favour , Zoref nevertheless had to appease the Arab instigators with annual bribes in order to allow building to continue . At some point this arrangement ceased and in 1851 , he was struck on the head with a sword and died of his wounds three months later . By January 1837 however , the Perushim had dedicated the modest Menachem Zion Synagogue in the northwestern corner of the courtyard . In 1854 , a second smaller synagogue was built within the compound . The actual plot upon which he @-@ Hasid 's synagogue had stood 130 years earlier , however , remained in ruins .
= = Rebuilding he @-@ Hasid 's Ruin : 1857 – 64 = =
In the early 1850s , the Perushim felt ready to attempt the building a larger synagogue on he @-@ Hasid 's original site . An outcome of the Crimean War was the British Government 's willingness to use its increased influence at Constantinople to intervene on behalf of its Jewish subjects who resided in Jerusalem . On 13 July 1854 , James Finn of the British consulate in Jerusalem wrote to the British ambassador in Constantinople describing the wishes of the 2 @,@ 000 strong Ashkenazic community to build a new synagogue . He noted that funds for construction had been collected by Moses Montefiore twelve years earlier . He also enclosed a 150 @-@ year @-@ old firman , which authorised the Ashkenazic Jews to rebuild their ruined synagogue . As the title to the plot of land was held by the Amzalag family , who were British subjects , they designated London @-@ born Rabbi Hirschell , son of Chief Rabbi of Great Britain Solomon Hirschell , to negotiate the transfer . The British consulate agreed to lend its sanction to the contract in order to avoid possible intrusion by the Turks . At issue was the question of whether the building of a synagogue at the site constituted the repair of an old house of non @-@ Muslim worship or the establishment of a new synagogue . The Turks would have to grant a special license for the latter . This was received through the efforts of Francis Napier and Stratford Canning , 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe , British ambassadors to the Sublime Porte , who secured the necessary firman in 1854 . In July 1855 , while in Constantinople , Montefiore was handed the firman , which he hand @-@ delivered during his fourth visit to Jerusalem in 1857 .
With permission granted , the groundbreaking ceremony took place on the last day of Hanukkah of 1855 . On April 22 , 1856 , the cornerstone was laid in the presence of Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem
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, Shmuel Salant . Salant had been instrumental in raising the necessary funding , making a trip to Europe in 1860 and obtaining large donations , especially from Montefiore . Some of the stones used in construction of the building was purchased from the Industrial Plantation , where poor Jews assisted in quarrying and shaping the blocks . On May 7 , 1856 Consul Finn inspected the site after receiving complaints from Muslims who suspected the opening of windows towards a mosque .
Although originally in possession of a lump sum they hoped would pay for the planned edifice , expenses increased . Construction work progressed slowly for lack of funds and the impoverished community soon found themselves having to arrange collections throughout the diaspora . One notable emissary , Jacob Saphir , set off for Egypt in 1857 and returned in 1863 having visited Yemen , Aden , India , Java , Australia , New Zealand and Ceylon . The largest single gift came from Ezekiel Reuben , a wealthy Sephardi Jew from Baghdad , who gave 100 @,@ 000 of the million piasters needed . His sons , Menashe and Sasson , later supplemented his donation . The combined donations from the Reuben family eventually covered more than half the cost . It marked an important step in the unity of the Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities of the city . Another contributor was Frederick William IV of Prussia , whose name was inscribed above the entrance together with those of other benefactors . He also gave permission for funds to be collected from his Jewish subjects . Throughout Western Europe , emissaries sought donations with the slogan " Merit Eternal Life with one stone " .
With new funds arriving , work could progress . In 1862 the domed ceiling was completed and Rabbi Yeshaya Bardaki , head of the Ashkenazic community , was honored with placing the final stone of the dome . Two years later in 1864 , the new synagogue was dedicated . Present was Baron Alphonse James de Rothschild , who 8 years earlier had been given the honour of laying the first stone . The edifice was officially named Beis Yaakov – " House of Jacob " – in memory of James Mayer de Rothschild , whose son Edmond James de Rothschild had dedicated much of his life supporting the Jews of Palestine . The locals , however , continued to refer to the building as the Hurva . As a token of gratitude to the British government for their involvement , the British Consul James Finn , was invited to the dedication ceremony , which included a thanksgiving service . He described the " beautiful chants and anthems in Hebrew " , the subsequent refreshments provided and the playing of Russian and Austrian music .
= = = Structure = = =
The Hurva Synagogue was designed and constructed under the supervision of Assad Effendi , the sultan 's official architect . Built in Byzantine Revival style , it was supported by four massive pilasters at each corner over which soared a large dome . The construction of only one of these towers was completed . The other three were missing the upper level and the small dome that capped it . The facade was covered in finely hewn stone and incorporated 12 @.@ 5 m ( 41 ft ) high window arches . The height of the synagogue to the bottom of its dome was around 16 m ( 52 ft ) and to the top of the dome it was 24 m ( 79 ft ) . Twelve windows were placed around the base of the dome , which was surrounded by a veranda , which offered a fine view of large parts of the Old City and the area around Jerusalem . Being one of the tallest structures in the Old City , it was visible for miles .
= = = Interior = = =
The synagogue prayer hall was reached via an entrance with three iron gates . The length was around 15 @.@ 5 m ( 51 ft ) and the width was around 14 m ( 46 ft ) . The women 's section was in the galleries , along the three sides of the chapel , except the eastern side . Access to the galleries was through towers situated at the corners of the building .
The Torah ark had the capacity to house 50 Torah scrolls and was built on two levels . It was flanked by four Corinthian columns surrounded by baroque woodcuts depicting flowers and birds . The Ark , together with its ornamental gates , were taken from the Nikolaijewsky Synagogue in Kherson , Russia , which had been used by Russian Jewish conscripts forced to spend twenty @-@ five years in the Imperial Russian Army . Directly above the Ark was a triangular window with rounded points . To the right and in front of the ark was the cantor 's podium , which was designed as a miniature version of the two @-@ level Ark .
The centre of the synagogue originally contained a high wooden bema , but this was later replaced with a flat platform covered with expensive marble plates .
Numerous crystal chandeliers hung from the dome . The dome itself was painted sky @-@ blue and strewn with golden stars . Frescoes with religious motifs , such as stars of David , the menorah , Mount Sinai and the Ten Commandments , adorned every wall . In the four corners were drawings of four animals in accordance with the statement in Pirkei Avot : " Be strong as the leopard and swift as the eagle , fleet as the deer and brave as the lion to do the will of your Father in Heaven . "
One of the most generous donations came from Pinchas Rosenberg , the Imperial Court tailor of Saint Petersburg . In the diary of Rabbi Chaim ha @-@ Levy , the emissary who had been sent from Jerusalem to collect funds for the synagogue , Rosenberg set out in details what his money was intended for . Among the items that were bought with his money were two big bronze candelabras ; a silver menorah that " arrived miraculously on the 1st Tevet [ 1866 ] precisely in time to light the last eight Hanukah candles " and an iron door made under the holy ark for safe @-@ keeping of the candlestick . He also earmarked funds towards the building of an " artistically wrought iron fence around the roof under the upper windows so that there be a veranda on which may stand all our brethren who go up in pilgrimage to behold our desolate Temple , and also a partition for the womenfolk on the Feast of Tabernacles and Simchat Torah . "
= = Golden years : 1864 – 1948 = =
From 1864 onwards , the Hurva Synagogue was considered the most beautiful and most important synagogue in the Land of Israel . It was described as " the glory of the Old City " and the " most striking edifice in all of Palestine . " It also housed part of the Etz Chaim Yeshiva , the largest yeshiva in Jerusalem . It was a focal point of Jewish spiritual life in the city and was the site of the installation of the Ashkenazic chief rabbis of both Palestine and Jerusalem . On his visit to Jerusalem in 1866 , Moses Montefiore went to the synagogue , placing a silver breastplate on one of the Torah scrolls . When he visited again in 1875 , a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 Jews turned out to greet him . On February 3 , 1901 a memorial service for Queen Victoria took place inside the synagogue in gratitude for the protection afforded to the Jews of Jerusalem by Britain . The service was presided over by the Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi , Shmuel Salant . According to a report in The Jewish Chronicle , the large building was " filled to its utmost capacity and policemen had to keep off the crowds , who vainly sought admission , by force " . In around 1919 , Benjamin Lee Gordon wrote that the " synagogue presented a very pleasant and dignified appearance . It was well illuminated with artistic lamps presented by a certain Mr. Lichtenstein , of Philadelphia . " In 1921 Abraham Isaac Kook was appointed first Chief Rabbi of Palestine at the synagogue . The synagogue also hosted Herbert Samuel , 1st Viscount Samuel , who was honoured with reciting a portion of the Torah . In 1923 Yosef Shalom Eliashiv 's bar mitzvah was held at the synagogue . In the 1930s and possibly earlier , the Synagogue housed the Chayei Olam Cheider , where indigent students form the Old City received their Torah education .
= = Destruction during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War = =
On May 25 , 1948 , during the battle for the Old City , commander of the Jordanian Arab Legion , Major Abdullah el @-@ Tell , wrote to Otto Lehner of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement to warn that unless the Haganah abandoned its positions in the synagogue and its adjoining courtyard , he would be forced to attack it . Moshe Russnak , commander of the Haganah in the Old City , ignored his request , knowing that if the Hurva fell , the battle for the Jewish Quarter would soon be lost . On May 26 , 1948 , the Jordanian Arab Legion delivered an ultimatum to the Jews to surrender within 12 hours ; otherwise the Hurva would be bombarded .
On May 27 , el @-@ Tell , after receiving no answer to his proposition , told his men to " Get the Hurva Synagogue by noon . " Fawzi el @-@ Kutub executed the mission by placing a 200 @-@ litre barrel filled with explosives against the synagogue wall . The explosion resulted in a gaping hole and Haganah fighters spent forty @-@ five minutes fighting in vain to prevent the Legionnaires from entering . When they finally burst through , they tried to reach the top of its dome to plant an Arab flag . Three were shot by snipers , but the fourth succeeded . The Arab flag flying over the Old City skyline signaled the Legion 's triumph . As the Legionnaires took the " Hurva ” Synagogue , the quarter ’ s most sacred building , they blew it up without reason A huge explosion reduced the 84 @-@ year @-@ old synagogue , together with the Etz Chaim Yeshiva attached to it , to rubble .
The building was deliberately mined after the Arabs had captured the area . Together with that major synagogue , another 57 Jewish sanctuaries were purposely and systematically destroyed by the Jordanians soon after their occupation of the Old City in 1948 .
= = Post @-@ 1967 : Plans sought for a new design = =
Following the Six @-@ Day War , plans were mooted and designs sought for a new synagogue to be built at the site , part of the overall rehabilitation of the Jewish Quarter . Many religious and political figures supported the proposal to rebuild the original synagogue " where it was , as it was " in line with the traditional religious character of the area . However , the Jewish Quarter Development Company , in charge of the restoration of the Jewish Quarter , strongly opposed it . The Israeli planners and architects involved in developing the area wanted the building to reflect their modern Western identity . Additionally , although it would have been possible to rebuild it as it was , neither the architects nor the masons felt they were sufficiently qualified in traditional masonry technology to attempt it . Moreover , most of the original carved stones and surviving decorative elements had been removed , making a true " reconstruction " unrealisable . Swayed by the creativity of contemporary architecture and contrary to the 19th century design , which was meant to blend in with the Oriental landscape , they supported the modern redesign of the Hurva by a prominent architect .
= = = Kahn plans = = =
Leading the campaign to rebuild the Hurva was Shlomo Zalman Tzoref 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson , Ya 'acov Salomon . He consulted Ram Karmi , who in turn recommended Louis Kahn , a world @-@ renowned architect who was also a founding member of the Jerusalem Committee . Kahn had also previously designed Philadelphia 's Mikveh Israel Synagogue in 1961 which remained unbuilt . Between 1968 and 1973 , Kahn presented three plans for the reconstruction . The ruins were incorporated in a memorial garden , with a new structure on an adjacent lot and a promenade , the " Route of the Prophets " , leading to the Western Wall . Kahn proposed a structure within a structure , monumental " pylons of Jerusalem stone on each side enclosing four huge central pillars of reinforced concrete , so that the pylons function [ ed ] as a container and the pillars as its content " . Following the Beaux @-@ Arts tradition , the elements of architecture were conceived as hollow , thus creating pocketing spaces within both structures . The outer structure was composed of 16 piers covered in golden Jerusalem stone cut in blocks of the same proportions and same course finish as those of the Western Wall . In the bases of the four corners of the two @-@ story , 12 m ( 39 ft ) high structure delineated by the piers , there would be small alcoves for meditation or individual prayer . Such alcoves would be used for daily prayer services , allowing larger crowds on Sabbath or festivals . Boston @-@ based architect Moshe Safdie , who had built extensively in Jerusalem and trained with Kahn in Philadelphia , was also in favour of rebuilding using contemporary design : " It 's absurd to reconstruct the Hurva as if nothing had happened . If we have the desire to rebuild it , let 's have the courage to have a great architect do it . "
When Teddy Kollek , then mayor of Jerusalem , had learned of Kahn 's plans to design the Hurva at a scale comparable to the Dome of the Rock and the Kotel , the mayor was unsupportive and stated : " Should we in the Jewish Quarter have a building of major importance which ' competes ' with the Mosque and the Holy Sepulcher and should we in general have any building which would compete in importance with the Western Wall of the Temple ? " Kollek was also concerned with the impact such a monumental temple may have in the Old City . Kahn 's model was displayed in the Israel Museum , but his plan was shelved when he died in 1974 . Kent Larson later referred to Kahn 's proposal as " the greatest of the unbuilt " .
= = Commemorative arch , subsequent proposals , and arch interpretation = =
As no permanent solution could be agreed upon , a temporary , symbolic solution was created . In 1977 , one of the four stone arches that had originally supported the synagogue 's monumental dome was recreated . The height of the original building , including the dome , had been 50 % greater than that of the new commemorative arch , which stood 16 m ( 52 ft ) high . Together with the remains of the building and explanatory plaques , it was a stark reminder of what had once stood at the site .
With the ongoing disputes over the modern façade of the proposed new building , which some felt did not properly match the Jewish Quarter 's aesthetic , an Englishman named Charles Clore took the initiative to fund a new design projects . He commissioned Denys Lasdun , who drew up plans between 1978 and 1981 that more closely adhered to the original Hurva . His plans were still considered insufficient , as they were rejected by Prime Minister Menachem Begin and the Minister of Interior , who refused to sign papers enabling construction to begin . No further progress was made and when Clore , who had wished to see the synagogue completed in his lifetime , died , his daughter provided funds to create one of the few open spaces in the Jewish Quarter adjacent to the Hurva .
The Hurva featured on a NIS 3 @.@ 60 Israeli postage stamp in 1993 to commemorate 45 years of Israeli independence , and its arch on a $ 1 @.@ 20 Antiguan postage stamp in 1996 . However , in 1996 , the supposedly temporary arch of the Hurva was almost thirty years old and , as a solution , it became nearly perpetual . Such condition was then publicly noted and interpreted :
Quite far from Kahn 's " American dream " , Israeli reality has provided [ ... ] an [ ... ] objectionable substitute — a single reconstructed arch of the Old Hurva . Such a lonely architectural sign , standing as an insipid memorial to a nineteenth @-@ century synagogue in ruins , cannot be other than a problematic reincarnation of a ruined synagogue .
This suggested that the single reconstructed arch of the Hurva could no longer be understood as a satisfactory expression of any commitment to rebuild the lost synagogue nor as an acceptable official response to its intentional destruction in 1948 .
= = Reconstruction = =
The plan to rebuild the synagogue in its original 19th @-@ century style received approval by the Israeli government in 2000 . Jerusalem architect Nahum Meltzer , who proposed rebuilding the synagogue in its original Ottoman format , was given the commission . Meltzer stated that " both out of respect for the historical memory of the Jewish people and out of respect for the built @-@ up area of the Old City , it is fitting for us to restore the lost glory and rebuild the Hurva Synagogue the way it was . " The state @-@ funded Jewish Quarter Development Corporation under the leadership of Dov Kalmanovich convinced the Israeli government to allocate $ 6 @.@ 2 million ( NIS 24m ) , about 85 % of the cost , for the reconstruction , with private donors contributing the remainder . In the end , the government only gave NIS 11m , with the remainder being donated by a Ukrainian Jewish businessman and philanthropist , Vadim Rabinovitch .
In 2002 the Israeli mint issued a set of medals featuring the synagogue to mark the beginning of the reconstruction project . Following comprehensive historic research , the reconstruction works began in 2005 and on February 15 , 2007 , Abraham Isaac Kook of Rehovot was appointed as its rabbi , a move confirmed by leading rabbis , including Yosef Shalom Eliashiv . On April 15 , 2008 a celebration marked the placing of the keystone in the synagogue 's dome .
Recently , contention arose over what kind of institution the Hurva would be . Secularist and nationalist @-@ religious activists opposed the notion of another synagogue in the Old City and wanted the site to become a museum presenting the historical saga of the Jewish Quarter and displaying archaeological finds unearthed there . They viewed the appointment of Kook as the rabbi while the structure was still a shell as a move aimed at preventing a Modern Orthodox rabbi , who would have been more amenable to a broader utilisation of the site , from getting the position . Rabbi of the Jewish Quarter , Avigdor Nebenzahl , has been clear that he wants the building to serve as a synagogue and a house of study .
= = Rededication and response = =
The reconstructed Hurva was officially opened on March 15 , 2010 in the presence of Israeli politicians and chief rabbis . A day earlier , hundreds of people had accompanied a new Torah scroll into the synagogue . Several Palestinian leaders claimed that the rededication signaled Israel ’ s intent to destroy the Muslim holy places on the Temple Mount and replace it with the Third Temple . Fatah official Khatem Abd el @-@ Khader called the renovation of the Hurva a " provocation " , warned Israel that it was " playing with fire " and called on Palestinians to " converge on Al @-@ Aksa to save it . " Khaled Mashal of Hamas described the synagogue 's opening as " a declaration of war " and called it a " falsification of history and Jerusalem 's religious and historic monuments . " Fearing riots by Arab protestors , over 3 @,@ 000 policemen were deployed ahead of the dedication ceremony . The Organisation of the Islamic Conference said that the reopening risked " dragging the region into a religious war " and claimed the building was historically on a waqf ( Islamic trust ) land . The Jordanian government also condemned the move stating that it " categorically rejects the rededication of Hurva synagogue and all other unilateral Israeli measures in occupied East Jerusalem because they run counter to international legitimacy . " Iran urged the international community to respond to the reopening and a Foreign Ministry spokesman called the move a " catastrophe that has distressed the Islamic world . " Israeli officials countered that Arab fears of a takeover of the Temple Mount were based on rumors and Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu extended a message of coexistence . The U.S. State Department criticised Palestinians for stoking tensions at the rededication of the historic synagogue . The day after , Arabs clashed with Israeli police in East Jerusalem after Palestinian groups called for a " day of rage " over the reopening .
In September 2010 , Hamas released a propaganda video showing various Israeli landmarks , including the Hurva synagogue , ablaze after coming under missile attack . The images were the result of special effects , as no such attacks had taken place .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The Hurva Synagogue , as an emblem of Jerusalem and its Jewish heritage , has been portrayed over the years in numerous paintings , and referred to in literature and culture . The synagogue was portrayed , for example , in works by artists Yossef Gaiger , Jonathan Kis @-@ Lev , and in the works of Holocaust survivor , artist Motke Blum . For decades , the synagogue 's arch has been the emblem of the Jewish quarter in the works of artists portraying the old city .
Computer graphic reconstructions of Louis Kahn 's unbuilt project were made by Kent Larson ( MIT , early 1990s ) , and further developed in terms of animation by Francesco Cerbella & Federico Caponi ( University of Florence , November 2013 ) .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Books = = =
= = = Newspapers , magazines , and the media = = =
= Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare =
Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / ˈwɛstən ˌsuːpə ˈmɛər / is a seaside resort in Somerset , England , on the Bristol Channel 18 miles ( 29 km ) south west of Bristol between Worlebury Hill and Bleadon Hill . It includes the suburbs of Oldmixon , West Wick and Worle . Its population at the 2011 census was 76 @,@ 143 . Since 1983 , Weston has been twinned with Hildesheim , Germany .
Although there is evidence in the local area of occupation since the Iron Age , it was still a small village until the 19th century when it became a seaside resort , and was connected with local towns and cities by a railway , and two piers were built . The growth continued until the second half of the 20th century , when tourism declined and some local industries closed . A regeneration programme is being undertaken with attractions including the Helicopter Museum , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Museum , Grand Pier and an aquarium . The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral offer day sea trips from Knightstone Island to various destinations along the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary . Cultural venues include The Playhouse , the Winter Gardens and Blakehay Theatre .
Owing to the large tidal range in the Bristol Channel , the low tide mark in Weston Bay is about a mile from the seafront . Although the beach itself is sandy , low tide uncovers areas of thick mud , hence the colloquial name , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mud . These mudflats are very dangerous to walk in and are crossed by the mouth of the River Axe . Just to the north of the town is Sand Point which marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel . It is also the site of the Middle Hope biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . In the centre of the town is Ellenborough Park , another SSSI due to the range of plant species found there .
= = Toponymy = =
Weston comes from the Anglo @-@ Saxon for the west tun or settlement ; super Mare is Latin for " above sea " and was added to distinguish it from the many other settlements named Weston in the Diocese .
Prior to 1348 it was known as Weston @-@ Juxta @-@ Mare ( " beside the sea " ) . The name was changed by Ralph of Shrewsbury , who was the Bishop of Bath and Wells . Between the 14th and 17th centuries the " super Mare " part of the name disappeared and it was just known as Weston , although in 1610 it was recorded as Weston on the More ; môr being the Welsh word for sea .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Weston 's oldest structure is Worlebury Camp , on Worlebury Hill , dating from the Iron Age . Castle Batch was a castle that once stood overlooking the town . The present site has an earthwork mound of 160 feet ( 49 m ) in diameter which is believed to be the remains of a motte .
The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred .
The medieval church of St John was demolished in 1824 and built anew on the same site , though a stump of the Medieval preaching cross survives by the exterior south wall . The former rectory is a 17th @-@ century structure with later additions . Though it remains adjacent to the church it has not been a parsonage house since the end of the 19th century . Today it is known as Glebe House and is divided into flats .
The Old Thatched Cottage restaurant on the seafront carries the date 1774 ; it is the surviving portion of a summer cottage built by the Revd . William Leeves of Wrington .
= = = 19th century = = =
Early in the 19th century , Weston was a small village of about 30 houses , located behind a line of sand dunes fronting the sea , which had been created as an early sea wall after the Bristol Channel floods of 1607 . The Pigott family of Brockley , who were the local Lords of the Manor , had a summer residence at Grove House . Weston owes its growth and prosperity to the Victorian era boom in seaside holidays . Construction of the first hotel in the village started in 1808 ; it was called " Reeves " ( now the Royal Hotel ) . Along with nearby Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea , Weston benefited from proximity to Bristol , Bath and South Wales . The first attempt at an artificial harbour was made in the late 1820s at the islet of Knightstone and a slipway built from Anchor Head towards Birnbeck Island .
Isambard Kingdom Brunel and his family lived in Weston , at Swiss Villa ( towards the north end of Trevelyan road , see map 1901 , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare ) , while he was supervising the construction of the Bristol and Exeter Railway in the area . With the opening of the railway in 1841 , thousands of visitors came to the town from Bristol , the Midlands and further afield , on works outings and Bank holidays . Mining families also came across the Bristol Channel from South Wales by paddle steamer . To cater for them , Birnbeck Pier was completed in 1867 , offering in its heyday amusement arcades , tea rooms , amusement rides and a photographic studio . However , it is now in a derelict state and has been added to English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register , but visitors can still admire its structure from behind barbed wire . It was designed by Eugenius Birch with ironwork by the ISCA Foundry of Newport , Monmouthshire . It is a grade II * listed building .
Large areas of land were released for development from the 1850s onwards . Large detached villas , for the middle classes , were built on the southern slopes of Worlebury Hill . Semi @-@ detached and terraced housing was built on the low " moorland " behind the sea front in an area known as South Ward . Many of these houses have now been converted into bedsits . Most of the houses built in the Victorian era are built from stone and feature details made from Bath Stone , influenced by local architect Hans Price .
In 1885 , the first transatlantic telegraph cable of the Commercial Cable Company was brought ashore and the company started a long association with the town , ending in 1962 .
Guglielmo Marconi , the inventor of wireless telegraphy , successfully transmitted radio signals across the Bristol Channel in the spring of 1897 , from Penarth ( near Cardiff ) to Brean Down ( just south west of Weston , on the other side of the River Axe ) .
A second railway , the Weston , Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway , opened on 1 December 1897 , connecting Weston to Clevedon . The terminus station was at Ashcombe Road . The railway was extended to Portishead on 7 August 1907 but was closed in 1940 .
= = = Architecture = = =
Much of the character of the buildings in the town derives from the use of local stone , much of it from the Town Quarry . Notable among the architects working in the 19th century was Hans Price ( 1835 – 1912 ) . Many examples of his work are still to be seen : the Town Hall , the Mercury Office , the Constitutional Club ( originally the Lodge of St Kew ) , villas and numerous other domestic dwellings . The Odeon Cinema by Thomas Cecil Howitt is notable for fully retaining many Art Deco features both internally and externally , and retaining its original theatre organ , a Compton from 1935 . It is believed to be the only cinema organ in the West Country left working in its original location and is still in regular use . Other organs by Compton in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare can be found at Victoria Methodist Church and All Saints ' Church by George Bodley ( modelled on that in Downside Abbey ) .
= = = 20th century = = =
Local traders , unhappy that visitors were not coming as far as the centre of the town , built a new pier closer to the main streets . Opened in 1904 , and known as the Grand Pier , it was designed to be 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . Further development occurred after World War I , with the Winter Gardens Pavilion in 1927 , the open air pool , with its arched concrete diving board , and an airfield dating from the inter @-@ war period . Art Deco influences can be seen in much of the town 's architecture from this period .
During World War II evacuees were accommodated in the town ; however the area was also home to war industries , such as aircraft and pump manufacture , and a Royal Air Force station at RAF Locking . The town was also on the return route of bombers targeting Bristol and was itself bombed by the Luftwaffe . The first bombs fell in June 1940 , but the worst attacks were in January 1941 and in June 1942 . Large areas of the town were destroyed , particularly Orchard Street and the Boulevard . On 3 and 4 January 1941 , incendiary bombs fell on the town . The Air Ministry set up a " Q @-@ station " decoy at Bleadon in an attempt to divert the bombers to an unpopulated area . In the later part of the war , United States Army troops were billeted in the area , but they were relocated in the run @-@ up to D @-@ Day .
RAF Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare was opened in 1936 by No. 24 Group , with a single tarmac runway . It served as a flying candidates selection and initial training facility , and as a relief airport during World War II , latterly as the Polish Air Force Staff College from April 1944 to April 1946 . After the war it served as a logistics supply station , with helicopter makers Westland Helicopters on site until closure in 1987 . Today there is an operational heliport on site used occasionally by the RAF Search and Rescue service . The former Westland site , which closed in 2002 , houses the Helicopter Museum featuring examples of Westland aircraft . Pride of place is given to an immaculate Westland Wessex HCC Mk.4 , formerly of the Queen 's Flight .
Residential areas outside the town centre include the Oldmixon , Coronation , and Bournville housing estates , built in the mid to late 20th century . Newer housing has since been built towards the east of the town in North Worle and Locking Castle , nearer to the M5 motorway .
Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare has expanded to include the established villages of Milton , Worle , Uphill , Oldmixon , West Wick and Wick St. Lawrence , as well as new areas such as St. Georges and Locking Castle .
In 1986 , Weston General Hospital was opened on the edge of Uphill village , replacing the Queen Alexandra Memorial Hospital on The Boulevard , which was opened in 1928 .
= = = 21st century = = =
A structure known as Silica was installed at Big Lamp Corner during 2006 . It is a piece of public art , an advertising sign , a retail kiosk selling newspapers and hot food , as well as a bus shelter . It has been criticised by local residents who liken it to a carrot or a space ship , although it is meant to symbolise man 's harmony with the sea . This was part of North Somerset Council 's ongoing civic pride initiative that has sought to revitalise Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare 's public spaces , which had suffered a period of decline . Other public space improvements have been made throughout the town such as improvements to the street scene in Grove Park Village .
On 28 July 2008 , the pavilion at the end of the Grand Pier was completely destroyed by a fire . Eleven fire engines and 80 fire @-@ fighters were unable to contain the blaze which is believed to have started in the north @-@ east tower of the Pavilion . A competition was held to design a new pavilion , and the project awarded to the winning architect Angus Meek Architects of Bristol . Construction work began on the pier and new pavilion in 2009 , and was scheduled to re @-@ open in July 2010 following a £ 39 million re @-@ building programme . After continuing problems and set @-@ backs leading to the pier not opening until a formal opening ceremony on 23 October 2010 , the overall costs have reached £ 51 million . During the same period a £ 34 million redevelopment of the promenade , including refurbishment of the Marine Lake and pedestrianisation of Pier Square . As part of the work , a scour protection apron and splash wall were added as part of flood prevention measures .
At the end of the 20th and start of the 21st centuries , the town saw a growth in residential rehabilitation treatment centres for people with drug and alcohol problems , with attendant crime and social problems . These problems were highlighted by Weston 's councillors , newspapers and the MP , John Penrose during his maiden speech in the House of Commons in 2005 .
By 2009 , it was home to around 11 % of drug rehabilitation places in the UK and North Somerset council proposed an accreditation system examining the quality of counselling , staff training , transparency of referral arrangements , along with measures of the treatment 's effectiveness and site inspections .
= = Governance = =
Municipal history began in 1842 when a Local Act was obtained for " paving , lighting , watching , cleansing and otherwise improving the Town of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in the County of Somerset and for establishing a Market therein " under the jurisdiction of eighteen appointed Commissioners . Town Commissioners gave way to an Urban District Council in 1894 , and then in 1937 the town received its Royal Charter as a municipal borough . In 1974 , under the Local Government Act 1972 , it was merged into the Woodspring district of the Avon County Council , and became a Charter trustees town . Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare regained its town council in 2000 , becoming a civil parish . The island of Steep Holm is part of the civil parish of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare .
Before 1 April 1974 , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare came under the administration of Somerset County Council . When Avon was split up in 1996 , it became the administrative headquarters of the unitary authority of North Somerset , one of the successor authorities , which remains part of the ceremonial county of Somerset .
There are 11 electoral wards in Weston .
The MP for the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare parliamentary constituency is John Penrose of the Conservative Party , who won the seat from Liberal Democrat Brian Cotter ( now Lord Cotter ) in the 2005 General Election .
Weston is within the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
The mainly flat landscape of Weston is dominated by Worlebury Hill , 109 metres ( 357 ft ) , which borders the entire northern edge of the town , and Bleadon Hill , 176 metres ( 577 ft ) which together with the River Axe , and Brean Down at Uphill form its southern border . In the centre of the town is Ellenborough Park a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to the range of plant species found there .
The beach of Weston Bay lies on the western edge of the town . The upper part is sandy but the sea retreats a long way at low tide exposing large areas of mud flats ( hence the colloquial name of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mud ) . The tidal range in this part of the Bristol Channel is great , and since beach and mud flats are on a gentle slope , attempting to reach the sea at times of low tide is inadvisable as the sand gives way to mud which is very deep and has frequently resulted in loss of life over the years . Driving on the beach ( which is permitted in certain areas ) occasionally results the drivers of vehicles being caught unawares as they drive too close to the sea and break through the sand into the underlying mud and are then stuck .
The tidal rise and fall in the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel can be as great as 14 @.@ 5 m ( 48 ft ) , second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada . This tidal movement contributes to the deposition of natural mud in bays such as Weston . There has been concern about pollution levels from industrial areas in Wales and at the eastern end of the Bristol Channel , however this tends to be diluted by the Atlantic waters . There are measurable levels of chemical pollutants and little is known about their effects . Of particular concern are the levels of cadmium and to a lesser degree residual pesticides and hydrocarbons .
Just to the north of the town is Sand Point which marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel . It is also the site of the Middle Hope 84 @.@ 1 hectares ( 208 acres ) biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Weston has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the population of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare is 76 @,@ 143 . This makes it the largest settlement in North Somerset , which has a total population of 188 @,@ 564 . 20 @.@ 1 % of the town 's population are aged 65 or over , compared with the national average of 16 @.@ 5 % . 96 @.@ 5 % of the population are white , compared with 86 % nationally . In 1831 the town population was 1 @,@ 310 , and in 1801 just 138 . In 2001 , the town comprised 34 @,@ 441 households , while in 1829 it comprised just 250 . The vast majority ( 96 @.@ 5 % ) of the population described themselves as white in the 2011 census . 58 @.@ 2 % are Christian , with 32 @.@ 4 % describing themselves as having no religion . No other religious groups achieved as much as 0 @.@ 5 % .
= = Economy = =
Since the 1970s , Weston has suffered a decline in popularity as a holiday destination , as have most British seaside resorts , due to the advent of cheap foreign holidays and the demise of the traditional " works holidays " of heavy and manufacturing industries elsewhere in UK . The town had become a centre of industries such as helicopter production , and maintenance at the GKN Westland factory until its closure in 2002 , however the company still retains a design office under the name GKN Aerospace Engineering Services at the Winterstoke Road site . Road transport links were improved with the M5 motorway running close by , and the town now supports light industries and distribution depots , including Lidl 's distribution centre for its southern based stores , and is also a dormitory town for Bristol . Vutrix , one of the largest semiconductor and video / audio distribution equipment companies in the television broadcasting industry , is based in the town . Two of the town 's largest employers are the local council and Weston College , which has recently begun to offer university degrees as a secondary campus of Bath Spa University .
= = = Tourism = = =
Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare is a popular tourist destination , with its long sandy beach , Helicopter Museum , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Museum , Grand Pier , SeaQuarium aquarium and seasonal Wheel of Weston . A 2009 survey by Visit England placed the Grand Pier in the top ten free attractions in England . However , as of 2014 , the pier charges for admission . On the Beach Lawns was a miniature railway operated by steam and diesel locomotives , which closed in 2012 . The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral offer day trips from Knightstone Island to various destinations along the Bristol Channel and Severn estuary .
The Art Deco Tropicana , once a very popular lido on the beach , has suffered years of neglect . It closed to the public in 2000 , and despite a number of attempts to reopen it , permission was given to demolish it in 2012 .
'International HeliDays ' , in association with the Helicopter Museum , are staged at the beach lawns over a long weekend around the end of July , when up to 75 helicopters from Europe fly in for a static display . There are frequent Helicopter Air Experience flights from the Museum heliport . There is also an annual display by the Red Arrows .
Since the 1970s the number of visitors staying for several nights in the town has decreased , but the numbers of day visitors has increased . In 1995 there were 4 million visitors but by 2005 this had risen to 5 @.@ 3 million . In 2007 69 % of visitors to the resort were day visitors , compared to 58 % in 2005 . The 2005 survey showed that day visitors stay in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare for an average of six hours whilst overnight visitors stay for an average of five nights . The largest percentage of visitors ( 22 % ) were from the West Midlands . Weston was found to attract two distinct groups : " grey tourists " over the age of 60 and families with young children .
Weston Bike Nights are motorcycle meetings on the Promenade each Thursday during the summer . They are organised by The Royal British Legion Riders Branch to raise money for the Poppy Appeal .
In July 2011 , North Somerset Council gave planning approval to the £ 50 million Leisure Dome , a 210 @-@ metre ( 690 ft ) indoor ski slope to be built on the site of RAF Locking . The site , which had not commenced construction as of November 2015 , is planned to include a 40 @-@ metre ( 130 ft ) climbing wall , a vertical wind tunnel for indoor skydiving , indoor surfing , a BMX track , a health and fitness club , and a number of shops and restaurants . The ski slope will be the longest in the United Kingdom .
= = Transport = =
The 2 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 7 km ) 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) gauge Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Tramways network opened on 12 May 1902 . The main route ran from Birnbeck Pier along the sea front to the Sanatorium ( now Royal Sands ) ; a branch line ran to the railway station and on to the tram depot in Locking Road . The fleet originally consisted of 12 double deck cars and 4 open @-@ sided " toast rack " cars . The system was bought out by the competing bus company and closed on 18 April 1937 , by which time the fleet comprised 8 double deck and 6 " toast racks " . An earlier proposal for the Weston and Clevedon Tramway to run along the streets of the town to the sea front had failed to materialise , leaving the line as an ordinary railway with a terminus in Ashcombe Road .
Weston is close to junction 21 of the M5 motorway , to which it is linked by a dual @-@ carriageway relief road built in the 1990s . This replaced Locking Road as the designated A370 route and avoided some of the traffic congestion along that narrower urban road .
The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare on 14 June 1841 . This was not the route that serves today 's Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare railway station , but rather a single @-@ track branch line from Weston Junction , midway between the present day Worle and Uphill junctions , which terminated at a small station in Regent Street close to the High Street . A second larger station was constructed in 1866 to replace this , when planning permission was gained to create a loop station from the main line . After legal action was taken by residents along the proposed route new route through issues of planning blight , the station on the current site was constructed in 1881 .
Today the station is situated close to the town centre and less than ten minutes walk from the sea front . It has direct services to London Paddington operated by First Great Western , and also trains to stations such as Bristol , Taunton and Cardiff Central . CrossCountry services run to Birmingham and the North . The station has two platforms . Other stations are located at Weston Milton and Worle . During the middle of the day they are served by the local trains between Taunton , Bristol and Cardiff , but during the peak periods London trains call at both stations . Weston Milton station is on the single track loop and therefore has only one platform , while Worle is on the main line and has two side platforms . The Weston loop diverges just to the southwest of Worle station , and the junction is therefore known as Worle Junction .
Most bus services are provided by First Somerset & Avon or Webberbus . All services call at stops in the Regent Street and Big Lamp Corner area , including some stops in the adjacent High Street . Some town services and those to Sand Bay , Wells , Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea and Bristol Airport start from or run via the main railway station . The service to Sand Bay is sometimes operated by an open top bus . National Express and Bakers Dolphin operate long distance coach services , mostly from the coach terminal in Locking Road Car Park which is close to the railway station .
The nearest operational airport to Weston is Bristol Airport , located 15 mi ( 24 km ) away at Lulsgate .
= = Education = =
The Unitary authority of North Somerset , provides support for 78 schools , delivering education to approximately 28 @,@ 000 pupils . Infant and primary schools in Weston include : Ashcombe Primary , Becket Primary , Bournville Primary School , Castle Batch Primary school , Christ Church C of E Primary , Corpus Christi Catholic Primary , Herons ' Moor Community Primary , Hutton C of E Primary , Kewstoke Primary , Mead Vale Primary , Milton Park Primary , St. Georges V.A. Church Primary , St Mark 's VA Church of England / Methodist Ecumenical Primary School , Walliscote Primary , Windwhistle Primary and Worlebury St. Pauls C.E.V.A. First School .
Secondary education is provided by Broadoak Mathematics and Computing College , Churchill Academy , Priory Community School , Worle Community School and Hans Price Academy . Further and higher education is provided by Weston College .
In September 2014 , the North Somerset Enterprise and Technology College ( NSETC ) opened . From September 2015 it will provide education to 14- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds and specialise in the STEM fields ; Science , Technology , Engineering and Maths .
Nigel Leat , a teacher at Hillside First School , was jailed indefinitely in summer 2011 for Paedophile offences that happened over a 14 @-@ year period . The school 's headmaster lost his job in December 2011 due to the incident .
= = Culture = =
The town contains several arts venues . The Playhouse serves both tourists and the local population . The Winter Gardens on the seafront hosts shows , exhibitions and conferences . The Blakehay Theatre & Community Arts Centre is a small venue housed in a former Baptist church . All Saints Church hosts regular concerts , some of high national standing . This church is also used for recording , especially by the Emerald Ensemble and has featured on BBC TV programme Songs of Praise .
The Odeon Cinema was opened in 1935 and is a building in the modernist style designed by Thomas Cecil Howitt . It houses the only Compton theatre pipe organ in an Odeon cinema outside London and is one of only two working theatre organs left in the country still performing in their original location in commercially operating cinemas . This Compton organ was installed in 1935 and is the only one left in the West Country , the next nearest being the Odeon Leicester Square , London . All other models have been either restored and moved elsewhere , or destroyed . Occasional organ concerts continue to be held at the venue . The building has Grade II Listed status .
Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare has a small number of live music venues of note . " Scally 's " hosts more established touring rock bands , while the " Back Bar " , " The London " , and " The Imperial " hold regular open mic nights which attract a wide array of local musicians , as well as artists from further afield . The T4 on the Beach concert had been hosted annually since 2006 , up until 2012 , by Channel 4 youth programme T4 . Well known bands and singers perform four or fewer of their hits . However , the vocals are mimed as the event is being produced for live TV broadcast . Each summer the beach is also used as the venue for the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Sand Sculpture Festival .
The town was the subject of a song " Sunny Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare " performed by local band The Wurzels . The last scenes of The Remains of the Day , a James Ivory film of 1993 , were shot at locations in the town including the Grand Pier and the Winter Gardens .
The Weston Arts Festival takes place each year during September and October using local venues including the Blakehay Theatre , Playhouse , All Saints , and galleries and offering a wide range of cultural events .
Weston is also the final event on the November West Country Carnival circuit , when a large number of brightly illuminated floats parade through the streets .
The town 's weekly newspaper is The Weston & Somerset Mercury , which has been serving the population since 1843 . It is now owned by publishing company Archant . There are also two online publications The Weston Echo , and Weston super Mare People .
Weston Super Television is an on @-@ line community television channel set up in 2011 . Its volunteers make and present studio programmes , including interviews with local councillers , musicians and community leaders , as well as filming local events in and around the town .
The 2011 TV comedy drama series The Cafe was co @-@ written by Michelle Terry who was born in the town and the series was filmed in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare .
In August 2015 the artist Banksy opened the temporary art installation ' Dismaland ' at the Tropicana , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare venue .
= = Landmarks = =
The Grand Pier is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the town . It previously housed funfair style attractions , a go @-@ kart track , cafes , a fudge factory , and a host of arcade games , and underwent a £ 34 million re @-@ development after a fire in 2008 destroyed the main pavilion . After a harsh winter which delayed progress , the new pier pavilion reopened on 23 October 2010 .
Weston 's first pier , Birnbeck Pier , standing on a small island to the north of the bay is currently closed to the public . The current owners , Manchester @-@ based company Urban Splash purchased the pier in 2006 . A competition was held as a means to encourage redevelopment of the site for commercial use . To date , no firm plans are in place , and the future of Birnbeck Pier is uncertain . The pier houses Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Lifeboat Station .
Knightstone Island housed a theatre , swimming pool and sauna , after having been purchased by the physician Edward Long Fox in 1830 to create a therapeutic spa with range of hot , cold and chemical baths . After years of disrepair and dereliction , the area has been redeveloped by Redrow Homes . During 2006 / 2007 , luxury apartments and commercial outlets have been built on the site . Consideration has been taken due to the listed building status of much of the site . Boat trips from here include the Waverley and Balmoral and trips to Steep Holm and Flat Holm islands as well as short trips around Weston Bay .
The Tropicana outdoor swimming pool that is located on the southern section of the sea front has not been occupied since 2000 . A private developer , Henry Boot , was selected to re @-@ develop the site with a new Life Station leisure complex , which was planned to include a six lane , 25 metres ( 27 yd ) swimming pool , water park , 96 @-@ bed hotel , restaurant , eight @-@ screen cinema , 14 retail units , and a 20 @-@ lane bowling alley . The redevelopment was beset by delays and controversy . A group of local residents challenged the council over its decision to appoint Henry Boot , asking to put forward their own proposals for the site . In November 2009 , the plans were finally abandoned , leaving the future of the site uncertain . In 2010 the council invited submissions from developers for a new , less ambitious , scheme to redevelop the site with a swimming pool at its heart . A decision on a new scheme is expected towards the end of 2010 . The local authority announced on 23 August 2011 that it was giving developers six months to propose plans for a smaller development otherwise they will arrange to demolish the Tropicana . In February 2013 , North Somerset Council granted planning permission to a consortium of local businesses who intend to build a new swimming pool complex on the site .
= = Religious sites = =
Most of the town 's churches and chapels are neo @-@ Gothic 19th century structures . The Medieval village church of St John the Baptist was completely demolished in 1824 to make way for a new and larger place of worship .
All Saints Church was built between 1898 and 1902 to a design by George Frederick Bodley and completed by his pupil F.C. Eden in the 14th century style so favoured by Bodley . It is a Grade II * listed building . Holy Trinity Church is also a Grade II * listed building .
There is a Greek Orthodox Church of St Andrew the Apostle in Grove Road , Milton .
= = Sport = =
Football team Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare A.F.C. play in the Conference South at the purpose @-@ built Woodspring Stadium , which opened in August 2004 .
There are two rugby clubs in the town ; Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare RFC , formed in 1875 , owned by Jonson Coles and Hornets RFC , formed in 1962 . Hornets play in National League 3 [ South West ] , whilst Weston were relegated from the same league in 2014 / 15 and now play in South West One division . These are national level 5 and level 6 respectively in the English rugby union system .
Somerset County Cricket Club played first class and one @-@ day matches for one week a season on a pitch prepared at Clarence Park , near the sea front . This began in 1914 and continued until the last “ festival ” in 1996 . Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Cricket Club play at Devonshire Park Ground .
The town is well known amongst motocross enthusiasts for staging the Weston beach race every autumn . In addition , races are also held for youth riders , sidecarcross riders and quad bike competitors . The 2008 winner of the Weston Beach Race was ten time World Motocross Champion Stefan Everts of Belgium .
= = Notable people = =
See also Category : People from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare
Notable current and former residents of the town include :
Aaron Allard @-@ Morgan : Winner of Big Brother 2011 ( UK )
A. V. Alexander , 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough : Minister of Defence in the Attlee government , raised in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare
Jeffrey Archer : author , politician and convicted perjurer
Jhonn Balance : musician , founding member of Psychic TV and founder of Coil ( band )
Ritchie Blackmore : guitarist and founding member of Deep Purple , Rainbow and Blackmore 's Night .
Peter Christopherson : musician , founding member of Throbbing Gristle and Psychic TV
John Cleese : actor and member of Monty Python
Jill Dando : murdered broadcaster and journalist , after whom the sixth form centre at Weston College and a garden in Grove Park are named
Arthur Stanley Eddington : one of the foremost astrophysicists of the early 20th century , grew up in the town
Daphne Fowler : game show champion
Baron Glanely ( William Tatem ) , ship- and racehorse @-@ owner , died during an air raid at 16 Malvern Road in June 1942 .
Rupert Graves : actor , born and educated in the town 30 June 1963
Bob Hope : comedian and actor , lived there as a child
Sean Martin : writer and film director
Con O 'Neill : actor
John Oldmixon ( 1673 – 1742 ) : historian ; born in Oldmixon
The Revd . Dr John Polkinghorne KBE FRS : particle physicist and theologian .
Hans Price : ( 1835 – 1912 ) architect ; responsible for much of the architecture of the built environment in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and the distinctive character of the town
Paulo Radmilovic : Olympic gold medal athlete
Gareth Taylor : footballer ; born 25 February 1972 in the town
Michelle Terry : actress and writer
Peter Trego : cricketer
= Hurricane Martha =
Hurricane Martha has been the only known tropical cyclone to make landfall in Panama . The eighteenth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season , Martha developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 21 . Initially , the storm developed with sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , skipping tropical depression status . It remained stationary and quickly intensified into a hurricane . Martha attained maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on November 22 . Subsequently , Martha weakened and drifted southward . On November 24 , Martha made landfall in Veraguas Province , Panama , as a strong tropical storm . The system weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over land on November 25 .
Because the storm weakened prior to landfall , strong winds were not expected or reported in the impacted countries . In Panama , more than 13 inches ( 330 mm ) of precipitation may have fallen in some areas . Agricultural land was flooded in Almirante , Bocas del Toro and streets became inundated in low @-@ lying areas of Puerto Armuelles , Chiriquí . The storm also brought significant rains to Costa Rica . Flooding and mudslides isolated most of the capital city of San José . Numerous streets were inundated in Golfito . Damage in Costa Rica reached $ 30 million ( 1969 USD ) and 5 deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
Winds aloft in the vicinity of San Andrés , Colombia and the Panama Canal Zone indicated that a low @-@ level circulation developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 20 . According to the Best Track , Tropical Storm Martha formed at 1200 UTC on November 21 , with an initial wind speed of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Thus , Martha skipped tropical depression status . Centered about 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Bocas Town , Bocas del Toro , the storm remained stationary for 24 hours after tropical cyclogenesis . Martha immediately began deepening , becoming a hurricane at 0000 UTC on November 22 . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories at 0300 UTC and erroneously indicated that it was a tropical depression and noted that conditions did not favor significant intensification . Later on November 22 , a reconnaissance flight indicated Martha deepened to a compact hurricane , and the tropical cyclone attained a maximum sustained wind speed of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Reconnaissance aircraft measured a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , though it was later corrected to 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 92 inHg ) in the post @-@ season analysis .
The eye feature was about 46 miles ( 74 km ) wide and it was described as poorly organized , although convection was increasing . After reaching peak intensity , Martha began drifting due south and slowly weakened . At 1200 UTC on November 23 , the tropical cyclone diminished to a tropical storm , after winds decreased to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a reconnaissance flight recorded an increased barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . The storm maintained that intensity , and shortly before 1800 UTC on November 24 , Martha made landfall in rural Veraguas Province , Panama , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the mouth of the Calovebora River . Operationally , winds were thought to be only 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) when the storm moved inland . Martha was the only tropical cyclone on record to make landfall in Panama , although it is possible that other Panama tropical cyclones were not detected . The storm rapidly weakened inland , deteriorating to tropical depression status early on November 25 , twelve hours before dissipating over southern Ngöbe @-@ Buglé Comarca .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Residents were warned to anticipate tides 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal near the expected point of landfall . Later , the forecast was decreased to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above normal and pertained to tides in the Mosquitoes Gulf and Chiriqui Lagoon . Since Martha was a relatively weak tropical cyclone , flash floods were emphasized as the greatest threat . The National Hurricane Center stated that rainfall could exceed 10 inches ( 254 mm ) . Additionally , Arnold Sugg of National Hurricane Center warned residents of gale force winds and heavy precipitation , advising people living between Bluefields , Nicaragua and Almirante , Bocas del Toro , Panama to take precautions .
In Panama , the storm dropped at least 13 inches ( 330 mm ) of precipitation , especially in the western portions of the country . As a result , at least half of agricultural land in Almirante , Bocas del Toro , was flooded , causing extensive crop damage . In Puerto Armuelles , Chiriquí , persistent rainfall led to street flooding and inundated other areas . Similar conditions were reported in Golfito , Costa Rica . The effects of Martha resulted in five deaths , all of which occurred in Costa Rica . The nation incurred flooding from heavy rainfall , which caused significant destruction . The capital city of San José received flooding . In all , damages were estimated near $ 30 million ( 1969 USD ) .
= Heinrich Rau =
Heinrich Gottlob " Heiner " Rau ( 2 April 1899 – 23 March 1961 ) was a German communist politician during the time of the Weimar Republic ; subsequently , during the Spanish Civil War , he was a leading member of the International Brigades and after World War II an East German statesman .
Rau grew up in a suburb of Stuttgart , where early on he became active in socialist youth organizations . After military service in World War I , he participated in the German Revolution of 1918 @-@ 19 . From 1920 onward , he was a leading agricultural policy maker of the Communist Party of Germany ( KPD ) . This ended in 1933 , when Adolf Hitler came to power . Shortly afterward Rau was thrown in jail for two years . As an enemy of the Nazi regime in Germany he was imprisoned , in total , for more than half of the time of Hitler 's reign . After his first imprisonment he emigrated in 1935 to the Soviet Union ( USSR ) . From there , in 1937 , he went on to Spain , where he participated in the Spanish Civil War as a leader of one of the International Brigades . In 1939 , he was arrested in France , and was delivered by the Vichy regime back to Nazi Germany in 1942 . After a few months in a Gestapo prison , he was transferred to the Mauthausen Concentration Camp in March 1943 . While in the concentration camp he participated in conspiratorial prisoner activities , which led to a camp uprising in the final days before the end of World War II in Europe .
After the war he played an important role in the political scene of East Germany . Before the establishment of an East German state he was the chairman of the German Economic Commission , the precursor to the East German government . Subsequently he became chairman of the National Planning Commission of East Germany and a deputy chairman of the East German Council of Ministers . He was a leading economic politician and diplomat of East Germany and led various ministries at different times . Within East Germany 's ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany ( SED ) he was a member of the party 's CC Politburo .
= = Origins and early political career = =
= = = Stuttgart = = =
= = = = Early years until World War I = = = =
Rau was born in Feuerbach , now a part of Stuttgart , in the German Kingdom of Württemberg , the son of a peasant who later became a factory worker . He grew up in the adjacent city of Zuffenhausen , now also a part of Stuttgart . After finishing school in spring 1913 , he started work as a press operator in a shoe factory . In November 1913 he changed his employer and moved to the Bosch factory works in Feuerbach . There he completed his training as metal presser and remained until autumn 1920 , with interruptions due to war service during 1917 @-@ 1918 and the subsequent German Revolution of 1918 @-@ 1919 .
From 1913 Rau also was active in the labour movement . In that year he joined the metal workers ' union ( Deutscher Metallarbeiterverband ) and a social democratic youth group in Zuffenhausen . During the following years , which saw the beginning of World War I , Rau 's youth group , whose leader he became in 1916 , was significantly influenced by the left wing of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) . The leftists considered the war a conflict between " imperialist powers " . A few local members of a far left SPD group , among them Edwin Hoernle and Albert Schreiner , who later became well @-@ known members of the Spartacus League ( Spartakusbund ) , visited the youth group in Zuffenhausen and gave lectures . In 1916 , Rau joined the Spartacists as well and became a co @-@ founder of their youth organisation . In accordance with the politics of the Spartacists , in 1917 he joined the left @-@ wing Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany ( USPD ) and in 1919 the Communist Party of Germany ( KPD ) , which had been founded mainly by members of the Spartacus League .
In spring 1917 , Rau , by this time an elected trade union official in his firm , participated in the attempt to organise a strike against the war . His action led to a reprimand from his employer , and may have hastened his conscription into the army in August 1917 . In the army he was trained in the Zuffenhausen @-@ garrisoned Infantry Regiment 126 and deployed to the Western Front as member of a machine gun company . In September 1918 a shell splinter penetrated his lungs . In the following weeks , he was treated in military hospitals in Weimar and in Stuttgart 's neighbouring town Ludwigsburg . While in Ludwigsburg , Rau managed to get leave at short notice on 8 November 1918 and joined the in those days developing revolution in Stuttgart .
= = = = Revolution = = = =
The revolution in November 1918 led in Württemberg , like everywhere in Germany , to the end of the monarchy . King William II left Stuttgart on 9 November , shortly after a revolutionary crowd had stormed his residence , the Wilhelm Palais and flown a red flag above the building . On the very same day the demonstrators were also able to seize some of Stuttgart 's barracks , where parts of the garrisons openly joined them . Rau took active part in the events in Stuttgart 's streets on this and the following day .
These happenings were a first cumulation of a civil commotion , that had started a few days earlier with large strikes and demonstrations . On 4 November 1918 , a first workers ' council under the leadership of the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Spartacist Fritz Rück had been established in Stuttgart . During the following days and weeks more spontaneously elected worker and soldier councils were formed , and took over a large part of Württemberg . Rau was elected leader of the military police in his home city of Zuffenhausen , a part of Stuttgart 's urban area .
As early as 9 November , about 150 councillors gathered for a two @-@ day meeting in Stuttgart . A majority of the councillors entrusted the leaders of the SPD and USPD political parties , who had been invited to the meeting , with the establishment of a provisional government in Württemberg . The Spartacist Albert Schreiner , then chairman of a soldier council , initially assumed the key position of Minister of War in this quickly established first government , which for the time being shared power with the councils . However , he resigned already a few days later , after disputes about the future course of the government . While the Spartacists considered as their ideal aim the kinds of results achieved by the previous year 's October Revolution in Russia , the position of the other USPD politicians was unclear and the SPD leaders supported a parliamentary democracy and early elections in Württemberg .
During the ensuing months the communists tried repeatedly to seize power in Stuttgart and other cities in Württemberg through armed rebellion , accompanied by large @-@ scale strikes . They seized public buildings and print offices . During one such an attempt - at the beginning of April 1919 when the Bavarian Soviet Republic was formally proclaimed in Munich - a general strike took place in the Stuttgart area . The government in Stuttgart imposed a state of emergency and 16 people died in street fights . At the time of these events , Rau used his position as chief of the military police in Zuffenhausen to shut down companies that remained operational while the strike was ongoing . However , when the strike collapsed , Rau was removed from office by the government .
Rau resumed his employment at Bosch in Feuerbach . During another general strike in several Württemberg cities , from 28 August to 4 September 1920 , he led the strike committee in his firm , which resulted in his dismissal .
= = = = Influences = = = =
From 1919 until 1920 Rau was head of the local KPD group in Zuffenhausen , and chaired the KPD organisation in Stuttgart . The party leader in Württemberg at this time was Edwin Hoernle . Hoernle had visited Rau 's youth group in Zuffenhausen and had become a long @-@ standing friend ; he was an influential teacher for Rau and made his voluminous library available to Rau to use .
The most outstanding ideological authority of the movement in Stuttgart , during the time of Rau 's political involvement there , was however Clara Zetkin . She was a founding member of the Second International , about whom Friedrich Engels once had written , that he liked her very much , while emperor Wilhelm II is said to have referred to her as the " worst witch in Germany " . She had been living in a Stuttgart suburb since 1891 and , since then , been gathering a circle of Württemberg Marxists around her , among them Rau 's friend Hoernle , who had been editing with her the magazine Die Gleichheit . Her house , built in 1903 in Sillenbuch ( now a part of Stuttgart ) , had become a meeting place of leading national and local left @-@ wing and communist activists . It was also visited by international communist leaders like Vladimir Lenin , who stayed there overnight in 1907 . In 1920 , when Zetkin was elected to the Reichstag in Berlin , Hoernle and Rau moved to Berlin as well .
= = = Berlin = = =
In November 1920 Rau became a full @-@ time party functionary and the secretary of the agricultural division of the Central Committee of the KPD in Berlin . Between 1921 and 1930 he lectured at the Land and Federal schools of the KPD , and edited a few left @-@ wing agricultural journals .
The head of the Central Committee 's Division for Agriculture initially was Edwin Hoernle , with whom Rau had come from Stuttgart . Hoernle had been elected to the Executive Committee of the Comintern ( ECCI ) in November 1922 and Rau succeeded him as division chief the following year . Afterwards , Rau also became a leading member of various national and international left wing farmer and peasant organisations . From 1923 onward , he was a member of the Secretariat of the International Committee of the Agricultural and Forest Workers and beginning in 1924 of the executive committee of the Reich Peasant Federation ( Reichsbauernbund ) . In 1930 this was followed with a membership on the International Peasants ' Council in Moscow and in 1931 he became an office member of the European Peasant Committee . From 1928 to 1933 he was also member of the Preußischer Landtag , the Prussian federal state parliament . There he joined the committee on agricultural affairs of the parliament and became its chairman .
= = Imprisonment , International Brigades , World War II = =
After Hitler 's rise to power in January 1933 and the subsequent suppression of the KPD , Rau became a Central Committee 's party instructor for southwest Germany and was active in building an underground party organisation there . On 23 May 1933 Rau was arrested and on 11 December 1934 convicted , together with Bernhard Bästlein , for " preparations to commit high treason " by the People 's Court of Germany . He was sentenced to two years imprisonment . After his release from custody , he emigrated to the USSR in August 1935 , via Czechoslovakia , and became a deputy chairman of the International Agrarian Institute in Moscow .
After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and following the formation of the International Brigades , Rau attended a school for military commanders in Ryazan ( USSR ) , and subsequently went to Spain . After his arrival in April 1937 , he joined the XI International Brigade and participated in the civil war as political commissar , beginning in May 1937 , then as chief of staff and finally commander of the brigade , until March 1938 , when he was injured . Although the brigade achieved some temporary successes during these months , Francisco Franco 's troops were already on the road to victory . Rau 's brigade saw combat in the battles of Brunete , Belchite , Teruel and the Aragon Offensive , where Rau was wounded .
When Rau took charge of the XI Brigade , he might have been at odds with his predecessor , Richard Staimer , the future son @-@ in @-@ law of KPD leader Wilhelm Pieck . This was the time of the Great Purge which had its echos in Spain , and it could be perilous to have powerful enemies . André Marty , the chief commissar of the International Brigades based at Albacete , was also an executor of the Great Purge in Spain . Following Rau 's injury , Marty managed to imprison him under a pretext for a brief time . A report , written in Moscow in 1940 , described Rau as a " political criminal " , who had had contact with the Spanish anarchists and members of the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM ) , which was demonized as " Trotskyist " . These were serious allegations in this time , when accusations of Trotskyism frequently led to a death sentence if the accused was within reach of the authorities .
It seems , however , that Rau also had influential friends . He was released from prison and expelled from Spain . He moved to France in May 1938 . There , he was in charge of the emergency committee of the German and Austrian Spain fighters and member of the KPD country leadership in Paris until 1939 . At the beginning of 1939 Rau crossed the border to Spain again and subsequently led , together with Ludwig Renn , the remainders of the XI Brigade . Together with other remaining international units – now combined in the " Agrupación Internacional " – they fought on Spain 's northern border after the fall of Barcelona , protecting the stream of refugees escaping to France . Thus the Agrupación enabled the escape of perhaps some 470 @,@ 000 civilians and soldiers .
Rau was arrested by the French authorities in September 1939 and sent to Camp Vernet , an internment centre in France , and in November 1941 to a secret prison in Castres . In June 1942 , he was handed over to the Gestapo by the Vichy regime and was held until March 1943 in the Gestapo prison in the Prince Albrecht Street . Afterwards he was sent to the Mauthausen Concentration Camp , where he remained until May 1945 , when he participated in a camp rebellion as one of the organisers of a secret military camp organisation .
= = East Germany = =
= = = 1945 – 1949 = = =
= = = = New start in Brandenburg = = = =
When the war was over , Rau went to Vienna for some weeks and helped the KPD representatives in the city gather liberated political prisoners from Germany . He left Vienna in July 1945 , when he led a car convoy with 120 former Mauthausen inmates to the Soviet occupied part of Berlin .
In September 1945 , the Soviets appointed Rau a member of the provisional chairmanship of the Province of Brandenburg with the title of a vice @-@ president and responsibility for food , agriculture and forests . Rau succeeded Edwin Hoernle , who had held this position since the end of June and became chairman of the central administration for agriculture and forests in the Soviet Occupation Zone ( SBZ ) . In his new position , Rau was a member of the commission for the execution of the land reform in the province . In spring 1946 he assumed responsibility for economy and transport in Brandenburg . In this capacity , he was , from June 1946 onwards , chairman of the newly established sequester commission in the province . 1946 was also the year of the forced merger of eastern KPD and eastern SPD into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany ( SED ) , resulting in Rau 's membership in the SED . Important 1946 events in Brandenburg were in November elections , which preceded an official status change from a province to a federal state in the following year . Afterwards , from 1946 until 1948 , Rau was state parliament delegate and Minister for Economic Planning of Brandenburg .
= = = = German Economic Commission = = = =
In March 1948 Rau became chairman of the German Economic Commission ( Deutsche Wirtschaftskommission or DWK ) , which during this period became the centralised administrative organisation for the Soviet Occupation Zone and the predecessor of the future East German government . The organisation existed during a time of very difficult challenges coming from different sides . A particularly momentous event during this time was the currency reform of 1948 . On 20 June 1948 the western German zones introduced a new currency , leaving the eastern zone to use the old common currency . In order to avoid inflation , the DWK under Rau 's leadership , was forced to follow quickly with its own reform and issued an own currency too . In doing so , the DWK also exploited the currency reform to redistribute capital by using different exchange rates for private and state @-@ run companies . The disagreement , which of the two new currencies should be used in Berlin , triggered the Berlin Blockade by the USSR and the western airborne supply of West Berlin .
Under Rau 's leadership the DWK , still under supervision of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany ( German : Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland or SMAD ) , quickly developed more and more into a partner of the SMAD with its own conceptions and intentions . This policy was also endorsed by the Soviet chief diplomat in Germany , Vladimir Semyonov , the future Chief Commissar of the USSR in Germany , who already in January 1948 correspondingly stated , that SMAD orders , ( which accompanied DWK orders , ) should have merely the purpose to back the authority of the German orders . One of Rau 's aims during the meetings with the SMAD was , to come to agreements , which also obliged the Soviet side , including subordinate Soviet authorities , who still engaged in wild confiscations for reparation purposes . An important success in this direction was a half @-@ year plan for the economic development in the second half of 1948 , which was accepted by the SMAD in May 1948 . It was followed by a likewise accepted two @-@ year plan for 1949 and 1950 .
The biggest obstacle to the plan 's implementation soon proved to be the Berlin Blockade by the USSR , which was followed by a western counter @-@ blockade of the Soviet occupation zone . As there were long @-@ established economic ties between the western zone and the eastern , which was highly dependent on supplies from the West , the blockade was more damaging to the East . The West Berlin SPD newspaper Sozialdemokrat reported in April 1949 , how Rau clearly criticized the blockade in a meeting of SED apparatchiks and there is reason to believe that he did the same in the meetings with the SMAD . According to the paper , Rau spoke of a " bad speculation " regarding the undervaluation of the dependence on western supplies , stating that the " broadminded Soviet help " turned out as insufficient and hinting that the blockade would soon be lifted . Finally the Berlin Blockade was lifted on 12 May 1949 .
The DWK 's increasingly centralised administration resulted in a substantial increase in its staffing level , which grew from about 5000 employees in mid @-@ 1948 to 10 @,@ 000 by the beginning of 1949 . In March 1949 , Rau , like the representative of a state , signed a first treaty with a foreign state , a trade agreement with Poland .
= = = 1949 – 1953 = = =
= = = = Establishment and difficult first years of a new state = = = =
The time of Rau 's German Economic Commission ended in October 1949 with the establishment of the East German state , the German Democratic Republic ( GDR ) . The GDR was proclaimed on 7 October 1949 , at a ceremony in the former Air Ministry Building in Berlin , until then the seat of Rau 's organisation . Five days later , the DWK was formally abolished on 12 October 1949 . Rau thereupon became a delegate of the People 's Chamber , the newly established parliament of the GDR and joined the new government .
Likewise in 1949 , the ruling SED implemented traditional leadership structures of communist parties and Rau became a member of the newly established Central Committee of the SED and candidate member of its Politburo ; in 1950 he became a full member of the Politburo as well as deputy chairman of the East German Council of Ministers .
Between 1949 and 1950 , Rau was Minister for Planning of the GDR and in 1950 – 1952 chairman of the National Planning Commission . In this position , as the key figure of the economic development , Rau came into conflict with SED General Secretary Walter Ulbricht . In the face of an imminent economic collapse , Rau blamed the " Bureau Ulbricht " for the wrong policy . In response East Germany 's old president Wilhelm Pieck renewed the old accusation of Trotskyism against Rau . In a later letter to Pieck of 28 November 1951 , Rau protested at the manner in which the Secretariat usurped the Politburo by censoring his speech on economic affairs .
In 1952 – 1953 , Rau led the newly established Coordination Centre for Industry and Traffic at the East German Council of Ministers . The purpose of this office was effective control of the economy in order to overcome the difficulties , which were caused by a grown bureaucracy and unclear decision paths . Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl described this in a talk with Joseph Stalin .
After the death of Stalin in March 1953 , the new collective Soviet leadership started to advocate a New Course . Moscow favored replacing East Germany 's Stalinist party leader Walter Ulbricht and made inquiries about Rau as a potential candidate . In response , the leading SED party ideologist , Rudolf Herrnstadt , a candidate member of the Poliburo , with assistance from Rau drew up a concept for just such a New Course in East Germany . However , the workers ' uprising , which was suppressed by the Soviet army on 17 June led to a backlash . Three weeks later , during a session of the then eight person Politburo ( plus six candidate members ) on 8 July 1953 , Rau made a recommendation that Ulbricht be replaced , while Rau 's Spanish Civil War comrade , Stasi chief Wilhelm Zaisser , who in Spain had been known as ' General Gómez ' , accused Ulbricht of having perverted the party . The majority was against Ulbricht . His only supporters were Hermann Matern and Erich Honecker . At that moment however there was no viable candidate who could replace Ulbricht immediately . Suggested were first Rudolf Herrnstadt and then Heinrich Rau , but both were hesitant , thus a decision was postponed . The very next day after the meeting Ulbricht went by plane to Moscow and the Soviet leadership , who in part also feared that deposing Ulbricht might be construed as a sign of weakness , now secured Ulbricht 's position . Subsequently five members and candidate members of the Politburo lost their positions .
= = = 1953 – 1961 = = =
= = = = Competition in the Politburo and economic reform = = = =
Unlike some other rebels in the leadership , Rau kept most of his positions . He remained a member of the Politburo and deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers . In the Politburo he continued to be responsible for the industry of the GDR . However , his position had been weakened . Bruno Leuschner , a follower of Ulbricht and Rau 's successor as chairman of the National Planning Commission , now became a new candidate member of the Politburo . During the ensuing period , Leuschner , often supported by Ulbricht , gradually superseded Rau as the senior leader for the economy as a whole . The official GDR press never mentioned the dissension between Rau and Leuschner and always described their cooperation as a success story .
Concentrating on his tasks in the SED leadership and as a minister , Rau – despite occasional internal criticism – avoided giving the impression of any disagreement with Ulbricht , at least in public . In 1954 , Rau received in the Order of Merit for the Fatherland ( Vaterländischer Verdienstorden ) in gold . Later , Ulbricht stated in a 1964 interview about the " introduction of socialism " in the GDR , that only three people were heavily involved in the economic development during that time , " namely Heinrich Rau , Bruno Leuschner and me . Others were not consulted ! "
In 1953 – 1955 Rau led the new established Ministry for Machine Construction , which combined the responsibilities of three existing ministries . His deputy in this ministry was Erich Apel , who would , in the early 1960s , become an initiator and architect of an economic reform , which became known as the New Economic System ( NES ) . This later reform was presaged by a reform in the middle of the 1950s ; the economic historian Jörg Roesler considers the NES in the 1960s as a continuation of this reform . The origin of the reform in the 1950s was a scientific study , commissioned by Rau 's ministry in 1953 , to assess the need for greater economic efficiency in the factories . The subsequent results from this study promised enhanced economic efficiency by shifting more responsibility from the National Planning Commission to the enterprises themselves . Thenceforward , already in spring 1954 , Rau advocated such a planning reform , while planning boss Bruno Leuschner quite consistently opposed it . In August 1954 , Rau 's ministry sent a concept for such a reform to Leuschner 's State Planning Commission . Eventually this reform got under way , after Ulbricht , perhaps under the influence of his new personal economic adviser Wolfgang Berger , had approved such a policy at the end of 1954 too . Subsequently the reform accelerated until 1956 . It found however its early end in the generally aggravated political atmosphere in 1957 . Unrests in other Eastern Bloc countries during the previous year 1956 , in particular in Hungary , had awoken the desire for more central control again . The subsequent unsatisfying economic development , however , during the following years eventually led in the 1960s to the concept of a new planning reform , the NES .
= = = = Foreign trade and foreign policy = = = =
Between 1955 – 1961 Rau served as Minister for Foreign Trade and Inter @-@ German Trade . The term " Inter @-@ German Trade " meant the trade with West Germany . In this time both German states still saw German reunification as their own aim , but both envisaging different political systems . The West German position was that they , as the only freely elected government , had an exclusive mandate for the entire German people . In consequence of this , the GDR 's official diplomatic relationships with other states were narrowed to the states of the Eastern Bloc . Practically no other states recognized the GDR . As a result , Rau 's ministry established numerous new " trade missions " in other states , which served as a kind of surrogate for nonexistent embassies . It was a corollary , that Rau , in addition to his responsibility for the export @-@ oriented industry , also chaired the Foreign Policy Commission of the SED Politburo ( Außenpolitische Kommission beim Politbüro or APK ) since 1955 , in this period the actual decision @-@ making body for foreign affairs , and visited other states in different parts of the world in this capacity . Among the visited states were , beside the core states of the Soviet Bloc , also then Eastern Bloc peripheral states , like China and Albania and leading states of the crystallizing Non @-@ Aligned Movement like India and Yugoslavia ( after the Bandung Conference ) . Between 1955 and 1957 he visited , as part of a diplomatic advertisement campaign in the Arab world , various Arabic states , among them repeatedly Egypt . One of his last deals , which he closed as minister , was a trade agreement with Cuba , signed by Cuba 's minister Ernesto ' Che ' Guevara , on 17 December 1960 in East Berlin .
Rau , in poor health during his final years , died of a heart attack in East Berlin , in March 1961 .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
After his death , firms , schools , recreation homes , numerous streets , and a fighter squadron were named after him . The GDR issued a stamp with his picture three times .
Rau was married twice and had three sons and a daughter . Like the other members of the Politburo , he lived until 1960 in a secured area of East Berlin 's district Pankow and moved in 1960 to the Waldsiedlung near Wandlitz . In Pankow he had lived in Majakowskiring . In 1963 , Rau 's widow Elisabeth moved to this street again .
When the prominent West German SPD politician and future President of Germany Johannes Rau visited an SPD rally in the East German city of Erfurt during the time of German reunification , he was introduced as " Prime Minister ' Heinrich Rau ' " . Thereupon Johannes Rau ironically commented on this lapse by observing that Heinrich Rau was a " Minister of Trade , a Swabian and a communist " and he was none of the three .
= Washington State Route 261 =
State Route 261 ( SR 261 ) is a 62 @.@ 71 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 100 @.@ 92 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . Serving Columbia , Franklin , and Adams counties , the highway begins at U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) east of Starbuck and becomes concurrent with SR 260 from Kahlotus to SR 26 in Washtucna before ending at Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and US 395 in Ritzville . The highway has been legislated since 1937 from Ritzville to Washtucna as Secondary State Highway 11E ( SSH 11E ) and in 1957 from Waschtucna to the Starbuck area as a branch of SSH 11B . The two secondary highways became SR 261 during the 1964 highway renumbering , and a gap between Washtucna and Starbuck was not paved until the construction of the Snake River Bridge was completed in 1968 .
= = Route description = =
SR 261 begins its 62 @.@ 71 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 100 @.@ 92 km ) route at an intersection with US 12 east of the town of Starbuck in rural Columbia County . The roadway travels north over the Pataha Creek and turns west , paralleling the Tucannon River through Starbuck and to the south bank of the Snake River . The highway passes over a rail bridge owned by the Washington State Department of Transportation before turning northwest and crossing the steel cantilever Snake River Bridge , listed on the National Register of Historic Places , into Franklin County near Lyons Ferry Park . At the north end of the bridge , SR 261 continues northwest , passing under a Union Pacific Railroad bridge and near Palouse Falls State Park , before crossing the Columbia Plateau Trail and intersecting SR 260 northeast of Kahlotus . A concurrency with SR 260 travels northeast into Adams County parallel to the Columbia Plateau Trail in the Palouse before entering Washtucna and being designated as Main Street . Main Street intersects SR 26 , forming the eastern terminus of SR 260 , after the Columbia Plateau Trail turns east . SR 261 continues north into farmland and crosses the John Wayne Pioneer Trail in Ralston before its northern terminus at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 90 and US 395 southeast of Ritzville , becoming Division Street as it serves the city .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 300 and 3 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly between Washtucna and Ritzville .
= = History = =
The Mullan Road was constructed in 1862 and crossed the Snake River with a ferry crossing at Lyons Ferry until the construction of the Lower Monumental Dam downstream caused the water level to rise and longer wait times , resulting in the reconstruction of the Snake River Bridge . The current route of SR 261 from Washtucna to Ritzville was designated during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 as SSH 11E . A branch of SSH 11B was added in 1957 that extended from Washtunca to US 410 , later an extension of US 12 , east of Starbuck with an un @-@ built bridge over the Snake River at Lyons Ferry . Both highways became SR 261 during the 1964 highway renumbering , but the section between Starbuck and Washtucna was not paved . The completion of the Snake River Bridge in 1968 , using the dismantled steel cantilevered Vantage Bridge and listed onto the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 , finished the highway . No major revisions of the highway have occurred since the construction of the bridge in 1968 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Subtropical Storm Nicole ( 2004 ) =
Subtropical Storm Nicole was the first subtropical storm to receive a name using the standard hurricane name list that did not become a tropical cyclone . The fourteenth tropical or subtropical storm of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , Nicole developed on October 10 near Bermuda from the interaction of an upper level trough and a cold front . The storm turned to the northeast , and after attempting to transition into a tropical cyclone , it dissipated as it was absorbed into a larger extratropical storm .
Nicole dropped moderate amounts of rainfall in Bermuda , while rough seas caused problems for cruise lines . In Canada , the remnants of the storm combined with an extratropical storm produced strong winds and rainfall , damaging trees and power lines . The remnant storm also produced gusty winds across New England , while swells from the storm provided welcome surf conditions along the East Coast of the United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
An upper @-@ level trough and a decaying cold front persisted across the western Atlantic Ocean in early October . The interaction between the two led to the formation of an area of low pressure on October 8 to the southwest of Bermuda . The system lacked a single well @-@ defined circulation , though it possessed gale force winds as it moved northwestward . The system gradually became better organized , and though there were no signs of tropical development on October 9 , computer models suggested a subtropical storm could form . On October 10 , a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation developed as a band of clouds formed in the northern portion of the system . Shortly thereafter , curved bands developed in the northwestern portion of the center , while the strongest winds associated with the storm occurred more than 115 miles ( 185 km ) from the center . Based on the broad wind field and the cloud signature , it is estimated the system organized into Subtropical Storm Nicole on October 10 while located about 140 miles ( 225 km ) southwest of Bermuda .
The first National Hurricane Center forecast on Nicole noted the development of convection over the western portion of the center , and that if the trend continued , transitioning into a tropical cyclone would be possible . The first discussion also predicted a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . A mid @-@ level trough turned the storm northeastward , and early on October 11 it passed about 60 miles ( 95 km ) northwest of Bermuda . Shortly after passing Bermuda , Nicole developed persistent deep convection near the center , while Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit overpasses indicated the potential of a warm core within the system . Though Nicole attempted to acquire tropical characteristics , strong upper @-@ level wind shear prevented the transition . As the storm accelerated northeastward under the influence of a large extratropical storm south of Nova Scotia , it briefly reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Subtropical Storm Nicole lost its circulation as it was absorbed by the larger extratropical storm on October 11 .
= = Preparations , impact , and naming = =
On October 9 , one day prior to Nicole forming , the Bermuda Weather Service issued a gale warning for the island . The agency also issued a Tropical Storm Watch shortly after the storm developed . All warnings were canceled after the storm passed the island . Winds on Bermuda peaked at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) in association with Nicole , while gusts peaked at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) prior to the storm developing . Nicole and the precursor extratropical storm dropped heavy precipitation , amounting to 5 @.@ 86 inches ( 148 mm ) over a three @-@ day period at the Bermuda International Airport . Thunderstorms were also reported on the island . Poor weather conditions from Nicole forced the cancellation of several events at the tourist @-@ driven Bermuda Music Festival , including acts by Isaac Hayes , Gerald Albright , and Anita Baker . Strong winds knocked down power lines , leaving over 1 @,@ 800 homes and businesses without power . Unsettled conditions also resulted in airport delays . High winds delayed or altered the courses of four cruise ships . High waves of 10 to 12 @-@ foot ( 3 to 3 @.@ 6 m ) in height left several cruise ship passengers seasick ; one sick person was rushed to a local hospital on Bermuda .
The Canadian Hurricane Centre issued seven bulletins on the storm , though the system only briefly entered the centre 's response zone before it dissipated . Due to moisture from Nicole combined with the extratropical storm , the Atlantic Storm Prediction Centre issued heavy rainfall and wind warnings for large portions of the Canadian Maritimes . The remnants of Nicole , combined with a powerful extratropical storm , produced strong winds across the Maritimes , including over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on western Cape Breton . The strong winds uprooted trees and downed power lines , while the winds combined with rough seas cancelled ferry crossings and restricted access to the Confederation Bridge . The storm complex also dropped over 2 inches ( 60 mm ) of rainfall , causing flooding in eastern Nova Scotia . The storm 's passage during the middle of apple harvest caused troubles for Annapolis Valley .
The remnants of Nicole , combined with the extratropical storm , produced strong winds in New England , with gusts of up to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . In Maine , the winds snapped branches off trees , and also downed trees and power lines . Power outages were reported , primarily in coastal portions of Washington and Hancock Counties . Nicole produced moderate swells along the East Coast of the United States . Conditions for surfing were best in New York and Rhode Island , where swells of over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) occurred .
Eleven ships reported tropical storm force winds in association with Subtropical Storm Nicole . The maximum recorded wind was 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) while the storm was at peak intensity , while the minimum recorded pressure was 995 mbar as Nicole was being absorbed by the extratropical storm .
Since 2002 , subtropical storms have been assigned names from the same naming sequence as tropical storms . Nicole was the first named subtropical storm since the policy change to not achieve full tropical cyclone status . In 1972 and 1973 , four subtropical storms were named using the Phonetic alphabet , while all other subtropical cyclones remained unnamed .
= National Archives of Malta =
The National Archives of Malta is the central archive maintained by the Mediterranean island nation of Malta . The Archives has been housed in the Grandmaster 's Palace for most of its lifetime , having moved to three separate locations during the late 1980s . In 1988 , the Legal Documentation Section of the National Archives of Malta was opened , after records of court and tribunal hearings and decisions had been transferred to a Mdina facility beginning the previous year . A Gozo facility was opened soon after , and in 1994 , the then @-@ President of Malta , Ugo Mifsud Bonnici , officially opened the Archives ' new Rabat head office and main facility . All of the Archives ' locations feature a reading room , with facilities for researchers open to those over the age of sixteen who produce valid identification .
In recent years , the National Archives of Malta has been increasing its presence on the Internet , in line with many of its national archival counterparts throughout the world . This effort has included enabling members of the public to search the records of the Archives online , and view a short description of what is contained in the records found . Other efforts have included the digitising of a number of the Archives ' holdings , the release of many of the Archives ' publications on its web site , the sale of copies of the Archives ' holdings through its ' e @-@ shop ' , and an online presence for Malta 's National Memory Project , dedicated to eternalising the memories of those who have contributed to the history of Malta .
= = History = =
Efforts to establish a national archive began in 1971 , when a Committee on the Preservation of Public Records was established by Guze ’ Cassar Pullicino . One year later , in 1972 , a section of Malta 's public records at Casa Leoni was opened up to the public and research facilities were provided for the public 's use . Initially under the oversight of Malta 's Ministry for Justice and Parliamentary Affairs , the Archives moved to the Grandmaster 's Palace , the home of the House of Representatives of Malta , within a few months . At that point , the government official in charge of the Archives was Michael Ellul .
In January 1986 , a governmental committee was established to discuss options for the management of Malta 's public records . It was decided that a stand @-@ alone National Archives of Malta would be established , to be headquartered in Rabat in a building that once housed a hospital . In addition , the Banca Giuratale in Mdina was identified as suitable to house the records of Malta 's courts from the beginning of the occupation of Malta by the Knights Hospitaller to the early period of occupation by the United Kingdom . In September 1987 , the transfer of court records to the Mdina building began and was completed in October 1988 . The transfer of all other records to the Rabat facility was not completed until July 28 , 1989 , and the official opening of the building did not occur until May 28 , 1994 , when Ugo Mifsud Bonnici , the fifth President of Malta , presided over the opening . At that time , the officer in charge was Joe Caruana .
The first regulating Act for the National Archives of Malta was Act IV , passed in 1990 . Catalogues were published on CD @-@ ROM , an annual lecture was established and an exhibition centre was opened . In 2005 , Act V came into force , creating the post of National Archivist ( currently Charles J. Farrugia ) and created the National Archives as a legal person under the Government of Malta 's umbrella . Since its opening , the National Archives have opened up three new facilities .
= = Facilities and services = =
The National Archives of Malta maintains three facilities across Malta . The first facility to be opened was the Legal Documentation Section , located in Mdina , which was opened in 1988 . This facility is located in an old bank building and houses court and tribunal records dating back to those decisions made under the Knights Hospitaller . The second facility is the Archives ' Gozo location , which holds over 9 @,@ 000 items . The final facility to be opened was the Head Office , located in Rabat , which was officially opened in 1994 . This facility houses most of Malta 's official records , and is the Archives ' main facility .
The National Archives of Malta offers services available to all residents of Malta , although many of its on @-@ site facilities are only open to residents over the age of sixteen years . The National Archives repositories contain reading rooms accessible to the public . Visitors are required to show identification to enter . The National Archives ' reading rooms contain a reference library , printed catalogues , photocopying facilities , an information desk featuring a number of publications and fact sheets and tools for preserving Malta 's records . Items stored in the archives may be accessed by members of the public by filling out a form . The records are then brought out to the requester 's table . In addition , the National Archives features a number of maps , plans and drawings of various public location in Malta , as well as photography work on royal celebrations and reconstruction work .
In addition , the National Archives of Malta offers a group and school visit program to increase public awareness of the records held there . Groups of 25 people or less may be taken through the Archives and shown what it has to offer , and school visits can be arranged in both the Archives ' Rabat and Mdina locations . School students are shown through the Archives to increase awareness of what they have to offer and also shown how archived documents are handled . Students are also given the chance to experience the difficulty involved in cataloging and reorganising the Archives ' items .
= = Online services = =
The National Archives of Malta , like its counterparts in other areas of the world , has been moving to increase the availability of its services on the Internet . A number of items in its collection have been , or are in the process of being , digitised , and a catalogue listing search , along with a short description of each item , is available online on the Archives ' web site . The Archives releases many of its publications , including periodical newsletters , its annual report and the State of the Archives report , on its web site , and maintains an ' e @-@ shop ' to facilitate the sale of copies of some of its text and image holdings to interested members of the public . It is also possible to search the holdings of Malta 's National Memory Project , a memory of those who have contributed to the history of Malta , through the Archives ' web site .
= HMS Princess Royal ( 1911 ) =
HMS Princess Royal was the second of two Lion @-@ class battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy before World War I. Designed in response to the Moltke @-@ class battlecruisers of the Imperial German Navy , the ships significantly improved on the speed , armament , and armour of the preceding Indefatigable class . The ship was named for The Princess Royal , a title occasionally granted to the Monarch 's eldest daughter .
Laid down in 1912 and commissioned in 1913 , Princess Royal served in the Battle of Heligoland Bight a month after the war began . She was then sent to the Caribbean to prevent the German East Asia Squadron from using the Panama Canal . After the East Asia Squadron was sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914 , Princess Royal rejoined the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . During the Battle of Dogger Bank , Princess Royal scored only a few hits , although one crippled the German armoured cruiser Blücher . Shortly afterwards , she became the flagship of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Osmond Brock .
Princess Royal was moderately damaged during the Battle of Jutland and required a month and a half of repairs . Apart from providing distant support during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 , the ship spent the rest of the war on uneventful patrols of the North Sea . Princess Royal was placed into reserve in 1920 , then was sold for breaking up as scrap in 1922 to meet the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design = =
The Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , nicknamed the " Splendid Cats " , were designed by Philip Watts , the Director of Naval Construction , to be as superior to the new German battlecruisers of the Moltke class as the German ships were to the Invincible class . The increase in speed , armour and gun size forced a 70 % increase in size over the Indefatigable class and made them the largest warships in the world .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Princess Royal was significantly larger than her predecessors . She had an overall length of 700 feet ( 213 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet 5 inches ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The ship normally displaced 26 @,@ 270 long tons ( 26 @,@ 690 t ) and 30 @,@ 820 long tons ( 31 @,@ 310 t ) at deep load , over 8 @,@ 000 long tons ( 8 @,@ 100 t ) more than the earlier ships . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 95 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Princess Royal had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines housed in separate engine @-@ rooms . Each set consisted of a high @-@ pressure ahead @-@ and @-@ astern turbine driving an outboard shaft , and a low @-@ pressure ahead @-@ and @-@ astern turbine driving an inner shaft . Designed power was 70 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 52 @,@ 199 kW ) for a speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . In September 1912 , Princess Royal began her sea trials and developed 78 @,@ 803 shp ( 58 @,@ 763 kW ) for a speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . During maximum power trials in July 1913 , the battlecruiser achieved 96 @,@ 238 shp ( 71 @,@ 765 kW ) for a speed of 27 @.@ 97 knots ( 51 @.@ 80 km / h ; 32 @.@ 19 mph ) while at the unusually high displacement of 29 @,@ 660 long tons ( 30 @,@ 140 t ) .
The steam plant consisted of 42 Yarrow large @-@ tube boilers arranged in seven boiler rooms . Maximum bunkerage was 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) of coal and an additional 1 @,@ 135 long tons ( 1 @,@ 153 t ) of fuel oil to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , the ship 's range was 5 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 390 km ; 6 @,@ 460 mi ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Princess Royal was armed with eight BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V guns ( " BL " for breech @-@ loading ) in four twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' X ' from bow to stern . Her secondary armament consisted of 16 BL 4 @-@ inch Mk VII guns , most of which were mounted in casemates in the superstructure . The two guns mounted on the deck above the forward group of casemates were fitted with gun shields in 1913 and 1914 to better protect their crews from enemy fire .
The battlecruiser was built without anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , but from October 1914 to December 1916 she was fitted with a single QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss gun ( " QF " for quick @-@ firing ) on a high @-@ angle mount , which had a maximum depression of 8 ° and a maximum elevation of 60 ° . Its 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell was fired at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) and a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . It had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective range of only 3 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) . A single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun was added in January 1915 and carried until April 1917 . Its high @-@ angle mount had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . The gun fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of 12 to 14 rounds per minute . It had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) .
Princess Royal received a fire @-@ control director between mid @-@ 1915 and May 1916 that centralised fire @-@ control under the gunnery officer who now fired the guns . To align their guns on the target , the turret crewmen had to follow pointers whose position was transmitted from the director . This greatly increased accuracy as it was easier for the director to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the shell spread caused by the ship 's roll as the turrets fired individually .
By early 1918 , Princess Royal carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on flying @-@ off ramps fitted on top of ' Q ' and ' X ' turrets . The Pup was intended to shoot down Zeppelins while the 1 ½ Strutter was used for spotting and reconnaissance . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection given to Lion and Princess Royal was heavier than on the Indefatigables . The waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour measured 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships ; this thinned to 4 inches towards the ships ' ends , and did not reach the bow or stern . The upper armour strake had a maximum thickness of 6 inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour and thinned to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast of the end turrets . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 8 to 9 inches ( 203 to 229 mm
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. Volume 2 : New York . Scotch Plains , New Jersey : Morning Sun Books Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 58248 @-@ 196 @-@ 2 .
= Great Fire of New York ( 1776 ) =
The Great Fire of New York was a devastating fire that burned through the night of September 21 , 1776 , on the West Side of what then constituted New York City at the southern end of the island of Manhattan . It broke out in the early days of the military occupation of the city by British forces during the American Revolutionary War .
The fire destroyed about one third of the city and some unburned parts of the city were plundered . Many people believed or assumed that one or more people deliberately started the fire , for a variety of different reasons . British leaders accused revolutionaries acting within the city , and many residents assumed that one side or the other had started it . The fire had long @-@ term effects on the British occupation of the city , which did not end until 1783 .
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , the city of New York was already an important center of business , but had not yet become a sprawling metropolis . It occupied only the lower portion of the island of Manhattan , and had a population of approximately 25 @,@ 000 . Before the war began , the Province of New York was politically divided , with active Patriot organizations and a colonial assembly that was strongly Loyalist . After Lexington and Concord , Patriots seized control of the city , and began arresting and expelling Loyalists .
Early in the summer of 1776 , when the war was still in its early stages , British general , William Howe embarked on a campaign to gain control of the city and its militarily important harbor . After occupying Staten Island in July , he launched a successful attack on Long Island in late August , assisted by naval forces under the command of his brother , Admiral Lord Richard Howe . American general , George Washington recognized the inevitability of the capture of New York City , and withdrew the bulk of his army about 10 miles ( 16 km ) north to Harlem Heights . Several people , including General Nathanael Greene and New York 's John Jay advocated burning the city down to deny its benefits to the British . Washington laid the question before the Second Continental Congress , which rejected the idea : " it should in no event be damaged " .
On September 15 , 1776 , British forces under Howe landed on Manhattan . The next morning , some British troops marched toward Harlem , where the two armies clashed again , while others marched into the city .
A civilian exodus from the city had begun well before the British fleet arrived in the harbor . The arrival the previous February of the first Continental Army troops in the city had prompted some people to pack up and leave , including Loyalists who were specifically targeted by the army and Patriots . The capture of Long Island had only accelerated the abandonment of the city . During the Continental Army 's presence in the city , many abandoned buildings were appropriated for the army 's use . When the British arrived in the city , the tables were turned , and the property of Patriots was confiscated for the British army 's use . Despite this , housing and other demands of the military occupation significantly strained the city 's available building stock .
= = Fire = =
In the early morning hours of September 21 , 1776 , a fire broke out in the city . According to the eyewitness account of John Joseph Henry , an American prisoner aboard the HMS Pearl , it began in the Fighting Cocks Tavern , near Whitehall Slip . Abetted by dry weather and strong winds , the flames spread north and west , moving rapidly among tightly packed homes and businesses . Residents poured into the streets , clutching what possessions they could , and found refuge on the grassy town commons ( today , City Hall Park ) . The fire crossed Broadway near Beaver Street , and then burned most of the city between Broadway and the Hudson River . The fire raged into the daylight hours , and was stopped as much by changes in the wind as by the actions of some of the citizenry and British marines sent , according to Henry , " in aid of the inhabitants . " It may also have been stopped by the relatively undeveloped property of King 's College , located at the northern end of the fire @-@ damaged area . The total number of buildings destroyed is not known with precision ; estimates range from 400 to 1 @,@ 000 , between 10 and 25 percent of the 4 @,@ 000 city buildings . Among the buildings destroyed was Trinity Church ; St. Paul 's Chapel survived .
= = Suspicions of arson = =
Howe 's report to London implied that the fire was deliberately set : " a most horrid attempt was made by a number of wretches to burn the town " . Royal Governor William Tryon suspected that Washington was responsible , writing that " Many circumstances lead to conjecture that Mr. Washington was privy to this villainous act " and that " some officers of his army were found concealed in the city " . Many Americans also assumed that the fire was the work of Patriot arsonists . John Joseph Henry recorded accounts of marines returning to the Pearl after fighting the fire in which men were " caught in the act of firing the houses . "
Some Americans accused the British of setting the fire so that the city might be plundered . A Hessian major noted that some who fought the blaze managed to " pay themselves well by plundering other houses near by that were not on fire . "
Washington wrote to John Hancock on September 22 , specifically denying knowledge of the fire 's cause . In a letter to his cousin Lund , Washington wrote , " Providence — or some good honest fellow , has done more for us than we were disposed to do for ourselves " .
According to historian Barnet Schecter , no accusation of arson has withstood scrutiny . The strongest circumstantial evidence in favor of arson theories is the fact that the fire appeared to start in multiple places . However , contemporary accounts explain that burning flakes from wooden roof shingles spread the fire . One diarist wrote that , " the flames were communicated to several houses " by these flakes " carried by the wind to some distance " .
The British interrogated more than 200 suspects , but no charges were ever made . Coincidentally , Nathan Hale , an American captain engaged in spying for Washington , was arrested in Queens the day the fire started . Rumors attempting to link him to the fires have never been substantiated ; there is nothing indicating that he was arrested ( and eventually hanged ) for anything other than espionage .
= = Effect on British occupation = =
Major General James Robertson confiscated surviving uninhabited homes of known Patriots and assigned them to British officers . Churches , other than the state churches ( Church of England ) were converted into prisons , infirmaries , or barracks . Some of the common soldiers were billeted with civilian families . There was a great influx of Loyalist refugees into the city resulting in further overcrowding , and many of these returning and additional Loyalists from Patriot @-@ controlled areas encamped in squalid tent cities on the charred ruins . The fire convinced the British to put the city under martial law rather than returning it to civilian authorities . Crime and poor sanitation were persistent problems during the British occupation , which did not end until they evacuated the city in November 1783 .
= Die Forelle =
" Die Forelle " ( German for " The Trout " ) , Op. 32 , D 550 @.@ is a lied , or song , composed in early 1817 for solo voice and piano with music by Austrian composer Franz Schubert ( 1797 – 1828 ) . Schubert chose to set the text of a poem by Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart , first published in the Schwäbischer Musenalmanach in 1783 . The full poem tells the story of a trout being caught by a fisherman , but in its final stanza reveals its purpose as a moral piece warning young women to guard against young men . When Schubert set the poem to music , he removed the last verse , which contained the moral , changing the song 's focus and enabling it to be sung by male or female singers . Schubert produced six subsequent copies of the work , all with minor variations .
Schubert wrote " Die Forelle " in the single key of D @-@ flat major with a varied ( or modified ) strophic form . The first two verses have the same structure but change for the final verse to give a musical impression of the trout being caught . In the Deutsch catalogue of Schubert 's works it is number 550 , or D. 550 . The musicologist Marjorie Wing Hirsch describes its type in the Schubert lieder as a " lyrical song with admixtures of dramatic traits " .
The song was popular with contemporary audiences , which led to Schubert being commissioned to write a piece of chamber music based on the song . This commission resulted in the Trout Quintet ( D. 667 ) , in which a set of variations of " Die Forelle " are present in the fourth movement .
= = Context = =
The lyrics of the lied are from a poem by Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart . Opinion is divided on his abilities : The Musical Times considers him to be " one of the feeblest poets " whose work was used by Schubert , and comments that he " was content with versifying pretty ideas " , while the singer and author Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau considered Schubart to be " a very talented poet , musician and orator " . Schubart wrote " Die Forelle " in 1782 , while imprisoned in the fortress of Hohenasperg ; he was a prisoner there from 1777 to 1787 for insulting the mistress of Charles Eugene , Duke of Württemberg . The poem was published in the Schwäbischer Musenalmanach of 1783 , consisting of four stanzas .
The Schubert scholar John Reed thought the poem to be " sentimental " and " feeble " , with the final stanza of the poem consisting of a " smug moral " that " pointedly advises young girls to be on their guard against young men with rods " . The academic Thomas Kramer observes that " Die Forelle " is " somewhat unusual with its mock @-@ naive pretense of being about a bona fide fish " , whereas he describes it as " a sexual parable " . Fischer @-@ Dieskau saw the poem as " didactic ... with its Baroque moral " . Schubert did not set this final stanza , however , and instead concentrated on a person 's observation of the trout and the reaction to its being caught by a fisherman .
= = Creation = =
In 1815 Schubert wrote a series of twenty songs based on the works of Ludwig Gotthard Kosegarten ( 1758 – 1818 ) . Among them was " Die Erscheinung " ( D 229 ) , written in July that year ; John Reed sees the song as a forerunner to " Die Forelle " , observing that " Die Erscheinung " and other similar songs , " convey an intensity of feeling that belies their small scale " . From the following year to 1821 Schubert composed four songs using the poems of Schubart , " An den Tod " ( D518 ) , " An mein Klavier " ( D342 ) , " Die Forelle " ( D550 ) and " Grablied auf einen Soldaten " ( D454 ) . Although the first draft of " Die Forelle " was lost and the exact date of composition is unknown , the lied is known to have been written in early 1817 , the same year he composed " Der Tod und das Mädchen " and " An die Musik " .
After Schubert completed the song , one of his friends , Johann Leopold Ebner , recounted that Schubert was told that " Die Forelle " unconsciously quoted Beethoven 's Coriolan Overture ; on hearing the comparison , Schubert decided to destroy the manuscript , but he was stopped by Ebner and others . On 9 December 1820 the song was published in a supplement to the Wiener Zeitung , along with a number of others of Schubert 's lieder . He received no payment for publishing his songs , but was provided with free publicity .
= = Composition = =
" Die Forelle " is written for solo voice and piano in the key of D @-@ flat major . The song is written with a varied ( or modified ) strophic structure , meaning the " verse music " is generally the same , with one different verse . According to the American historian Mark Ringer , Schubert used a " musical structure that reflects both the life cycle of the earth and the progress from innocence to experience " . Schubert directed the piece to be played " Etwas lebhaft " , or at a " somewhat lively " pace .
The different verse is the third , and it demonstrates the " admixture of dramatic traits " in the lyrical song , which Fischer @-@ Dieskau calls " a classic example of the strophic song with Abgesang ... ' after @-@ strain ' . " The " after @-@ strain " comes at the final stanza ; the composer and Schubert scholar Brian Newbould observed that for three @-@ quarters of the song 's final stanza , Schubert departed from the strophe to give a musical impression of the trout being caught , but returned to the strophe for the final couplet . The primary rhythmic figure in the piano accompaniment suggests the movement of the fish in the water . When the fisherman catches the trout , the vocal line changes from major to minor , the piano figuration becomes darker and the flowing phrases are " broken by startled rests " . According to Mark Ringer , the melody evokes a " folklike naïveté " that " delivers both delight and emotional power " .
Schubart 's poem takes the viewpoint of a male speaker , advising women to be careful of young men . By removing the stanza , Schubert removes the moral and creates uncertainty in the sex of the narrator .
= = Variations = =
After completing his original in 1817 , Schubert made six subsequent autographs . These differing versions were not necessarily an attempt to improve a work , with some later versions being written from memory with only minor variations ; Newbould considers that Schubert 's close replication was a " feat of musicianship ... and a sign that Schubert spoke the language of music with the naturalness of conversation . " The differences between the autographs are small : according to Reed , they " are concerned ... with the tempo indication and the prelude – postlude . " The first version , marked Mässig , has no introduction , although " the shape of the familiar introduction is already adumbrated in a seven @-@ bar postlude " . The draft is undated , although is from 1817 and is kept in the Stadler , Ebner and Schindler collection in Lund . A second copy , written in May or June 1817 , was for Franz Sales Kandler 's album : this version was marked Nicht zu geschwind ( not too fast ) .
A third variation was written during the night of 21 February 1818 . Schubert and Anselm Hüttenbrenner , a friend and fellow composer , had finished a few bottles of Hungarian wine when Anselm commented that his brother Josef was an aficionado of Schubert 's work . Schubert completed a copy of " Die Forelle " that was " somewhat messy " . The messiness was partly accounted for by Schubert 's drunken state , but also explained by the accompanying note he wrote to Josef : " Just as , in my haste , I was going to send the thing , I rather sleepily took up the ink @-@ well and poured it calmly over it . What a disaster ! " The manuscript was held by the Hüttenbrenner family for a number of years and was photographed in 1870 , before being lost . Schubert wrote a further version in 1820 for publication in the Wiener Zeitung , and a final copy in October 1821 for publication in the Neue Ausgabe . The final version has " a five @-@ bar piano prelude " and is presently in the Gertrude Clarke Whittall Foundation Collection of the Library of Congress .
In 1819 Sylvester Baumgartner — a music patron and amateur cellist in Steyr — commissioned Schubert to write a piece of chamber music based on " Die Forelle " ; Schubert then wrote a quintet for piano and strings in which he quoted the song in a set of variations in the fourth movement . The piece later became known as the Trout Quintet ( D. 667 ) . Franz Liszt transcribed and paraphrased " Die Forelle " in two versions for solo piano . The first was in 1844 as the sixth part of his composition Sechs Melodien von Franz Schubert ( S 560 ) ; the second transcription was in 1846 ( S 564 ) .
= = Reception = =
Information regarding the contemporary reception to " Die Forelle " is scant . Reed relates that the song had " immediate popularity " , and that Schubert composing the Trout Quintet was evidence that " Die Forelle " " was already widely known " by 1819 . Newbould agrees , pointing out that the quintet was " acknowledging the song 's meteoric rise up early nineteenth @-@ century Vienna 's equivalent to the charts " . Fischer @-@ Dieskau takes a longer @-@ term view of the song 's popularity , writing that " the vividness of the imagery , with the alternate troubling and smoothing of the surface of the water along with the exuberance of the melody itself , account for the song 's universal appeal " .
= Tonight : Franz Ferdinand =
Tonight : Franz Ferdinand ( also known simply as Tonight ) is the third studio album by Scottish indie rock band Franz Ferdinand . It was released on 26 January 2009 through Domino Records in the UK and Epic Records in the US . It is the band 's first studio album since You Could Have It So Much Better , which was released on 3 October 2005 , roughly three and a half years earlier . The album was recorded in a span of two years at Mr. Dan 's Studio in Buckeye , Arizona and the old town hall of Govan , Scotland . It has been described as a concept album loosely based around a night of partying and the morning effects after . The album has more of a dance @-@ oriented sound , featuring styles of dance @-@ punk , new wave , and electropop , marking a departure from the band 's post @-@ punk sound , which was featured on their past two albums .
Upon release , the album received generally favourable reviews from music critics and had a positive commercial performance , peaking at number two on the UK Albums Chart , number nine on the US Billboard 200 , and charting in the top ten in several other countries . Five official singles have been released from the album : " Lucid Dreams " , " Ulysses " , " No You Girls " , " Can 't Stop Feeling " , and " What She Came For " . A remix album , titled Blood , was released on 1 June 2009 and contains dub remixes of most songs from Tonight .
= = Recording = =
Although having written about eight songs while on tour in 2005 , Alex Kapranos and Nick McCarthy decided to write new music because they wanted the album to be " ... quite new , to be quite different sounding from everything we 've ever done before . " Despite having recorded their second album in a short amount of time , Kapranos stressed that the band wanted to take their time . He voices , " This time we wanted to spend more time developing , and also , I suppose , allowing songs and sounds to evolve more before we ended up writing an album , and absorbing more music and ideas and , I suppose , life itself . And when I say life , I mean life off the road , because I wouldn 't classify life on the road as real life . " Franz Ferdinand began working on Tonight in early 2007 . Franz Ferdinand was supposed to record the album with producer Brian Higgins , yet in March 2008 , the two entities parted ways . The drummer , Paul Thomson , says " We wrote with Higgins for a while and initially we thought we 'd work more with him but it didn 't really work out . We just realized that we 're not really a pop group . " However , they also commented they have not given up on the pop concept . The songs on the album were written and recorded at the old town hall of Govan , Scotland as well as Mr. Dan 's Studio in Buckeye , Arizona . The band first moved in to Govan 's old town hall following a year of touring in support of their second studio album and mostly used it for storing and rehearsing .
= = Concept and musical style = =
Tonight is a concept album that explores the highs and lows associated with an evening of debauchery , as stated by a critic on online publication Ventvox . " This album covers all its bases from the initial excitement of the early evening to the numbness of the morning after " , writes the reviewer . The line " come on , let 's get high " from " Ulysses " , the album 's first track , reveals this theme . The album has been influenced by non @-@ British music . It has been inspired by the " heavy dub sound of Jamaican reggae stars " and has " the heavy bass and space echo you would find on a dub mix . " The album also has somewhat of an African influence . Alex Kapranos stated in an XFM article that " We 're one of these bands that are always gonna sound the same no matter what we do , but there are other influences there . I guess the drums are a little different , Paul has been listening to a lot of African stuff so that 's gonna come through . "
Tonight features styles of indie rock , dance @-@ punk , new wave , electropop , and art rock . In an interview with Billboard , Kapranos said that the album is " the opposite of punk / pop , which took something that was wonderful and removed all the dirt . " He also said that the band was using Russian Polyvox synthesizers . He also stated , in a Rolling Stone interview , that the album is more of a dance than a rock record . A song on the album previously known as " Kiss Me " , presumably re @-@ titled " No You Girls " , uses a human skeleton for percussion , to which The Guardian jokingly , in response , asked " Have Glasgow 's finest gone all goth on us ? What next ? Zombie hunting ? Gigs at the necropolis ? "
= = Cover art and album title = =
The artwork for the album is a photograph taken by Søren Solkær Starbird just after midnight behind the Barrowlands Ballroom in Glasgow . Talking to NME , drummer Paul Thomson said , " We wanted to get a Weegee vibe – that famous New York crime scene photographer from the ' 40s and ' 50s . " Subsequently , it is part of a series where the band are taking photos with photographers in different cities they end up in . On the band 's blog , they mention the series of photos as ' imaginary crime scenes , invaded by the photographer ' , and ' a slice of night frozen by flash ' .
It was announced on 20 September 2008 that they had finished work on the album but still had no title for it . On 7 October 2008 , reporter Michael Hogan from Vanity Fair interviewed Alex and Paul , who confirmed the title of their third album to be Tonight , with NME reporting the album 's full title and release date a week later .
= = Release = =
On 19 August 2008 , Franz Ferdinand released " Lucid Dreams " through iTunes and made it available for streaming on their official website . It is also featured on the Madden NFL 09 soundtrack . The track on the album differs from this version and is four minutes longer . The song peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . " Ulysses " was released on 19 January 2009 . The song received its first airplay during Zane Lowe 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 on 17 November 2008 and was made available for streaming on the band 's MySpace Music profile later that day . It peaked at number 20 on the UK Singles Chart and number 20 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart . It also charted in several other countries , marking a significant chart performance . " No You Girls " was released as a single on 6 April . The song was used in a commercial for the iPod Touch . The song peaked at number 22 in the UK and number 106 on the Billboard Hot 100 , making it their first single to chart in the Hot 100 since " Do You Want To " . It peaked in several other countries , as well , also marking a significant chart performance . On 22 January , Tonight : Franz Ferdinand was made available for streaming through the band 's official MySpace Music profile . " Can 't Stop Feeling " was released as the next single from the album . The song didn 't have a chart performance as positive as " Ulysses " and " No You Girls " , but it did chart at number 19 on the Belgian Flanders Tip singles chart , number 24 on the Polish Singles Chart , number 47 on the Italian Singles Chart , and number 69 on the French Singles Chart . " What She Came For " was released as a single on 31 August 2009 and " Live Alone " was released as a single on 13 November 2009 . Both songs had the worst chart performance out of all songs as they didn 't chart in any country .
= = = Blood bonus disc = = =
For its release on 26 January , the album is available as a box set which includes the whole album on six 7 @-@ inch vinyl singles and as a 2 disc limited edition . These special editions are only available in Europe and include a bonus disc called Blood which contains dub versions of the tracks from the album .
= = Critical reception = =
Tonight received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album has a total score of 70 / 100 on Metacritic , based on 32 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " . It did not receive the amount of critical acclaim their first two studio albums received . Critics often praised the album 's sound and the instrumentation of the songs on the album . The album 's sound was also subject to criticism by some critics , as well as the lyrics and album production . Clash magazine commented that it could be " the band 's most complete work to date . Worth the wait , and in all honesty better than we could ever have hoped for . " The Financial Post states that " Tonight is the band 's best album : Paradoxically , they 've allowed themselves a degree of release from their characteristic tension by creating structures within which they can cut loose . " The Telegraph commented on how Tonight : Franz Ferdinand is a melody @-@ packed re @-@ affirmation of everything that has made the band so popular hitherto , but with a highly contemporary @-@ sounding , keyboard @-@ driven edge . The Trades stated that " this [ album ] is an evolutionary step for the band rather than a revolutionary one . Smart and danceable , Tonight : Franz Ferdinand proves that Franz Ferdinand are the masters of dance @-@ rock . " NBC commented on how ' Franz Ferdinand has once again managed to outdo themselves with their best album to date.'
Uncut 's and The Guardian 's reviews were less enthusiastic . Uncut commented that the album sounds dry and superficial , and the songs are too similar to each other and other Franz Ferdinand songs . The Guardian stated that " if Franz 's songwriting is broader than it was , it is still no deeper " and that " they 'll keep trying to move your hips because they know they 'll never win your heart . " This was echoed by the review in the Daily Mail , which described the album as " a sterile , unwelcoming affair that fails to pack the band 's usual punch . " Paste was similarly severe , stating that the vocals are " leering " , the production " horrific " , and that the lyrics " seem to lack both heart and brain " and conclude by writing that " the layoff suggests that Franz is either too confused or too lazy to move forward " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Franz Ferdinand .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart performance = = =
The album had a significant chart performance . It debuted at number two on the UK Album Chart , as well as number nine on the Billboard 200 in the U.S. , selling about 31 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release . The album , however , suffered a fifty @-@ place decline on the Billboard 200 from # 9 to # 59 in its second week on the chart . The album also charted in the top ten in Australia , Austria , Belgium , Canada , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Japan , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Spain , and Switzerland . The album had a chart performance similar to their second studio album , You Could Have It So Much Better , which also charted in the top ten in several countries .
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Science Fiction Quarterly =
Science Fiction Quarterly was an American pulp science fiction magazine that was published from 1940 to 1943 and again from 1951 to 1958 . Charles Hornig served as editor for the first two issues ; Robert W. Lowndes edited the remainder . Science Fiction Quarterly was launched by publisher Louis Silberkleit during a boom in science fiction magazines at the end of the 1930s . Silberkleit launched two other science fiction titles ( Science Fiction and Future Fiction ) at about the same time : all three ceased publication before the end of World War II , falling prey to slow sales and paper shortages . In 1950 and 1951 , as the market improved , Silberkleit relaunched Future Fiction and Science Fiction Quarterly . By the time Science Fiction Quarterly ceased publication in 1958 , it was the last surviving science fiction pulp .
Science Fiction Quarterly 's policy was to reprint a novel in each issue as the lead story , and Silberkleit was able to obtain reprint rights to two early science fiction novels and several of Ray Cummings ' books . Both Hornig and Lowndes were given minuscule budgets , and Hornig in particular had trouble finding good material to print . Lowndes did somewhat better , as he was able to call on his friends in the Futurians , a group of aspiring writers that included Isaac Asimov , James Blish , and Donald Wollheim . The second incarnation of the magazine also had a policy of running a lead novel , though in practice the lead stories were often well short of novel length . Among the better @-@ known stories published by the magazine were " Second Dawn " , by Arthur C. Clarke ; " The Last Question " , by Isaac Asimov ; and " Common Time " , by James Blish .
= = Publishing history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s , the field was booming . Louis Silberkleit , a publisher who had once worked for Gernsback , launched a pulp magazine in March 1939 titled Science Fiction , under his Blue Ribbon Magazines imprint . For an editor , Gernsback recommended Charles Hornig , who had edited Wonder Stories for Gernsback from 1933 to 1936 . Silberkleit took the recommendation , and Hornig was hired in October 1938 . Hornig had no office ; he worked from home , coming in to the office as needed to drop off manuscripts and dummy materials , and pick up typeset materials to proof . He was given broad freedom to select what he wanted to publish , since Silberkleit 's chief editor , Abner J. Sundell , knew little about sf and did not get involved with running the magazine .
To spread his costs over more magazines , Silberkleit soon decided to launch two additional titles . In November 1939 the first issue of Future Fiction appeared ; it was followed in July 1940 by Science Fiction Quarterly . Hornig was editor for all three of the magazines . In October 1940 , Hornig , who was a pacifist , received his military call @-@ up . He decided to move to California and register as a conscientious objector ; he continued to edit the magazines from the west coast , but Silberkleit was unhappy with the arrangement . Silberkleit allowed Hornig to retain his post as editor of Science Fiction , and offered the editorship of the other two titles to Sam Moskowitz . Moskowitz declined , saying afterwards that he " would never strike at a man 's job " , but Donald Wollheim , a member of a group of aspiring writers called the Futurians , heard about the offer . Wollheim told Robert W. Lowndes , another member of the Futurians , about the opening , and urged him to write to Silberkleit . Lowndes later recalled Wollheim 's idea : " In the letter , I 'd suggest that it might be a good idea to add a science fiction title to the list , offering my services as editor at a slightly lower price than Hornig was being paid , and also find fault with all the other sf titles presently out , but particularly with Hornig 's " . Lowndes relates that Silberkleit took the bait and hired him in November 1940 ; Hornig recalls the separation as being by mutual consent because of his move to California . Lowndes subsequently agreed that this was likely to be the real reason Silberkleit replaced Hornig .
The first issues Lowndes was responsible for were the Spring 1941 issue of Science Fiction Quarterly and the April 1941 issue of Future Fiction . Initially Silberkleit kept tighter control on Lowndes ' editorial selections than he had over Hornig , vetoing five of the seven stories Lowndes proposed for the April 1941 Future , but by the August 1941 issue , Lowndes later recalled , Silberkleit " was satisfied that I knew what I was doing , and [ ... ] didn 't need to oversee any story I had accepted " .
In 1950 Silberkleit revived Future Fiction , and the following year he brought back Science Fiction Quarterly , with the first issue of the new series dated May 1951 . A new magazine , Dynamic Science Fiction , followed in 1952 . All three were edited by Lowndes and all were in pulp format . Sales were satisfactory , but Silberkleit decided to experiment with the digest format , which was starting to become more popular . By the end of 1955 he had cancelled Dynamic Science Fiction , switched Future Fiction to digest format , and relaunched Science Fiction as a digest under a new title , Science Fiction Stories . Only Science Fiction Quarterly was left in pulp format — Silberkleit felt that a quarterly digest would not be as successful as a quarterly pulp . The pulps were dying off , and when Other Worlds switched to digest format in 1956 , Science Fiction Quarterly became the only remaining sf magazine still being published as a pulp . In 1957 American News Company , one of the biggest magazine distributors , was liquidated , and the resulting changes in the national magazine distribution network , along with poor sales , finally killed Science Fiction Quarterly . The last issue was dated February 1958 .
= = Contents and reception = =
Silberkleit 's magazines were given very limited budgets . Hornig worked with Julius Schwartz , a literary agent who was a friend of his ; this gave him access to stories by the writers Schwartz represented , but Schwartz would not allow his authors ' real names to be used unless they were paid at least one cent per word . Hornig could not afford to pay the one cent rate for everything he bought , so he paid half a cent a word for much of what he acquired through Schwartz , and ran those stories under pseudonyms . Unsurprisingly , given the low rates , the stories sent to Hornig had usually already been rejected by the better @-@ paying markets . The result was mediocre fiction , even from the better known writers that Hornig was able to attract . The magazines paid on publication , rather than acceptance , and this slower payment also discouraged some authors from submitting material .
Science Fiction Quarterly was intended by Silberkleit to include a full @-@ length novel in each issue . Silberkleit obtained permission from Hugo Gernsback to reprint two novels from Science Wonder Quarterly : The Moon Conquerors by R.H. Romans , and The Shot Into Infinity by Otto Willi Gail . Although these stories were somewhat dated , they were better quality than the fiction Hornig was able to obtain for his other magazines . When Lowndes took over , the policy of including a novel in every issue continued , and Silberkleit again obtained reprint rights to fill some of these slots , this time with Ray Cummings , five of whose novels would appear in Science Fiction Quarterly over the next two years , starting with Tarrano the Conqueror in the Summer 1941 issue . Lowndes bought many stories from the Futurians to fill the remaining space in the magazine . These were of variable quality , but overall Science Fiction Quarterly improved once Lowndes took control , and the fiction was as good as or better than the stories to be found in many of the contemporary magazines .
When the magazine was revived , the stated policy was still to publish lead novels and fill the remaining space with short stories , but in fact , with few exceptions , the lead fiction was not of novel length . There were no more reprints , as there had been for the first series . Lowndes was unable to pay his writers rates that were competitive with the magazines that were leading the field , but he was an able editor and produced a magazine of reasonable quality every quarter . The Futurians still occasionally appeared in Science Fiction Quarterly , but Lowndes also attracted some of the newer writers , such as Poul Anderson , William Tenn , and Arthur C. Clarke . Clarke 's " Second Dawn " , which appeared in the August 1951 issue , is among the better stories Lowndes was able to obtain ; he also published Isaac Asimov 's " The Last Question " in the November 1956 issue , and James Blish 's " Common Time " , in August 1953 . Lowndes was also able to acquire some good quality nonfiction for the magazine , including a series of articles by James Blish on science in sf , and articles on science fiction by Thomas D. Clareson and L. Sprague de Camp . Blish , writing as William Atheling , Jr . , commented in 1953 that Lowndes was doing a " surprisingly good job " with all of Silberkleit 's science fiction magazines , despite the low rates and the slow payment to authors .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Charles Hornig was the editor of the first two issues of the first incarnation of Science Fiction Quarterly ; Robert W. Lowndes edited all the subsequent issues . The magazine was printed in pulp format throughout both series . The price was 25 cents throughout the first run , for 144 pages ; the second series began at 25 cents , but the price increased to 35 cents for the August 1957 issue . The page count for the second series was 128 pages for much of the run , but from the November 1953 issue to the May 1957 issue it was 96 pages . The publisher for the first issue was Double Action Magazines , with offices in Holyoke , Massachusetts ; thereafter the publisher was Columbia Publications for both versions of the magazine . Both Double Action and Columbia were owned by Louis Silberkleit .
There were three British reprints of the first series , all published by Gerald Swan . The Summer 1940 issue was reprinted twice . It appeared first ( with cuts ) as Yankee Science Fiction , issue 3 , in February 1942 , and then again , uncut , as a paperback , titled The Moon Conqueror , in 1943 . The Winter 1941 / 42 issue was also reprinted in 1943 , titled Into the Fourth Dimension and Other Stories .
Ten issues of the second series were reprinted in the U.K. by Thorpe & Porter . The issues , which were cut from the U.S. editions , appeared between February 1952 and August 1955 , and corresponded to 10 of the first 13 issues , from May 1951 to May 1954 . The omitted issues were November 1951 , May 1952 , and August 1953 . The order of publication was not the same as for the US editions : the sequence was May 51 / August 51 / February 52 / November 52 / August 52 / May 53 / February 54 / November 53 / February 53 / May 54 . Each issue was 128 pages and was priced at 1 / - ( 5p ) .
There are no anthologies of stories drawn solely from Science Fiction Quarterly . However , in the 1960s Ivan Howard edited several anthologies for Silberkleit 's publishing imprint , Belmont Books , with contents drawn solely from Silberkleit 's magazines . One of these , Rare Science Fiction ( 1963 ) , included three stories from Science Fiction Quarterly .
= Black @-@ throated gray warbler =
The black @-@ throated gray warbler ( Setophaga nigrescens ) is a passerine bird of the New World warbler family Parulidae . It is 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long and has gray and white plumage with black markings . The male has the bold black throat of its name , and black stripes on its head , as well as black streaks on its flanks ; the female is a paler version of the male , with a white throat and less distinct black markings on the flanks and wings . It breeds in western North America from British Columbia to New Mexico , and winters in Mexico and the southwestern United States . The habitats it prefers are coniferous and mixed forests and scrubland , especially those with pinyon pines , junipers , sagebrush , and oaks . Its nest is an open cup of plant fibers lined with feathers , built a few metres from the ground in the branches of a tree or shrub . Three to five eggs are laid , and young are fed by both parents . Common in its breeding range , it does not seem to be seriously threatened by human activities , unlike many migratory warblers .
= = Description = =
The black @-@ throated gray warbler has mostly black , gray , and white plumage , which is soft , lacking gloss . With its striping and the small yellow spot between its eye and bill , it is a distinctive bird . The sexes differ slightly , both having gray upperparts with black streaks , and white underparts with black streaks on the flanks . The adult male is striped with a black on the crown , throat , and below the eye , and has white around its chin and above its eye . The adult female has more dingy plumage on its head , with a white throat and dark gray cheeks . The most similar birds to the black @-@ throated gray warbler are the black @-@ and @-@ white and blackpoll warblers , which although marked in black have entirely different plumage patterns .
It is typically 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long , weighing 8 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 30 oz ) . Wing lengths are 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 7 in ) , tail lengths 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) , bill lengths 8 @.@ 4 – 9 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 – 0 @.@ 38 in ) , and tarsus lengths 1 @.@ 66 – 1 @.@ 88 cm ( 0 @.@ 65 – 0 @.@ 74 in ) , with females slightly smaller than males .
This bird gives a sharp tup or thick call , like that of Townsend 's warbler but flat and unmusical , as well as a high see flight call . The male 's song is a series of buzzy notes , with the earlier notes doubled and the next to last note high . This song has three variations , including a quiet " soft song " given by the males while following females gathering material for a nest .
= = Taxonomy = =
The black @-@ throated gray warbler was first described by John Kirk Townsend from a specimen collected near today 's Portland , Oregon . It was known to the Chinook inhabitants of the northwest coast , who called it Ah Kah a qual . Townsend described the species as Sylvia nigrescens , placing it with the other New World warblers and the unrelated Old World warblers in the genus Sylvia . It is now placed in the genus Setophaga along with about thirty other species , after having been classified in Dendroica for some time . Within its genus , it is part of a group with black throats and yellow face markings that includes the hermit warbler and Townsend 's warbler . It is usually considered an early offshoot among this group of species , but genetic studies suggest a close relation to Grace 's warbler .
Of these relatives , the range of the black @-@ throated gray warbler overlaps with those of Townsend 's warbler and the hermit warbler , but they occur in different habitats . While Townsend 's and hermit warblers commonly hybridize with each other , records of either species hybridizing with the black @-@ throated gray warbler are uncommon .
There are two subspecies , which are highly similar and of dubious validity . The nominate subspecies S. n. nigrescens occurs on the Pacific coastal region from British Columbia to northern California , while S. n. halseii , described by Giraud in 1841 , occupies the inland parts of its range . S. n. halseii birds are slightly larger and more gray in their upperparts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black @-@ throated gray warbler breeds in western North America , its range extending from southwestern British Columbia along the Pacific coast to northern Baja California , and east to New Mexico and southern Montana . It winters mostly in Mexico , from southern Baja California to Oaxaca state . It has spread into parts of Wyoming and Montana only recently , as Juniperus osteosperma has expanded its range due to a warming climate . Vagrants have been recorded across eastern North America and in Cuba .
The black @-@ throated gray warbler breeds in open coniferous and mixed forest with a brushy understory , in dry open oak forests , and in chaparral and other scrubland . It is particularly associated with pinyon pines , junipers , and oaks . It migrates to the south late in the fall , returning north in mid @-@ spring . While migrating , it forages in any woodland or scrub it passes through . In its wintering grounds , it occurs in dry woodland and tall scrub . Though its status is not well known , it does not appear to be seriously threatened by habitat destruction or other human activities , unlike many migratory warblers . It is a fairly common bird , among the most common in some localities . Because it is common and not in rapid decline , it is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Behavior = =
The black @-@ throated gray warbler is usually approachable , and can easily be observed while foraging . Despite this , it is poorly known , especially in its breeding behavior , of which Birds of North America said " almost no information is available " . It forages , often in flocks with other species . It feeds on insects gleaned on low branches , especially caterpillars .
The nest is usually placed on a horizontal tree branch or in a shrub , a few metres above the ground . The nest is an open cup constructed of grass stalks and other fibres , and lined with feathers and hair . The female lays three to five pinkish eggs with brown dots from May to July . Incubation and fledging periods are unknown . This species has been recorded giving a distraction display , pretending to be injured to distract predators from its nest . Both parents feed the young , though the female may do so more frequently .
= Tomb Raider : Underworld =
Tomb Raider : Underworld is an action @-@ adventure video game , the eighth instalment of the Tomb Raider series , following character Lara Croft . The story continues from the events in Tomb Raider : Legend as a direct sequel , but also addresses unexplained plot elements by association with Tomb Raider : Anniversary . Underworld was released by Eidos Interactive for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows , in North America on 18 November 2008 , Europe on 21 November 2008 and Australia on 5 December 2008 . On 14 June 2012 , Underworld was released on the Mac OS X by Feral Interactive . It is the third game in the series to be developed by Crystal Dynamics and is also the first Tomb Raider game to be released on the PlayStation 3 . Developers implemented new features into the gameplay , such as the dual @-@ target feature and an upgraded inventory system , using an Active Sonar map and a multi @-@ purpose grappling hook . The game also features a hint system and a new melee combat system where Lara has the ability to battle her opponents using kicks and grapple pulls . Downloadable content was also released exclusively for the Xbox 360 , where the player takes control of Lara and her doppelgänger in two new chapters .
Underworld received mostly positive reviews for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and PC versions . Critics generally praised the environments , Lara 's motion captured movements , story , puzzles , exploration , graphics and the less linear style of gameplay , although some criticism was directed at its " haywire " camera angles and " dodgy " combat system . The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions received mostly moderate to negative reviews . Most cited them as having medium to poor graphics ; being oversimplified ; " dumbed " down ; and bugged , especially the PlayStation 2 version . On 27 February 2009 , Eidos announced that the game had sold around 2 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . On 22 May 2009 , Tomb Raider : Underworld was re @-@ released as part of the Xbox Classics and Platinum Range lines for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , respectively . Underworld , along with Legend and Anniversary , was included in the The Tomb Raider Trilogy compilation , which was released in March 2011 for the PlayStation 3 . In the end of 2011 , Tomb Raider : Underworld was offered for free to PlayStation Plus members .
= = Gameplay = =
Tomb Raider : Underworld is a single player , action @-@ adventure video game . The game is presented in third person perspective , where the player takes control of Lara Croft . Lara 's environment reproduces a more " interactive world that reacts and remembers " , such that footprints left in the mud or mud transferred to Lara 's knee from kneeling on the ground is washed away by rain , the bodies of the foes she encounters remain where she killed them , and any destruction to the environment she causes are permanent . According to creative director Eric Lindstrom , this is " to not only reward the player for the effect they 're having on the world , but to give them navigational aids . " The game uses an animation blending system that allows Lara to interact dynamically with her environment , such as pushing foliage aside with one or two hands , depending on if she is carrying a weapon . It also features a " hybrid lighting model that combines dynamic lights with carefully created light maps " and a weather system that changes the environment , for example , " If Lara ’ s negotiating a wet ledge she ’ s more apt to slip or lose grip , " which makes " the environment [ ... ] her adversary " for a large part of the game .
Lindstrom explained that they integrated the elements of climbing , shooting and puzzle solving . This instalment also features a new melee combat system , requiring Lara in some instances to use " direct combat and evasive manoeuvres to distance herself from her attacker " . Notably , Lara 's bike , among other things , is a key component in solving the puzzles she will encounter in her adventure . Pick @-@ ups have multiple uses as weapons and tools in interaction with the environment , and Lindstrom stated that Lara " can also split up her guns and fire at two different targets simultaneously , " or hold an item with one hand and fire a gun with the other . The grappling hook can be stretched taut and used to pull objects off ledges , illustrating what project lead Rob Pavey said , that " Lara will be able to do anything that you 'd expect her to be able to do , " which he called " the big theme this year . " Lindstrom describes this as " a philosophy called ' What Could Lara Do ? ' — WCLD . It 's short @-@ hand for having the player be able to use their own intuition about what someone with her abilities should be able to do in an environment such as this , and consistency across the different mechanics and abilities . If she can throw a grenade , then if she can pick up this pole , why can 't she throw it ? " Crystal Dynamics also made the game non @-@ linear , offering elaborate multi @-@ stage puzzles .
Another new design element was the " adrenaline moments " . Instead of specific button presses , time slows down and gives the player a chance to get out of harm 's way while retaining complete control of Lara .
= = Plot = =
Tomb Raider : Underworld begins with Lara Croft 's mansion exploding and being engulfed in flames . The game then rewinds back in time to a week before the explosion , just after the events of Tomb Raider : Legend . Lara is searching for Avalon , hoping it will lead her to an explanation for the disappearance of her long lost mother . Underneath the Mediterranean Sea , Lara discovers an ancient temple designating itself as " Niflheim " , one of the many Norse underworlds . Deep within , she recovers one of Thor 's gauntlets , after a lengthy battle with Amanda Evert 's mercenaries and an encounter with an imprisoned Jacqueline Natla , on Amanda 's ship . Natla tells Lara that the Norse underworld , Helheim and Avalon are one and the same and that she will need to find Thor 's Hammer to open the Underworld and find her mother . Lara soon discovers that she will have to find Thor 's other gauntlet and his belt if she wants to find and wield the hammer . Natla provides Lara with a starting point for her search in this quest – coastal Thailand . In Thailand , Lara doesn 't locate the next gauntlet , but she finds evidence that her father had found it there and removed it before he died . She also discovers a message that reveals that her father and Natla had been working together at some point and that the relationship had not ended well . Lara is able to deduce where her father hid the missing gauntlet .
Back at the Croft Manor , Lara finds her father 's secret office buried beneath her home . Upon his desk , Lara discovers the gauntlet as well as a tape @-@ recorded message , warning her that Helhiem contains a powerful weapon . Suddenly , an explosion occurs and Lara 's home becomes engulfed in flames , leading back to the opening events of the game . Zip tries to shoot Lara and claims that " Lara " detonated the bomb . When Lara returns to the burning office to recover the security footage , she encounters her doppelgänger who kills Alister Fletcher . After his emotional death , Lara resolves to continue with her quest . In Mexico , Lara finds both Thor 's Belt and some ancient pictographs linking the weapon in Helheim to Jörmungandr , a mythical Norse sea @-@ serpent , brought about by the seventh age . Her next stop are ruins on Jan Mayen Island that correlate to Valhalla . It is here that Lara finally recovers Thor 's Hammer . In the meantime , Zip has managed to track Amanda down to a sister @-@ ship of the one Lara sank earlier . Armed with Mjolnir , Lara boards the vessel and interrogates Natla once again . Natla provides Lara with the coordinates of Helheim , but points out that Lara does not know the Ritual of Odin , which is needed to open its gates , so Lara reluctantly strikes a bargain with Natla and frees her from her cell .
They rendezvous in the outer chambers of the Helheim complex , deep below the Arctic Sea . With the ritual performed , Lara is able to use Mjolnir to open the gates of Helheim . Along the way , Lara discovers the horrifying truth of her mother 's fate – she has been turned into a thrall , thus Lara forcibly shoots her . Natla reveals the true extent of her manipulation of Lara , also revealing that she was the one who killed Lara 's father . Natla goes , leaving the doppelgänger to kill Lara , but Lara is saved by Amanda . It is revealed that the Midgard Serpent was a Norse metaphor for the many tectonic divisions that encircle the world , beneath the seas . The doomsday device was built upon the most unstable junction of these lines and its activation would cause massive volcanic activity across the whole planet and the destruction of most of humanity . Lara successfully destabilises the device and strikes Natla with Mjolnir , sending her down into the pool of deadly eitr below . Lara and Amanda escape together using the dais , like the one that brought Lara 's mother to Helheim , teleporting back to the temple in Nepal ( from Tomb Raider : Legend ) .
= = Development = =
In November 2007 , Eidos was reported to have filed for a trademark on the phrase , Tomb Raider Underworld , and soon after reserved the Tomb Raider Underworld domain name . In December 2007 , Eidos filed for a second trademark for Tomb Raider Underworld , reserving the right to provide " computer games that may be accessed network @-@ wide by network users . " In the January 2008 issue of the magazine Play , details from the " first @-@ ever demo " of the game were revealed . SCi , which owned Eidos at the time , officially announced Tomb Raider : Underworld on 10 January 2008 , and confirmed that all platform versions of the game would be released simultaneously in November 2008 .
Play 's assertions that the game is the " first true next gen Lara with one big physics smorgasbord that looks altogether photo @-@ real " led to speculation that Tomb Raider : Underworld might be using a new game engine for its next @-@ generation graphics rather than the system used by Tomb Raider : Legend and Tomb Raider : Anniversary . Later , the Senior Producer and External Designer separately confirmed that Underworld uses an all @-@ new engine that was built especially for it . This new engine is also used in the game Deus Ex : Human Revolution .
Tomb Raider : Underworld was developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Eidos Interactive as the final Tomb Raider title to be published under the Eidos Interactive label prior to its purchase by Square Enix . Different versions of the game were developed by Crystal Dynamics , Buzz Monkey Software , Nixxes Software and Santa Cruz Games , all published by Eidos Interactive . Crystal Dynamics developed the Xbox 360 version and collaborated with Nixxes Software for the PC and PlayStation 3 versions . Santa Cruz Games developed the Nintendo DS version , while the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions were developed by Buzz Monkey Software . The Mac version was developed by Crystal Dynamics and released by Feral Interactive .
Lara 's costume was redesigned and she no longer wears her trademark turquoise sleeveless top and khaki shorts , but instead , a dark brown halter top and black shorts . Additionally , her hair is no longer braided , but worn in a ponytail . According to Play , Lara " moves as good as she looks [ and ] no longer moves like a video game character " due to her being fully motion captured . Olympic gymnast and NCAA Women 's Gymnastics champion Heidi Moneymaker was the model used for motion capturing . Keeley Hawes provided the voice of Lara in this instalment , as she did in Anniversary and Legend . Gymnast Alison Carroll was selected as the new official Lara Croft model to promote the game , replacing Karima Adebibe .
The first official video , entitled " Beneath the Surface " , was released on 17 July 2008 , and featured interviews with members of the development team and showed screenshots , artwork , and several clips of gameplay footage . A teaser trailer was released on 19 July 2008 , and the first gameplay trailer was released on 15 August 2008 .
= = Music = =
Troels Brun Folmann composed the main theme of the game , and was the music supervisor for Underworld while Colin O 'Malley was scoring the bulk of the music . Underworld 's music is purely orchestral in style . There are pieces that do not loop , meaning they will only play one time and will be triggered on specific events . The score is made more of musical fragments , similar to the first five games of the Tomb Raider series , and there is less constant music than in Legend .
In addition to gameplay music , Underworld 's theatrical trailer also uses orchestral music . The featured piece is the 3rd movement : Lacrimosa , from Mozart 's Requiem in D minor .
= = Release = =
Tomb Raider : Underworld was first released in North America on 18 November 2008 , then on 21 November in Europe , and 5 December in Australia . The PlayStation 2 version was subsequently released on 23 January 2009 in Europe and 5 March in North America . On 14 June 2012 , Underworld was released on the Macintosh by Feral Interactive .
= = = Retail editions = = =
Exclusive to EB Games in Australia and New Zealand was the Tomb Raider : Underworld Ultimate Fan Pack , which was available on Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and PC . The pack contained the retail version of the game , a Lara Croft calendar , a Lara Croft figurine , a Tomb Raider T @-@ shirt , a trucker cap and a messenger bag .
Exclusive to Game in the United Kingdom was the limited edition of Tomb Raider : Underworld , which was available on Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 and PC . The edition included a bonus disc , which contained behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , promotional artwork , an exclusive soundtrack , videos and trailers . In the United States , GameStop offered customers an exclusive The Art of Tomb Raider : Underworld artbook , when the game was pre @-@ ordered .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
After an agreement with Microsoft , Eidos released two new chapters of Tomb Raider : Underworld as exclusive downloadable content on the Xbox Live Marketplace : Beneath the Ashes on 24 February 2009 and Lara 's Shadow on 10 March 2009 . According to an MTV Multiplayer blog post , an Eidos spokesperson has stated that there are no plans to release the content for PlayStation 3 or Microsoft Windows . Following a negative reaction from fans , Eidos released a statement explaining that they were approached by Microsoft , and to confirm " there are no plans for additional downloadable content for PS3 " .
It was also announced that two new outfits , made by Quebec fashion designers , would be available for free download on the Xbox Live Marketplace . The outfits were chosen by jury and public vote on the Festival Arcadia 's Virtually Fashionable on 8 November 2008 , and released on 10 March 2009 . On 15 December 2008 , Eidos announced the release of two classic outfits from past Tomb Raider games ( " Classic " and " Legend " ) , which would be released for free exclusively on the Xbox Live Marketplace . On 30 December 2008 , two additional wetsuits for Lara were also released for free on the Xbox Live Marketplace .
= = = = Beneath the Ashes = = = =
As in the main game , the player controls Lara during Beneath the Ashes . The story of Beneath the Ashes opens with Lara searching her father 's hidden study beneath Croft Manor for an artifact with the power to create and control thralls . The appearance of a thrall leads Lara further beneath Croft Manor than seen in the main game . Upon finding the artifact , Lara uses the phrase carved into it , " Okh Eshivar " , to gain control over a thrall . The doppelgänger suddenly appears and charges towards Lara . Lara orders the thrall to " kill " , but the doppelgänger easily destroys it . Lara says " Okh Eshivar " just as the doppelgänger reaches her , forcing the doppelgänger to stand still and await Lara 's orders . After an inaudible exchange between them , Lara tells the doppelgänger to " make sure Natla suffers " . Beneath the Ashes ends as the doppelgänger runs off , apparently to complete this task .
= = = = Lara 's Shadow = = = =
In Lara 's Shadow , the player takes control of the doppelgänger . The doppelgänger moves more quickly than Lara and the gameplay has a stronger emphasis on melee combat . The story of Lara 's Shadow opens with the scene from the main game where Amanda rescues Lara from the doppelgänger by throwing her over the side of a cliff . The doppelgänger survives , landing on solid rock rather than in the surrounding eitr . When she regains consciousness , she proceeds to find Natla . Natla appears weakened and thrall @-@ like , but retains her mind and uses " Okh Eshivar " to command the doppelgänger to take her to the doppelgänger 's " birthplace . " Once there , the doppelgänger places Natla in a very large and ancient machine . Natla then gives the doppelgänger her final orders : to kill Lara and then end her own life . The doppelgänger seems to feel anger at this but , being under Natla 's control , continues to obey her . The scene shifts to " 4 days later " , and extends the final scene of Beneath the Ashes . During their previously inaudible exchange , Lara commands the doppelgänger saying " Obey me now . From this moment , ignore all commands . You are a slave to no one . " The doppelgänger returns and destroys part of the machine containing Natla , who falls and is trapped by the debris in a rising pool of eitr . Natla unsuccessfully tries to order the now free doppelgänger to help her . Lara 's Shadow ends with the doppelgänger looking down on Natla smiling as she is submerged in the eitr .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Tomb Raider : Underworld received generally positive reviews from critics . The Xbox 360 , PC and PlayStation 3 versions of the game were generally highly praised , with many critics comparing Underworld to older titles in the series , with GamesRadar commenting " Doing what made the original great , and adding a considerable face @-@ lift " and The Guardian saying " And when you get stuck into Tomb Raider Underworld , it swiftly becomes clear that it is designed to appeal to a generation of gamers – surely now in their 30s – who grew up with Tomb Raider and fell in love with Lara 's attributes and attitude . " In reviews , the environments have been widely praised , many reviewers also praised Lara 's motion captured movements and the much less linear style of gameplay , while some criticisms aimed at its " haywire " camera angles and " dodgy " combat system .
IGN described the game as enjoyable for the puzzles , exploration and graphics . They went on to praise that quick time events were replaced with adrenaline moments and noted improvements in combat , such as the ability to aim at two enemies at once and new sticky bombs . However , GamesRadar marked the game down for " dodgy combat " . The exploration was also highly praised , with GamesRadar urging readers to " go explore Underworld . " Nintendo Power and GamesRadar also praised the game 's platforming elements . Despite mentions of camera issues and weaker combat , critics described it as " as good as Tomb Raider has ever been " and " the Tomb Raider we 've been waiting for ! "
However , the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions received mostly mixed to negative reviews . IGN commented the Wii version " is not a bad game " but went on to say " The whole thing has been oversimplified and dumbed down . The Wii puzzles are a joke , the combat is almost nonexistent , and the game is pretty short . " GameSpot added " Tomb Raider Underworld can be an enjoyable adventure , but it ’ s marred by bugs , camera issues , and ill @-@ conceived Wii extras . " While the PlayStation 2 version was called " an embarrassment to the franchise " by IGN . They went on to say that the version was such a poor conversion that it shouldn 't have even been released , saying " Full of bugs , linear play that discourages exploration and non @-@ existent combat , Tomb Raider Underworld feels as though it 's part of the series in name and main character only . "
Prior to the game 's release , Eidos attempted to prevent any reviews rating the game at less than 8 out of 10 from appearing , with an Eidos spokesman stating " [ t ] he brand manager in the US that 's handling all of Tomb Raider has asked that we just manage the scores before the game is out , really , just to ensure that we don 't put people off buying the game , basically . Tomb Raider : Underworld received a BAFTA nomination in 2009 . For Underworld 's story , Eric Lindstrom and Toby Gard received a nomination for the WGAW ’ s Videogame Writing Award .
= = = Sales = = =
On 9 January 2009 , Eidos announced that Tomb Raider : Underworld sales failed to meet expectations , selling 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide as of 31 December 2008 . However , on 27 February 2009 , Eidos announced that the game had sold around 2 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide . Also , on 8 May 2009 , Ian Livingstone , President of Eidos Interactive , said " Underworld has met our target expectations " . In May 2009 , Tomb Raider : Underworld was released as part of both the Xbox Classics and PS3 Platinum Range . In December 2011 , Tomb Raider : Underworld was given away for free to subscribers of the PlayStation Plus service .
= The Boat Race 1965 =
The 111th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1966 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was won by Oxford , who led from the start , by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ lengths , in the third fastest time in Boat Race history . Isis won the inaugural reserve race while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by six @-@ and @-@ half lengths , and led overall in the event with 61 victories to Oxford 's 48 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . It was the first year of the reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat . According to author and journalist Christopher Dodd , allowing the reserves to race on the Tideway was " a curtain @-@ raiser to the battle of the blues and to give the up @-@ and @-@ coming men some experience of the Putney razzle @-@ dazzle " . Since then , it has usually taken place on the Thames , prior to the main Boat Race .
The main race was umpired by Gerald Ellison who had rowed for Oxford in the 1932 and 1933 races . Cambridge 's coaching team comprised Derek Mays @-@ Smith , Chris Addison , J. R. F. Best , James Crowden , David Jennens , J. J. Vernon ( who rowed in the 1955 race ) and Ian Welsh , while Oxford were led by Ronnie Howard . In preparation for the race , Oxford put in " mile after mile of hard rowing " while Cambridge focused on the more technical aspects of training . On 19 March , Oxford beat the existing course record during the lead @-@ up to the race , while Cambridge surpassed their own record two days later .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 8 @.@ 25 lb ( 86 @.@ 1 kg ) , almost 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four former Blues return , rowers Sean Morris , Miles Morland and Duncan Spencer ( rowing in his third race ) , and cox M. J. Leigh . Cambridge 's crew included two returning Boat Race veterans in rower and boat club president Joe Fraser and cox Robert Stanbury . The Light Blue crew contained a single foreign @-@ registered rower in Australian D. P. Moore while the Dark Blues included four Americans , all formerly of Yale University . According to the journalist Stanley Baker , writing in The Guardian , the Dark Blues were the " strongest and toughest crew Oxford have sent to the Tideway since the war . "
= = Race = =
Oxford , who were considered strong favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . The race commenced at 2.50pm. Oxford took an early lead and were half a length ahead at Craven Cottage . Cambridge drew back into contention and were nearly level as the crews passed the Mile Post , recording the same times . A push from Oxford saw them move away from Cambridge with a lead of two lengths by Hammersmith Bridge . Although increasing their rate to try to reduce the deficit , Cambridge 's rowing became untidy and Oxford were able to capitalise , passing Chiswick Steps with a lead of three lengths , and shooting Barnes Bridge four up . Passing the finishing post with a lead of 15 seconds , Oxford won by four lengths in a time of 18 minutes 7 seconds , the third @-@ fastest time in the history of the event , slower only than Cambridge 's winning times in the 1934 and 1938 races . A correspondent writing in The Times suggested that " if there were any surprises at all ... they were that this notoriously fickle event went so exactly to form . "
In the first reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by two lengths , in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . In the 20th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their third consecutive victory .
= Amor Gitano =
" Amor Gitano " ( English : " Gypsy Love " ) is a latin pop duet by Mexican recording artist Alejandro Fernández and American recording artist Beyoncé . The song contains a mixture of cultures , mostly influenced by the exotic language of Fernández , that is Spanish , and Beyoncé 's pop and R & B influences . Along with Jaime Flores and Reyli Barba , Beyoncé wrote the song , while Rudy Pérez and Beyoncé herself produced the song . " Amor Gitano " serves as the theme song of the telenovela El Zorro and it was released on February 12 , 2007 during the premiere of the episode of the telenovela .
" Amor Gitano " generally received positive reception from music critics . While some of them complimented the vocal exchanges between both artists and the flamenco pop genre of the song , others criticized the song for being somehow offensive due to the stereotypical lyrics . Although it failed to make any impact on the main US Billboard Hot 100 chart , it charted on a few Billboard component charts , peaking at number twenty @-@ three on the US Latin Pop Songs chart . Achieving multi @-@ platinum certifications for ringtones and digital downloads in Spain , the song remained at the top of the Spanish Singles charts for thirteen weeks , becoming Beyoncé 's second Spanish chart @-@ topping single , the first being " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) . " Amor Gitano " is ranked at number one on the list of best @-@ selling singles in Spain .
= = Background and recording = =
" Amor Gitano " originated from the collaboration of Sony BMG 's biggest talents and greatest assets . Kevin Lawrie , President of Sony BMG Latin America , contacted the Sony Entertainment Television Latin America as well as the producers of El Zorro to come up with a theme song for the telenovela . At the same time , Beyoncé and Fernandez were in the process of selecting material for their respective upcoming projects . Paul Forat , the Vice President of the Artists and repertoire division of Sony Entertainment Television Latin America , first heard the song from Reyli Barba and felt it could be perfect for Fernandez . Lawrie later contacted Mathew Knowles , President and CEO Music World Entertainment , about Beyoncé 's Spanish material , and the duet song was recorded partly at The Beach House Recording Studios in Miami Beach , Florida and at the Rock the Mic Studios in New York in mid January 2007 , with Rudy Perez .
In an interview with Billboard magazine , Beyoncé discussed how excited she was about the collaboration stating , " I loved working with Alejandro on ' Amor Gitano . ' When I was asked to record with him , I immediately said ' yes . ' He is extremely talented . " Alejandro Fernández stated that as the production and recording of his album was nearly over , he was told that Beyoncé wanted to record a duet with a Latino male for her next album . He stated : " So when they suggested it , I liked the idea . I thought it was spectacular . So we went , I gave her the song and she liked it [ ... ] We recorded it in one day . She seemed like a fine lady to me , very humble , with a great voice . "
According to Beyoncé 's publicity material , she grew up in a Texas area where Spanish was a popular language and heard it all the time . She studied the language as a child but forgot it as she grew up and rose to fame . Beyoncé was planning to take Spanish lessons because she had learn the language again and then the song by imitating the sounds . She stated : " I had the best coach ; I did it phonetically , every sentence I recorded maybe four times . " A " Making of ... " video was created while Beyoncé was recording the song with Fernández . While creating the song , Beyoncé had producer Rudy Perez coach her in her Spanish , as she did not want to misrepresent the language .
= = Music and theme = =
The song was written by Reyli Barba , formerly of the band Elefante , who has worked with Fernández on multiple occasions . Additional writing was done by Jaime Flores and Beyoncé . " Amor Gitano " was produced by Beyoncé as well as Rudy Perez . Labelled as inappropriate for those under the age of 14 , the song features negative stereotyping of Romani or Gypsy people . The entire song is sung in Spanish ; the English translation of the title is " Gypsy Love " .
The song contains hints of flamenco pop and strong lyrics dominate the entire track . After opening with " traditional flamenco sounds and generic Gypsy Kings @-@ style guitarra riffs " , " Amor Gitano " adds hints of pop music . As the song progresses , it transcends into a ballad , demonstrating romance , excitement and extreme emotions . " Amor Gitano " is completely dominated by flamenco guitars which is interlaced with alternating vocals . With what has been described as a " thrilling blend of the stars " by James P. Steyer of Common Sense Media , both Beyoncé and Fernández exchange " heated declaration of love and passion . " Lyrically the song contains a broader , melodramatic concept of love with Beyoncé and Fernández exchanging words between verses , for instance in one part , Fernández sings " I 'm your gypsy , your pilgrimage " and Beyoncé replies " I 'm your thief , I 'm going to love you even if they tear my heart out . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Amor Gitano " debuted on February 12 , 2007 on the premiere episode of Telemundo 's El Zorro novella . The song was the first included on Beyonce 's third studio album B 'Day , where it was included on the second disc of the albums deluxe edition which included an additional six Spanish @-@ language tracks . The song was released as a bonus track on all European releases of the original B 'Day albums . " Amor Gitano " also serves as the opening track of Beyoncé 's EP Irreemplazable . " Amor Gitano " was also included on Fernández 's twelfth studio album Viento a favor ( 2007 ) . The promo shoots of the album Viento a favor highlighted the collaboration between Fernández and Beyoncé .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song garnered generally mixed to positive reception from music critics , most of whom noted that the song may be taken offensively because of its stereotypical lyrics . The song has been described as a " plaintive ballad " by Joseph Woodard of Entertainment Weekly . San Francisco @-@ based non @-@ profit organization , Common Sense Media gave the song a mixed review , stating that it should remain an album track rather than a single . They stated , " With Beyoncé doing a pretty good job of phonetically singing in Spanish ( the occasional verb phrase doesn 't blend ) , this is more about novelty than about being a great single . " Agustin Gurza of the Los Angeles Times gave the song a positive review , naming it a stand @-@ out track off of Alejandro 's Viento a favor . Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic complimented the writing as well as the production on the song and called it " over @-@ bearing in a positive way . " As a positive spoof of the song 's premiere on Zorro : La Espada y la Rosa , Billboard created a wanted poster for Fernández , which stated he was wanted " for stealing the hearts of millions " with his performance in the song .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Amor Gitano " mainly sold in markets with a Latin demographic . It failed to make any impact on the main US Billboard Hot 100 . However , the single charted on the US Latin Pop Songs chart , and peaked at number twenty @-@ three . " Amor Gitano " was more successful on Spanish charts . The song peaked at number one on both the Spanish Singles and Download charts . It remained at the summit of the singles chart for thirteen weeks from May 28 , 2007 to August 27 , 2007 , until later replaced by " Lamento Boliviano " by Dani Mata . " Amor Gitano " is also Beyoncé 's second number @-@ one hit on the Spanish Download Chart ( the first was " Beautiful Liar " ) as well as her first Spanish @-@ language number @-@ one hit . The song was certified eight @-@ times platinum ( 160 @,@ 000 copies ) for downloads and sixteen @-@ times platinum ( 320 @,@ 000 copies ) for ringtone sales by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) . It is ranked at number one on the list of best @-@ selling singles in Spain .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from the B 'Day 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certification = =
= New Jersey Route 90 =
Route 90 is a 3 @.@ 22 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 18 km ) state highway in New Jersey in the United States ( U.S. ) . The western terminus is at the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River in Pennsauken Township , Camden County , where the road continues into Philadelphia , Pennsylvania as an unnumbered road that provides access to Interstate 95 . The eastern terminus is an interchange with Route 73 in Cinnaminson Township , Burlington County . It is a four @-@ to six @-@ lane freeway its entire length , interchanging with U.S. Route 130 and Camden County Route 644 .
Route 90 was first proposed in 1964 a year after plans were made to build the Betsy Ross Bridge and was legislated in 1965 to run from the bridge to Route 73 . The portion of the route between the Betsy Ross Bridge and U.S. Route 130 was opened in 1976 while the portion from U.S. Route 130 to Route 73 opened in 1988 . When first proposed , Route 90 was planned to extend farther south to Route 73 in Mount Laurel , intersecting Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike . There were other proposals that would have taken the freeway farther south to a planned Route 38 freeway , a planned U.S. Route 30 freeway in Berlin , and possibly the Atlantic City Expressway . However , financial and environmental obstacles prevented any southern extension of Route 90 . Across the Delaware River in Philadelphia , a freeway which was to be called the Pulaski Expressway and be designated Pennsylvania Route 90 was to have run from Interstate 95 northwest to U.S. Route 1 . This freeway was not built either due to opposition from residents and financial limitations .
= = Route description = =
Route 90 begins at the Pennsylvania @-@ New Jersey border on the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River , where the road continues into Philadelphia as an unnumbered freeway that heads to an interchange with Interstate 95 . Signs for the interchange along Interstate 95 refer to New Jersey Route 90 . From the Betsy Ross Bridge , Route 90 heads to the southeast into Pennsauken Township , Camden County as a six @-@ lane , 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) freeway maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority , passing over residential areas as well as County Route 543 ( River Road ) and then featuring a toll plaza in the westbound direction . Route 90 passes over County Route 615 ( Union Avenue ) before coming to an interchange with U.S. Route 130 , where maintenance is transferred to the New Jersey Department of Transportation . From here , the speed limit is increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Shortly past the U.S. Route 130 interchange , the freeway narrows to four lanes before coming to a partial interchange with County Route 644 ( Haddonfield Road ) , where there is a westbound on @-@ ramp and an eastbound off @-@ ramp . The route crosses into Cinnaminson Township , Burlington County and passes over the Pennsauken Creek . A short distance later , the Route 90 freeway merges into Route 73 .
= = History = =
Plans for the Route 90 freeway were first made in 1964 , a year after the Betsy Ross Bridge over the Delaware River was proposed . In 1965 , Route 90 was legislated to run from the proposed bridge in Pennsauken east to Route 73 . In 1969 , construction began on the Betsy Ross Bridge and its approach roads . A 1970 proposal to include the planned Route 90 freeway as a part of the Interstate Highway System was denied . The Betsy Ross Bridge itself was finished in 1974 , but did not open to traffic until April 30 , 1976 due to controversies concerning the approach roads . At this time , Route 90 was completed between the Betsy Ross Bridge and U.S. Route 130 . In March 1986 , construction began on Route 90 between U.S. Route 130 and Route 73 in Cinnaminson . This section of the route , which cost $ 23 million ( $ 40 million today ) , was opened on October 25 , 1988 .
Originally , the Route 90 was intended to be a much longer freeway than it is today . When first proposed , it was to extend to Interstate 295 , the New Jersey Turnpike and Route 73 in Mount Laurel . There were two proposed routes of this freeway . The first proposal would have run south of Route 73 through built @-@ up areas of Cherry Hill , Maple Shade , and Mount Laurel , along the South Branch of the Pennsauken Creek . Due to the route of this proposal , it was dropped in favor of a more northerly route that ran to the north of Route 73 through less developed areas.This freeway would have cost $ 42 million ( $ 180 million today ) and was to be completed in 1975 . There were plans to extend the freeway further south than Route 73 in Mount Laurel . In 1966 , a proposal was made for Route 90 to run south to a proposed Route 38 freeway that was to run from Camden to Monmouth County . Another proposal in 1969 called for a $ 14 million ( $ 90 million today ) extension of Route 90 south to a proposed U.S. Route 30 freeway in Berlin and possibly the Atlantic City Expressway . Due to financial limitations and feared environmental impacts , the southern extension of Route 90 to Mount Laurel was canceled by 1980 .
Across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania , there were plans of extending the freeway northwest from the Interstate 95 interchange . This limited access highway , which was to be called the Pulaski Expressway and be designated Pennsylvania Route 90 , was to parallel the Frankford Creek and Tacony Creek and connect with U.S. Route 1 , which also was to be a limited access freeway . This proposed freeway , which was to cost from $ 125 to $ 150 million ( $ 300 to $ 400 million today ) and be completed in 1981 , was canceled by 1980 due to community opposition and financial troubles . Vestiges of this extension can be seen from Interstate 95 in the form of stub ramps and the mainline coming to an abrupt end as a barricaded bridge .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= Water bull =
The water bull , also known as tarbh uisge in Scottish Gaelic , is a mythological Scottish creature similar to the Manx tarroo ushtey . Generally regarded as a nocturnal resident of moorland lochs , it is usually more amiable than its equine counterpart the water horse , but has similar amphibious and shapeshifting abilities .
The water bull is said to reproduce with standard cattle , the resulting progeny distinguishable by the small size of their ears . According to some myths , the calves of water bulls and ordinary cows ought to be killed at birth by any method other than drowning – they cannot be killed by drowning – to avoid bringing disaster to the herd . Conversely , in northern areas the calves are considered to be of superior quality .
= = Etymology = =
Lexicographer Edward Dwelly translates tarbh uisge or -airbh uisge from the Scottish Gaelic as " water bull , sea bull or cow " with the addition of " fabulous " within parentheses . The Celtic term for a bull is fairly consistently rendered as tarbh in Scottish Gaelic ; tarroo is the Manx variation and tarw is the Welsh equivalent . Uisge is the Scottish Gaelic word for water , river or stream .
= = Folk beliefs = =
= = = Description and common attributes = = =
Belief in the existence of water bulls persisted in Scotland until at least the last quarter of the 19th century . As with many mythological creatures , descriptions are imprecise . The water bull is able to shapeshift into human form , and live on land or in water . It can be a monstrous , malevolent black beast , especially when described as a tarbh uisge , but not as nasty as the each uisge or water horse . It can also be amiable and sometimes helpful . It differs from the Manx tarroo ushtey , which is more likely to be a resident of marshland .
As in the case of kelpies and water horses , most myths about water bulls are about males of the species . Occasionally a water cow is mentioned , as in the Highland tale set at Borrodale on Skye , where a water cow was reputed to reside in a small loch . Canine carcases left out to trap the beast were ignored . Sir Walter Scott also refers to a water cow in a story about an attempt to drain Loch na Beiste to kill one believed to be living there .
The Manx water bull mating with an ordinary cow usually results in the death of the cow after she produces a dead and " rude lump of flesh and skin without bones " , whereas its Scottish counterpart produces live calves whose only deformity is apparent in their ears . The bulls have no ears themselves and therefore produce calves with only half ears , described by folklorist and Tiree Minister John Gregorson Campbell as " knife @-@ eared " . Water cows living at Leverburgh produce offspring with disfigured crimson or purple @-@ coloured ears .
Folklorist John F. Campbell noted a story told on Islay , one of the Inner Hebridean islands , which demonstrates the usefulness of having a water bull . Just after a calf was born to an ordinary cow , an elderly lady , later identified as a witch , advised the herdsman to keep it separate from the other cattle , presumably after she noticed its deformed ears and suspected it was a water bull . She instructed the herdsman to rear the calf on milk from three different cows and to keep it confined in a stable for a minimum of seven years . Years later , a young woman was grazing cattle at a nearby loch when she was approached by an attractive man . He struck up a conversation with her and shortly afterwards the pair sat on the grass with his head resting in her lap , but as he fell asleep she discovered seaweed entwined in his hair , a sign that he was a water horse . She started to run back to the farm . Her suitor awoke , shapeshifted into his true equine form and chased after her . As the woman ran towards the farm , the witch shouted to the herdsman to release the water bull from the stable . The two creatures fought until they fell into the sea . The water horse never returned , but the remains of the bull were found the following day .
= = = Capture and killing = = =
Accounts of snaring and destroying the beast are rare , as it is not generally considered to be a threat . In 1819 John MacCulloch , a noted geologist , described how inhabitants around the areas of Loch Awe and Loch Rannoch tried to capture a water bull by shackling a sheep to an oak tree as an enticement , but the tackle was not strong enough . Another story describes a farmer and his two sons hunting a water bull . The farmer 's musket was filled with silver sixpence coins as the beast can only be killed with silver .
According to Celtic mythology scholar James MacKillop , because the calves of water bulls and ordinary cows might bring disaster to the herd , they are supposed to be killed at birth ; it is impossible to kill them by drowning , so other methods have to be used . Conversely , stories published in 1937 by the clergyman George Sutherland suggest these hybrids are considered to be of superior quality to normal pedigree cattle in the far north of Scotland .
= = Origins = =
The bull appears to have had a sacred role in a number of Celtic cults . The animal was viewed positively by the Celts as an image of fertility and abundance ; one tribe , the Taurini , even adopted the bull 's name . It is unknown how it came to be associated with bodies of water in the form of the water bull , but historian and symbologist Charles Milton Smith has suggested that such mythological creatures might originate with the water spouts that can form over the surface of Scottish lochs , which can give the impression of a living form as they move across the water .
= The Boat Race 1904 =
The 61st Boat Race took place on 26 March 1904 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Neither boat club president was able to row through injury . In a race umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 37 seconds . Their third victory in a row , it took the overall record in the event to 33 – 27 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1903 race by six lengths , while Oxford led overall with 33 victories to Cambridge 's 26 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for university in the 1882 and 1883 races , William Fletcher , who rowed for them in the 1890 , 1891 , 1892 and 1893 races and C. K. Philips who had represented the Dark Blues four times between 1895 and 1898 . Cambridge were coached by Francis Escombe and Claude Waterhouse Hearn Taylor ( who rowed for Cambridge three times between 1901 and 1903 ) . The umpire for the second year was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
Both boat club presidents , Monier @-@ Williams and Edwards @-@ Moss , were unable to row through injury . According to George Drinkwater , contemporary Oxford rower and subsequent author , the Dark Blues " never got together ... and invariably lost form over a long course " . He also noted that " Cambridge were not up to the standard of their last two crews . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 9 @.@ 75 lb ( 74 @.@ 1 kg ) , 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Two of the Cambridge crew had previous Boat Race experience , the number six P. H. Thomas ( who was rowing for the third consecutive year ) and the cox B. G. A. Scott . Oxford 's crew had a single returning rower , the stroke A. K. Graham . Two of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British , in Cambridge 's Australian number two Stanley Bruce and their number seven Harold Gillies who was from New Zealand .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Pitman started the race at 7 : 45 a.m. in cold and foggy conditions , and on a weak tide . Oxford took an early lead , outrating Cambridge from the start , and getting clear of them by the Mile Post . The Light Blues steadied their rhythm and started to catch Oxford , and errant steering from the Dark Blue cox E. C. T. Warner at Harrods Furniture Depository allowed Cambridge to reduce the deficit .
By Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford 's lead was down to two @-@ thirds of a length and by The Doves pub , the crews were level . The Light Blues pushed ahead and were clear by Chiswick Ferry as Oxford struggled to maintain their technique . Cambridge passed the finishing post with a lead of four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , in a winning time of 21 minutes 37 seconds , the slowest winning time since the 1898 race . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive victory and their fifth in six years . Drinkwater remarked that the " race was a good one , for the crews were more evenly matched " .
= Glastonbury Abbey =
Glastonbury Abbey was a monastery in Glastonbury , Somerset , England . Its ruins , a grade I listed building and scheduled ancient monument , are open as a visitor attraction .
The abbey was founded in the 7th century and enlarged in the 10th . It was destroyed by a major fire in 1184 but subsequently rebuilt and by the 14th century was one of the richest and most powerful monasteries in England . The abbey controlled large tracts of surrounding land and was instrumental in major drainage projects on the Somerset Levels . The abbey was suppressed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries under King Henry VIII of England . The last abbot , Richard Whiting ( Whyting ) , was hanged , drawn and quartered as a traitor on Glastonbury Tor in 1539 .
From at least the 12th century the Glastonbury area has been associated with the legend of King Arthur , a connection promoted by medieval monks who asserted that Glastonbury was Avalon . Christian legends have claimed that the abbey was founded by Joseph of Arimathea in the 1st century .
= = History = =
Suggestions that Glastonbury may have been a site of religious importance in Celtic or pre @-@ Celtic times are considered dubious by the historian Ronald Hutton , but archaeological investigations by the University of Reading have demonstrated Roman and Saxon occupation of the site . In 1955 Ralegh Radford 's excavations uncovered Romano @-@ British pottery at the west end of the cloister . The abbey was founded by Britons and dates at least to the early @-@ 7th century . Dark Age occupation of the site is evidenced by pieces of ceramic wine jars that were imported from the Mediterranean . A medieval Christian legend claimed the abbey was founded by Joseph of Arimathea in the 1st century . This fanciful legend is intimately tied to Robert de Boron 's version of the Holy Grail story and Glastonbury 's connection with King Arthur from the early @-@ 12th century .
Glastonbury fell into Saxon hands after the Battle of Peonnum in 658 . Saxons under Cenwalh of Wessex conquered Somerset as far west as the River Parrett , perhaps with the intention of gaining control of the abbey . Cenwalh allowed the British abbot , Bregored , to remain in power , a move perhaps intended as a show of good faith to the defeated Britons . After Bregored 's death in 669 , he was replaced by an Anglo @-@ Saxon , Berhtwald , but British monks remained for many years .
= = = Saxon era = = =
King Ine of Wessex enriched the endowment of the community of monks established at Glastonbury and reputed to have directed that a stone church be built in 712 , the foundations of which form the west end of the nave . A glassworks was established at the site during the 7th century . Glastonbury was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th century . The contemporary reformed soldier Saint Neot was sacristan at Glastonbury before he founded his own establishment in Somerset . The abbey church was enlarged in the 10th century by the abbot of Glastonbury , Dunstan , the central figure in the 10th @-@ century revival of English monastic life , who instituted the Benedictine Rule at Glastonbury . He also built the cloisters . Dunstan became Archbishop of Canterbury in 960 . In 967 , King Edmund was interred at Glastonbury . In 1016 Edmund Ironside , who had lost England to Canute but held onto the title of King of Wessex , was also buried there . Cnut 's charter of 1032 was " written and promulgated in the wooden church at Glastonbury , in the kings presence " .
The medieval Glastonbury Canal was built about the middle of the 10th century to link the abbey with the River Brue , a distance of about 1 @.@ 75 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 yd ) . Its purpose is believed to be to transport stone to build the abbey , but later was used to transport produce , including grain , wine and fish , from the abbey 's outlying properties . Much of the building stone came from the abbey 's quarries at Doulting , accessed by way of the River Sheppey at Pilton . From the 11th century the abbey was the centre of a large water @-@ borne transport network as further canalisations and new channels were made , including the diversion of the Brue to access to the estate at Meare and an easier route to the Bristol Channel . In the 13th century the abbey 's head boatman transported the abbot in an eight @-@ oared boat on visits to the abbey 's nearby manors .
= = = Medieval era = = =
= = = = Norman conquest = = = =
At the Norman Conquest in 1066 , the wealth of Glastonbury made it a prime prize . The new Norman abbot , Turstin , added to the church , unusually building to the east of the older Saxon church and away from the ancient cemetery , thus shifting the sanctified site . This was later changed by Herlewin the next abbot , who built a larger church . Not all the new Normans were suitable heads of religious communities . In 1077 , Thurstin was dismissed after his armed retainers killed monks by the High Altar . In 1086 , when Domesday Book was commissioned , Glastonbury Abbey was the richest monastery in the country . About 1125 , the abbot Henry of Blois commissioned a history of Glastonbury from the esteemed historian William of Malmesbury , who was a guest of the monks . His work " On the Antiquity of the Glastonese Church " was compiled sometime between 1129 and 1139 as part of a campaign to establish the abbey 's primacy against Westminster . It is the source for much of our knowledge of the abbey 's early history but is far below William 's generally excellent standards : his acceptance of the monks ' forged charters and unsubstantiated early legends is apparent and even his list of the community 's abbots cannot be reconciled with 10th @-@ century originals subsequently discovered . These problems and the discrepancies between " On the Antiquity " and his own later histories has led many scholars to assume William 's original text was more careful and its accounts of " Phagan " and " Deruvian " , along with various passages about Arthur , were later additions meant to bolster the monks ' case .
Early drainage work on the Somerset Levels was carried out in the later years of the 12th century , with the responsibility for maintaining all the watercourses between Glastonbury and the sea being placed on named individuals among whom were Ralph de Sancta Barbara of Brentmarsh . In 1129 , the abbot of Glastonbury was recorded as inspecting enclosed land at Lympsham . Efforts to control flooding on the Parrett were recorded around the same date . In 1234 , 722 acres ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) were reclaimed near Westonzoyland and , from the accounts in the abbey 's rent books , this had increased to 972 acres ( 393 ha ) by 1240 . In the 14th century a Fish House was built at Meare for the chief fisherman of the abbot of Glastonbury that was also used for salting and preparing fish . It is the only surviving monastic fishery building in England . At the time of the Dissolution in 1540 , Meare Pool was said to contain a great abundance of pike , tench , roach and eels . In 1638 it was owned by William Freake , who described it as " lately a fish pool " . The importance of this industry is illustrated by a series of acrimonious disputes between Glastonbury and the Dean and Chapter of Wells Cathedral . The abbey required fish on Fridays , fast days and during Lent . As many as 5000 eels were landed in a typical year .
= = = = King Arthur 's tomb = = = =
See also Avalon
In 1184 , a great fire at Glastonbury destroyed the monastic buildings . Reconstruction began almost immediately and the Lady Chapel , which includes the well , was consecrated in 1186 . There is evidence that , in the 12th century , the ruined nave was renovated enough for services while the great new church was being constructed . Parts of the walls of the aisle and crossing having been completed by 1189 , progress then continued more slowly .
Pilgrim visits had fallen and in 1191 the alleged discovery of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere 's tomb in the cemetery provided fresh impetus for visiting Glastonbury . A contemporaneous , though not an eyewitness account was given by Giraldus Cambrensis in his De principis instructione ( " Instruction of a Prince , " ca . 1193 ) and recollected in his Speculum Ecclesiae , ca . 1216 according to which the abbot , Henry de Sully , commissioned a search , discovering at the depth of 16 feet ( 5 m ) a massive hollowed oak trunk containing two skeletons . Above it , under the covering stone , according to Giraldus , was a leaden cross with the unmistakably specific inscription Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia ( " Here lies interred the famous King Arthur on the Isle of Avalon " ) .
According to Giraldus , the digging for the tomb was prompted by the intelligence obtained by Henry II from an aged British ( Welsh ) bard ( Latin : historico cantore Britone audierat antiquo ) . On the other hand , Ralph of Coggeshall writing somewhat later , states more prosaically that they came upon the older tomb by chance while removing the earth to bury a certain monk who had expressed strong desire to be buried there . Both Giraldus and Ralph say that the spot lay in between two pyramids in the abbey . William of Malmesbury does not refer to Arthur 's tomb but elaborates on the pyramids of varying height , upon which were statues with inscriptions " Her Sexi , and Bliserh ... Pencrest , Bantomp , Pinepegn , etc . "
Historians today generally dismiss the authenticity of the find , attributing it to a publicity stunt performed to raise funds to repair the Abbey , which was mostly burned in 1184 . William of Malmesbury 's history of the English kings stated " Arthur ’ s grave is nowhere seen , whence antiquity of fables still claims that he will return " and his work " On the Antiquity of the Glastonese Church " — larded as it is with known and suspected pious forgeries — nowhere mentions a connection between the abbey and either Arthur 's grave or Avalon . The fact that the search for Arthur 's body is connected to Henry II and Edward I , both kings who fought major Welsh wars , has had scholars suggest that propaganda may have played a part as well . Gerald , a constant supporter of royal authority , in his account of the discovery clearly aims to destroy the idea of the possibility of King 's Arthur 's messianic return : " Many tales are told and many legends have been invented about King Arthur and his mysterious ending . In their stupidity the British [ i.e. Welsh , Cornish and Bretons ] people maintain that he is still alive . Now that the truth is known , I have taken the trouble to add a few more details in this present chapter . The fairy @-@ tales have been snuffed out , and the true and indubitable facts are made known , so that what really happened must be made crystal clear to all and separated from the myths which have accumulated on the subject . "
= = = = Annexation to Bath and Wells = = = =
In 1197 , Savaric FitzGeldewin , Bishop of Bath and Wells , traded the city of Bath to the king in return for the monastery of Glastonbury . Savaric secured the support of Pope Celestine III for the takeover the abbey as the seat of his bishopric , replacing Bath . The plan was that Savaric would be bishop of Bath as well as abbot of Glastonbury . In his support , Savaric obtained letters from various ecclesiastics , including the Archbishop of Canterbury , Hubert Walter , that claimed that this arrangement would settle longstanding disputes between the abbey and the bishops . The monks of Glastonbury objected to Savaric 's plan , and sent an appeal to Rome , which was dismissed in 1196 . But King Richard , no longer imprisoned in Germany , sided with the monks , and allowed them to elect an abbot , William Pica , in place of Savaric , who responded by excommunicating the new abbot . With the succession of John as king in place of his brother Richard in 1199 , Savaric managed to force his way into the monastery and set up his episcopal see within the abbey . The monks appealed to Innocent III , the new pope .
At first , Innocent took the side of the monks , and lifted Pica 's excommunication . While the newest appeal was taking place , Pica and a number of his supporters , who had travelled to Rome to appeal in person , died in Rome in 1200 , and some of the monks alleged this was by poison administered on the orders of Savaric . Meanwhile , Innocent had changed his mind , and reinstalled Savaric as abbot , ordering some English clergy to judge the specifics of the case , and allot the revenues of the abbey between Savaric and the monks . Savaric then attempted to secure more control over other monasteries in his diocese , but died before he could set the plans in motion .
The bishops continued to use the title Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury until finally renouncing their claim to Glastonbury in 1219 . Services in the reconsecrated Great Church had begun on Christmas Day , 1213 , most likely before it was entirely completed . King Edward I and Queen Eleanor attended the magnificent service at the reburial of King Arthur 's remains to the foot of the High Altar in 1278 .
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4th and 15th centuries = = = =
In the 14th century , only Westminster Abbey was more richly endowed and appointed than Glastonbury . The abbot of Glastonbury kept great state , now attested to simply by the ruins of the Abbot 's Kitchen , with four huge fireplaces at its corners . The kitchen was part of the magnificent abbot 's house begun under Abbot John de Breynton ( 1334 – 42 ) . It is one of the best preserved medieval kitchens in Europe , and the only substantial monastic building surviving at Glastonbury . Archaeological excavations have revealed a special apartment erected at the south end of the abbot 's house for a visit from Henry VII , who visited the abbot in a royal progress , as he visited any other great territorial magnate . The conditions of life in England during the Wars of the Roses became so unsettled that a wall was built around the abbey 's precincts .
The George Hotel and Pilgrims ' Inn was built in the late 15th century to accommodate visitors to the abbey . It has been designated as a Grade I listed building . The abbey also held lands outside the town serving large parts of Somerset and including parts of neighbouring counties . Tithe barns were built to hold the crops due to the abbey including those at Doulting and Pilton .
= = = Dissolution of the Monasteries = = =
At the start of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 , there were over 850 monasteries , nunneries and friaries in England . By 1541 , there were none . More than 15 @,@ 000 monks and nuns had been dispersed and the buildings had been seized by the Crown to be sold off or leased to new lay occupiers . Glastonbury Abbey was reviewed as having significant amounts of silver and gold as well as its attached lands . In September 1539 , the abbey was visited by Richard Layton , Richard Pollard and Thomas Moyle , who arrived there without warning on the orders of Thomas Cromwell . The abbey was stripped of its valuables and Abbot Richard Whiting ( Whyting ) , who had been a signatory to the Act of Supremacy that made Henry VIII the head of the church , resisted and was hanged , drawn and quartered as a traitor on Glastonbury Tor on 15 November 1539 .
= = = Decline = = =
After the Dissolution , two of the abbey 's manors in Wiltshire were sold by the Crown to John Thynne and thereafter descended in his family , who much later became Marquesses of Bath . The Thynnes have preserved many of the abbey 's Wiltshire records at Longleat up to the present day . The ruins of the abbey itself was stripped of lead and dressed stones hauled away to be used in other buildings . The site was granted by Edward VI to Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset who established a colony of Protestant Dutch weavers on the site . When Seymour was attainted in 1551 , the abbey site reverted to the crown , but the weavers remained until they were removed in the reign of Queen Mary . In 1559 Elizabeth I of England granted the site to Peter Carew , and it remained in private ownership until the beginning of the 20th century . Further stones were removed in the 17th century , so that by the beginning of the 18th century the abbey was described as a ruin . The only building to survive intact is the Abbot 's Kitchen , which served as a Quaker meeting house . Early in the 19th century , gunpowder was used to dislodge further stones and the site became a quarry . The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 stopped further damage to the site and led to the first historical and archaeological surveys .
= = = Modern history = = =
The ruins of Glastonbury Abbey were purchased by the Bath and Wells Diocesan Trust in 1908 . The ruins are now the property of and managed by the Glastonbury Abbey trust . On acquiring the site the trust appointed Frederick Bligh Bond to direct an archaeological investigation . Bond discovered the Edgar Chapel , North Porch and St Dunstan 's Chapel , however relations with his employers turned sour when he revealed in his 1919 book , The Gates of Remembrance , that he had made many of his interpretations in collaboration with a psychic medium . He was dismissed by Bishop Armitage Robinson in 1921 , because of his use of seances and psychic archaeology but is remembered as the man who " galvanised our cultural understanding of Glastonbury " .
A pilgrimage to the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey was held by a few local churches in 1924 . Pilgrimages continue today to be held ; in the second half of June for the Anglicans and early in July for the Catholics and they attract visitors from all over Western Europe . Services are celebrated in the Anglican , Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions . The abbey site is visited by over 100 @,@ 000 a year .
= = = Architecture = = =
The ruins of the great church , along with the Lady Chapel , are grade I listed buildings , and a Scheduled Ancient Monument . It is set in 36 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of parkland and open to the public . It is approached by the abbey gatehouse which was built in the mid 14th century and completely restored in 1810 . The 14th century abbey barn is also open to the public , outside the walls , as part of the Somerset Rural Life Museum .
The great church was 220 feet ( 67 m ) in length and 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide . The choir was 155 feet ( 47 m ) long and the transept was 160 feet ( 49 m ) long . St Joseph 's chapel was 110 feet ( 34 m ) long and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide . The remaining portions are of the clerestory and triforium arcades which were the supports of the central square tower . Other fragments of structures which remain include portions of the outer walls of the chancel aisles and the 14th century retroquire . There is also surviving stonework from the south nave aisle wall , west front and the Galilee along with its crypt linked to St Mary 's Chapel . The Lady Chapel , from which the walls survive , was described in 1478 as being 34 yards ( 31 m ) in length and 8 yards ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide .
The Abbot 's Kitchen is described as " one of the best preserved medieval kitchens in Europe " . The 14th century octagonal building is supported by curved buttresses on each side leading up to a cornice with grotesque gargoyles . Inside are four large arched fireplaces with smoke outlets above them , with another outlet in the centre of the pyramidal roof . The kitchen was attached to the 80 feet ( 24 m ) high abbot 's hall , although only one small section of its wall remains .
Work is still underway to analyse the results from excavations during the 20th century , and a new geophysical survey , which may help to specify exactly the size of different buildings and where they were situated . Early work has identified a Saxon enclosure ditch and , potentially the earliest cloister in Britain .
= = = Library = = =
The abbey library was described by John Leland , King Henry VIII 's antiquary who visited it , as containing unique copies of ancient histories of England and unique early Christian documents . It seems to have been affected by the fire of 1184 , but still housed a remarkable collection until 1539 when it was dispersed at the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Around 40 of the manuscripts from Glastonbury are known to have survived after the dissolution .
= = = Abbey retreat house = = =
Within the abbey wall , but closed to the public , is the abbey retreat house , which is now used by the Diocese of Bath and Wells . The Tudor Gothic house was built between 1829 and 1830 by John Buckler from the stones of the abbey ruins for John Fry Reeves . It was altered and extended between 1850 and 1860 , with further alterations in 1957 .
= = Glastonbury Thorn = =
A specimen of Common Hawthorn found at Glastonbury , first mentioned in an early sixteenth century anonymous metrical Lyfe of Joseph of Arimathea , was unusual in that it flowered twice in a year , once as normal on " old wood " in spring , and once on " new wood " ( the current season 's matured new growth ) in the winter . This tree has been widely propagated by grafting or cuttings , with the cultivar name ' Biflora ' or ' Praecox ' . The custom of sending a budded branch of the Glastonbury thorn to the Queen at Christmas was initiated by James Montague , Bishop of Bath and Wells during James I 's reign , who sent a branch to Queen Anne , King James I 's consort . Trees survive from earlier grafts to perpetuate the Glastonbury legend , among them two other Holy Thorns in the grounds of St John ’ s Church in Glastonbury . The blossom sent to the Queen now comes from one of these .
= Johann von Klenau =
Johann von Klenau ( 13 April 1758 – 6 October 1819 ) , also called Johann Josef Cajetan von Klenau und Janowitz was a field marshal in the Habsburg army . Klenau , the son of a Bohemian noble , joined the Habsburg military as a teenager and fought in Austria 's wars with the Ottoman Empire , the French Revolutionary Wars , and the Napoleonic Wars , in which he commanded a corps in several important battles .
In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars , Klenau distinguished himself at the Wissembourg lines , and led a battle @-@ winning charge at Handschuhsheim in 1795 . As commander of the Coalition 's left flank in the Adige campaign in northern Italy in 1799 , he was instrumental in isolating the French @-@ held fortresses on the Po River by organizing and supporting a peasant uprising in the countryside . Afterward , Klenau became the youngest lieutenant field marshal in the history of the Habsburg military .
As a corps commander , Klenau led key elements of the Austrian army in its victory at Aspern @-@ Esslingen and its defeat at Wagram , where his troops covered the retreat of the main Austrian force . He commanded the IV Corps at the 1813 Battle of Dresden and again at the Battle of Nations at Leipzig , where he prevented the French from outflanking the main Austrian force on the first day of the engagement . After the Battle of Nations , Klenau organized and implemented the successful Dresden blockade and negotiated the French capitulation there . In the 1814 – 15 campaign , he commanded the Corps Klenau of the Army of Italy . After the war in 1815 , Klenau was appointed commanding general in Moravia and Silesia . He died in 1819 .
= = Family and early career = =
Johann von Klenau was born into an old Bohemian nobility family at Benatek Castle in the Austrian province of Bohemia on 13 April 1758 . The family of Klenau dates to the fifteenth century , and the family of Janowitz to the fourteenth . The family name of Klenau regularly appears in records after the sixteenth century . The Klenau family was one of the oldest dynasties in Bohemia , and many of the noble families of Bohemia have sprung from marriages into the Klenau line . The original name of the family was Przibik , with the predicate von Klenowa . The family was raised to the baronetcy in 1623 with the certificate granted to one Johann von Klenowa and , in 1629 , to his son , Wilhelm . The Imperial councilor and judge in Regensburg , Wilhelm von Klenau , was raised to comital status in 1630 , and to the status of Reichsgraf , or imperial count , in 1633 .
Johann Klenau entered the 47th Infantry Regiment Ellrichshausen in 1774 , at the age of 17 , and became a second lieutenant in 1775 . After transferring to a Chevauleger regiment as a Rittmeister , or captain of cavalry , Klenau fought in the short War of the Bavarian Succession , also known as the Potato War . Most of this conflict occurred in Bohemia ( part of the modern Czech Republic ) from 1778 to 1779 , between the Habsburg Monarchy , Saxony , Bavaria and Prussia . The war had no battles , but was instead a series of skirmishes and raids , making it the ideal situation for a captain of light cavalry . In their raids , forces from both sides sought to confiscate or destroy the other 's provisions , fodder , and materiel .
In the Austro – Turkish War ( 1787 – 1791 ) , one of the House of Habsburg 's many 18th @-@ century wars with the Ottoman Empire , Klenau served in the 26th Dragoon Regiment Toscana , and later transferred to the 1st Dragoon Regiment Kaiser . His regiment repulsed an attack of superior numbers of Ottoman forces on 28 September 1788 , at Zemun , near Belgrade , for which he received a personal commendation and earned his promotion to major . In his early military career Klenau demonstrated , not only at Zemun but also in the earlier skirmishing and raids of 1778 and 1779 , the attributes required of a successful cavalry officer : the military acumen to evaluate a situation , the flexibility to adjust his plans on a moment 's notice , and the personal courage to take the same risks he demanded of his men .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
= = = Background = = =
Initially , the rulers of Europe considered the 1789 revolution in France as an affair between the French king and his subjects , and not a matter in which they should interfere . However , as the rhetoric grew more strident after 1790 , the European monarchs began to view the French upheavals with alarm . Among the concerned monarchs were the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II , who feared for the life and well @-@ being of his sister , the Queen of France , Marie Antoinette . In August 1791 , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , he issued the Declaration of Pillnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family . They threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family .
The French Republican position became increasingly difficult . Compounding problems in international relations , French émigrés agitated for support of a counter @-@ revolution . From their base in Koblenz , adjacent to the French – German border , they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe , and raised an army . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria and its allies . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1798 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her . Portugal and the Ottoman Empire also joined the alliance against France .
= = = Klenau and the War of the First Coalition = = =
On 12 February 1793 , Klenau received his promotion to lieutenant colonel in a Lancer regiment , and joined the Austrian force in the Rhineland , serving under General of Cavalry Count Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser . He was captured later in the spring near the town of Offenbach , but was freed unexpectedly by two Austrian Hussars from the 17th Regiment Archduke Alexander Leopold , who came upon him and his captors . At the first Battle of Wissembourg , Klenau commanded a brigade in Friedrich , Baron von Hotze 's 3rd Column on 13 October 1793 , during which the Habsburg force stormed the 19 kilometers ( 12 mi ) earthen ramparts held by the French .
By the terms of the Peace of Basel ( 22 July 1795 ) , the Prussian army was to leave the Rhine and Main river valleys ; as it did so , the French quickly overran these territories . On 20 September , the fortress at Mannheim surrendered to the French without firing a shot . Mannheim had been garrisoned by a Bavarian commander , Lieutenant General Baron von Belderbusch , and several battalions of Bavarian grenadiers , fusiliers , and guard regiments , plus six companies of artillery . A small Austrian force augmented the Bavarian contingent . At the same time , further north , the fortified town of Düsseldorf , also garrisoned by Bavarians , capitulated to the French . With these capitulations , the French controlled the Rhine crossings at Düsseldorf and at the junction of the Rhine and the Main rivers . To maintain contact with the forces on their flanks , the Austrian commanders , outraged at this fait accompli , had to withdraw across the Main river .
The nearby city of Heidelberg , further south of the Main on the Neckar River , appeared to be the next French target . Lieutenant Field Marshal Peter Quasdanovich , who had remained in the region between Mannheim and Heidelberg , used a hastily enhanced abatis to establish a defensive line at the sleepy country village of Handschuhsheim , east of the city of Heidelberg . The French force of two divisions — about 12 @,@ 000 men — outnumbered the 8 @,@ 000 defenders , and the position seemed untenable .
= = = = Klenau 's charge = = = =
At Handschuhsheim , Klenau commanded a mounted brigade that included the six squadrons of the 4th Cuirassiers Regiment Hohenzollern , two squadrons of the 3rd Dragoon Regiment Kaiser , six squadrons of the 44th Hussar regiment Szeckler , and four squadrons of the French émigré regiment Allemand . On 24 September 1795 , seeing the French , with five battalions and a regiment of Chasseurs overwhelming the troops of General Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza , Klenau quickly organized his own brigade into three columns and attacked . In a battle @-@ winning charge , Klenau 's brigade ( approximately 4 @,@ 000 men ) dispersed the French divisions of Charles Pichegru 's Army of the Upper Rhine , under the command of General of Division Georges Joseph Dufour . His cavalry caught Dufour 's entire division in the open , dispersed Dufour 's six squadrons of Chasseurs , and cut down Dufour 's infantry . With a loss of 193 men and 54 horses , the Austrians inflicted over 1 @,@ 500 French casualties , including 1 @,@ 000 killed ; they also captured eight guns , nine ammunition caissons and their teams , and General Dufour himself . In the action , General of Brigade Dusirat was wounded , as was Dufour before his capture . Additional Austrian losses included 35 men and 58 horses killed , six officers , 144 men and 78 horses wounded , and two men and three horses missing . For his role in this exploit , Klenau was promoted to colonel and awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa . At Handschuhsheim , as he had earlier at Zemon , Klenau demonstrated his " higher military calling , " establishing himself as an intrepid , tenacious , and quick @-@ thinking field officer .
= = = Action in the Italian theater = = =
In 1796 , Klenau commanded the advance guard of Peter Quasdanovich 's right column in northern Italy . As the column descended from the Alps at the city of Brescia , reconnaissance found the local French garrison unprepared . At midnight , Klenau led two squadrons of the 8th Hussar Regiment Wurmser ( named for its Colonel @-@ Proprietor Dagobert von Wurmser ) , a battalion of the 37th Infantry Regiment De Vins , and one company of the Mahony Jäger . With their approach masked by fog and darkness , the small force surprised the Brescia garrison on the morning of 30 July , capturing not only the 600 – 700 French soldiers stationed there , but also three officials of the French Directory : Jean Lannes , Joachim Murat , and François Étienne de Kellermann . However , within two days , Klenau 's force had to face Napoleon Bonaparte and 12 @,@ 000 Frenchmen ; his small advance guard was quickly pushed out of Brescia on 1 August . At the subsequent Battle of Lonato of 2 – 3 August 1796 , the French forced Quasdanovich 's column to withdraw into the mountains . This isolated Quasdanovich 's force from Wurmser 's main army by Lake Garda , and freed the French to concentrate on the main force at Castiglione delle Stiviere , further south ; Bonaparte 's victory at the Battle of Castiglione forced Wurmser across the Mincio River , and allowed the French to return to the siege of Mantua .
By early September , Klenau 's force had rejoined Wurmser 's column and fought at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September . Here , the Austrians were outnumbered almost two to one by the French . As the Austrian army retreated , Bonaparte ordered a pursuit that caused the Austrians to abandon their artillery and baggage . Most of the third battalion of the 59th Jordis , and the first battalion of the Border Infantry Banat were captured and these units ceased to exist after this battle . The Austrians lost 600 killed and wounded , and 2 @,@ 000 captured , plus lost 30 guns , eight colors , and 200 limbers and ammunition waggons . Klenau was with Wurmser 's column again as it fought its way to besieged Mantua and he participated in the combat at La Favorita near there on 15 September . This was the second attempt to relieve the fortress ; as the Austrians withdrew from the battle , they retreated into Mantua itself , and from 15 September until 2 February 1797 , Klenau was trapped in the fortress while the city was besieged . Following the Austrian loss at the Battle of Rivoli , 48 kilometers ( 30 mi ) north of Mantua , on 14 – 15 January 1797 , when clearly there would be no Austrian relief for Mantua , Klenau negotiated conditions of surrender with French General Jean Sérurier , although additional evidence suggests that Bonaparte was present and dictated far more generous terms than Klenau expected . When the garrison capitulated in February , Klenau co @-@ signed the document with Wurmser .
= = = Peace and the Congress of Rastatt = = =
Although the Coalition forces — Austria , Russia , Prussia , Great Britain , Sardinia , among others — had achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , in Italy the Coalition 's achievements were more limited . In northern Italy , despite the presence of the most experienced of the Austrian generals — Dagobert Wurmser — the Austrians could not lift the siege at Mantua , and the efforts of Napoleon in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces to the border of Habsburg lands . Napoleon dictated a cease @-@ fire at Leoben on 17 April 1797 , which led to the formal peace treaty , the Treaty of Campo Formio , which went into effect on 17 October 1797 .
The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details . These were to be convened at a small town in the upper Rhine valley , Rastatt , close to the French border . The primary combatants of the First Coalition , France and Austria , were highly suspicious of each other 's motives , and the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing . The French demanded more territory than originally agreed . The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories . The Rastatt delegates could not , or would not , orchestrate the transfer of agreed @-@ upon territories to compensate the German princes for their losses . Compounding the Congress 's problems , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies , either separately or jointly . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopean Republic . A republican uprising in the Swiss cantons , encouraged by the French Republic which offered military support , led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic .
Other factors contributed to the rising tensions . On his way to Egypt in 1798 , Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions . This angered Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the English actually discussed this possibility .
= = = Outbreak of war in 1799 = = =
Archduke Charles of Austria , arguably among the best commanders of the House of Habsburg in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , had taken command of the Austrian army in late January . Although Charles was unhappy with the strategy set by his brother , the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II , he had acquiesced to the less ambitious plan to which Francis and his advisers , the Aulic Council , had agreed : Austria would fight a defensive war and would maintain a continuous defensive line from the southern bank of the Danube , across the Swiss Cantons and into northern Italy . The archduke had stationed himself at Friedberg for the winter , 4 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 3 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Augsburg . His army settled into cantonments in the environs of Augsburg , extending south along the Lech river .
As winter broke in 1799 , on 1 March , General Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan and his army of 25 @,@ 000 , the Army of the Danube , crossed the Rhine at Kehl . Instructed to block the Austrians from access to the Swiss alpine passes , Jourdan planned to isolate the armies of the Coalition in Germany from allies in northern Italy , and prevent them from assisting one another . By crossing the Rhine in early March , Jourdan acted before Charles ' army could be reinforced by Austria 's Russian allies , who had agreed to send 60 @,@ 000 seasoned soldiers and their more @-@ seasoned commander , Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov . Furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could prevent the Austrians from transferring troops between northern Italy and southwestern Germany , and use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters .
The Army of the Danube advanced through the Black Forest and eventually established a line from Lake Constance to the south bank of the Danube , centered at the Imperial City of Pfullendorf in Upper Swabia . At the same time , the Army of Switzerland , under command of André Masséna , pushed toward the Grisons , intending to cut the Austrian lines of communication and relief at the mountain passes by Luziensteig and Feldkirch . The Army of Italy , commanded by Louis Joseph Schérer , had already advanced into northern Italy , to deal with Ferdinand and the recalcitrant Neapolitans .
= = = Campaigns of 1799 – 1800 = = =
At the onset of the 1799 campaign in Italy , Klenau and his 4 @,@ 500 troops incited and then assisted an uprising of 4 @,@ 000 or more peasants in the Italian countryside , adjacent to the Po River , and the subsequent general insurgency pinned down the French on the river 's east bank . Klenau 's troops , especially some of his Italian @-@ speaking officers , incited peasants against French authority , provided arms and suggested military targets of opportunity , and incorporated the Austrian @-@ armed peasants into their military actions .
= = = = Klenau 's siege of Ferrara = = = =
The Ferrara fortress had been constructed in the 16th century by Pope Paul V , built in the style of the Trace italienne , or a star , and it straddled the southwest corner of the town 's fortifications . The fortress offered whoever possessed it a strategic point in the region : it was the lynch @-@ pin of the French defense . In spring 1799 , it was commanded by Chef @-@ de @-@ brigade Lapointe with a garrison of close to 2 @,@ 500 . On 15 April , Klenau approached the fortress and requested its capitulation . The commander refused . Klenau blockaded the city , leaving a small group of artillery and troops to continue the siege . For the next three days , Klenau patrolled the countryside , capturing the surrounding strategic points of Lagoscuro , Borgoforte and the Mirandola fortress . The besieged garrison made several sorties from the Saint Paul 's Gate , which were repulsed by the insurgent peasants . The French attempted two rescues of the beleaguered fortress : In the first , on 24 April , a force of 400 Modenese was repulsed at Mirandola . In the second , General Montrichard tried to raise the city blockade by advancing with a force of 4 @,@ 000 . Finally , at the end of the month , a column of Pierre @-@ Augustin Hulin reached and resupplied the fortress .
Klenau took possession of the town on 21 May , and garrisoned it with a light battalion . The Jewish residents of Ferrara paid 30 @,@ 000 ducats to prevent the pillage of the city by Klenau 's forces ; this was used to pay the wages of Gardani 's troops . Although Klenau held the town , the French still possessed the town 's fortress . After making the standard request for surrender at 0800 , which was refused , Klenau ordered a barrage from his mortars and howitzers . After two magazines caught fire , the commandant was summoned again to surrender ; there was some delay , but a flag of truce was sent at 2100 , and the capitulation was concluded at 0100 the next day . Upon taking possession of the fortress , Klenau found 75 new artillery pieces , plus ammunition and six months ' worth of provisions . The peasant uprisings pinned down the French and by capturing Ferrara , Klenau helped to isolate the other French @-@ held fortresses from patrols , reconnaissance , and relief and supply forces . This made the fortresses and their garrisons vulnerable to Suvorov 's main force , operating in the Po River valley . In the course of the summer , Suvorov 's forces took a key position on the Tidone River on 17 June 1799 , west of Piacenza , another at the junction of the Trebbia River and the Po , in northern Italy , on 17 – 20 June 1799 , and the town of Novi Ligure on 15 August 1799 , 22 kilometers ( 14 mi ) southeast of Alessandria on the Tanaro river .
= = = = 1800 Campaign in Swabia = = = =
In early 1800 , Klenau transferred to the K ( aiserlich ) und K ( oeniglich ) ( Imperial and Royal ) army of Germany , in Swabia , under the command of Feldzeugmeister Paul , Baron von Kray . The 1800 campaign in southwest Germany began on 1 May 1800 , at the village of Büsingen , 4 kilometers ( 2 mi ) east of Schaffhausen ( Switzerland ) ; there a small force of 6 @,@ 000 men under command of General of Brigade François Goullus defeated 4 @,@ 000 men , three battalions of the 7th Infantry Regiment Schröder , commanded by Lieutenant Field Marshal Karl Eugen , Prince von Lothringen @-@ Lambesc . Following this clash , the impenetrable Württemberg fortress , Hohentwiel , capitulated to the French , in what the Duke of Württemberg considered a scandalous lack of military courage .
After these encounters , the French army moved toward Stockach , less than 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) northwest of Hohentwiel , where they engaged the Austrian force , under Kray , in the battles of Engen and Stockach and Messkirch against the troops of the French Army of the Rhine , under Jean Victor Moreau . Stockach , at the western tip of Lake Constance , covered east @-@ west and north @-@ south crossroads ; it and near @-@ by Engen , only 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) west , had been the site of a French loss 14 months earlier . In 1800 , a different general , Moreau , brought 84 @,@ 000 troops against Kray 's 72 @,@ 000 men ; this concentration of French force pushed the Austrian army eastward . Two days later , at Messkirch 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) northeast of Stockach , Moreau brought 52 @,@ 000 men , including Claude Lecourbe 's and Dominique Vandamme 's divisions , which had experienced the disappointing French loss in 1799 , and Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's experienced cavalry against Kray 's force of 48 @,@ 000 . Although the French lost more men , once again they drove the Austrians from the field .
Despite the Imperial losses at these battles , Klenau 's solid field leadership led to his promotion to lieutenant field marshal . That year he also married the widowed Maria Josephina Somsich de Sard , daughter of Tallian de Viseck . They had one daughter , Maria , born at the end of the year . From 1801 to 1805 , during which Austria remained aloof from the ongoing friction between Britain and Napoleon 's France , Klenau commanded a division in Prague , and was named as Colonel and Inhaber of the 5th Dragoon Regiment .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
= = = Background = = =
In a series of conflicts from 1803 to 1815 , known as the Napoleonic Wars , the alliances of the powers of Europe formed five coalitions against the First French Empire of Napoleon . Like the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789 , these wars revolutionized the construction , organization , and training of European armies and led to an unprecedented militarization , mainly due to mass conscription . French power rose quickly , conquering most of Europe , but collapsed rapidly after France 's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 . Napoleon 's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat in the 1813 – 1814 campaigns , resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France . Although Napoleon made a spectacular return in 1815 , known as the Hundred Days , his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo , the pursuit of his army and himself , his abdication , and his banishment to the Island of Saint Helena , concluded the Napoleonic wars .
= = = War of the Third Coalition = = =
In the War of the Third Coalition , 1803 – 1806 , an alliance of Austria , Portugal , Russia , and others fought the First French Empire and its client states . Although several naval battles determined control of the seas , the outcome of the war was determined on the continent , predominantly in two major land operations . In the Ulm campaign , Klenau 's force achieved the single Austrian victory prior to the surrender of the Austrian army in Swabia . In the second determining event , the decisive French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz over the combined Russian and Austrian force forced a final capitulation of the Austrian forces and took the Habsburgs out of the Coalition . This did not establish a lasting peace on the continent . Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806 , in which Austria did not participate .
= = = = Danube campaign : Road to Ulm = = = =
Upon Austria 's entrance into the war in summer 1805 , Klenau joined the Habsburg army in southern Germany and became mired in a short campaign that exposed the worst of the Habsburg military organization . Archduke Charles was sick , and had retired to recuperate . Archduke Ferdinand , the brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Emperor Francis , was theoretically in command , but Ferdinand was a poor choice of replacement , having neither experience , maturity , nor aptitude . Although Ferdinand retained nominal command , decisions were placed in the hands of Karl Mack , who was timid , indecisive , and ill @-@ suited for such an important assignment . Furthermore , Mack had been wounded earlier in the campaign , and was unable to take full charge of the army . Consequently , command further devolved to Lieutenant Field Marshal Karl Philipp , Prince of Schwarzenberg , an able military officer , but as yet inexperienced in the command of such a large army .
The campaign began in October , with several clashes in Swabia . At the first , near the Bavarian town of Wertingen , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) northwest of Augsburg , on 8 October , Murat 's Cavalry Corps and grenadiers of Lannes ' V Corps surprised an Austrian force half their size . The Austrians had assembled in line , and the cavalry and grenadiers cut them down before the Austrians could form their defensive squares . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 were captured . A day later , at Günzburg immediately south of the Danube , the French again met an Austrian force ; General Mack could not decide on a plan , and the French 59th Regiment of the Line stormed a bridge over the Danube , and , in a humiliating episode , chased two large Austrian columns toward Ulm . In this action , the French secured an important bridgehead on the Danube River .
With the string of French victories , Lieutenant Field Marshal Klenau provided the only ray of hope in a campaign fraught with losses . At Ulm @-@ Jungingen , Klenau had arranged his 25 @,@ 000 infantry and cavalry in a prime defensive position and , on 11 October , an over @-@ confident General of Division Dupon de l 'Étang attacked Klenau 's force with fewer than 8 @,@ 000 men . The French lost 1 @,@ 500 dead and wounded , 900 captured , 11 guns and 18 ammunition wagons captured , but possibly of greater significance , the Imperial Eagles and guidons of the 15th and 17th Dragoons were taken by the Austrians .
Despite Klenau 's success at the Battle of Haslach @-@ Jungingen , the Austrians could not sustain their positions around him , and the entire line retreated toward Ulm . Napoleon 's lightning campaign exposed the Austrian weaknesses , particularly of indecisive command structure and poor supply apparatus . The Austrians were low on ammunition and outgunned . The components of the army , division by division , were being separated from one another . Morale sank , " sapped by Mack 's chaotic orders and their [ the troops ] growing lack of confidence in their nominal commander , " Ferdinand . Following the Austrian capitulation at Memmingen , 55 kilometers ( 34 mi ) south of Ulm , the French achieved a morale boost over the Austrians at the Battle of Elchingen , outside of Biberach , on 14 October . Here , 12 kilometers ( 7 mi ) northeast of Ulm , and slightly north of the Danube , Ney 's VI Corps ( 20 @,@ 000 men ) captured half of the Austrian Reserve Artillery park at Thalfingen . In a further blow , Field Marshal Riesch was unable to destroy the Danube bridges , which Ney secured for the French . Ney received the victory title , Duke of Elchingen .
At this point , the entire Austrian force , including Klenau 's column , withdrew into Ulm and its environs and Napoleon himself arrived to take command of the II , V , VI Corps , Ney 's Cavalry and the Imperial Guard , numbering close to 80 @,@ 000 men . Archduke Ferdinand and a dozen cavalry squadrons broke out through the French army and escaped into Bohemia . Again , as he had been at Mantua , Klenau was caught in a siege from which there was no escape , and again , he helped to negotiate the terms , when , on 21 October , Karl Mack surrendered the encircled army of 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 3 @,@ 273 cavalry . Klenau and the other officers were released on the condition that they not serve against France until exchanged , an agreement to which they held .
= = = Action on the Danube by Vienna = = =
The Austrians abstained from the fighting in 1806 – 1808 , and engaged in a military reorganization , directed by Archduke Charles . When they were ready to join the fight against France , in the spring and summer of 1809 , it was a remodeled Austrian army that took the field . Despite their internal military reorganization , however , in the War of the Fifth Coalition , the army retained much of its cumbersome command structure , which complicated the issuance of orders and the timely distribution of troops . When the Austrian army took the field in 1809 , it battled for the " survival of the [ Habsburg ] dynasty , " as Archduke Charles , the army 's supreme commander , described the situation to his brother John .
On the Danubian plains north of Vienna , the summer battles of Aspern @-@ Essling and Wagram shaped the outcome of the 1809 campaign . Klenau 's forces played a critical role at both . At Aspern @-@ Essling , Napoleon 's army was decisively defeated for the first time in northern Europe , demonstrating that the master of Europe could himself be mastered . After their defeat at Wagram , the Austrians withdrew into Moravia , leaving the French in control of that part of the Danube valley ; Wagram was the largest European land @-@ battle to date , engaging 262 battalions and 202 squadrons — 153 @,@ 000 men — for France and her allies , and 160 battalions and 150 squadrons — 135 @,@ 000 men — on the Austrian side .
For Klenau , the campaign started badly at the Battle of Eckmühl ( sometimes called Eggmühl ) , in southeastern Germany on 22 April 1809 . Klenau commanded the Advance Guard , which included the 2nd Archduke Charles Legion , the Merveldt Uhlanen and a cavalry battery . Archduke Charles misread Napoleon 's intentions and lost the advantage in the battle . Klenau 's division suffered heavily and the Archduke Charles Legion was nearly wiped out in a charge by Louis Friant 's cavalry . Rosenberg 's division on Klenau 's flank was also badly mauled and suffered heavy casualties : 534 killed , 637 wounded , 865 missing , and 773 captured .
The disaster at Eckmühl was followed by another at Regensburg ( also called the Battle of Ratisbon ) on 23 April , where Klenau , at the head of six squadrons of Merveldt 's Uhlanen ( lancers ) , was crushed and scattered by Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's heavy cavalry . Klenau and Major General Peter Vécsey stormed back at Nansouty 's force with the Klenau chevauxlegers . Although their onslaught threw back the leading French squadrons , the French heavy cavalry returned , joined by Hussars and Chasseurs . In the mêlee , it was difficult to distinguish French from Austrian , but eventually the French horse overwhelmed the Austrian flank and pushed them to the gates of Regensburg .
= = = = Aspern and Essling = = = =
By May 1809 , the Austrians were pushed to within visual distance of Vienna , and in a critical engagement on the banks of the Danube river , the French and their allies grappled for control of the Marchfeld plain with the Austrians . The French held Lobau island , a vital river crossing , and the Austrians held the heights further to the east . Between them lay several villages , two of which were central in the engagement and gave the battle its name : They lay so close to Vienna that the battle could be seen and heard from the city ramparts and Aspern and Essling ( also spelled in German as Eßling ) are today part of the Donaustadt , a district of Austrian capital . At the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling , Klenau commanded a free @-@ standing force of close to 6 @,@ 000 , including a battalion of the 1st Jäger , three battalions of the 3rd Infantry Regiment Archduke Charles , eight squadrons each of the Stipcisc Hussars and Schwarzenburg Uhlans , and a horse artillery battery of 64 guns . Typical confusion in the Austrian command structure meant he received his orders late , and Klenau 's delay in deployment meant that his men approached the French III Corps at Essling in daylight and in close order ; a two @-@ gun French battery on the plain beyond the Essling , " mowed furrows " of enfilade fire in the Austrian ranks .
Despite the withering fire , Klenau 's force reached Essling 's edge , where his men set up 64 artillery pieces and bombarded the French for nearly an hour . Taking the village by storm , Austrian cavalry poured into the village from the north , and the French were pushed out in a methodical advance . Klenau 's batteries were able to fire on the French @-@ held bridges south of the village , over which the French had to retreat . In bitter house @-@ to @-@ house fighting , the Austrians entered the village . Combat at the granary was especially brutal , as Hungarian grenadiers battled unsuccessfully to dislodge the French from their positions in the second and third floors . The battle resumed at dawn of 22 April . Masséna cleared Aspern of Austrians , but while he did so , Rosenberg 's force stormed Jean Lannes ' position at Essling . Lannes , reinforced by Vincent Saint @-@ Hilaire 's division , subsequently drove Rosenberg out of Essling . At Aspern , Masséna was driven out by Hiller and Bellegarde 's counter @-@ attacks .
Meanwhile , Napoleon had launched an attack on the main army at the Austrian center . Klenau 's force stood on the immediate right flank of the center , opposite the attacking force of Lannes . The French cavalry , in reserve , prepared to move at either flank , or to the center , depending on where the Austrian line broke first . The French nearly broke through at the center but , at the last minute , Charles arrived with his last reserve , leading his soldiers with a color in his hand . Lannes was checked , and the impetus of the attack died out all along the line . In the final hours of the battle , Lannes himself was cut down by a cannonball from Klenau 's artillery . Aspern was lost to the French . The Danube bridges upon which the French relied had been cut again by heavy barges , which the Austrians had released on the river . When he lost his route across the river , Napoleon at once suspended the attack . For his leadership at Essling , Klenau received the Commander 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa .
Both sides lost close to 28 @,@ 000 men , to wounds and death . For Napoleon , whose force was smaller , the losses were more costly . For Charles , the victory , which occurred within visual range of the Vienna ramparts , won him support from the hawks , or the pro @-@ war party , in the Hofburg . The Austrian victory at Aspern @-@ Essling proved that Napoleon could be beaten . His force had been divided ( Davout 's corps had never made it over the Danube ) , and Napoleon had underestimated the Austrian strength of force and , more importantly , the tenacity the Austrians showed in situations like that of Essling , when Klenau marched his force across open country under enemy fire . After Aspern @-@ Essling , Napoleon revised his opinion of the Austrian soldier .
= = = = Wagram = = = =
In the lull between the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling and the Battle of Wagram ( 5 – 6 July ) Charles ordered the construction of a several @-@ mile @-@ long entrenchment , but did little else to shore up his force . Conversely , on the other side of the Danube , Napoleon brought in additional troops from Italy and Hungary . The day prior to the battle at Wagram , Klenau replaced General Johann von Hiller , who had fallen ill , to command the 13 @,@ 740 soldiers of VI Corps , and Armand von Nordmann replaced him as commander of the Advance Guard . Klenau 's Corps stood about 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) ahead of the main Austrian force . The Corps , about 8 @,@ 000 men , were ordered to oppose any French advance on the Marchfeld plain . By mid @-@ afternoon , Klenau could see Napoleon 's massive force advancing toward them through the cornfields . Klenau managed a spirited , and gradual withdrawal to a position behind the Austrian line at the Russbach , and above the Wagram escarpment ; this exposed several of the villages on the western edge of the Marchfield Plain , including Aspern and Essling , to French capture .
On the next day of battle , Klenau was ordered to a forward position , to complete a double @-@ envelopment of Napoleon 's force , envisioned by Charles as the best means of inducing panic among the French troops . At dawn , or so , at 0400 , his cannonade rained havoc on Boudet 's division of Massena 's IV Corps ; Massena sent another division under Claude Legrand to support Boudet . Klenau 's corps managed to retake both Essling and Aspern , without the same vigorous contest that had occurred two months earlier . Half the pincer movement was well underway , although Klenau 's force could not move further ahead : The guns on the Island of Lobau prevented further advance . There was no support from Kollorat 's forces on his flank , and for the closing prong of the pincer movement , Archduke John was no where in sight ; he had not abandoned his baggage , and was plodding slowly , with his army , toward the battlefield , but still a good day 's march away . Despite the mile @-@ long gap in the French line , and the advance of Austrian cavalry , Klenau 's men could not hold them against André Masséna 's prolonged mid @-@ day assault . Charles watched from his command post at Wagram as Klenau 's forces stubbornly clung to their positions , but were overwhelmed by the inexorable progress of Masséna 's troops , what Klenau later called Masséna 's Infernal Column . Klenau organized the rear guard for the Army 's retreat into Moravia , and lost 15 percent of his force . General René Savary , who directed part of the French pursuit , wrote that the Klenau 's soldiers had " fought in a manner calculated to instill a cautious conduct into any man disposed to deeds of rashness . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
As a consequence , Austria withdrew from the Coalition . Although France had not completely defeated them , the Treaty of Schönbrunn , signed on 14 October 1809 , imposed a heavy political , territorial , and economic price . France received Carinthia , Carniola , and the Adriatic ports , while Galicia was given to France 's ally Poland . The Salzburg area went to the French ally , Bavaria . Austria lost over three million subjects , about 20 percent of her total population , which dramatically reduced the military force that Austria could field . Francis also agreed to pay an indemnity equivalent to almost 85 million francs , gave recognition to Joseph Bonaparte as the King of Spain , and affirmed Habsburg participation in Napoleon 's Continental System . Francis reluctantly agreed to Napoleon 's marriage with his daughter , Marie Louise , which Napoleon assumed , incorrectly , would eliminate Austria as a future threat .
= = War of Liberation 1813 = =
Napoleon engaged in his disastrous Russian campaign in 1812 ; by 1813 , the military landscape was dramatically different . Prussia was the first to defect from Napoleon 's cause ; possibly the arrival of the remnants of the Grande Armée in Berlin convinced the Prussian leadership that it was not only safe , but expedient . The remains of Napoleon 's invasion force staggered back from Russia in early 1813 in appalling condition . Of the I Corps , only 2 @,@ 281 men of the original 70 @,@ 000 could be mustered . The Imperial Guard strength fell from 50 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 533 , and 200 of those were disabled by amputation , frostbite , or injuries . Some historians suggest that the nature of the opposition to Napoleon changed in these few months , from opposition by dynasties to opposition by whole peoples , giving the War of the Sixth Coalition its nationalist character .
By the end of April , French forces gained control of Leipzig . At Lützen , on 2 May Napoleon lured a combined Prussian and Russian force into a trap . The Russian commander , Peter Wittgenstein , ignored the primary directive of the Trachenberg plan , attempting to undo Napoleon 's capture of Leipzig . After a day of heavy fighting , the combined forces retreated . A few weeks later , at the Battle of Bautzen , 20 – 21 May 1813 , the combined Russian and Prussian force surprised Ney 's corps in a confused assault , which narrowly escaped destruction when Napoleon appeared with reinforcements . The outwitted Blücher and Wittgenstein escaped because Michel Ney failed to block the retreat . Despite his string of victories , Napoleon sought an armistice in early June , to allow a series of negotiations , to take place in Prague . The Armistice of Poischwitz , signed 4 June 1813 , established a cease @-@ fire throughout central and eastern Europe that was intended to last until mid @-@ July ; the combatants had to give six days ' notice of its termination . The various interested parties — Russian , Prussian , Austrian , Saxon , Swedish , Bavarian , British and others — explored the possibilities of new alliances .
= = = Changes in Coalition Strategy = = =
While delegates bickered in Prague , similar to the situation in Rastatt in 1799 , the diplomats negotiated throughout the war zone and in the capitals of Europe , to create a new set of alliances . The subsequent Sixth Coalition ( Russia , Prussia , Britain , Sweden and , eventually , Austria ) , differed significantly from the earlier coalitions . Unlike previous coalitions in which the participants had organized their armies independently of one another , the Allies of the Sixth Coalition created multi @-@ national armies . This theoretically accomplished two goals : Napoleon could not defeat them piecemeal , and the presence of soldiers from several states within a single armed force limited " politically motivated acts of national self @-@ interest . " Klenau , promoted to General der Kavallerie ( full general ) on 26 July 1813 , held command of an independent corps in the Army of Bohemia . This Army of Bohemia illustrated one of the biggest differences in the Sixth Coalition 's organizational schema : it included 127 @,@ 435 Austrians , 78 @,@ 200 Russians , and 44 @,@ 907 Prussians .
The Coalition also pursued a different operational plan . The Coalition 's operational strategy brought its different forces closer and closer together in concentric circles , to a single point in Saxony . Known as the Trachenberg Plan , the Sixth Coalition 's operating plan established clear , concise and specific guidelines for commanders , from the Army through the basic company level : act offensively against an inferior foe ; act defensively against a superior foe , underscoring to commanders at all levels the risk of underestimating the threat of Napoleon and his army . The new plan divided the Allied force into three armies : Silesia , Bohemia , and Northern Germany . The Silesian army , composed of Prussians and Russians , left 50 @,@ 000 men in the Province of Silesia and moved the remaining 100 @,@ 000 to join with 120 @,@ 000 Austrians in Saxony . The Crown Prince of Sweden , Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte , a former Marshal of France and a favorite of Napoleon 's , established an army of observation at Hamburg and Lübeck , and another 70 @,@ 000 concentrated 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) southwest of Berlin . Using this plan , the Coalition pushed Napoleon and his allies into an increasingly smaller circle of operation . In theory , while this concentrated Napoleon 's force , it also limited his maneuvering options . Furthermore , it concentrated the Coalition forces around the French and Allied armies , ultimately at the Saxon cities of Dresden , and then Leipzig .
= = = Battle of Dresden = = =
Strategically , the Battle of Dresden demonstrated the problems of the Coalition 's strategy . On 25 August , the three monarchs — Alexander II of Russia , Francis II of Austria , and Frederick William III of Prussia — and their staffs assembled on an overlook of the city to discuss their strategy . The city 's weak defenses were clear from this vantage point : the French and Saxon garrison of 20 @,@ 000 men under Marshal Saint @-@ Cyr could not hope to hold a city of that size . The Tsar and General Jean Victor Moreau , formerly a General of France and by 1813 an adviser to the Coalition , wanted to attack at once ; Schwarzenberg wanted to wait until additional forces arrived .
By waiting one day , the Coalition lost the advantage . As the Coalition assaulted the southern suburbs of the city , Napoleon arrived from the north and west with the Guard and Marmont 's VI Corps , covering 140 kilometers ( 87 mi ) in forced marches over three days . The leading elements of Klenau 's corps were placed on the army 's left flank , separated from the main body by the Weißeritz , flooded after almost a week of rain . Marshal Joachim Murat took advantage of this isolation and inflicted heavy losses on the Austrians . A French participant observed , separating Klenau 's corps from the Austrian army , Murat " hurl [ ed ] himself upon it at the head of the carabineers and cuirassiers . His movement was decisive ; Klenau could not resist that terrible charge . Nearly all his battalions were compelled to lay down their arms , and two other divisions of infantry shared their fate . " Murat captured intact a division of five infantry regiments ( 15 @,@ 000 men ) under command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Joseph , Baron von Mesko de Felsö @-@ Kubiny , plus 15 of their regimental and company colors . As the left wing disintegrated , the French swarmed over the flank ; the right wing was also driven back , and the entire force had to withdraw .
After the immediate defense of Dresden , though , Napoleon 's situation deteriorated . Vandamme pursued the retreating Army of Bohemia , expecting to be supported by St. Cyr and General Marmont , who were still busy in Dresden . Vandamme approached the Russian corps commanded by Ostermann @-@ Tolstoy , but left a valley behind him unprotected as he descended out of the mountain into Bohemia . As he engaged Ostermann @-@ Tolstoy , he saw some troops behind him , which soon attacked him ; thus beset from two sides , his young troops were unable to defend themselves ; at the Battle of Kulm , Vandamme lost his entire artillery , and the Austrians acquired about 7 @,@ 500 prisoners , including the general himself .
To the north of Dresden , as Napoleon appeared to be engaged , looking elsewhere , Blücher brought his troops south , toward the city . Realizing the danger , Napoleon directed his main army north again , to repel the Prussians ; as he did so , the wiley Blücher withdrew . Other portions of the French army had comparable difficulties . Marshal Oudinot was repelled by Bernadotte at the Battle of Großbeeren , and MacDonald , near the Bober river . Furthermore , Napoleon began to suffer from illness , referred to variously as a colic or fatigue .
= = = Battle of Leipzig = = =
From 12 to 15 October , the days of skirmishing preliminary to the Battle of Leipzig ( 16 – 19 October ) , Klenau 's force took the heavily defended village Liebertwolkwitz , but were forced out in a French counter @-@ attack . A contemporary witness later described finding dead Austrians at the church cemetery , pinned to the walls with bayonets . Klenau 's primary objective was the village of Liebertwolkwitz . He took the Kolmberg , a nearby height also known as the Schwedenschanze ( Swedish fortification ) , a defensive remnant of the Thirty Years ' War about 4 kilometers ( 2 mi ) east of the village , and established a battery there , but did not bring enough troops to support it . An attack by 4 @,@ 000 of Jacques MacDonald 's infantry secured the hill ; although Klenau 's cavalry managed to push the French back , they could not retake the hill . In the action , Klenau 's own horse was shot and killed , and he was nearly captured , but he struggled back to his line , and reorganized his men .
Eventually , Klenau 's corps took the village and the Kolmberg several times , to be pushed out by the French , to counter @-@ attack , retreat , counter @-@ attack and retreat and this see @-@ sawing back and forth , the attacks , counter @-@ attacks experienced by Klenau 's force , were characteristic of the battle . On the critical first day of the battle , 16 October , a French 100 @-@ gun artillery barrage forced a hole in the line between the Russian and Prussian forces on Klenau 's flank . When Murat 's cavalry charged the hole , Klenau 's corps , plus reserve cavalry , eventually forced the Murat 's troops back to the cover of the French artillery . Klenau 's force made a short retreat , leaving a detachment at the Kolmberg . By mid @-@ afternoon , the Allied columns had been driven to their starting positions , but had maintained their line ; as one part of the line was forced back , its flanks dropped back with it , maintaining a continuous line and preventing a French flanking operation . In this first @-@ day action , Klenau 's force played a vital role in preventing MacDonald from flanking Prince Schwarzenberg 's main army . On the night of the 16th , the French controlled the Kolmberg that Klenau had fought over all day , and a Hessian soldier wrote : " it was the worst bivouac we had experienced on this campaign . The weather was wet and windy ... we had to use water from puddles in which lay the blood of men and horses ... and half the men remained under arms at all times . "
= = = Klenau and the Siege of Dresden = = =
After the battle , the allied high command assigned Klenau to blockade the large French garrison at Dresden . His IV Austrian Corps of the Army of Bohemia included the division of Lt. General Alexander Ivanovich , Count Ostermann @-@ Tolstoy , and the militia of Major General Alexey Nikolayevich Titov , a total of approximately 41 @,@ 000 troops . Klenau eventually negotiated a capitulation in which the French troops would return to France with their honors , on condition that they would not fight against the Allies for six months . Marshal Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr surrendered to Klenau on 11 November , but Schwarzenburg refused to agree to the capitulation and the French troops marched into captivity into Austria instead . The victors took 94 French field guns and 151 Saxon fortress guns , and wrested from the French complete control over the Kingdom of Saxony .
= = War in France 1814 – 1815 and post @-@ war career = =
During the 1814 campaigns , Klenau remained with the Army of Bohemia as it approached Paris slowly , from the south @-@ east , via the Seine river valley . The armies would be as many as 32 kilometers ( 20 mi ) apart . Their communications would be conducted through Wittgenstein 's cavalry and some irregular cossacks , which was directly opposite to the Trachenberg plan . Schwarzenberg knew it was exactly what Napoleon would want them to do , but reluctantly agreed to it . Afterward , Klenau commanded a corps in Italy , known as the Korps Klenau . After the war ended again in 1815 , Klenau was appointed commanding general in Moravia and Silesia . He held this office until his death on 6 October 1819 at Brno , in the modern @-@ day Czech Republic .
= Baila Esta Cumbia =
" Baila Esta Cumbia " ( English : English : Dance to this Cumbia ) is a song recorded by American Tejano singer Selena for her second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) . It was released as the second single by EMI Latin on August 28 , 1990 , behind " Ya Ves " . It was composed by her brother – producer A.B. Quintanilla , and Selena y Los Dinos backup dancer , Pete Astudillo . The recording is an up @-@ tempo Mexican cumbia song . It was well @-@ received by music critics who enjoyed its cumbia @-@ feel and rhythm .
The track received exposure on radio stations that predominately played cumbia music , and as a result the recording became a hit single for the singer It was named among her best recordings in her career by music critics . " Baila Esta Cumbia " peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart . In 2005 , A.B. recorded a remix / duet version of the track with his band Kumbia Kings , which peaked at number 16 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Airplay chart and number 44 on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Other cover versions include recordings by Mexican singers Diana Reyes and Yuridia .
= = Background and release = =
" Baila Esta Cumbia " was released as the second single from Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) in the United States and in Mexico . A compilation album of the same name was released in Mexico and sold 150 @,@ 000 copies . It was certified platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) , denoting sales of 250 @,@ 000 units . " Baila Esta Cumbia " was written by Selena 's brother and principal record producer , A.B. Quintanilla and Selena y Los Dinos ' backup dancer , Pete Astudillo . During an interview in 2002 , A.B. said that the recording helped the band 's exposure on radio stations that predominantly spins cumbia music recordings .
The song is an up @-@ tempo Mexican cumbia Tejano song . It is set in common time and moves at a moderate rate of 90 beats per minute . " Baila Esta Cumbia " is written in the key of C major . The vocal range of the melody extends from the note G ♯ 3 to A4 .
= = Reception and impact = =
The majority of contemporary reviews on " Baila Esta Cumbia " were positive . Billboard contributor Ramiro Burr praised the song for its " melodic hook " . Burr , who wrote in The Billboard Guide to Tejano and Regional Mexican Music ( 1999 ) , opined that Selena " evolved a rhythmic style " which paved way for " catchy cumbias " , giving " Baila Esta Cumbia " as his example of her " increasing prowess " . Italian essayist Gaetano Prampolini , called " Baila Esta Cumbia " a " plain cumbia dance pleasure " in his book The Shade of the Saguaro . In a 2013 contribution to OC Weekly , Marco Torres added that " Baila Esta Cumbia " is a " fun song " and noted its " lively " addictive nature . John Storm Roberts wrote in his book The Latin Tinge , that the recording is an " up @-@ tempo romantic piece " for his review of Selena 's live album , Live ( 1993 ) . Roberts added that with " Como la Flor " , the two " mixes pop vocalism , some quite free scatting , and a classic banda keyboard sound . " Federico Martinez of the San Antonio La Prensa called the recording " upbeat " .
Deborah R. Vargas wrote in her book Dissonant Divas in Chicana Music : The Limits of la Onda ( 2008 ) , that Selena reconstructed Tejano music with the additions of cumbia music , giving credit to " Baila Esta Cumbia " as an example of Selena 's blended musical compositions . The recording became one of Selena 's biggest hit singles . It has appeared on a number of critics ' " best Selena songs " lists , including OC Weekly ( at number five ) , and Latina magazine ( at number three ) . It entered The TouchTunes Most Played chart on Billboard on the issue dated April 7 , 2001 , with 1 @.@ 5 million airplay spins . The song was included in the set list for the Selena Forever musical , which ran for one year in 2000 .
= = Cover versions = =
Mexican singer Diana Reyes recorded the song for her album Ámame , Bésame ( 2010 ) . Mexican singer Yuridia performed " Baila Esta Cumbia " during her tour in Mexico in 2013 to a positive reception .
= = = Kumbia Kings ' version = = =
Selena 's brother and principal record producer , A.B. formed Kumbia Kings in 1997 . In 2005 , the band remixed " Baila Esta Cumbia " into a duet version for their album Duetos under the title " Baila Esta Kumbia " . Evan C. Gutierrez music reviewer for AllMusic believed that the Kumbia Kings ' version is a " postmortem love letter " to Selena . Kumbia Kings performed their version for the tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! , which premiered live on Univision on April 7 , 2005 . The track debuted at number 35 on the US Billboard Regional Mexican Airplay chart on the issue dated April 2 , 2005 . It eventually peaked at number 16 .
= = Charts = =
= Mycena chlorophos =
Mycena chlorophos is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae . First described in 1860 , the fungus is found in subtropical Asia , including Japan , Taiwan , Polynesia , Indonesia , and Sri Lanka , in Australia , and Brazil . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have pale brownish @-@ grey sticky caps up to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter atop stems 6 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) long and up to a millimeter thick . The mushrooms are bioluminescent and emit a pale green light . Fruiting occurs in forests on fallen woody debris such as dead twigs , branches , and logs . The fungus can be made to grow and fruit in laboratory conditions , and the growth conditions affecting bioluminescence have been investigated .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically by Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1860 as Agaricus chlorophos . The original specimens were collected from the Bonin Islands by American botanist Charles Wright in October 1854 as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition of 1853 – 56 . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the species to the genus Mycena in an 1887 publication . Daniel Desjardin and colleagues redescribed the species and set a lectotype specimen in 2010 .
In 1860 Berkeley and Curtis described the species Agaricus cyanophos from material also collected from the Bonin Islands . This material was found near the location that the original specimens of M. chlorophos were found , but a couple of weeks later . Japanese mycologists Seiya Ito and Sanshi Imai studied these collections in the late 1930s , and concluded that Agaricus cyanophos was the same species as M. chlorophos , despite differences in cap shape , gill attachment , and the color of emitted light . Desjardin and colleagues agreed with this determination after examining the type material of both taxa . M. chlorophos is classified in the section Exornatae of the genus Mycena . Other luminescent species in this section are M. discobasis and M. marginata . Some authors have considered M. illuminans to be synonymous with M. chlorophos due to their morphological similarity , but molecular analysis has shown that they are distinct species .
In Japan , the mushroom is known as yakoh @-@ take , or " night @-@ light mushroom " . In the Bonin Islands it is called " Green Pepe " .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex before flattening out ( sometimes forming a central depression ) , and measures up to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The cap has radial grooves extending to nearly the center , and sometimes develops cracks in the margin , which has small rounded teeth . Its color is pale brownish gray that fades after expansion , and it is somewhat sticky . The white stem is 6 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 – 1 mm thick , hollow , and translucent . It has tiny hairs on the surface . The base of the stem is disc @-@ shaped or somewhat bulbous , measuring 1 – 2 @.@ 5 mm wide . The thin gills are free from attachment to the stem , or are adnexed ( narrowly attached ) to a slight collar encircling the stem . Initially white then grayish in color , they are somewhat crowded , with 17 – 32 full @-@ length gills and 1 to 3 tiers of lamellulae ( shorter gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) . The gills are 0 @.@ 3 – 1 mm wide with micaceous edges . The flesh is very thin , and has a strong odor of ammonia . Both the caps and the gills are bioluminescent , while the mycelia and stems have little to no luminescence .
The spores are white , smooth , roughly elliptical , and have dimensions of 7 – 8 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 17 – 23 by 7 @.@ 5 – 10 μm , and four @-@ spored with sterigmata around 3 μm long . The paraphyses are 5 – 8 μm wide , shorter than the basidia , more abundant and form a somewhat gelatinous layer . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the cap edge ) are 60 by 7 – 21 μm , hyaline , conical or ventricose ( inflated ) . The tips of the cheilocystidia are drawn out to a point , or have a short appendage measuring 15 by 2 – 3 μm , which is sometimes branched , and is thin or slightly thick @-@ walled . There are no cystidia on the gill face ( pleurocystidia ) . Pileocystidia ( cystidia on the surface of the cap ) are club @-@ shaped , measuring 25 – 60 by 13 – 25 μm . They are somewhat thick @-@ walled , and spiny on the exposed surface with short simple outgrowths extending up to 3 μm long . The pileocystidia are joined together and form a continuous layer over the young cap , but break up as the cap expands . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) are conical or lance @-@ shaped , hyaline , and smooth , with walls that are thin or slightly thickened . They measure up to 300 by 10 – 25 μm , but are shorter in the upper regions of the stem . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of all tissues .
= = Similar species = =
The two other luminescent species of Mycena section Exornatae are similar in appearance to M. chlorophos . M. discobasis fruit bodies have paler caps ; microscopically , they have larger spores measuring 9 @.@ 9 by 6 @.@ 7 μm , and lack the short apical appendage found on M. chlorophos cheilocystidia . M. margarita has smaller spores averaging 6 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 4 μm , smaller cheilocystidia , and loop @-@ like clamp connections .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies of Mycena chlorophos are found in forests , where they grow in groups on woody debris such as fallen twigs , branches , and bark . In the Japanese Hachijo and Bonin Islands , mushrooms occur predominantly on decaying petioles of the palm Phenix roeberenii . The fungus requires a proper range of humidity to form mushrooms ; for example , on Hachijo Island , fruiting only occurs in the rainy seasons in June / July and September / October when the relative humidity is around 88 % , usually the day after rain falls . Experimental studies have shown that mushroom primordia that are too wet become deformed , while conditions that are too dry cause the caps to warp and break because the delicate gelatinous membrane covering them is broken .
In Asia , the species has been found in Japan , Taiwan , Polynesia , Java , and Sri Lanka . In Japan , the fungus is becoming more scarce as its natural habits are decreasing . Several Australian field guides have reported the species from that country . The fungus has also been recorded several times from Brazil . Mycena chlorophos was one of several fungi featured in a set of postage stamps issued in Samoa in 1985 .
= = Bioluminescence studies = =
Since the mushroom is small , and fruits in only a limited season in a small area , researchers have investigated the conditions needed to artificially cultivate the species in laboratory conditions , in order to have more material to study the mechanism of bioluminescence , and to help preserve the species . The optimum temperature for the growth of mycelia is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) , while the optimum for the growth of primordia is 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . These temperatures are consistent with the subtropical climate in which the species is typically found . Maximum luminescence occurs at 27 ° C , and about 25 – 39 hours after the primordia begin to form , when the cap has fully expanded . At 21 ° C , luminescence persists for about 3 days , and becomes undetectable to the naked eyes about 72 hours after primordium initiation .
= Main Navy and Munitions Buildings =
The Main Navy and Munitions Buildings were constructed in 1918 along Constitution Avenue ( then known as B Street ) on Washington , D.C. ' s National Mall ( Potomac Park ) , to provide temporary quarters for the United States Military . Both buildings were constructed by the Navy 's Bureau of Yards and Docks , with the United States Department of War occupying the Munitions Building . To make the buildings more resistant to fire , the buildings were constructed using concrete . With solid construction , the temporary buildings remained in use long after the end of World War I.
In August 1939 , the Secretary of War relocated his offices from the overcrowded State @-@ War @-@ Navy Building ( Old Executive Office Building ) to the Munitions Building . The Department of War headquarters remained in the Munitions Building , through the early years of World War II , until 1942 , when some space became available in the Pentagon , which was under construction . The Munitions Building was turned over to the Navy in 1943 , when the Department of War completely vacated the Munitions Building once construction of the Pentagon was completed .
Both buildings suffered serious structural problems in the 1960s . In December 1969 , President Richard Nixon announced that both buildings would be demolished , a plan which was carried out in 1970 . The land was then reclaimed and turned into Constitution Gardens , with the Vietnam Veterans Memorial built near the former Munitions Building site in the early 1980s .
= = Construction = =
Constructing the Munitions and Main Navy Buildings was an idea conceived by Franklin D. Roosevelt , then the Assistant Secretary of the Navy , who put forth the idea to President Woodrow Wilson . Roosevelt originally suggested a temporary building be placed on the Ellipse , but President Wilson disliked the idea of a building on the White House 's front lawn . Thus , Roosevelt suggested placing the buildings on the National Mall ( Potomac Park ) along B Street ( renamed Constitution Avenue in 1931 ) , near the Lincoln Memorial . Roosevelt wanted them to be ugly wooden buildings , so that people would want to tear them down right away after World War I. However , to make the buildings more fire resistant , concrete and steel materials were recommended . Roosevelt later expressed regret for allowing these building to be constructed , saying in 1941 , " I didn 't think I would ever be let into the Gates of Heaven , because I had been responsible for desecrating the parks of Washington . "
The project was originally intended for just the Navy , but the Department of War also wanted in on the project , thus two buildings were proposed . With concrete construction not unreasonably more expensive than a wood frame building , Congress accepted the proposal for concrete buildings , and approved the funds for the project in March 1918 . The task of design and construction of the buildings was given to the Navy 's Bureau of Yards and Docks , and the buildings were completed in 51 ⁄ 2 months .
= = Munitions Building = =
The Munitions Building , constructed in 1918 , contained 841 @,@ 000 square feet ( 78 @,@ 100 m2 ) of space across three stories , and was designed to provide temporary accommodations for 9 @,@ 000 Department of War employees . During World War I , the War Department had greatly expanded , and by the end of the war , the Main Navy and Munitions Building together housed 14 @,@ 000 military personnel , including the Secretary of the Navy . A large parking lot 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide and 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) long , was located at the rear of the Munitions Building , with space to accommodate approximately 1 @,@ 000 cars . Various small exhibits were on display in the corridors of the Munitions Buildings , showing military uniforms , types of gas masks , military daily rations , and Army photographs . The Munitions Building was separated from the Main Navy Building by a vehicle entryway at 19th Street , and the main entrance of the Munitions Building was located at 20th Street . The Munitions Building had a total of eight wings .
At the end of World War I , the Munitions Building housed technical branches , including the Quartermaster General , United States Army Corps of Engineers , Ordnance Corps , Chemical Warfare Service , Signal Corps , and Army Air Service . In March 1923 , the Army 's Finance Office also moved into the Munitions Building . In February 1924 , plans were put forth to build an oil steam plant for the Main Navy and Munitions Building . In November 1933 , the Army Inspector General 's office , along with the Organized Reserves , the welfare section of the Secretary 's office , and the Office of Chief of Chaplains moved into the Munitions Building . The National Guard Bureau also was housed in the Munitions Building , as was the Army Industrial College .
= = = Headquarters = = =
At the time when the Munitions Building was constructed , the War Department was headquartered in the State @-@ War @-@ Navy Building , which was completed in 1888 and located on 17th Street NW , next to the White House . By the 1930s , the War Department was being squeezed out by the Department of State , and the White House was also in need of additional office space . In August 1939 , Secretary of War Harry H. Woodring , along with Acting Chief of Staff of the Army George C. Marshall , moved his office into the Munitions Building . In the late 1930s , a new War Department Building was constructed at 21st and C Streets in Foggy Bottom , but upon completion , the new building did not solve the department 's space problem , and ended up being used by the Department of State . To help deal with the space shortage , a fourth story was added to the Main Navy and Munitions Buildings during World War II .
Coming into office , with World War II breaking out in Europe , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was faced with the situation of the War Department spread out in numerous buildings across Washington , D.C. , as well as Maryland and Virginia , and the Munitions Building was overcrowded . On July 28 , 1941 , Congress authorized funding for a new Department of War building in Arlington , Virginia , which would house the entire department under one roof . When office space became available in 1942 at the Pentagon in the first completed wing , the Secretary of War vacated the Munitions Building and moved to the Pentagon . The Department of War vacated the Munitions Building in 1943 , once construction of the Pentagon was completed . The Department of Navy took over the Munitions Building once the Department of War relocated out of the building , and placed the Navy 's Material Systems Command offices in the Munitions Building .
= = = World War II = = =
The Signal Intelligence Service was located in the Munitions Building during the early years of World War II . In September 1939 , the Signal Intelligence Service was able to break Japan 's cipher , Purple . The Department of War continued to receive intercepted messages , codenamed Magic , including final messages to the Japanese Embassy in Washington before the Attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = Main Navy = =
The Main Navy building was used by the Navy from the time it was built , until it was demolished in 1970 . The building contained 940 @,@ 000 square feet ( 87 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space , nine wings , and was connected to the Munitions Building by an elevated covered walkway .
Navy offices housed in the Main Navy building soon after it opened included the Bureau of Navigation , Bureau of Supplies and Accounts , Bureau of Steam Engineering , Bureau of Construction and Repair , the Bureau of Yards and Docks , Bureau of Ordnance , Bureau of Medicine and Surgery , the Secretary of Navy 's offices , along with Naval Operations , and the Compensation Board . Later on , other Navy Offices moved into Main Navy , including the Dispensary , the Navy Red Cross , Examining Board , and Retiring Board , which were previously housed in Corcoran Courts , an apartment building converted into offices . The Hydrographic Office and United States Marine Corps moved to Main Navy from a Navy Annex building , located at New York Avenue and 18th Street , and the United States Coast Guard relocated from the Munsey Building . The Navy Department Library was relocated to the Main Navy building in 1923 . From 1926 to 1941 , a small reinforced concrete roof penthouse on the Main Navy building was used for radio and communication intercepts training .
= = Criticism = =
The Main Navy and Munitions Buildings were disliked by many , as going against the intentions of Pierre ( Peter ) Charles L 'Enfant of making the National Mall into an open space surrounded by aesthetically pleasing government buildings . The Munitions and Navy buildings were described as " unsightly shacks , of which many scores sprung up like mushrooms during the war " . Despite their dislike , due to their solid construction , many were concerned that the buildings would remain for a long period .
= = Demolition = =
By 1960 , the Munitions Building housed approximately 7 @,@ 000 employees of not only the Navy , but also the Army , Air Force , Veterans Administration , and the Department of State . After decades of use , the building experienced structural problems in the late 1950s and 1960s , including cracked concrete piers , numerous interior cracked and bent walls , and settling floors . The buildings , constructed on marshy parkland , were damp and the foundations settling . Portions of the buildings were declared unsafe in 1969 , resulting in approximately 3 @,@ 000 employees relocating to other facilities . In December 1969 , President Richard Nixon announced a plan for demolishing the Main Navy and Munitions Buildings . The plan involved moving Navy employees to new buildings in the Crystal City and Ballston areas in Arlington , Virginia . The Main Navy and Munitions Buildings remained on the Mall until 1970 , when they were demolished .
In the 1970s , Constitution Gardens was built on the former site of the Main Navy and Munitions Buildings , and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was built nearby in the early 1980s .
= OXO =
OXO is a video game created by Alexander S. Douglas in 1952 for the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator ( EDSAC ) computer , which simulates a game of noughts and crosses , also called tic @-@ tac @-@ toe . It was one of the first games developed in the early history of video games . Douglas programmed the game as part of a thesis on human @-@ computer interaction for the University of Cambridge . The EDSAC was one of the first stored @-@ program computers , with memory that could be read from or written to , and had three small cathode ray tube screens to display the state of the memory ; Douglas re @-@ purposed one screen to demonstrate portraying other information to the user , such as the state of a noughts and crosses game . After the game served its purpose , it was discarded . OXO , along with a draughts game by Christopher Strachey completed around the same time , is one of the earliest known games to display visuals on an electronic screen . Under some definitions it thus may qualify as the first video game , though other definitions exclude it due to its lack of moving or real @-@ time updating graphics .
= = History = =
The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator ( EDSAC ) mainframe computer was built in the University of Cambridge 's Mathematical Laboratory between 1946 and 6 May 1949 , when it ran its first program , and remained in use until 11 July 1958 . The EDSAC was one of the first stored @-@ program computers , with memory that could be read from or written to , and filled an entire room ; it included three 35 × 16 dot matrix cathode ray tubes ( CRTs ) to graphically display the state of the computer 's memory . As a part of a thesis on human @-@ computer interaction , Alexander S. Douglas , a doctoral candidate in mathematics at the university , used one of these screens to portray other information to the user ; he chose to do so via displaying the current state of a game .
Douglas used the EDSAC to simulate a game of noughts and crosses , also called tic @-@ tac @-@ toe , and display the state of the game on the screen . Like other early video games , after serving Douglas 's purpose , the game was discarded . Douglas did not give the game a name beyond " noughts and crosses " ; the name OXO first appeared as the name of the simulation file created by computer historian Martin Campbell @-@ Kelly while creating a simulation of the EDSAC several decades later . Around the same time that OXO was completed , Christopher Strachey expanded a draughts program he had originally written in 1951 and ported it to the Ferranti Mark 1 , which showed the state of the game on a CRT display . OXO and Strachey 's draughts program are the earliest known games to display visuals on an electronic screen , though it is unclear which of the two games was displayed first . As it ran on a computing device and used a graphical display , OXO is considered under some definitions to be a contender for the first video game , though under others it does not due to its lack of moving graphics or graphics which update continuously .
= = Interaction = =
Each game was played by one user against an artificially intelligent opponent , which could play a " perfect " game . The player entered their input using a rotary telephone controller , selecting which of the nine squares on the board they wished to move next . Their move would appear on the screen , and then the computer 's move would follow ; the game display only updated when the game state changed . OXO was not available to the general public and could only be played in the University of Cambridge 's Mathematical Laboratory by special permission , as the EDSAC could not be moved , and both the computer and the game were only intended for academic research purposes .
= The Springfield Connection =
" The Springfield Connection " is the 23rd episode of the sixth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 7 , 1995 . After watching Snake Jailbird cheat Homer out of US $ 20 in a Three @-@ card Monte con game , Marge successfully chases Snake and knocks him out with the lid of a garbage can . The experience of foiling a crime exhilarates her , and she decides to join the Springfield Police . Marge completes her police training and joins a beat as a police officer . She becomes disillusioned with her work after witnessing her friends committing crimes and being exposed to police corruption and resigns from the force .
The episode was written by Jonathan Collier with input from David Mirkin , and directed by Mark Kirkland . The episode 's story was inspired by executive producer Mike Reiss ' wife , who had debated becoming a police officer . " The Springfield Connection " drew on influences from the 1980s police drama Hill Street Blues and the 1971 film The French Connection , and includes references to McGruff the Crime Dog and the theme music to Star Wars .
Reviews in The Sydney Morning Herald and DVD Movie Guide were favorable , and the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide cited Marge 's police training as the highlight of the episode . Contributors to compilation works analyzing The Simpsons from philosophical and cultural perspectives have cited and discussed the episode . Marge 's experiences in the episode are compared to the character Rita from the stage comedy Educating Rita by Willy Russell in a literary analysis of the play .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Marge , on the way back from an orchestra performance , pass through a seedy part of town . Marge cautions Homer , but gets enticed by Snake 's Three @-@ card Monte game . Snake cheats Homer out of $ 20 . Marge exposes the con , and Snake takes off . Marge and Homer chase after him , but Homer fails to catch up . Marge manages to knock Snake unconscious using a garbage can lid . The incident gives her a sense of exhilaration , she finds that her everyday routine is dull and boring , and she decides to spice up her life by joining the Springfield police force . Homer is less than enthused about her becoming a cop , but she assures him that he will remain " man of the house " . Marge reports for police recruit training and performs well in the various tests , eventually becoming part of the force .
On her first day , Chief Wiggum assigns Marge to Junkyville and Bumtown . On her beat , after encountering Lionel Hutz rummaging in a dumpster , she visits the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , where Apu tries to bribe her . On her day off , she orders Bart to wear safety equipment when skateboarding . Lisa tries to encourage Marge to attack the roots of social problems but she changes the subject with a McGriff the Crime Dog puppet . That night , Homer and his friends ( Lenny , Carl , Moe , and Barney , who are joined by Herman ) , play a game of poker . Marge comes in and tells them gambling is illegal , and Homer 's friends and Herman beat a hasty retreat .
Marge becomes unenthusiastic about her job , as everyone seems to be breaking the law - especially Homer , who has parked illegally along a disabled parking area and bought liquor for the underage bullies . Marge arrests Homer by writing him a parking ticket . While hosting another poker game and complaining about the drawbacks of Marge 's new job , he finds Herman running a jean @-@ counterfeiting operation in the Simpsons ' garage . As Herman and his henchmen are about to beat him up , Marge bursts in . As she is cuffing the rest of the minions , Herman takes Homer hostage and runs to Bart 's treehouse , with Marge in hot pursuit . Herman tries to escape using a pair of counterfeit jeans as a rope , but they rip and he falls to the ground . Wiggum informs Marge that they can 't hold Herman due to the evidence " mysteriously disappearing " , with Wiggum and the cops openly stealing the jeans for themselves . Marge gets fed up with the obvious " corruption " on the force and finally quits .
= = Production = =
" The Springfield Connection " was written by Jonathan Collier and directed by Mark Kirkland . According to Collier , the inspiration for the episode was former Simpsons executive producer Mike Reiss ' wife . At one point , she had seriously decided that she wanted to become a police officer but it did not happen . The joke where the police officers laugh at Marge for a long time was pitched by David Mirkin and features a " crazy twist " at the end where Wiggum says " welcome aboard . " Mirkin liked the joke so much that he repeated it again at the end of the episode . Marge uses a " McGriff the crime dog " hand puppet who says " Help me bite crime " . The hand puppet is a homage to McGruff the Crime Dog – the producers had wanted to use the real McGruff , but could not get permission to use the character . The idea to have a counterfeit jeans ring was pitched because at the time there had been an explosion in the jeans market , and David Mirkin thought it was right to satirize it .
When the Korean animators were animating the sequence with Marge in the gun training course , they did not know how to correctly animate the " shell com [ ing ] out of the gun " because guns were illegal in Korea . They had to consult with the American animators , who advised them to watch movies so they could properly animate the guns . The original design for Marge 's police uniform had Marge 's hair standing up ( as it normally is ) with the hat on top . Director Mark Kirkland found that it made for awkward staging in scenes , so they altered the design to have her hair pulled down . David Mirkin later stated that if the design had been used , he would have asked for it to be changed because they were trying to depict Marge as a serious cop .
There has been a dispute in recent years over whether Moe refers to Homer 's garage as a " car hole " or " car hold " . Both Mirkin and Hank Azaria , who voices Moe , have confirmed via Twitter that the line is , in fact , " car hole . "
= = Cultural references = =
The title , as well as Herman 's illegal activities , are references to the 1971 film The French Connection . The couch gag , a parody of the gun barrel sequence in the James Bond films shows some similarities to that of Sean Connery 's own gunbarrel sequences . Several references are made to the 1980s police drama Hill Street Blues : the briefing scene at the police station is similar and the background and end credits music , are parodies of the show 's theme . Marge appears on an episode of COPS , and McGriff the dog is a reference to McGruff the Crime Dog , a US police public relations figure . Additionally , Marge 's training sequences features homages to Police Academy ( 1984 ) and Speed ( 1994 ) . The Springfield Pops play the theme to the Star Wars films at an outdoor venue attended by Homer and Marge , and Homer mistakenly believes that the theme 's composer John Williams is dead , complaining : " Laser effects , mirrored balls — John Williams must be rolling around in his grave ! " . When Marge tries to climb the wall during training is a reference to the film An Officer and a Gentleman .
= = Analysis = =
Kurt M. Koenigsberger analyzes Homer 's comments about the Springfield Pops rendition of the Star Wars theme in Koenigsberger 's piece : " Commodity Culture and Its Discontents : Mr. Bennett , Bart Simpson , and the Rhetoric of Modernism " published in the compilation work Leaving Springfield : The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture edited by John Alberti . Koenigsberger comments : " The joke in this opening scene involves a confusion of high and popular artistic production : Marge treats the Springfield Pops as ' culture ' and expects that the usually boorish Homer will need to be drawn into the spectacle . " However , Koenigsberger notes that Homer actually regards Star Wars as a " classic " , implying that a " classic " work must have a musical composer that is deceased , and be devoid of light @-@ shows or glitter balls . Koenigsberger uses this example to discuss Homer 's application of " a strategy characteristic of literary modernism " .
In their book Educating Rita by Willy Russell , Rebecca Mahon and Nick Chedra cite Marge 's desire to " enter the world " as an example of their topic called " Into the World " . Mahon and Chedra note : " Comedy and parody are frequently used in the episode in order to convey the frustrations Marge is forced to deal with — whether these are based around the corruption of her colleagues , the music used on occasion which parodies former police shows , or even the scene where Marge is forced to arrest her husband . " The authors compare Marge 's experiences to those of the character Rita from the stage comedy Educating Rita by Willy Russell , commenting that both women later regret the decision to " move into the world " .
In the compilation book The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer edited by William Irwin , Mark T. Conard and Aeon J. Skoble , contributors Gerald J. Erion and Joseph A. Zeccardi cite the episode as an example in their piece titled : " Marge 's Moral Motivation " . Erion and Zeccardi assert that Marge has " virtuous personality traits " which they compare to Aristotle , commenting : " Whether breaking up a counterfeit jeans ring run out of her garage in " The Springfield Connection , " escaping a cult commune in " The Joy of Sect , " or standing up to a Poe @-@ ssessed " Treehouse of Horror , " Marge is rarely short on courage . " They also note that " .. Marge 's crime @-@ stopping vigilantism in " The Springfield Connection " and her dangerous escape from the Movementarian commune in " The Joy of Sect " demonstrate that she is genuinely brave , but not foolhardy . "
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Springfield Connection " finished 58th in ratings for the week of May 1 – 7 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 . It was the 4th highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 , The X @-@ Files and Melrose Place .
Robin Oliver rates the episode " thumbs up " in a review in The Sydney Morning Herald , where she says of The Simpsons series : " this encouragingly funny show knows how to tug at the heartstrings " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood comment on the episode in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide : " .. the highlight of this episode has to be Marge 's training , especially her sharpshooting on the firing range . " In a review of the sixth season of The Simpsons , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide writes that the episode surpasses the quality of the previous " ' Round Springfield " : " After the dull ' ’ Round ' , Season Six rebounds with the pretty good ' Connection ' . I can ’ t quite figure out how Marge stays in such good shape , but her escapades as a cop are funny , and the episode works best when she arrests Homer . I especially like his refusal to remain silent . "
= Barndoor skate =
The barndoor skate , Dipturus laevis , is a species of marine cartilaginous fish in the skate family ( family Rajidae ) of the order Rajiformes . It is native to the northwestern Atlantic Ocean , and is found from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and the southern side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to North Carolina . The fish is one of the largest skates found in the North Atlantic Ocean , reaching lengths of up to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 5 ft ) . It is carnivorous , feeding on invertebrates and other fish found near the sea floor .
After peaking in the 1950s , the population of the barndoor skate dramatically declined in the 1960s and early 1970s as a result of overfishing . In 2003 it was listed as endangered by the World Conservation Union . Barndoor populations have increased substantially since 1990 . In most cases , the barndoor skate is not intentionally harvested by the commercial fishing industry — it is usually considered by @-@ catch in the trawling nets used to target other species of fish .
= = Description = =
The barndoor skate is a flat @-@ bodied fish with a large , disk @-@ like body with sharply angled corners and a pointed snout . Its pectoral fins have evolved into broad , flat , wing @-@ like appendages used to propel the fish through the water . These fins have a concave front edge with rounded posterior corners . Like sharks , it has a boneless skeleton made of cartilage , a tough , elastic substance composed of collagenous and / or elastic fibers , cells , and a firm , gel @-@ like substance called the matrix . It has slot @-@ like body openings called gill slits on the underside of the body beneath the pectoral fins that lead from the gills . The dorsal fins are close together and far removed from the tail . It has two eyes on its dorsal surface , located approximately 5 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) apart .
The fish 's upper surface is brown to reddish brown with many scattered darker spots , lighter streaks , and reticulations . The center of each pectoral fin is marked with an oval spot or blotch . The lower surface is light , white to grey , blotched irregularly with gray spots . The barndoor skate is unique from other species of skate in its having a straight line that begins at the snout and ends at the anterior margin of the outer corner of the disk , but stopping short of the disk .
The barndoor skate is one of the largest skates found in the North Atlantic Ocean . It can reach lengths of up to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 5 ft ) and can weigh up to 18 kilograms ( 40 lb ) . There have been unconfirmed reports of individuals reaching lengths of 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 6 ft ) . A 71 – 76 @-@ centimeter ( 28 – 30 in ) barndoor skate weighs an average of 2 – 3 kilograms ( 4 – 7 lb ) .
The tail is moderately short and does not have large thorn @-@ like structures called dermal denticles that are normally found on skates . This lack of denticles distinguishes it from all but two species of skates that are found in the western Atlantic . Larger individuals do have three rows of smaller denticles on the tail , and mature females also possess denticles on the head and shoulders , and along the dorsal midbelt of the disk and tail . Denticles are completely absent on small individuals .
= = Habitat = =
The barndoor skate occurs in a range extending from the banks of Newfoundland , the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence , and along the northeastern coast and offshore banks of Nova Scotia down to North Carolina . There were reports in the 19th century that the range of the fish extended as far south as northeastern Florida , but more recent research suggests that the Florida discoveries may have actually been a misidentification of R. floridana . It is found on various types of ocean bottoms including soft muddy , sandy , and rocky bottoms . It can be found from the shoreline to depths of up to 750 meters ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) , although it is most commonly found at depths of less than 150 meters ( 500 ft ) . It inhabits waters in a broad range of temperatures , from just above freezing to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . It appears to move closer to shore in the autumn and further out to sea in the warmer months . It tolerates brackish water where the salinity is as low as 21 to 24 parts per thousand , but it prefers salinity between 31 and 35 parts per thousand . It is believed to not exhibit any north @-@ south migratory patterns .
= = Diet = =
The fish is carnivorous , with its prey consisting mainly of benthic invertebrates and fishes . Such food items include polychaetes , gastropods , bivalve mollusks , rock crabs , cancer crabs , spider crabs , lobsters , shrimps , squids , and fishes including spiny dogfish , alewife , Atlantic herring , menhaden , hakes , sculpins , cunner , tautog , sand lance , butterfish , and various flounders . Juveniles primarily subsist on benthic invertebrates such as polychaetes , copepods , amphipods , isopods , crangon shrimp , and euphausiids . Individuals have been found with the denticles on the snout worn smooth , indicating that the snout is used to dig in the mud or sand to obtain bivalve mollusks .
= = Importance to humans = =
The barndoor skate is one of five skates in the Gulf of Maine that has commercial value , but of those , the species that are most frequently targeted are the winter skate ( Leucoraja ocellata ) and the thorny skate ( Amblyraja radiata ) . The barndoor skate is most commonly considered by @-@ catch by commercial trawlers operating in the northwestern Atlantic that target other commercially valuable species of fish using bottom trawling . When harvested , the flesh of the barndoor skate is used as bait , fish meal , pet food , and the meat from its wings is sold for human consumption . Since 1981 , landings of skates have increased substantially , partly in response to increased demand for lobster bait , and more significantly , to the increased export market for skate wings . Currently , commercial retention and sale of barndoor skate is prohibited in the United States .
= = Conservation = =
Abundances of barndoor skate dropped precipitously in the 1960s and early 1970s , coinciding with the period of intense fishing by foreign factory trawlers . The abundance remained very low through around
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Abbas wrote , " This was one of my favorite episodes ever . It had me laughing the whole way through . " Abbas particularly praised the fire opening scene and the final scene in which Michael insults everybody , which he called " a very satisfying ending to the roast saga " . He called the Black / Leachman romance " creepy and hilarious " , but described the Jim and Pam romance subplot as the weak link of the episode .
David Krone of the Los Angeles Daily News said although he had mixed feelings about the fifth season so far , he found " Stress Relief " to be " one of the season 's best efforts " . Krone specifically praised the Jim and Pam subplot and Dwight 's character , adding , " It 's a pretty perfect way to unwind - or , if your team lost , to become reanimated - after the Super Bowl . " Rick Ingebritson of The Palm Beach Post said the episode " was funny from start to finish " , particularly praising Dwight Schrute 's role and the Michael Scott roast . However , Ingebritson said he was disgusted by the Leachman nude scene from Mrs. Albert Hannaday . Will Leitch of New York magazine , said the episode was funny , but " curiously unfocused [ like ] two half @-@ hour episodes awkwardly spliced together . He praised the Black / Leachman film , the trouble Dwight kept getting in , and the Jim and Pam subplot , which he called " a rare Pam @-@ Jim plot point that worked " . However , he called the Michael roast " yet another Michael @-@ wanting @-@ to @-@ be @-@ loved @-@ and @-@ still @-@ be @-@ the @-@ Boss subplot that takes over the second half " .
Not all reviews were positive . Entertainment Weekly writer Whitney Pastorek said the episode started strong with the fire scare scene , but " tapered off into a disjointed plot " that she felt would not win new viewers . She said many jokes went too long and lost momentum , but nevertheless wrote " a lot of the episode ’ s humor was engaging and smart " . Lorenzo Perez of The News & Observer said the Pam subplot was " overworked " and lacked impact , and the Dwight character was over @-@ the @-@ top , proving The Office writers clearly have no idea how to rein in Dwight Schrute . Perez also expressed doubt the show would attract a new audience because it ran too late into the night following the Super Bowl . However , Perez said he enjoyed the Black / Leachman cameos . Terry Morrow of the Knoxville News Sentinel said , " This particular visit to The Office doesn 't pop like most episodes " . Morrow praised the Black / Leachman film , but said , " To be upstaged by a B @-@ plot , one not involving the show 's main characters at all , is a bit of a misdirection the show doesn 't need in a post @-@ Super Bowl time slot . " USA Today critic Robert Bianco said the plot was extremely thin and the Black and Leachman cameos were humorless and grotesque . Bianco wrote , " Unfortunately , in an hour you get at most a handful of funny moments . So if you want funny from a comedy , look elsewhere . "
= = Awards = =
Jeffrey Blitz won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for " Stress Relief " . Dean Holland and David Rogers were also nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . " Stress Relief " accounted for two of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations The Office received for the show 's fifth season .
= Siege of Eretria =
The Siege of Eretria took place in 490 BC , during the first Persian invasion of Greece . The city of Eretria , on Euboea , was besieged by a strong Persian force under the command of Datis and Artaphernes .
The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt , when the Eretrians and Athenians had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule . The Eretrian and Athenian force had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis ( the regional capital of Persia ) , but was then forced to retreat with heavy losses . In response to this raid , the Persian king Darius I swore to have revenge on Athens and Eretria .
Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade , Darius began to plan to subjugate Greece . In 490 BC , he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean to subjugate the Cyclades , and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria . Reaching Euboea in mid @-@ summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean , the Persians proceeded to put Eretria under siege . The siege lasted six days before a fifth column of Eretrian nobles betrayed the city to the Persians . The city was plundered , and the population enslaved on Darius 's orders . The Eretrian prisoners were eventually taken to Persia and settled as colonists in Cissia .
After Eretria , the Persian force sailed for Athens , landing at the bay of Marathon . An Athenian army marched to meet them , and won a famous victory at the Battle of Marathon , thereby ending the first Persian invasion .
= = Background = =
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt , the earliest phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . However , it was also the result of the longer @-@ term interaction between the Greeks and Persians . In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic , but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , the Persian king Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . Even before the Ionian Revolt , Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe , subjugating Thrace , and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia . Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable . However , the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire , and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability . Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean , and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt .
The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos , a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Miletus tyrant Aristagoras . In the aftermath , Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power , but before he could do so , Aristagoras abdicated , and declared Miletus a democracy . The other Ionian cities followed suit , ejecting their Persian @-@ appointed tyrants , and declaring themselves democracies . Artistagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support , but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops .
The reasons that Eretria sent assistance to the Ionians are not completely clear . Possibly commercial reasons were a factor ; Eretria was a mercantile city , whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean . Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria in a past war against Chalcis .
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt . Whilst there , the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes , marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city . However , this was as much as the Greeks achieved , and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen , losing many men in the process . Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless , the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity , and he vowed to punish both cities . The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade ( 494 BC ) all but ended the Ionian Revolt , and by 493 BC , the last hold @-@ outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet . The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the East Aegean and the Propontis , which had not been part of the Persian dominions before . The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves ; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece , and to punish Athens and Eretria .
In 492 BC , once the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed , Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Mardonius . Mardonius re @-@ conquered Thrace and compelled Alexander I of Macedon to make Macedon a client kingdom to Persia , before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign . However , in 490 BC , following up the successes of the previous campaign , Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes , ( son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled ) and Datis , a Median admiral . Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor . The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire , to punish Naxos ( which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC ) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed . After island hopping across the Aegean , including successfully attacking Naxos , the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer , ready to fulfil their second major objective - to punish Eretria .
= = Prelude = =
When the Eretrians had discovered that the Persian task force was heading to attack them , they had appealed to the Athenians to send reinforcements . The Athenians agreed to this , and instructed the 4 @,@ 000 Athenian colonists from the nearby Euboean city of Chalcis to aid the Eretrians . These colonists had been planted on Chalcidian land after Athens had defeated Chalcis some 20 years previously . However , when these Athenians arrived at Eretria , they were told by a leading citizen , Aeschines , of the divisions amongst the Eretrians , and he advised them to leave and save themselves . The Athenians followed Aeschines ' advice and sailed to Oropus , thus avoiding the fate of the Eretrians .
The Eretrians failed to come to a clear plan of action ; in Herodotus 's words " it seems that all the plans of the Eretrians were unsound ; they sent to the Athenians for aid , but their counsels were divided " . There were three competing plans - one group wanted to surrender to the Persians , seeking to profit thereby , others wanted to flee to the hills above Eretria , whilst others wanted to fight . However , when the Persians landed in their territory the Eretrians , some consensus was obviously reached not to leave the city , but to try to withstand a siege , if possible .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Eretrians = = =
Herodotus does not estimate numbers for the Eretrians . Presumably , the majority of the citizen body would have been involved in the defence of the city , but the population of Eretria at the time cannot be clearly established .
= = = Persians = = =
According to Herodotus , the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes . Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army , only saying that they were a " large infantry that was well packed " . Among ancient sources , the poet Simonides , another near @-@ contemporary , says the campaign force numbered 200 @,@ 000 ; while a later writer , the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which only 100 @,@ 000 fought in the battle , while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion ; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300 @,@ 000 , as does the Suda dictionary . Plato and Lysias assert 500 @,@ 000 ; and Justinus 600 @,@ 000 .
Modern historians have proposed wide ranging numbers for the infantry , from 20 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 with a consensus of perhaps 25 @,@ 000 ; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1 @,@ 000
= = Siege = =
The Eretrian strategy was to defend their walls , and undergo a siege . Possibly this was the only plan that could be agreed on , or became the default option when no plan was agreed . At any rate , since the Persian army had only suffered two defeats in the last century , and since a Greek army had never successfully fought the Persians , this was probably a sensible strategy . Since the Persians arrived by ship , it is probable they had little siege equipment , and indeed , they had already been foiled in the siege of Lindos earlier in the expedition .
The Persians landed their army at three separate locations , disembarked , and made straight for Eretria . The Persians then began besieging the city . Rather than passively besieging the city , the Persians seem to have vigorously attacked the walls . Herodotus reports that the fighting was fierce and both sides suffered heavy losses . However , after six days of fighting , two eminent Eretrians , Euphorbus and Philagrus , opened the gates for the Persians . Once inside the city , the Persians plundered the city , burning the temples and sanctuaries in revenge for the burning of Sardis . Those citizens who were captured were enslaved , as Darius had ordered .
= = Aftermath = =
After staying at Eretria for a few days , the Persians made their way down the coast towards Attica . The Persians dropped the captured Eretrians off on the island of Aegilia , before landing at the bay of Marathon in Attica . The Persians ' next target was Athens . However , the Athenians had marched out from Athens to meet the Persians , and blocked the exits from the plains of Marathon . After several days of stalemate , the Athenians finally resolved to attack the Persians , winning a famous victory at the ensuing Battle of Marathon . After the battle , the remaining Persians fled to their ships , picked up the Eretrians from Aegilia , and then sailed back to Asia Minor , thereby ending the campaign , and the first Persian invasion of Greece .
When the Persian fleet arrived in Asia Minor , Datis and Artaphernes took the Eretrians before Darius in Susa . The Eretrians were not harmed by Darius who decided to settle them in the town of Ardericca in Cissia . They were still there , using their own language and customs , when Herodotus wrote his history , and were encountered by Alexander the Great during his conquest of Persia a further century later .
In the meanwhile , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC , and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium . However , defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign , and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories Perseus online version
Ctesias , Persica ( excerpt in Photius 's epitome )
Diodorus Siculus , Biblioteca Historica .
Thucydides , History of the Peloponnesian War
Cicero , On the Laws
Cornelius Nepos , Miltiades
Plutarch , Moralia
Pausanias , Description of Greece
Suda Dictionary ( unknown author )
Plato , Menexenus
Justin , epitome of Trogus Pompeius 's Philipic History
Lysias , Funeral Oration
= = = Modern sources = = =
Holland , Tom . Persian Fire . London : Abacus , 2005 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11717 @-@ 1 )
Lloyd , Alan . Marathon : The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy . Souvenir Press , 2004 . ( ISBN 0 @-@ 285 @-@ 63688 @-@ X )
Green , Peter . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1970 ; revised ed . , 1996 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 ) ; 1998 ( paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 ) .
Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7 )
Fox , Robin Lane . Alexander the Great . Penguin , 1973 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 008878 @-@ 4 )
Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989 .
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Higbie , C. The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past . Oxford University Press , 2003 .
Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 44 @-@ 435163 @-@ 7 .
= Act of Independence of Lithuania =
The Act of Reinstating Independence of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Valstybės atkūrimo aktas ) or Act of February 16 was signed by the Council of Lithuania on February 16 , 1918 , proclaiming the restoration of an independent State of Lithuania , governed by democratic principles , with Vilnius as its capital . The Act was signed by all twenty representatives of the Council , which was chaired by Jonas Basanavičius . The Act of February 16 was the result of a series of resolutions on the issue , including one issued by the Vilnius Conference and the Act of January 8 . The path to the Act was long and complex because the German Empire exerted pressure on the Council to form an alliance . The Council had to carefully maneuver between the Germans , whose troops were present in Lithuania , and the demands of the Lithuanian people .
The immediate effects of the announcement of Lithuania 's re @-@ establishment of independence were limited . Publication of the Act was prohibited by the German authorities , and the text was distributed and printed illegally . The work of the Council was hindered , and Germans remained in control over Lithuania . The situation changed only when Germany lost World War I in the fall of 1918 . In November 1918 the first Cabinet of Lithuania was formed , and the Council of Lithuania gained control over the territory of Lithuania . Independent Lithuania , although it would soon be battling the Wars of Independence , became a reality .
While the Act 's original document has been lost , its legacy continues . The laconic Act is the legal basis for the existence of modern Lithuania , both during the interwar period and since 1990 . The Act formulated the basic constitutional principles that were and still are followed by all Constitutions of Lithuania . The Act itself was a key element in the foundation of Lithuania 's re @-@ establishment of independence in 1990 . Lithuania , breaking away from the Soviet Union , stressed that it was simply re @-@ establishing the independent state that existed between the world wars and that the Act never lost its legal power .
= = Historic background and Council of Lithuania = =
Lithuania had a centuries long tradition of statehood following the coronation of Mindaugas the King of Lithuania .
After the last Partition of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Lithuania was annexed by the Russian Empire . During the 19th century , both the Lithuanians and the Poles attempted to restore their independence . Lithuanians rebelled during the 1830 November Uprising and the 1863 January Uprising , but their first real opportunity arose when both Russia and Germany were weakened during World War I.
In 1915 , Germany occupied western parts of the Russian Empire . After the Russian Revolution in 1917 , Germany conceived the geopolitical strategy of Mitteleuropa – a regional network of puppet states that would serve as a buffer zone – and agreed to allow the Vilnius Conference , hoping that it would proclaim that the Lithuanian nation wanted to detach itself from Russia and establish a closer relationship with Germany . However , this strategy backfired ; the conference , held from September 18 – 22 of 1917 , adopted a resolution that an independent Lithuania should be established and that a closer relationship with Germany would be conditional on Germany 's formal recognition of the new state . On September 21 , the 214 attendees at the conference elected a 20 @-@ member Council of Lithuania to codify this resolution . The German authorities did not allow that resolution to be published , but they did permit the Council to proceed . The Vilnius Conference also resolved that a constituent assembly be elected " in conformity with democratic principles by all the inhabitants of Lithuania " .
= = Path to the Act of February 16 = =
= = = Act of December 11 = = =
The Act of December 11 was the second stage in the progression towards the final Act of Independence . The first draft , demanded by chancellor Georg von Hertling , was prepared by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs on December 1 . Further changes were jointly prepared by the German chancellery and by a delegation of the Council of Lithuania . The delegation 's members were Antanas Smetona , Steponas Kairys , Vladas Mironas , Jurgis Šaulys , Petras Klimas and Aleksandras Stulginskis . After discussion amongst the parties , a compromise was reached on the document 's text . The German representative , Kurt von Lersner , insisted that not one word be changed in the agreed @-@ upon text and that all the Council members sign the document .
After the delegation returned to Vilnius , a session of the Council was held on December 11 in order to discuss the Act . It was adopted without any further changes . Fifteen voted in favor of the Act , three voted against it , one member abstained , and one did not participate . It is not entirely clear whether every member of the Council signed this document . The Act was written in German , and apparently no official Lithuanian translation was prepared . Therefore , different sources provide slightly different translations . The Act of December 11 pronounced Lithuania 's independence , but also asked German government for protection ( clause 2 ) and called for " a firm and permanent alliance " with Germany . Since the Act specified that the alliance was to be formed based on conventions concerning military affairs , transportation , customs , and currency , many Lithuanians argued that the Council had overstepped its authority : the September resolution adopted by the Vilnius Conference clearly demanded that a constituent assembly decide these crucial matters of state .
= = = Act of January 8 = = =
When peace talks started between Germany and Russia in 1918 , German authorities asked the Lithuanian representatives to prepare two notifications of independence — one for Russia , in which Lithuania 's ties with Russia would be denounced and nothing would be mentioned about an alliance with Germany , and a version to be released in Germany that would essentially repeat the Act of December 11 . The Council decided to amend the first part of the Act of December 11 . Petras Klimas included a sentence calling for the Constituent Assembly . Another important development was the statement that democratic principles would be the basis of the new state 's governance , something that was declared by the Vilnius Conference , but omitted in the Act of December 11 . The second part , mentioning the " firm and permanent alliance with Germany " , was completely omitted . Its final version was approved on January 8 , 1918 , the day that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson announced his Fourteen Points . In its essence , the Act of January 8 did not differ from the Act of February 16 .
However , Ober Ost , the German military administration , rejected the changes . On January 26 , in compliance with the earlier request , the two versions of the notification were approved , but they did not include the changes of January 8 . The texts were prepared based on the Act of December 11 . These concessions to the Germans created tensions among the council members . Four members – Mykolas Biržiška , Steponas Kairys , Stanisław Narutowicz and Jonas Vileišis – resigned from the Council in protest . Chairman Antanas Smetona , who supported the Act of December 11 , stepped down . Jonas Basanavičius , who would later be called the patriarch of independence , was elected chairman .
= = = Act of February 16 = = =
Germany failed to recognize Lithuania as an independent state , and the Lithuanian delegation was not invited to the Brest @-@ Litovsk negotiations that started on December 22 , 1917 between the Central Powers and Russia in order to settle territorial claims . During the first and final official joint session between the Council and the German authorities , it was made clear that the Council would serve only as an advisory board . This situation gave additional backing to those Council members who were seeking independence without any ties to other countries . The prime concern at this point was to invite back those members who had left the Council . Negotiations were undertaken that led to the reformulation of previous versions of the Act .
The four withdrawn members demanded that the Council return to the Act of January 8 and omit the mention of any alliance with Germany . After heated debates that lasted for several weeks , on February 15 , at 10 o 'clock am , the new revision of the Act was ready . It included , with minor stylistic changes , wording of the Act of January 8 and promulgation and notification , drafted on February 1 . Promulgation and notification do not carry legal weight and do not change the meaning of a legal document . The Council , including the withdrawn members , was invited to return the next day for its finalization . On the next day , February 16 , 1918 , at 12 : 30 pm , all twenty Council members met in the room of Lithuanian Committee for Support of the War Victims , at 30 Didžioji Street in Vilnius . The building has since been known as the House of the Signatories ( Lithuanian : signatarų namai ) and houses a museum . The Council first voted to approve the first part , the first two paragraphs up to the word drauge , of the Act . This section was approved unanimously . The second part , however , did not receive support from the four withdrawn members because they were not satisfied with the word " finally " in describing the duties of the Constituent Assembly ( in " ... the foundation of the Lithuanian State and its relations with other countries will be finally determined by the Constituent Assembly ... " ) . They were afraid that this word would give a pretext for the Council to usurp the powers of the Constituent Assembly , while the majority argued that the word simply expressed the non @-@ negotiable and non @-@ appealable nature of the future Assembly 's decisions . Therefore , the Act was unanimously approved en bloc but did not have full @-@ fledged support from all twenty men .
= = Final text of the Act = =
= = Path to the Act : graphic representation = =
Note : the colors of the functional sections correspond to the colored lines in the original text above .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Lithuania = = =
Soon after the signing , the Act was taken to Germany and handed to parties in the Reichstag . On February 18 , the text was reprinted in German newspapers , including Das Neue Litauen , Vossische Zeitung , Taegliche Rundschau and Kreuzzeitung . In Lithuania a text of the proclamation was prepared for printing in newspapers , particularly in Lietuvos aidas , the Council 's newspaper established by Antanas Smetona ; but the German authorities prohibited this publication . Although the majority of the copies of the issue were confiscated , the newspaper 's editor , Petras Klimas , managed to hide about 60 of them .
On March 3 , 1918 , Germany and the now @-@ Bolshevik Russia signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . It declared that the Baltic nations were in the German interest zone and that Russia renounced any claims to them . On March 23 , Germany recognized independent Lithuania on the basis of the December 11 declaration . However , in substance , nothing had changed either in Lithuania or in the Council 's status : any efforts to establish an administration were hindered . This situation changed when the German Revolution started and Germany lost the war in the fall of 1918 – it was no longer in a position to dictate terms . The Council of Lithuania adopted the first provisional constitution on November 2 . The functions of government were entrusted to a three @-@ member presidium , and Augustinas Voldemaras was invited to form the first Cabinet of Ministers of Lithuania . Complete international recognition took several years ; the US affirmed it on July 28 , 1922 .
= = = The Act = = =
Two copies of the Act were signed : the original and a duplicate . The original was given to Jonas Basanavičius to safeguard and protect . The original was never published or used in any public matters ; its existence was first mentioned in the press in 1933 . The whereabouts of the original remain unknown . The duplicate was used in day @-@ to @-@ day business , and was stored in the president 's archives until June 15 , 1940 , the day when Lithuania received an ultimatum from the Soviet Union and lost its independence . After that date the document disappeared . Neither the original nor the duplicate has been located ; historians and adventurers continue to hunt for it . In 2006 , a team of engineers searched the walls of the former house of Petras Vileišis . Two facsimiles of the duplicate were produced , one in 1928 and the other in 1933 . The 1928 facsimile is a closer reproduction of the Act in its original state ; there are spelling errors , and the background is visually " noisy " , while the 1933 facsimile shows the Act in an " improved " condition .
= = = The signatories = = =
Most of the signatories of the Act remained active in the cultural and political life of independent Lithuania . Jonas Vileišis served in the Seimas and as mayor of Kaunas , temporary capital of Lithuania ; Saliamonas Banaitis was involved in finance , opening several banks . Among the signatories were two future Presidents of Lithuania , Antanas Smetona and Aleksandras Stulginskis . Jonas Basanavičius , chairman of the Council of Lithuania , returned to an academic life , pursuing his research in Lithuanian culture and folklore . Five signatories died before World War II started ; three died during the Nazi occupation . Those who did not emigrate to Western countries became political prisoners after Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union .
Aleksandras Stulginskis and Petras Klimas were sent to prison in Siberia by Soviet authorities , but survived and returned to Lithuania ; Pranas Dovydaitis and Vladas Mironas were also sent to Siberia but died there . Kazys Bizauskas disappeared during the summer of 1941 while being transported to a Soviet prison in Minsk ; he is presumed to have been shot along with a number of other prisoners . Donatas Malinauskas was deported to Russia on June 14 , 1941 .
Several of the surviving signatories emigrated . Jurgis Šaulys and Kazimieras Steponas Šaulys died in Switzerland . Antanas Smetona , Mykolas Biržiška , and Steponas Kairys emigrated to the United States and are buried there .
= = Legacy = =
The Act of February 16 proclaimed the re @-@ establishment ( atstatyti ) of the Lithuanian state , making it the successor to the Lithuanian historical state , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . In this respect the Council deviated from the resolution adopted by the Vilnius Conference which called for establishment ( sudaryti ) of a Lithuanian state . However , it was made clear that the new state would be quite different from the old Duchy : it was to be organized only in ethnic Lithuanian lands ( except for Vilinus region which was majority Polish ) and was to be governed by democratic principles , as opposed to the multi @-@ ethnic Duchy that had been ruled by aristocracy . The termination of the ties binding Lithuania to other states was addressed to Germany , Russia , and Poland , all of which had their own plans for the country . Even though not addressed directly , the Act renounced any attempt to resurrect the former Polish @-@ Lithuanian union .
The Act of February 16 , 1918 , is the legal basis for the existence of present @-@ day Lithuania , both during the interwar period and since 1990 . The Act became one of the key elements during the restoration of Lithuania 's independence from the Soviet Union in 1990 . A paragraph in the Act of the Re @-@ Establishment of the State of Lithuania , delivered on March 11 , 1990 , stated :
This formulation emphasized the continuity of the two legal Acts . The Act of February 16 , 1918 and its successor , the Act of March 11 , 1990 , are regarded as two of the most important developments of Lithuanian society in the 20th century .
February 16 in Lithuania is now an official holiday . On this day various ceremonies are hosted all across Lithuania . The 2014 commemoration included laying flowers at the signatories ’ graves in Rasos Cemetery , awarding the Lithuanian National Prize , the hoisting of the three Baltic States ’ s flags at Daukantas Square , dedicated concerts at Cathedral Square in Vilnius and at the Lithuanian National Philharmonic Society hall , and the lighting of 16 fires along Gediminas Avenue .
In 1992 , an award was established in honor of Jonas Basanavičius , who led the Council of Lithuania when the Act of February 16 was signed . The Jonas Basanavičius Prize is bestowed for distinguished work within the previous five years in the fields of ethnic and cultural studies .
= 2007 National League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game =
The 2007 National League wild @-@ card tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 2007 regular season , played between the San Diego Padres and Colorado Rockies of the National League 's ( NL ) West Division to determine the NL wild card . It was played at Coors Field in Denver , Colorado , on October 1 , 2007 . The Rockies won the game 9 – 8 in thirteen innings on a controversial play at home plate .
The game was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 89 – 73 . The Rockies won a coin flip late in the season , which awarded them home field for the game . Upon winning , the Rockies advanced to the NL Division Series where they swept the Philadelphia Phillies . After advancing , they swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in the NL Championship Series , winning their first pennant in franchise history . However , the Rockies were , in turn , swept in the 2007 World Series by the Boston Red Sox , ending their season . In baseball statistics the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The 2007 season saw heavy competition between the Padres and the Arizona Diamondbacks for the National League West divisional title . The Padres spent 52 days with at least a share of the lead , while the Diamondbacks spent 89 total days atop the division and ultimately won by a game with a record of 90 – 72 . The Rockies spent just three days , last on April 6 , with a lead in the division . Notably the Diamondbacks scored 20 fewer runs than their pitchers allowed , one of just five teams in MLB history to make the playoffs despite being outscored during the season .
In addition to the divisional race , the competition over the wild card continued to the last day of the season . Six teams in the 2007 National League finished within five games of one another : the aforementioned Diamondbacks , Padres , and Rockies along with the Philadelphia Phillies , New York Mets , and Chicago Cubs . The Diamondbacks , Phillies , and Cubs won the Western , Eastern , and Central divisions respectively . Meanwhile , the 2007 Mets underwent what was described in the New York Times as " one of the biggest collapses in baseball history " , becoming the first team with a seven @-@ game divisional lead with only 17 games remaining to finish outside of first place , losing the Eastern division to the Phillies on the final day of the season . Also , at 88 – 74 , the Mets finished a single game behind the Rockies and Padres ' 89 – 73 record in the wild @-@ card race .
While the Padres had been a consistent presence amongst the league 's top teams during the 2007 season , the Rockies finished the first half with a .500 record of 44 – 44 . They propelled themselves into the wild @-@ card race , however , by going 46 – 29 in the second half of the season including a Rockies ' season @-@ best 11 @-@ game winning streak from September 16 through September 27 and ultimately tied the Padres regular season record . With the Rockies and Padres holding the best non @-@ division winning records in the league a tie @-@ breaker was necessary to determine the wild @-@ card winner . A coin flip conducted earlier that September set the Rockies ' home park of Coors Field as the location for the game .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for Monday October 1 , 2007 — 5 : 37 p.m. ( MT ) at Coors Field in Denver , Colorado
The starting pitcher matchup saw eventual Cy Young Award and Major League Baseball Triple Crown winner Jake Peavy against the Rockies Josh Fogg , who teammate Matt Holliday nicknamed " Dragon Slayer " for his strong performances against ace starters throughout the season . The Rockies opened the bottom of the first inning with a leadoff double by Kaz Matsui , followed by a Troy Tulowitzki single and a walk to Matt Holliday to load the bases . Matsui scored on a sacrifice fly by Todd Helton and Garrett Atkins made the game 2 – 0 with a single which scored Tulowitzki . Yorvit Torrealba later added to that lead , leading off the bottom of the second inning with a solo home run . The Padres took the lead in the top of the third , however , loading the bases via singles from Peavy and Scott Hairston and a walk to Brian Giles . Adrian Gonzalez then hit a grand slam home run , making the score 4 – 3 . This was Gonzalez ' first career grand slam . Khalil Greene then singled , advanced to third base on a double by Josh Bard , and scored on a ground out by Brady Clark . Helton homered in the bottom of the inning to close the gap to 5 – 4 in favor of San Diego .
The score remained the same through the fifth inning . Fogg was relieved by Taylor Buchholz in the top of the fifth and , following a double by Tulowitzki , Peavy allowed the game @-@ tying run to score on a Holliday single . Seth Smith , pinch hitting for the pitcher in the bottom of the sixth , hit a triple and then scored on a sacrifice fly by Matsui to give the Rockies a 6 – 5 lead . The Rockies ' Garrett Atkins appeared to homer in the bottom of the seventh , extending the Rockies lead , but umpires ruled that the ball hit padding on the outfield wall , which was still in play , and awarded Atkins a double . Jamey Carroll pinch ran for Atkins , but no runs scored in the inning . The Rockies brought in closer Brian Fuentes in the top of the 8th , but the Padres re @-@ tied the game when Geoff Blum singled to lead off the inning , advanced to second base on a wild pitch , and scored on a double by Brian Giles . This was Fuentes ' seventh blown save of the season .
The game remained tied through nine innings , forcing extra innings . There too the game stayed tied until the top of the 13th inning when Giles singled off of Jorge Julio and scored on a home run by Scott Hairston . Ramón Ortiz relieved Julio and no further runs scored in the inning , but the Padres entered the bottom of the 13th with an 8 – 6 lead . The Padres brought in Trevor Hoffman to secure the game and a wild @-@ card victory . However , Hoffman blew the save , allowing doubles to Matsui and Tulowitzki and a triple to Holliday which tied the game 8 – 8 . Hoffman then intentionally walked Todd Helton leaving baserunners at first and third base . Carroll then hit a line drive to right fielder Brian Giles . Holliday tagged up at third and slid headfirst on a close play at home plate . Home plate umpire Tim McClelland ruled Holliday safe on the sacrifice fly , and the Rockies won the game 9 – 8 .
= = = Controversy = = =
During the final play Padres catcher Michael Barrett attempted to block home plate from Holliday 's slide while receiving the ball on a throw from Brian Giles . Holliday arrived at the plate before the ball did and the ball bounced away from Barrett . Some controversy arose after the game as to whether Holliday had actually touched home plate or if Barrett had successfully blocked him . Several sportswriters , such as Jeff Passan of Yahoo ! Sports and Mark Kiszla of The Denver Post , said outright that Holliday never touched the plate . Kiszla referred to the moment humorously , saying " When folks retell this story 100 years from now , he still will not have touched home plate . " Padres manager Bud Black and first base umpire Ed Montague both agreed with McClelland 's safe call . Barrett said he was unsure but " never , ever second @-@ guessed Tim McClelland at home plate . " If McClelland had ruled Holliday had not touched the plate during his slide Barrett would have had the chance to tag out Holliday , preventing the winning run .
= = Aftermath = =
Colorado 's win clinched the team 's second post @-@ season berth in franchise history , and the first for their first baseman Todd Helton . The Rockies swept the Phillies in the 2007 National League Division Series and the Diamondbacks in the 2007 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) to win the franchise 's first National League pennant . This streak , in combination with the Rockies performance at the end of the season , meant the Rockies had won 21 of their last 22 games . The last National League team to win 20 of 21 games at any point in the season were the 1936 New York Giants . The Rockies also opened the playoffs with seven straight wins , the 1976 Cincinnati Reds were the only other team in major league history to do so . The Rockies moved on to the 2007 World Series with their NLCS win , where they were swept by the Boston Red Sox .
The game counted as a regular season game in baseball statistics . If Matt Holliday had gone 0 for 5 in the game he would have lost the batting title to Chipper Jones . However , Holliday went 2 for 6 and won the title with a batting average of .340 . Also , Holliday 's triple and run batted in ( RBI ) in the 13th gave him 137 RBI in total , winning the RBI crown over Ryan Howard by 1 . Holliday 's teammate Tulowitzki believed Holliday was the league 's most valuable player , but he ultimately finished a close second to the Phillies ' Jimmy Rollins in the Most Valuable Player Award voting . Also , Padres ' starter Jake Peavy increased his earned run average ( ERA ) from 2 @.@ 36 to 2 @.@ 54 in the game and added six strikeouts to his season total . Peavy ultimately won the National League wins , strikeout , and ERA titles . These titles combined to give Peavy a pitching Triple Crown and he went on to win the Cy Young Award unanimously . Finally , despite an error in the game , the Rockies set the single @-@ season major league record for team fielding percentage ( .98925 ) , breaking the 2006 Boston Red Sox mark of .9891 .
= Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams =
Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams is the second studio album by American R & B singer Solange Knowles , released August 26 , 2008 , on Polydor Records and Music World . Recording during 2005 to 2008 , Knowles was heavily influenced by the " Motown Sound " of the 1960s and 1970s during the album 's conception , prompting her to work with several vintage @-@ style producers and songwriters such as Jack Splash , CeeLo Green , Mark Ronson , and former Holland – Dozier – Holland composer Lamont Dozier . Exploring the lyrical theme of independence , it also incorporates elements of downbeat and electronic music that she had familiarized herself with on previous trips to Europe .
Deviating from the R & B and dance @-@ pop of Knowles ' debut album , Solo Star ( 2002 ) , Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams featured promotion that aimed at an " intellectual , backpacking , coffee shop , digital kid " audience . The album debuted at number nine on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 46 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and spawned three singles that attained chart success as number @-@ one Billboard Dance hits . Upon its release , Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams received generally positive reviews from most music critics . As of April 2009 , it has sold 138 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
Knowles had been working on her second studio album on and off since 2005 following her return home to Houston , Texas , and her divorce from Daniel Smith , with whom she had lived following the birth of their son Daniel Julez in October 2004 . The follow @-@ up to the critical and commercial disappointment of 2003 's Solo Star was preceded by Knowles 's move from Columbia to Geffen Records in late 2007 . Knowles was heavily influenced by Motown girl groups such as The Supremes and The Marvelettes , and by her mother Tina , a one @-@ time member of the 1960s harmony group The Veltones , who used to play music by the likes of Dusty Springfield and Martha Reeves to her . Knowles decided to distance herself from the teen pop and dance @-@ pop @-@ oriented R & B sound mainly associated with her previous effort , Solo Star .
Willed to create a concept album revolving around her growth as a musical artist instead , she eventually got into the idea of a " sweet , soulful record [ ... ] based around the Sixties and Seventies , telling stories of where I have been the last couple years . " Also borrowing elements from downbeat and electronic music she discovered on recent trips to Europe , her vision of the album eventually resulted in a mixture that Knowles has described as a " ' 60s / 70s vintage soul record with hints of electronica . " In an interview with Billboard magazine , Geffen Records chairman Ron Fair said of the album prior to release , " Her record is totally bananas ... It 's not what people would expect from her . The music is more electric and international . She 's in her own lane . "
= = Recording = =
Although Knowles had previously worked with a wide range of high @-@ profile producers and songwriters on earlier projects , she struggled to convince her wishlisted musicians to contribute to Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams , production @-@ wise . This was due to no producer signing on to the project before hearing any material for the album . " I don 't think it was offensive , " Knowles admitted . " I understand that these are people that want to take on credible passionate projects . So before I would work with them I would schedule a meeting and play them the record . And then they were more convinced and willing to get on board . " Cee @-@ Lo Green and Mark Ronson were not consulted until late into the production of the album , both having been persuaded by Knowles at the 50th Grammy Awards ceremony : " I had to party with Cee @-@ Lo too to get him to work on the record [ ... ] but once he did [ listen to my music ] he signed on immediately . "
Knowles collaborated with several studio personalities , including Jack Splash , Shea Taylor , Mr. Familiar , Lamont Dozier , production teams Soulshock & Karlin and Bama Boyz , as well as singers and rappers Pharrell Williams , Bilal , Q @-@ Tip and Lil Wayne respectively . In addition , Marsha Ambrosius of Floetry lent vocals to the unreleased recording " Wanna Go Back " , while Raphael Saadiq and British singer Estelle demoed the track " Same Song , Different Man " , which didn ’ t make it to the final track listing . In an interview with Starpulse , Knowles later said of the experience :
Inspired by the aspirations of Knowles 's father Mathew , the album was titled after Hadley Street , a plot of land in downtown Houston : " My father took me there one day and told me he was going to build a studio , " she said in an interview with the Daily Mail . " The title is a tribute to his vision . He had a plan and he saw it through . That was a real eye @-@ opener for me . It inspired me to dig out my old Marvin Gaye albums and start writing songs . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In promoting the album , Geffen and Music World aimed at an " intellectual , backpacking , coffee shop , digital kid " audience . Leading up to its release , Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams featured promotional photography of Knowles in an array of costumes and wigs that evoke late 1960s and early 1970s fashion styles . The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , and at number nine on the official Billboard 200 , with moderately successful first week sales of 46 @,@ 000 copies , making it Knowles 's first US top 10 album . Internationally , Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams was a commercial disappointment , reaching a peak position of just 180 on the UK Albums Chart . As of April 2009 , the album has sold 138 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
The album 's lead single , " I Decided " , debuted on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 44 in Billboard 's July 5 , 2008 issue . The song also debuted at number one on the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales charts and debuted at number two on the Hot Singles Sales chart . The single sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album 's last track , a remix entitled " I Decided ( Part 2 ) " , produced by Freemasons was released as the album 's first single in Europe , where the song entered the top 30 of the UK Singles Chart . The track reached the number @-@ one spot on the US Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot Dance Club Play , while peaking at number 44 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Four other songs were hits on the Hot Dance Club Play ; " Sandcastle Disco " peaked at number 1 , " T.O.N.Y. " at number 1 , " I Told You So " at number 5 and " Would 've Been the One " at number 3 .
= = Critical reception = =
Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on 14 reviews . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice called the album " bizarrely mesmerizing " and felt that some of the material 's idiosyncratic and unconventional lyrics invite " inexplicable but highly favorable comparisons to Kate Bush . ( Ethereal but powerful , unhinged but in total command . ) " Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe referred to the album as a " smartly executed , classy set of songs that 's miles away from the hoochie pop being turned out by young female R & B vocalists these days " . Pryia Elan of The Times declared the album " a modern classic " . Dan LeRoy of The Hartford Courant compared her work to that of sister Beyoncé Knowles , stating " Solange combines retro warmth and current cool in ways her more commercially successful sibling probably can 't . " Jaimie Gill of Yahoo ! Music called it a " fine , rich and extremely likeable record " , and Francis Jones of Hot Press called Solange 's singing " sassy and assured " . Andy Kellman of AllMusic cited it as " one of the year 's more entertaining and easily enjoyable R & B releases " and found it " fun , silly , slightly eccentric and , most importantly , fearless " :
In a mixed review , Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone cited Knowles 's attempts at Erykah Badu @-@ inspired psychedelic @-@ soul tracks such as " Cosmic Journey " , as well as her vocal abilities , as " embarrassing " , comparing the album 's sound to " a woozy lava lamp glow . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian called its music " savvy R & B with a gloss you can check your reflection in " , but ultimately observed " a lack of both memorable tunes and the steely spined ardour that makes Beyoncé so compelling . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was ambivalent towards its use of sampling on certain songs , but praised " the mix of organic , old @-@ school instrumentation and more electronic elements " , which he felt make it " a loose , fun and reverent record . " Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention ( ) , indicating a " likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . " He cited " Would 've Been the One " and " I Decided , Pt . 1 " as highlights and quipped , " Frothily , defiantly , privilege 's child runs through her options " . Vibe 's Keith Murphy cited it as one of the R & B best albums of the year .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" God Given Name " contains a sample of Thievery Corporation 's " A Gentle Dissolve "
" Dancing in the Dark " contains a sample of Heinz Kiessling 's " Feeling Young "
" I Decided , Part 1 " contains a sample of The Supremes ' " Where Did Our Love Go "
" 6 O 'clock Blues " contains a sample of Sharon Jones & the Dap Kings ' " Summer of Sound "
" Ode to Marvin " contains a sample of the percussion in Marvin Gaye 's " What 's Going On "
" This Bird " contains a sample of Boards of Canada 's " Slow This Bird Down "
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Sean Hurley – guitar , keyboards , bass instrument
John " Jabb " Broussard – guitar , bass instrument ( Track 7 )
Phillip Todd – saxophone
Noel Langley – trumpet , flugelhorn
Neil Sidwell – trombone
Manny Patino – drums
= = = Production = = =
Arrangers : Jack Splash , Karlin , Simon Hale , Soulshock
Engineers : Rommel Nino Villanueva , Andres Bermudez , Gelly Kusuma , Christian Plata , Ryan Gilligan , Shinnosuke Miyazawa , Robert " LB " Dorsey , Patrick Magee , Andrew Coleman
Mixing : Ben H. Allen ( Track 9 ) , Neal H. Pogue ( 2 , 6 , 8 , 13 ) , Jack Splash ( 4 ) , Manny Marroquin ( 3 , 5 ) , Dave Pensado ( 1 , 7 , 10 , 12 ) , Soulshock ( 11 )
Mastering : Tom Coyne , Chris Gehringer
Art direction : Fusako Chubachi , Erwin Gorostiza
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= St Llibio 's Church , Llanllibio =
St Llibio 's Church , Llanllibio is a demolished church in Anglesey , north Wales . Founded by Llibio in the sixth century , the church served a small community of bondmen as a chapel of ease . The population of Llanllibio declined substantially during the Middle Ages as a result of the Black Death and changes in farming practice , amongst other factors , and the community that the church served effectively disappeared . As a result , St Llibio 's closed in the seventeenth century ; the remaining worshippers moved to another local church .
Plans in the nineteenth century to rebuild the church , which was in ruins by 1776 , came to nothing . Except for a memorial stone , nothing more than " tiny traces " of St Llibio 's can now be seen .
= = Early history = =
St Llibio 's was the church for Llanllibio in Anglesey , north Wales . A survey of Anglesey conducted in 1352 records Llanllibio as a tir cyfrif township , a Welsh form of land tenure in which the inhabitants , who were generally few in number , were bondmen working for the lord in return for a small arable holding and some grazing rights . It was the only tir cyfrif township in Anglesey to have a church . Like many other communities in Anglesey , and elsewhere in medieval Wales , Llanllibio 's population decreased substantially during the Middle Ages , and the settlement effectively disappeared . Communities such as Llanllibio were affected by the Black Death , the destruction resulting from the revolt of Owen Glyndwr , by changes in land tenure , and by new farming practices that reduced the need for tied labour .
The parish was on the old road between London and the Anglesey port town of Holyhead , and about 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) from Bodedern . The church was dedicated to St Llibio , a sixth @-@ century monk , confessor , and disciple of the Anglesey saint Cybi . Llibio himself is recorded as having founded a church on the site , and his feast day was celebrated on 28 February . The area took its name from the church : the Welsh word " llan " originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " .
St Llibio 's was used as a chapel of ease to the Church of St Afran , St Ieuan and St Sannan , Llantrisant , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away .
= = Closure = =
St Llibio 's was closed in the seventeenth century , and the church at Llantrisant was enlarged to accommodate worshippers from Llanllibio . By 1776 St Llibio 's was in ruins . According to Angharad Llwyd , a historian of Anglesey writing in 1833 , the inhabitants of the area attended worship at St Edern 's Church , Bodedern . She noted that Wynne Jones , the rector of Llantrisant , hoped to rebuild the church , but that did not happen .
A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire stated that " the church has entirely disappeared , but the foundations of the churchyard wall are still visible . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that " only tiny traces " of the church can be seen , adding that a memorial slate marks its location .
= Delphine LaLaurie =
Born Marie Delphine Macarty or Maccarthy , ( c . 1780 – 1849 ) , more commonly known as Madame LaLaurie , was a New Orleans Creole socialite and alleged serial killer , infamous for torturing and likely murdering her household slaves .
Born during the Spanish colonial period , Delphine Macarty married three times in Louisiana , having twice been widowed . She maintained her position in New Orleans society until April 10 , 1834 , when rescuers responded to a fire at her Royal Street mansion and discovered bound slaves in her attic who showed evidence of cruel , violent treatment over a long period . Lalaurie 's house was subsequently sacked by an outraged mob of New Orleans citizens . She escaped to France with her family .
The mansion where Lalaurie lived is a landmark in the French Quarter , in part because of its history and in part because there were relatively few homes of such massive size in the Quarter .
= = Early life and family history = =
Marie Delphine Macarty was born 1780 , one of five children . Her father was Louis Barthelemy Macarty , originally Chevalier de Maccarthy ) whose father Barthelemy ( de ) Maccarthy brought the family to New Orleans from Ireland around 1730 , during the French colonial period . ( The Irish surname Maccarthy was shortened to Macarty or de Macarty . ) Her mother was Marie Jeanne Lovable , also known as " the widow Lecomte " , whose marriage to Louis B. Macarty was her second . Both were prominent in the town 's white Creole community . Delphine 's cousin , Augustin de Macarty , was mayor of New Orleans from 1815 to 1820 .
= = First marriage and death of husband = =
On June 11 , 1800 , Mlle. Marie Delphine Macarty married Don Ramón de Lopez y Angulo , a Caballero de la Royal de Carlos , a high @-@ ranking Spanish royal officer , at the Saint Louis Cathedral in New Orleans . Luisiana , as it was spelled in Spanish , had become a Spanish colony in the 1760s . In 1804 , after the American acquisition , Don Ramón had been appointed to the position of consul general for Spain in the Territory of Orleans .
Also , in 1804 , Delphine and Ramón Lopez traveled to Spain . Accounts of the trip vary . Grace King wrote in 1921 that the trip was Lopez 's " military punishment " and that Señora Delphine Lopez met the Queen , who was impressed with Mrs. Lopez 's beauty . Stanley Arthur 's 1936 report differed ; he stated that on March 26 , 1804 , Don Ramón Lopez was recalled to Spain " to take his place at court as befitting his new position , " but that Lopez never arrived in Madrid because he died in en route , in Havana .
During the voyage , Delphine gave birth to a daughter , named Marie @-@ Borja / Borgia Delphine Lopez y Angulo de la Candelaria , nicknamed Borquita . Delphine and her daughter returned to New Orleans afterwards .
= = Second marriage and death of husband = =
In June 1808 , Delphine married Jean Blanque , a prominent banker , merchant , lawyer , and legislator . At the time of the marriage , Blanque purchased a house at 409 Royal Street in New Orleans for the family , which became known later as the Villa Blanque . Delphine had four more children by Blanque , named Marie Louise Pauline , Louise Marie Laure , Marie Louise Jeanne , and Jeanne Pierre Paulin Blanque.Blanque died in 1816 .
= = Third marriage = =
Delphine married her third husband , physician Leonard Louis Nicolas LaLaurie , who was much younger than she , on June 25 , 1825 . In 1831 , she bought property at 1140 Royal Street , which she managed in her own name with little involvement of her husband , and in 1832 had built a three @-@ story mansion there , complete with attached slave quarters . She lived there with her third husband and two of her daughters , and maintained a central position in New Orleans society .
= = Torture and murder of slaves and 1834 LaLaurie mansion fire = =
The LaLauries maintained several black slaves in slave quarters , attached to the Royal Street mansion . Accounts of Delphine Lalaurie 's treatment of her slaves between 1831 and 1834 are mixed . Harriet Martineau , writing in 1838 and recounting tales told to her by New Orleans residents during her 1836 visit , claimed Lalaurie 's slaves were observed to be " singularly haggard and wretched ; " however , in public appearances Lalaurie was seen to be generally polite to black people and solicitous of her slaves ' health , and court records of the time showed that Lalaurie manumitted two of her own slaves ( Jean Louis in 1819 and Devince in 1832 ) . Nevertheless , Martineau reported that public rumors about Lalaurie 's mistreatment of her slaves were sufficiently widespread that a local lawyer was dispatched to Royal Street to remind LaLaurie of the laws relevant to the upkeep of slaves . During this visit , the lawyer found no evidence of wrongdoing or mistreatment of slaves by Lalaurie .
Martineau also recounted other tales of Lalaurie 's cruelty that were current among New Orleans residents in about 1836 . She claimed that , subsequent to the visit of the local lawyer , one of Lalaurie 's neighbors saw one of the LaLaurie 's slaves , a twelve @-@ year @-@ old girl named Lia ( or Leah ) , fall to her death from the roof of the Royal Street mansion while trying to avoid punishment from a whip @-@ wielding Delphine LaLaurie . Lia had been brushing Delphine 's hair when she hit a snag , causing Delphine to grab a whip and chase her . The body was subsequently buried on the mansion grounds . According to Martineau , this incident led to an investigation of the Lalauries , in which they were found guilty of illegal cruelty and forced to forfeit nine slaves . These nine slaves were then bought back by the Lalauries through the intermediary of one of their relatives , and returned to the Royal Street residences . Similarly , Martineau reported stories that LaLaurie kept her cook chained to the kitchen stove , and beat her daughters when they attempted to feed the slaves .
On April 10 , 1834 , a fire broke out in the LaLaurie residence on Royal Street , starting in the kitchen . When the police and fire marshals got there , they found a seventy @-@ year @-@ old woman , the cook , chained to the stove by her ankle . She later confessed to them that she had set the fire as a suicide attempt for fear of her punishment , being taken to the uppermost room , because she said that anyone who was taken there never came back . As reported in the New Orleans Bee of April 11 , 1834 , bystanders responding to the fire attempted to enter the slave quarters to ensure that everyone had been evacuated . Upon being refused the keys by the Lalauries , the bystanders broke down the doors to the slave quarters and found " seven slaves , more or less horribly mutilated ... suspended by the neck , with their limbs apparently stretched and torn from one extremity to the other " , who claimed to have been imprisoned there for some months .
One of those who entered the premises was Judge Jean @-@ Francois Canonge , who subsequently deposed to having found in the LaLaurie mansion , among others , a " negress ... wearing an iron collar " and " an old negro woman who had received a very deep wound on her head [ who was ] too weak to be able to walk . " Canonge claimed , that when he questioned Madame LaLaurie 's husband about the slaves , he was told in an insolent manner that " some people had better stay at home rather than come to others ' houses to dictate laws and meddle with other people 's business . "
A version of this story circulating in 1836 , recounted by Martineau , added that the slaves were emaciated , showed signs of being flayed with a whip , were bound in restrictive postures , and wore spiked iron collars which kept their heads in static positions .
When the discovery of the tortured slaves became widely known , a mob of local citizens attacked the Lalaurie residence and " demolished and destroyed everything upon which they could lay their hands " . A sheriff and his officers were called upon to disperse the crowd , but by the time the mob left , the Royal Street property had sustained major damage , with " scarcely any thing [ remaining ] but the walls . " The tortured slaves were taken to a local jail , where they were available for public viewing . The New Orleans Bee reported that by April 12 up to 4 @,@ 000 people had attended to view the tortured slaves " to convince themselves of their sufferings . "
The Pittsfield Sun , citing the New Orleans Advertiser and writing several weeks after the evacuation of LaLaurie 's slave quarters , claimed that two of the slaves found in the LaLaurie mansion had died since their rescue , and added , " We understand ... that in digging the yard , bodies have been disinterred , and the condemned well [ in the grounds of the mansion ] having been uncovered , others , particularly that of a child , were found . " These claims were repeated by Martineau in her 1838 book Retrospect of Western Travel , where she placed the number of unearthed bodies at two , including the child .
= = Escape from justice and self @-@ imposed , exile in France = =
Delphine LaLaurie 's life after the 1834 fire is not well documented . Martineau wrote in 1838 , that LaLaurie fled New Orleans during the mob violence that followed the fire , taking a coach to the waterfront and travelling , by schooner , from there to Mobile , Alabama and then on to Paris . Certainly by the time Martineau personally visited the Royal Street mansion in 1836 it was still unoccupied and badly damaged , with " gaping windows and empty walls " .
= = Later life and death = =
The circumstances of her death are also unclear . George Washington Cable recounted in 1888 , a then @-@ popular but unsubstantiated story , that LaLaurie had died in France , in a boar @-@ hunting accident . Whatever the truth , in the late 1930s , Eugene Backes , who served as sexton to St. Louis Cemetery # 1 until 1924 , discovered an old cracked , copper plate in Alley 4 of the cemetery . The inscription on the plate read " Madame LaLaurie , née Marie Delphine Maccarthy , décédée à Paris , le 7 Décembre , 1842 , à l 'âge de 6-- . "
According to the French archives of Paris , however , Marie Delphine Maccarthy died on December 7 , 1849 .
= = LaLaurie mansion = =
The New Orleans house occupied by Delphine LaLaurie at the time of the 1834 fires stands today at 1140 Royal Street , on the corner of Royal Street and Governor Nicholls Street ( formerly known as Hospital Street ) . At three stories high , it was described in 1928 as " the highest building for squares around " , with the result that " from the cupola on the roof one may look out over the Vieux Carré and see the Mississippi in its crescent before Jackson Square " . The entrance to the building bears iron grillwork , and the door is carved with an image of " Phoebus in his chariot , and with wreaths of flowers and depending garlands in bas @-@ relief " . Inside , the vestibule is floored in black and white marble , and a curved mahogany @-@ railed staircase runs the full three stories of the building . The second floor holds three large drawing rooms connected by ornamented sliding doors , whose walls are decorated with plaster rosettes , carved woodwork , black marble mantle pieces and fluted pilasters .
Subsequent to LaLaurie 's departure from America , the house remained ruined at least until 1836 , but at some point prior to 1888 it was " unrecognizably restored " , and over the following decades was used as a public high school , a conservatory of music , a tenement , a refuge for young delinquents , a bar , a furniture store , and a luxury apartment building .
In April 2007 , Nicolas Cage bought the LaLaurie House through Hancock Park Real Estate Company , LLC , for a sum of $ 3 @.@ 45 million . The mortgage documents were arranged in such a way that Cage 's name did not appear on them . On November 13 , 2009 , the property , then valued at $ 3 @.@ 5 million , was listed for auction as a result of bank foreclosure and purchased by Regions Financial Corporation for $ 2 @.@ 3 million .
= = LaLaurie in folklore = =
Folk histories of Lalaurie 's poor treatment of her slaves circulated in Louisiana during the nineteenth century , and were reprinted in collections of stories by Henry Castellanos and George Washington Cable . Cable 's account ( not to be confused with his unrelated 1881 novel Madame Delphine ) was based on contemporary stories in newspapers such as the New Orleans Bee and the Advertiser , and upon Martineau 's 1838 account , Retrospect of Western Travel , but mixed in some synthesis , dialogue and supposition entirely of his own creation .
After 1945 , stories of the Lalaurie slaves became considerably more explicit . Jeanne deLavigne , writing in Ghost Stories of Old New Orleans ( 1946 ) , alleged that Lalaurie had a " sadistic appetite [ that ] seemed never appeased until she had inflicted on one or more of her black servitors some hideous form of torture " and claimed that those who responded to the 1834 fire had found " male slaves , stark naked , chained to the wall , their eyes gouged out , their fingernails pulled off by the roots ; others had their joints skinned and festering , great holes in their buttocks where the flesh had been sliced away , their ears hanging by shreds , their lips sewn together ... Intestines were pulled out and knotted around naked waists . There were holes in skulls , where a rough stick had been inserted to stir the brains . " DeLavigne did not directly cite any sources for these claims , and they were not supported by the primary sources .
The story was further popularized and embellished in Journey Into Darkness : Ghosts and Vampires of New Orleans ( 1998 ) by Kalila Katherina Smith , the operator of a New Orleans ghost tour business . Smith 's book added several more explicit details to the discoveries allegedly made by rescuers during the 1834 fire , including a " victim [ who ] obviously had her arms amputated and her skin peeled off in a circular pattern , making her look like a human caterpillar , " and another who had had her limbs broken and reset " at odd angles so she resembled a human crab " . Many of the new details in Smith 's book were unsourced , while others were not supported by the sources given .
Today , modern re @-@ tellings of the Lalaurie legend often use deLavigne and Smith 's versions of the tale to found claims of explicit tortures , and to place the number of slaves who died under Lalaurie 's care at as many as one hundred .
= = In popular culture = =
The former , now defunct , historically @-@ themed wax museum in the French Quarter , the Musée Conti Wax Museum , on Conti Street , traditionally included a scene depicting abused slaves in Madame LaLaurie 's attic .
Poet Jennifer Reeser has written a poem in terza rima titled " The Lalaurie Horror " , chronicling the mansion 's history and folklore , done as a poetic " ghost tour " .
In 2000 , Ted Nicolaou directed a found footage movie called The St. Francisville Experiment about people who spend the night in a disused Louisiana plantation house and encounter hostile ghosts . While not the LaLaurie house in New Orleans , the plantation house is one location LaLaurie is alleged to have fled to after the 1834 fire incident . The fictional camera crew finds physical and supernatural evidence suggesting , that LaLaurie did indeed flee to the house and continue her cruelty there .
In 2004 , James Merendino directed " Trespassing , " aka " Evil Remains , " about a grad student of folklore leading his friends on a research expedition to an old plantation estate near New Orleans . The site , once the home of a woman whose backstory is directly taken from the bio of LaLaurie , is reputed to mysteriously cause madness and death to all who enter it .
Kathy Bates portrays a heavily fictionalized Delphine LaLaurie in the 2014 third season of the American anthology horror television series American Horror Story .
Delphine LaLaurie is a character in the board game Evil Baby Orphanage .
Delphine LaLaurie appears as a character in Deadtime Stories , a PC game , ( Deadtime Stories ; developed by I @-@ play and distributed by Big Fish Games ) , as a voodoo queen , named Jessie Bodeen , tells you her story of her commission by Delphine LaLaurie to drive away another socialite who was new in town and already more popular than Delphine Lalaurie , only for Delphine LaLaurie to renege on the deal when Jessie Bodeen had kept up her end of it . Jessie Bodeen seeks revenge on Delphine LaLaurie by invoking the Loa , ( who punish Delphine LaLaurie , and then Jessie Bodeen , 10 @-@ years @-@ later , for having taken on Delphine LaLaurie 's commission ) .
Delphine LaLaurie appears in the second of Barbara Hambly 's Benjamin January mysteries , Fever Season .
The story of the LaLaurie house is told and fictionally expanded on in issues 13 @-@ 18 of Serena Valentino 's Nightmares & Fairy Tales .
= = = Books = = =
Arthur , Stanley Clisby ( 1936 ) . Old New Orleans : A History of the Vieux Carré , Its Ancient and Historical Buildings . New Orleans , LA : Harmanson . ISBN 0788427229 . OCLC 19380621 .
Cable , George Washington ( 1888 ) . Strange True Stories of Louisiana . New York : The Century Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 559 @-@ 09492 @-@ 2 .
Castellanos , Henry C ; Kelleher Schafer , Judith ; Reinecke , George F ( 1895 ) . New Orleans as it was : episodes of Louisiana life . Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8071 @-@ 3209 @-@ 8 .
Cosner Love , Victoria ; Shannon , Lorelei ( 2011 ) . Mad Madame Lalaurie . Charleston , SC : The History Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1609491994 .
de Bachellé Seebold , Herman Boehm ( 1941 ) . Old Louisiana Plantation Homes and Family Trees . Gretna , LA : Pelican Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 58980 @-@ 263 @-@ 2 .
DeLavigne , Jeanne ( 1946 ) . Ghost Stories of Old New Orleans . New York ; Toronto : Rinehart & Co . OCLC 5128595 .
Heinan , Timothy ( 2012 ) . L 'immortalité : Madame Lalaurie and the Voodoo Queen . Bellevue , WA : On Demand Publishing , LLC @-@ Create Space . ISBN 978 @-@ 0615634715 .
King , Grace Elizabeth ( 1921 ) . Creole Families of New Orleans . New York : MacMillan & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 87511 @-@ 142 @-@ 4 . OL 13489529M .
Martineau , Harriet ( 1838 ) . Retrospect of Western Travel 2 . London : Saunders & Otley . OCLC 80223671 .
Morrow Long , Carolyn ( 2012 ) . Madame Lalaurie Mistress of the Haunted House . Gainesville , FL : University Press of Florida . ISBN 978 @-@ 0813038063 .
Saxon , Lyle ( 1928 ) . Fabulous New Orleans . New York , London : The Century Co . ISBN 9781455604029 . OCLC 421892 .
Smith , Kalila Katherina ( 1998 ) . Haunted History Tours presents ... Journey Into Darkness : Ghosts & Vampires of New Orleans . New Orleans , LA : De Simonin Publications . ISBN 1 @-@ 883100 @-@ 04 @-@ 6 .
= = = Academic papers = = =
Morlas , Katy Francis ( 2005 ) . La Madame Et La Mademoiselle : Creole Women In Louisiana , 1718 – 1865 ( PDF ) ( Master of Arts thesis ) . Louisiana State University .
Baker , Courtney R ( 2008 ) . Misrecognized : Looking at Images of Black Suffering and Death ( PhD thesis ) . Duke University .
= = = Periodicals = = =
" The conflagration at the house occupied by the woman Lalaurie .. " ( PDF ) . New Orleans Bee . April 11 , 1834 . – The relevant text appears at the top @-@ left of the linked scan . A transcript of this article can be found here for ease of reading .
" The popular fury which we briefly adverted to in our paper of yesterday .. " ( PDF ) . New Orleans Bee . April 12 , 1834 . – The relevant text appears at the top @-@ left of the linked scan . A transcript of this article can be found here for ease of reading .
Pittsfield Sun . May 8 , 1834 .
" Epitaph @-@ Plate of ' Haunted ' House Owner Found Here " . The Times @-@ Picayune . January 28 , 1941 . – A transcript of this article can be found here for ease of reading .
" History of Delphine Macarty Lalaurie and the Haunted House on Royal Street " updated on 27 Sept 2013 at The Times @-@ Picayune 's NOLA.com ; retrieved 31 Oct 2015 .
= = = Web content = = =
Goldsborough , Bob ( April 24 , 2007 ) . " Nicolas Cage buys house in New Orleans ' French quarter for $ 3 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 " . Big Time Listings . Celebrity Real Estate Homes Big Time Listings . Retrieved November 26 , 2010 .
Taylor , Troy ( 2000 ) . " The Legacy of Madame Delphine LaLaurie " . Denise 's Dreams . Strange Nation . Retrieved January 10 , 2011 .
Yousuf , Hibah ( November 16 , 2009 ) . " Nicolas Cage loses 2 homes in foreclosure auction " . CNNMoney.com. Cable News Network . Retrieved December 30 , 2010 .
= Get It Right ( Glee cast song ) =
" Get It Right " is a song performed by the cast of American television series Glee , taken from their sixth soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , Volume 5 . It is sung by Lea Michele who portrays the series ' lead character , Rachel Berry . The song was written by the series ' music producer Adam Anders , who created the song with his wife Nikki Hassman , and writing partner Peer Åström . Anders and company wrote the song specifically for Michele , and based the lyrics on the storyline of Rachel . The song was released with a number of Glee songs on the iTunes Store on March 15 , 2011 . Musically , " Get It Right " is a piano @-@ driven pop ballad , with mild country influences . According to MTV 's Aly Semigran , the song has similarities to Britney Spears ' Everytime " ( 2004 ) .
While critics praised Michele 's vocals in the song , they were not as receptive to the song itself with it being coined as " dull " and " boring . " The lyrics of the song revolve around self @-@ doubt over a lost relationship . The song debuted at number sixteen on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and appeared in the top forty in three other countries . The song 's performance was featured in the Glee episode " Original Song " which first aired on March 15 , 2011 in which Berry ( Michele ) used a bedazzled microphone , backed by Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) and Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) .
= = Background = =
On February 23 , 2011 , it was announced that Glee , for the first time , would feature two original songs , entitled " Get It Right " and " Loser Like Me " on their March 15 , 2011 episode . The song was written by series music producer Adam Anders with his wife Nikki Hassman , and writing partner Peer Åström . According to Anders the song was specifically crafted for Michele and was based on the storyline of Michele 's character in the series , Rachel Berry . Anders told Entertainment Weekly , " Lea ’ s storyline kind of inspired that song for me , ” says Anders . " Basically , you try to do everything right and you have good motivations with everything you ’ re doing but everything ends up going wrong . How many times will it take for me to get it right ? "
In an interview with TV Guide Anders expressed the same sentiments , responding , " I 've watched Rachel struggle . She 's always trying to do the right thing , or thinks she 's trying to do the right thing , and it always gets messed up . " Anders also said that this song is " her asking when things are going to work out , " and commented that it was " emotional " and thought that it would bring people to tears . " Get It Right " and " Loser Like Me " both premiered on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on February 25 , 2011 , and were performed in the episode " Original Song " , on March 15 , 2011 . The song was also released on the iTunes Store in the United States on March 15 , 2011 . In the episode performance , Rachel Berry ( Michele ) appears performing the song with a bedazzled microphone , wearing a blue dress , black belt , and boots , accompanied by Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) and Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) in the background .
= = Composition = =
" Get It Right " is a " somber " pop ballad performed by Lea Michele . Becky Bain of Idolator said song sounded like it could " actually live " on country airplay . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by TCF Music Publishing , " Get It Right " is set in common time with a tempo of 84 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B minor with Michele 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of A3 to the high @-@ note of E5 . The song features the chord progression of Bm – G – D – A6 . Brian Voerding of AOL Radio Blog said the song was " a lonesome piano ballad backed by rich orchestration , best filed under ' classic diva tune . ' " Voerding also said that Michele 's " clean voice bites under and glides above timeless lyrics of self @-@ doubt over love recently lost . " Lyrically the song is based upon the storyline of Michele 's character , Rachel Berry , which involves her watching her ex , Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) , leave her and get back with his ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) . According to Aly Semigran of MTV News the song 's opening moments are similar to " Everytime " by Britney Spears , and features " fluttering piano and breathy vocals " that come " into its own as it builds . "
= = Critical reception = =
Reviewing the track for AOL Radio Blog , Voerding wrote " Michele 's voice is among the cast 's most versatile , striding confidently through growls and whispers , proclamations and wavering cries . This single , with the drive of its melody and narrative , is no exception . " Kirsten Coachman of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer called Michele 's voice on the song " phenomenal , " and commented " I love how her vocals are reined in , and then build up to that wonderful glory note . I seriously got chills while listening to it . " She also commented how the song 's narrative fit Michele 's storyline on the show . Christopher Rosen of Movieline wrote " If you love Lea Michele ’ s voice , you ’ ll like " Get It Right . " Becky Bain of Idolator said " This one , compared to the instantly catchy “ Loser Like Me ” , is a bit more underwhelming , though Lea kills it . " Jarret Wieselman of The New York Post said " Lea Michele 's voice was on point throughout this soaring ballad , but without that secret ingredient , lyrics like " my best intentions keep making a mess of things " are best left to Rachel 's diary . " Although she called it " boring " and said it was like every other reflection @-@ ballad performed by Michele , Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone said that the song would fit in on Top 40 radio . Melinda Newman of HitFix said the song was " lovely , but a bit dull . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 26 , 2011 , " Get It Right " debuted at number sixteen on the US Billboard Hot 100 selling 151 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . The song 's debut was a part of a string of five other debuts from the television series which sold 712 @,@ 000 downloads that week . Outside the United States , the song appeared on several other charts worldwide , debuting at number twenty @-@ three on the Canadian Hot 100 , as well as appearing at number thirty @-@ four on the Australian Singles Chart , and number thirty @-@ eight on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Charts = =
= Himura Kenshin =
Himura Kenshin ( 緋村 剣心 ) , known as Kenshin Himura in the English @-@ language anime dubs , is a fictional character and protagonist of the Rurouni Kenshin manga created by Nobuhiro Watsuki . When creating Kenshin , Watsuki designed him to be the physical opposite of Hiko Seijūrō , a character that appears in Watsuki 's first one @-@ shot manga , " Crescent Moon in the Warring States " ; a character with the same name appears in Rurouni Kenshin as Kenshin 's swordsmanship teacher .
Kenshin 's story is set in a fictional version of Japan during the Meiji period . Kenshin is a former legendary assassin known as " Hitokiri Battōsai " ( 人斬り抜刀斎 ) ( rendered as Battousai the Manslayer in the Media Blasters English anime dub , as Battousai : The Slasher in the Sony English dub , and as The Unsheather on the Japanese kanzenban covers ) , more properly named Himura Battōsai ( 緋村抜刀斎 ) . At the end of the Bakumatsu , he becomes a wandering samurai , now wielding a sakabatō ( 逆刃刀 , lit . " reverse @-@ blade sword " ) , a katana that has the cutting edge on the inwardly curved side of the sword , thus being nearly incapable of killing . Kenshin wanders the countryside of Japan offering protection and aid to those in need , as atonement for the murders he once committed as an assassin . In Tokyo , he meets a young woman named Kamiya Kaoru , who invites him to live in her dojo despite learning about Kenshin 's past . Throughout the series , Kenshin begins to establish lifelong relationships with many people , including ex @-@ enemies , while dealing with his fair share of enemies , new and old .
Kenshin 's character was well received by fans , with his holding the top spot in all reader popularity polls for the series . Critics of the series praised his personality , though some complained about his development during the original video animation ( OVA ) series , which differs from the manga . A variety of collectibles based around Kenshin have been created , including figurines , key chains , plushies , and replicas of his sakabatō sword .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Himura Kenshin , real name Shinta ( 心太 ) , was born on June 20 , 1849 . As a former legendary assassin , Kenshin is an extremely powerful swordsman with virtually unmatched skills . Kenshin practices the Hiten Mitsurugi @-@ ryū ( 飛天御剣流 , lit . " Flying Heaven Honorable Sword Style " ) , a fictional ancient sword art which can be based on Battōjutsu , that enables him to exercise superhuman speed and reflexes , study and predict his opponent 's movements in battle , as well as perform many powerful sword techniques . Most of his techniques were originally intended to be lethal , but Kenshin has since modified his usage of such techniques in accordance with his vow never to kill . To this end , he fights using his sakabatō ( A reversed @-@ edge sword ) .
After finishing his job as the murderer " Hitokiri Battōsai " in the Ishin Shishi , Kenshin assumes the life of a wanderer . Ten years after the Revolution , he arrives in Tokyo , where he meets Kamiya Kaoru . She invites him to stay in her dojo even after she discovers that Kenshin is the " Battōsai " . During his residence in the dojo , Kenshin establishes lifelong relationships with many people , including ex @-@ enemies , such as the former Shinsengumi member Saitō Hajime . Kenshin desires to protect every individual from danger without harming others . Formerly known as " the strongest hitokiri , " Kenshin is the main target of many old enemies and people who want to gain his title . Thus , he avoids letting others get too close to him personally for their own protection . However , he eventually begins relying on his friends , allowing them to fight alongside him .
When Shishio Makoto , the brutal once @-@ successor to Kenshin 's position as Chōshū 's hitokiri , masterminds a movement seeking to overthrow the Meiji Government , Kenshin leaves Tokyo to stop him . To defeat such a foe , Kenshin is forced to resume his training and mend his relationship with his teacher Seijūrō , who taught and took care of Kenshin , originally named Shinta , in his childhood . That childhood training was interrupted when Kenshin decided to protect the people of Japan . He learns the Kuzu @-@ ryūsen ( 九頭龍閃 , lit . " Nine @-@ headed Dragon Strike " ) , which deals nine simultaneous strikes to the fundamental targets of swordsmanship . The Kuzu @-@ ryūsen , however , is a byproduct used for the initiation in learning Amakakeru Ryū no Hirameki ( 天翔龍閃 , lit . " Heavens Gliding Dragon Flash " ; Viz translation - " Dragon Flight of Heaven " ) , a Hiten Mitsurugi @-@ ryū battōjutsu that surpasses the speed of the Kuzu @-@ ryūsen . If the strike is avoided or blocked , the force of the unusually fast slashing motion displaces the air around it , generating a vacuum in its wake and sucking the opponent in ; as this happens , the body is spun around for a second stronger strike . Throughout the training , Kenshin also develops a desire to survive to any combat so that Kaoru will not be shocked by his death . After finishing his training , all Kenshin 's friends reunite with him and help him to defeat Shishio and his army .
Months later , a man known as Yukishiro Enishi starts attacking all people that Kenshin meets as an act of revenge for the death of his sister Yukishiro Tomoe . At this moment , it is discovered that Kenshin was married to Tomoe in the Bakumatsu but accidentally killed her when trying to rescue her from a group of assassins . When Enishi finds out about Kenshin 's feelings towards Kaoru , Enishi sets out to kidnap her . He succeeds and leaves behind a professionally made decoy of Kaoru with a sword in her heart , making everyone believe that she had been murdered . Kenshin falls into severe depression and runs off to a village of wanderers to mourn . However , he breaks out of his depression after his friends discover Kaoru is alive . The group goes to rescue her on Enishi 's island . A battle between Kenshin and Enishi follows and when Kenshin wins , he and Kaoru return home . Afterwards , Kenshin learns that since the Hiten Mitsurugi @-@ ryū is only suitable to a wide @-@ framed muscular build like that of Seijūrō 's , his body eventually began to deteriorate and soon he will be unable to use it ever again . Five years later , Kenshin is married to Kaoru and has a son named Kenji . After an encounter with Kaoru 's student Myōjin Yahiko , Kenshin gives his sakabatō to him as a gift for his coming @-@ of @-@ age .
= = Creation and conception = =
Watsuki discovered and used the story of Kawakami Gensai , a hitokiri ( 人斬り , literally " manslayer " ) executed by the Meiji Government . According to Watsuki , when he found that Kawakami maintained a duty to his dead comrades , he decided to create the title character . Since Watsuki 's debut work contained a tall , black @-@ haired man in " showy " armor , the creator wanted to make a character " completely opposite " to the debut character and the new character ended up " coming out like a girl . " According to Watsuki , he used " no real motif " when creating Kenshin and placed a cross @-@ shaped scar when " not knowing what else to do . "
During the development of the pilot chapter of the series , Rurouni , Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story , Watsuki and his editor argued over Kenshin 's speech patterns ; they settled for a " slangy " pattern . For the final version of the first Romantic Story , Watsuki adjusted the dialogue ; in his view , he made Kenshin sound " more as I prefer him now . " Watsuki added Kenshin 's trademark " oro " ( おろ ) as a placeholder to be an expression of the English speech disfluency " huh " . Watsuki notes that he was surprised at how much it caught on , and how much he ended up having Kenshin use the sound during the series . Watsuki also planned to make Kenshin older than 30 years old ; his editor commented that it was strange that the main character of a manga for teenagers was so old , so he made Kenshin 28 years old .
At the end of the series , Kenshin appears with short hair . Initially , Watsuki had planned to make his hair shorter before the end , however , he found this to be similar to the character Multi from To Heart . Watsuki based most of Kenshin 's abilities on a real swordsman of the Tokugawa period named Matsubayashi Henyasai , who was skilled in acrobatic techniques . During his fight against Shishio Makoto 's army , Kenshin is given a new sword with a sheath made of wood . Watsuki decided to redesign the sword to make it look as the first one Kenshin had in the series , though it is more difficult to draw .
In the first Rurouni Kenshin kanzenban , published in Japan in July 2006 , Watsuki included a draft page featuring a redesign of Kenshin 's character . To make his X @-@ shaped scar more notable , Watsuki made it long enough to cross his nose . Kenshin 's hair is tied in two tails , which are flowing to make him look younger , but shorter , to be less androgynous . Watsuki also added a Habaki to Kenshin 's sword to make it easier to draw by simplifying its structure , while also emphasizing strength . Kenshin 's hitokiri look was also redesigned slightly , by making his clothes more damaged and giving him Yukishiro Tomoe 's neck scarf .
In the anime adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin , Watsuki 's designs were combined with the voice talents of Mayo Suzukaze , a voice actress . In producing the English dub version of the series , Media Blasters considered following suit , with Mona Marshall considered as a finalist for voicing Kenshin . Richard Hayworth eventually was selected for the role , giving Kenshin 's character a more masculine voice in the English adaptation . Additionally , Marshall was selected to voice the younger Kenshin during flashback scenes . Clark Cheng , writer of the Media Blasters dub script , said that localizing Kenshin 's unusual speech was a difficult process . His use of " de gozaru " and " oro " were not only character trademarks that indicated Kenshin 's state of mind , but important elements to the story . However , neither is directly translatable to English , and in the end the company chose to replace " de gozaru " with " that I did , " " that I am , " or " that I do . " Kenshin 's signature " oro " was replaced with " huah " to simulate it being a " funny sound " that had no real meaning . Daryl Surat of Otaku USA said that the grammar in Kenshin 's dialogue in the Media Blasters dub and subtitles resemble the grammar in the dialogue of Yoda , a character in Star Wars .
= = = In other media = = =
Kenshin first appeared in two chapters of Rurouni , Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story , the pilot chapters of the manga , in which he arrives in Tokyo and defeats several groups of villains attacking families . In these stories , Kenshin is given a similar personality to the one he has in the series , but his name is unmentioned .
Later , in the movie Rurouni Kenshin : The Motion Picture , Kenshin meets a samurai named Takimi Shigure , who tries to overthrow the Meiji Government and avenge the deaths of his family during the Bakumatsu . Kenshin encounters Shigure and defeats him in order to avoid the start of a war .
In the OVAs , Kenshin is given a more humanized design . There are also numerous changes to his life story compared to that of the manga , including the way he received his X @-@ shaped scar in Rurouni Kenshin : Trust & Betrayal . In Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection , as time passes , Kenshin becomes tortured anew by the guilt of leading a happy life after such a destructive past . He makes the decision to wander again , and Kaoru strongly supports him , promising to welcome him home with a smile and their child . Kenshin eventually becomes ravaged by an unknown disease . However , he decides to assist in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War as he had promised the Meiji Government . After the war 's end , Sagara Sanosuke discovers a gravely injured Kenshin on the shore , who lost his memories and thus cannot come back to Japan . Sanosuke arranges
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to as East Greenwich until this use declined in the 19th century . The whole of Deptford came within the Metropolitan Police District in 1830 and was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 . It was transferred to the County of London in 1889 and became part of Greater London in 1965 .
The area was split in 1900 : the southern part , the parish of St Paul Deptford , became the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford ; while the northern part , the parish of St Nicholas Deptford , became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich . In 1965 the Metropolitan Borough of Deptford was absorbed into the London Borough of Lewisham , then in 1994 the bulk of the northern part , including the former Royal Dockyard area , was transferred to Lewisham Borough from Greenwich Borough , leaving only the north eastern area , around St Nicholas 's church , in Greenwich .
= = Demography = =
Deptford 's population has been mainly associated with the docks since the establishment of the Royal Docks by Henry VIII , though there has also been some market gardening and potteries . When the docks were thriving as the main administrative centre of the British Navy , so the area prospered , and fine houses were built for the administrative staff and the skilled shipbuilders , and a few grand houses like Sayes Court and Stone House on Lewisham Way were erected . There was a start of a demographic shift downwards when the Royal Navy pulled out of Deptford , and the docks moved into storage and freight . The downward shift continued into the 20th century as the local population 's dependency on the docks continued : as the docks themselves declined , so did the economic fortune of the inhabitants until the last dock , Convoys Wharf , closed in 2000 .
Deptford 's northern section nearest the old docks contains areas of desolate council housing and deprivation typical of inner city poverty , though the area , along with neighbouring New Cross , has been touted as " the new Shoreditch " by some journalists and estate agents paying attention to a trendy arts and music scene that is popular with students and artists . To the south where Deptford rolls into the suburban spread of Brockley , the previously multi @-@ occupancy Victorian houses are being gentrified by young city workers and urban professionals . Deptford has a growing Vietnamese community reflected in the number of restaurants in the area .
Deptford contains a number of student populations , including those of Goldsmiths College , the University of Greenwich , Bellerbys College and Laban Dance Centre . Goldsmiths College 's hall of residence , Rachel McMillan , in Creek Road was sold in 2001 for £ 79 million , and was subsequently demolished and replaced with the McMillan Student Village which opened in 2003 and provides accommodation for approximately 970 students of the University of Greenwich , Trinity Laban and Bellerbys colleges .
= = Economy = =
Deptford 's economic history has been strongly connected to the Dockyard - when the Dockyard was thriving , so Deptford thrived ; with the docks now all closed , Deptford has declined economically . However , areas of Deptford are being gradually re @-@ developed and gentrified - and the local council has plans to regenerate the riverside and the town centre . A large former industrial site by the Thames called Convoys Wharf is scheduled for redeveloping into mixed use buildings . This will involve the construction of around 3 @,@ 500 new homes and an extension of the town centre northwards towards the river .
Much of the area along Creek Road , close to Greenwich , has also been redeveloped , with the demolition of the old Deptford Power Station and Rose Bruford College buildings . Aragon Tower on the Pepys Estate was sold by Lewisham Borough to fund regeneration plans for the estate ; the award winning refurbishment into privately owned accommodation was featured in the BBC1 documentary , " The Tower " .
Deptford Market , a street market in Deptford High Street sells a range of goods , and is considered one of London 's liveliest street markets . In February 2005 , the High Street was described as " the capital 's most diverse and vibrant high street " by Yellow Pages business directory , using a unique mathematical formula .
= = Culture = =
The Albany Theatre , a community arts centre with a tradition of " radical community arts and music " including holding 15 " Rock Against Racism " concerts , has its roots in a charity established in 1894 to improve the social life of Deptford 's deprived community . The original building , the Albany Institute , was opened in 1899 on Creek Road , changing its name in the 1960s to the Albany Empire . It was burnt down in 1978 , but rebuilt on Douglas Way , with Prince Charles laying the foundation stone , and Diana , Princess of Wales opening it in 1982 . Creekside , a regeneration area beside Deptford Creek , is used for educational and artistic purposes , such as the Laban Dance Centre , which was designed by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron , and opened in February 2003 ; and the Art in Perpetuity Trust ( APT ) gallery and studio space . A record label , Deptford Fun City Records was set up by Miles Copeland III , brother of Stewart Copeland , in the late 1970s as an outlet for Deptford bands such as Alternative TV and Squeeze .
The area has several pubs , including the Dog & Bell which has a reputation for serving a range of cask ales ; and The Bird 's Nest which has live music , film and art performances from local bands and artists . The Town Hall of the former Metropolitan Borough of Deptford , built in 1905 with decorative sculpture by Henry Poole RA , lies just outside Deptford , on the New Cross Road in New Cross . It was purchased by Goldsmiths College in 2000 .
There are several green spaces in the area , the largest being Brookmill Park , Deptford Park , Ferranti Park , Pepys Park and Sayes Court Park . In 1884 W.J. Evelyn , a descendant of John Evelyn , sold ground then being used as market gardens in Deptford , to the London County Council for less than its market value , as well as paying toward the cost of its purchase . It was officially opened to the public as Deptford Park on 7 June 1897 . In 1886 he dedicated an acre and a half of the Sayes Court recreation ground in perpetuity to the public and a permanent provision was made for the Evelyn estate to cover the expense of maintenance and caretaking , this was opened on 20 July 1886 .
= = Transport = =
Deptford is served by National Rail and Docklands Light Railway services . The National Rail service is operated by Southeastern Railway on the suburban Greenwich Line at Deptford railway station , the oldest passenger only railway station in London , and St Johns , as well as nearby New Cross and New Cross Gate stations . The DLR stations are at Deptford Bridge and Elverson Road . Deptford station has recently been redeveloped and reopened in 2012 . The works included the demolition of the existing , dilapidated , station building and its replacement by an impressive glass and steel structure and refreshed platforms . Since May 2010 , New Cross station has also been served by London Overground services to Dalston Junction , after the East London Line reopened as part of the National Rail network . Nearby New Cross Gate railway station is also served by London Overground trains northbound to Highbury and Islington , and southbound to Crystal Palace and West Croydon .
Residents in North Deptford are within a short walk of both Surrey Quays station ( East London Line , London Overground ) and Canada Water tube station on the Jubilee line , although they are just over the border in Southwark . Planning permission has been granted to open Surrey Canal Road station which will be on the East London Line phase 2 extension to Clapham Junction station . The new station is due to open in the next couple of years and will be an alternative transport hub for residents in the Surrey Canal Triangle areas as well as residents on the periphery of New Cross and South Bermondsey .
The two main road routes through Deptford are the A200 which runs along Evelyn Street and Creek Road , and the A2 which runs along New Cross Road . The A20 marks the southern boundary of the area , along Lewisham Way and Loampit Vale .
= = Education = =
There are five primary schools scattered around the area , with four ranging from " good " to " outstanding " in recent Ofsted reports ( the fifth recently became an Academy ) . There are no local secondary schools directly in Deptford , however there are two secondary schools nearby the border between New Cross and Deptford , Deptford Green , regarded by Ofsted as " needing improvement " , and Addey and Stanhope , regarded by Ofsted as " good " . A branch of the further education college , Lewisham College incorporating Southwark College ( known as LeSoCo ) , is located on Deptford Church Street ; the college was regarded as " inadequate " in the 2014 Ofsted inspection .
= = Landmarks = =
Deptford railway station is one of the oldest suburban stations in the world , being built ( c.1836 @-@ 38 ) as part of the first suburban service ( the London and Greenwich Railway ) , between London Bridge and Greenwich . Close to Deptford Creek is a Victorian pumping station built in 1864 , part of the massive London sewerage system designed by civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette . The former Deptford Power Station , in use from 1891 to 1983 , originated as a pioneering plant designed by Sebastian de Ferranti , which when built was the largest station in the world . Lewisham Council recently granted permission for the last remnants of the Deptford Ragged School known as The Princess Louise Institute to be demolished and replaced by flats . Albury Street ( previously Union Street ) contains a fine row of early urban houses largely dating from 1705 to 1717 which were once popular with naval captains and shipwrights . Tanners Hill in the St John 's or New Deptford area to the south of New Cross Road , is part of an Area of Archaeological Priority due to the longevity of settlement and early industry , and contains a set of commercial buildings from numbers 21 to 31 which are survivors from a row of 31 which were built in the 1750s on the site of cottages dating from the 17th century . These timber @-@ frame buildings have a Grade II listing from English Heritage and are home to established businesses such as bicycle maker Witcomb Cycles . Of Deptford 's two important houses , Sayes Court no longer exists , but the Stone House in St Johns , built around 1772 by the architect George Gibson the Younger , and described by Pevsner as " the one individual house of interest in this area " , still stands by Lewisham Way .
= = = Churches = = =
St Nicholas ' Church , the original parish church , dates back to the 14th century but the current building is 17th century . The entrance to the churchyard features a set of skull @-@ and @-@ bones on top of the posts . A plaque on the north wall commemorates playwright Christopher Marlowe , who was murdered in a nearby house , and buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard on 1 June 1593 .
There is also St. Luke 's , another historic circular church , dating from 1870 . It is the daughter church of the parish of St Nicholas ' .
In the 18th century St. Paul 's , Deptford ( 1712 – 1730 ) was built , acclaimed by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England as one of the finest Baroque churches in the country . John Betjeman is attributed as referring to the church as " a pearl at the heart of Deptford " . It was designed by the architect Thomas Archer , who was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren , as part of the Commission for Building Fifty New Churches with the intention of instilling pride in Britain , and encouraging people to stay in London rather than emigrate to the New World .
Adjacent to the church yard is Albury Street , which contains some fine 18th @-@ century houses which were popular with sea captains and shipbuilders .
= = = Deptford Dockyard = = =
Deptford Dockyard was established in 1513 by Henry VIII as the first Royal Dockyard , building vessels for the Royal Navy , and was at one time known as the King 's Yard . It was shut down from 1830 to 1844 before being closed as a dockyard in 1869 , and is currently known as Convoys Wharf . From 1871 until the First World War it was the City of London Corporation 's Foreign Cattle Market . In 1912 The Times reported that over 4 million head of live cattle , and sheep , had been landed .
From 1932 until 2008 the site was owned by News International , which used it to import newsprint and other paper products from Finland until early 2000 . It is now owned by Hutchison Whampoa Limited and is subject to a planning application to convert it into residential units , though it has safeguarded wharf status .
Other notable shipyards in Deptford were , Charles Lungley 's and the General Steam Navigation Company 's yards at Deptford Green and Dudman 's Dock , also sometimes referred to as Deadmans Dock at Deptford Wharf .
= = Murder of Christopher Marlowe = =
The Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe was killed during an alleged drunken brawl in Eleanor Bull 's house in Deptford Strand in May 1593 . Various versions of Marlowe 's death were current at the time . Francis Meres says Marlowe was " stabbed to death by a bawdy serving @-@ man , a rival of his in his lewd love " as punishment for his " epicurism and atheism " . In 1917 , in the Dictionary of National Biography , Sir Sidney Lee wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight . Modern theories are that he was assassinated . It is commonly assumed that the fight took place in a Deptford tavern .
The scholar Leslie Hotson discovered in 1925 the coroner 's report on Marlowe 's death in the Public Record Office which gave fuller details . Marlowe had spent all day in a house owned by the widow Eleanor Bull , along with three men , Ingram Frizer , Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley . Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill , exchanging " divers malicious words . " Later , while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch , Marlowe snatched Frizer 's dagger and began attacking him . In the ensuing struggle , according to the coroner 's report , Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye , killing him instantly . The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self @-@ defence , and within a month he was pardoned . Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas , Deptford , on 1 June 1593 .
= = Notable people = =
Among people associated with Deptford are Christopher Marlowe , who was murdered at Deptford Strand ; diarist John Evelyn ( 1620 – 1706 ) who lived at Sayes Court , and had Peter the Great ( 1672 – 1725 ) as a guest for about three months in 1698 ; and Sir Francis Drake who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I aboard the Golden Hind in Deptford Docks .
Other people who have lived in Deptford , range from the First Governor of the Honourable East India Company , and Ambassador to the court of Russia , Thomas Smythe , whose magnificent house was destroyed by fire in 1618 ; to early members of the Chartist movement , John Gast and George Julian Harney ; and the Cleveleys , John Cleveley the Elder and his sons John and Robert , a family of marine artists who also worked as tradesmen in the Dockyard . Other artists born in Deptford are Henry Courtney Selous , who is known for The Opening of The Great Exhibition , painted in 1851 , and the watercolourist Mariquita Jenny Moberly . Joseph Drew , newspaper editor , steamboat proprietor , author and lecturer , was born in Deptford in 1814 ; Joseph 's father of the same name worked in the Royal Navy Dockyard Service .
Leading British jazz and session guitarist Denny Wright was born in Deptford in 1924 . Members of rock groups Squeeze and Dire Straits lived on the Crossfield Estate in Deptford in the late 1970s , along with Mark Perry , founder of the punk fanzine Sniffin Glue and punk rock band Alternative TV . Influential Mod / Punk band The Chords also used The Birds Nest , on the Crossfield Estate , as their centre of operations in 1979 / 80 . The DJ and music journalist Danny Baker also lived near the Crossfield Estate , where he was born and brought up . Experimental R & B artist Daniel Woolhouse , aka Deptford Goth , chose his name after teaching in Deptford for a year .
= Danielle Jones ( EastEnders ) =
Danielle Jones is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Lauren Crace . The character appeared between 18 August 2008 and 3 April 2009 . Crace 's casting in the role was announced in July 2008 , when she was described as a love interest for fellow new character Callum Monks ( Elliott Jordan ) . In October 2008 , it was revealed that Danielle was actually the long @-@ lost daughter of established character Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) . Crace has disclosed that even she was unaware of this fact upon being cast in the role , but always knew Danielle would only have a short arc . Danielle 's feelings were further explored in a segment of the BBC EastEnders homepage entitled Danielle 's Diary , documenting the character 's thoughts on the storylines she was involved in , while a special episode of EastEnders Revealed entitled " The Secret Mitchell " further explored the character 's impact on the show .
Danielle 's storylines focused on her friendship with local resident Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) , her crush on Callum , and her adoption secret . She was deemed a welcome addition to the soap by members of the Telford local council , for raising awareness of the town the character originates from , however was poorly received by The Guardian 's Gareth McLean and Grace Dent , and dubbed " Drippy Danielle " by the Daily Mirror 's Jane Simon . Her final episode was watched by 11 @.@ 46 million viewers , and caused a notable power surge on the National Grid .
= = Storylines = =
Danielle arrives in Walford , having left her hometown of Telford and is befriended by local resident Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) , who gives her a job on her market clothing stall and offers her the spare room in her family 's home . Danielle quickly develops a crush on fellow stall @-@ trader Callum Monks ( Elliott Jordan ) , who leads her on in an attempt to make Stacey jealous but he helps her get a second job , cleaning at The Queen Victoria public house , where she gets caught in the feud between Ronnie ( Samantha Janus ) and Archie Mitchell ( Larry Lamb ) . Both try to use Danielle to get information from the other , with Archie persuading Danielle to steal Ronnie 's post . Ronnie is furious when she realises and sacks Danielle after publicly berating her . Danielle is devastated , and is later seen clutching a locket containing a photograph of Ronnie , revealing herself to be Ronnie 's long @-@ lost daughter , Amy .
It transpires that Danielle is the result of a teenage romance between Ronnie and her first boyfriend , Joel Reynolds . Archie disapproved of the pregnancy and put Danielle - named Amy by Ronnie — up for adoption . Danielle was adopted by Lizzie and Andy Jones ( Aneirin Hughes ) . She began trying to locate her birth mother after Lizzie 's death in 2007 . Following Ronnie 's tirade , Danielle tries to leave Albert Square but Stacey and her family persuade her to stay with them .
Ronnie 's sister , Roxy ( Rita Simons , gives birth to a baby girl that she names Amy , to Danielle 's surprise . Ronnie 's dislike of her lessens with time , and when Danielle falls out with Stacey and ends up squatting in a flat owned by landlord Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) , Ronnie convinces him not to call the police .
Danielle later breaks down and tells Ronnie that she is pregnant by Paul , a barman she had a one night stand with . She intended to tell him about her pregnancy until he reveals he has a girlfriend . Ronnie comforts Danielle and contacts Andy , suggesting that he take Danielle home but she resists in favour of staying close to Ronnie . She is dismayed when Ronnie confides in her that having her own child was the biggest mistake of her life . Danielle makes up with Stacey and decides to terminate her pregnancy . She is delighted when Ronnie accompanies her to the clinic but dismayed when she backs out of attending her second appointment . Following her abortion , Danielle visits her family for a while , but soon comes to miss Ronnie and Stacey and returns to Walford . Danielle becomes increasingly angry with Ronnie for rejecting her . She decides that she will tell Ronnie who she really is and leave Walford for good but Archie stops her when he learns who she is . Unknown to Danielle , Archie has told Ronnie that her daughter died as an infant , so in order to preserve his story , he convinces Danielle that Ronnie suffers from depression and she should keep quiet until he decides the time is right to make her revelation . Although Danielle continues to press Archie to reveal the truth , he repeatedly puts her off to maintain his lie . Eventually , believing that Archie has told Ronnie about her , Danielle tells her the truth but Ronnie refuses to believe her . Distraught , Danielle intends to leave Walford but Ronnie discovers that Archie has been lying and chases her . They are about to reconcile when Danielle is accidentally run over by a car driven by Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) . Ronnie cradles Danielle and apologises for not believing her , saying that if she had known , she would never have given her up . Danielle passes away in Ronnie 's arms , leaving her devastated . Danielle is buried and a grief @-@ stricken Ronnie sings by her grave when alone .
= = Creation and characterisation = =
On 19 July 2008 , The Sun reported that a new character , Danielle , would be introduced to EastEnders as the love interest of fellow newcomer Callum Monks . Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Danielle was described as a " naive blonde [ ... ] easily taken in by Callum 's smooth patter " , arriving in Walford with " just a suitcase and a dream of a new life " . It was later revealed that Danielle had additionally been created as the long @-@ lost daughter of established character Ronnie Mitchell , and a member of the soap 's long @-@ running Mitchell family . Her introduction had been planned from 2007 , when story producer Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins conceived the idea of two new Mitchell sisters , Ronnie and Roxy . Ronnie was depicted as the more detached and icy sister , and a hidden secret was first alluded to eight months after their introduction , when Roxy made a veiled reference to Ronnie 's child and a physical fight ensued . Several months later , off @-@ set episodes shot in Weymouth and dubbed " Mitchell Week " by the BBC were aired , during which the audience were introduced to Ronnie and Roxy 's father Archie , and learned that Ronnie had given a child up for adoption .
Treadwell @-@ Collins explained that it was necessary to introduce Danielle shortly after this revelation , but in such a manner that she would arrive " under the audience 's radar " , to preserve the later revelation of her identity as Ronnie 's daughter . Lauren Crace , then a third year student at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , was cast as Danielle and began filming in June 2008 . EastEnders was Crace 's first professional acting role , and executive producer Diederick Santer expressed his pleasure that Crace had chosen to make her debut on the show . Upon her introduction , EastEnders 's producers attempted to deceive the audience into believing Danielle was nothing more than a new friend for Stacey . Crace herself was only told of Danielle 's true identity after her successful audition , though as she only signed a six @-@ month contract with the show , was always aware Danielle would only have a short arc . She stated that some audience members guessed Danielle to be Ronnie 's daughter almost as soon as she arrived , and that she found maintaining the secret difficult .
Crace initially portrayed Danielle as being shy and afraid of rejection , though felt that Stacey 's friendship and living with the Slater family could have a positive impact on her confidence . Discussing her failure at romantic relationships , Crace assessed that Danielle 's eagerness may scare men off . She came to find portraying Danielle depressing , explaining that she was bored by and had doubts about Danielle 's constant naivety and passive personality . She suggested to the producers that Danielle should stand up for herself more , which was accepted and adapted into her personality , to the point that by the end of her tenure on the show , Danielle was " not a little mouse any more " . Crace 's view is that Danielle 's Mitchell heritage manifested itself in an inner @-@ strength and ability to " come back fighting " , giving her a toughness beneath her " wet and pathetic " personality .
= = Development = =
Series writer Simon Ashdown explained that Danielle initially chose to conceal her identity from Ronnie due to her fear of being rejected . He described her as " hurt and broken by her life " , and hoping to charm Ronnie into liking her before revealing the truth . Crace observed that Danielle was intrigued by Ronnie and the Mitchells , but also worried that she was too different from them and may be a disappointment to Ronnie . Danielle 's pregnancy was used as a plot @-@ device to bring the two closer together . Crace deemed the development " a huge thing " for Danielle , as contrary to her constant rejection , the one person she most desired support from was finally showing her affection . However , Ronnie 's failure to attend Danielle 's second clinic appointment signified " a step back " for the character , leaving her " hurt and distraught " and less willing to confide the truth in Ronnie than ever .
In the aftermath of her abortion , Danielle was depicted as being increasingly emotionally unstable and angry with Ronnie , believing that she deserved to belong to the Mitchell family . The writers had Archie discover her secret as a test of his character , experimenting with whether he would be despicable enough to conceal the truth . Lamb deemed Danielle " a huge threat " to Archie 's position as patriarch of the Mitchell family , explaining why he chose to lie that Ronnie was suffering from depression and Danielle ought not tell her . Danielle accepted the lie , believing it to explain Ronnie 's " hot and cold " reaction to her , and attempted to care for Ronnie and help her recover . Crace explained that despite their turbulent relationship , Ronnie was all Danielle had ever wanted . Despite seeing Archie as " a domineering figure " , Danielle initially trusted him and believed he would reunite her with her mother when the time was right . However , as time passed she became aware of Archie 's " true colours " and grew afraid of him .
The ultimate revelation of Danielle 's identity was set at Archie 's wedding to Peggy ( Barbara Windsor ) , matriarch of the Mitchell family . Crace deemed the wedding " the perfect opportunity " for the storyline to conclude , and Santer explained : " Weddings are great because they bring the community together . A wedding gives you a stage , it gives you an event , the context to play things out , so it felt right that these big Mitchell stories would collide at Peggy 's wedding . " Writer James Payne concurred that setting the reveal at the wedding helped to make the moment " as dramatic and sensational " as it could possibly be . The episode saw Danielle announce that she was Ronnie 's daughter in front of the entire wedding reception party , in what Crace has named her favourite scene on the show . She opined that the disbelief Danielle was faced with was " heartbreaking " and served to highlight the fact that " she came as the outsider and she still is the outsider because no one steps in to help her " .
Danielle was killed off minutes after revealing her true identity to Ronnie , dying in her mother 's arms . Although different outcomes to the storyline were considered , Santer explained that Danielle dying best preserved Ronnie 's status as EastEnders ' " tragic heroine character " . Treadwell @-@ Collins felt that to allow Ronnie to have her daughter , the " one thing that is key to her character " would serve to progressively weaken her character , and Santer agreed that while it may initially be touching , ultimately the relationship would become boring . The scene in which Danielle dies was filmed during winter , but as it was set in early April , snow had to be cleared away from the set before filming could commence . A body double was used for the moment Danielle was run over . Although sad to leave , Crace felt that the story 's conclusion was the right one , and was glad that Ronnie and Danielle finally shared a brief moment in the end , explaining : " It was so important that that tender moment was finally found , because that 's all people wanted . It 's all Danielle wanted , and it 's all Ronnie wants . " Crace concluded : " I think Danielle will leave quite a big mark on the Square and on the people in the Square – probably a bigger mark than she did when she was alive .
News of Danielle 's death was subject to a media embargo , although several newspapers and magazines including the Radio Times leaked news of Crace 's exit in advance of the event . Digital Spy 's Kris Green reported that most of the online EastEnders community had anticipated the character 's exit from the soap beforehand , some as early as January 2009 .
= = Related media = =
The BBC used viral promotion on the EastEnders homepage to further develop the character of Danielle . A new section named Danielle 's Diary was launched , encompassing events in the show from 6 October 2008 onwards , written in diary style from Danielle 's point of view . Insight was given into the character 's thoughts and feelings on the events surrounding her each week , beginning with the introduction : " Bit new to all this . Need some way to clear my head though . Can 't really talk to Stace . Or Callum . Or anyone . Maybe if I write it all down , my head won 't explode ... Anyway , welcome to my life in Walford . "
In this manner , viewers were able to keep up with the character during her temporary absence from the show in February 2009 , when she returned home to Telford following her abortion : " Back in Dawley . Feels strange to be away from Stacey ... away from R & R ... away from Ronnie . Been sleeping a lot – so tired . When I was younger I never dreamt that I ’ d go through all of this . Stace keeps ringing , but I can ’ t speak to anyone . I can ’ t even listen to my voicemail " , and were privy to Danielle 's internal worries about her relationship with Ronnie : " It 's like I scare R. It was as though she scared herself , as she actually admitted that she cared . For about ten seconds I felt close to her again . Like watching the sun appear from behind a cloud ... feeling the warmth across your skin again . But , then it disappears as another cloud sweeps over it . " The final entry , dated minutes before Danielle 's on @-@ screen death , reads : " All I ever wanted was for mum to look at me with love in her eyes . To call me her baby . To tell me she loved me . I have to leave now . I have to go back to Telford . Goodbye Walford . " After the character had been killed off , the diary format gave way to a wall of memorial messages , supposedly penned by other EastEnders characters , including Abi Branning ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) , Lucy Beale ( Melissa Suffield ) , Callum and Stacey .
= = Reception = =
Miles Hosken , a former mayor of Telford , welcomed the choice to give Danielle a Telford background due to the national exposure it gave the area . Sarah Raper , chief executive of economic development company Transforming Telford , commented : " We hope the new character will portray Telford in a positive light and increase national awareness of the town " , and Councillor Eric Carter , Telford & Wrekin Council cabinet member for regeneration , adding : " There are a lot of people working to put Telford on the map and this will help " .
The Daily Mirror sympathised with Danielle over the storyline which saw her manipulated by Archie , deeming it one of the more interesting EastEnders plot strands . Gareth McLean of The Guardian 's described Danielle as a " wet weekend incarnate " , criticising the drawn out nature of the secret Mitchell storyline . Fellow Guardian critic Grace Dent was similarly critical of the storyline , particularly the scripting . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart wrote that " when a downcast Danielle walks into a room , it 's like all the lights have been switched off " , and his colleague Jane Simon christened the character " Drippy Danielle " , writing that " If she 's half Mitchell , her father must have been a marshmallow . "
Discussing the character 's death , Digital Spy 's Kris Green praised Crace 's acting . He compared Danielle 's revelation that Ronnie was her mother to the EastEnders storyline several years previously , when Kat Slater ( Jessie Wallace ) revealed she was actually the mother of her supposed sister Zoe ( Michelle Ryan ) . Green opined : " Although it didn 't quite capture the magic of [ the Kat @-@ Zoe scene ] it definitely comes an extremely close second . " He concluded : " I 'd probably go as far as to say that it 's one of the best episodes EastEnders has produced in a long time " . The episode was selected as recommended viewing by The Guardian 's Sarah Dempster . Simon called it " the EastEnders episode of the year " , though was again critical of Danielle , writing : " As a nation we 've been driven mad by Danielle screwing up her forehead , shrugging her shoulders and walking around like a wide eyed simpleton . She isn 't the first person in the world to track down their biological mother and while it 's seldom easy , I can 't imagine it 's ever been quite so hard as Danielle has made it . " Writing for The Times , Tim Teeman was critical of the length of time it took for the storyline to conclude , calling it " the most drawn @-@ out ' reveal ' in soapland " . He deemed Ashdown 's scripting of Danielle 's exit to be " mad crescendo after mad crescendo " , and the storyline as a whole " implausible " , concluding that by the time Danielle died in Ronnie 's arms : " EastEnders had hit the misery mother lode . "
Crace was pleased with public reaction to the mother @-@ daughter storyline , commenting prior to the reveal : " Everyone seems desperate to know why Danielle hasn 't told Ronnie yet , so I 'm taking that as a sign they 're enjoying the story . Viewers are always telling me that they love it when Danielle and Ronnie have a scene together – I think they 're on the edge of their seats , waiting to see when Danielle is finally going to admit the truth about her identity . " Danielle 's death received a mixed reaction from viewers , with 90 % of viewers polled by The Sun opining that killing Danielle off was a mistake . The decision was defended by Santer , who stated : " We acknowledge that we didn 't deliver the happy ending that many of the audience may have been hoping for , and that for some people this was upsetting . We hope viewers understand that our aim is to deliver the best drama . That doesn 't always lead to a happy ending . EastEnders – like all good drama – contains a balance of storylines , both happy and sad . We ’ re proud of the episode , the storyline which built up to it and the way the audience have engaged with it . " Following Danielle 's final episode , regulator Ofcom confirmed they had received a number of complaints from the public about the " violent nature of the show and the horrific death at the end " , and the fact it was broadcast before the 9 p.m. watershed .
Danielle 's final episode was watched by an average of 11 @.@ 46 million viewers , peaking at 11 @.@ 5 million during its broadcast , and attaining a 48 @.@ 3 % audience share . A further 1 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode 's repeat on BBC Three later that evening . The high ratings caused a power surge more than double the national average , seeing a grid surge of 1270MW compared to the 550MW usually experienced during EastEnders episodes . A National Grid spokeswoman commented that the surge was " equivalent to around half a million kettles being switched on at once . "
= College Republicans =
The College Republican National Committee ( CRNC ) is a national organization for college and university students who support the Republican Party of the United States . The organization is known as an active recruiting tool for the Republican Party and has produced many prominent Republican and conservative activists and introduced more party members to the Republican party than any other organization in the nation .
The organizational structure of the College Republicans has changed significantly since its founding in 1892 . Originally founded as an organization for the Republican National Committee , the College Republicans now operate as an independent 527 group . After the Young Republican National Federation was spun off from the College Republicans organization in 1972 , the groups operate independent of one another .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history = = =
The College Republicans were founded as the American Republican College League on May 17 , 1892 at the University of Michigan . The organization was spearheaded by law student James Francis Burke , who would later serve as a Congressman from Pennsylvania . The inaugural meeting was attended by over 1 @,@ 000 students from across the country , from Stanford University in the west to Harvard University in the east . Contemporary politicians also attended the meeting , including Judge John M. Thurston , Senator Russell A. Alger , Congressman J. Sloat Fassett , Congressman W. E. Mason , John M. Langston , and Abraham Lincoln 's successor in the Illinois State Legislature , A. J. Lester . Then @-@ Governor of Ohio William McKinley gave a rousing keynote speech .
The College Republicans quickly pursued a strategy of sending college students to vote in their home districts and registering others to vote where they schooled to swing closely contested districts . This strategy was successfully implemented for the 1900 presidential election between William McKinley and William Jennings Bryan , helping win Bryan 's home state of Nebraska for McKinley .
The College Republicans were financed , at least in part , by the Republican National Committee throughout much of its history . James Francis Burke received significant funding from the RNC to support the American Republican College League 's founding and to maintain the organization 's early offices in New York and Chicago . By 1924 , the organization was operating directly under the auspices of the RNC as the Associated University Republican Clubs .
The relative dominance of the Democratic party through the 1930s through the 1960s coincided with a precipitous drop in the membership and effectiveness of the College Republicans . In 1931 , the College Republicans were absorbed as an arm of the Hoover campaign . For the next several years the organization operated alternately under the auspices of the " Republican National League , " " Young Republican National Committee , " and the " Division of Young Republican Activities . " In 1935 , the College Republicans were merged into the newly created Young Republican National Federation , encompassing both college students and young professionals . College Republican operations continued under the Young Republicans until the 1965 founding of the " College Republican National Committee . "
= = = Modern history = = =
In 1967 , Morton Blackwell , then a field representative for the CRNC to Kentucky , developed many of the principles now used by the College Republicans . As the college organizer supporting Louie Nunn 's campaign for Governor of Kentucky , Blackwell organized approximately 5 @,@ 000 college student volunteers who dropped 93 @,@ 000 pieces of literature , posted 20 @,@ 000 flyers , mailed 15 @,@ 000 hand @-@ addressed and signed postcards to friends of known student supporters of Nunn , and processed over 8 @,@ 000 absentee ballots . On election day , Nunn became the first Republican Governor of Kentucky in 20 years . The New York Times and Louie Nunn himself credited the efforts of Blackwell 's volunteers .
In 1970 , the Young Republican National Federation was permanently spun off from the College Republicans in 1970 to prevent counter @-@ productive infighting among the two groups . In 1972 the Republican National Committee made the College Republican National Committee an auxiliary arm of the RNC .
In 1973 , Karl Rove ran for chair of the College Republicans . He challenged the front @-@ runner 's delegates , throwing the national convention into disarray , after which both he and his opponent , Robert Edgeworth , claimed victory . The dispute was resolved when Rove was selected through the direct order of the chairman of the Republican National Committee , who at the time was George H W Bush .
By 1980 , only 20 active College Republican chapters remained . By the US Presidential election in 1980 , that number had increased to 1 @,@ 000 active clubs , helping Reagan win 98 of 105 mock elections and recruiting thousands of voters . This success led to $ 290 @,@ 000 in financial assistance from the RNC , mainly to implement Jack Abramoff 's field representative program . Abramoff 's fund @-@ raising efforts brought in an additional $ 1 @,@ 160 @,@ 000 during the next two years . By 1983 , only 10 % of the CRNC 's budget came from the RNC .
Prompted by the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act , the CRNC officially left the control of the RNC by reconstituting as a 527 group , allowing it to operate independently and raise unlimited amount of money for issue @-@ advocacy work . As a 527 group , the organization is prohibited from coordinating directly with a particular campaign and its recent focus has turned towards developing volunteers and other support activities rather than outright campaigning . The shift has allowed the CRNC to vastly expand its fundraising efforts . During its first two years , the CRNC raised $ 17 @.@ 3 million , most going to pay fundraising costs and other administrative costs , while leaving more than $ 2 million to expand the field representative program and to improve pay for the full @-@ time positions .
The CRNC was criticized for its relationship with Response Dynamics , a Virginia @-@ based direct mail company . The relationship became an issue during the 2005 election for National Chairman , which was won by former CRNC Treasurer , Paul Gourley , whose signature was on the questionable fundraising letters .
Morgan Wilkins , a CRNC field representative for election 2006 was placed on probation by the CRNC after suggesting several controversial events might be held on the University of Michigan – Ann Arbor Campus , to that school 's student newspaper , the Michigan Daily . The events included , " Catch an Illegal Immigrant Day " and " Fun with Guns Day , " where students were to shoot cardboard cutouts of prominent Democrats . This incident ultimately became a major news story on several national media outlets . Several sources , including the Michigan Daily incorrectly identified Ms. Wilkins as an employee of the Republican National Committee , rather than the CRNC , eliciting an outcry from Democratic National Committee Chairman , Howard Dean . In return , GOP Chairman Ken Mehlman condemned Wilkins ' activities , as well as Governor Dean . Keith Olbermann named Wilkins his " Worst Person in the World . " She was suspended for the incident , and later fired by the CRNC for later creating a Facebook group in which she promised to make out with individuals who signed up volunteers for get out the vote efforts .
In 2013 Alexandra Smith became the first elected female national chair of the College Republicans organization , and the first female national chair of the CRNC .
The College Republican National Committee is a member of the International Young Democrat Union .
The College Republicans adhere to the 2012 Republican Party platform on social issues , including the GOP 's pro @-@ life stance and stance for traditional marriage .
= = Governance = =
= = = College Republican National Committee = = =
The College Republican National Committee ( CRNC ) , is the national steering organization and oversight body for all 50 state federations , 1 @,@ 500 campus chapters , and 250 @,@ 000 College Republicans in the country . The CRNC National Chairman and his or her national leadership team , including an executive director , political director , finance director , comptroller , national field director , national treasurer , national secretary , and 4 regional vice @-@ presidents , are elected at the bi @-@ annual College Republican Convention and are assisted by a full @-@ time office staff .
= = = State federations = = =
There are 52 College Republican state federations , each administering the College Republican activities at the state level , in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , and in the District of Columbia . The state federation leadership team , which includes a state chairperson and other officers , serve as the primary link between local university chapters and the national College Republican National Committee . The state chairman serves as the representative for College Republicans when dealing with the state Republican Party , local media , and governmental entities . State federations are responsible for organizing and assisting local chapters with securing proper credentials , recruitment efforts , and campus voter canvasses . It is a state federation 's responsibility to organize and implement activities for statewide campaigns . Like the national organization , state federations operate as non @-@ profit associations that are not legally affiliated with the Republican Party .
= = = Campus chapters = = =
The college and university @-@ based chapters of the College Republicans operate in a dual capacity as student clubs associated with a particular campus and as members of their state federation and the College Republican National Committee . Like the state federations and national committee , the campus chapters are affiliated with their local Republican Party , but are not official arms of that organization . The chapter chairperson and leadership team are responsible for maintaining the campus club 's credentials and constitution , and representing the College Republicans when dealing with university administration , other student groups , and in the surrounding community . The campus chapter leadership team might include many members , with administrative responsibilities delegated to dormitory and Greek chapter chairpersons .
= = Notable College Republicans = =
Listed alphabetically by last name
Lobbyist Jack Abramoff
Prominent Republican strategist Lee Atwater
Lobbyist and McCain advisor Charles R. Black , Jr .
Conservative activist Morton Blackwell
Former First Lady and former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton was elected president of her College Republican chapter at Wellesley College in her freshman year before switching parties due to the war in Vietnam .
President Calvin Coolidge , the only College Republican ever to be elected President of the United States
McCain Campaign Manager Rick Davis
Former Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore
North Carolina Congressman Patrick McHenry
Ohio Governor John Kasich ( Ohio State Chapter )
California Republican State Chairman Ron Nehring , President of the College Republicans at Boston University
Americans for Tax Reform President Grover Norquist
Texas Republican Party Chairman Emeritus Tom Pauken
Christian Coalition executive director and political consultant Ralph E. Reed , Jr .
Karl Rove , a Senior Advisor to President George W. Bush and currently a contributor on Fox News Channel is probably one of the most famous College Republican leaders , having served as executive director , and then national chairman , of the CRNC during his time in the organization .
Former U.S. Senator Rick Santorum
New York political consultant Roger Stone
U.S. Senator Roger Wicker
Political consultant Joshua Workman
= = Activities = =
The CRNC organizes election @-@ year field representative programs to send paid staffers to recruit and train students and chapters nationwide . Former national chair Jack Abramoff founded the field representative program in 1981 . The program faltered during the 1980s and was revived during the late 1990s .
During the election season , campus chapters are responsible for organizing and implementing the campus canvas , running mock elections , managing the local get @-@ out @-@ the @-@ vote efforts . At other times , the campus chapters will organize issue advocacy and lobbying efforts , welcome conservative guest speakers to campus , and organize social events and other recruitment activities .
During the election season , the CRNC focuses on developing a " mass based youth effort " directed toward electing Republican candidates . The CRNC often sends paid field representatives to individual campuses to assist in organizing the election efforts . Generally the hired field representative or chapter chair begins the school year with membership tables on campus for recruitment . Members use door @-@ to @-@ door canvassing and word of mouth to identify and register as many Republican voters among the student body as possible . These individuals are encouraged to vote through an absentee ballot and assist the candidates with election day Get Out The Vote efforts . Chapters occasionally run student mock elections and other special events as a means to gain positive earned media attention for a candidate .
= = Gallery = =
= Pycnoporellus alboluteus =
Pycnoporellus alboluteus , commonly known as the orange sponge polypore , is a species of polypore fungus in the family Fomitopsidaceae . Distributed throughout the boreal conifer zone , the fungus is found in mountainous regions of western North America , and in Europe . It causes a brown cubical rot of conifer wood , especially spruce , but also fir and poplar . The soft , spongy orange fruit bodies grow spread out on the surface of fallen logs . Mature specimens have tooth @-@ like or jagged pore edges . A snowbank mushroom , P. alboluteus can often be found growing on logs or stumps protruding through melting snow . Although the edibility of the fungus and its usage for human culinary purposes are unknown , several species of beetles use the fungus as a food source .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally described as Fomes alboluteus by Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart in 1895 . Collected by botanist Charles Spencer Crandall , the type specimens were found growing on the charred trunks of Abies subalpina in the mountains of Colorado , at an elevation of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . In its taxonomic history , it has been transferred to several genera . The original authors moved it to Polyporus in 1898 , considering it allied to Polyporus leucospongia . They also noted that the pores developed teeth @-@ like elongations like those of genus Irpex . Other generic transfers include Scindalma by Otto Kuntze in the same year , Aurantiporellus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1895 , Aurantiporus by Murrill in 1905 , Phaeolus by Albert Pilát in 1937 , and Hapalopilus by Appollinaris Semenovich Bondartsev and Rolf Singer in 1943 . It was given its current name in 1963 when Czech mycologists František Kotlaba and Zdeněk Pouzar placed it in Pycnoporellus .
The generic name Pycnoporellus is Ancient Greek for " with countless pores " . The specific epithet alboluteus is a combination of the Latin words for " white " and " yellow " . Curtis Gates Lloyd did not approve of the name , opining : " I hardly see how Ellis could have given it a worse name if he had tried , for it is neither " white " nor " yellow " , but orange as Ellis described it . The young growth may possibly be white , but not when developed . " The fungus is commonly known as the " orange sponge polypore " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of P. alboluteus are annual , and are resupinate ; they can be spread out on the substrate surface for up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Fresh fruit bodies are bright orange , finely grooved , and have a soft and spongy upper surface . The pore surface is orange with angular pores that are usually larger than 1 mm in diameter . It features thin partitions that split to form a teeth @-@ like layer . The flesh is soft and pale orange , up to 2 mm thick , with a felt @-@ like texture . The tubes are the same color as the pores , and continuous with the flesh , measuring up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Bruised pores sometimes turn black . All tissues of the fungus turn bright red if a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide is applied . Fresh fruit bodies retain considerable moisture and can be squeezed of liquid like a sponge . The fruit body can be readily removed in large sheets from the wood it grows on . The edibility of the fruit body is unknown . It has a fragrant odor .
In deposit , the spores are white . Spores are cylindrical , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , inamyloid , and measure 9 – 12 by 3 – 3 @.@ 5 µm . Pycnoporellus alboluteus has a monomitic hyphal system , meaning it is made of generative hyphae , which are thin @-@ walled , branched , and narrow . Hyphae in the flesh layer are thin- to thick @-@ walled , frequently branched , and measure 2 – 10 µm in diameter , while those of the pores are roughly similar in morphology , but measure 3 – 5 µm . Both forms have a thin incrustation on their walls that gives them a rough appearance when viewed with a light microscope . The hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing tissue layer ) is 40 – 60 µm thick , and has abundant cystidia , which are hyaline , and measure 7 – 9 µm in diameter . They are cylindrical , thin @-@ walled to moderately thick @-@ walled , hyaline , have a septum at the base , and measure 60 – 120 by 5 – 10 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and have dimensions of 25 – 35 by 6 – 7 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Field characteristics used to identify Pycnoporellus alboluteus include its orange color , toothlike pore edges , and the soft texture of its flesh . Other reddish @-@ colored polypores with which Pycnoporellus alboluteus can be confused include Polyporus alboluteus , P. fibrillosus , and P. cinnabarinus . They can be distinguished by the size of their pores : P. alboluteus has pores that measure 1 – 3 mm , those of P. fibrillosus are 1 – 2 per mm , while those of P. cinnabarinus are 2 – 4 per mm . The shelf @-@ like fruit bodies of Pycnoporellus fulgens have distinct caps , smaller pores measuring 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 5 mm , and less tendency to be pulled away from the substrate in sheets . Oligoporus leucospongia is another snowbank fungus that prefers downed conifer logs . It can be distinguished from P. alboluteus by its whitish cottony upper surface . Another orange fungus , Ceriporia spissa , is tightly appressed to the wood substrate , with a soft , gelatinous body texture .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Pycnoporellus alboluteus causes a brown cubical rot on fallen logs of coniferous trees . The fruit bodies usually grow on the underside of the log , and may start developing while still immersed in snow . Although new fruit bodies usually begin growing in the spring , they may persist throughout the year . In Europe , it usually grows on Picea species , but also on Abies . In North America , it also grows on Populus . The fungus has a circumpolar distribution , and is found in the boreal conifer zone , particularly in the montane zone , 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 000 m ) . In North America , the fruit bodies begin growth under snow in the spring , continuing until midsummer , while in Europe , it is usually encountered in autumn . It is abundant in the Rocky Mountain region of North America , but rare in the eastern United States and Canada . As a timberline fungus subject to high altitudes , the fruit bodies are subjected to bright light , high winds , and low relative humidity , all of which have a drying effect . They counteract these extremes by absorbing water quickly , and drying slowly .
In Europe , it is one of 32 threatened species proposed for protection under the Bern Convention . It has been recorded from Czechoslovakia , and Poland , where it is mostly found in old @-@ growth forests . It is rare in northern Europe , where it has been found in Finland growing on Picea abies and Alnus incana , and in Sweden .
In North America , the fruit bodies of the fungus serve as a food source for the rove beetle species Scaphisoma castaneum , the pleasing fungus beetle species Dacne cyclochilus , and minute tree @-@ fungus beetles , including Octotemnus laevis .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Shope PF . ( 1931 ) . " The Polyporaceae of Colorado " . Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 18 ( 3 ) : 287 – 456 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2394030 .
Zmitrovich IV , Svetasheva TY ( 2013 ) . " Pycnoporellus alboluteus ( Ellis et Everh . ) Kotl. et Pouzar " ( PDF ) . Red Book of Kabardino @-@ Balkaria : 208 .
= Southward expansion of the Han dynasty =
The southward expansion of the Han dynasty comprises a series of military campaigns and expeditions in what is now modern South China and Northern Vietnam . Military expansion to the south began under the previous Qin dynasty and continued during the Han . Campaigns were dispatched against the Yue tribes , leading to the annexation of Minyue by the Han in 135 BCE and 111 BCE , Nanyue in 111 BCE , and Dian in 109 BCE .
Chinese culture influenced the newly conquered territories , and merged with native traditions . Han influences are apparent in artifacts excavated in the Baiyue tombs of southern China . This influence extended to the kingdoms of Southeast Asian , where contact led to trade and diplomacy . The demand for Chinese silk established trade routes between Europe , the Middle East , and China .
= = Background = =
Military campaigns against the Baiyue began under the Qin , the dynasty that preceded the Han . The Qin emperor Qin Shi Huang desired the resources of the Baiyue , and ordered military expeditions against the region between 221 BC and 214 BC . He sent a large campaign against Lingnan in 214 BC , comprising conscripted merchants and soldiers . Military garrisons were installed in Lingnan , canals were constructed , and the area was placed under Qin rule . The collapse of the Qin caused the dissolution of Qin administration in southern China . Indigenous Yue kingdoms emerged in the former Qin territories , including the Nanyue kingdom in Guangxi , Guangdong , and Vietnam , Minyue in Fujian , and Eastern Ou in Zhejiang .
Supported by the Han , Minyue was established in 202 BC and Eastern Ou in 192 BC after the fall of the Qin dynasty . Zhao Tuo , a former Chinese commander of the Qin , established Nanyue in 208 BC after the death of the emperor Qin Shi Huang . Emperor Gaozu , first emperor of the Han dynasty , approved Zhao Tuo 's new title as king . Zhao was born in the city of Zhending in Central China , and the ruling class of the new kingdom was composed of Chinese officials from the former Qin dynasty . In 180 BC , Zhao offered to submit as a vassal state and the Han accepted , a decision partly based on his family 's northern Chinese ancestry .
= = Military campaigns = =
= = = Campaigns against Minyue and Eastern Ou = = =
Military campaigns were launched against the Baiyue under the reign of the Han emperor Han Wudi . Eastern Ou requested Han military assistance when Minyue invaded the kingdom in 138 BC . Supreme commander Tian Fen opposed Han intervention . Tian told the emperor that the Yue tribes could not be trusted . Battles between the Yue tribes occurred frequently , and Tian believed that protecting them was not a responsibility of the Han court . The Han official Zhuang Zhu convinced the emperor to intervene in the war . Zhuang 's argument was based on the emperor 's role as the Son of Heaven , a concept in Chinese political philosophy . In Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , Zhuang is reported to have said :
The only thing we should worry about is whether we have strength enough to rescue them and virtue enough to command their loyalty ... Now a small country has come to report its distress to the Son of Heaven . If he does not save it , to whom can it turn for aid ? And how can the Son of Heaven claim that the rulers of all other states are like sons to him if he ignores their pleases ?
The Minyue surrendered after a Han naval force led by Zhuang Zhu was dispatched from Shaoxing in northern Zhejiang , and withdrew from Eastern Ou . The Yue tribes of Eastern Ou were transferred to the north , between the Yangtze River and Huai River .
A second intervention was launched in 135 BC after Minyue , ruled by Zou Ying , invaded Nanyue , ruled by Zhao Mo . Nanyue had been a Han vassal since 180 BC . Zhao asked the Han for their support , and the emperor responded by sending an army led by Wang Hui and Han Anguo against Minyue .
Zou Ying was assassinated with a spear by his younger brother Zou Yushan , who plotted against the ruler with the royal family and prime minister . Ying beheaded the corpse and gave the head to a messenger , who delivered it to Wang as a sign of Minyue 's surrender . After the assassination , Minyue was succeeded by a state divided into a dual monarchy composed of the kingdom of Minyue , controlled by a Han proxy ruler , and the kingdom of Dongyue , ruled by Zou Yushan .
As general Yang Pu returned north with his soldiers after the Han – Nanyue War in 111 BC , he requested the emperor 's permission to annex Dongyue . The emperor refused after he considered the morale of the troops . Zou Yushan had promised to supply an army to assist the Han in their war against the Nanyue . The army never arrived and Zou blamed the weather conditions , while secretly maintaining a diplomatic relationship with Nanyue .
Zou began a rebellion against the Han after learning of Yang 's plot against him . A Han military campaign was dispatched and led by General Han Yue , General Yang Pu , military commander Wang Wenshu , and two marquises of Yue ancestry . The revolt was repressed and the Han annexed Dongyue in the last months of 111 BC , conquering the remaining territory of the former Minyue . Sima Qian records that the entire population of Dongyue was exiled , a claim that is implausible .
= = = Campaign against Nanyue = = =
In the 110s BC , Jiushi ( 樛氏 ) , the empress dowager of Nanyue , wife of the deceased Zhao Yingqi and a Chinese native , mooted the unification of Nanyue with Han China . This proposal was met with resistance in the Nanyue nobility which , although nominally tributary to the Han , had not paid tribute in years . The queen was executed by Lü Jia , leader of those who had opposed her , in the summer of 112 BC .
The Han dynasty took umbrage at the diplomats killed with her and saw this event as an act of rebellion . Emperor Wu sent a military campaign consisting of 2 @,@ 000 soldiers led by General Han Qianqiu to quell the revolt . The general died in battle and the Han forces lost . The second campaign , led by the generals Lu Bode and Yang Pu , was dispatched by sea with 100 @,@ 000 soldiers in the fall of 112 BC . They reached the city of Panyu , located in modern Guangzhou , in 111 – 110 BC and defeated the rebels .
Lingnan was once again brought under Chinese control , and nine Chinese commanderies were created to administer Guangdong , the island of Hainan , and the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam . The two Han commanderies located in Hainan were abandoned in 82 BC and 46 BC , despite the Han government 's interest in the area 's rare resources .
In the early years of the Eastern Han , following the usurpation of Wang Mang and the re @-@ establishment of the Han , the tribal elites of Nanyue remained loyal to the Han . In 40 , revolts against Han rule were led by the Trung sisters near the Red River Delta . The rebellion was defeated in 43 by the general Ma Yuan , a participant in the battles that followed Wang Mang 's usurpation .
The Han reestablished control of Nanyue . The Trung sisters were executed or killed during the fighting . In popular accounts , they vanished in the sky , fell sick , or took their own lives by jumping into a river and drowning . Violence in the region continued , and there were seven periods of unrest between 100 and 184 . A new strategy was adopted , orchestrated by the official Li Gu , that sought to appoint honest officials , exile hostile tribes , and pit tribal leaders against each other . The strategy was only partially successful .
= = = Campaign against Dian = = =
In 135 BC , Tang Meng led the earliest Han expedition against Dian , establishing the Jianwei commandery in southwestern China . Dian was involved in the trade of livestock , horses , fruit , and slaves , and was attractive to the Han because of its resources . Trade routes between Dian and the rest of the Han empire were opened up by Han soldiers . The Han continued their expansion northward , and annexed the territory near Shu .
Due to the Han – Xiongnu War on the north , the rising cost of administration in the distant state led to the Han abandoning the commandery . A group of Chinese explorers were captured by the Dian for four years . They were part of an expedition traveling southwards to establish an alternative trade route for the goods reported in Central Asian markets in 122 BCE .
Dian was conquered during a military campaign launched by Wudi in 109 BCE , and the Yizhou commandery was established in the former kingdom . Archaeologists discovered the king of Dian 's imperial seal inscribed by the Han , confirming Dian 's surrender and status as a subject of the Han . The Dian led a series of unsuccessful rebellions against Han rule , beginning with two revolts in 86 BCE and 83 BCE . Chen Li , governor of the Zangge commandery , crushed a rebellion in 28 – 35 BCE . Under Wang Mang 's reign as usurper of the Han throne between 9 @-@ 23 CE , hostilities in southwestern China persisted . Wang sent military campaigns to end the unrest . Seventy percent of the soldiers in one campaign died from illness . Another campaign , comprising 100 @,@ 000 men and with double the supplies , was not fruitful . Rebellions continued in 42 @-@ 45 and 176 .
The Han expanded further during Emperor Ming 's reign ( 57 – 75 CE ) . The new commandery of Yongchang ( 永昌郡 ) was established in what is modern Baoshan , Yunnan in the former Dian Kingdom . The tribes west of the Yuesui commandery ( 越巂 , modern Xichang in southern Sichuan ) submitted to Han rule in 114 CE . Emperor Huang ( r . 146 @-@ 168 ) encouraged the cultural assimilation of the tribes during his reign between . Under Huangti , the teaching of Chinese ethics and culture was promoted in Yunnan . Despite periodic unrest , Han presence remained in the Dian for the remainder of the dynasty .
= = Historical significance = =
= = = Chinese migration and cultural assimilation = = =
Migrations from northern China populated Yunnan , Guangdong , and northern Vietnam . The political turmoil that followed Wang Mang 's usurpation led to another wave of Chinese migration . Han settlers and soldiers from the north were affected by diseases common in tropical regions , such as malaria and schistosomiasis .
The military campaigns and Chinese migrations created a culture that merged Chinese traditions with indigenous elements . Archaeological digs in the area reveal the extent of Chinese influence . Han dynasty tombs in Guangzhou , Guangdong show that the native tools and ceramics were gradually replaced by those modeled after Chinese styles by the Western Han . Excavations from the period have uncovered bronze mirrors , stoves , wells , incense burners , tripods , and lanterns manufactured in the style of the Han .
Cultural assimilation in Guangxi and Guizhou happened during the late Western Han and occurred later than in Guangdong . As in Guangdong , a number of Han @-@ style mirrors , coins , ceramics , bronze , iron , and lacquerware were discovered in the region 's tombs .
Yunnan in southwestern China was sinicized after the establishment of a Chinese prefecture in 109 BC . Cultural assimilation of the tribes through the teaching of Chinese ethics was supported under the reign of Qin Shi Huang . The growing influence of Chinese culture is apparent in excavated Dian artifacts , and coins , ceramics , mirrors , and bronzes have been discovered in Dian manufactured with Han stylistic elements . Dian art adopted the aesthetics of Han imports and by 100 , the indigenous Dian culture had largely disappeared . Northern Chinese culture had become largely ingrained in the south . The expansion of China from the North China Plain to the south , a process that began in the Qin dynasty , had reached its height under the Han .
= = = Trade and foreign contact = = =
The southward expansion of the Han dynasty brought the empire into contact with the civilizations of Southeast Asia . Chinese cultural and technological influence spread to nearby Southeast Asian kingdoms . Remnants of Chinese pottery from the Han dynasty have been excavated in Sumatra , Borneo , and Java and date from the 1st century . Archaeologists have also discovered bronze axes in Cambodia that were based on the design of Chinese axes .
Trade relationships were also formed between China and foreign empires through the conquered territories . Trade connected China with India , Persia , and the eastern Roman Empire . Roman dancers and entertainers were sent to Luoyang as a gift to China from a Burmese kingdom in 120 . A kingdom referred to in the Book of Han as Huangzhi delivered a rhinoceros in 2 as a tribute . An Indian embassy arrived in China between 89 and 105 . Roman merchants from the province of Syria visited Vietnam in 166 , Nanjing in 226 , and Luoyang in 284 . Foreign products have been found at archaeological sites excavating tombs in southern China . Originating with the overseas demand for Chinese silk , these trade routes were responsible for the transmission of goods and ideas between Europe , the Middle East , and China .
= = Further Reading = =
de Crespigny , Rafe ( 1988 ) . " South China in the Han Period " . Archived from the original on . Retrieved 11 July 2016 .
de Crespigny , Rafe ( 1990 ) . " Generals of the South " ( PDF ) . Asian Studies Monographs : New Series of the Faculty of Asian Studies ( 16 ) . Canberra : Faculty of Asian Studies at the Australian National University .
= Trenck 's Pandurs =
Trenck 's Pandurs ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Panduri , German : Panduren ) were a light infantry unit of the Habsburg Monarchy , raised by Baron Franz von der Trenck under a charter issued by Maria Theresa of Austria in 1741 . The unit was largely composed of volunteers from the Kingdom of Slavonia and Slavonian Military Frontier , and named after security guards otherwise employed to maintain public order . The Pandurs were presented to the empress in May 1741 — with the unit 's military band — earning them a claim of pioneering martial music in Europe . The Pandurs did not use uniforms and had an overall oriental / Ottoman appearance . The original organization of the unit was retained until 1745 , when it transformed into a regiment . Trenck was relieved of command in 1746 and imprisoned in Spielberg Castle , where he died in 1749 . The unit ultimately transformed into the 53rd Infantry Regiment , headquartered in Zagreb , until it was disbanded in 1919 . The regiment 's commemorative medals bear Trenck 's image wearing Pandur attire .
The Pandurs took part in the War of the Austrian Succession , including the First and Second Silesian War . They contributed to the capture or destruction of Zobten am Berge , Strehlen , Klaus Castle , Linz , Deggendorf , Diessenstein Castle , Cham , Cosel fortress and Munich . During the Battle of Soor , the unit looted a Prussian war chest and the belongings of Frederick the Great . They also took part in the Battle of Waterloo . In the Wellington museum in Waterloo , Belgium , their motto Vivat Pandur can be read , on a sword found on the battlefield . The Pandurs earned a reputation as brave , audacious , feared and ruthless soldiers , known for looting and pillaging . They were prone to disobedience , breaches of military discipline and stubbornness . The city of Waldmünchen , located near Cham , celebrates the Pandurs and Trenck as the city 's saviors for sparing the city from destruction in 1742 . The Pandurs ' and Trenck 's heritage is also preserved in the city of Požega , Croatia , where an eponymous living history troop and city music band exist .
= = Etymology = =
The term pandur made its way into military use via the Hungarian language — being used in Hungarian as a loanword , in turn originating from the Serbo @-@ Croatian term pudar , though the nasal in place of the " u " suggests a borrowing before Serbo @-@ Croatian innovated its own reflex for Proto @-@ Slavic / ɔ ̃ / . " Pudar " is still applied to security guards protecting crops in vineyards and fields , and it was coined from the verb puditi ( also spelled pudati ) meaning to chase or scare away . The meaning of the Hungarian loanword was expanded to guards in general , including law enforcement officers . The word was likely ultimately derived from medieval Latin banderius or bannerius , meaning either a guardian of fields or summoner , or follower of a banner .
By the middle of the 18th century , law enforcement in the counties of Croatia included county pandurs or hussars who patrolled roads and pursued criminals . In 1740 , the term was applied to frontier guard duty infantry deployed in the Croatian Military Frontier ( Banal Frontier ) , specifically its Karlovac and Varaždin Generalcies . The role of the pandurs as security guards was extended to Dalmatia after the establishment of Austrian rule there in the early 19th century . The term has dropped from official use for law enforcement officials , but it is still used colloquially in Croatia and the Western Balkans in a manner akin to the English word cop . The unit raised and led by Trenck is also referred to more specifically as Trenck 's Pandurs , and less frequently in Croatia than elsewhere , as Croatian Pandurs .
= = History = =
The Pandurs were a skirmisher unit of the Habsburg Monarchy , raised by Baron Franz von der Trenck following a charter ( German : Werbepatent ) issued by Maria Theresa of Austria on 27 February 1741 , permitting Trenck to raise a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong troop . The unit was largely composed of men enlisted as volunteers from areas of the Kingdom of Slavonia and Slavonian Military Frontier , consisting of ethnic Croats and Serbs . The Pandurs saw military action in Silesia , Bohemia , Bavaria and France .
The Pandurs arrived in Vienna for a military parade for the empress on 27 May 1741 . The unit was headed by Trenck and included two captains , a senior lieutenant , five lieutenants , a quartermaster , an adjutant , two chaplains ( a Catholic and an Orthodox Christian ) , two medics , 40 sergeants , five scribes , 80 corporals and twelve musicians equipped with flutes , a drum and cymbals . The musicians were called the Turkish band , after Ottoman military bands , and are considered pioneers of martial music in Europe according to Jurica Miletić . The Pandurs did not have specific uniforms — their clothes varied but were of Turkish style . Their oriental appearance was compounded by mandatory head shaving , leaving a rattail , as well as by the use of a horse tail bunchuk instead of a unit banner . Each Pandur carried four single @-@ shot pistols , a fighting knife and a small knife .
The Pandurs took part in War of the Austrian Succession , including the First Silesian War . They took part in capturing Zobten am Berge and Strehlen in Lower Silesia from the Prussians , and defending a bridgehead near Vienna after the Battle of Mollwitz . In 1742 , the Pandurs took part in capture of Klaus Castle in Styria as well as Linz and Deggendorf , where they defeated French troops before taking part in Austrian recapture of Munich . By the end of that year , the Pandurs had captured Diessenstein Castle and Cham from Bavarian defenders , completely destroying Cham to secure access for Habsburg troops led by Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller to Bohemia . In 1743 , the Pandurs led by Trenck captured Cosel fortress . In 1745 , during the Second Silesian War , the Pandurs took part in the Battle of Soor , where they looted a Prussian war chest containing 80 @,@ 000 ducats , as well as weapons , horses and a tent belonging to Frederick the Great .
The Pandurs earned a reputation for being brave and audacious , as well as feared and ruthless soldiers , looting and pillaging , but also characterized by disobedience , breaches of military discipline and stubbornness . On the other hand , the City of Waldmünchen , located near Cham , celebrates the Pandurs and Trenck as their savior for sparing the city from destruction in 1742 . Since 1950 , the city organizes a historical reenactment of the event involving about 300 actors .
The original organization of the unit was retained until 1745 , when it was transformed into a Pandur regiment following Trenck 's petition to the empress . Trenck was relieved of command in 1746 and tried for unspecified " acts of violence " . He was imprisoned in Spielberg Castle , where he died in 1749 . After the Peace of Aachen , the regiment was transformed into a Slavonian battalion on 22 December 1748 . In 1756 , as the Seven Years ' War started , the battalion was reformed into the 53rd Infantry Regiment and its headquarters moved to Zagreb ending history of the Pandurs . Still , the regiment kept its Pandur lineage alive through its commemorative medals bearing Trenck 's image wearing Pandur attire . The regiment was disbanded in January 1919 .
= = Legacy = =
The achievements of the Pandurs led by Trenck left a lasting mark on the culture and heritage of Croatia as well as Bavaria . An example of the unit 's legacy is found in the village of Trenkovo — named after the commander of the Pandurs in 1912 . The village is located in area of Trenck 's former Velika estate , near Požega , Croatia , where the baron lived . It was the location of a baroque manor once owned by Trenck , which was replaced by another structure in the late 18th or early 19th centuries . Pandur heritage is preserved by the Trenck 's Pandurs ( Croatian : Trenkovi panduri ) military band — the official music band of the city of Požega — established on 28 January 1881 . In 1997 , an eponymous living history troop was established out of members of the band . Also , a Trenck festival is held annually in Waldmünchen , commemorating the events of 1742 , when the city was spared by Trenck from destruction .
The military unit and its leader also give their names to a modern armed force unit and modern military equipment . Special police platoon Trenk , formed in Požega on 8 March 1991 , took part in the Croatian War of Independence . Steyr @-@ Daimler @-@ Puch produces the Pandur armoured fighting vehicle .
= Kingdom Hearts =
Kingdom Hearts ( Japanese : キングダム ハーツ , Hepburn : Kingudamu Hātsu ) is a series of crossover action role @-@ playing games developed and published by Square Enix ( originally by Square ) . It is a collaboration between Square Enix and Disney Interactive Studios , and is under the direction of Tetsuya Nomura , a longtime Square Enix character designer . Kingdom Hearts is a crossover of various Disney settings based in a universe made specifically for the series . The series centers on the main character Sora and his search for his friends and encounters with Disney , Final Fantasy , and The World Ends with You characters on their worlds .
The series consists of seven games across multiple video game consoles , and future titles are planned . Most of the games in the series have been both critically acclaimed and commercially successful , As of October 2013 , the Kingdom Hearts series has sold over 25 million copies worldwide . A wide variety of related merchandise has been released along with the games , including soundtracks , figurines , companion books , novels and manga series .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
Kingdom Hearts is the first game in the series , released in Japan on March 28 , 2002 for PlayStation 2 . Tetsuya Nomura served as game director , his first time in this position . Kingdom Hearts introduced the main characters ( Sora , Kairi and Riku ) of the series , and established the plot 's framework involving hearts and dark beings known as the Heartless . It also established the role of Disney characters in the series , with character cameos from the Final Fantasy series . Kingdom Hearts was released in North America on September 17 , 2002 , and featured additional content that was not in the original Japanese version . The game was later re @-@ released exclusively in Japan as Kingdom Hearts Final Mix on December 26 , 2002 . Final Mix includes the content from the North American release and additional enemies , cutscenes , and weapons .
Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories is a direct sequel to the first game . It was released on the Game Boy Advance in Japan on November 11 , 2004 . Chain of Memories was touted as a bridge between the two PlayStation 2 titles , introducing and previewing plot elements that would be explored in the next game . The gameplay system is a departure from the original and employs card game mechanics in real time . Players construct decks out of cards that correspond to different actions in battle , such as attacking or using magic . It was remade into a PlayStation 2 game titled Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories , which contains polygonal graphics instead of the sprites used in the original game . The remake was released in Japan as a second disc packaged with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix on March 29 , 2007 , and in North America as a standalone title on December 2 , 2008 .
Kingdom Hearts II takes place one year after the events of Chain of Memories . It was released for the PlayStation 2 in Japan on December 22 , 2005 . The game further explores the " heart " concept by involving a new group of enemies , the Nobodies , which are the cast @-@ off shells of those who have become Heartless . The gameplay is similar to that of the first Kingdom Hearts game , with the addition of the Reaction Command , which performs context @-@ sensitive actions in battle . Kingdom Hearts II was revised into Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , which contains more material than the original release , such as additional cutscenes and bosses . Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix was released with Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in a collection titled Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + , which was released in Japan on March 29 , 2007 .
Kingdom Hearts Coded is an episodic mobile phone game that picks up directly after Kingdom Hearts II . The " preinstall " episode was released exclusively in Japan on November 18 , 2008 and eight episodes were released between June 3 , 2009 and January 28 , 2010 . The game was remade for the Nintendo DS as Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , and features updated gameplay combining that of two later titles in the series , 358 / 2 Days and Birth by Sleep . Unlike the original version , Re : coded was released internationally : October 7 , 2010 in Japan ; January 11 , 2011 in North America ; and January 14 , 2011 in Europe .
Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was released for the Nintendo DS in Japan on May 30 , 2009 . It is primarily set between Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II , focusing on Roxas ' time in Organization XIII and his motives for leaving . It is the first game in the series to feature cooperative multiplayer in addition to the traditional use of AI @-@ controlled partners . Gameplay is mission @-@ based with optional objectives that yield additional rewards . The game also has a unique panel system which governs character improvement , special abilities , and equipped weapons .
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep is a prequel to the series , released for the PlayStation Portable in Japan on January 9 , 2010 , and in North America on September 7 , 2010 with additional content . The game is set ten years before the events of the first Kingdom Hearts game , revealing the origins of the villain , Xehanort . It consists of four scenarios , three of which focus on one of the game 's three protagonists , Terra , Ventus and Aqua . The game was re @-@ released exclusively in Japan under the title Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix on January 20 , 2011 with the content from the English versions as well as new features , such as an additional fifth scenario .
Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance was released on March 29 , 2012 in Japan for the Nintendo 3DS . The game focuses on S
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ora and Riku 's Mark of Mastery exam under Yen Sid in anticipation of Xehanort 's return and their subsequent conflicts with enemies from their past . In addition to similar systems inherited from Birth by Sleep , this game features " Dream Eaters " which serve as both enemies and allies . Players may collect and breed friendly Dream Eaters and train them to become more powerful . The English edition came out on July 20 , 2012 in Europe while it came out on July 31 , 2012 for North America .
Kingdom Hearts χ : At Tokyo Game Show 2012 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts χ , previously known as ' Kingdom Hearts for PC Browsers ' . It is a browser game for PCs , and is only playable in Japan since July 18 , 2013 . It features cartoon @-@ like 2D models and is a prequel to the entire series , taking place during the Keyblade War . An international port of the game , Kingdom Hearts : Unchained χ , was released for Android and iOS devices featuring content from the original game 's release .
= = = = Other = = = =
A Kingdom Hearts game was developed exclusively for V CAST , Verizon Wireless 's broadband service , and was released on October 1 , 2004 in Japan and on February 4 , 2005 in the United States . It was one of the launch games for the V CAST services . The game , developed by Superscape and published by Disney Mobile with no involvement from Square Enix , features gameplay akin to the first Kingdom Hearts game , modified for the input method of mobile phones . The game 's storyline features Sora struggling to free himself from a nightmare induced by Maleficent 's magic .
Kingdom Hearts Mobile is a Kingdom Hearts @-@ themed social game in which players can play mini @-@ games together . Unlike Kingdom Hearts for the V CAST and Kingdom Hearts Coded , this game does not have a storyline and focuses more on socializing . The service operates in conjunction with Kingdom Hearts Coded — new avatar costumes become available after the player completes an episode of Kingdom Hearts Coded . Kingdom Hearts @-@ related media such as wallpapers , ringtones , graphics , and other items can be purchased and downloaded through the service for mobile phones .
= = = = Collections = = = =
Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix was released for the PlayStation 3 in Japan on March 14 , 2013 . The collection includes remastered versions of Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Re : Chain of Memories , which include gameplay enhancements and trophy support . In addition , a " Theatre Mode " has been added , consisting of high definition cutscenes from Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days . The collection was released in North America on September 10 , 2013 in Australia on September 12 , 2013 , and in Europe on September 13 , 2013 .
Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix : After the announcement of HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , Nomura stated that it would be " pretty unnatural " if Kingdom Hearts II did not receive an HD update . In the credits of HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Re : coded were shown , hinting at another collection . On October 14 , 2013 , the collection was announced exclusively for the PlayStation 3 , and will include the previously mentioned games , with Re : coded appearing as HD cinematics , similar to 358 / 2 Days in HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . The collection was released in Japan on October 2 , 2014 , North America on December 2 , 2014 , Australia on December 4 , 2014 , and Europe on December 5 , 2014 .
Kingdom Hearts Collector 's Pack : HD 1 @.@ 5 + 2 @.@ 5 Remix : The Collector 's pack features both Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix and Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , a code to get an Anniversary Set for Kingdom Hearts χ , music , and a booklet with art from the series , with a release in Japan .
= = = = Upcoming titles = = = =
After Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , Nomura explained that Square would announce a new Kingdom Hearts game with the staff currently working on it . Moreover , Nomura denied rumors that there would be a sequel to Birth by Sleep or an updated version of Dream Drop Distance . Though Kingdom Hearts III will be the end of the " Dark Seeker Saga " centered on Xehanort , it has already been decided where certain characters will end up , in order to potentially continue their story in future games .
Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue : In the credits of HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance were shown as well as the inclusion of a secret ending related to the game , hinting at a possible additional collection . In September 2015 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . The collection features an HD remaster of Dream Drop Distance as well as Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover , set to tell the tale of the Foretellers and reveal new parts of the series ' history in HD cinematics , and Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 : Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage , a new part of the story taking place after the events of the original Birth by Sleep , told from the perspective of Aqua . It will be released worldwide in December 2016 .
Kingdom Hearts III : In an interview on September 14 , 2010 , Tetsuya Nomura stated that his team was too busy with other projects such as Final Fantasy XV ( known as Final Fantasy Versus XIII at the time ) to work on Kingdom Hearts III . He also stated that his team was doing research concerning the high @-@ definition graphics of the game , and depending on the technical requirements of the next generation consoles . On June 10 , 2013 , at the E3 Sony press conference , after years of rumors and speculations , Nomura introduced a teaser for Kingdom Hearts III , which stated it was in development for the PlayStation 4 . It was announced the next day to be in development for the Xbox One as well . In Kingdom Hearts III , the series protagonist Sora will search for the " Key to Return Hearts " while Sora 's friends , Riku and King Mickey , search for Keyblade wielders . The game will conclude the " Dark Seeker Saga " , but it will not be the final game in the series .
= = = Other media = = =
Both Square Enix and Disney have released a wide variety of Kingdom Hearts merchandise including toys , figurines , clothing , and jewelry . Two of the games , Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II , had a soundtrack released to coincide with the video games . These were followed by a nine CD complete set which featured both soundtracks and unreleased tracks . Kingdom Hearts has been adapted as a trading card game by the Tomy corporation of Japan . An English version of the game was released in November 2007 by Fantasy Flight Games . The video games have also been adapted into manga and novel series .
Like the Final Fantasy games , a series of Ultimania books were released in Japan for many of the games . These books include game walkthroughs , interviews , and extra information from the developers . Kingdom Hearts -Another Report- was released along with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + and features game information , visuals by Shiro Amano , and a director interview . In North America , Brady Games released strategy guides for each game . For Kingdom Hearts II , they released two versions , a standard version and a limited edition version . The limited edition was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy 's Journal along with 400 stickers .
= = = = Printed adaptations = = = =
A manga based on the Kingdom Hearts storyline has been released in Japan and the United States . The story and art are done by Shiro Amano , who is also known for his manga adaptation of the Legend of Mana video game . The story follows the events that took place in the video games with differences to account for the loss of interactivity a video game provides . The manga was originally serialized in Japan by Square Enix 's Monthly Shōnen Gangan and eventually released in tankōbon format . The first tankōbon was released in Japan in October 2003 . The manga was released in the USA by Tokyopop two years later in October 2005 . Yen Press now holds the rights to publish the books for the USA market . The first series , Kingdom Hearts , consists of four volumes , while the second series , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , has two volumes . The third series , Kingdom Hearts II , has had five volumes published and is currently on hiatus . A fourth series based on Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days is being serialized . The games have also been adapted as a light novel series , written by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano . Like the manga series , it is divided into separate series based on the games . Kingdom Hearts is divided into two volumes ; " The First Door " and " Darkness Within " . Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories is divided into two volumes . Kingdom Hearts II is divided into four volumes ; " Roxas — Seven Days " , " The Destruction of Hollow Bastion " , " Tears of Nobody " , and " Anthem — Meet Again / Axel Last Stand " .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Disney and Square Enix characters = = =
Kingdom Hearts features a mixture of familiar Disney and Square Enix characters , as well as several new characters designed and created by Nomura . In addition to original locations , the Kingdom Hearts series features many worlds from Disney films . Sora must visit these worlds and interact with various Disney characters to protect them from enemies . Often , his actions in these worlds closely follow the storylines of their respective Disney films . The main characters try not to interfere with the affairs of other worlds , as it could negatively affect the universe 's order . Moogles , small creatures from the Final Fantasy series , are another common element in the games . They provide the player with a synthesis shop in order to create and purchase items used in the game . So far , twenty @-@ one characters from the Final Fantasy Series have appeared in the Kingdom Hearts games . The main cast from The World Ends with You also makes an appearance in the series as seen in Dream Drop Distance .
= = = Story = = =
The series starts with Kingdom Hearts showing how a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Sora is separated from his friends Riku and Kairi when their world , Destiny Islands , is invaded by creatures known as the Heartless . During the invasion , Sora obtains a weapon called the Keyblade that allows him to fight the Heartless . He soon arrives in another world , Traverse Town , where he meets Donald Duck and Goofy , two emissaries from Disney Castle sent by King Mickey to find the wielder of the Keyblade . The three band together and travel to different Disney @-@ themed worlds , sealing the hearts of the worlds to prevent more Heartless invasions , and to find Riku and Kairi . Along the way , they encounter a group of Disney villains led by Maleficent , who are controlling the Heartless to capture seven maidens called the " Princesses of Heart " , and use their power to open the door to " Kingdom Hearts " and rule over all the worlds . Though they eventually defeat Maleficent , the three discover that Ansem has been possessing Riku 's body and using Maleficent , and plans to attain eternal darkness by opening Kingdom Hearts himself . Sora , Donald and Goofy defeat Ansem , and seal the door to Kingdom Hearts with the help of Riku and King Mickey on the other side of the door . Kairi remains back home to await her friends ' return .
In Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Sora and his two friends begin searching for Riku and King Mickey . They arrive at a fortress called Castle Oblivion , where they encounter members of a mysterious group called Organization XIII , which is made up of non @-@ existent beings called the Nobodies . While in the castle , the three 's memories are manipulated by a girl named Naminé . After defeating the Organization , the three are put to sleep for a year by Naminé to allow them to regain their memories , though they must lose the memories of their experience in Castle Oblivion . Meanwhile , Riku appears in the basement of the castle and travels up to the surface with the aid of Mickey . Riku then keeps Sora and Naminé safe until Sora is awoken . In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , a snag in the plan over the year forces Riku to capture Roxas , the thirteenth member of the Organization , in order to enable Sora 's reawakening .
In Kingdom Hearts II , Sora and friends awaken from their sleep and resume their search for Riku and King Mickey , passing through Twilight Town and meeting Yen Sid , learning of the Nobodies and becoming re @-@ familiarized with Organization XIII . Sora once again travels to many Disney @-@ themed worlds and resolves the trouble caused by the Heartless and Nobodies , and Maleficent 's servant Pete . They reunite with King Mickey and encounter Xemnas , the leader of Organization XIII . The Organization 's plan is also revealed — they seek the power of " Kingdom Hearts " , the sum of all the hearts that Sora released by destroying the Heartless with his Keyblade , to regain their lost hearts . The three arrive at the headquarters of Organization XIII and team up with their friends and Kairi , who went to find Sora earlier . Ansem the Wise uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts ' power , but it self @-@ destructs , engulfing Ansem . At the top of the Castle that Never Was , Sora and his friends battle Xemnas . After Sora and Riku defeat Xemnas , they get trapped in the Realm of Darkness , but a letter from Kairi summons a gateway for them and the two are reunited with their friends at their home .
Sometime later , Sora , Riku and Kairi receive a letter from King Mickey 's detailing parts of their past that Naminé learned while restoring Sora 's memory , and Mickey found out about during the events of Kingdom Hearts Coded . As they read the letter , they learn about the exploits of the three Keyblade wielders ' fates during the events of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep ( a decade before Kingdom Hearts ) by the hands of Xehanort while trying to recreate the legendary χ @-@ blade which all Keyblades are modeled after and plunge the worlds into chaos : Terra is converted by Xehanort 's experiments to turn his heart into " Ansem " and his body into Xemnas ; Ventus sacrifices himself to stop Xehanort 's plan to obtain the χ @-@ blade , and his heart ended up with the body of Sora himself , and new Keyblade Master Aqua ends up trapped in the Realm of Darkness after sacrificing herself to save Terra . King Mickey also discovers that the destruction of " Ansem " and Xemnas has led to the reconstruction of Xehanort . To combat the new threat Xehanort poses , Sora and Riku take an exam to attain the Mark of Mastery that will allow them to become Keyblade Masters themselves .
During the test in Kingdom Hearts : Dream Drop Distance , Sora and Riku enter into the Realm of Sleep , where they encounter a young version of Xehanort with the ability to travel through time . The two Keyblade wielders also learn of Xehanort 's true goal : creating thirteen replicas of himself by placing a piece of his own heart in each " host " , thus taking it over , then pitting them against seven hearts of pure light in an ultimate battle to recreate the χ @-@ blade once more . Though the Organization was defeated , Xehanort had a second plan to become " Ansem " and give give his younger self the ability to travel through time and gather other versions of Xehanort together to form the Thirteen Seekers of Darkness . Sora is narrowly saved from becoming Xehanort 's final vessel , and Riku learns that data was implanted in Sora during his year @-@ long sleep that may be able to be used to save both those who are lost and ceased to be . At the end of the exam , Riku is declared a Keyblade Master , and Sora embarks on a new journey alone to train . In the meantime , to defend the Princesses of Heart from Xehanort , the Seven Guardians of Light are formed from any available Keyblade users ( including Kairi ) to combat the Thirteen Darknesses in the upcoming final battle against Xehanort .
= = = Gameplay = = =
The Kingdom Hearts games contain elements of both action and role @-@ playing video games . The games are driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next , usually shown in the form of a cutscene , though there are numerous side quests available that provide bonus benefits to the characters . In most games , the player primarily controls the principal protagonist of the series , Sora . Sora is usually accompanied by Donald Duck and Goofy , who are artificial intelligence @-@ controlled non @-@ playable characters that aid Sora in battle . In the first and third game , their behavior can be altered to suit different combat objectives . The games feature real @-@ time combat that incorporates physical attacks , magic , and summonings , though each game handles battles differently . The game also allows for items to be used on the field of battle to heal oneself or one 's party members .
Gummi Ships are another common element of the series , which serve as the main mode of transportation between worlds in the games . The gameplay for the Gummi Ship sections is more akin to a rail shooter . Because it received negative criticism in the first game , it was modified in the third title . Most games also feature a journal which is accessible from the main menu . This journal keeps track of information regarding the story , characters , enemies , and locations . In the first three games , the journal is kept by Jiminy Cricket , who was appointed by Queen Minnie as the royal chronicler . In 358 / 2 Days , Birth by Sleep and Dream Drop Distance , the main characters write their own journal entries .
The games are influenced by their parent franchise , Final Fantasy , and carry its gameplay elements over into their own action @-@ based , hack @-@ and @-@ slash system . Like many traditional role @-@ playing games , Kingdom Hearts features an experience point system which determines character development . As enemies are defeated , the player gains experience which culminates in a " level @-@ up " , where the characters grow stronger and gain access to new abilities . The amount of experience is shared with all party members and each character grows stronger as experience is gained .
= = = Music = = =
The music for the series has been primarily composed by Yoko Shimomura . Kaoru Wada works as the arranger for orchestral music , including orchestral renditions of the main vocal themes and the ending themes . The orchestral music was performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra and the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra . Soundtracks were released for the first and third installments following the release of their respective games . A compilation soundtrack was later released that included soundtracks for the entire series , including reworked tracks for the re @-@ released Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories .
While the themes for some of the Disney @-@ based worlds are taken directly from their Disney film counterparts , most of them are given entirely original musical scores . In addition to each world having unique background music , each is given its own battle theme rather than having a common theme to cover all fights . Several of the main characters have themes , and the final boss of each game has several themes played in the various phases of those fights . The fights with Sephiroth feature a modified version of Nobuo Uematsu 's " One @-@ Winged Angel " from Final Fantasy VII .
The main theme songs for the Kingdom Hearts games were written and performed by Japanese pop star , Hikaru Utada . The two main themes are " Hikari " , from Kingdom Hearts and Chain of Memories , and " Passion " , from Kingdom Hearts II . Each song has an English counterpart , " Simple and Clean " and " Sanctuary " respectively , for the North American and European releases . Utada was the only singer Tetsuya Nomura had in mind for the first Kingdom Hearts theme song . This marked the first time Utada had produced a song for a video game . Both theme songs reached notable popularity in Japan . On weekly Oricon charts , " Hikari " reached No. 1 in 2002 and " Passion " reached No. 4 in 2005 .
= = Development = =
= = = History = = =
The initial idea for Kingdom Hearts began with a discussion between Shinji Hashimoto and Hironobu Sakaguchi about Super Mario 64 . They were planning to make a game with freedom of movement in three dimensions like Super Mario 64 but lamented that only characters as popular as Disney 's could rival a Mario game . Tetsuya Nomura , overhearing their conversation , volunteered to lead the project and the two producers agreed to let him direct . A chance meeting between Hashimoto and a Disney executive in an elevator — Square and Disney had previously worked in the same building in Japan — allowed Hashimoto to pitch the idea directly to Disney . Development began in February 2000 with Nomura as director and Hashimoto as producer . While Nomura had done previous work in the Final Fantasy series as monster designer and graphic director , he did not gain widespread recognition until he was the lead character designer for Final Fantasy VII . Kingdom Hearts marked his transition into a directorial position , though he also served as the game 's character designer . Scenarios were provided by Kazushige Nojima who was a scenario writer for Square from Final Fantasy VII until he left in 2003 . Originally the development focused on the gameplay with a simple story to appeal to Disney 's target age range . After Kingdom Hearts executive producer Hironobu Sakaguchi told Nomura the game would be a failure if it did not aim for the same level as the Final Fantasy series , he began to develop the story further . In June 2013 , Nomura stated the name of the game came from him thinking about Disney Theme Parks , especially Animal Kingdom . However , Nomura could not get the IP with just " Kingdom " , so the development team began to think about " heart " as a core part of the story , so they decided to combine the two to form " Kingdom Hearts " .
Nomura placed a secret trailer in Kingdom Hearts in hopes that fans would want a sequel . He was unsure if fans would want a sequel and felt that if they did not , then it would be best to leave certain events in the first game unexplained . After Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was completed , development for Kingdom Hearts II began . There were several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel . One was the development team 's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more ; Mickey 's inclusion in the first game was restricted to a very small role . Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained . To bridge the gap between the two games , Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories was developed . Nomura was hesitant about releasing a game on the Game Boy Advance because he felt the 3D graphics of the original game would not translate well into 2D . He changed his position after hearing that children wanted to play Kingdom Hearts on the handheld system .
= = = Creation and design = = =
Though Disney gave Nomura freedom in the characters and worlds used for the games , he and his staff tried to stay within the established roles of characters and boundaries of the worlds . Nomura has stated that though many of the Disney characters are not normally dark and serious , there were not many challenges making them so for the story , and despite this , their personalities shine because they maintain their own characteristics . He also felt managing and keeping multiple worlds was problematic . When deciding which worlds to include in the game , the development staff tried to take into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting and made an effort to minimize any overlap in the overall look and feel of each world .
The inclusion of specific Final Fantasy characters was based on the opinions of both fans and staff . Another criterion for inclusion was whether the staff felt the characters would fit into the storyline and in the Kingdom Hearts universe . Initially , Nomura was hesitant to use characters he did not design , because he was unfamiliar with the backstory of such characters . For Kingdom Hearts II , he changed his mind after receiving pressure from his staff . Throughout the development of the games , Nomura has often left certain events and connections between characters unexplained until the release of future games . Nomura does this because he feels that games should have room for fans to speculate and use their imagination . He has stated that with speculation , even though a game gets old , people can still be happy with it .
= = = Promotion = = =
The first Kingdom Hearts was announced at E3 in May 2001 . Initial details were that it would be a collaboration between Square and Disney Interactive , and would feature worlds developed by both companies and Disney characters . New characters were designed by Nomura and include Sora , Riku , Kairi , and the Heartless . On May 14 , 2002 , a press release announced a list of the English voice actors . The list included Haley Joel Osment , David Gallagher , and Hayden Panettiere as the three new characters introduced into the game . It was also announced that many of the Disney characters would be voiced by the official voice actors from their respective Disney films .
A secret trailer in the first Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Final Mix hinted at the possibility of a sequel . Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when a Japanese video game site , Quiter , stated that " an internal ( and anonymous ) source at Square Japan " confirmed that development of Kingdom Hearts II had begun . It was not until Kingdom Hearts II was announced , along with Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed . Initial details were that it would take place some time after Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , which takes place directly after the first game . Other details included the return of Sora , Donald , and Goofy , as well as new costumes . At the 2004 Square Enix E3 press conference , the producer , Shinji Hashimoto , stated that many mysteries of the first game would be answered .
To help market the games , websites were set up for each game and demos were on display at gaming events . Each game in the main series was also re @-@ released in Japan with additional content and served as canonical updates to the series . The additional content foreshadowed later plot elements in the series . The rereleases of the main series games had the term " Final Mix " added after the title , while Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Coded were re @-@ released as Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Re : coded and released on the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS , respectively , with 3D graphics , voice overs during some cutscenes , and new game content .
= = Reception = =
The Kingdom Hearts series has been critically and commercially successful . As of March 2014 , the series has sold over 20 million copies worldwide . The three main games in the series all met with positive sales at the time of their releases . In the first two months since the North American release of Kingdom Hearts , it was one of the top three highest @-@ selling video games . Chain of Memories sold 104 @,@ 000 units in 48 hours in Japan , a record for a Game Boy Advance title at the time . Its positive debut sales placed it in the top spot of sales charts in Japan . In the first month of its North American release , it was ranked 1st on GameSpot 's ChartSpot for portable systems and 6th for all consoles . Within three days of the Kingdom Hearts II release in Japan , it shipped 1 million copies , selling through within a month . By the end of March 2006 , the NPD Group reported that Kingdom Hearts II was the highest @-@ selling console game in North America , with 614 @,@ 000 copies . In the month after its release in North America , Kingdom Hearts II sold an estimated 1 million copies .
The games have also received high ratings and positive comments from reviewers . All of the main games in the series have scored a 36 out of 40 or higher from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu , known for its harsh grading . All six games have been praised for their visuals . Game Informer considers the series the eleventh " must @-@ play PlayStation 2 " series . The individual games have also won several awards . GameSpot commented that the concept of mixing the serious elements of Final Fantasy with the lighter elements of Disney seemed impossible , but was pulled off quite well . Because of that they awarded Kingdom Hearts " Best Crossover Since Capcom vs. SNK " in their 2002 Best and Worst of the Year awards . IGN named Kingdom Hearts " Best Art Style / Direction " in their 2003 list of " Best Looking Games on PS2 " . G4 awarded it " Best Story " at their 2003 G @-@ Phoria awards show . Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded Kingdom Hearts II " Best Sequel " of 2006 . It tied with Resident Evil 4 as Famitsu 's Game of the Year 2005 . The manga series has also been well received . Several of the manga volumes were listed on USA Today 's " Top 150 best sellers " . The highest ranked volume was Kingdom Hearts volume 4 at # 73 . Every volume listed stayed on the list for at least two weeks ; Kingdom Hearts volume 4 stayed the longest at four weeks .
= Tallinn Offensive =
The Tallinn Offensive ( Russian : Таллинская наступательная операция ) was a strategic offensive by the Red Army 's 2nd Shock and 8th Armies and the Baltic Fleet against the German Army Detachment Narwa and Estonian units in mainland Estonia on the Eastern Front of World War II on 17 – 26 September 1944 . Its German counterpart was the abandonment of the Estonian territory in a retreat codenamed Operation Aster ( German : Unternehmen Aster ) .
The Soviet offensive commenced with the Soviet 2nd Shock Army breaching the defence of the II Army Corps along the Emajõgi River in the vicinity of Tartu . The defenders managed to slow the Soviet advance sufficient for Army Detachment Narwa to be evacuated from mainland Estonia in an orderly fashion . On 18 September , the constitutional Government of Estonia captured the government buildings in Tallinn from the Germans and the city was abandoned by the German forces by 22 September . The Leningrad Front seized the capital and took the rest of mainland Estonia by 26 September 1944 .
= = Background = =
= = = Prelude = = =
Attacks by the Leningrad Front had pushed Army Group North west of Lake Peipus , resulting in a series of operations around Narva . In the south , Soviet forces had advanced towards the Baltic coast at the end of Operation Bagration the Belorussian strategic offensive ( June – August 1944 ) against Army Group Centre . The Soviet Tallinn Offensive was designed as a part of the Baltic Offensive to eliminate the positions of Army Group North along the Baltic .
Stavka began an intricate supply and transport operation , to move the 2nd Shock Army from the Narva front to the Emajõgi river on September 5 , 1944 . The 25th River Boat Brigade and engineer troops were ordered by Stavka to ferry the units over Lake Peipus . Five crossings were built from the Russian settlement of Pnevo across the 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) -wide sound of Lämmijärv to the Estonian village of Mehikoorma . Forty @-@ six vessels worked 24 hours a day to carry 135 @,@ 000 troops , 13 @,@ 200 horses , 9 @,@ 100 lorries , 2 @,@ 183 artillery and 8 @,@ 300 tons of ammunition across the lake . Luftwaffe units observed the move without intervening . The 2nd Shock Army acquired command over the Emajõgi front from the 3rd Baltic Front on 11 September 1944 .
The three Soviet Baltic Fronts launched their Riga Offensive Operation on 14 September , along the German 18th Army front segment from the town of Madona in Latvia to the mouth of the Väike Emajõgi river . In the Estonian section , from the Valga railway junction to Lake Võrtsjärv , the Soviet 3rd Baltic Front attacked the German XXVIII Army Corps . The German and Estonian Omakaitse units held their positions and prevented the Army Detachment Narwa from being encircled in Estonia .
= = = Soviet objectives = = =
The Soviet forces attempted to capture Estonia and its capital Tallinn . Stavka hoped a quick breakthrough at the Emajõgi front would open a path for the armoured units to the north , thus cutting the Army Detachment Narwa off from the rest of Army Group North . The Red Army command presumed that the main direction of retreat for the German forces would be Tallinn , and concentrated their forces there in an attempt to block the roads .
= = = German objectives = = =
Army Group North had already considered abandoning Estonia in February 1944 , during the Soviet Kingisepp @-@ Gdov Offensive . A large number of units would have been freed up with changes to the front , but the Narva front continued to be defended on Hitler 's orders . The German Command considered it important to maintain control over the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland to ease the situation in Finland and keep the Soviet Baltic Fleet trapped in the eastern bay of the gulf . The retention of the oil shale reserves and oil shale industry in Ida @-@ Viru was important for economic reasons .
The exit of Finland from the war on 3 September provided the political impetus for abandoning Estonia . The next day , Generaloberst Heinz Guderian suggested that it would not be possible to hold Ostland and ordered plans for the evacuation operation , codenamed Königsberg , to be drawn up . Hitler , however , declared that Ostland must not be given up at any cost , since doing so would provide support to those Finns that did not favour the new course of the government , and would influence Sweden to maintain its current foreign policy . After lunch , Guderian ordered that the Königsberg plan nevertheless be secretly initiated . On the next day , Oberst Natzmer visited the headquarters of Army Detachment Narwa to discuss details of the evacuation . On 11 September , the evacuation of Estonia was discussed in the Army Headquarters at length . On 15 September , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army Group , Generaloberst Ferdinand Schörner , requested that Guderian convince Hitler to order the evacuation of German troops from the continental part of Estonia , codenamed Operation Aster . Schörner emphasised that although the front was still holding , delaying the order would mean the units in Estonia would be trapped . Hitler agreed on 16 September .
According to the plan , the main forces of Army Group Narwa had to withdraw mainly through Viljandi and Pärnu to Riga . In order to do that , II Army Corps at the Emajõgi front and XXVIII Army Corps at the Väike Emajõgi had to keep the front line stable until the Army Detachment had passed behind them . Officially , the beginning of the operation was supposed to be September 19 . The retreat was to be gradual , over several lines of resistance . The withdrawal was to be backed mainly by the units consisting of Estonians , who , by the estimates of the German army command , would not have wanted to leave Estonia anyway . A naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi began evacuating elements of the German formations along with some civilians on 17 September . The headquarters prepared a detailed plan to leave their positions at the Narva front on the night of 18 – 19 September .
= = = Estonian objectives = = =
Various Estonian troops , which used men who had deserted from the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Estonian ) , Omakaitse militia , border defence and auxiliary police battalions , had no general planning . However , their aim was to defend the independence of Estonia .
= = Comparison of forces = =
By the beginning of the Tallinn Offensive on 17 September at the Emajõgi front , the II German Army Corps was reduced to a modest division of 4 @,@ 600 men , while defending against the 140 @,@ 000 men of the 2nd Shock Army . While the II Army Corps had practically no armoured forces , the 3rd Baltic Front deployed 300 armoured vehicles . The Red Army placed 2 @,@ 569 artillery pieces along the 90 @-@ kilometre front line , pitting 137 pieces of artillery per kilometre against a practically nonexistent German artillery . The 15 @,@ 000 strong III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps stood against the Soviet 8th Army numbering 55 @,@ 000 troops at the Narva front . The pro @-@ independence Estonian troops numbered 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Operations = =
The 3rd Baltic Front commenced their offensive in the early morning of 17 September . After the German II Army Corps were subjected to an artillery barrage of 132 @,@ 500 shells , the three leading rifle corps crossed the Emajõgi River in the 25 km long section of the front east of Tartu and breached the defence . The 2nd Shock Army forced its way through to the German divisional headquarters and artillery positions . Only Kampfgruppe Rebane , stationed near Tartu , held their frontage , albeit with heavy losses . Army Detachment Narwa and XXVIII Corps , the northernmost elements of Army Group North , were at risk of getting encircled and destroyed . General Ferdinand Schörner ordered II Army Corps to abandon the defence of the Emajõgi and to move quickly around the northern tip of Lake Võrtsjärv to Latvia .
Six Estonian border defence regiments , the 113th Security Regiment , and remnants of the 20th Waffen SS Division retreating from the most distant part of the Narva front in the Krivasoo swamp were blocked by the advance units of the 8th Estonian Rifle Corps and destroyed in the battles of Porkuni and Avinurme on 20 and 21 September . Estonians of the Soviet rifle corps murdered their compatriots that had been taken prisoner at Porkuni and the wounded sheltering in the Avinurme Parish church .
The defence allowed Army Detachment Narwa to escape from Estonia as the III ( Germanic ) SS Panzer Corps and the 11th Infantry Division abandoned their positions , unbeknownst to the Soviet 8th Army . The Soviet forces began advancing in the early morning , took Jõhvi , and by evening reached the Toila – Jõhvi – Kurtna line , also taking 63 POW . The Panzer Corps itself declared 30 dead or MIA , and 30 wounded . On the night of 20 September , the headquarters of the Corps were near Pärnu on the southwestern coast , alongside the " Nederland " , " Nordland " and the 11th Infantry Division headquarters . The " Nordland " and the 11th Infantry divisions were sent to Latvia , under the command of the 16th Army . The " Nederland " was left to organise the defence of Pärnu . On 23 September , " Nederland " dynamited the harbour and retreated to Latvia . On 24 September near Ikla on the Latvian border the rearguard of the " Nederland " carried out its final battle on Estonian ground , destroying 12 – 15 Soviet tanks .
Military personnel , the wounded , institutions and industries , prisoners and civilians were evacuated mostly by sea . The chief of evacuation for the navy was the Admiral of the Eastern Baltic Sea , Theodor Burchardi . He was mainly responsible for securing the evacuation from Tallinn and Paldiski . For this purpose , he commanded the 24th Landing Flotilla , 14th Security Flotilla , 31st Mine Trawler Flotilla , 5th Security Flotilla and 1st Evacuation Flotilla , with a total of approximately 50 small warships , launches , escort ships and other vessels . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops , 20 @,@ 000 civilians , 1 @,@ 000 POWs and 30 @,@ 000 tons of goods were removed from Estonia , 38 @,@ 000 of the military personnel by sea . In the course of the evacuation from Tallinn , the following ships suffered serious damage from Soviet air army attacks : on board the " Nettelbeck " and " Vp 1611 " , 8 people killed and 29 wounded ; the " RO @-@ 22 " hit and 100 personnel killed ; the hospital ship " Moero " , with 1 @,@ 155 refugees , wounded and crew on board , sunk in the middle of the Baltic sea with 637 dead . The evacuation by sea , despite the fact that the time for evacuation was much shorter than planned , was considered a complete success , with only 0 @.@ 9 % of the evacuees killed .
On 18 September 1944 , the provisional government formed by the National Committee of the Republic of Estonia in Tallinn re @-@ declared the independence of Estonia . Estonian military units clashed with German troops in Tallinn , seizing the state offices at Toompea . The government appealed to the Soviet Union to recognize the independence of the republic .
By the time the advance units of the Leningrad Front arrived at Tallinn early on 22 September , German troops had practically abandoned the city and the streets were empty . The last German unit to leave Tallinn that morning was the 531st Navy Artillery Battalion . Before embarkation , all stationary artillery and armaments , special equipment , guns that could not be evacuated , ammunition , the telephone exchange , the radio broadcast house , locomotives and railroad cars , and the railway were destroyed . The Tallinn power plant was fired upon from the sea and the Old City Harbour was destroyed . The retreating German units had no combat contact with the Red Army in Tallinn . The Government of Estonia had failed to concentrate the Estonian soldiers retreating from the Narva and Emajõgi fronts , as the units were scattered and mixed with the German detachments withdrawing towards Latvia . Therefore , the government lacked significant military forces to repulse the Soviet forces concentrated around Tallinn . The units securing the national capital and the government were led by Rear Admiral Johan Pitka . Troops of the Leningrad Front seized Tallinn on 22 September . Jüri Uluots , acting President of Estonia , evacuated to Sweden . In the following days , several pro @-@ independence Estonian battle groups attacked the Soviet troops in Harju and Lääne counties without success .
= = Aftermath = =
The German evacuation had been carried out in an orderly fashion . Army Group North 's plans had paid off and both the Soviets and the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German High Command ) was surprised and impressed by the speed of the evacuation . The 8th Army went on to take the remaining West Estonian islands ( Moonsund archipelago ) in the Moonsund Landing Operation , an amphibious attack . Overall , the Baltic Offensive resulted in the expulsion of German forces from Estonia , Lithuania and a large part of Latvia .
= = = Soviet reoccupation = = =
Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . An armed resistance movement of ' forest brothers ' was active until the mass deportations . A total of 30 @,@ 000 participated or supported the movement ; 2 @,@ 000 were killed . The Soviet authorities fighting the forest brothers suffered also hundreds of deaths . Among those killed on both sides were innocent civilians . Besides the armed resistance of the forest brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Joseph Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society .
= Battles of the Kinarot Valley =
The Battles of the Kinarot Valley ( Hebrew : הַמַּעֲרָכָה בְּבִקְעַת כִּנָּרוֹת ) , is a collective name for a series of military engagements between the Haganah and the Syrian army during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , fought between May 15 – 22 , 1948 in the Kinarot Valley . It includes two main sites : the Battle of Degania – Samakh ( Tzemah ) , and battles near Masada – Sha 'ar HaGolan . The engagements were part of the battles of the Jordan Valley , which also saw fighting against Transjordan in the area of Gesher .
The battles began shortly after the Israeli declaration of independence , when Syria shelled Ein Gev on the night of May 15 – 16 . They were the first military engagement between Israel and Syria . On May 18 , Syria attacked the Israeli forward position in Samakh ( Tzemah ) , and on May 20 attacked Degania Alef and occupied Masada and Sha 'ar HaGolan . The attack on Degania Alef was a failure , after which the Syrian forces attempted to capture Degania Bet . After reaching a stalemate , they retreated to their initial position in Tel al @-@ Qasr , where they remained until the end of the war .
The campaign was perceived as a decisive Israeli victory , causing reorganizations in the Syrian high command and the birth of heroic tales in Israel . However , Syria made a small territorial gain and certain actions were criticized within Israel , such as the retreat from Masada and Sha 'ar HaGolan .
= = Background = =
The first stage of the 1948 War , referred to as the 1947 – 1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine , started following the ratification of UN Resolution 181 on November 29 , 1947 , which granted Israel the mandate to declare independence . This was declared on May 14 , 1948 and the next night , the armies of a number of Arab states invaded Israel and attacked Israeli positions .
The Arab states surrounding the Mandate of Palestine started to prepare themselves a few weeks before May 15 . According to the Arab plan , the Syrian army was to attack the new state from southern Lebanon and capture Safed . As such , the Syrians massed their forces in that area ; however , after they found out that Lebanon did not wish to actively participate in combat , their plans changed to an attack from the southern Golan Heights on Samakh ( Tzemah ) and later Tiberias . The Syrian force assembled in Qatana on May 1 . It moved on May 12 to Beirut and to Sidon on May 13 , after which it headed to Bint Jbeil . After the sudden plan change , the force moved to Nabatieh , and proceeded around the Finger of the Galilee to Banias and Quneitra , from which the eventual attack was staged .
The Syrian Army was meant to consist of two brigade @-@ sized units , but there was no time to prepare them , thus only the 1st Brigade was in a state of readiness by May 15 . It had about 2 @,@ 000 soldiers in two infantry battalions , one armored battalion , and 4 – 6 artillery batteries .
= = Prelude = =
According to plan , the Syrians attacked from the southern Golan Heights , just south of the Sea of Galilee through al @-@ Hama and the Yarmouk River , hitting a densely populated Jewish area of settlement . This came as a surprise to the Haganah , which expected an attack from south Lebanon and Mishmar HaYarden . The Jewish villages on the original confrontation line were Ein Gev , Masada , Sha 'ar HaGolan and both Deganias .
On Friday , May 14 , the Syrian 1st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Colonel Abdullah Wahab el @-@ Hakim , was in Southern Lebanon , positioned to attack Malkia . That day Hakim was ordered to return to Syria , move south across the Golan and enter Palestine south of the Sea of Galilee through Samakh ( Tzemah ) . He began to advance at 9 : 00 AM on Saturday and had only two of his battalions , where the soldiers were already exhausted .
At the onset of the invasion , the Syrian force consisted of a reinforced infantry brigade , supplemented by at least one armored battalion ( including Renault R35 tanks ) and a field artillery battalion . The troops moved to Kafr Harib and were spotted by Haganah reconnaissance , but because the attack was not expected , the Israeli troops did not attack the invaders . At night between 15 and 16 May , the bulk of the Syrian forces set up camp in Tel al @-@ Qasr in the southwestern Golan . One company with armored reinforcements split up to the south to proceed to the Jewish water station on the Yarmouk riverbank .
The Haganah forces in the area consisted of several units from the Barak ( 2nd ) Battalion of the Golani Brigade , as well as the indigenous villagers , including a reduced Guard Corps ( HIM ) company at the Samakh ( Tzemah ) police station . This force was headed by the battalion commander 's deputy , who was killed in action in the battle . On May 13 , the battalion commander declared a state of emergency in the area from May 15 until further notice . He authorized his men to seize all necessary arms from the settlements and urged them to dig in and build fortifications as fast as possible , and to mobilize all the necessary work force to do so .
= = Battles = =
On Saturday night , May 15 , the observation posts reported many vehicles with full lights moving along the Golan ridge east of the Sea of Galilee . The opening shots were fired by Syrian artillery on kibbutz Ein Gev at approximately 01 : 00 on May 16 . At dawn , Syrian aircraft attacked the Kinarot valley villages . The following day , a Syrian company which split from the main force attacked the water station with heavy weaponry , where every worker was killed except one .
An Israeli reserve unit was called in from Tiberias . It arrived after twenty minutes and took positions around the town . At that point , Samakh ( Tzemah ) was defended by three platoons from the Barak battalion and reinforcements from neighboring villages . They entrenched in the actual village , which had been abandoned by the residents in April 1948 , with British escort . Positions in the village included the police station in the west , the cemetery in the north , the Manshiya neighborhood in the south , and the railway station . The Syrians set up their positions in an abandoned British military base just east of the village and in an animal quarantine station to the southeast .
Two Israeli sappers were sent to mine the area of the quarantine station , but did not know that it was already under Syrian control . Their vehicle was blown up , but they managed to escape alive . On the same day , the Syrian company that attacked the water station from Tel ad @-@ Dweir proceeded towards Sha 'ar HaGolan and Masada . Its advance was halted by the village residents as well as a platoon of reinforcements armed with 20 mm cannons . The company retreated to its position and commenced artillery fire on the two kibbutzim .
This development gave the Israeli forces time to organize their defenses at Samakh ( Tzemah ) . During the course of May 16 , Israeli gunboats harassed the Syrian positions on the southeastern Sea of Galilee shore , trenches were dug , and roadblocks were set up . Meanwhile , Syrian aircraft made bombing runs on Masada , Sha 'ar HaGolan , Degania Bet and Afikim . The attack on Samakh ( Tzemah ) resumed before dawn on May 17 — the Syrians attacked the village 's northern positions , but their armor stayed behind . The infantry thus could not advance into the concentrated Israeli fire from the village itself , despite severe ammunition shortages on the Israeli side .
Meanwhile , the defenders of Tiberias believed their town would be targeted next , and built barricades and fortifications . Ben @-@ Gurion told the cabinet that " The situation is very grave . There aren 't enough rifles . There are no heavy weapons " . Aharon Israeli , a platoon leader , commented that there was also a severe lack of experienced field commanders — he himself was hastily promoted on May 15 , despite not having sufficient knowledge or experience . Also on May 16 , the Syrian President , Shukri al @-@ Quwatli , visited the front with his Prime Minister , Jamil Mardam , and his Defense Minister , Taha al @-@ Hashimi . He told his forces " to destroy the Zionists " .
At night , A Syrian force attempted to surround the Israelis by crossing the Jordan River to the north of the Sea of Galilee , but encountered a minefield in which a senior Syrian officer was wounded . This was spotted and reported by the Israelis at Tabgha , and the additional reprieve allowed the Kinarot Valley villages to evacuate the children , elderly and sick , as well as conduct maneuvers which feigned massive reinforcements in the Poria @-@ Alumot region . In the panic of surprise , many men also tried to flee the frontal villages , but blockposts were set up near Afula and Yavne 'el by the Military Police Service 's northern command , under Yosef Pressman , who personally stopped buses and allowed only the women and children to proceed to safety .
= = = Samakh ( Tzemah ) = = =
At about 04 : 30 on May 18 , the Syrian 1st Brigade , now commanded by Brigadier General Husni al @-@ Za 'im and consisting of about 30 vehicles , including tanks , advanced west towards Samakh ( Tzemah ) in two columns — one across the coast , and another flanking from the south . A contingent was allocated further south , in order to secure the safety of the main force by flanking Sha 'ar HaGolan and Masada from the west . It entered a stalemate with a new Israeli position northwest of the two villages .
The coastal column shelled the Israeli positions and inflicted enormous damage ; the Israelis were either dug in within shallow trenches made for infantry warfare with no head cover , or in Samakh 's clay houses that were vulnerable to heavy weapons . The Israelis were eventually forced to abandon their posts and concentrate in the police station , where they brought the wounded . The deputy commander of the Golani Brigade , Tzvika Levkov , also arrived at the station , and called reinforcements from Sha 'ar HaGolan and Tiberias , which did not manage to arrive on time .
A soldier who participated in the battle reported that only 20 uninjured troops were left to defend the police station as the second Syrian column reached Samakh ( Tzemah ) . The only heavy weapon the defenders possessed was ineffective against Syrian armor . Fearing their forces would be completely cut off , an order was given by the Haganah to retreat and leave the wounded , Tzvika Levkov among them . The retreat was disorganized and heavy Israeli casualties were recorded as Samakh 's police station fell . Reinforcements from the Deganias , commanded by Moshe Cohen , arrived but were immediately hit by the Syrians and did not significantly affect the battle . Aharon Israeli , a platoon commander in these reinforcements , wrote that it was clear as soon as they arrived that the battle was over . Cohen would not hear of a retreat initially , but when the force saw Levkov fall into a trench , they hastily withdrew .
On the same day , Syrian aircraft bombed the Israeli village Kinneret and the regional school Beit Yerah , on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee . By evening , Samakh ( Tzemah ) had fallen and a new Israeli defensive line was set up in the Deganias , facing the Syrian counterparts . At night , a Palmach company from Yiftach 's 3rd Battalion attempted to recapture Samakh 's police station . They stealthily reached the school next to the station , but the assault on the actual fort was warded off . On the morning of May 19 , a message was sent from Sha 'ar HaGolan and Masada that they were preparing for an evacuation , although when the order was given to stay put , the villages had already been abandoned , mostly to Afikim . In the morning , when the villagers carried out an order to return to their positions , local Arabs were already present at the location . The Syrian troops then captured the villages without a fight , and proceeded to loot and destroy them . Aharon Israeli wrote that an order was given not to disclose the flight of Masada and Sha 'ar HaGolan 's residents , but this became clear as fire and smoke rose from the villages , and hurt the morale of the Israelis making defensive preparations in the Deganias .
The counterattack on the police station failed but delayed the Syrian attack on the Deganias by twenty @-@ four hours . In the evening of May 19 , a delegation from the Deganias arrived in Tel Aviv to ask for reinforcements and heavy weapons . One of its members later wrote that David Ben @-@ Gurion told them he could not spare them anything , as " The whole country is a front line " . He also wrote that Yigael Yadin , the Chief Operations Officer of the Haganah , told him that there was no alternative to letting the Arabs approach to within twenty to thirty meters of the gates of Degania and fight their tanks in close combat . Yadin prepared reinforcements , and gave an order : " No point should be abandoned . [ You ] must fight at each site " . He and Ben @-@ Gurion argued over where to send the Yishuv 's only battery of four pre @-@ World War I 65 mm mountain guns ( nicknamed " Napoleonchikim " ) , which had no proper sights . Ben @-@ Gurion wanted to send them to Jerusalem , but Yadin insisted that they be sent to the Kinarot valley , and Ben @-@ Gurion eventually agreed .
On the night of May 18 – 19 , a platoon departed from Ein Gev by sea to Samra and raided the Syrian contingent in Tel al @-@ Qasr . The raid failed , but may have delayed the Syrian attack on Degania , thus giving its defenders twenty @-@ four hours to prepare . A second raid , by a Yiftach company , crossed the Jordan and struck the Syrian camp at the Customs House , near the main Bnot Yaakov Bridge . After a short battle , the Syrian defenders ( one or two companies ) fled . The Palmachniks destroyed the camp and several vehicles , including two armored cars , without losses .
= = = Degania Alef = = =
After the fall of Tzemah , the Haganah command realized the importance of the campaign in the region , and made a clear separation between the Kinarot Valley , and the Battle of Gesher fought against Transjordan and Iraq to the south . On May 18 , Moshe Dayan , who had been born in Degania , was given command of all forces in the area , after having been charged with creating a commando battalion in the 8th Brigade just a day before . A company of reinforcements from the Gadna program was allocated , along with 3 PIATs . Other reinforcements came in the form of a company from the Yiftach Brigade and another company of paramilitaries from villages in the Lower Galilee and the Jezreel Valley . The Palmach counterattack on the police station on the night of May 18 gave the Israeli forces an additional day to prepare defense and attack plans .
The Israelis called the reinforcements assuming this was the main Syrian thrust . The Syrians were not intending to carry out any further operation south of the Sea of Galilee and planned to make their main effort further north , near the Bnot Ya 'akov bridge . On May 19 , the Iraqis were about to drive west through Nablus toward Tulkarm , and asked the Syrians to make a diversion in the Degania area to protect their right flank . The Syrians complied , their main objective being to seize the bridge across the river north of Degania Alef , thus blocking any Israeli attack from Tiberias against the Iraqi line of communications .
Heavy Syrian shelling of Degania Alef started at about 04 : 00 on May 20 from the Samakh police station , by means of 75 mm cannons , and 60 and 81 mm mortars . The barrage lasted about half an hour . At 04 : 30 on May 20 , the Syrian army began its advance on the Deganias and the bridge over the Jordan River north of Degania Alef . Unlike the attack on Samakh ( Tzemah ) , this action saw the participation of nearly all of the Syrian forces stationed at Tel al @-@ Qasr , including infantry , armor and artillery . The Israeli defenders numbered about 70 persons ( 67 according to Aharon Israeli 's head count ) , most of them not regular fighters , with some Haganah and Palmach members . Their orders were to fight to the death . They had support from three 20 mm guns at Beit Yerah , deployed along the road from Samakh to Degania Alef . They also had a Davidka mortar , which exploded during the battle , and a PIAT with fifteen projectiles .
At night , a Syrian expeditionary force attempted to infiltrate Degania Bet , but was caught and warded off , which caused the main Syrian force to attack Degania Alef first . At 06 : 00 , the Syrians started a frontal armored attack , consisting of 5 tanks , a number of armored vehicles and an infantry company . The Syrians pierced the Israeli defense , but their infantry was at some distance behind the tanks . The Israelis knocked out four Syrian tanks and four armored cars with 20 mm cannons , PIATs and Molotov cocktails . Meanwhile , other defenders kept small arms fire on the Syrian infantry , who stopped in citrus groves a few hundred meters from the settlements . The surviving Syrian tanks withdrew back to the Golan . At 07 : 45 , the Syrians halted their assault and dug in , still holding most of the territory between Degania Alef 's fence and Samakh 's police fort . They left behind a number of lightly damaged or otherwise inoperable tanks that the Israelis managed to repair .
= = = Degania Bet = = =
Despite the Syrian superiority in numbers and equipment , the destruction of a multitude of armored vehicles and the infantry 's failure to infiltrate Degania Alef was the likely cause for the retreat of the main Syrian force to Samakh ( Tzemah ) . A less @-@ organized and sparsely numbered armored and infantry force forked off to attack Degania Bet . Eight tanks , supported by mortar fire , moved within 400 yards of the settlement defense , where they stopped to provide fire support for an infantry attack . The Syrians made two failed attempts to breach the Israeli small arms fire defense and gave up the attempt . Against this force , the Israelis had about 80 people and one PIAT . The defenses in Degania Bet were disorganized and there were not enough trenches . They also had no communication link to the command , so Moshe Dayan sent one of his company commanders to assess the situation .
While the battle was taking place , the 65 mm artillery , four Napoleonchik canons , reached the front in the middle of the day and were placed on the Poria – Alumot ridge . It was the first Israeli artillery to be used in the war . At 13 : 20 , they began to fire at the Syrians , and about 40 rounds the latter began to retreat . The Israelis also fired into Samakh , where the Syrian officers , who had until then believed that the Israelis had nothing that could hit their headquarters , took shelter . One projectile hit the Syrian ammunition depot in the village , and others ignited fires in the dry fields . While the soldiers who operated the cannons ( still lacking sights ) were not proficient in handling them , an acceptable level of accuracy was achieved after practice shots into the Sea of Galilee . In all , the artillery fire took the Syrian army by complete surprise , and the latter decided to regroup and retreat to Tel al @-@ Qasr , also recalling the company at Sha 'ar HaGolan and Masada . A total of 500 shells were fired by the Israeli artillery . Syrian officers may have shot some of their fleeing soldiers .
There were two other reasons for the Syrian withdrawal . The 3rd Battalion from the Palmach 's Yiftach Brigade had been sent by boat during the previous night across the sea to Ein Gev , planning to assault and capture Kafr Harib . It was , noticed and shelled by the Syrians , but one of the companies managed to climb up the Golan . It carried out a smaller raid at dawn , bombing water carriers and threatening the Syrian 1st Brigade 's line of communications . The second reason was that they were running out of ammunition : Husni al @-@ Za 'im had been promised replenishment , and attacked Degania short of ammunition . Za 'im ordered a withdrawal when his troops ran out of ammunition . The replenishment was instead sent to the 2nd Brigade further north . The Israelis were not aware of this , and attributed the Syrian withdrawal to surprise at the Israeli artillery fire .
= = Aftermath and effects = =
On May 21 , Haganah troops returned to Samakh ( Tzemah ) and set up fortifications , The damaged tanks and armored cars were gathered and taken to the rear . The settlers returned that night to identify the bodies of their comrades in the fields and buried them in a common grave in Degania . At dawn on May 21 , the Golani staff reported that the enemy was repelled but that they were expecting another attack . The full report read :
Our forces repelled yesterday a heavy attack of tanks , armored vehicles and infantry that lasted about 8 hours . The attack was repelled by the brave stand of our men , who used Molotov cocktails and their hands against the tanks . 3 " mortars and heavy machinery took their toll on the enemy . Field cannons caused a panicked retreat of the enemy , who yesterday left Tzemah . This morning our forces entered Tzemah and took a large amount of booty of French ammunition and light artillery ammunition . We have captured 2 tanks and an armored vehicle of the enemy . The enemy is amassing large reinforcements . We are expecting a renewal of the attack .
On May 22 , villagers returned to Masada and Sha 'ar HaGolan , which had been largely destroyed . Expecting another attack , reinforcements from the Carmeli Brigade took up positions in the two villages . Many of the participants of the battles were sent to Tiberias to rest and recuperate , and the units that lost soldiers were reorganized .
In the wake of the fall of Gush Etzion , news of Degania 's successful stand ( as well as that of Kfar Darom ) provided a morale boost for other Israeli villages . The battle also influenced British opinion on the balance of power in the war . The success of the Napoleonchik field cannons prompted the Israeli high command to re @-@ use two of them in attempts to capture Latrun . The flight from Masada and Sha 'ar HaGolan , on the other hand , stirred controversy in the young state , fueled by news of the Kfar Etzion massacre just days before , and the Palmach issued a newsletter accusing them of abandoning national assets , among other things . These accusations were subsequently repeated in media and in a play by Yigal Mossensohn , and a campaign was started by the villagers to clear their name .
The battles of the Kinarot Valley were the first and last of the major ground engagements between Israel and Syria to the south of the Sea of Galilee , although minor patrol skirmishes continued until the first ceasefire . The campaign , combined with the Battle of Gesher , was possibly the only coordinated attack between two or more Arab countries in the northern front . At the end , the Syrians held Tel al @-@ Qasr , which was part of the British Mandate of Palestine and the Jewish state according to the UN partition of 1947 . Despite the above , the offensive was considered a decisive Syrian defeat by both sides . The Syrian defense minister Ahmad al @-@ Sharabati and Chief of Staff Abdullah Atfeh blamed each other , the latter resigning and the former being dismissed by the prime minister as a result of the battle . As reasons for their defeat , they gave their low level of preparedness and the strength of the Israeli defenses , as well as their lack of coordination with the Iraqis ( according to one Syrian historian , the Iraqis were supposed to assist them in the Deganias ) . After the battle , British observers became convinced that the Arabs were not going to win the war , and compared the battle to the Luftwaffe 's failure in the Battle of Britain in 1940 , which showed that Germany was not going to win the air war . The observers said that " A greater edge than the [ Syrians ] enjoyed at Degania they won 't have again " .
= = = First tank kill controversy = = =
The first Syrian tank damaged near Degania Alef 's gates , which has been preserved on the location , was the subject of a historiographic dispute when Baruch " Burke " Bar @-@ Lev , a retired IDF colonel and one of Degania 's native defenders at the time , claimed that he was the one who stopped the tank with a Molotov cocktail . However , his account was rebutted by an IDF Ordnance Corps probe , which in 1991 determined that a PIAT shot had killed the tank 's crew . Shlomo Anschel , a Haifa resident who also participated in the battle , told Haaretz in 2007 that the tank was hit by PIAT fire from a Golani soldier , and that the Molotov cocktail could not possibly have hit the crew .
= Being Tom Cruise =
The Church of Scientology Presents : Being Tom Cruise , Why Scientology Isn 't In Any Way Mental is a satirical spoof documentary from the series Star Stories , parodying the life of Tom Cruise and his relationship with the Church of Scientology . It is episode 2 of the second series of Star Stories , and first aired on Channel 4 on 2 August 2007 . The show recounts Cruise 's time with a group of some of his early acting friends . After filming Top Gun , Cruise ( Kevin Bishop ) is introduced to Scientology by John Travolta ( Steve Edge ) , who convinces him to join the organization by smashing Cruise over the head with a shovel . He meets Nicole Kidman ( Dolly Wells ) and they start a relationship . After dating Penélope Cruz , Cruise is introduced to Katie Holmes ( Laura Patch ) by Travolta . Holmes agrees to marry Cruise , and the program ends with a voiceover asking the viewer to visit a Scientology website and purchase expensive products .
The program received positive reception , and The Guardian and the Evening Times highlighted it as the " pick of the day " . The Daily Mirror described it as a " brilliant spoof " , and The Sunday Times characterized the show as " Comedy so broad it barely fits on the screen , it is hard not to be amused " . The Herald Sun called it a " ruthless but spot @-@ on parody " .
= = Plot = =
The parody of Tom Cruise ( Kevin Bishop ) is framed through the viewpoint of the actor 's association with the Church of Scientology . The show recounts the actor 's days with a group of actors known as the Brat Pack , and how he maintains a friendship with Patrick Swayze , an actor from this crowd . ( Brat Pack is a nickname given to a group of young actors and actresses who frequently appeared together in teen @-@ oriented coming @-@ of @-@ age films in the 1980s ; Cruise has been referred to as a member due to his role in the film The Outsiders . ) While filming Top Gun , Cruise is afraid he looks " a bit gay " next to his co @-@ stars . His co @-@ stars subsequently turn into the Village People . Cruise has alien spirit guides who appear as " a pair of giant blobs who speak with Welsh accents " . They comment on Top Gun , " It 's no ET but it 's got something . " Cruise is introduced to Scientology by John Travolta ( Steve Edge ) , who presents it as a " legitimate alien @-@ race @-@ based religion " . After Travolta bashes him over the head with a shovel , Cruise remarks : " Ouch . . . wait a minute . Scientology . It all makes perfect sense now . " Ewan McGregor tries to convince Cruise to convert to the Jedi methodology .
When Cruise first meets Nicole Kidman ( Dolly Wells ) , he asks her to sit down so that he will appear taller . Cruise performs his " dangling @-@ from @-@ the ceiling routine " from Mission : Impossible – while in bed with Kidman . Cruise asks Kidman how he can prove he is not gay , and she recommends that they make the film Eyes Wide Shut . Stanley Kubrick is portrayed as a sleazy film director , and the program shows a newspaper headline giving a critical review of Eyes Wide Shut . The show portrays Cruise 's relationship with Penélope Cruz , who is seen wearing a mantilla . Travolta introduces Cruise to his third wife Katie Holmes ( Laura Patch ) who is depicted as a robotic Stepford Wife . " Greetings , Earth Man , I am here to serve you , " says Holmes to Cruise upon their first meeting . After Cruise asks Holmes to marry him , she states , " Affirmative " . The show makes fun of Cruise 's couch jumping incident on The Oprah Winfrey Show . ( This spoof is in reference to a 2005 appearance by Cruise on the Oprah program , where he " jumped around the set , hopped onto a couch , fell to one knee and repeatedly professed his love for his new girlfriend . " ) At the wedding of Cruise and Holmes , an alien bride and groom are displayed on the top of the couple 's wedding cake , and the show spoofs the couple 's wedding vows . A voiceover at the end of the program tells the viewer to visit scientologyisgreat.com and purchase £ 4 @,@ 000 worth of books .
= = Production = =
Production on the second series of Star Stories was announced by Channel 4 in January 2007 , and in addition to Tom Cruise , others set for parodying included Simon Cowell , Britney Spears and " the 1990s chart battle between Oasis and Blur " . The show was episode two of the second series of Star Stories . The episode was first broadcast on Channel 4 on 2 August 2007 . On its website , Channel 4 promoted the episode with the description , " Hollywood 's smallest actor ( after Danny DeVito ) expounds on Aliens from Outer Space and the best career choices ever . " In August 2007 , the series was set to be remade into a new version in the U.S.
= = = Legal issues = = =
Multiple publications commented on the potential legal implications of parodying both Tom Cruise and Scientology . " Given the Church of Scientology 's full @-@ throttle reaction to any criticism or mickey @-@ taking , the Star Stories boys are sure to find themselves in the firing line , " wrote a reviewer for the Evening Times . A review in The Sunday Times commented , " Taking their careers in their hands , the Star Stories team tackle the notoriously litigious Tom Cruise ... The lawyers must still be having a nice lie down after watching . "
In an interview with The Northern Echo , Star Stories actor Kevin Bishop discussed the legal issues involved with making the series : " We 're not allowed to say anything about anyone that isn 't true . It can be quite tricky . Sometimes we 've had to change lines even when the filming is all finished . We go back to the recording studio and put one line over another line . ... The only reason I reckon we 've not been sued is because actually we 've not said anything that technically we can 't . " He said the series was " well looked after " by attorneys . In a 2009 interview with The Independent , Bishop recounted an experience when he gave a copy of the program to television producers in the United States : " I gave some American producers the Star Stories DVD and those that could be bothered to watch it saw the Tom Cruise one . One guy went ' you can 't do that it 's Tom Cruise man ? [ we ’ ve done it ] ' yeah but you can 't do that on TV ' [ it 's already gone out ] ' what you ’ re talking about Scientology , are you fucking nuts ? ? [ er , look we ’ ve done it it 's been on telly and everyone loved and we 've had no complaints ] has Tom Cruise seen this ? ! "
= = Reception = =
The Guardian and the Evening Times highlighted the Star Stories parody as the " pick of the day " . Martin Skeggs of The Guardian commented , " There 's everything you ever wanted to know about the world 's number one film star , including how he was introduced to Scientology ( John Travolta whacked him over the head with a shovel ) , the time he met Nicole Kidman and asked her if she would mind sitting down to make him look taller " . He characterized the parody as , " A toned down version of real life , then . " Barry McDonald of the Evening Times described the episode as " equally cruel and sidesplittingly hilarious " . He commented , " This is as close to must @-@ watch television as you 're likely to get and a testament to the quality of comedy writing on display . " In a later review of the program for the Evening Times when it was shown again on re @-@ runs , McDonald wrote , " I don 't care if it 's been shown several times before , this is one of the shows which you just have to see again . " Anila Baig of The Sun highlighted the show as " Best Spoof " , and wrote , " pint @-@ sized Hollywood superstar Tom Cruise is subjected to some serious mocking . We follow his film career , his marriages to Nicole Kidman and Katie Holmes ( portrayed as a robot ) and how everything in his life has been shaped by his belief in Scientology . The show is as crude as ever " . Stephen Milton of The Sun described the parody of Cruise 's appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show as " the best gag in the whole episode " . Aidan Smith of Scotland on Sunday wrote favorably of the show , and noted , " Fearlessly , in view of how paranoid Scientologists are , the latest target was Tom Cruise . I especially liked the scene where the tiny screen giant winched himself , Mission Impossible @-@ style , on to Nicole Kidman while she slugged from a tinnie like a good Sheila . "
The Daily Mirror described the program as " far too funny " . A review in The Daily Mirror was positive , commenting , " If you want to see a brilliant spoof about Tom Cruise 's faith in Scientology and his relationship with Katie Holmes , look no further than C4 's Star Stories . " She commented , " It 's so absurd , even Tom will laugh . " The Advertiser described Star Stories as " a surprisingly funny sendup of movie stars and pop groups " , and noted of the episode 's title , " This week 's episode is titled Being Tom Cruise - How Scientology isn 't in Any Way Mental , which should give you some idea of the vein of humour mined . " The Sunday Times observed , " Just when you thought you might go a week without seeing a mention of brand Beckham , here is a documentary on their best friends , brand Tom Cruise , as recorded by the least reverential writers and least convincing lookalikes on the planet . Scientologists might prefer something on the Sci @-@ fi channel . " Victoria Segal , Sally Kinnes and Sarah Dempster of The Sunday Times highlighted the episode in their " Critics ' Choice " column . They commented that the show 's producers " [ give ] their own account of his career , his love life and his religion : It 's all about aliens . Comedy so broad it barely fits on the screen , it is hard not to be amused " . Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun highlighted the program as his " Top Choice " . Adams commented , " This ruthless but spot @-@ on parody re @-@ enacts Cruise 's life and career through Hollywood gossip , rumour and exaggeration ( his father is a midget , Katie Holmes a robot , Nicole Kidman a beer @-@ swilling bogan ) , but is an antidote to every interview he 's ever done . " Writing for The Newcastle Herald , Anita Beaumont commented , " This is really silly stuff , but it is amusing enough to enliven a fairly dull night of TV . " The Sunday Mirror wrote that the program " was as subtle as a sledge hammer " . Simon Hoggart of The Spectator called the program " a magnificently over @-@ the @-@ top anti @-@ celebrity festival " .
= Spending All My Time =
" Spending All My Time " ( stylized as " Spending all my time " ) is a song by Japanese girl group Perfume from their fourth studio album Level3 ( 2013 ) . The song was released as the album 's second single on 15 August 2012 . It was written , composed and produced by Yasutaka Nakata . The song is a dance pop track , which features instrumentation from synthesizers and keyboards . It is the group 's first English @-@ language single , and their second English effort since their 2008 track , " Take Me , Take Me " , from their debut album Game .
" Spending All My Time " received favorable reviews from music critics , who commended the group 's English @-@ language attempt and praised the production and composition . The song became their seventh consecutive single to stall at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart in Japan . The track became their first charting single in Taiwan . Yusuke Tanaka directed the accompanying music video for the single , which shows Perfume dancing and making gestures in a room . Perfume have performed the song in a number of live performances throughout Japan .
= = Background and composition = =
Japanese producer and Capsule musician Yasutaka Nakata had written , arranged and composed the song . Nakata has collaborated with all of Perfume 's records and songs from 2003 onwards . It was recorded in Tokyo , Japan and was mixed and mastered by Nakata . It is a dance and techno , and incorporates instrumentation from synthesizer and keyboards . Writing for Land of Rising , Alex Shenmue noted " ' Spending all my Time ' brings back the techno sounds after the dreaming atmosphere of Sleeping Beauty [ ... ] ” " Spending All My Time " is the group 's first English @-@ language single to date , and their second overall . A writer for CDJournal had compared the song to works by French disc jockey David Guetta and Swedish House Mafia , but called the composition “ a little different , ” to their previous work .
Perfume had found recording English lyrics hard ; member Kashiyuka explained , " ' Spending all my time ' is completely in English , so I struggled really hard with the pronunciation . When I ’ m singing along to the melody , my accent becomes more Japanese – like katakana @-@ speak , so I ’ m wondering what people outside Japan will think when they hear it [ ... ] Also , it ’ s not a particular word , but I ’ m interested to know which genre people will classify us in as artists . " ”
= = Reception = =
" Spending All My Time " received favorable reviews from most music critics . Shenmue wrote that the new mix for the album “ fits the album 's concept . ” Selective Hearing 's writer Nia felt she could see the song alongside " Enter the Sphere " and " Party Maker " “ blasting in a club , but there are also some surprisingly calm tracks on the album . It ’ s kind of like a series of crescendos and decrescendos ” . Ian Martin , who had written their extended biography at Allmusic , had highlighted the song as an album standout and career standout . Patrick St. Michael , writing for The Japan Times , said the composition wasn 't an “ improvement ” but commented that it was “ simple , catchy pop ” . A writer from CDJournal had favored the production and composition , comparing it to Western music .
The song charted in both Japan and Taiwan . Reaching number two on the Oricon Singles Chart , it became the group 's eighth consecutive single to stall at number two . The song also reached number two on the Japan Hot 100 chart . The song reached number eight in Taiwan , becoming their first charting single in that country . In August 2012 , " Spending All My Time " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 physical units .
= = Release and promotion = =
Selected as the second single of Level3 , the song was released as a stand @-@ alone digital download on 15 August 2012 . Two CD singles were issued ; a standalone CD with which included the b @-@ sides " Point " and " Hurly Burly " , and a bonus DVD version . The first B @-@ side " Point " was used as the commercial song for " KIRIN Chu @-@ hi Hyoketsu Yasashii Kajitsu no 3 % " . The second B @-@ side , " Hurly Burly " was used as the commercial song for " KIRIN Chu @-@ hi Hyoketsu " . " Hurly Burly " was used as the closing theme song to the 2014 short film Fastening Days .
The official music video was directed by Japanese director Yusuke Tanaka and premiered on Perfume 's YouTube channel in June 2013 . It features Perfume in school uniforms and shows them making dance moves and hand @-@ and @-@ feet gestures towards each other in a room . The group are based inside a lock room , as member A @-@ chan tries to open the door unsuccessfully .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Yasutaka Nakata .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the " Mirai no Museum " CD single .
= = = Song credits = = =
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
= = = Visual credits = = =
Yusuke Tanaka – director
Takahiko Kajima – video producer
Kazunali Tajima – camera
Mikiko – choreographer
= = Charts , peaks and positions = =
= = Release history = =
= The Original All Blacks =
The Original All Blacks ( also known simply as " The Originals " ) were the first New Zealand national rugby union team to tour outside Australasia . They toured the British Isles , France and the United States of America during 1905 – 1906 . Their opening game was against Devon on 16 September 1905 whom they defeated 55 – 4 . Such was the surprise that some newspapers in Britain printed that Devon had scored 55 points and not the All Blacks . They went on to defeat every English side that they faced , including a 16 – 3 victory over English county champions Durham , and a 32 – 0 victory over Blackheath . They defeated Scotland , Ireland and England with the closest of the three matches their 12 – 7 victory over Scotland . The team 's only loss of the tour was a 3 – 0 defeat by Wales at Cardiff Arms Park . The loss was highly controversial wing Bob Deans claimed to have scored a try that would have brought them level . However , in truth Wales were generally considered the better team with the All Blacks playing particularly poorly in the first half of the game . They managed narrow wins against the Welsh club teams and went on to play France in France 's first ever Test match . They returned to New Zealand via North America where they played two matches against Canadian teams . Overall they played a total of thirty @-@ five matches , which included five Tests , and only lost once — the defeat by Wales .
The 1905 All Blacks tour of Britain went on to achieve legendary status within the rugby world and New Zealand in particular . They scored 976 points and conceded only 59 , and thus set the standard for all subsequent All Black sides . The tour also saw the first use of the All Blacks name and established New Zealand 's reputation as a world class rugby nation . Some of these players eventually defected to participate in the professional 1907 – 08 tour of Australia and Great Britain where they played against Northern Union sides in the sport that would eventually become known as rugby league .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
After the formation of the New Zealand Rugby Football Union in 1892 , New Zealand representative teams were selected for matches against international opponents . The first tour by a New Zealand representative side under NZRFU auspices was in 1894 to New South Wales ( although an earlier team had toured Britain and Australia in 1888 – 1889 ) . New Zealand 's first Test match was in 1903 when they played Australia in Sydney . New Zealand 's first home Test Match was the following year when they defeated Britain at Athletic Park , Wellington , by 9 – 3 . The win was significant as Britain had been unbeaten in their Australian tour , yet they won only two out of five matches in New Zealand . The captain of Great Britain , David Bedell @-@ Sivright , said after the Test that he could not see New Zealand winning the big matches on their Northern Hemisphere tour , but " I think you will probably win most of the county matches . "
The New Zealand selectors named a squad of 53 players from which the touring team would be selected in late 1904 . The following year on 25 February , a list of 16 " certainties " for the tour was named ( one of whom would eventually not tour due to injury ) . A final opportunity for selection was the North @-@ South inter @-@ island match on 3 June 1905 after which , 25 players were selected for the team , and an additional two were added prior to the team 's departure to Britain .
Before the Northern Hemisphere tour , 18 of the squad conducted a preliminary three @-@ match tour of Australia where they won two matches and drew the other . They also played four pre @-@ tour matches in New Zealand , winning two , drawing one , and losing their final match 3 – 0 to Wellington .
The team departed for England aboard the Rimutaka on 30 July . There were two ports of call on the journey – Montevideo , and Tenerife – before their arrival in Plymouth , England . The day after their arrival on 8 September , the squad travelled 24 km ( 15 mi ) to Newton Abbot , which served as the team 's training base throughout much of the tour .
= = = Early matches = = =
Their first match took place on 16 September 1905 against Devon , who had been runners @-@ up in the most recent English county championship , and for whom played ten members of Devonport Albion , the top club in England . Because of this , Devon went into the match as favourites , however the crowd of 6 @,@ 000 at the match were soon stunned by the New Zealanders as they scored 12 tries and eventually won 55 – 4 . Billy Wallace scored 28 points , including three tries , and it would be another 51 years before another All Black would score more points in one match . The score caused a sensation in Britain , and some newspapers even incorrectly reported the score as Devon 55 , New Zealand 4 . Eventually the reports were corrected , and the New Zealanders returned to Newton Abbot to be greeted by a brass band and cheering crowd .
Five days later New Zealand faced Cornwall at Recreation Ground in Camborne . Although the score was only 12 – 0 at half time , the New Zealanders ended up with 11 tries , and a 41 – 0 victory . The team then travelled to play Bristol , who they played on 23 September . The game was played in front of 6 @,@ 500 spectators , with the same result as the Cornwall match , a 41 – 0 victory for New Zealand . They then travelled to Northampton , after stopping in London . The game resulted in another victory , this time 31 – 0 , to the All Blacks . By now , the All Blacks had scored 169 points in their four games , with only four against .
The next match was against Leicester at Welford Road on 30 September . Four players in the Leicester team would go on to play in the England Test ; more than any other club . Although the All Blacks were held scoreless for the first 25 minutes , at the time the longest period that the All Blacks had gone without scoring on tour , George Smith eventually crossed for the All Blacks first score of the game . The All Blacks ended the match 28 – 0 winners .
After the following match against Middlesex , won 34 – 0 by the All Blacks , The Daily Chronicle said " These New Zealanders turn defence into attack with such bewildering rapidity as to prove that scrummaging is a mere detail . There is nothing in the game in which they do not excel . "
The toughest game of the tour so far was against Durham County , on 7 October . Durham were the English county champions , and were the first team to score a try against the All Blacks on tour . Despite the small 6 – 3 advantage to the All Blacks at the break , they scored 10 unanswered points in the second half to win 16 – 3 . The All Blacks ' closest game of the tour so far was immediately followed by their largest win . The match against Hartlepool Clubs , one of the strongest teams in northern England , was won 63 – 0 by the All Blacks .
The All Blacks next three games were against Northumberland , Gloucester , and Somerset . None of the sides scored against the All Blacks ; with them losing by 31 , 44 , and 23 points to nil respectively . Four days following the Somerset match , the All Blacks faced Devonport Albion . Devonport Albion were England 's club champion , and the runners @-@ up for Great Britain club champion . 20 @,@ 000 spectators witnessed another All Blacks victory ; this time by 21 – 3 .
For the match against Midland Counties at Leicester , 17 @,@ 000 spectators , as well as officials from the Welsh rugby union attended the match . Although Midland Counties scored a converted try , the All Blacks retained their winning record with a 21 – 5 victory . The victory over Midland Counties was followed by an 11 – 0 victory over Surrey , and 32 – 0 victory over Blackheath . The seven try win over Blackheath was considered by Wallace to be the end of the All Blacks ' peak — " Unfortunately , after this game injuries began to take their toll and prevented us ever putting in so fine a team again on the tour . "
The next three game for the All Blacks would be played in five days . The All Blacks scored 13 tries , and Jimmy Hunter five of them , as they ran up a 47 – 0 victory over Oxford University . Their next match , two days later , was against Cambridge University . The Scotland Test was approaching , and the All Blacks decided to rest several players , Hunter , Billy Stead , Selling and George Gillett . Cambridge 's kicking game , and fast backs helped them to restrict the score to 14 – 0 to the All Blacks . Two days later the All Blacks faced Richmond , and scored five tries to register a 17 – 0 victory . Their last game before the Scotland Test was against a Bedford XV in Richmond . There were four All Black tries in the first half , and six in the second . The final score was 41 – 0 ; the All Blacks had now scored over 600 points on tour .
= = = Scotland = = =
At the time of the Tour , rugby in Scotland was a game of the upper classes , and the Scottish Rugby Union ( SRU ) was very conservative . Their officials believed the game should remain strictly amateur , and that rugby was for the players , not the spectators . The Scottish were uncomfortable with the public interest in the All Blacks , and did not make them feel very welcome . They interpreted a letter sent to them stating that the All Blacks did not want to be entertained after their match quite literally , and the All Blacks were not invited to the after @-@ match dinner organised by the Scottish Union . As well as this , the SRU refused to grant international caps for the game .
The game was a financial success for the NZRFU . The NZRFU had asked for a £ 500 financial guarantee from the SRU for the game , but because of their poor finances , the SRU offered instead to give the entire gate ( minus expenses ) . Due to a big attendance , the NZRFU received a fee of over £ 1700 for the game . Although the SRU were very happy with this ( they offered the same terms to the Springboks when they toured in 1906 ) , there were also concerns about the three shillings a day each All Black received whilst on tour . After they found that the Rugby Football Union had approved the payments , a Calcutta Cup match was cancelled .
The game was played on 18 November on an icy pitch ( straw had not been spread over the pitch the night before ) , which nearly caused the game to be cancelled . The All Blacks kicked off , and had the best of the first ten minutes . Scotland eventually got a scrum near the All Blacks goal @-@ line , and after winning the scrum , passed to Ernest Simson , who dropped a goal to put Scotland ahead 4 – 0 . It was the first time the All Blacks had been behind on tour . The All Blacks replied with a try under the posts , which was unconverted . A second try was then scored , by Smith ; again it went unconverted . Scotland then scored an unconverted try , to lead at half time 7 – 6 . With less than ten minutes to go the score remained 7 – 6 and it looked like the All Blacks might lose their first match on tour . However , with four minutes to go the All Blacks had a scrum on halfway ; the resulting movement finished with George Smith crossing for a try . Bill Cunningham then scored a try with seconds remaining , and the All Blacks were victorious 12 – 7 .
Four days after the Scotland Test the All Blacks faced West of Scotland in Glasgow . The cities ' secondary schools were given half a day off to watch the match . The All Blacks scored six tries on the way to a 22 – 0 victory . The team then travelled to Ireland , for their third Test .
= = = Ireland = = =
The welcome extended by the Irish Rugby Football Union ( IRFU ) was in contrast to that of Scotland . The morning they arrived in Belfast they were met by several IRFU officials who took them out for breakfast . The arrival in Ireland also marked a homecoming for the captain Dave Gallaher , who was born in County Donegal , but had moved to New Zealand at the age of four . Thousands awaited the All Blacks when they arrived in the Dublin train station . On the Thursday before the Test , both teams attended the theatre together ; sitting alternatively so they could better mix .
The sold out Test was played on Saturday 25 November at Lansdowne Road . The 12 @,@ 000 that turned up did not get to see Gallaher though , as he was injured . Simon Mynott was also selected to play on the wing despite having never played there before , and there being three three @-@ quarters available . For a 30 @-@ minute period in the first half the Irish forwards dominated , however the deadlock was broken close to half time when Bob Deans scored a try under the posts ; Wallace converted the try giving the All Blacks a 5 – 0 half @-@ time lead . Early in the second half Deans scored another try ; again converted by Wallace . Smith lost the ball over the line before Alex McDonald scored the All Blacks third and final try . Wallace successfully converted to give the All Blacks a 15 – 0 victory .
The All Blacks then headed to Limerick for their one other game in Ireland . Not all of the team travelled for the match against Munster , and Dixon had even tried to get the All Blacks out of the game . The match played on Tuesday 28 November was won 33 – 0 by the All Blacks . The eight tries witnessed by the 3 @,@ 000 strong crowd included a penalty try after Fred Roberts was tripped close to the line .
= = = England = = =
Following the Munster match the All Blacks returned to England . Due to its larger capacity , the game was played at Crystal Palace ( which had an official capacity of 50 @,@ 000 ) rather than Blackheath . Despite the official capacity , it is estimated between 70 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 people attended the match ; many of them non @-@ paying spectators . The 100 @,@ 000 spectators , including the Prince of Wales ( the future King George V ) , was a record for a rugby or football match in London .
The England Test was the All Blacks ' third international in as many weeks ; they had been played on successive Saturdays , with a mid @-@ week match between each . England named eight new caps in their side , and played a rover ( or wing @-@ forward ) on top of seven forwards . The game has been described as " a benefit for All Black wing Duncan McGregor " . He scored four tries in the Test — a record not equalled by an All Black until 1987 . A try was also scored by Fred Newton , and with none of the five tries converted , the score finished 15 – 0 . English sportsman C. B. Fry said after the match , " The notion that these men beat us because of our physical degeneracy is nonsense . They beat us by organisation and by tactics . " A legacy of this match is that the whistle used by the referee , Gil Evans , has been used to start the opening match of every Rugby World Cup tournament . Between tournaments the whistle is housed at the New Zealand Rugby Museum in Palmerston North and was donated to them by the chairman of the NZRFU and manager of the 1924 – 25 All Blacks .
The All Blacks had three more games before their Wales Test Their first was again Cheltenham on 6 December at Cheltenham . The match was won by the All Blacks 18 – 0 after they scored four tries ; three of them by Abbott . The next match was at Birkenhead against Cheshire . The All Blacks scored 10 tries and recorded their biggest win in nearly a month . The final score witnessed by the 8 @,@ 000 strong crowd at Birkenhead Park was 34 – 0 . The All Blacks ' last match before facing Wales was against Yorkshire in Leeds . The game was played in Northern Union territory , and there were many league scouts trying to recruit All Black squad members to the rival code . 24 @,@ 000 spectators watched as the All Blacks won 40 – 0 , which included 10 tries .
= = = Wales Test = = =
The Original 's Test against Wales is still considered one of sport 's great matches . The Test was played at Cardiff Arms Park , 16 December 1905 in front of 47 @,@ 000 spectators . The All Blacks were applauded onto the park where they performed their haka in front of a silent crowd . Once they had applauded their haka , the crowd , led by ' Teddy ' Morgan , sung the Welsh national anthem Hen Wlad fy Nhadau ( Land of Our Fathers ) . The anthem was sung in an attempt to reduce the perceived psychological advantage of the haka . The match was the first time a national anthem had been sung before a sporting fixture .
The lead up to the match was controversial . The All Blacks ' manager George Dixon and the Welsh Rugby Union ( WRU ) could not agree on a referee . Dixon rejected all of the WRU 's proposed referees , and the WRU all of Dixon 's . The rules of the day dictated that in that case , the WRU could ask another union to appoint a referee . They asked the Scotland Rugby Union , who appointed Scotsman John Dallas . Dallas was heavily criticised during the Test , for wearing clothing considered inappropriate for refereeing a match , and for being unable to keep up with play .
As well as the referee , the selection of Mynott at first five @-@ eighth over Billy Stead was highly controversial . Several explanations were given for Stead 's omission . One was that he was originally selected , but gave up his spot in the team for a disappointed Mynott . The official reason given for Stead 's omission was injury — although he was fit enough to act as touch judge during the Test .
After the match 's kick @-@ off there was soon a scrum ordered The All Blacks were repeatedly penalised by the referee whenever they had a scrum . The reason for this was the All Blacks 2 – 3 – 2 scrum formation where they had only two front @-@ rowers . The Welsh team used a three @-@ man front row , and had studied the All Blacks scrummaging technique . The Welsh countered the All Blacks 2 – 3 – 2 scrum formation by setting their front row after the All Blacks , and hence preventing the All Blacks from gaining the loosehead . Consequently , every time the All Blacks tried to hook the ball they were penalised , and this prompted All Blacks ' captain Gallaher to order his team not to contest the scrums , and to instead let the Welsh win the ball .
The All Blacks first half play was generally considered poor — with aimless kicking to Welsh fullback Winfield returning much better kicks into touch . The first ten minutes saw New Zealand 's Roberts break the line twice only to be caught by Winfield without support . Eventually Wales had a scrum feed 25 yards out from the All Blacks ' try @-@ line . From this Wales executed a planned move — Owen got the Wales ' scrum @-@ ball and dummied to on his right to Bush . He then turned left and passed to Cliff Pritchard . Pritchard then passed to Gabe , who passed to Bush , who eventually passed to Morgan . Morgan then raced 25 yards down the touchline whilst eluding Gillett to score for Wales . Winfield missed the resulting conversion — leaving the score at 3 – 0 . In the final stages of the first half the All Blacks began to assert themselves and were attacking strongly when halftime was sounded . Dixon claimed halftime was called two minutes early , and Wallace that it was three minutes early .
The All Blacks kicked off for the second half and the two teams were evenly matched . The All Blacks first five @-@ eighth Mynott was having a poor game — dropping the ball frequently . Eventually Roberts stopped passing to him , and would instead run the ball himself . The Welsh had try scoring opportunities , but drop @-@ goal attempts and dropped passes prevented them scoring . Some time during the second half ( various accounts are given — all identifying different times in the match ) the All Blacks got their best attacking opportunity of the match . The Welsh won a line @-@ out on the All Blacks side of half @-@ way , and with the resulting ball kicked diagonally across @-@ field which was fielded by New Zealand 's Wallace . Wallace then ran and broke through the Welsh line before confronting their fullback Winfield . Wallace then passed to Deans who was tackled either on , or near the Welsh line . The referee Dallas awarded a scrum to Wales five yards from their line . The All Blacks had further opportunities to score during the match , with Mynott held up over the line , Deans nearly scoring before being tackled by the Welsh , and McGregor nearly scoring except for a forward pass .
= = = Welsh games = = =
Following the Wales Test Dixon and the WRU continued to clash over referee appointments . The dispute escalated to the point where Dixon threatened to pull out of the All Blacks ' remaining Welsh fixtures . The WRU responded by threatening to cancel the fixtures if their referee choices were rejected . The dispute was resolved when the chairman of the RFU , Rowland Hill , got the WRU to accept Gil Evans ( a Welshman from Birmingham ) as referee for the final three matches . Gil Evans had refereed the All Blacks versus England Test and was well respected by the New Zealanders .
The All Blacks played Glamorgan in Swansea on 21 December . The All Blacks had the advantage of the wind in the first 30 minutes . Late in the first half Roberts worked a move from a scrum to pass to Smith , who passed to Harold Abbott . Abbott then passed back to Smith who scored in the corner . In the second half Glamorgan attacked but could not score , and late in the game the All Blacks scored tries to McDonald and Wallace to win 9 – 0 .
Two days later the All Blacks faced Newport at the city 's Athletic Ground . The All Blacks scored a try early to Eric Harper and Wallace recalled " It looked as though we were going to win comfortably . " Wallace then scored a penalty for the All Blacks and they ended the first half ahead 6 – 0 . Newport 's Rowland Griffiths scored a penalty early in the second half , but despite their strong display in the second half they could not score again and the All Blacks won 6 – 3 .
The next game was against Cardiff on 26 December . It was billed as a virtual second Test against a side that boasted several Test players . The match was played at Cardiff Arms Park in front of 50 @,@ 000 spectators . After a missed drop goal and missed penalty Cardiff scored with a try to Nicholls that was set up by Gabe . The conversion was successful giving Cardiff a 5 – 0 lead. about 20 minutes into the match Jim O 'Sullivan broke his collarbone after being tackled heavily ; as a result the All Blacks played the rest of the match with only 14 men . The All Blacks attacked with every opportunity they could and before half time Mona Thomson scored in the corner for the All Blacks . Wallace converted the try to leave the scores 5 – 5 at half time . For the first 30 minutes of the second half the two teams attacked one after the other
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. After Cardiff captain Percy Bush failed to force down a ball behind his own goal @-@ line George Nicholson dived on the ball to score a try . Wallace converted to give the All Blacks a 10 – 5 lead . Cardiff responded by scoring a try themselves , but Winfield failed to convert it and the All Blacks won 10 – 8 . The loss was Cardiff 's only loss of the season , and the next year they defeated the touring South Africans 17 – 0 .
The All Blacks last match in the British Isles was against Swansea at Saint Helen 's Ground on 30 December . Swansea had only lost once in over two seasons ( to Cardiff ) and were the champion club team of Great Britain . Wallace said of the match " This was the thirty @-@ second match of the tour and our hearts rejoiced at the thought that this was to be the last . " The first half was mainly spent in the All Blacks half as they struggled to gain territory kicking into a strong wind , and after 25 minutes Swansea scored a try through Fred Scrine that was unconverted . The half finished 3 – 0 to Swansea . The All Blacks playing with the wind to their backs nearly scored a try to McGregor but he was ruled to have stepped out . However soon after Wallace gained possession and ran towards Swansea 's 25 @-@ yard line before kicking a drop goal in the strong wind to give the All Blacks a 4 – 3 lead . The All Blacks then kept forcing Swansea back with kick after kick for the next 15 minutes to win the match 4 – 3 .
The loss to Wales and the fact that they had only narrowly avoided losing to all of the Welsh club teams confirmed Wales as the pre @-@ eminent rugby force of this era .
= = = France and North America = = =
The All Blacks travelled to Paris on New Year 's Eve and on 1 January faced France at Parc des Princes . The match was France 's first Test ever . French captain Henri Amand gave the All Blacks choice of ends and the kick off . Although the All Blacks dominated , France scored a try to Noel Cessieux in the first half ; the half ended 18 – 3 to the All Blacks . Georges Jérôme then scored for France after the break to make it 18 – 8 for the All Blacks . The All Blacks ended up scoring another six tries for a total of ten , and a 38 – 8 win . The eight points , and two tries scored by France were more than any team in the British Isles had against the All Blacks .
After spending several days sight seeing around Paris , the All Blacks returned to London . Instead of returning to New Zealand directly , they discovered that New Zealand Prime Minister Richard Seddon had organised for the team to travel home via the United States . Although the team wanted to return home immediately , Seddon insisted . The All Blacks had two weeks before they departed . Many of them stayed with friends of relatives , while Stead and Gallaher wrote The Complete Rugby Footballer . The team reassembled on 19 January and were farewelled by a dinner with the London New Zealand Society before departing Southampton on the SS New York the next day .
After arriving in New York City , they stayed for several days and an exhibition game was organised . The match was played in Brooklyn and was supposed to be New Zealand versus New York , however several New Zealanders played for New York to make up their numbers . Despite this New Zealand won the match . The team then travelled to San Francisco , via the Niagara Falls , Chicago , and the Grand Canyon . In San Francisco they played two matches against British Columbia ; the first won 43 – 6 and the second 65 – 6 . From there they sailed back to New Zealand .
= = Innovations and tactics = =
The Original All Blacks introduced several innovations to rugby in France and the British Isles . At the time of their tour many critics in the Northern Hemisphere blamed the use of the wing – forward for the All Blacks success . These critics claimed this player — who fed the ball into the scrum — would obstruct opposition players , and that the only reason they were not being penalised was due to poor refereeing . Their success however was due to a combination of factors , the most important being the team 's discipline and organisation , which was described at the time as a scientific approach .
Each forward in the team had a specific role in the scrum ; they would each have a predetermined position within the scrum . This was different from their opposition — their forwards ' position in a scrum was determined by the order in which they arrived . This was described as " first @-@ up , first @-@ down " , and meant that the All Blacks were better drilled — giving them a significant advantage . The All Blacks had also practised their line @-@ outs , and as a result had a very good understanding between the player that threw in the line @-@ out ball , and the player who was supposed to receive it .
The All Blacks back @-@ line formation was also different from that in Britain . They played two five @-@ eighths , a position invented in New Zealand , that refers to the player between the half @-@ back and three @-@ quarters . These two five @-@ eighths gave the All Blacks a defensive advantage . The British press were also surprised to see All Blacks fullback Billy Wallace attacking so often — They had generally viewed the fullback as a defensive position . The All Blacks also thought that every player , whether a back or a forward , should make themselves available to take a pass in support of an attacking player . The teams they encountered had forwards that understood their main role of winning possession for their backs , but would not support them when attacking .
The other major factor that helped the All Blacks to success was their superior fitness . In New Zealand each half was 45 minutes , not 35 like in Britain . As well as that , the All Blacks spent much time on fitness . This enabled them to play with speed much longer than their opposition .
= = Name = =
The team departed New Zealand as the New Zealand Football Team , or , simply The New Zealanders , though names such as Maorilanders and Colonials were also applied . Reference to the team by the name " All Blacks " first appeared during the Originals tour when , according to Billy Wallace , a London newspaper reported that the New Zealanders played as if they were " all backs " . Wallace claimed that due to a typographical error , subsequent references were to " All Blacks " . Wallace was the last of the Originals to pass away , so this explanation for the name 's origins is widely believed . However , the Express and Echo in Devon , reporting after the Originals match there , referred to " The All Blacks , as they are styled by reason of their sable and unrelieved costume . " The new name quickly became popular throughout Britain , though its acceptance into popular culture took a longer time back home in New Zealand . On 5 March when the team returned home , the Herald acclaimed the " New Zealand Footballers " , however , the following day its report of the official function was headed " Return of the All Blacks " .
= = Results = =
Scores and results list New Zealand 's points tally first .
= = Squad = =
The squad , manager , and coach for the Northern Hemisphere tour :
Manager – George DixonCoach – Jimmy Duncan
= Pikes Hotel =
Pikes Hotel ( pronounced Peek @-@ ayes ) , now known as Ibiza Rocks House , is a luxury hotel in Ibiza , in the Balearic Islands of Spain . It is located in the countryside , 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) to the northeast of the town of Sant Antoni de Portmany , and 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) to the northwest of Ibiza Town . A 15th @-@ century stone mansion which was a finca ( farm estate ) , it was converted into a hotel in 1978 by British @-@ born Australian Anthony Pike .
The hotel , cited as one of the most famous or infamous hotels on the island , developed a notorious reputation for hedonism in the 1980s , and is associated with being a playground for the rich and famous . It is best known for being the location of filming for Wham ! ' s 1983 hit " Club Tropicana " and for Freddie Mercury 's 41st birthday bash in 1987 , cited as one of the most lavish parties ever to be held on Ibiza .
By the 1990s the hotel had fallen into difficulties and after Pike 's son was murdered in 1998 attempting to sell the hotel , it was later sold to the Ibiza Rocks organization , which also owns clubs on the island and the Ibiza Rocks Hotel in the nearby town . Today it has 26 rooms with king @-@ sized beds , and the restaurant , named Room 39 , has gained critic acclaim on the island .
= = History = =
Tony Pike arrived in Hull in 1978 . Yachtsman and former hat maker Pike led a very colourful life , which had already seen him shipwrecked in the Caribbean , injured in a bobsleigh accident , serving in the military , indulge in heavy drinking , and married and divorced three times . Pike had rented a finca for three months during which time he met his next partner Lyn . Together they bought a derelict finca called Ca ’ n Pep Toniet in the countryside east of Sant Antoni and they decided to renovate it into a hotel . Tony , along with Lyn and his two sons , did most of the work themselves . Bo Palk , the managing director of MGM Studios , checked into the hotel just as Pike was finishing the last bathroom of the hotel . An acquaintance of Palk ’ s , Simon Napier @-@ Bell , visited him at the hotel whilst scouting for a video shoot location . As a result Wham ! ' s " Club Tropicana " was shot at the hotel in 1983 . The video was directed by Duncan Gibbins with scenes shot of George Michael , the lead singer of the band and his fellow band member Andrew Ridgeley and their backing singers Dee C. Lee and Shirlie Holliman . The scenario saw George Michael " floating about on a lilo in his Speedoes and shades " , relaxing with the boys by Pike ’ s pool sipping cocktails . The scene of the trumpet @-@ playing took place in the pool itself . Tony Pike got on well with the band and he was persuaded to take a small part in the video as the barman in one of the scenes . The success of the video and Wham ! ' s status at the time firmly placed Pike ’ s Hotel in the circles of the music industry and within a short time the hotel was attracting other stars and people connected to the industry .
In the 1980s , the authorities on Ibiza grew very concerned about the wild orgies and drug use which were taking place at the hotel . They showed particular concern over the extensive cocaine use at the hotel . Julio Iglesias , a close friend of Pike , confronted the chief of police , inviting him and his wife to dinner at the hotel , and ever since the trouble with the law has been dropped . In 1987 , Freddie Mercury celebrated his 41st birthday at Pikes , several months after discovering that he had contracted AIDS . Mercury sought much comfort at the retreat , and was a close friend of Pike . The party , held on 5 September 1987 , has been described as " the most incredible example of excess the Mediterranean island had ever seen " , and " the most lavish party even Pike had ever thrown . " It has been cited as a legendary party , with a celebrity guest list of some 500 people and up to 700 people in total which included Julio Iglesias , Grace Jones , Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , Kylie Minogue , Nigel Benn , Anthony Quinn , Bon Jovi , Boy George , Five Star , Tony Curtis , Robert Plant , Naomi Campbell , and Spandau Ballet . A notable feature of the party was its thousands of gold and black helium balloons which reportedly took three days to inflate , and a grand firework display at the end which was reported to have been seen on Majorca . 350 bottles of Moet & Chandon champagne , and a cake in the shape of Gaudi 's Sagrada Familia Cathedral were provided for the party , although the original cake collapsed and was replaced with a 2 metre @-@ long sponge with the notes from Mercury 's song " Barcelona " . The bill , which included 232 broken glasses , was presented to Queen 's manager , Jim Beach .
By the 1990s the hotel was beginning to lose it reputation and a slow decline in popularity began which would culminate in tragedy for Tony Pike . In 1998 , Pike had put the hotel up for sale . A deal was set up for the sale which turned out to be a scam and Pike was swindled out of £ 50 @,@ 000 . His son , Anthony Dale Pike , flew to Miami to resolve the situation for his father . However , he was killed the same day of his arrival on 15 February 1998 , shot twice in the head and dumped in a secluded forest at Virginia Key beach . Miami Dade Police detectives believed it was clear that he was killed by the people plotting to seize control of the hotel . The police arrested and questioned German tennis professional Thomas Heinz Knott over the murder , but the investigation led them to charge Italian TV producer Enrico Forti with fraud over the transfer of £ 50 @,@ 000 from Anthony ’ s father . In June 2000 , Forti was also convicted of murdering Anthony Dale Pike in Miami . Forti is now serving a lifetime prison sentence at the Everglades Correctional Institution in Florida .
Pike estimated that the hotel was worth $ 5 million ( £ 3 @.@ 2 million ) in 2002 . He later sold it to Ibiza Rocks in 2008 . At the time of sale , The Mail on Sunday said of Pike , " Stooped and shrunken , his face looks like a weathered Easter Island statue and when he walks he shuffles unsteadily , bowed by a life of excess . Pike 's powers are fading . " A 2008 Sky Living TV documentary also showed him and the hotel in an unfavourable light , and it appeared to be living on its past reputation .
In the summer of 2011 , Pikes Hotel was re @-@ launched as Ibiza Rocks House at Pikes Hotel . The hotel has been restored under the ownership Andy McKay and Dawn Hindle , the partnership behind the Ibiza Rocks , Ibiza Rocks Hotel and Mallorca Rocks brands , with new décor , whilst trying to maintain its rock 'n'roll image of its most glamorous years . The new owners have made Tony Pike the first full @-@ time resident of the hotel and he lives permanently in Room 25 . Ibiza Rocks publicizes the hotel and its chain as " After sex and drugs , comes rock and roll " . Scottish band Biffy Clyro and Kylie Minogue stayed at the hotel during the Ibiza Rocks Festival in 2011 . The hotel has long been the favourite of Minogue in Ibiza since the 1980s and she is a friend of Pike who considers her " lovely and a real star " .
= = Features = =
Pikes Hotel is a luxury hotel , set in a 15th @-@ century stone mansion , a finca , which was a farm for centuries . It is accessed off a long lane leading from the main road from Sant Antoni de Portmany . Stuart Husband of The Independent describes Pikes Hotel as " a notorious Ibiza hotel where anything goes . " It is considered to be one of the most famous or infamous hotels on the island and has been cited as one of the " world 's true spiritual homes of rock 'n'roll hedonism . " Iain Stewart of the The Rough Guide to Ibiza considers Pikes Hotel to be an " almost legendary , relaxed and idiosyncratic rural hotel , popular with visiting celebrities . " The Mail on Sunday has referred to the hotel as an " atmosphere of complete sexual licence . " Anthony Pike himself said " it 's been claimed we break every law , but I wouldn 't be in business if that was the case . " Boy George referred to Pike as the " Hugh Hefner of Ibiza " .
At the time of sale in 2008 , Pikes Hotel had 29 bedrooms , with a pool , sauna , health centre , and tennis court . Today it has 26 rooms with king @-@ sized beds , one restaurant named Room 39 which has received much critical acclaim , and 2 bars . As of 2009 it costs £ 157 to stay at the hotel . The rooms retain the sense of the original farmhouse , and are furnished in the Moroccan style with some heavy dark wood furnishings . The rooms each have different themes , including " Honeysuckle " and " Sunset " , the latter of which is set behind the middle of three dark wood doors on the second floor of a small outhouse . According to author Stephen Armstrong , this room had a " modest sitting room with a huge antique mirror , plush sofas and a CD player which didn 't work . The bedroom was enormous , and the bathroom was decorated in a vaguely Moroccan style with a curtained bath nestling behind a low arch .
A wide range of entertainment is put on at the hotel , from flamenco shows to costume balls . The hotel also offers a VIP card to visitors to many of the notable clubs , bars , and casinos in the town . The garden has a memorial to Anthony Dale Pike ( 1955 @-@ 1998 ) , which says , " In loving memory of eldest son Dale . Here a portion of his ashes are laid to rest while the remainder flow within the currents of his beloved Pacific Ocean . May his spirit strive no more but rest within this tree in peace and tranquility . I loved you , my son . "
= USS Boxer ( CV @-@ 21 ) =
USS Boxer ( CV / CVA / CVS @-@ 21 , LPH @-@ 4 ) was one of 24 Essex @-@ class aircraft carriers of the United States Navy , and the fifth ship to be named for HMS Boxer . She was launched on 14 December 1944 and christened by the daughter of a US Senator from Louisiana .
Commissioned too late to see any combat in World War II , Boxer spent much of her career in the Pacific Ocean seeing 10 tours in the western Pacific . Her initial duties involved mostly training and exercises , including launching the first carrier @-@ based jet aircraft , but demobilization prevented much activity in the late 1940s . At the outbreak of the Korean War , she was used as an aircraft transport before arriving off Korean waters as the third U.S. carrier to join the force . She supported the Inchon landings and subsequent invasion of North Korea , and was among the ships that provided support during the Chinese counteroffensive against an under @-@ prepared and spread out United Nations ( UN ) force . She saw three subsequent combat tours in Korea conducting close air support and strategic bombing in support of UN ground troops fighting along the 38th parallel , as the battles lines had largely solidified by this time . She was awarded eight battle stars for her service in Korea .
After the Korean War , Boxer saw a variety of duties , including as an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier and an amphibious assault platform . She participated in a number of training exercises including Operation Hardtack and Operation Steel Pike , as well as several contingencies including Operation Powerpack and the Cuban Missile Crisis . In her later years , she served as a pickup ship for spacecraft during the Apollo program as well as an aircraft transport to troops during the Vietnam War .
Although she was extensively modified internally as part of her conversion to an Landing Platform Helicopter ( LPH ) , external modifications were minor , so throughout her career Boxer retained the classic appearance of a World War II Essex @-@ class ship . She was decommissioned on 1 December 1969 after 25 years of service and sold for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Boxer was one of 24 Essex @-@ class ships to be completed , among the largest and most numerous capital ships produced for World War II . She was ordered in 1943 .
The ship was one of the " long @-@ hull " designs of the class , which had begun production after March 1943 . This " long hull " variant involved lengthening the bow above the waterline into a " clipper " form . The increased rake and flare provided deck space for two quadruple 40 mm mounts ; these units also had the flight deck slightly shortened forward to provide better arcs of fire . Of the Essex @-@ class ships laid down after 1942 , only Bon Homme Richard followed the original " short bow " design . The later ships have been variously referred to as the " long @-@ bow units " , the " long @-@ hull group " , or the " Ticonderoga class " . However , the U.S. Navy never maintained any institutional distinction between the long @-@ hull and short @-@ hull members of the Essex class , and postwar refits and upgrades were applied to both groups equally .
Like other " long @-@ hull " Essex @-@ class carriers , Boxer had a displacement of 27 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 700 long tons ; 29 @,@ 900 short tons ) . She had an overall length of 888 feet ( 271 m ) , a beam of 93 feet ( 28 m ) and a draft of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . The ship was powered by eight 600 psi Babcock & Wilcox boilers , and Westinghouse geared steam turbines that developed 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) that turned four propellers . Like other Essex @-@ class carriers , she had a maximum speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship had a total crew complement of 3 @,@ 448 . Like other Essex @-@ class ships , she could be armed with 12 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber guns arrayed in four pairs and four single emplacements , as well as eight quadruple Bofors 40 mm guns and 46 Oerlikon 20 mm cannons . However , unlike her sisters , Boxer was armed instead with 72 40 mm guns and 35 20 mm cannons .
Her keel was laid on 13 September 1943 by the Newport News Shipbuilding Company at its facility in Newport News , Virginia . She was the fifth ship of the US Navy to be named Boxer , after HMS Boxer , which had been captured by the U.S. during the War of 1812 . The last ship to bear the name had been a training ship in 1905 . The new carrier was launched on 14 December 1944 and she was christened by Ruth D. Overton , the daughter of U.S. Senator John H. Overton . The ship 's cost is estimated at $ 68 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to $ 78 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = Service history = =
Boxer was commissioned on 16 April 1945 under the command of Captain D. F. Smith . She subsequently began sea trials and a shakedown cruise . Before these were complete , the Empire of Japan surrendered on V @-@ J Day , marking the end of World War II before Boxer could participate . She joined the Pacific Fleet at San Diego in August 1945 and the next month she steamed for Guam , becoming the flagship of Task Force 77 , a position she held until 23 August 1946 . During this tour , she visited Japan , Okinawa , the Philippines , and China .
She returned to San Francisco on 10 September 1946 , embarked Carrier Air Group 19 flying the Grumman F8F Bearcat fighter . With this complement , Boxer began a series of peacetime patrols and training missions off the coast of California during a relatively uneventful period during 1947 . In spite of manning difficulties brought on by the demobilization of the US military after World War II , Boxer remained active in Pacific readiness drills around the West Coast and Hawaii . In 1948 , she conducted a number of short cruises with US Navy Reserve personnel . On 10 March 1948 , a North American FJ @-@ 1 Fury launched from Boxer , the first such launch of an all @-@ jet aircraft from an American carrier , which allowed subsequent tests of jet aircraft carrier doctrine . For the remainder of 1948 and 1949 , she participated in numerous battle drills and acted as a training carrier for jet aircraft pilots .
She was dispatched to the Far East on another tour on 11 January 1950 . She joined the 7th Fleet in the region , making a goodwill visit to South Korea and entertaining South Korean president Syngman Rhee and his wife Franziska Donner. and at the end of the tour returned to San Diego on 25 June 1950 , the same day as the outbreak of the Korean War . At the time , she was overdue for a maintenance overhaul , but she did not have time to complete it before being dispatched again .
= = = Korean War = = =
With the outbreak of the Korean War , the U.S. forces in the Far East had an urgent need for supplies and aircraft . The only aircraft carriers near Korea were USS Valley Forge and HMS Triumph . Boxer was ordered into service to ferry aircraft from California to the fighting on the Korean Peninsula . She made a record @-@ breaking crossing of the Pacific Ocean , leaving Alameda , California on 14 July 1950 and arriving at Yokosuka , Japan on 23 July , a trip of 8 days and 7 hours . She carried one hundred forty @-@ five North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs and six Stinson L @-@ 5 Sentinels of the United States Air Force destined for the Far East Air Force as well as 19 Navy aircraft , 1 @,@ 012 Air Force support personnel , and 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of supplies for the United Nations troops fighting the North Korean invasion of South Korea , including crucially needed spare parts and ordnance . Many of this equipment had been taken from Air National Guard units in the United States because of a general shortage of materiel . She began her return trip from Yokosuka on 27 July and arrived back in California on 4 August , for a trip of 7 days , 10 hours and 36 minutes , again breaking the record for a trans @-@ Pacific cruise . She carried no jet aircraft , though , because they were deemed too fuel inefficient for the initial defense mission in Korea . By the time Boxer arrived in Korea , the UN forces had established superiority in the air and sea .
After rapid repairs in California , Boxer embarked Carrier Air Group 2 , flying the Vought F4U Corsair propeller driven fighter @-@ bomber , and departed again for Korea on 24 August , this time in a combat role . She had 110 aircraft aboard , intended to complement the hundreds of aircraft already operating in Korea . En route to the peninsula , the carrier narrowly avoided Typhoon Kezia which slowed her trip . She was the fourth aircraft carrier to arrive in Korea to participate in the war , after Triumph and Valley Forge had arrived in June and USS Philippine Sea followed in early August . She arrived too late to participate in the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , but instead she was ordered to join a flotilla of 230 US ships which would participate in Operation Chromite , the UN counterattack at Inchon . On 15 September , she supported the landings by sending her aircraft in a close air support role , blocking North Korean reinforcements and communication to prevent them from countering the attack . However , early in the operation , her propulsion system was damaged when a reduction gear in the ship 's engine broke , a casualty of her overdue maintenance . The ship 's engineers worked around the problem to keep the carrier in operation , but she was limited to 26 knots .
She continued this role as the UN troops recaptured Seoul days later . Boxer continued this support as UN troops advanced north and into North Korea , but departed for the United States on 11 November for refit and overhaul . US military commanders believed the war in Korea was over , and had ordered a number of other carriers out of the area and were subsequently under @-@ prepared at the beginning of the Chosin Reservoir Campaign when the Chinese People 's Liberation Army entered the war against the UN . Battlefield commanders requested Boxer return to Korea as soon as possible , but she did not immediately return as commanders feared it might reduce the Navy 's ability to respond if another conflict or emergency broke out elsewhere .
Boxer 's propulsion problems required extensive repair so she returned to San Diego to conduct them . Upon arrival , she offloaded Air Group 2 , which then embarked for Korea again aboard Valley Forge . After a repair and refit in California , Boxer was prepared for a second tour in Korea . She embarked Carrier Air Group 101 . The group was composed of Navy Reserve squadrons from Dallas , Texas , Glenview , Illinois , Memphis , Tennessee and Olathe , Kansas , and most of its pilots were reservists who had been called to active duty . She rejoined Task Force 77 , and began operations in Korea on 29 March 1951 , and her squadrons were the first Naval Reserve pilots to launch strikes in Korea . Most of these missions were airstrikes against Chinese ground forces along the 38th parallel , and this duty lasted until 24 October 1951 . During this time , the carrier operated around " Point Oboe " , an area 125 miles ( 201 km ) off the coast of Wonsan . They would withdraw another 50 miles ( 80 km ) east when they needed replenishment or refueling . A large destroyer screen protected the carriers , though MiG @-@ 15 attacks against them did not occur .
After another period of rest and refits , Boxer departed California 8 February 1952 for her third tour in Korea , with Carrier Air Group 2 embarked , consisting of F9F in VF @-@ 24 , F4U in VF 63 and VF @-@ 64 , and AD in VF @-@ 65 . Rejoining Task Force 77 , her missions during this tour consisted primarily of strategic bombing against targets in North Korea , as the front lines in the war had largely solidified along the 38th Parallel . On 23 and 24 June , her planes conducted strikes against the Sui @-@ ho hydro @-@ electric complex in conjunction with Princeton , Bon Homme Richard and Philippine Sea .
On 5 August 1952 , a fire broke out on the hangar deck of Boxer at 05 : 30 when a fuel tank of an aircraft caught fire while the ship was conducting combat operations in the Sea of Japan . The fire raged on the carrier 's hangar deck for 4 – 5 hours before being extinguished . The final total of casualties was 8 dead , 1 missing , 1 critically injured , 1 seriously burned and some 70 overcome by smoke . Of the 63 who had gone over the side , all were rescued and returned to the ship . Eighteen aircraft , mostly Grumman F9F @-@ 2 Panthers , were damaged or destroyed . She steamed for Yokosuka for emergency repairs from 11 to 23 August . She returned to the Korean theatre , and from 28 August to 2 September she tested a new weapons system , with six radio guided Grumman F6F Hellcats loaded with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs guided to targets , resulting in two hits and one near miss . They are considered to be the first guided missiles to be launched from a carrier in combat . On 1 September her aircraft also took part in a large bombing mission of an oil refinery near Aoji , on the Manchurian border . She returned to San Francisco for more extensive repairs on 25 September . In October 1952 , she was re @-@ designated CVA @-@ 21 , denoting an " attack aircraft carrier . "
Following extensive repairs , she steamed for Korea again on 30 March 1953 , and resumed operations a month later with her Corsairs embarked . Her missions around this time were generally strategic bombing missions , however the effectiveness of these final missions were mixed , with some failing to achieve strategic results . She also provided close air support for UN troops for the final weeks of the war before an armistice was reached at Panmunjom in July 1953 , ending major combat operations in Korea . During this time , the two sides often conducted costly attacks in order to strengthen their bargaining positions at the negotiating table . Boxer remained in Korean waters until November 1953 . She received eight battle stars for her service in Korea .
In 1951 she appears in the film Submarine Command , with William Bendix , and William Holden , then carrying a compliment of helicopters .
= = = Post @-@ Korea = = =
Following the Korean War , Boxer returned to the United States . She conducted a tour of the Pacific throughout 1954 which was relatively uneventful , followed by a rest in the United States and another tour in the Pacific in late 1955 and early 1956 , which was similarly uneventful .
She was converted to an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier in early 1956 , re @-@ designated CVS @-@ 21 . She completed another tour of the western Pacific in late 1956 and early 1957 , which was her tenth and final deployment to the area . In late 1957 , the navy began experimenting with the concept of a carrier operating entirely with attack helicopters , and Boxer was used to test the concept .
In 1958 , Boxer was the flagship during Operation Hardtack , a series of nuclear weapons tests in the central Pacific . Later that year , she was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet , and became part of a new amphibious assault squadron with four Landing Ship Tank vessels equipped with helicopter platforms . The experimental concept would allow for rapid deployment of US Marine Corps personnel and helicopter squadrons . For the remainder of 1958 elements of this force were organized aboard Boxer and she was reclassified LPH @-@ 4 , denoting a " Landing Platform Helicopter " , on 30 January 1959 .
For the next 10 years , Boxer operated mainly out of the Caribbean as an amphibious assault carrier . During this duty , she was on station during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . In 1964 , she undertook her first tour to the Mediterranean when she took part in Operation Steel Pike , the largest amphibious exercise in history .
With two Landing Ship Docks , Boxer was dispatched to Hispaniola on 29 August 1964 on a humanitarian mission to aid Haiti and the Dominican Republic whose infrastructure had been damaged by Hurricane Cleo . The ships provided medical aid and helped to evacuate civilians displaced by the storm . On 27 April 1965 Boxer returned to the Dominican Republic with Helicopter Squadron 264 and a complement of Marines . They evacuated about 1 @,@ 000 US nationals from the country in the wake of a revolution in the country . It was a part of Operation Powerpack which would eventually see the US occupation of that country . Later in 1965 , she was used as a transport vessel for the Vietnam War . The carrier transported 200 helicopters of the US Army 's 1st Cavalry Division to South Vietnam . She made a second trip to Vietnam in early 1966 when she transported Marine Corps aircraft to South Vietnam . However , she did not participate in combat operations during that war .
On 26 February 1966 , Boxer recovered AS @-@ 201 , an unmanned test flight of the Apollo program which had launched from Cape Kennedy , Florida aboard a Saturn 1B rocket . The capsule had landed 200 miles ( 320 km ) east of Ascension Island and one of Boxer 's helicopters picked it up . From 16 – 17 March 1966 , Boxer was the designated Atlantic prime recovery ship for Gemini 8 , although USS Leonard F. Mason recovered the spacecraft and two crewmen .
She was decommissioned on 1 December 1969 after 25 years of service , and she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register . She was sold for scrap on 13 March 1971 .
= Three @-@ cent silver =
The three @-@ cent silver , also known as the three @-@ cent piece in silver or trime , was struck by the Mint of the United States for circulation from 1851 to 1872 , and as a proof coin in 1873 . Designed by the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , it circulated well while other silver coinage was being hoarded and melted , but once that problem was addressed , became less used . It was abolished by Congress with the Coinage Act of 1873 .
After a massive importation of gold bullion during the California Gold Rush , silver could be traded for increasing amounts of gold , so U.S. silver coins were exported and melted for their metal . This , and the reduction of postage rates to three cents , prompted Congress in 1851 to authorize a coin of that denomination made of .750 fine silver , rather than the conventional .900 . The three @-@ cent silver was the first American coin to contain metal valued significantly less than its face value , and the first silver coin not to be legal tender for an unlimited amount . The coin saw heavy use until Congress acted again in 1853 , making other silver coins lighter , which kept them in circulation . Congress also lightened the three @-@ cent silver , and increased its fineness to 900 silver .
With the return of other denominations to circulation , the three @-@ cent silver saw less use , and its place in commerce was lost with the economic chaos of the American Civil War , which led to hoarding of all gold and silver coins . A three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel was struck beginning in 1865 , and the three @-@ cent silver saw low mintages for its final decade before its abolition . The series is not widely collected , and the pieces remain inexpensive relative to other U.S. coins of similar scarcity .
= = Background = =
Although the Mint of the United States had been striking silver coins since the 1790s , they did not always circulate due to fluctuations in the price of the metal . In 1834 , for example , half dollars sold on the market at a premium of one percent . The U.S. was then on a bimetallic standard , and though Congress had slightly overvalued silver with respect to gold , enough Mexican silver flowed into the country to produce a rough equilibrium .
By early 1849 , most of the silver coins in circulation were small coins of the Spanish colonial real , including the " levy " ( one real ) and " fip " ( half real ) . The levy and fip often passed for twelve and six cents respectively in the Eastern U.S. The mint accepted them as payment at a slightly lower figure , but even so , lost money on the transactions as many of the pieces were lightweight through wear . The odd denominations of the levy and fip were a convenience , allowing payment or change to be made without the use of cents , which were at that time large , made of copper , and not accepted by the government as legal tender due to their lack of precious metal . In the Western U.S. , the levy and fip were accepted as the equivalent of the silver dime and half dime , although the Spanish pieces contained more silver .
= = Inception = =
Bullion from the California Gold Rush and other discoveries came to the Eastern U.S. in considerable quantities beginning in 1848 . By the following year , the price of gold relative to silver had dropped , making it profitable to export American silver coins , sell them as bullion , and use the payment in gold to buy more U.S. coins . Silver coins consequently vanished from circulation , meaning the highest @-@ value American coin actually circulating that was worth less than the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) was the half @-@ dollar @-@ sized copper cent , which saw no use in much of the country because of its lack of legal tender status . Early in 1849 , Congress authorized a gold dollar to help bridge the gap . Spanish silver coins were the bulk of what was left in commerce for small change , although there was disagreement as to the value to be assigned to them . Additionally , they were often heavily worn , reducing their intrinsic worth at a time when Americans expected coins to contain metal worth the value assigned to them .
In 1850 , New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson introduced legislation for a three @-@ cent piece in .750 fine silver , that is , three parts silver to one part copper ( American silver coins were then .900 fine ) . He proposed to offer it in exchange for the Spanish silver , which would be valued at eight reals to the dollar for the purpose , higher than the going rate . The new coin would weigh three @-@ tenths as much as the dime , but the debasement of the silver would compensate the government for the losses it would take in redeeming the underweight , worn Spanish coins . The three @-@ cent denomination was chosen as it coordinated well with the six and twelve cent values often assigned the fip and levy . The House of Representatives instead considered legislation to reduce the valuation of the Spanish coins to ten cents per real , and to strike a twenty @-@ cent piece , of .900 silver , to facilitate the exchange . Neil Carothers , in his book on small @-@ denomination American money , suggests that the House 's plan would have resulted in the Spanish coins staying in circulation , and any twenty @-@ cent pieces issued being hoarded or melted . No legislation passed in 1850 , which saw continued export of America 's silver coinage .
Impetus for the passage of a three @-@ cent coin came when Congress , in January 1851 , considered reducing postage rates from five cents to three . In 1849 , House Committee on Ways and Means chairman , Samuel Vinton , had written to Mint director Robert M. Patterson that his committee was considering both reducing the postage rate and instituting a three @-@ cent coin . Although no legislative action was then taken , Patterson had the mint prepare experimental pattern coins . The House committee proposing the 1851 bill included Dickinson 's three @-@ cent piece , and provided that it be legal tender up to 30 cents . When the bill was debated in the House on January 13 , 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer indicated that he felt both coin and stamp should be denominated at 21 ⁄ 2 cents , and his fellow New Yorker , Orsamus Matteson , offered an amendment to that effect . The amendment failed , as did every other attempt to change the legislation , including Dickinson 's plea , in the Senate , to restore the requirement that the new coin be used to retire some of the Spanish silver . The bill passed both houses , and became the Act of March 3 , 1851 when President Millard Fillmore signed it .
Carothers pointed out the precedent @-@ setting nature of the legislation , the first to authorize an American silver coin containing an amount of metal worth considerably less than its face value :
This almost forgotten statute is one of the most significant measures in American currency history . After resisting for sixty years every attempt to introduce any form of fiduciary silver coinage , Congress adopted a subsidiary silver coin as an adjunct to the postal service , without realizing that the first step had been taken in the relegation of silver to the status of a subordinate monetary material . The new piece was the first silver coin in the history of the United States that was not legal tender for an unlimited amount . Subsidiary coinage had been established , but in a trivial way , by an unworkable law , and at a time when the entire silver currency was flowing out of the country .
= = Preparation = =
In addition to striking the pattern coins in 1849 , officials at the Philadelphia Mint continued to experiment with three @-@ cent silvers . The matter was caught up in ongoing conflict between Mint chief coiner Franklin Peale , and the chief engraver , James B. Longacre , who each prepared designs . Peale produced a coin depicting a Liberty cap , based on a design prepared by Longacre 's late predecessor , Christian Gobrecht , in 1836 . Longacre prepared a design similar to the coin that was eventually released .
On March 2 , 1851 , the day before the legislation was passed , Longacre , with the reluctant permission of Patterson ( a Peale ally ) sent Treasury Secretary Thomas Corwin samples of his proposed three @-@ cent piece , along with a letter explaining the symbology . Patterson preferred Peale 's design , but recommended Longacre 's for approval on the ground that it was in lower relief . Patterson , writing to Corwin on March 7 , indicated that if the three @-@ cent were struck in .900 silver , it would be hoarded , but as the silver in the .750 pieces was worth only two and a half cents , the Mint would profit via seignorage from coining the new pieces . Patterson also suggested that the New Orleans Mint could be used to strike the new coin .
Despite the provision of the Mint Act of 1837 entrusting Longacre , by virtue of his office , with responsibility for preparing dies , Peale prepared his own and ran off some sample three @-@ cent pieces . Both types of pattern coin were sent by Patterson to Corwin on March 25 , 1851 , with the Mint director 's recommendation that the chief engraver 's design be selected . The next day , acting Treasury Secretary William L. Hodge approved Longacre 's design . Knowing there was a large demand for the new coins , Patterson thought it best to build up a stock of 500 @,@ 000 before beginning distribution .
= = Design = =
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his book on American coins and medals , considered the silver three @-@ cent piece one of the ugliest U.S. coins , though it " has the redeeming feature of delicate workmanship " . Dennis Tucker , head of Whitman Publishing , in 2016 described the coin as " something of a ' Sarah plain and small ' . " Congress had required , in the authorizing act for the three @-@ cent silver , that the piece bear a design distinct from both the gold dollar and the other silver coins . As Longacre wrote in his letter to Corwin of March 2 , 1851 @,@
On so small a coin it is impossible that the device can be at once conspicuous and striking unless it is simple — complexity would defeat the object . For the obverse I have therefore chosen a star ( one of the heraldic elements of the National crest ) bearing on its centre the shield of the Union , surrounded by the legal inscription and date . For the reverse I have devised an ornamental letter C embracing in its centre the Roman numeral III , the whole encircled by the thirteen stars .
Longacre 's original design for the reverse ( type 1 ) was altered when the fineness of the coin was increased in 1854 , to aid the public in distinguishing between them . For the type 2 and type 3 , ( the reverses of which are identical , the only differences between the two types are on the obverse ) an olive sprig , a symbol of peace , was added over the III , and a bundle of three arrows , a symbol of war , below it . The arrows are bound by a ribbon .
= = Production = =
= = = Type 1 ( 1851 – 1853 ) = = =
According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " the new 3 ¢ coins were minted in large quantities , went immediately into circulation , and stayed there " . Despite mechanical difficulties in striking so small a piece , a total of 5 @,@ 446 @,@ 400 were struck at Philadelphia in 1851 , and 720 @,@ 000 at New Orleans — the latter would prove the only mintage of three @-@ cent pieces outside Philadelphia . The coins were shipped directly to post offices for use with stamps . Members of the public who wanted pieces were refused them by mint officials , who advised would @-@ be purchasers to seek them at treasury depository branches .
The small size of the coins , which were dubbed " fish scales " , was disliked as they were easily lost . The mint used them to redeem some of the Spanish silver , but the bulk of those foreign coins remained in circulation . A shopper paying for a small purchase with a gold dollar might receive fifteen or so three @-@ cent pieces and the remainder in badly worn fips and other small silver coins . One Philadelphia newspaper reported , derisively , that merchants were reduced to giving ladles full of three @-@ cent pieces in change for a five @-@ dollar banknote .
Silver coins continued to flow out of the U.S. in 1852 , and the three @-@ cent silver saw its highest mintage , 18 @,@ 663 @,@ 500 , all from Philadelphia . The value of these pieces was larger than that of all other silver coins struck by the mints in 1852 . The chaotic state of commerce , with no circulating federal coin valued between the three @-@ cent piece and gold dollar , was a source of concern , and mint officials and congressmen corresponded in 1852 concerning a reduction in weight of silver coins such as the half dime and half dollar . Congress at last responded by laws passed on February 21 , 1853 and March 3 , 1853 . These reduced the weight of all silver coins except for the silver dollar . The three @-@ cent piece had its weight reduced from .8 grams to .75 , but its fineness increased to .900 . Although the other reduced @-@ weight silver coins were given legal tender limits of five dollars , that of the three @-@ cent piece remained at thirty cents . Carothers theorized , " Congress , probably realizing that the 3 cent piece was a misfit at best , preferred to leave it with a discordant legal tender value " . Pursuant to these congressional acts , mintage of the type 1 three @-@ cent silver stopped on March 31 , 1853 . These changes to the silver coinage alleviated the problem of small change , as the new lightweight coins remained in circulation and were not then hoarded .
= = = Type 2 ( 1854 – 1858 ) = = =
The shift to .900 silver for the three @-@ cent silver was intended to help drive the Spanish coins out of circulation . Longacre made changes to both sides of the three @-@ cent silver , engraving a triple line around the star on the obverse and adding an olive branch and bunch of arrows to the reverse . These parallel changes were made to the other silver coins of less than a dollar to distinguish the new , lighter coins from the old . Since it was more urgent to complete work on the modifications to silver coins such as the half dollar and quarter , Longacre left the three @-@ cent piece for last , and did not complete work on the coin until late 1853 . The new treasury secretary , James Guthrie , approved the changes on November 10 .
Starting with 1854 , small quantities of proof coins were struck and apparently distributed in sets with the other silver coins . Beginning in 1858 , Mint director James Ross Snowden made the proof sets available to the general public .
The 1853 acts had prohibited the mint from buying silver from the public . Since the silver dollar was heavy relative to its value , little silver was presented for striking into that piece . As the statutes did not permit the public to deposit silver and receive it back in the form of subsidiary silver coins ( the three @-@ cent piece through half dollar ) , this effectively placed the U.S. on the gold standard . Despite the statutes , in 1853 and 1854 , Snowden had the mint purchase large quantities of silver bullion at a fixed price , generally above the market rate , and struck it into coin . Since the subsidiary coins were only legal tender to five dollars , and could not be redeemed for gold , this led to a glut of silver coins in commerce . This oversupply , which persisted through 1862 , led to lower mintages of silver coins in the mid @-@ 1850s , including the three @-@ cent piece . The largest mintage for the type 2 three @-@ cent silver was in 1858 , when 1 @,@ 603 @,@ 700 were struck for circulation .
= = = Type 3 ( 1859 – 1873 ) = = =
Although there is no archival evidence , Breen theorized that in 1858 Snowden ordered Longacre to make changes to improve striking quality , as most type 2 pieces were weakly struck . The changes include removal of one of the outlines around the star , with smaller and more evenly spaced lettering . Breen suggested that the lettering displays the influence of Assistant Engraver Anthony C. Paquet , who likely assisted Longacre . These changes only affected the obverse ; the reverse was not altered .
The economic chaos of the civil war brought the introduction of legal tender notes , backed only by the credit of the government , and by mid @-@ 1862 , gold and silver coins had vanished from circulation in much of the nation , their place taken by such makeshifts as fractional currency and postage stamps . The three @-@ cent silver remained in circulation longer than the other silver coins , apparently because the public thought it was still made of debased silver , but by the autumn of 1862 , it too was hoarded . With little point to issuing coins that would not circulate , mintage of the three @-@ cent silver dropped from 343 @,@ 000 in 1862 to 21 @,@ 000 in 1863 , a figure that would be exceeded only once ( 22 @,@ 000 in 1866 ) during the rest of the series . In March 1863 , Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase wrote in a letter that the three @-@ cent silver had entirely vanished from circulation , and suggested that it be issued in aluminum to avoid hoarding .
Congress began the task of restoring federal coins to circulation in 1864 with a two @-@ cent piece in bronze , and by authorizing a three @-@ cent piece in copper @-@ nickel the following year . In 1866 , it authorized a five @-@ cent piece in the latter alloy , the nickel , as it has come to be known . With the three @-@ cent silver effectively replaced by base @-@ metal pieces , it did not share in the increased mintage of silver coins that began in 1868 . The three @-@ cent silver was struck at the rate of a few thousand per year into the 1870s .
In 1870 , Treasury Secretary George Boutwell sent Congress a draft bill to replace the outdated 1837 Mint Act and the bits of legislation passed over the years regarding the mint and coinage . Even in the draft bill , no provision was made for the three @-@ cent silver , though some in Congress wished to retain the coin in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments . After much debate in Congress , President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Coinage Act of 1873 on February 12 of that year . The law abolished the two @-@ cent piece , three @-@ cent silver , half dime , and standard silver dollar ( later restored in 1878 ) . Carothers called the abolition of the silver three- and five @-@ cent pieces " a necessity if the 3 cent and 5 cent nickel pieces were to be continued after the revival of silver coinage " . Breen deemed the decision to eliminate the silver three @-@ cent piece and the half dime , which might have directly competed with the two copper @-@ nickel coins , a favor to industrialist Joseph Wharton , whose mines produced much of the nickel ore used in coinage . According to numismatist R. W. Julian , the three @-@ cent silver " had played its part well in the U.S. monetary system , but there was no longer any need for it " .
= = Aftermath = =
Large quantities of the three @-@ cent silver , including much of the production from 1863 and later , were held by the treasury and were melted after the coin was deauthorized . The three @-@ cent nickel went the way of its silver counterpart . After years of low mintages and decreasing popularity , it was abolished by the Act of September 26 , 1890 along with the gold dollar and three @-@ dollar piece .
The three @-@ cent silver was made fully legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965 , which proclaimed all coin and currency of the United States good to any amount for payment of public and private debt . By then , that coin had long since disappeared from circulation .
= = Collecting = =
According to Kevin Flynn and Winston Zack in their book on the three @-@ cent silver , " Lower interest [ in that piece ] means that it is the type of coin [ on ] which you can find great deals on pricing , even on dates in which rarity is high . " According to R. S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , published in 2015 , the ones that catalog the highest are the proof issues from before 1858 , with the 1854 issue leading the way , listed at $ 35 @,@ 000 . Not listed is the 1851 proof three @-@ cent silver , of which only one is known , which was last sold in 2012 for $ 172 @,@ 500 , and once formed part of the Louis Eliasberg collection . Flynn and Zack theorize that this was the specimen viewed by Hodge in approving Longacre 's design , as there is no record of its return to the Philadelphia Mint .
The 1873 coin , the final issue , was struck in proof only , and is listed at between $ 825 and $ 2 @,@ 000 , depending on condition . Most U.S. coins of that year were struck with a " close 3 " in the date , and , following a complaint that the 3 too closely resembled an eight , an " open 3 " variety . The three @-@ cent silver exists only as a close 3 . Of coins struck for circulation , Yeoman 's highest listings are for the 1868 , at $ 11 @,@ 000 in near pristine MS @-@ 66 condition .
Yeoman lists all three @-@ cent pieces before 1863 at $ 27 in worn G @-@ 4 condition , except the 1851 @-@ O ( $ 40 ) and the 1855 ( $ 38 ) . All three @-@ cent pieces from and after 1863 are less valuable in proof than in uncirculated MS @-@ 63 condition . Much of the mintage of later dates were melted by the Mint after the end of the series .
= = Mintages and rarity = =
The mint mark appears on the reverse , to the right of the III , in the opening of the C that encloses it .
Blank ( Philadelphia Mint in Philadelphia )
O ( New Orleans Mint in New Orleans , 1851 only )
= John Van Antwerp MacMurray =
John Van Antwerp MacMurray ( 1881 – 1960 ) was an American attorney , author and diplomat best known as one of the leading China experts in the U.S. government . He served as Assistant Secretary of State from November 1924 to May 1925 , and was subsequently appointed Minister to China in 1925 . Although MacMurray had coveted the China post , he soon fell into disagreement with the State Department over U.S. policy towards the ruling Kuomintang government . He resigned the position in 1929 and briefly left the foreign service . Following several years in academia , MacMurray returned to the State Department to become Minister to Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania from 1933 to 1936 . He later served as ambassador to Turkey from 1936 to 1941 , and then was made a special assistant to the Secretary of State until his retirement in 1944 .
In 1935 , MacMurray was commissioned to write a memorandum on the conflict between China and Japan . In it , he suggested that the United States , China , and Great Britain were partly to blame for Japan 's aggression , and anticipated that unless the United States recognized Japan 's grievances , a war between the two powers was likely . His warnings proved prescient , and the Pacific war broke out when Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor in December 1941 .
= = Early life = =
MacMurray was born in Schenectady , New York to Junius Wilson MacMurray and Henrietta MacMurray ( née Van Antwerp ) . His father was a career soldier , serving as a captain in the Union Army during the American Civil War , and later joining the regular army . MacMurray 's father also taught military tactics at the University of Missouri and Cornell University , and was the author of several books . His mother , Henrietta Wiswall Van Antwerp , was the daughter of a bank president .
In 1892 , at the age of eleven , MacMurray attended Captain Wilson ’ s boarding school near Princeton , New Jersey . Later , while he was attending the nearby Lawrenceville School , his father 's death dealt a “ deep emotional blow ” , according to historian Arthur Waldron . After graduating in 1898 , MacMurray enrolled at Princeton University . The school ’ s president , Woodrow Wilson , encouraged him to pursue a career in academia , noting his aptitude for language and literature . MacMurray was also said to display an independent nature , declining to participate in eating clubs or attend chapel .
In 1903 , MacMurray was admitted to the Columbia University Law School , and gained admission to the New York State Bar Association in 1906 . He concurrently pursued a master of arts degree in Elizabethan drama at Princeton University , which he received in 1907 .
= = Career = =
Following his admission to the New York Bar , MacMurray sought a career in government . A letter of commendation from Woodrow Wilson helped MacMurray secure an opportunity to take the foreign service examination . In 1907 , he was appointed as Consul @-@ General and Secretary of Legation in Bangkok , Siam , and then became second secretary at the U.S. embassy in St. Petersburg . There he worked under ambassador William Woodville Rockhill , who was credited with helping to shape the United States ’ open door policy towards China .
Upon returning to Washington in 1911 , MacMurray was made chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs , a position he held until 1913 . He then had several appointments in East Asia : from 1913 to 1917 , he was secretary of Legation in Peking , China , and from 1917 to 1919 , he was counselor of the embassy in Tokyo . He had been offered a post as Minister to Siam in 1913 , but declined in order to pursue the position in Peking . He again returned to the State Department in 1919 to serve as Chief of Division for Far Eastern Affairs from 1919 to 1924 . During that time , MacMurray was involved as an observer to negotiations between China and Japan concerning the status of the Shandong Peninsula , and authored a book titled Treaties and Agreements with and Concerning China . The book was a compilation of all treaties and agreements with China from 1894 to 1919 , and was published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace .
MacMurray briefly served as Assistant Secretary of State from 1924 to 1925 . In 1925 , he was appointed Minister to China under President Calvin Coolidge , who described him as " our top China expert " . He assumed the post in July 1925 . MacMurray was well regarded within the diplomatic community in Peking ; Sir Ronald Macleay with the British delegation described him as friendly and agreeable , and relatively unburdened by the preconceived ideas and sentimentality towards China that afflicted several of his predecessors . Macleay noted that MacMurray could express himself well and forcefully in diplomatic meetings , but that he was " rather academic " , and may have lacked confidence in himself . " I imagine that he allows himself very little freedom of action and refers to Washington on every possible occasion , " wrote Macleay . Another British diplomat , Sir Miles W. Lampson , recorded MacMurray 's complaints that Washington allowed him little initiative , and seldom adopted his proposals .
Soon after arriving in China , MacMurray fell into disagreement with Washington over U.S. policy towards the ruling Kuomintang ( Nationalist ) government , which had been demanding immediate revisions to or a cessation of the treaty system in place between the two countries . Whereas Washington wished to make concessions to the Nationalist government , MacMurray favored the enforcement of existing treaties . These differences of opinion led him to resign in November 1929 , whereupon he became a professor of International Relations at Johns Hopkins University .
In 1933 , MacMurray returned to the foreign service . On September 9 of that year , he was appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania — a position he held until 1936 . From 1936 to 1941 , MacMurray served as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Turkey . He returned to Washington in 1942 and worked as a special assistant to the Secretary of State until his retirement in 1944 .
= = = 1935 Memorandum = = =
In 1935 , as tensions in East Asia were mounting , the Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian Affairs , Stanley Hornbeck , commissioned MacMurray to write a memorandum on the situation . The memorandum , " Developments Affecting American Policy in the Far East " , challenged many of the underlying assumptions of U.S. policy towards Japan . The conventional wisdom held that Japan was the unprovoked aggressor in the brewing conflict with China . However , MacMurray posited that Chinese and American policies were partly to blame for Japan ’ s actions ; whereas Japan had closely adhered to the treaties and agreements brokered during the Washington Disarmament Conference , the United States , Great Britain and China frequently undermined them . Up until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the " Japanese Government ... was endeavoring in unimpeachable good faith to live up to its undertakings " , wrote MacMurray . " The issue of success or failure for the policies evolved at the Washington Conference was actually in the hands of China herself , of Great Britain , and of the United States . "
According to Arthur Waldron , MacMurray found that China in particular " systematically flouted the legal framework that alone guaranteed her international position , and by so doing invited Japan ’ s wrath . " MacMurray believed that the United States should have valued Japan ’ s efforts to comply with the treaty agreements , and suggested that the United States should acknowledge Japanese grievances , rather than aligning ever more closely with China . Barring that , he wrote , an American war with Japan was likely :
To oppose the Japanese domination of China and actively take all available means and occasions to frustrate it ... would , if pursued consistently and determinedly , almost inevitably mean war with Japan ... Such a war would be a major misfortune for us , even assuming our victory ... It would be a hideously long and costly process ... Even the elimination of Japan , if it were possible , would be no blessing to the Far East or to the world . It would merely create a new set of stresses , and substitute for Japan the USSR as the successor of Imperial Russia as a contestant ( and at least an equally unscrupulous and dangerous one ) for mastery of the East . Nobody except perhaps Russia would gain from our victory in such a war .
MacMurray 's classified memorandum was immediately shelved by the State Department , and his warnings went unheeded . Following the Second World War , it was available only in select archives . In 1992 , the memorandum was published for first time with an introduction by University of Pennsylvania historian Arthur Waldron . Although it had been suppressed and largely disregarded at the time it was written , MacMurray 's analysis was considered prescient by later generations of scholars and diplomats . George F. Kennan wrote of the 1935 memorandum : " I know of no document on record in our government with respect to foreign policy which is more penetrating and thoughtful and prescient than this one . "
= = Films and photography = =
Throughout his diplomatic tours in China , MacMurray captured thousands of photographs and recorded hours of footage of everyday life . A collection consisting of more than 1 @,@ 600 of MacMurray 's photographs taken in rural China between 1913 and 1917 is held by the Princeton University library .
In 1925 , just two years after the advent of the Cine @-@ Kodak motion picture camera , MacMurray began making amateur films of life and travels in China , such as his trips to the Great Wall of China and a journey down the Yangtze River . One film depicted the procession of Sun Yat @-@ sen 's body from its original burial place in Peking to a new mausoleum in Nanking . Another film recorded in April 1928 captured scenes of daily life in Kalgan , north of Peking . MacMurray , along with his wife and sister , had traveled to Kalgan and Changpeh with Roy Chapman Andrews , an American explorer and naturalist who made multiple expeditions to the Gobi desert . During the civil war in 1928 , however , rogue brigands and soldiers had made travel difficult in the region . To secure passage between Kalgan and Changpeh , MacMurray enlisted the aid of local warlord Chang Tso @-@ lin , who provided an escort of 50 cavalry , 8 cars , and 150 camels .
= = Family = =
In 1916 , MacMurray married Lois R. Goodnow , the daughter of Frank Johnson Goodnow — a legal scholar , president of Johns Hopkins University , and a former advisor to the government of the Republic of China . Goodnow had been one of MacMurray 's professors at Columbia University . The couple had three children : Joan Goodnow MacMurray , Frank Goodnow MacMurray , and Lois Van Antwerp MacMurray .
= = Works = =
Treaties and Agreements with and Concerning China , 1894 @-@ 1919 : Manchu period ( 1894 @-@ 1911 )
= Dick Healey ( footballer ) =
Richard " Dick " Healey ( 20 September 1889 – 1974 ) was an English footballer who played as an inside right or centre forward in the Football League for Sunderland , Middlesbrough and Darlington .
Healey began his football career as an amateur in his native Darlington . He helped Bishop Auckland win two Northern League titles and to reach the 1911 Amateur Cup Final , and also played non @-@ league football for Stockton . He signed amateur forms with Football League club Sunderland in 1910 , for whom he played three times and scored twice in the First Division . He won four caps for the England amateur team . Returning to Darlington F.C. in 1912 , Healey was the club 's top scorer as they won the 1912 – 13 North @-@ Eastern League title , and was a member of the Amateur XI that opposed a team of professionals in the 1913 FA Charity Shield . In 1914 , he turned professional with Middlesbrough , but played only four times , scoring twice . After the First World War , he returned to Darlington . He captained the team to the North @-@ Eastern League title in 1921 and made 17 appearances in the Third Division North in the club 's first two seasons in the Football League .
As a cricketer , he played a few matches for Durham in the Minor Counties Championship , and had a long association with Darlington Cricket Club , as player , captain and president .
= = Personal life = =
Healey was born in Darlington , County Durham , the older child of Albert Healey and his wife Elizabeth née Jackson , daughter of a Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees draper . The family was sufficiently well off to keep a live @-@ in servant . Albert taught at the Bluecoat School in Stockton before moving to Darlington where he opened a hardware shop , and later worked for the National Telephone Company ; he died in February 1899 . Elizabeth remarried ; at the time of the 1911 Census , Healey and his sister Winifred were assisting in their stepfather 's business as licensee of the Three Tuns Hotel in Bishop Auckland .
Healey attended Darlington Grammar School , where he captained both the cricket and the football teams , and went on to Armstrong College , Newcastle , to train as a teacher . He taught for the rest of his working life , and retired in about 1950 from the post of headmaster of Rise Carr school . During the First World War , he served as a gunner with the 151st ( Darlington ) Heavy Battery , Royal Garrison Artillery .
He married Florence Bradley , the daughter of a local florist , in a Bishop Auckland Presbyterian church in 1914 ; a daughter , Winifred , was born the following year . Healey died in Darlington in late 1974 .
= = Club football = =
= = = Early career and Sunderland = = =
Healey began his football career with Darlington while still a schoolboy , and was playing for Bishop Auckland as they won the Northern League title in the 1908 – 09 season . His play attracted attention . In February 1910 , he was selected for an amateur international trial , and in March , he appeared for Sunderland 's North @-@ Eastern League team , creating two goals and scoring the last in a 6 – 0 defeat of Darlington . He made his Football League debut in April , in a 2 – 0 defeat away to Manchester United in the First Division . The Sunderland Daily Echo commented that he and fellow inside forward George Holley " perhaps did not make the most of their opportunities , for when in possession in the shooting zone they failed to shoot with sufficient power . " He kept his place for the last home match of the season , against Bradford City , " proved a keen worker " , according to the Echo correspondent , and scored the first two goals in a 3 – 0 win . The first resulted from Bradford 's goalkeeper Harry Maskrey losing the ball when attempting a clearance ; he then " seized Healey , but the latter struggled free and jumping over Maskrey he put the ball in the net " . The second was a header from a corner . He missed Sunderland 's last match of the season to play for Bishop Auckland in a 2 – 1 win against Scarborough that secured them the Northern League title . Sunderland retained Healey 's Football League registration for each season up to 1913 – 14 , but he played only once more for the first team , at Aston Villa in October 1911 .
= = = Back to non @-@ league football = = =
For family reasons , Healey began the 1910 – 11 season with Stockton , but soon returned to Bishop Auckland , whom he helped reach the 1911 FA Amateur Cup final . He scored in the semi @-@ final , against Ilford , but Bishops lost to Bromley in the final , despite their opponents having a man sent off for striking another player . He moved on to Darlington in February 1912 , and the following season was their top scorer with 41 league goals as the club won the North @-@ Eastern League title . Healey was included at inside right in a forward line " about as strong as it could be made " for the Amateur XI that faced a Professional XI in the 1913 FA Charity Shield . Although the amateurs lost 7 – 2 , the Daily Mirror 's reporter picked him out as the " most consistent forward in the line " .
He was selected for the North @-@ Eastern League eleven to face the Central League in February 1914 . In March , Scottish club St Mirren were without the services of the injured George Elmore for their Scottish Cup quarter @-@ final , and had hoped to use Healey in his place ; he had previously played in the area with the Northern Nomads travelling team . Sunderland made no objection , but it was reported first that business prevented Healey obliging , and later that he had an injured knee .
= = = Professional football with Middlesbrough = = =
Four days later , he turned professional with First Division Middlesbrough . He was described as " [ possessing ] fine physique , and is a remarkably clever dribbler and good shot " – he had already reached the 20 @-@ goal mark for Darlington – and it was expected that " professional training will increase his pace " . He made his first @-@ team debut on 4 April at home to Preston North End , scored Middlesbrough 's third goal 15 minutes into the second half as they won 4 – 1 , and " proved himself well up to the first grade of Association Football " . He was retained for the 1914 – 15 season – the last before league football was discontinued for the duration of the First World War – but played mainly for the reserve team in the North @-@ Eastern League , in which capacity he was chosen for the Rest of the League team for the annual fixture against the league champions . He made three more Football League appearances , and scored one more goal , a second @-@ half header against Bradford in November 1914 in what was Middlesbrough 's first home defeat of the season .
= = = Post @-@ war football with Darlington = = =
After Darlington F.C. folded during the war , a new club , Darlington Forge Albion , was formed to represent the town in the Northern Victory League . Healey resumed his football career with that club , which was renamed Darlington for the first post @-@ war season of the North @-@ Eastern League . His goals contributed to their second @-@ place finish – he was the league 's top scorer half @-@ way through the season – and earned him selection for the representative match against the Central League .
His goals also helped Darlington reach the second round proper ( last 32 ) of the 1919 – 20 FA Cup . Healey scored twice against Bishop Auckland in the fifth qualifying round , and repeated the feat in the sixth , as well as creating two for Aaron Travis , as Darlington beat Southern League club Norwich City 5 – 0 . In the first round proper , Darlington faced Sheffield Wednesday of the First Division . A damaged shoulder meant Healey was unfit for the scheduled date , but a waterlogged Feethams pitch gave him an extra few days to recover . The match ended goalless ; Healey was unusually indecisive in front of goal , and was standing in an offside position when Travis did put the ball in the net . Although reported doubtful for the replay , he did appear , pressuring goalkeeper Arnold Birch into conceding a corner from which Darlington took the lead – the goal variously attributed to George Stevens or to Healey himself . He missed the second @-@ round tie at Birmingham because his wife was ill ; Darlington lost 4 – 0 .
Under Healey 's captaincy , Darlington won the North @-@ Eastern League title in 1920 – 21 . In the FA Cup , they hosted Second Division club Blackpool in the first round . Healey scored the opener , was involved in Darlington 's late equaliser , and missed another chance by heading wide when well placed ; they lost the replay .
Darlington formed part of the new Northern Section of the Third Division in 1921 – 22 . Healey was no longer a first choice in the forward line , but appeared not infrequently , particularly when the ground was heavy . He made his first appearance on 24 December and played in nine of the next twelve fixtures . Replacing the injured Arthur Wolstenholme for the FA Cup match against Manchester City , he opened the scoring with a header , but City won 3 – 1 . He kept his place for the next match , and even after Wolstenholme 's return to fitness continued in the team , with a winning goal against Rochdale , four of Darlington 's six to beat Hartlepools United in the Durham Senior Cup , and profiting from a defensive error to score the only goal of the league visit to Tranmere Rovers . Healey was retained for the 1922 – 23 season , and he scored against Accrington Stanley in September , but he played mainly in the reserves . In a match against Hartlepools ' reserves in November , he was the butt of the crowd 's mockery because he had , as the Northern Daily Mail put it , " now lost some of his former vigour " . He finished his Football League career with 5 goals from 21 matches .
= = International football = =
Healey played at centre forward for The North in an amateur trial match in February 1910 ; his side lost 3 – 2 , and he was not selected for the upcoming fixtures . His first international selection came in the form of a last @-@ minute call @-@ up when Frank Monk and Vivian Woodward dropped out of the England Amateur XI 's visit to mainland Europe in March 1911 . Healey made his debut against the French national team at the Stade de Paris , opening the scoring as his team won 3 – 0 , and scored again a couple of days later against Switzerland in a 4 – 1 win . His next involvement at international level was nearly a year later , against the Wales Amateur XI at the ground of his former club , Bishop Auckland , in February 1912 . He was involved in the buildup to the second goal , scored by Sydney Sanders , and scored the third himself as England won 3 – 0 . He was selected as a reserve for matches at home to the Netherlands and away to Belgium in March and April , but did not make his next , and what turned out to be final , appearance until November against Belgium , in which he scored the second of England 's four goals . He had to withdraw from the selection to face Wales in February 1913 , and was an unused reserve for the visits to Germany and Belgium in March and to Wales the following February .
= = Cricket career = =
Healey 's first involvement with Darlington Cricket Club was as a nine @-@ year @-@ old . He made his debut for the second eleven in 1906 , finished at the top of both batting and bowling averages the following season , and played for the first eleven in 1908 . In 1910 , he played in a Durham county trial match and for Durham Colts against a full county side . A sound performance with the bat in the corresponding fixture in 1911 earned him selection for Durham . He played in five Minor Counties matches that season , two in 1913 , and his eighth and last in 1920 . In 1913 , Healey was appointed captain of Darlington CC , a position he held until the end of the 1930 season , when he resigned after leading the club to a seventh North Yorkshire and South Durham League title under his captaincy . In 25 seasons as a first @-@ eleven player , he scored 6 @,@ 586 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 76 , a total that included four centuries and forty half @-@ centuries ; he also took 66 wickets and " over 80 " catches . In 1951 , after he retired from teaching , Healey became president of the club , an office he retained until his death .
= Ashford , Kent =
Ashford is a town in the county of Kent , England . It lies on the River Great Stour at the south edge of the North Downs , about 61 miles ( 98 km ) southeast of central London and 15 @.@ 3 miles ( 24 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Folkestone by road . In the 2011 census , it had a population of 74 @,@ 204 . The name comes from the Old English æscet , indicating a ford near a clump of ash trees . It has been a market town since the 13th century , and a regular market continues to be held .
Ashford has been a communications hub and has stood at the centre of five railway lines since the 19th century . The arrival of the railways became a source of employment and contributed to the town 's growth . With the opening of the international passenger station it is now a European communications centre , with new lines running between London and the Channel Tunnel ( via High Speed 1 ) . The M20 motorway also links Ashford to those two destinations for road traffic .
The town has been marked as a place for expansion since the 1960s and appeared on several Government plans for growth . Changes have included the County Square shopping centre , the redevelopment of the Templer Barracks at Repton Park , and the award winning Ashford Designer Outlet . In the 1970s , a controversial ring road scheme and construction of the multi storey Charter House building destroyed significant parts of the old town , though some areas were spared and preserved .
St Mary 's Church in Ashford has been a local landmark since the 13th century , and expanded in the 15th . Today , the church functions in a dual role as a centre for worship and entertainment . Ashford has two grammar schools ; the Norton Knatchbull School and Highworth Grammar School .
= = History = =
= = = Early developments = = =
There has been evidence of human habitation around Ashford since the Iron Age , with a barrow on what is now Barrow Hill dating back to 1500 BC . Two axes from the Lower Paleolithic period have been found near Ashford . During the construction of the Park Farm estate in the late 1990s , excavation in the area revealed tools from the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic period dating back to the 7th century BC . A number of other Mesolithic tools were discovered during construction of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link through Ashford .
During Roman Britain , iron ore was mined in the Weald and transported to Ashford where two ironworks processed the ore into a workable metal . Archaeological studies have revealed the existence of a Roman town to the north of the current centre , roughly at the junction of Albert Road and Wall Road .
The present town originates from an original settlement established in 893 AD by inhabitants escaping a Danish Viking raid , who were granted land by a Saxon Lord for their resistance . The name comes from the Old English æscet , indicating a ford near a clump of ash trees . At the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 it was still known by its original Saxon name of Essetesford ( or Eshetisford , Esselesford , Asshatisforde , Essheford ) . The manor was owned by Hugh de Montford , Constable of England , and had a church , two mills and a value of 150 shillings ( £ 7 @.@ 50 ) at the time . One of the earliest houses in the area still in existence is Lake House at Eastwell Park to the north of the town , which contains the grave of Richard Plantagenet .
= = = Middle ages = = =
Ashford 's importance as an agricultural and market town grew in the 13th century , and in 1243 , Henry III granted the town a charter to hold a market for livestock . The pottery industry expanded in the 13th and 14th centuries , with the main works based at what is now Potter 's Corner , a few miles west of the town centre . Later evidence from examining waste suggests that production was on a large scale . The Kent Archaeological society have discovered sandy ware at this location dating from around 1125 – 1250 .
Jack Cade , who led the Cade 's Rebellion against corrupt Royal officials in 1450 , is believed to be from Ashford . In William Shakespeare 's Henry VI , part 2 , Cade is shown conversing with " Dick , the Butcher from Ashford " .
In the 16th and 17th centuries , Ashford became known for nonconformism . A local resident , John Brown was executed for heresy in 1511 , and may have inspired the later namesake of the song " John Brown 's Body " . Thomas Smythe acquired the manor of Ashford as dowry from Queen Elizabeth I in the mid 16th century and is buried in the parish church .
Dr John Wallis , the internationally recognised mathematician and one of Isaac Newton 's main tutors was born in Ashford in 1616 , but moved to Tenterden in 1625 to avoid the plague . He was a promising student , and subsequently graduated from Emmanuel College , Cambridge .
= = = Modern developments = = =
By the 1780s , local farmers had begun to hold informal market days , and advertised the town 's ideal location between London , Chatham and the Kent Coast . The market was held in the High Street until 1856 when local farmers and businessmen relocated to Elwick Road and formed a market company that is the oldest surviving registered company in England and Wales . There is still a regular street market in the town , although the market company has had to be relocated outside of the town due to part of the 19th century site being demolished to make way for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link . It is still used by around 5 @,@ 000 farmers .
The Army first established a presence in Ashford in 1797 when it built a garrison on Barrow Hill , and storerooms along what is now Magazine Road . The military presence was scaled back during the 19th century , though the town was still considered strategically important in the event of an invasion . The Territorial Army established a presence in Ashford in 1910 .
During World War I , Ashford 's importance as a transport hub and its location between the continent and London made it a target for aerial bombing . On 25 March 1917 , a bomb targeted for the railway works fell on the town , killing 61 people . The town was targeted again during the Battle of Britain in World War II including an attack on 15 September 1940 .
The Joint Services School of Intelligence was based at Templer Barracks to the west of town . Robert Runcie , later to become the Archbishop of Canterbury , was stationed at Ashford during the war while Prince Andrew , Duke of York attended a course here in 1982 while he was stationed in the Royal Navy . The barracks closed in 1997 to build the Channel Tunnel Rail Link , and the site was sold to developers in 2002 , Repton Manor House , in the centre of the barracks , is a Grade II listed building and remains intact .
Ashford has been associated with the German town Bad Münstereifel since the 20th century . British forces occupied the town in 1919 under the command of Major J Goode , following the end of World War I. Goode subsequently formed close friendships with some Bad Münstereifel residents . John Wiles , Major Goode 's brother in law , later became mayor of New Romney in 1946 , and subsequently arranged a visit to the Rhineland with Winston Churchill . Wiles arranged several other exchange visits between British and German families at a time where travel between the two countries was rare . He was declared an honorary citizen of Bad Münstereifel in 1961 , which led to the two towns being formally twinned in 1964 . Bad Münstereifel was twinned with the French town of Fougères , Brittany two years later , which led to a twinning with Ashford in 1984 .
During the early and mid 20th century , print and media became a noted industry in Ashford . The Headley Brothers , a printing services company , was founded in 1881 and by the mid @-@ 1950s were printing and exporting over 2 million books . The Letraset company set up an arts material factory in Ashford in the 1960s . It closed in 2013 , following the decline of Letraset and the company 's decision to relocate works abroad .
Little is left of the old Ashford town centre , apart from a cluster of medieval half @-@ timbered buildings in Middle Row and around the churchyard in the town centre . A number of old buildings were removed to make way for the controversial ring road around the centre , including four public houses . Further demolition was required to build Charter House , an eight @-@ story office building for Charter Consolidated , that opened in 1975 . Charter subsequently moved back to London in 1985 , and the building is now being converted into flats , though progress was stalled due to the discovery of asbestos . Charter compensated for the demolition by funding a restoration scheme on North Street , preserving several historic buildings .
The motto of Ashford Borough Council is " With stronger faith " , taken from , To Lucasta , Going to the Warres , a poem by the 17th @-@ century poet Richard Lovelace from the borough . The relevant verse is :
The council 's coat of arms uses gold to symbolise richness , three sprigs of ash tree representing former council areas , and a lion to commemorate nearby Tenterden as one of the Cinque Ports .
= = Geography = =
By road , Ashford is about 61 miles ( 98 km ) southeast of central London , 20 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 0 mi ) southeast of Maidstone , and 15 @.@ 3 miles ( 24 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Folkestone . The town lies at the intersection of two valleys in Kent – the south edge of the North Downs and the valley of the River Stour , at the confluence of the Great Stour and East Stour rivers . This made it an ideal place for a settlement . The Borough of Ashford lies on the eastern edge of the ancient forest of " Andredsweald " or " Anderida " . This originally stretched as far west as Hampshire and formed the basis from which the Weald is formed .
The original town of Ashford , like many other settlements , has outgrown its original size and has combined with smaller villages in a conurbation . These villages include Bockhanger , Kennington , Sevington , Singleton and Willesborough . In addition , housing estates have been built in the open spaces amongst Bybrook , Godinton , Kingsnorth , Park Farm and Stanhope .
In 1727 , an underground fire was reported in nearby Hinxhill , while a larger earthquake struck the town on 1 June 1756 . The 2007 Kent earthquake , which registered 4 @.@ 3 on the Richter magnitude scale , was felt in Ashford , though its effects were greatest in Folkestone .
= = = Climate = = =
Ashford gets around 750 millimetres ( 30 in ) of rain a year , though the town generally has less rainfall than areas closer to the North Downs . The area around the Stour , and particularly south of the station is prone to flooding , which means it has been generally uninhabited . Recent development has been possible by putting foundations on concrete stilts .
The nearest official Met Office station located in Faversham which is 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of the town .
= = Economy = =
Ashford has been targeted as a key area for population development since the 1960s . In 1959 , the London County Council negotiated 5000 new homes to be built in Ashford as overspill from London , which created most of what is now South Ashford and Kennington . The Buchanan Report , published in 1967 , identified Ashford as a major town for growth . In 2001 , Ashford was identified as one of four key areas for expansion in South East England . Subsequently , the Ashford 's Future Company was set up to support a mix of publicly and privately funded projects in the town .
The soup manufacturer Batchelors became a significant employer in Ashford when they opened a £ 2.5m factory in Willesborough , east of the town centre , in 1957 . A substantial proportion of Batchelors staff moved from their main production unit in Sheffield to Ashford . The factory is now owned by Premier Foods . Proprietary Perfumes Ltd ( PPL ) , a division of Unilever opened a fragrance and flavour factory and research laboratory next door to the Batchelors factory in 1962 . It was subsequently renamed as Quest international and purchased by Givaudan in 2007 .
The wholesale frozen food firm Brake Brothers was established in 1957 . Initially based at nearby Lenham , it later moved to Ashford and expanded . The current European headquarters are based in Eureka Park to the north of the town .
In 2004 Regional Planning Guidance set out plans to invest £ 2.5m in Ashford , including a targets of 31 @,@ 000 new homes and 28 @,@ 000 new jobs in the area . In 2005 a Channel 4 poll ranked Ashford the fourth @-@ best place to live in the United Kingdom . However , the formation of the coalition government in 2010 saw regional planning targets scrapped , along with growth area status . Ashford has continued to develop , with new homes planned for urban areas such as Repton Park , Park Farm , Singleton and Chilmington , and planning permission granted for a new £ 25m college campus . The extension of Victoria Road has created new development space in Ashford , though plans to build a Morrisons supermarket here were scrapped in May 2014 .
The 2011 census revealed that the borough of Ashford saw the largest population growth in Kent , with records showing a 14 @.@ 6 % rise to 118 @,@ 000 inhabitants . In 2012 , Ashford Borough Council predicted there would be a net gain of 620 jobs per year . The increase in the town 's commercial importance , as well as its strategic location , is witnessed by the number of industry , business and retail parks in the town . These include Waterbrook Park , where there is dedicated space for HGV parking , Eureka Science and Business Park , including manufacturing sites and office complexes ; and Orbital Park , the market 's current location , which has a regular boot fair .
Three modern shopping centres are located in the town . Park Mall opened in 1985 on the former Folkestone Glass Works site . The town 's main shopping centre is County Square , which was built over Hempsted Street , opening in 1973 as the Tufton Centre . In 1989 , the centre was renamed to County Square and refurbished by CIN Properties , who added a glass roof . In 2008 , the centre was expanded to include 50 @,@ 000 sq ft of new retail space including a Debenhams store . Outside of the town centre is the Ashford Designer Outlet designed by Richard Rogers , which attracts around 3 million customers a year . The centre has won industry awards for Retail Destination of the Year and Best Shopping Venue and has been praised by the British Parking Association for its range of facilities , cleanliness and lack of crime . A Waitrose store opened in November 2009 on the former Templar Barracks site , followed by a John Lewis store in November 2013 .
In 2014 , Ashford Borough Council launched loveashford.com , a website designed to promote new businesses in the town centre as part of the Portas Pilot scheme , which encourages regeneration of town high streets in decline . Brandon Lewis , High Streets Minister said he would " encourage all businesses in Ashford to sign up and be part of this excellent opportunity to boost their trade in the town centre . "
= = Landmarks = =
St Mary 's parish church lies in the town centre . Parts of it date from the 13th century , including a brass of the first rector , Robert de Derby . John Fogge supervised substantial changes to the church in the late 15th century , including creating the 120 feet ( 37 m ) tower and raising the roof . He was buried in the church and a memorial window is dedicated to him . In the 17th century , a free grammar school was founded here ; it was built on the churchyard 's west side , and remained there until 1846 , now used as a museum .
On 7 October 2010 , the church was reordered by the Bishop of Dover , Trevor Willmott , to improve its dual function as both a place of worship and an arts centre and performance space for up to 350 people , in a similar style to Union Chapel , Islington . Around £ 1.7m was spent improving the venue , of which £ 1.2m was provided by European Union funding through the Green Reonvation Cluster programme . Acts that have since appeared at the church include the Lightning Seeds , Tim Burgess , Gaz Coombes and Turin Brakes .
A Mk . IV tank built in Lincoln and used in the First World War was presented to the town on 1 August 1919 to thank the townsfolk for their war efforts . It is situated in St Georges Square near the town centre . For some years , electricity provider Seeboard fitted an electricity substation inside the tank , but this has now been removed . A protective cover was built over the tank in 1988 .
H.S. Pledge & Sons Ltd built two flour mills in Ashford , and became an important employer in the town . The first opened on Victoria Road in 1890 while the second opened on East Hill in 1901 . The mills closed in 1972 and were both partially destroyed by subsequent fires . The East Hill Mill fire occurred in 1974 , but the main six @-@ storey tower block survived . It was used as a nightclub until 2014 , when the nearby Ashford School , which acquired the building in 2011 , decided not to renew the lease . The Victoria Mills were almost completely destroyed by a fire in September 1984 , and the remainder of the building had to be demolished .
The Corn Exchange , situated at the junction of Bank Street and Elwick Road , opened on 3 December 1861 . As the name implies , it was originally used for trade , but during the early 20th century its role expanded to cover dinners , dances and trade shows . The building was extended to improve capacity in the 1930s . It was demolished in 1963 .
Ashford 's main library originally opened in 1966 on a war @-@ damaged site on Church Road . In 2010 , the building was redeveloped to house Ashford Gateway Plus , which provides local council services in addition to the library itself . Other attractions near the town include Ashford Borough Museum , Godinton House and Gardens and the New Mill at Willesborough , which is Grade II listed .
The first cinema in Ashford was the Odeon on Lower High Street , which opened in 1936 and closed in 1976 . The current main cinema in Ashford is a 12 screen theatre in Eureka Leisure Park to the north of town . In 2013 , Ashford Borough Council announced plans to build a new cinema in the town , using vacant land off Elwick Road .
The Ashford Green Corridor is a linear park alongside the two main rivers through the town , which is protected from development by lying on the main flood plain . Most of the area covered by the park has been marked by Ashford Borough Council as a nature reserve . This area includes Victoria Park , which lies to the immediate south of the town centre and the railway . It includes an ornate fountain first shown at the 2nd International Exhibition in London in 1862 , and presented to the park by George Harper on 24 July 1912 . The Coningbrook Lakes Country Park opened on a former quarry site to the northeast of town in 2015 .
= = Education = =
Ashford has twelve primary schools two grammar schools , two further secondary schools and a college . The Norton Knatchbull School was founded in Ashford around 1630 as a free grammar school by its namesake , Sir Norton Knatchbull . The school continued to be led and funded by Knatchbull 's family due to a stipulation in his will in 1636 . It was known simply as Ashford Grammar School until 1980 . The original school was based next to the church in the town centre , but has moved several times . By the 20th century it had moved to its present location on Hythe Road . The current school premises were built in the late 1990s . The corresponding grammar school for girls is Highworth Grammar School for Girls to the west of town . It opened as the County School for Girls in 1908 , before moving to its current premises on Maidstone Road in 1928 . There is also a private independent school , Ashford School on East Hill , which was founded in 1898 . For much of its history , it has only allowed girls , though boys started to be admitted in 2006 .
Some of the most recent schools to open in Ashford are Repton Manor Primary School , built on the former Templar Barracks , which opened in September 2012 and the Goat Lees Community Primary School , which opened in September 2013 . In addition to the grammar schools , there are a number of other secondary schools , including those catering for special needs . Ashford College is on Henwood , to the east of town .
= = Sport = =
Ashford United Football Club is based at the Homelands , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the town centre . The club was formed in 1891 as Ashford United but was renamed to Ashford Railway Works in 1909 before settling on the name " Town " in 1930 . The club was reformed in 2011 after financial difficulties , including the resignation of owner Tony Betteridge and became known once more as " United " . The club was promoted to the Southern League Premier Division in the 1986 – 87 season and best FA Cup performance was the second round in the 1996 – 97 season .
Ashford has a local youth football team , South Ashford Football Club . The club formed in 2007 and caters for players from 4 to 21 years of age .
The Julie Rose Stadium is an athletics stadium in nearby Willesborough . It opened in 1997 and was named after the local middle @-@ distance runner Julie Rose , who was killed in a plane crash in 1985 . The stadium is part funded by the National Lottery . It is home to Ashford Athletics Club , and has held several international events . It can accommodate up to 800 people .
The Stour Centre , managed on behalf of Ashford Borough Council by Ashford Leisure Trust , is located in a park near the railway station and provides a range of recreational and leisure services including several pools , water slides , gyms and athletic facilities .
Ashford Rugby Football Club was formed in 1885 . The club plays at Kinneys Field , near the Canterbury Road . The club 's 1st XV play in London Division 3 South East .
Ashford Hockey Club is based at Ball Lane , Kennington and was formed in 1898 . Ashford also has several cricket clubs , including Great Chart Cricket Club , which celebrated their 150th Anniversary in 2006 .
= = Transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Ashford station was established when the South Eastern Railway 's London to Dover line opened between 1842 and 1845 , and the company established its locomotive works in the town . A line to Canterbury opened in 1846 , followed by the Marshlink Line to Hastings and a line to Maidstone in 1884 , which was served by Ashford West until 31 December 1898 . The railway community had its own village containing shops , schools , pubs and bathhouse . It was first known as Alfred , but later renamed Newtown . By 1864 , there were 3000 people living around the railway line . The railway works declined in use from the 1960 onwards , finally closing in 1982 .
The Ashford International station opened by British Rail with the Channel Tunnel in 1994 . It now serves Eurostar trains on High Speed 1 , with trains to London , Lille , Brussels and Paris and connections to the rest of Europe . In 1999 , the Channel Tunnel Rail Link was approved , which involved an extensive upgrade of the railways around Ashford . A trench between 20 metres ( 66 ft ) and 42 metres ( 138 ft ) was dug near the station to house the new line , a new tunnel was dug at Westwell Leacon , and a 19th @-@ century level crossing near South Willesborough , the last remaining one between London and Folkestone , was removed .
From 2007 to 2009 , services to Brussels were withdrawn due to the opening of Ebbsfleet International railway station , but were restored after a petition . Since December 2009 , domestic train services run along this route , reducing journey times to London from 88 to about 38 minutes .
= = = Road = = =
In Roman Britain , what is now Ashford was the meeting point of two main roads . One led from London to Lympne ( Lemanis ) , the other from the Weald , through Canterbury ( Durovernum ) and ending at the port of Richborough ( Rutupiae ) . Ashford was one of the towns in Kent to become a hub when the roads were turnpiked in the second half of the 18th century .
Ashford 's first bypass was opened on 19 July 1957 by the then Minister of Transport , Harold Watkinson . The main road through Ashford is now the M20 , which opened in stages between 1981 and 1991 . Junctions 9 and 10 serve the town . The other main roads are the A28 to Canterbury , the A2070 to Romney Marsh and Rye and the A251 to Faversham .
The Ashford Ring Road was completed in November 1974 around the town centre in an attempt to relieve congestion , though part of it involved demolition of existing properties and part of the old market . It initially opened as one way , but was converted back into a two @-@ way operation in 2007 , at a total cost of £ 14m , so the town centre could expand and accommodate more people . The two @-@ way route incorporates the first shared space scheme in the country . An art installation , Lost O , curated by the artist Michael Pinsky , was created as part of this redevelopment but confused drivers .
Operation Stack is a traffic management system on the M20 through and near Ashford , which allows HGVs to queue for the Channel Tunnel and the Port of Dover when there is bad weather or industrial action . The scheme is controversial as it involves closing the entire eastbound motorway to through traffic . In 2013 , Kent County Council sought funding to build a dedicated lorry park in Ashford .
= = = Other = = =
Stagecoach in East Kent provide bus services around the town . Most services include access from the station to the Designer Outlet . Out of town buses serve neighbouring towns , including Canterbury , Tenterden , Maidstone and Folkestone .
Until 1974 , Ashford was served by Lympne Airport , with commercial services to Beauvais , The airport at Lydd , designated London Ashford Airport and approximately 13 miles ( 21 kilometres ) south of Ashford , has regular flights to Le Touquet , France by Lydd Air . London Gatwick Airport , the nearest fully international airport is 45 miles ( 72 kilometres ) from Ashford .
The National Cycle Network , a network of cycle routes in the United Kingdom , includes two routes through Ashford . These are NCR 17 from Rochester to Hythe and NCR 18 from Canterbury to Tunbridge Wells . The Stour Valley Walk also follows the main river , connecting Ashford with Lenham and Canterbury , and links with other long distance footpaths in this part of Kent .
= = Health = =
Ashford now has the oldest surviving St John 's Ambulance Association unit . John Furley , founder of the association , was born in Ashford . He established the British Red Cross Society in 1868 , gaining support from the Duke of Edinburgh via a royal admiral living at Eastwell Park , close to the town .
The Grosvenor Sanatorium opened in 1915 to help patients suffering from tuberculosis , and could cater for 110 male patients , and 78 female . The philosopher Simone Weil lived in Ashford after escaping from France during World War II . She felt guilty about leaving French people behind in suffering and did not eat well . She subsequently contracted tuberculosis and was moved to the sanatorium where she died in 1943 . A section of the old Ashford Bypass is now named Simone Weil Avenue , while the sanatorium subsequently became the Ashford Police Training Centre .
Ashford Hospital opened to the west of town on 3 August 1928 , replacing a smaller 19th century building in town . It has more recently been used as a health centre and retirement home but plans to redevelop it into a local health unit were cancelled in 2012 .
The main hospital in Ashford is William Harvey Hospital , in nearby Willesborough . It is named after William Harvey , the doctor who discovered the blood circulatory system . The hospital was built because the government decided the old hospital would be too small for demand as Ashford grew , and looked for a 30 @-@ acre site that could have a hospital built on a budget of £ 7 – 8 million . Work started on building the hospital in 1973 and it was commissioned in 1977 , opening in 1979 .
= = Media = =
Ashford 's local commercial radio station was KMFM Ashford . The Ashford studios hosted both local and networked programmes for KMFM stations until all output across the network was amalgamated to be county wide . The town is also served by other county wide stations BBC Radio Kent , Heart Kent and Gold . Ashford also has its own community radio station – 107 @.@ 1 FM AHBS Community Radio . This started broadcasting in May 2011 and includes programmes from the Ashford Hospital Broadcasting Service , Ashford 's hospital radio station , which has been operating in Ashford since 1971 .
Ashford has had several newspapers , some of which are still in production . The Kent Messenger in Ashford was established in the 19th century , with main offices on the High Street . It remained in operation until the 1970s . There are currently three local newspapers being produced – the Kentish Express , published by the KM Group ; yourashford , published by KOS Media ; and the Ashford Herald , which has been published by Kent Regional News and Media since July 2009 .
= Hylton Castle =
Hylton Castle ( / ˈhɪltən / HIL @-@ tən ) is a ruined stone castle in the North Hylton area of Sunderland , Tyne and Wear , England . Originally built from wood by the Hilton ( later Hylton ) family shortly after the Norman Conquest in 1066 , it was later rebuilt in stone in the late 14th to early 15th century . The castle underwent major changes to its interior and exterior in the 18th century and it remained the principal seat of the Hylton family until the death of the last " baron " in 1746 . It was then Gothicised but neglected until 1812 , when it was revitalised by a new owner . Standing empty again until the 1840s , it was briefly used as a school until it was purchased again in 1862 . The site passed to a local coal company in the early 20th century and was taken over by the state in 1950 .
One of the castle 's main features is the range of heraldic devices found mainly on the west façade , which have been retained from the castle 's original construction . They depict the coats of arms belonging to local gentry and peers of the late 14th to early 15th centuries and provide an approximate date of the castle 's reconstruction from wood to stone .
Today , the castle is owned by English Heritage , a charity which manages the historical environment of England . The surrounding parkland is maintained by a community organisation . The castle and its chapel are protected as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument . In February , 2016 , plans were announced to turn the castle into a community facility and visitor attraction , with the Heritage Lottery Fund awarding £ 2 @.@ 9 million , and Sunderland Council £ 1 @.@ 5 million , to provide classrooms , a cafe and rooms for exhibitions , meetings and events .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Hylton family had been settled in England since the reign of King Athelstan ( c.895 – 939 ) . At this time , Adam de Hylton gave to the monastery of Hartlepool a pyx or crucifix , weighing 25 ounces ( 710 g ) in silver and emblazoned with his coat of arms – argent , two bars azure . On the arrival of William the Conqueror , Lancelot de Hilton and his two sons , Robert and Henry , joined the Conqueror 's forces , but Lancelot was killed at Faversham during William 's advance to London . In gratitude , the king granted the eldest son , Henry , a large tract of land on the banks of the River Wear .
The first castle on the site , built by Henry de Hilton in about 1072 , was likely to have been built of wood . It was subsequently re @-@ built in stone by Sir William Hylton ( 1376 – 1435 ) as a four storey , gatehouse @-@ style , fortified manor house , similar in design to Lumley and Raby . Although called a gatehouse , it belongs to a type of small , late @-@ 14th @-@ century castle , similar to Old Wardour , Bywell and Nunney castles . The castle was first mentioned in a household inventory taken in 1448 , as " a gatehouse constructed of stone " and although no construction details survive , it is believed the stone castle was built sometime between 1390 and the early 15th century , due to the coat of arms featured above the west entrance ( see Heraldry below ) . It has been suggested that Sir William intended to erect a larger castle in addition to the gatehouse , but abandoned his plan .
The household inventory taken on Sir William 's death in 1435 mentions , in addition to the castle , a hall , four chambers , two barns , a kitchen , and the chapel , indicating the existence of other buildings on the site at that time . Apart from the castle and chapel , the other buildings were probably all of timber . In 1559 , the gatehouse featured in another household inventory as the " Tower " , when floors and galleries were inserted to subdivide the great hall .
The eccentric Henry Hylton , de jure 12th Baron Hylton left the castle to the City of London Corporation on his death in 1641 , to be used for charitable purposes for ninety @-@ nine years . It was returned to the family after the Restoration , to Henry 's nephew , John Hylton , de jure 15th Baron Hylton .
= = = 18th century = = =
Early in the 18th century , John Hylton ( died 1712 ) , the second son of Henry Hylton , de jure 16th Baron Hylton , gutted the interior to form a three @-@ storeyed block ( one room on each floor ) . He also inserted large , alternating , pedimented sash windows in the Italianate style and added a three @-@ storeyed north wing to the castle ( as seen in Bucks ' engraving of 1728 ) . A doorway to the new wing was added and approached by a semi @-@ circular staircase . Above the doorway was a coat of arms , believed to be the one created to commemorate the marriage between John Hylton and his wife , Dorothy Musgrave . It is now located above the doorway to The Golden Lion Inn at South Hylton , on the opposite side of the River Wear .
After 1728 , Hylton 's second son , John Hylton , de jure 18th Baron Hylton added a complementary south wing ( its foundation wall still extant ) , crenellations to both wings and removed the door on the north wing . He also changed the circular bartizan on the north end of the west front , to an octagonal turret and removed the portcullis from the west entrance .
When the 18th and last " baron " died without male heirs in 1746 , the castle passed to
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his nephew , Sir Richard Musgrave , Bt , who took the name of Hylton . It was sold by a private bill ( 23 Geo . II c.21 ) in 1749 . The new owner was to be a Mr. Wogan who returned from the East Indies to buy the castle for £ 30 @,@ 550 ( £ 3 @.@ 7 million in 2007 ) , but the sale never went through . It was instead bought by Lady Bowes , the widow of Sir George Bowes of Streatlam and Gibside in County Durham . No record of her , or any of her family , ever taking up residence exists and the castle later passed to her grandson , John Bowes , 10th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne . At this time , a stucco decoration ( long since disappeared ) to the wine and drawing rooms was added by Pietro La Francini , who worked for Daniel Garrett ( who had worked for Lady Bowes on Gibside Banqueting House ) . William Howitt 's Visits to Remarkable Places ( 1842 ) notes the rooms had " stuccoed ceilings , with figures , busts on the walls , and one large scene which seemed to be Venus and Cupid , Apollo fiddling to the gods , Minerva in her helmet , and an old king " . Garrett probably designed the Gothic porch installed in the west entrance and the Gothic screen and single @-@ storey , bow @-@ fronted rooms installed to close off the east entrance .
= = = 19th century = = =
After a long period of remaining empty , the castle slowly began to decay , until in 1812 , when Simon Temple , a local businessman , leased the castle from the Strathmores and made it habitable . He re @-@ roofed the chapel ( allowing it to be used for public worship again ) , added battlements to the wings and cultivated the gardens . However , his failed business ventures prevented him from completing his work , and in 1819 the castle was lived in by a Mr. Thomas Wade .
By 1834 , the castle was unoccupied again . In 1840 , an advert was placed in the Newcastle Courant by Revd . John Wood for " Hylton Castle Boarding School " and the 1841 census shows Wood , his family , pupils and staff as living on the estate . The school does not seem to have existed for long as Howitt commented in 1842 , that it was " a scene of great desolation ... the windows for the most part , all along the front , are boarded up ... the whole of this large old house is now empty ... and in the most desolate state " . However , he does go on to say the kitchen was occupied a poor family . By 1844 , the chapel was used as a carpenter 's workshop , and according to the Durham Chronicle in January 1856 , the castle set on fire while in the occupation of a farmer , Mr. Maclaren .
In 1862 , the castle was put up for sale by the Strathmores and purchased by William Briggs , a local timber merchant and ship builder . Briggs set about to change the appearance of the castle to what he believed to be more " authentic [ ally ] medieval " . He demolished the north and south wings , gutted the interior and added one , two and three @-@ light cusp @-@ headed windows . He also replaced the Gothic porch with a more " severe " Gothic doorway ( three @-@ bayed with cinquefoil arches ) and an overhead balcony . To carry out these changes to the west front , he moved the stone @-@ carved Hylton banner from above the west entrance to the front , left @-@ flanking tower . The interior walls of the four @-@ vaulted ground floor rooms were demolished , the whole floor was raised three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet and two reception rooms were formed . At the east end of the former central passage , dog @-@ leg stairs were constructed leading to the first floor , requiring removal of the oratory and rendering the main staircase inaccessible from the ground floor . The side walls of the great hall were removed to create a large salon and a large bay window was added to the south façade , where the entrance to the south wing would have been . The rooms above were kept untouched , except that a new entrance to the family / chaplain 's room had to be formed via the main staircase .
Alongside the medieval masonry , Briggs ' alterations can still be seen today ( albeit in ruins ) . Briggs ' son , Colonel Charles James Briggs ( father of Sir Charles James Briggs ) inherited the castle in 1871 and built the nearby St Margaret 's church ( now demolished ) .
= = = 20th century = = =
After Colonel Brigg 's death in 1900 , the castle passed into the hands of the Wearmouth Coal Company about 1908 , and from there to the National Coal Board . Due to the expansion of Sunderland in the 1940s , the castle became surrounded by housing estates including those of Castletown and Hylton Castle . The castle was vandalised and had the lead from its roof stolen . In 1950 , due to local pressure and the threat of demolition , the castle and chapel were taken into the care of the Ministry of Works . Due to the advanced decay of the 19th @-@ century alterations , the ministry removed all internal partitions and consolidated the shell to reveal the remaining medieval masonry . The ministry also appointed a full @-@ time custodian and replaced the missing lead roof with roofing felt to make the site waterproof .
In 1994 , Channel 4 's Time Team undertook excavations on the Eastern Terrace . Their investigations revealed evidence of a medieval hall to the east of the castle ; it has been suggested that the hall was used as a dining area .
= = = Chapel = = =
A chapel dedicated to St Catherine of Alexandria is known to have existed on the site since 1157 , when the Prior of Durham agreed to allow Romanus de Hilton to appoint his own chaplain for the chapel , subject to the prior 's approval . In return , de Hilton was to provide an annual contribution of 24 sheaves of oats for every draught ox he owned , to the nearby monastery at Monkwearmouth , and was required to attend the mother church of St Peters for the feasts of the Nativity , Easter , Whitsuntide and Saints Peter and Paul . In 1322 , there was a chantry dedicated to the Virgin Mary and there were three chantry priests in 1370 .
The chapel , which is on a small hill to the north east of the castle , was rebuilt in stone in the early 15th century . It was modified from the late 15th to late 16th century , when a Perpendicular Gothic , five @-@ light east window and transepts were added . Bucks ' engraving of 1728 , shows a short nave and a large six @-@ light west window , and that the chapel was disused by this time , as it had no roof . The west façade of the chapel was later demolished and the chancel arch was built up to form a new one with a Gibbs surround . A bell @-@ turret was added c . 1805 . On the north and south sides of the chapel are two transeptal , semi @-@ octagonal bays .
Although repairs to the chapel were carried out by the last Baron Hylton and the successive owners in the 19th century , it fell into disrepair until , like the castle , it was taken over by the state in 1950 .
= = = Modern = = =
The castle and chapel have been Grade I listed buildings since 1949 and form a Scheduled Ancient Monument under the care of English Heritage , who took over the site in 1984 , although Sunderland City Council own the land . In 1999 , the Friends of Hylton Dene group was formed by residents of the estates around North Hylton " with the aim of co @-@ operating with Sunderland City Council , Durham Wildlife Trust and other agencies to actively involve the local community in the development and upkeep of Hylton Dene and Castle " . In December 2007 , the group was awarded £ 50 @,@ 000 by the Heritage Lottery Fund to carry out a survey for the future for the site . Once restored , the castle could be opened . The chairman of the Castle in the Community John Coulthard described the castle , Sunderland 's second oldest building , as " an asset in the city – it is a lovely setting and we would love to see it bring in some income " .
There have been four organised International Reunion ( s ) of Hylton Families over the past few years ; most notably on 4 July 2004 , when around fifty American descendents of the Hylton family visited the castle to present a flag featuring the Hylton blazon . The flag now flies from the recently installed flagpole , provided by English Heritage .
= = Exterior = =
The west façade of the castle has square towers flanking the central bay , with others at the south west and north west , all topped with octagonal , machicolated turrets . The north and south façades are relatively simple . The east façade has a central projection in the centre rising a storey above the parapet , to form a tower . The tower 's south angle is splayed to accommodate the main staircase and only the corbels of its parapet survive . The screen closing off the east entrance has a three @-@ bay cusped arcade on the ground floor and three ogee arches on the shafts above .
The roof was originally covered with sheet lead and adorning the roof are stone warriors and other figures , similar to those of Raby , Alnwick and the gates of York . Originally there were four figures on each corner turret and bartizan ; only five have survived . Between the central towers once stood a sculpture of a knight in combat with a serpent ( of which only fragments survive ) , believed to pertain to the tale of the Lambton Worm . The parapet is also machicolated ( except on the north façade ) and continued between the central towers by a carved @-@ foliage arch ( originally with cusping which fell in 1882 ) , instead of corbels . Another feature of the roof was shallow stone troughs on the battlements which fed scalding oil or water into the machiocaltions as a means of defence . In a small chamber in each turret or bastion , a brazier was kept burning to bring the liquids to a suitable temperature .
= = Interior layout = =
Before the changes made by John Hylton ( died 1712 ) , the castle 's layout plan was as follows :
The ground floor , accessed directly from the outside courtyard , led into a portcullis @-@ protected , vaulted passage , eleven feet wide and extending the depth of the building . On either side of the passage were two vaulted rooms . The room nearest the entrance on the right was a guardroom or the porter 's room , which housed a well ; the back @-@ right room , with a garderobe located in the south west turret ( accessed via a passage running along the south wall ) , was for an official . The other two rooms to the left were used to house staff or storage .
The first was floor was accessed via the main staircase , situated in the east tower . The first room encountered was the great hall , which rose three floors . To the viewer 's immediate left was a kitchen ( with clerestory lighting ) , and further on to the left was a butlery and pantry with a garderobe . To the viewer 's back right was a small passage containing a private staircase and the entrance to the oratory ( its roof vaulted with an east window ) in the east tower . The oratory was entered via a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half high pointed @-@ arch doorway and contained an altar and piscina , of which only an ornamental niche remains . There was a fireplace on the north wall of the great hall and behind the north wall was the great chamber containing a fireplace , garderobe and a window seat on the east wall . To the west of the hall was the head of the west window . The portcullis is believed to have been raised into the hall in front of this window .
The kitchen , oratory and great chamber rose two floors , therefore only the minstrels ' gallery was accessed via the main staircase on the second floor . However , the butlery and pantry was single @-@ storeyed , but held the butler 's chamber ( with a garderobe ) above it , accessed either via a staircase in that room or via the gallery .
The rooms on the north and east sides of the third floor were accessed via the private staircase . The rooms were two family rooms , one above the oratory and a larger one above the great chamber . The larger one had a fireplace and a garderobe , and was likely the baron 's bedroom ; the smaller room was either the chaplain 's quarters or a family room . Both were connected via a lobby at the top of the private staircase .
The room on the south side ( separated by the other rooms due to the hall 's height ) was accessed via the main staircase . This room also had a fireplace and a garderobe , and was probably used by guests .
Above the small family / chaplain 's room on the third floor , was the servant 's room with a corner fireplace and two windows on the mezzanine floor , accessed via the main staircase . Above , on the roof level , was the Warder 's Chamber containing a stone @-@ hooded fireplace , beamed ceiling , two small windows in the east wall and a garderobe . There were also four closet @-@ chambers in the turrets on the roof , used by staff .
= = Heraldry = =
The castle and chapel are adorned with heraldic devices and shields of arms , providing information as to when the castle was constructed .
= = = West façade = = =
Above the main entrance on the western façade of the castle , there are twenty shields of arms . They are believed to show the political alliances of the early Hyltons , as the banner of the king , and the arms of nobles and knights of Northumberland and the County Palatine of Durham are shown . In relation to the photograph , the shields are :
Although it was necessary for Briggs to move the Hylton banner to make way for a new entrance , it can be seen from a colour version of Bucks ' engraving that the shields were previously placed not as they are today ( particularly Weston and Skirlaw 's ) . Briggs is believed to have re @-@ arranged the shields , disrupting their original hierarchical arrangement . Nevertheless , the arms give a date for the construction and completion of the castle as between 1390 and the early 15th century , due to the following reasons :
The Earl of Northumberland quartered his own arms with those of his second wife , Maud Lucy , after their marriage in c.1384.
Sir Henry " Hotspur " Percy did not quarter his own arms with those of Lucy , until he inherited the Honour of Cockermouth from his stepmother in 1398 .
The arms shown of Henry IV are those he adopted c . 1400 , after simplifying the French quarters ( see Armorial of Plantagenet )
= = = East façade = = =
The east façade of the castle features a slanted shield containing the Hylton arms ( Argent , two bars Azure ) and a white hart ( male deer ) , lodged , chained and collared with a coronet , Or . The hart is possibly the badge used by Richard II of England ( indicating construction began before Richard 's deposition in 1399 ) or an earlier crest used by the family after it was granted by William I of England , in reward for the services of the previously mentioned Lancelot de Hilton . A " Moses head " ( the crest of the Hylton arms ) also features on the east façade .
= = = Chapel = = =
Above the south window : Hylton quartering Vipont and Stapleton . Supporters , two stags . Over the north window : the same arms without supporters , but with the Moses crest . On the west front , five shields , Hylton quartering Vipont and Stapleton ; supporters two Lions , no crest ; twice repeated . Hylton and Vipont quarterly ; the crest without supporters ; twice repeated : and Hylton quarterly Vipont and Stapleton , with the stags for supporters .
= = Hauntings = =
There is a local tradition that Hylton Castle is haunted by the spirit of Robert Skelton , known as the Cauld ( a pronunciation of " cold " in Mackem ) Lad of Hylton . Various versions of how he was killed exist , the most popular being that he was decapitated by Sir Robert Hylton ( later de jure 13th Baron Hylton ) , after falling asleep and failing to get his master 's horse ready on time . Skelton 's spirit then began to haunt the castle and would move objects , either misplacing them or tidying up . The spirit was said to have been finally laid to rest when the castle servants put a cloak out for him .
= Amy Rose =
Amy Rose ( エミー ・ ローズ ・ ザ · ヘッジホッグ , Emī Rōzu za Hejjihoggu , lit . Amy Rose the Hedgehog ) , originally nicknamed Rosy the Rascal , is a fictional character in Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog series . She is a pink anthropomorphic hedgehog with a cheerful , competitive personality . Amy is known for her unrequited and obsessive love for the series ' main character Sonic . They have saved each other 's lives on a number of occasions , however , and are very good friends . During the series ' early years , her appearance changed several times .
Amy debuted in the Sonic the Hedgehog manga series created by Kenji Terada in 1992 . Her first video @-@ game appearance was in 1993 's Sonic the Hedgehog CD and she was first playable in 1994 's Sonic Drift . Amy has become one of the series ' most popular and recognizable characters , appearing in dozens of main @-@ series and spinoff titles , several comic book series , the anime Sonic X , and the computer @-@ animated Sonic Boom . She has received a mixed response from critics . Although some found her cute and powerful , others criticized her for her voice acting and personality . She has frequently appeared in Sonic merchandise .
= = Design and characteristics = =
= = = Conception and visual design = = =
Amy is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old , pink @-@ furred anthropomorphic hedgehog girl created by Kenji Terada for the Sonic the Hedgehog manga serial . She debuted in 1992 , wearing a dress and with her then @-@ orange hair pulled into two ponytails . The character was redesigned the next year for the Sega CD game , Sonic the Hedgehog CD . Like the Sonic CD introduction Metal Sonic , an early grayscale concept sketch shows her very similar to her appearance in the game ( except her shoes , which became larger and flatter ) . Her coloring was red at first ( including her skirt ) , except for a green shirt . The character had two other names in game previews : Rosy the Rascal and Princess Sally ( a character in the Sonic the Hedgehog TV series ) . Amy received her present design , with a red dress and boots , in Sonic Adventure .
Although the character was redesigned for the Sonic Boom video game and TV series , these are not considered canonical . Matching Sonic Boom 's shift in tone , Sonic series newcomer Big Red Button Entertainment wanted her to be a more capable character to stand out from Sonic and offset her frequent placement on game sidelines . She became more " agile and graceful " , able to perform difficult physical tasks with ease .
= = = Personality and abilities = = =
Amy has a cheerful , exuberant , driven , competitive and intuitive personality . She is infatuated with Sonic the Hedgehog and spends much of her time chasing him , making sure he is safe and demonstrating her affection . Although Sonic does not reciprocate her feelings and is annoyed by them ( to the point of avoiding her ) , he does not dislike her . Former Sonic Team head Yuji Naka said that Amy was designed " to always chase Sonic " , and ( despite frequent questions from fans ) it is unlikely that they will ever get married .
Like most characters in the Sonic series , Amy can run at superhuman speeds but not as fast as Sonic . She attacks foes with her ever @-@ present signature weapon , the Piko @-@ Piko Hammer with which she is very proficient in using . The character also has supernatural skills ( tarot card reading and dowsing ) .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Video games = = =
In Sonic CD , Amy falls in love with Sonic . She follows him to Never Lake , where Metal Sonic kidnaps her and Sonic must rescue her . When he does ( on one of the game 's last levels ) , Amy kisses him . Sonic defeats Metal Sonic and Doctor Eggman ( known in this game as Doctor Robotnik ) , and then leaves with her .
In Sonic Adventure , after Amy ( a playable character ) complains about being bored a bird wearing a Chaos Emerald necklace crashes into her . She keeps the bird safe from E @-@ 100 Alpha , one of Eggman 's robots . Amy later meets Sonic , and invites him to an amusement park ( where they become separated ) . Alpha reappears , imprisoning Amy and the bird on Eggman 's airship the Egg Carrier . Another Eggman robot , E @-@ 102 Gamma , orders Amy to give the bird to him ; she refuses , asking him why he wants it . He does not know , and changes his mind when she tells him he is missing out on love . E @-@ 102 Gamma lets them leave and , touched , Amy becomes his friend before she escapes into the ship 's interior . On the deck , Eggman confronts her and grabs the bird 's Chaos Emerald . Sonic and Gamma appear , and when Sonic tries to destroy Gamma Amy defends him . Sonic agrees to spare Gamma , and Amy leaves with Tails . She later sees a photo of the bird and its parents ( whom Eggman has also stolen ) in its necklace . When Amy looks for them in the jungle , she again finds the Egg Carrier . The bird 's parents emerge on the deck ; Alpha appears , and injures Amy 's bird . Amy destroys Alpha , and waves goodbye to the three departing birds .
In Sonic Adventure 2 , Amy rescues Sonic from imprisonment and asks him to marry her but yet again Sonic refuses to . When she looks for Sonic ( to save him again ) , she finds Shadow the Hedgehog after mistaking him for Sonic . Eggman attacks her with his mecha and Tails defends her ; she then spends much of the remaining game searching for Chaos Emeralds with Tails and Knuckles . At the game 's climax , Amy pleads with Shadow to help her and the other characters neutralize a catastrophic energy buildup at the space colony ARK . She reminds him of Maria Robotnik , his friend on the ARK before her death , and he agrees to help .
Amy is a playable character in Sonic Advance , Sonic Advance 2 and Sonic Advance 3 , platformers for the Game Boy Advance . With Sonic , Tails , Knuckles and ( in the latter two games ) Cream , she frees animals from inside Eggman 's robots to keep him from building an empire . Although in Sonic Advance Amy 's attacking power was restricted by her inability to spin while jumping ( unlike those of the other characters ) , this was changed in the latter two games .
She is a playable Team Rose " speed " character in Sonic Heroes with Cream the Rabbit and Big the Cat . Worried about Sonic ( whom she has not seen in over a month ) , Amy finds his picture in a newspaper and joins Cream and Big to look for their own friends : Cream for a Chao named Chocola and Big for his frog friend Froggy . They travel through several stages before reaching the Egg Fleet , another Eggman aircraft , where they find a mecha piloted by one of his clones . When they defeat it , the clone dissolves into a puddle of liquid out of which rise Chocola , Froggy and ( to Amy 's delight ) Sonic . Amy , Big and Cream help their friends defeat the game 's true antagonist , Metal Sonic , who locked Eggman away on his own ship .
Amy is a selectable racer in the racing spinoffs Sonic Riders , Sonic Riders : Zero Gravity and Sonic Free Riders . In Sonic Riders , she participates in a racing tournament to keep an eye on Sonic . When Eggman shows up to steal the Treasure of Babylon ( a key item ) Amy hops aboard his hovercraft , which flies off into the distance . Sonic arrives at the base where Eggman is holding Amy hostage , using his hoverboard to stir up a dust bowl and recapture her and the treasure . She is uncharacteristically furious at his recklessness for charging at Eggman ( and her ) . In Zero Gravity Amy shows Sonic a strange item she has found , the Ark of the Cosmos , which the Babylon Rogues rival gang believes she stole . She disappears from the gang and is later found , helping them find the Ark of the Cosmos with information she overheard from the Rogues . Team Rose returns ( with Vector the Crocodile replacing Big ) in Sonic Free Riders . Although the team arrives late at a tournament they can still register , and Amy is delighted face Sonic and his team . They later battle other teams , with Amy insulting Vector for his incompetence and obsession with money .
Amy has non @-@ playable roles in a number of other game plots . Her attraction to Sonic is useful to Cream and Blaze the Cat in Sonic Rush , since they are also looking for him . In Shadow the Hedgehog Amy appears at a castle level to ask Shadow to help her find Cream , who has not returned . In the game 's final story , unlocked after the player reaches the rest of the endings , Amy admiringly cheers Shadow on . In the 2006 Sonic the Hedgehog game , she mistakes Silver the Hedgehog for Sonic ; when he tells her he is looking for someone , she insists on helping him . When Silver attacks Sonic , Amy finds them and blocks Silver 's way ( saving Sonic 's life ) ; he escapes , and Amy yells at Silver . She rescues Elise ( who also likes Sonic , although Amy does not know this at the time ) from confinement . In Sonic Lost World , Amy and Knuckles care for forest animals while Sonic and Tails rescue the animals ' friends . The Deadly Six ( the game 's antagonists ) control one of Eggman 's machines to drain life from the world ; Amy and Knuckles die , but are brought back to life when Sonic and Tails replenish it .
Amy appears in cutscenes to flirt with Sonic in other games , including Sonic Unleashed , Sonic Generations and the Nintendo DS version of Sonic Colors . In Sonic Chronicles : The Dark Brotherhood , her playable character pretends to have a boyfriend to make Sonic jealous ; her success depends on player input . In Sonic and the Black Knight Sonic agrees to a date with Amy before he is whisked into the world of King Arthur , with an alternate version of Amy as the Lady of the Lake .
She is a playable character in a number of Sonic spinoffs in several genres , including the fighting games Sonic the Fighters and Sonic Battle ; the racers Sonic R and Sonic Drift , and the party title Sonic Shuffle . She is also planned as a playable character in Sonic Boom , a platformer . Amy has also appeared in games outside the series : Sega Superstars titles , including Sega Superstars Tennis and Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing ; Mario crossovers ( including Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games ) and as a collectible trophy in Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
= = = Comics = = =
Amy is a major character in the Sonic the Hedgehog manga . She is the girlfriend of protagonist Nicky , whose alter ego is Sonic , and is unaware that they are identical . Antagonist Anton Brooke is also attracted to her ; he kidnaps her a number of times , forcing Nicky to become Sonic and rescue her . In Sonic Adventures , a 1994 two @-@ issue French comic book published by Sirène , Doctor Robotnik ( Eggman ) uses Amy as bait to lure Sonic . When Sonic , Amy and Tails fall into a pit of lava , they are saved by a giant ring which transports them to a different location .
In the Sonic the Hedgehog series from Archie Comics , Amy learns about Sonic from folktales in her home kingdom of Mercia . She admires him , and tries several times to join the Freedom Fighters ( a resistance group to which he belongs ) ; however , she is rejected because of her age . She sends Sonic fan mail , but Eggman intercepts it and kidnaps her . Sonic rescues her and Tails ( another Freedom Fighter captured by Eggman ) , and they leave for the city of Mobotropolis . Although Amy continues trying to join the Freedom Fighters , she is still rejected ; when she wishes on an ancient artifact to become older , her immature mind gives her away . She helps the group defeating a number of powerful enemies , however , and is admitted after defending a fort from Eggman and his robots .
Amy continues to pursue Sonic , seeking out combat training so she can rival his abilities , and continues rescuing friends with the Freedom Fighters from Eggman and other antagonists . She joins Freedom Fighter subsidiaries — notably the Team Fighters , which includes supporting characters Antoine D 'Coolette and Bunnie Rabbot and with whom she rescues Sally and a number of echidnas from Eggman and his army of robots . In the crossover spinoff series Trouble on Two Worlds , Amy battles Dr. Wily and other Mega Man antagonists with Sonic and Mega Man .
She was a major character in Sonic the Comic during its run from 1993 to 2002 . Amy is arrested early by two of Eggman 's robots for associating with Sonic when she claims to be his girlfriend . Annoyed , Sonic rescues her and realizes she is a fugitive and must remain with the Freedom Fighters . Amy becomes a valued member , frequently fighting with a bow and arrow . She occasionally saves the day without Sonic , once leading the Freedom Fighters in his absence . Unlike most other Sonic media , Amy 's love for Sonic in Sonic the Comic is shallow ( although others assume they are dating , and she plays along ) .
= = = Animation = = =
Amy is also a major character in the 2003 – 2006 anime series Sonic X. Attacking one of Eggman 's machines , Sonic triggers Chaos Control and sends him , Amy , Tails and other characters from their world to Earth . On Earth , they befriend a human boy , Chris Thorndyke and his family and friends ; Amy particularly likes his maid , Ella , who teaches her to cook . She frequently tries to woo Sonic and his discomfort angers her . In one episode Amy makes a seashell bracelet , which Sonic graciously accepts ; shortly afterward he saves her from drowning , and she returns the favor when one of Eggman 's robots holds him underwater . Sonic also rescues Amy from Eggman 's creations on other occasions . She sometimes flares up at Sonic , attacking him when she realizes that he has tricked her into acting insane . The second season opens with arcs based on Adventure and Adventure 2 , where Amy reprises her role in the games . During the first and second seasons Amy and her friends — often without Sonic — are frequently together , capturing ( and recapturing ) Chaos Emeralds from Doctor Eggman and adjusting to their celebrity status on Earth .
The series moves to outer space for season three , when the animal characters return to their world . Early in the series she and Cream befriend a plant @-@ like creature , Cosmo the Seedrian , and they are frequently together . Sonic is kidnapped by the Metarex , plant @-@ based robots , and Amy destroys one to rescue Sonic from drowning again . She continues her adventures with the gang , looking for scattered Chaos Emeralds and defeating Metarex . In one episode Amy nearly wins Sonic 's heart with an alien race 's love magic , but Tails and Cosmo trigger the magic before Sonic arrives ; while their existing affection for each other increases , Amy yells at them . During the show 's climax , Amy jumps to save Sonic from the Metarex 's watery planet . She is knocked unconscious by the impact , but Chris saves them both . Cosmo fuses with the planet , forcing Tails to destroy her to save the galaxy , and Amy , Cream and Tails sob in despair as the other characters solemnly watch . Amy and Cream later bring Tails some snacks to cheer him up .
Amy Rose is also one of the five main characters in the CGI series Sonic Boom , along with Sonic , Tails , Knuckles , and the new character Sticks , the latter of whom she is best friends with . Her personality has been changed into a stronger , more independent role , being a natural @-@ born leader and the backbone of the team . Her romantic feelings towards Sonic are kept intact , with a notable change being that she actively keeps her crush on him a secret , even from Sonic himself .
= = Reception and impact = =
Amy has received a mixed response from critics . Jeff Tozai of the Huffington Post expressed an interest in " more Amy Rose " from the Sonic series ( such as a game featuring her and Tails ) in an article critical of the series ' overall direction . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote , " One of the coolest things about [ Amy ] is her enormous , walloping hammer " ( often used for comedic effect ) , and hoped she would be a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Although Amy was described as cute by Alex Huhtala of Computer and Video Games and the staff of Sega Saturn Magazine , Jem Roberts of the British Official Dreamcast Magazine called her a " little @-@ pink @-@ dog @-@ type @-@ thing . "
The character 's personality has been described as annoying . Thomas East of Official Nintendo Magazine called her his third @-@ least @-@ favorite Sonic character , saying she " really isn 't an interesting character " and is " annoying " . Ranking Amy third @-@ lowest on a similar list , Jim Sterling of GamesRadar simply wrote : " Total bitch " ( in contrast to several paragraphs each for other characters on his list ) . On the same website , Justin Towell called her a " whiny , annoying brat " in Sonic Adventure . Patrick Farren of What Culture called her " one of gaming 's most irritating females " , criticizing the way she " contacts Sonic seemingly just to bag him . " Jem Roberts called Amy " kind @-@ hearted " but " intolerably whiny " . The character 's voice has been criticized since Cindy Robinson took over the role , with Rogers and Farren comparing it to Minnie Mouse 's . Towell and Mean Machines expressed general displeasure at her introduction in Sonic CD . The developers ' treatment of Amy as a female character and its implications for gender representation in video games have also been questioned ; the Electronic Gaming Monthly staff found her pink coloring and tendency to run from danger to be stereotypical and common in Japanese @-@ created female characters .
The character has been used in Sonic merchandise , with a 2010 toy line reflecting her Sonic CD design instead of her modern one . Exemplifying the culture of the decade , Amy and Sonic appeared in the Simpsons episode " That ' 90s Show " on a billboard promoting abstinence : Sonic proposes to Amy with the caption , " Sonic the Hedgehog says wait until marriage . "
= Baby Don 't Lie =
" Baby Don 't Lie " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani . Written by Stefani , Ryan Tedder , Benny Blanco and Noel Zancanella , and produced by Tedder and Blanco , " Baby Don 't Lie " is a midtempo electropop and reggae @-@ pop track . The song was made available for digital download on October 20 , 2014 , and a day later to mainstream radio stations . It serves as Stefani 's musical comeback as a solo artist ; her last solo single , " Early Winter " , was released in January 2008 .
Lyrically , " Baby Don 't Lie " discusses insecurities in a relationship . The song received generally mixed to favorable reviews , with some being receptive towards its reggae environment , while a few were ambivalent towards the song , noting that it wasn 't as assertive as they expected . Its music video was released on October 21 , 2014 and was directed by Stefani 's longtime collaborator Sophie Muller , who directed a handful of videos for Stefani 's solo career . Intended to be featured on Stefani 's third studio album , This Is What the Truth Feels Like , the single , along with others , was scrapped in favor of new material .
= = Background and release = =
After releasing two solo albums , Love . Angel . Music . Baby ( 2004 ) and The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) , Stefani returned to work with her band No Doubt . In 2012 they released their sixth studio album , Push and Shove . During that time , she claimed , " I never need to do that or want to do it again . I 'm happy being in No Doubt . " However , after an appearance during Pharrell Williams ' performance at the 2014 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , Pharrell teased that the rare live appearance from Stefani was the start of a comeback effort for the singer . In July 2014 , during an interview for Idolator , record producer Diplo announced that he had produced some songs for her new album . In September , during an interview for MTV News during New York Fashion Week , she confirmed to be working on a solo album and a No Doubt album , stating , " I 'm going into the studio tonight with Pharrell [ Williams ] , I 'm going to be writing and also just seeing what comes along my way . I 've been recording a few things . " Williams completed , " When I tell you she 's killing it , it 's another level . "
Later in the same month , music website Popjustice announced that Stefani was going to release a single called " Baby Don 't Lie " and it was set to premiere on October 6 , 2014 . The news was accidentally posted on Interscope 's playiga.com , a site that lists current and upcoming radio releases . Furthermore , the song was reportedly co @-@ written by Ryan Tedder and produced Benny Blanco , while its video was going to be directed by Sophie Muller , whom Stefani has worked numerous times on videos from No Doubt and her solo career . On October 18 , 2014 , the song leaked online , ahead of its premiere date , October 19 , 2014 . The same day , Stefani premiered the single 's cover art through her social media . As stated by Jocelyn Vena , " the coverart is a colorful piece of pop art , " with Stefani appear [ ing ] on it , in front of a clear blue sky , with bright yellow hair and neon pink lipstick , while holding a big gemstone up to her face . The song was released for digital download on October 20 , 2014 , and it officially impacted mainstream radio on October 21 , 2014 .
= = Composition = =
" Baby Don 't Lie " was written by Stefani , Ryan Tedder , Benny Blanco , and Noel Zancanella , with Tedder and Blanco also serving as the song 's producers . It is a midtempo electropop and reggae @-@ pop song which begins with Stefani announcing , " Uh huh , here we go , " to a rubbery bass line and hand claps . The song also has a hip hop @-@ inflected breakdown , in which Stefani raps , " You can tell me what you 're hidin ' boy / And you can tell me if I 'm gettin ' warm " . Lyrically , the song discusses insecurities in a relationship , where Stefani questions her man 's love . Nolan Feeney of Time complimented that the song is " about falling in love with someone who 's got a few skeletons in their closet . " As noted by Spin 's Brennan Carley , " Stefani sounds shattered as she sings , " But there 's something behind those eyes / Those eyes / That you can 't that you can 't disguise / Disguise . " In the " stomping , infuriatingly catchy " chorus she sings , " Baby don 't , baby don 't , baby don 't lie … / I don 't want to cry no longer . " Melodically , " Baby don 't Lie " is written in the key of B ♭ minor , performed in a common time moderate tempo of 100 beats per minute and follows the sequence B ♭ m - G ♭ - D ♭ as its chord progression . Stefani 's voice spans two octaves from the lowest note A ♭ 3 to the highest note A ♭ 5 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Baby Don 't Lie " received generally mixed to favorable reviews from music critics , who commended the song 's reggae @-@ flavour , but some dismissed Stefani 's performance on the track . Sal Cinquemani wrote for Slant Magazine that the single " doesn 't venture too far from her band 's established template , " claiming that " it finds Stefani effortlessly grooving to a reggae @-@ flavored beat and an admittedly catchy hook , complete with her signature yelp , but it hews too close to the sound of No Doubt 's slept @-@ on sixth album , Push and Shove . " Cinquemani also noted that during the song 's breakdown " she feels forced , even for the eternally youthful Stefani , on an otherwise breezy track . " Bradley Stern wrote for MuuMuse that the song is " dangerously catchy , and an obvious radio smash upon first listen . " Nolan Feeney of Time remarked that , " In less capable hands , ' Baby Don 't Lie ' would leave a weaker impression , but Stefani and all her vocal idiosyncrasies find a way to make it her own . "
Christina Lee from Idolator noted that " Stefani hiccups through her lyrics like Rihanna does in 2012 's Sia @-@ written " Diamonds " , save for the Love.Angel.Music.Baby @-@ ready sung @-@ rap breakdown " . However , Lee observed that , " Considering the song 's subject matter , her bold @-@ faced collaborators ( Ryan Tedder , Benny Blanco and Noel Zancanella ) and , of course , her own track record , Stefani 's new song isn 't nearly as assertive as I had expected . " Brennan Carley of Spin simply called it " a pretty broadly pop effort in line with 2012 's No Doubt record , Push and Shove . " Lucas Villa of AXS was mixed with the song , writing that " Gwen had always been ahead of the pop curve on her past two albums but ' Baby Don 't Lie ' sees her on par with everyone else currently on the charts . " Mike Ayers of The Wall Street Journal believed that Gwen " doesn 't sound too inspired here , " while Carolyn Menyes of Music Times disagreed , noting that the song " doesn 't seem to have quite the infectious annoyance of some of Stefani 's other works , but it 's a more solid , well @-@ rounded pop single " . Menyes also praised " her signature sassy , slightly reggae @-@ touched vocals , which according to herself , sells the emotions of this song . " Steven J. Horowitz from Billboard noted that even though the song " embraces her [ Stefani ] less experimental side , " it misses her " signature bite " , rating it three stars out of five .
= = Chart performance = =
" Baby Don 't Lie " charted moderately in North America after its release . The track debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart and at number 29 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart , respectively , for the week ending November 8 , 2014 . In the US , it debuted and peaked at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming one of Stefani 's highest charting single entries . On the Canadian Hot 100 , it peaked at number 21 for the week ending December 6 , 2014 and spent a total of 14 weeks on the chart , before dropping off the chart on the week ending February 14 , 2015 . In Europe , the track also received moderate success . In Belgium , the track peaked at number 26 on both Ultratip charts , while peaking at number 19 in Finland , number 58 in France , and number 26 in Germany . Elsewhere , the song peaked at the lower positions of several charts , including number 53 in Australia , number 78 in Italy , and number 128 in Russia .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and storyline = = =
The music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller and Weirdcore ; Muller has worked with Stefani in numerous videos from her band No Doubt and her solo career . On October 20 , 2014 , Stefani posted on her Instagram a sneak peek of the behind the scenes from the video . It was released on October 21 , 2014 , the day after the song 's release . According to Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone , the video , which is " a play on The Wizard of Oz , stars a wildly polygonal yellow brick road , an army of dancers and mountains of reoccurring Stefani patterns like bold black @-@ and @-@ white stripes , houndstooth and plenty of pink . " Kreps continued the description , commenting that , " in the eye @-@ popping video , Stefani and her dancers are shown with bright pink Beats by Dre headphones around her neck while using the Beats Music app . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard added that the video has Gwen " tiptoeing down a morphing yellow road and showing off the first in her array of polka @-@ dotted outfits , " with " a dance troupe eventually arriv [ ing ] to jazz up the clip a little . " The beginning of the music video finds the singer in a gray world , but by the end of the video , the same scenes are now shown in full color .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received mainly divided reviews from critics . Lipshutz was disappointed , commenting that " the colorful video lacks the innovation of , say , Stefani 's ' What You Waiting For ? ' visual . " James Grebey of Spin stated how he was frustrated with the video 's " glitchy , low @-@ resolution land of colorful patterns and shapes , " calling it " a jarring rejection of aesthetic design , made all the more confusing when the last third of the video suddenly changes the scenery from a computer generated blunderland to a back alley filled with live @-@ action cars . " Jeff Benjamin of Fuse noted that the video is " not wacky and sassy like past Stefani visuals like ' Wind It Up ' or ' Hollaback Girl , ' but praised the video , writing that it " oozes sophistication while still adding Gwen 's signature quirky side with its crazy computer effects . " Carolyn Menyes of Music Times was favorable , remarking that the video " fits the song 's strong reggae vibes , with Stefani channeling everything that 's chaotic and trippy not just about her own genre but also about her single . " Bradley Stern was more negative , claiming that the video lacks a storyline , complaining about its resolution and named it a " phoned @-@ in green screen affair with some poorly rendered graphics . " Bianca Gracie wrote for Idolator that the video 's geometric and graphic animation is nothing new , but praised " the fun dance scene towards the end , which breaks the monotony of the video . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Baby Don 't Lie " — 3 : 21
Digital download ( The Remixes )
" Baby Don 't Lie " ( Kaskade & KillaGraham Remix ) — 3 : 01
" Baby Don 't Lie " ( Dave Matthias Remix ) — 5 : 06
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Hell @-@ O ( Glee ) =
" Hell @-@ O " is the fourteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on April 13 , 2010 . It was written by series creator Ian Brennan and directed by Brad Falchuk . In " Hell @-@ O " , cheer @-@ leading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) attempts to sabotage the relationship between glee club members Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) attempts to begin a relationship with school guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , but several obstacles come between them , including the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline .
" Hell @-@ O " introduces special guest stars Idina Menzel as Shelby Corcoran , the coach of Vocal Adrenaline , and Jonathan Groff as Jesse St. James , the group 's lead singer . Glee fans had previously lobbied for Menzel to be cast as Rachel 's biological mother . The episode features cover versions of six songs , five of which were released as singles , available for digital download .
The episode was watched by 13 @.@ 66 million American viewers , making it the second @-@ highest rated episode of the series thus far , after the post @-@ Super Bowl XLV episode " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , and received mixed reviews from television critics . Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk and the Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson felt the episode was haphazard and uneven , while IGN 's Eric Goldman observed that " Hell @-@ O " reset the events of the preceding episode " Sectionals " , and in doing so felt rushed . David Hinckley of the Daily News agreed with this assessment , but felt that resetting character development was a positive move in the long @-@ term .
= = Plot = =
Following the suspension from her position at William McKinley High School , cheer @-@ leading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) blackmails Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , slipping him a date rape drug and taking an incriminating photograph of them in a compromising position . He allows her to return to work at the school , where she immediately returns to plotting to bring down the New Directions . Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) are now dating , although Finn still is not over his ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) . He expresses his feelings through a performance of " Hello , I Love You " as part of the week assignment of performing songs with the word " Hello " .
Sue enlists cheerleaders Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) to seduce Finn . He breaks up with Rachel , who angrily sings " Gives You Hell " in retaliation , and goes on a date with both Brittany and Santana , but comes to the realization that he does want to be with Rachel . In the interim , Rachel meets Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , the lead singer of New Directions ' rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , at a local music library . The two perform an impromptu duet of Lionel Richie 's " Hello " , and Rachel becomes enamoured with him . Eventually , the New Directions members learn about the blossoming relationship and conclude that Jesse is using Rachel , and threaten to expel her from the club unless she breaks up with him . Rachel asks Jesse to keep their relationship a secret and turns Finn down when he asks her to get back together with him .
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) begins dating guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) . Emma suffers from mysophobia and is uncomfortable kissing Will . She admits that she is still a virgin , and requests that they take their relationship slowly . While dancing , Will sings Neil Diamond 's " Hello Again " to her . When Emma is preparing dinner for Will several nights later , his ex @-@ wife Terri Schuester ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) arrives at the apartment , and tells Emma that she and Will danced to " Hello Again " at their prom in 1993 , leaving Emma distressed .
On a visit to Carmel High School , Will meets Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , the coach of Vocal Adrenaline , while she has the club perform a rendition of " Highway to Hell " . She and Will end up at his apartment making out , but Will is unable to continue and tells her about his relationship problems . Shelby suggests that as Will had been with Terri since he was 15 and has immediately moved on to a new relationship , he ought to take some time out for himself . She later observes as Jesse and Rachel kiss , and exchanges knowing looks with Jesse .
When Emma later confronts Will with a copy of his high school yearbook , confirming that " Hello Again " was his and Terri 's song , he is apologetic . He and Emma decide to put their relationship on hold in order to deal with their separate issues . New Directions performs " Hello , Goodbye " , with Emma watching .
= = Production = =
Glee was originally commissioned by Fox for a thirteen episode run , culminating with " Sectionals " . On September 21 , 2009 , the network announced an extension of the first season , ordering a further nine episodes , of which " Hell @-@ O " is the first . The episode 's airdate was set for April 13 , 2010 , with the announcement made that Glee would move from Wednesdays to the 9 : 00 pm Tuesday time @-@ slot . However , due to a scheduling conflict with American Idol , Glee 's return was pushed back to 9 : 30 pm , and then later to 9 : 28 pm for " Hell @-@ O " , before moving to the earlier timeslot from the next episode , " The Power of Madonna " , onwards . " Hell @-@ O " was written by Ian Brennan and directed by Brad Falchuk . It was exclusively screened for the first time for around 2 @,@ 000 Glee fans at the Paley Festival on March 13 , 2010 , which was Paley 's largest ever audience .
During its initial run of episodes , Glee fans lobbied for Broadway actress Idina Menzel to be cast as the biological mother of Rachel Berry , due to the strong resemblance between Menzel and Michele . On December 17 , 2009 , series creator Ryan Murphy commented that he had met with Menzel , but had not yet decided upon a role for her . The actress was ultimately cast as the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline , with Murphy comparing her character to Faye Dunaway 's character Diana Christensen in Network . Menzel makes her first appearance in " Hell @-@ O " . The episode also introduces Groff as Jesse St. James , the lead singer of Vocal Adrenaline , and Rachel 's new love @-@ interest .
" Hell @-@ O " features cover versions of six songs , five of which were released as singles , available for digital download . Monteith performs The Doors ' " Hello , I Love You " , Michele sings " Gives You Hell " by The All @-@ American Rejects , Michele and Groff duet on Lionel Richie 's " Hello " , Jesse and Vocal Adrenaline perform AC / DC 's " Highway to Hell " , and New Directions sing " Hello , Goodbye " by The Beatles . Each of these songs were released as singles . The episode also includes Morrison performing Neil Diamond 's " Hello Again " . Diamond previously licensed his song " Sweet Caroline " for use in the Glee episode " Mash @-@ Up " . He experienced some trepidation over the decision , and retracted clearance after the performance had already been recorded . Glee 's music supervisor P.J. Bloom was able to convince him to reverse his decision , and Diamond went on to also license Glee the song " Hello Again " . " Gives You Hell " charted at number 1 on the Irish Singles Chart , while " Hello , Goodbye " reached number 45 .
A scene with Rachel and Jesse that included a performance of the song " Montage , Part 1 : Hello Twelve , Hello Thirteen , Hello Love " from A Chorus Line was filmed for the episode , but was cut before it aired . Over two years later , on August 3 , 2012 , Murphy uploaded the complete scene to his YouTube page . An instrumental version of the song was played in the following episode , " The Power of Madonna " , as background in the scene near the beginning in which Rachel and Jesse were making out .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Hell @-@ O " was watched by 13 @.@ 66 million American viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 6 / 15 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . This was a 46 percent increase on Glee 's previous series high , and made it the most watched episode of the series since its premiere . In Canada , Glee was the ninth most @-@ watched show of the week , bringing in 2 @.@ 12 million viewers . In the United Kingdom , " Hell @-@ O " also attained Glee 's ratings high at the time . It was watched by 2 @.@ 041 million viewers , and was the second most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by the Sky News general election debate . In Australia , Glee again attained a new ratings high , watched by 1 @.@ 27 million viewers , making " Hell @-@ O " the 17th most @-@ viewed program of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Lisa Respers France of CNN was pleased with the series ' return , and praised the " drama , treachery , tension , romance , and best of all , the diabolical deliciousness that is Cheerio coach Sue Sylvester . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " A- " . He felt that " Hell @-@ O " had " clumsy moments " but overall found it " a vastly enjoyable hour of television , reintroducing a show that 's starting to realize just how far it can go . "
IGN 's Eric Goldman rated the episode 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . He commented that in resetting the events of " Sectionals " , it " felt a bit rushed " , but concluded : " Glee continues to work because it has its cake and eats it too . It 's an over the top , overly cheerful musical – but also a biting comedy that always winks at the audience and acknowledges how cheesy musical theater can be , even while also proving how fun it is . " The Daily News ' David Hinckley shared Goldman 's concerns about resetting the characters , and while he believed that doing so was the right long @-@ term move , he commented that : " the immediate effect is to make the episode feel a little jerky . " Hinckley felt that the episode 's greatest problems were its pace and execution , observing : " Too many twists and turns feel a little too sudden , leaving us not quite sure how we got from here to there . "
Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle wrote that he was " only so @-@ so " about the episode , which he deemed " uneven " , but was still pleased that the series was back . Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk called the episode " a bit haphazard " , and commented : " this kind of spiraling frenzy is not only unsustainable , but ultimately dizzying and , dare I say it , a little boring . " Randee Dawn of The Hollywood Reporter reported that " Hell @-@ O " had a " stagy quality " , and was " not an episode that would have sold the series early on " . Dawn felt that there were too many musical performances , commenting : " They might be fun performances , but they 're not all necessary , and yes , it is possible to have too much music even on a successful narrative musical TV series . "
= Church of St Demetrius , Patalenitsa =
The Church of St Demetrius ( Bulgarian : църква „ Свети Димитър “ , tsarkva „ Sveti Dimitar “ ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in southwestern Bulgaria . It lies in the village of Patalenitsa , administratively part of Pazardzhik Municipality within Pazardzhik Province . The church was built in the 11th – 14th century , with a possible dating to 1091 based on a stone plate inscription , the present location or even existence of which is unclear . Its frescoes , discovered in 1961 and restored in the 1970s , are a work of the 12th – 13th century .
Built in the vicinity of an older church , the Church of St Demetrius is a crossed @-@ dome stone building . According to several legends , the church was dug into the ground as the Ottomans conquered Bulgaria , so that it may be protected from desecration . It was only unearthed in the middle of the 19th century , when it was dedicated to Saint Demetrius . It was proclaimed a monument of culture of national importance in 1956 .
= = History and dating = =
According to Bulgarian National Revival enlightener Stefan Zahariev from Pazardzhik , St Demetrius was not the first church in this location . In his description of the Pazardzhik district ( kaza ) published in 1870 , he writes that a previously existing church in roughly the same place was dedicated to Saint Pantaleon and had given its name to the village of Patalenitsa . The Church of St Pantaleon was , according to Zahariev , previously an Ancient Greek sanctuary of Asclepius . He writes that a column from this church with an inscription dedicated to Asclepius was preserved in the newer village church .
The time of the present church 's construction cannot be exactly defined . Scholars such as Atanas Bozhkov are of the opinion that the Church of St Demetrius was built in the early 12th century , while Krastyo Miyatev and Neli Chaneva – Veleva date it to the late 12th or early 13th century . One author has placed its construction in the late 13th or early 14th century and others include the 11th century among the possibilities .
Some publications refer to a marble plate found in the church and bearing a Medieval Greek inscription with the following text : " [ by ] Gregory Kourkouas , pro [ tospatharios ] and duke of Ph [ ilippopolis ] , indiction 14 , year 6599 ( = 1090 / 1091 ) " . The plate is preserved in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia ( inv. n . 253 ) . Nevertheless , in the late 19th century the church was known as the Holy Kutruleshtitsa ( Света Кутрулещица , Sveta Kutruleshtitsa ) to the locals , which may indicate a connection to the name of Gregory Kourkouas from the plate .
Another legend tells of the digging of the church into the ground after the Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria ( 14th – 15th centuries ) , so that the Ottomans would not desecrate it . According to that story , the church was buried and forgotten about by the villagers until the mid @-@ 19th century , when a local coincidentally rediscovered it while tying his donkey to a nearby cherry tree . A different version places the cherry tree on top of the hill under which the church stood . Reportedly , that cherry tree was struck by a thunderbolt , which enabled the villagers to reach the buried gate through the now @-@ hollow trunk . The church was reconsecrated soon thereafter and dedicated to the 4th @-@ century military saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki .
The church was listed among the architectural monuments of culture of national importance in 1956 , and the subsequent discovery of its early murals led to its inclusion on the list of artistic monuments of culture in 1971 .
= = Architecture and decoration = =
The Church of St Demetrius in Patalenitsa was built of stone , though the dome and side bays also exhibit brickwork . The church is 9 @.@ 20 metres ( 30 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 7 @.@ 60 m ( 24 @.@ 9 ft ) wide , and is among the relatively few medieval churches of the crossed @-@ dome type still standing in Bulgaria . It has an octagonal dome and a five @-@ sided apse . The south facade features three bays with narrow windows attached . The church 's floor was originally covered with marble , though the marble was removed in one of the possibly three rounds of reconstruction that the church underwent . For example , the present narthex was not added until the final reconstruction some time in the 19th century .
Medieval frescoes used to cover the entirety of the church 's interior , though only some 70 fragments survive until today . Until 1961 , the existence of a medieval mural layer was unknown because the walls were covered with oil paint in the 1910s . The medieval frescoes were uncovered and restored between 1970 and 1975 by a team under Dragomir Peshev . The dating of the frescoes is as controversial as that of the church itself . Bozhkov places the painting of the murals in the 12th century , while scholars Bistra Nikolova and V. Mavrodinova believe they were created in the 13th century . According to Nikolova , the mural inscriptions in Medieval Greek ( as opposed to Middle Bulgarian ) are evidence that the frescoes were painted during the Byzantine rule of Bulgaria ( 1018 – 1185 ) . At the time , the region of Patalenitsa would have belonged to the Byzantine bishopric centred at Philippopolis ( modern Plovdiv ) .
Among the biblical scenes painted inside the Church of St Demetrius are the Ascension of Jesus , which adorns the altar vault , as well as the Resurrection of Lazarus and the Transfiguration of Jesus , which decorate the vault left of the apse . Images of a number of saints have also been preserved , including these of the patron saint Demetrius , Saint George riding a white horse , Saint Achillius of Larissa and Saint Nicholas .
= Nimrod Expedition =
The British Antarctic Expedition 1907 – 09 , otherwise known as the Nimrod Expedition , was the first of three expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton . Its main target , among a range of geographical and scientific objectives , was to be first to the South Pole . This was not attained , but the expedition 's southern march reached a Farthest South latitude of 88 ° 23 ' S , just 97 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 180 @.@ 6 km ; 112 @.@ 2 mi ) from the pole . This was by far the longest southern polar journey to that date and a record convergence on either Pole . A separate group led by Welsh Australian geology professor Edgeworth David reached the estimated location of the South Magnetic Pole , and the expedition also achieved the first ascent of Mount Erebus , Antarctica 's second highest volcano .
The expedition lacked governmental or institutional support , and relied on private loans and individual contributions . It was beset by financial problems and its preparations were hurried . Its ship , Nimrod , was less than half of the size of Robert Falcon Scott 's 1901 – 04 expedition ship Discovery , and Shackleton 's crew lacked relevant experience . Controversy arose from Shackleton 's decision to base the expedition in McMurdo Sound , close to Scott 's old headquarters , in contravention of a promise to Scott that he would not do so . Nevertheless , although the expedition 's profile was initially much lower than that of Scott 's six years earlier , its achievements attracted nationwide interest and made Shackleton a public hero . The scientific team , which included the future Australasian Antarctic Expedition leader Douglas Mawson , carried out extensive geological , zoological and meteorological work . Shackleton 's transport arrangements , based on Manchurian ponies , motor traction , and sled dogs , were innovations which , despite limited success , were later copied by Scott for his ill @-@ fated Terra Nova Expedition .
On his return , Shackleton overcame the Royal Geographical Society 's initial scepticism about his achievements and received many public honours , including a knighthood from King Edward VII . He made little financial gain from the expedition and eventually depended on a government grant to cover its liabilities . Within three years his southernmost record had been surpassed , as first Amundsen and then Scott reached the South Pole . In his own moment of triumph , Amundsen nevertheless observed : " Sir Ernest Shackleton 's name will always be written in the annals of Antarctic exploration in letters of fire " .
= = Origins = =
Shackleton had been a junior officer on Scott 's first Antarctic expedition in the Discovery . He had been sent home on the relief ship Morning in 1903 , after a physical collapse during the expedition 's main southern journey . Scott 's verdict was that he " ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health " . Shackleton felt this physical failure as a personal stigma , and on his return to England he was determined to prove himself , in the words of Discovery 's second @-@ in command Albert Armitage , as " a better man than Scott " . He nevertheless declined the opportunity of a swift Antarctic return as chief officer of Discovery 's second relief ship Terra Nova , after helping to fit her out ; he also helped to equip Uruguay , the ship being prepared for the relief of Otto Nordenskjold ’ s expedition , stranded in the Weddell Sea . During the next few years , while nursing intermittent hopes of resuming his Antarctic career , he pursued other options . In 1906 he was working for the industrial magnate Sir William Beardmore as a public relations officer .
According to his biographer Roland Huntford , the references to Shackleton 's physical breakdown made in Scott 's The Voyage of the Discovery , published in 1905 , reopened the wounds to Shackleton 's pride . It became a personal mission that he should return to the Antarctic and outperform Scott . He began looking for potential backers for an expedition of his own ; his initial plans appear in an unpublished document dated early 1906 . These include a cost estimate of £ 17 @,@ 000 ( updated value £ 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 ) for the entire expedition . He received his first promise of financial backing when early in 1907 his employer , Beardmore , offered a £ 7 @,@ 000 loan guarantee ( updated value £ 670 @,@ 000 ) . With this in hand , Shackleton felt confident enough to announce his intentions to the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) on 12 February 1907 . One reason for Shackleton 's sense of urgency was the knowledge that the Polish explorer Henryk Arctowski was planning an expedition , which was announced at the RGS on the same day as Shackleton 's . In the event , Arctowski 's plans were stillborn .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Initial plans = = =
Shackleton 's original unpublished plan envisaged basing himself at the old Discovery Expedition headquarters in McMurdo Sound . From there he proposed to launch attempts to reach the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole . Other journeys would follow , and there would be a continuous programme of scientific work . This early plan also revealed Shackleton 's proposed transport methods , involving a combination of dogs , ponies and a specially designed motor vehicle . Neither ponies nor motor traction had been used in the Antarctic before , though ponies had been used by Frederick Jackson during the Jackson @-@ Harmsworth Arctic expedition of 1894 – 97 . Despite Jackson 's confused reports of his ponies ' prowess , and contrary to specific advice from Nansen , the renowned Norwegian polar traveller , Shackleton decided he would take 15 ponies , later scaled down to 10 . By the time he announced his plans to the RGS in February 1907 Shackleton had revised his cost estimate to a more realistic £ 30 @,@ 000 ( updated value £ 2 @,@ 860 @,@ 000 ) . However , the response of the RGS to Shackleton 's proposals was muted ; Shackleton would learn later that the Society was by this time aware of Scott 's wish to lead a new expedition and that the Society wished to reserve its full approval for Scott .
= = = Nimrod = = =
Shackleton intended to arrive in Antarctica in January 1908 , which meant leaving England during the 1907 summer . He therefore had six months to secure the financing , acquire and fit out a ship , buy all the equipment and supplies , and recruit the personnel . In April , believing that he had got the backing of Scottish businessman Donald Steuart , Shackleton travelled to Norway intending to buy a 700 @-@ ton polar vessel , Bjorn , that would have served ideally as an expedition ship . When Steuart withdrew his support , however , Bjorn was beyond Shackleton 's means . Bjorn was eventually acquired by German explorer Wilhelm Filchner and , renamed Deutschland , was used in his 1911 – 13 voyage to the Weddell Sea . Shackleton had to settle for the elderly , much smaller Nimrod , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old wooden sealer of 334 gross register tons , which he was able to acquire for £ 5 @,@ 000 ( updated value £ 477 @,@ 000 ) .
Shackleton was shocked by his first sight of Nimrod after her arrival in London from Newfoundland in June 1907 . " She was much dilapidated and smelt strongly of seal oil , and an inspection [ ... ] showed that she needed caulking and that her masts would have to be renewed . " However , in the hands of experienced ship @-@ fitters she soon " assumed a more satisfactory appearance . " Later , Shackleton reported , he became extremely proud of the sturdy little ship .
= = = Fundraising = = =
By early July 1907 Shackleton had secured little financial support beyond Beardmore 's guarantee and was lacking the funds to complete the refit of the ship . In mid @-@ July he approached the philanthropic Earl of Iveagh , otherwise known as Edward Guinness , head of the Anglo @-@ Irish brewing family , who agreed to guarantee the sum of £ 2 @,@ 000 ( updated value £ 190 @,@ 000 ) provided that Shackleton found other backers to contribute a further £ 6 @,@ 000 . Shackleton was able to do this , the extra funds including £ 2 @,@ 000 from Sir Philip Brocklehurst , who paid this sum to secure a place on the expedition .
A last @-@ minute gift of £ 4 @,@ 000 from Shackleton 's cousin William Bell still left the expedition far short of the required £ 30 @,@ 000 , but enabled Nimrod 's refit to be finished . Fundraising continued in Australia after the ship arrived there ; a further £ 5 @,@ 000 was provided as a gift from the Government of Australia , and the New Zealand Government gave £ 1 @,@ 000 . By these means , and with other smaller loans and donations , the £ 30 @,@ 000 was raised , although by the end of the expedition total costs had risen , by Shackleton 's estimate , to £ 45 @,@ 000 .
Shackleton expected to make large sums from his book about the expedition and from lectures . He also hoped to profit from sales of special postage stamps bearing the cancellation stamp of the Antarctica post office that Shackleton , appointed temporary postmaster by the New Zealand government , intended to establish there . None of these schemes produced the anticipated riches , although the post office was set up at Cape Royds and used as a conduit for the expedition 's mail .
= = = Personnel = = =
Shackleton hoped to recruit a strong contingent from the Discovery Expedition and offered his former comrade Edward Wilson the post of chief scientist and second @-@ in @-@ command . Wilson refused , citing his work with the Board of Agriculture ’ s Committee on the Investigation of Grouse Disease . Further refusals followed from former Discovery colleagues Michael Barne , Reginald Skelton and finally George Mulock , who inadvertently revealed to Shackleton that the Discovery officers had all committed themselves to Scott and his as yet unannounced expedition plans . The only Discovery hands to join Shackleton were the two Petty Officers , Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce . Apparently Shackleton spotted Joyce on the top deck of a bus as it passed the expedition 's London offices , whereupon someone was sent to find him and bring him in .
Shackleton 's second @-@ in @-@ command — although this was not clarified until the expedition reached the Antarctic — was Jameson Boyd Adams , a Royal Naval Reserve lieutenant who had turned down the chance of a regular commission to join Shackleton . He would also act as the expedition 's meteorologist . Nimrod 's captain was another naval reserve officer , Rupert England ; 23 @-@ year @-@ old John King Davis , who would later make his own reputation as an Antarctic captain , was appointed chief officer at the last moment . Aeneas Mackintosh , a merchant navy officer from the P & O shipping line , was originally second officer , but was later transferred to the shore party , being replaced as second officer by A. E. Harbord . Others in the shore party were the two surgeons , Alistair Mackay and Eric Marshall , Bernard Day the motor expert , and Sir Philip Brocklehurst , the subscribing member who had been taken on as assistant geologist .
The small scientific team that departed from England included 41 @-@ year @-@ old biologist James Murray and 21 @-@ year @-@ old geologist Raymond Priestley , a future founder of the Scott Polar Research Institute . Two important additions to the team were made in Australia . The first of these was Edgeworth David , a professor of geology at the University of Sydney , who became the party 's chief scientific officer . The second was a former pupil of David 's , Douglas Mawson , a lecturer in mineralogy at the University of Adelaide . Both had originally intended to sail to Antarctica and then immediately back with Nimrod but were persuaded to become full members of the expedition . David was influential in securing the Australian government 's £ 5 @,@ 000 grant .
Before departure for the Antarctic in August 1907 Joyce and Wild took a crash course in printing methods , as it was Shackleton 's intention to publish a book or magazine while in the Antarctic .
= = Promise to Scott = =
Shackleton 's February 1907 announcement that he intended to base his expedition at the old Discovery headquarters was noted by Scott , whose own future Antarctic plans were at that stage unannounced . In a letter to Shackleton Scott claimed priority rights to McMurdo Sound . " I feel I have a sort of right to my own field of work " , he wrote , adding : " anyone who has had to do with exploration will regard this region primarily as mine " . He concluded by reminding Shackleton of his duty of loyalty towards his former commander .
Shackleton 's initial reply was accommodating : " I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself " . However , Edward Wilson , asked by Shackleton to mediate , took an even tougher line than Scott . " I think you should retire from McMurdo Sound " , he wrote , advising Shackleton not to make any plans to work from anywhere in the entire Ross Sea quarter until Scott decided " what limits he puts on his own rights " . To this Shackleton replied : " There is no doubt in my mind that his rights end at the base he asked for [ ... ] I consider I have reached my limit and I go no further " .
The matter was unresolved when Scott returned from sea duty in May 1907 . Scott pressed for a line of demarcation at 170 ° W — everything to the west of that line , including Ross Island , McMurdo Sound , and Victoria Land , would be Scott 's preserve . Shackleton , with other concerns pressing on him , felt obliged to concede . On 17 May he signed a declaration stating that " I am leaving the McMurdo base to you " , and that he would seek to land further east , either at the Barrier Inlet visited briefly during the Discovery expedition , or at King Edward VII Land . He would not touch the coast of Victoria Land at all . It was a capitulation to Scott and Wilson , and meant forfeiting the expedition 's aim of reaching the South Magnetic Pole which was located within Victoria Land . Polar historian Beau Riffenburgh believes this was " a promise that should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given , impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton 's expedition " . The dispute soured relations between the two men ( who nevertheless maintained public civilities ) , and would eventually lead to the complete rupture of Shackleton 's formerly close friendship with Wilson .
In his own account of the expedition Shackleton makes no reference to the wrangle with Scott . He merely states that " before we finally left England I had decided that if possible I would establish my base in King Edward VII Land instead of [ ... ] McMurdo Sound " .
= = Expedition = =
= = = Voyage south = = =
After inspection by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra , Nimrod sailed on 11 August 1907 . Shackleton remained behind on expedition business ; he and other expedition members followed on a faster ship . The entire complement came together in New Zealand , ready for the ship 's departure to Antarctica on New Year 's Day , 1908 . As a means of conserving fuel , Shackleton had arranged with the New Zealand government for Nimrod to be towed to the Antarctic circle , a distance of approximately 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) , the costs of the tow being met partly by the government and partly by the Union Steam Ship Company as a contribution to the expedition . On 14 January , in sight of the first icebergs , the towline was cut ; Nimrod , under her own power , proceeded southward into the floating pack ice , heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier Discovery had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights .
The Barrier ( later known as the Ross Ice Shelf ) was sighted on 23 January , but the inlet had disappeared ; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years , and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay , which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales after the large number of whales seen there . Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might calve into the sea , so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land . After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed , and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship , Nimrod was forced to retreat . Shackleton 's only choice now , other than abandonment of the expedition 's goals , was to break the promise he had given to Scott . On 25 January he ordered the ship to head for McMurdo Sound .
= = = Cape Royds = = =
= = = = Establishing the base = = = =
On arriving in McMurdo Sound on 29 January 1908 , Nimrod ’ s progress southward to the Discovery base at Hut Point was blocked by frozen sea . Shackleton decided to wait a few days in the hope that the ice would break up . During this delay , second officer Aeneas Mackintosh suffered an accident that led to the loss of his right eye . After emergency surgery by Marshall and Mackay , he was forced to relinquish his shore party place and go back to New Zealand with Nimrod . He recovered sufficiently to return with the ship in the following season .
On 3 February Shackleton decided not to wait for the ice to shift but to make his headquarters at the nearest practicable landing place , Cape Royds . Late that evening the ship was moored , and a suitable site for the expedition 's prefabricated hut was selected . The site was separated from Hut Point by 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) of sea , with no landward route to the south . Shackleton believed the party was " fortunate to get winter quarters as near as this to our starting point for the south . "
The following days were occupied with the landing of stores and equipment . This work was hampered by poor weather and by the caution of Captain England , who frequently took the ship out into the bay until ice conditions at the landing ground were in his view safer . The next fortnight followed this pattern , leading to sharp dissent between Shackleton and the captain . At one point Shackleton asked England to stand down on the grounds that he was ill , but England refused . The task of unloading became , in Riffenburgh 's description , " mind @-@ numbingly difficult " but was finally completed on 22 February . Nimrod at last sailed away north , England unaware that ship 's engineer Harry Dunlop was carrying a letter from Shackleton to the expedition 's New Zealand agent , requesting a replacement captain for the return voyage next year . This knowledge was an open secret among the shore party ; Marshall recorded in his diary that he was " glad to see the last of [ England ] ... whole thing damned disgrace to name of country ! "
= = = = Ascent of Mount Erebus = = = =
After Nimrod 's departure , the sea ice broke up , cutting off the party 's route to the Barrier and thus making preparatory sledging and depot @-@ laying impossible . Shackleton decided to give the expedition impetus by ordering an immediate attempt to ascend Mount Erebus .
This mountain , 12 @,@ 450 feet ( 3 @,@ 790 m ) high , had never been climbed . A party from Discovery ( which had included Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce ) had explored the foothills in 1904 but had not ascended higher than 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Neither Wild nor Joyce was in the Nimrod Expedition 's main Erebus party , which consisted of Edgeworth David , Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay . With Marshall , Adams and Brocklehurst forming a support group , the ascent began on 5 March .
On 7 March the two groups combined at around 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) , and all advanced towards the summit . On the following day a blizzard held them up , but early on 9 March the climb resumed ; later that day the summit of the lower , main crater , was achieved . By this time Brocklehurst 's feet were too frostbitten for him to continue , so he was left in camp while the others advanced to the active crater , which they reached after four hours . Several meteorological experiments were carried out , and many rock samples were taken . Thereafter a rapid descent was made , mainly by sliding down successive snow @-@ slopes . The party reached the Cape Royds hut " nearly dead " , according to Eric Marshall , on 11 March .
= = = = Winter 1908 = = = =
The expedition 's hut , a prefabricated structure measuring 33 x 19 feet ( 10m x 5.8m ) , was ready for occupation by the end of February . It was divided into a series of mainly two @-@ person cubicles , with a kitchen area , a darkroom , storage and laboratory space . The ponies were housed in stalls built on the most sheltered side of the hut , while the dog kennels were placed close to the porch . Shackleton 's inclusive leadership style , in contrast to that of Scott , meant no demarcation between upper and lower decks — all lived , worked and ate together . Morale was high ; as assistant geologist Philip Brocklehurst recorded , Shackleton " had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it " .
In the ensuing months of winter darkness Joyce and Wild printed around 30 copies of the expedition 's book , Aurora Australis , which were sewn and bound using packaging materials . The most important winter 's work , however , was preparing for the following season 's major journeys , which were to include attempts on both the South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole . By making his base in McMurdo Sound Shackleton had been able to reinstate the Magnetic Pole as an expedition objective . Shackleton himself would be leading the South Pole journey , which had suffered a serious setback during the winter when four of the remaining ponies died , mainly from eating volcanic sand for its salt content .
= = = Southern journey = = =
= = = = Outward march = = = =
Shackleton 's choice of a four @-@ man team for the southern journey to the South Pole was largely determined by the number of surviving ponies . Influenced by his experiences on the Discovery Expedition , he had put his confidence in ponies rather than dogs for the long polar march . The motor car , which ran well on flat ice , could not cope with Barrier surfaces and was not considered for the polar journey . The men chosen by Shackleton to accompany him were Marshall , Adams and Wild . Joyce , whose Antarctic experience exceeded all save Wild 's , was excluded from the party after Marshall 's medical examination raised doubts about his fitness .
The march began on 29 October 1908 . Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as 1 @,@ 494 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 767 km ; 1 @,@ 719 mi ) . His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey , requiring a daily average distance of about 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ; 18 mi ) . After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses , Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days . This required a shorter daily average of around 13 ½ nautical miles . Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress , but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface , and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81 ° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82 ° 17 ' mark set by Scott 's southern march in December 1902 . Shackleton 's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott 's 59 , using a track considerably east of Scott 's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered .
As the group moved into unknown territory , the Barrier surface became increasingly disturbed and broken ; two more ponies succumbed to the strain . The mountains to the west curved round to block their path southward , and the party 's attention was caught by a " brilliant gleam of light " in the sky ahead . The reason for this phenomenon became clear on 3 December when , after a climb through the foothills of the mountain chain , they saw before them what Shackleton later described as " an open road to the south , [ ... ] a great glacier , running almost south to north between two huge mountain ranges " .
Shackleton christened this glacier the " Beardmore " after the expedition 's biggest sponsor . Travel on the glacier surface proved to be a trial , especially for Socks the remaining pony , who had great difficulty in finding secure footings . On 7 December Socks disappeared down a deep crevasse , very nearly taking Wild with him . Fortunately for the party , the pony 's harness broke , and the sledge containing their supplies remained on the surface . However , for the rest of the southward journey and the whole of the return trip they had to rely on man @-@ hauling .
As the journey continued , personal antagonisms emerged . Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would " fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep " . Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was " like following an old woman . Always panicking " . However , Christmas Day was celebrated with crème de menthe and cigars . Their position was 85 ° 51 ' S , still 249 nautical miles ( 461 km ; 287 mi ) from the Pole , and they were now carrying barely a month 's supply of food , having stored the rest in depots for their return journey . They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food . However , Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further , and dumping all but the most essential equipment .
On Boxing Day the glacier ascent was at last completed , and the march on the polar plateau began . Conditions did not ease ; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the " hardest day we have had " . On the next day he noted that , having attained 87 ° 6 ½ ′ S , they had beaten North and South polar records . That day , referring to Marshall and Adams , Wild wrote : " if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [ the Pole ] easily . " On 4 January 1909 Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them , and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole . The party struggled on , at the borders of survival , until on 9 January 1909 , after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment , the march ended . " We have shot our bolt " , wrote Shackleton , " and the tale is 88 ° 23 ' S " . They were 97 @.@ 5 geographical miles from the South Pole . The British flag was duly planted , and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII .
= = = = Return journey = = = =
The party turned for home after 73 days ' southward travel . Rations had been cut several times to extend the return journey time beyond the original 110 @-@ day estimate . Shackleton now aimed to reach Hut Point in 50 days , since according to Shackleton 's prior orders Nimrod , having returned to take the expedition home , would depart on 1 March at the latest . The four men were now much weakened , yet in the following days they achieved impressive distances , reaching the head of the glacier on 19 January . As they began the descent they had five days ' food at half rations , to last them until the Lower Glacier depot ; during the ascent the same distance had taken 12 days . Shackleton 's physical condition was by now a major concern , yet according to Adams " the worse he felt , the harder he pulled " .
The depot was reached on 28 January . Wild , ill with dysentery , was unable to pull or to eat anything but biscuits , which were in short supply . On 31 January Shackleton forced his own breakfast biscuit on Wild , a gesture that moved Wild to write : " BY GOD I shall never forget . Thousands of pounds would not have bought that one biscuit " . A few days later the rest of the party were struck with severe enteritis , the result of eating tainted pony @-@ meat . But the pace of march had to be maintained ; the small amounts of food carried between depots would make any delay fatal . Fortunately a strong wind behind them enabled them to set a sail on the sledge and maintain a good marching rate .
" We are so thin that our bones ache as we lie on the hard snow " , wrote Shackleton . From 18 February onward they began to pick up familiar landmarks , and on the 23rd they reached Bluff Depot , which to their great relief had been copiously resupplied by Ernest Joyce . The range of delicacies over and above the crates of regular supplies was listed by Shackleton : " Carlsbad plums , eggs , cakes , plum pudding , gingerbread and crystallised fruit " . Wild 's laconic comment was " Good old Joyce " .
Their food worries were now resolved , but they still had to get back to Hut Point before 1 March deadline . The final leg of their march was interrupted by a blizzard , which held them in camp for 24 hours . On 27 February , when they were still 33 nautical miles ( 61 km ; 38 mi ) from safety , Marshall collapsed . Shackleton then decided that he and Wild would make a dash for Hut Point in hopes of finding the ship and holding her until the other two could be rescued . They reached the hut late on 28 February . Hoping that the ship was nearby , they sought to attract its attention by setting fire to a small wooden hut used for magnetic observations . Shortly afterwards Nimrod , which had been anchored at the Glacier Tongue , came into view : " No happier sight ever met the eyes of man " , wrote Wild later . It was a further three days before Adams and Marshall could be picked up from the Barrier , but by 4 March the whole southern party was aboard and Shackleton was able to order full steam towards the north .
= = = Northern Party = = =
While preparing for his southern journey , Shackleton gave instructions to Edgeworth David to lead a Northern party to Victoria Land to carry out magnetic and geological work . The party was to try to reach the Magnetic Pole , and was to carry out a full geological survey in the Dry Valley area . David 's party consisted of himself , Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay . It would be a man @-@ hauling party ; the dogs remained at base to be used for depot @-@ laying and other routine work . The party had orders to plant the Union Jack at the Magnetic Pole and to take possession of Victoria Land for the British Empire . After several days ' preparatory work they started out on 5 October 1908 , drawn for the first few miles by the motor car .
Due to sea ice conditions and adverse weather , progress was initially very slow . By the end of October they had crossed McMurdo Sound and advanced 60 miles ( 100 km ) up the difficult Victoria Land coast , at which point they decided to concentrate all their efforts on reaching the Magnetic Pole . After traversing the Nordenskjold Ice Tongue and the treacherous Drygalski Glacier they were finally able to leave the coast and turn north @-@ west , towards the Magnetic Pole 's approximate location . Before then , David had a narrow escape after falling into a crevasse but was rescued by Mawson .
Their way up to the inland plateau was via a labyrinthine glacier ( later named the Reeves Glacier after the Royal Geographical Society 's main map curator ) , which brought them on 27 December to a hard snow surface . This enabled them to move more swiftly , at a rate of about 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) daily , taking regular magnetic observations . On 16 January these observations showed them to be about 13 nautical miles ( 24 km ; 15 mi ) from the Magnetic Pole . The next day , 17 January 1909 , they reached their goal , fixing the pole 's position as 72 ° 15 ' S , 155 ° 16 ' E , at an elevation of 7 @,@ 260 feet ( 2 @,@ 210 m ) . In a muted ceremony , David took formal possession of the area for the British Empire .
Exhausted , and short of food , the party faced a return journey of 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) , with just 15 days to complete it if they were to make their prearranged coastal rendezvous with Nimrod . Despite increasing physical weakness they maintained their daily distances , and on 31 January were 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ; 18 mi ) from their agreed pick @-@ up point . Bad weather then delayed them , and the rendezvous was not reached until 2 February . That night , in heavy drifting snow , Nimrod passed by them , unable to make out their camp . Two days later , however , after Nimrod had turned south again , the group was spotted from the ship and was able to scramble to safety , although in the rush to get aboard Mawson fell 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) down a crevasse . The party had been travelling for four months and were wearing the same clothes in which they had departed Cape Royds ; reportedly " the aroma was overpowering " . Before this rescue , Nimrod had picked up a geological party consisting of Priestley , Brocklehurst and Bertram Armytage , who had been carrying out geological work in the Ferrar Glacier region .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 March 1909 , Shackleton landed in New Zealand and cabled a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ word report to the London Daily Mail , with which he had an exclusive contract . Amid the acclamation and unstinting praise that Shackleton received from the exploring community , including Nansen and Amundsen , the response of the Royal Geographical Society was more guarded . Its former president , Sir Clements Markham , privately expressed his disbelief of Shackleton 's claimed latitude . However , on 14 June , Shackleton was met at London 's Charing Cross Station by a very large crowd , which included RGS president Leonard Darwin and a rather reluctant Captain Scott .
As to the latitude claimed , the reason for doubting its accuracy was that after 3 January all positions had been computed by dead reckoning : on direction , speed and elapsed time . The last proper observation , on 3 January had calculated the latitude as 87 ° 22 ' . Shackleton 's table of distances show that over the next three days they covered just over 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) , to reach an estimated 88 ° 7 ' on 6 January . They were then held up for two days by a blizzard . On 9 January 1909 the table shows that the party travelled a further 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ; 18 mi ) to reach their farthest south , and the same distance back to camp . This distance in a single day far exceeded those for any other stage of the journey . Shackleton explained that this was a dash , " half running , half walking " , unencumbered by the sledge or other equipment . Each of the four men independently confirmed his belief in the latitude achieved , and none gave any subsequent cause for his word to be doubted .
Shackleton was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) by King Edward , who later conferred a knighthood on him . The RGS presented him with a gold medal , although apparently with reservations — " We do not propose to make the Medal so large as that which was awarded to Captain Scott " , recorded an official . Although in the eyes of the public he was a hero , the riches that Shackleton had anticipated failed to materialise . The soaring costs of the expedition and the need to meet loan guarantees meant that he was saved from financial embarrassment only by a belated government grant of £ 20 @,@ 000 .
The farthest south record of the Nimrod Expedition stood for less than three years , until Amundsen reached the South Pole on 15 December 1911 . For his trail @-@ breaking achievements Shackleton received a fulsome tribute from Amundsen : " What Nansen is to the North , Shackleton is to the South " . Thereafter Shackleton 's Antarctic ambitions were fixed on a transcontinental crossing , which he attempted unsuccessfully with the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1914 – 17 , although his status as a leading figure in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was by then assured . Other members of the Nimrod Expedition also achieved fame and standing in future years . Edgeworth David , Adams , Mawson and Priestley all eventually received knighthoods , the latter two continuing their polar work on further expeditions , though neither went south again with Shackleton . Mawson led the 1911 – 13 Australian Antarctic Expedition , and Priestley was part of the Terra Nova expedition 's scientific team . Frank Wild was second @-@ in @-@ command to the " Boss " on the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition and on the short Quest expedition where he took over command after Shackleton 's death in South Georgia in 1922 . Ten years after her return from the Antarctic , Nimrod was battered to pieces in the North Sea , after running aground on the Barber Sands off the Norfolk ( UK ) coast on 31 January 1919 . Only two of her 12 @-@ person crew survived .
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind at Cape Royds in 1909 were recovered in 2010 , for analysis by a distilling company . A revival of the vintage ( and since lost ) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which discovered the lost spirits .
= = = Online sources = = =
" Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present " . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 12 October 2011 .
" Explorers ' century @-@ old whisky found in Antarctic " . USA Today . 5 February 2010 . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
Katz , Gregory ( 18 January 2011 ) . " Explorer 's century @-@ old scotch returns from Antarctica " . Toronto Star . Associated Press . Retrieved 14 October 2011 .
" Whisky buried by Ernest Shackleton expedition recreated " . BBC News . 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 4 February 2012 .
= Trading Places ( song ) =
" Trading Places " is a song by American recording artist Usher . Released on October 17 , 2008 as the fifth and final single from his fifth studio album Here I Stand , Usher wrote the song with The @-@ Dream and Carlos " Los Da Mystro " McKinney . Produced by McKinney , it is a slow @-@ tempo R & B number with hip hop influences , and focuses on an idea of role reversal in a relationship .
The song received mixed reviews from critics ; its production drew differing opinions . It appeared on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , peaking at numbers forty @-@ five and four , respectively . A music video was filmed for the song , which demonstrated intimate sexual scenes , and promoted Usher 's lingerie line . Usher performed " Trading Places " on both his One Night Stand : Ladies Only Tour ( 2008 ) and OMG Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Trading Places " was written by The @-@ Dream , Carlos " Los Da Mystro " McKinney and Usher , and produced by McKinney , while Jaycen Joshua mixed the record . The song was recorded at Music Line Studio , Triangle Sound Studios and Chalice Recording Studios , and was released on October 17 , 2008 .
" Trading Places " is a slow @-@ tempo R & B ballad , and contains influences of hip hop music . McKinney used the drums that appear in J. Holiday 's " Bed " ; " Trading Places " also uses guitar instrumentation . The theme of the song surrounds role reversal in a relationship , predominantly in sexual situations , with its hook consisting of the lyrics , " I 'm always on the top , tonight I 'm on the bottom / ' cause we trading places " . Usher described the song 's idea as " wishful thinking for all men to have a woman who takes control and compliments us the way we compliment them " , and Steve Jones of USA Today saw the song as a way for Usher to " satisfy his inner freak ... within the confines of marriage . " Angela Barrett of Rap @-@ Up noted " Trading Places " as a male version of " Cater 2 U " ( 2004 ) by Destiny 's Child .
= = Reception = =
Digital Spy 's David Balls gave " Trading Places " three out of five stars , and wrote that the song 's lyrics " may be verging on the sickly , but Usher just about gets away with it " . Mark Edward Nero of About.com called it " all @-@ around excellent : the vocals , production and ( especially the ) lyrics all excel " . Andy Kellman from Allmusic said that the song was the best of " the small handful of brow @-@ raising moments " on Here I Stand . IGN 's Chad Grischow criticized the song 's production , calling it " a muddled mess " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Trading Places " debuted on the United States Billboard Hot 100 at number one hundred on November 15 , 2008 . The next week it moved ten places to number ninety . The song peaked in its seventh charting week , when it reached number forty @-@ five on the final chart of 2008 . " Trading Places " fell off the Hot 100 after seventeen weeks . The song was more successful on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it entered at number ninety @-@ six . On January 3 , 2009 , it climbed to its high position of number four , and slipped off the chart in April 2009 after thirty @-@ three weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Trading Places " was shot on September 9 , 2008 in Venice , Los Angeles , and was directed by Chris Robinson . Of the video 's concept Usher said , " We wanted to do something ... very hot and very forward @-@ thinking " . The video also serves as his media to introduce his new line of lingerie , with his love interest in the video wearing some designs .
In the video Usher and his love interest simulate sexual intercourse , with the woman maintaining dominance , echoing the song 's theme . Interspersed are scenes of him playing the song on a transparent piano , sitting in a chair singing and dancing against a brick backdrop . In some of the sex scenes the camera is rotated 180 degrees , so that an illusion is given from Usher being " on the top " to being " on the bottom " .
= = Live performances = =
Usher performed " Trading Places " along with " Here I Stand " and " What 's Your Name " at the warmup concert for the 2008 National Football League Kickoff game on September 4 . Usher sang the song on his 2008 One Night Stand : Ladies Only tour . He began the song seated at a grand piano , while a female backup dancer removed Usher 's shirt and , while wearing the shirt herself , lay on top of the piano .
He also performed " Trading Places " on his international OMG Tour , which commenced in November 2010 , and concluded in June 2011 . During the performance , he calls a female fan from the audience and sings to her as they dance seductively . This resulted in a mishap during a December 2010 performance at the Madison Square Garden when a fan tried to swing her foot over Usher but accidentally kicked him in the head . At the Glendale , Arizona show , he called American Idol season six winner Jordin Sparks onto the stage to perform the number with him . At one of the London dates , English singer Alesha Dixon accompanied him onstage for the performance .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
Source :
= = Charts = =
= SMS Strassburg =
SMS Strassburg was a light cruiser of the Magdeburg class in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Her class included three other ships : Magdeburg , Breslau , and Stralsund . Strassburg was built at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven from 1910 to October 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Strassburg spent the first year of her service overseas , after which she was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . She saw significant action at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 and participated in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . By 1916 , the ship was transferred to the Baltic to operate against the Russian Navy . She saw action during Operation Albion in the Gulf of Riga in October 1917 , including screening for the battleships König and Markgraf during the Battle of Moon Sound . She returned to the North Sea for the planned final operation against the British Grand Fleet in the last weeks of the war , and was involved in the mutinies that forced the cancellation of the operation .
The ship served briefly in the new Reichsmarine in 1919 before being transferred to Italy as a war prize . She was formally transferred in July 1920 and renamed Taranto for service in the Italian Navy . In 1936 – 1937 , she was rebuilt for colonial duties and additional anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . She saw no significant action during World War II until the Armistice that ended Italy 's participation in the war . She was scuttled by the Italian Navy , captured and raised by the Germans , and sunk by Allied bombers in October 1943 . The Germans raised the ship again , which was sunk a second time by bombers in September 1944 . Taranto was finally broken up for scrap in 1946 – 1947 .
= = Design = =
Strassburg was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Condor and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1910 and launched on 24 August 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 9 October 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 70 m ( 455 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 50 m ( 13 @.@ 50 m ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 25 m ( 4 @.@ 25 m ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 281 t ( 5 @,@ 198 long tons ; 5 @,@ 821 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 40 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 2 in ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 18 @,@ 390 kW ; 24 @,@ 660 shp ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 PS ( 24 @,@ 626 kW ; 33 @,@ 024 shp ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Strassburg carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Strassburg had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Strassburg spent the first year of service overseas , from 1913 to 1914 . She was selected to participate in a long @-@ distance cruise to test the reliability of the new turbine propulsion system in the battleships Kaiser and König Albert . The three ships were organized in a special " Detached Division " . The trio departed Germany on 9 December 1913 and proceeded to the German colonies in western Africa . The ships visited Lomé in Togoland , Duala and Victoria in Kamerun , and Swakopmund in German South @-@ West Africa . From Africa , the ships sailed to St. Helena and then on to Rio de Janeiro , arriving on 15 February 1914 . Strassburg was detached to visit Buenos Aires , Argentina before returning to meet the two battleships in Montevideo , Uruguay . The three ships sailed south around Cape Horn and then north to Valparaiso , Chile , arriving on 2 April and remaining for over a week .
On 11 April , the ships departed Valparaiso for the long journey back to Germany . On the return trip , the ships visited several more ports , including Bahía Blanca , Argentina , before returning to Rio de Janeiro . On 16 May the ships left Rio de Janeiro for the Atlantic leg of the journey ; they stopped in Cape Verde , Madeira , and Vigo , Spain while en route to Germany . Strassburg , Kaiser , and König Albert arrived in Kiel on 17 June 1914 . In the course of the voyage , the ships traveled some 20 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) . A week later , on 24 June , the Detached Division was dissolved . After returning to Germany , Strassburg spent majority of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . On 16 August , some two weeks after the outbreak of World War I , Strassburg and Stralsund conducted a sweep into the Hoofden to search for British reconnaissance forces . The two cruisers encountered a group of sixteen British destroyers and a light cruiser at a distance of about 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Significantly outnumbered , the two German cruisers broke contact and returned to port .
Strassburg was heavily engaged at the Battle of Heligoland Bight less than two weeks later , on 28 August . British battlecruisers and light cruisers raided the German reconnaissance screen commanded by Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass in the Heligoland Bight . Strassburg was the first German cruiser to leave port to reinforce the German reconnaissance forces . At 11 : 00 , she encountered the badly damaged British cruiser HMS Arethusa , which had been hit several times by Stettin and SMS Frauenlob . Strassburg attacked Arethusa , but was driven off by the 1st Destroyer Flotilla . She lost contact with the British in the mist , but located them again after 13 : 10 from the sound of British gunfire that destroyed the cruiser Mainz . Along with Cöln , she badly damaged three British destroyers — Laertes , Laurel , and Liberty — before being driven off again . Shortly thereafter , the British battlecruisers intervened and sank Ariadne and Maass 's flagship Cöln . Strassburg and the rest of the surviving light cruisers retreated into the haze and were reinforced by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group .
Strassburg was present during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December , as part of the screening force for the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group . After completing the bombardment of the towns , the Germans began to withdraw , though British forces moved to intercept them . Strassburg , two of the other screening cruisers , and two flotillas of torpedo boats steamed between two British squadrons . In the heavy mist , which reduced visibility to less than 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) , only her sister ship Stralsund was spotted , though only briefly . The Germans were able to use the bad weather to cover their withdrawal . The ship had been transferred to the Baltic by 1916 , and so missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 .
By 1917 , she was assigned to the VI Scouting Group , which saw action during Operation Albion against the Russian naval forces in the Gulf of Riga . At 06 : 00 on 14 October 1917 , Strassburg , Kolberg , and Augsburg left Libau to escort minesweeping operations in the Gulf of Riga . They were attacked by Russian 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) coastal guns on their approach and were temporarily forced to turn away . By 08 : 45 , however , they had anchored off the Mikailovsk Bank and the minesweepers began to clear a path in the minefields . Two days later , Strassburg and Kolberg joined the dreadnoughts König and Kronprinz for a sweep of the Gulf of Riga . In the ensuing Battle of Moon Sound , the battleships destroyed the old pre @-@ dreadnought Slava and forced the pre @-@ dreadnought Grazhdanin to leave the Gulf . On 21 October , Strassburg and the battleship Markgraf were tasked with assaulting the island of Kyno . The two ships bombarded the island ; Strassburg expended approximately 55 rounds on the port of Salismünde . On 31 October , Strassburg carried the first military governor of the captured islands from Libau to Arensburg .
By October 1918 , Strassburg was assigned to the IV Scouting Group , which was to participate in a final , climactic attack by the High Seas Fleet . Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Hipper intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . On the morning of 27 October , days before the operation was scheduled to begin , around 45 crew members from Strassburg 's engine room slipped over the side of the ship and went into Wilhelmshaven . The crewmen had to be rounded up and returned to the ship , after which the IV Scouting Group moved to Cuxhaven . Here , men from all six cruisers in the unit refused to work in protest of the war , and in support of the armistice proposed by Prince Maximilian . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . In early November , Strassburg and Brummer steamed to Sassnitz . There , the commander of Strassburg took command of the naval forces in the port and invited a sailor 's council to be formed to assist in controlling the forces there .
= = = Italian service = = =
After the war , Strassburg served briefly with the reorganized Reichsmarine in 1919 . She was stricken from the naval register on 10 March 1920 and ceded to Italy as a war prize . She was transferred under the name " O " on 20 July 1920 in the French port of Cherbourg . Strassburg was commissioned into the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) on 2 June 1925 and her name was changed to Taranto . Her two 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with two Italian 3 @-@ inch / 40 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The following year , she was modified to handle a Macchi M.7 reconnaissance seaplane . Taranto was reclassified as a cruiser on 19 July 1929 , and in 1931 , her M.7 seaplane was replaced with a CANT 24 R seaplane .
The ship was rebuilt for colonial service in 1936 – 37 . Two boilers and the forward funnel were removed , which reduced the ship 's speed to 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , though by World War II only 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) could be maintained . Eight 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 and ten 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) machine guns were added for close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft defense . She did not see significant service during World War II , though in early July 1940 , Taranto , two minelayers , and a pair of destroyers laid a series of minefields in the Gulf of Taranto and in the southern Adriatic , totaling 2 @,@ 335 mines . She was scuttled in La Spezia on 9 September 1943 , a day after the armistice that ended the war for Italy was declared . The Germans captured the ship and re @-@ floated her , though she was sunk by Allied bombers on 23 October . The Germans re @-@ floated the ship again , and again she was sunk by bombers , on 23 September 1944 in the outer La Spezia roadstead . Taranto was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1946 – 1947 .
= Massey Poyntz =
Edward Stephen Massey Poyntz ( 27 October 1883 – 26 December 1934 ) was an English first @-@ class cricketer , who played for Somerset in the early twentieth century . An amateur , Poyntz was an aggressive right @-@ handed batsman . He generally played as part of the middle order , and though his batting was not exceptional , he was highly praised for his fielding ability . He captained Somerset in the two years prior to the First World War .
The youngest son of the Chief Constable of Essex , Poyntz made his county cricket debut in 1905 , hitting a half @-@ century to help Somerset win their only match of that season . He achieved his best batting average in that year , while each of the following four were of little note . In 1910 he captained Somerset for the first time , and scored over 300 runs in a season for the second of five occasions . His only attempts at bowling occurred during 1911 , when he claimed eight wickets at an average of almost forty . He was named as Somerset 's official captain in 1913 , and remained in charge for the following season . After serving in the Army during the First World War , Poyntz scored his only century in first @-@ class cricket in a match for the Army against Cambridge University in 1919 . He played two further matches for Somerset that year , after which he did not appear in first @-@ class cricket again .
= = Early life and career = =
Poyntz was born on 27 October 1883 in Chelmsford , Essex . He was the youngest of seven children born to Major William Henry Poyntz and Henrietta Laycock . His father had achieved the rank of Major in the Royal Marines , and having served as the Chief Constable of Nottingham from 1872 until 1881 , held the equivalent position in Essex at the time of his youngest son 's birth . Poyntz senior was a cricket enthusiast , and during his time in Nottingham , he ran the police team , and wrote effusively in his reminiscences about watching Nottinghamshire face Yorkshire and Surrey . Educated at Haileybury College , Massey made the school 's cricket team in 1901 . The family had moved to Gotham House in Tiverton , north Devon , and after leaving school , Poyntz followed his older brother Hugh into the Somerset side .
On his debut for
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following week 's Notre Dame game drew a 55 @,@ 752 people , which remained the largest crowd ever to see a home game at Northwestern as of 2005 . Despite those wins , late @-@ season losses to Michigan State and Wisconsin cost the team a chance at the Big Ten championship .
At Northwestern , Parseghian developed a reputation as an affable , down @-@ to @-@ earth coach . While he took his job seriously , he cultivated an informal rapport with players , who called him " Ara " rather than " coach " or " Mr. Parseghian " . Given his closeness in age to many of the players , he " empathizes with us well " , Northwestern tackle Andy Cvercko said in 1959 . Parseghian occasionally joined in practices with the players and organized games of touch football . He had other quirks , like lowering the intensity of practices as game day approached to let the players " build up psychologically " , something he learned from Paul Brown .
Parseghian remained at Northwestern for eight seasons , until 1963 . His career coaching record there was 36 – 35 – 1 . This ranks him third at Northwestern in total wins and ninth at Northwestern in winning percentage . Parseghian 's teams beat Notre Dame four straight times after their annual series was renewed in 1959 following a decade @-@ long hiatus .
Toward the end of his tenure at Northwestern , Parseghian grew frustrated by the school 's limited financial resources , curbs on football scholarships and academic standards for athletes that were more stringent than at other Big Ten schools . He also clashed with Holcomb , the athletic director , who told him in 1963 that his contract would not be renewed after that season despite coaching the team to within two wins of a national championship the previous year . " I took them to the top of the polls in 1962 , and that was not good enough for Northwestern " , Parseghian said many years later .
= = = Notre Dame = = =
As the end of his Northwestern career approached in November 1963 , Parseghian called Father Edmund Joyce , the vice president and chairman of the athletics board at Notre Dame , a Catholic university near South Bend , Indiana . He asked whether Hugh Devore , who was then interim head football coach , was going to be given the job on a longer @-@ term basis . When Joyce said the university was searching for a new coach , Parseghian expressed interest in the job . Joyce did not immediately seem warm to the idea , however , and Parseghian explored an offer to coach at the University of Miami , where his old friend Andy Gustafson had been promoted from head coach to athletic director . Notre Dame was also considering Dan Devine for its coaching job , but ultimately offered it to Parseghian . Parseghian waffled at first , recalling his father 's dislike of Catholics who had played a role in the Armenian deportations , but accepted in December and was given a salary of about $ 20 @,@ 000 a year ( $ 154 @,@ 587 today ) .
Parseghian 's candidacy for the head coaching job at Notre Dame was unusual because he was not a Notre Dame graduate , as every head coach since Knute Rockne had been . Parseghian was also an Armenian Presbyterian , making him the first non @-@ Catholic coach since Rockne , who converted in 1925 . Joyce made it clear before his hiring that he did not care about Parseghian 's religion , but simply wanted someone who could lead the football team to success .
As had been the case at Northwestern , Notre Dame 's football program was in a state of flux when Parseghian arrived . While Notre Dame built a proud history under Rockne and Frank Leahy , its two most successful coaches , the late 1950s and early 1960s had been a disaster . The team had finished 5 – 5 in 1962 under Joe Kuharich , who lost the confidence of his players and Notre Dame 's administrators during his four years as coach . Kuharich 's surprise departure at the end of that season to become supervisor of officials in the National Football League , a position created by his friend and NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle , left the program in disarray . Devore , a long @-@ time Notre Dame employee who had played for Rockne and coached under Leahy , was brought in to lead the team on an interim basis in 1963 . Notre Dame managed only a 2 – 7 finish that year .
= = = = Turnaround and the 1964 season = = = =
Parseghian quickly turned things around in 1964 , re @-@ establishing a sense of confidence and team spirit that had been lost under Kuharich and Devore . Practices were carefully planned and organized with the help of a coaching staff that consisted of three assistants from Northwestern and four former Notre Dame players . Parseghian listened to players ' concerns about the program and addressed them . He updated the team 's offense by favoring passing and bringing in smaller and quicker players . A rule change allowing unlimited substitutions starting in 1964 helped make this strategy successful ; fast @-@ running receivers could now be taken out of the game and rested as others replaced them .
Parseghian also recognized talent in quarterback John Huarte and wide receiver Jack Snow , who had been used only sparingly for two seasons by previous coaches . Huarte could throw far and accurately but was soft @-@ spoken , a trait Parseghian and his staff helped change . Snow was large for a receiver of his era , but Parseghian thought his athleticism and sure hands would make him a good wideout . Still , expectations were muted for the 1964 season : Parseghian told his coaches that the team would have a 6 – 4 record if they were lucky . Sports Illustrated predicted a 5 – 5 record at best , and the team did not rank among the top 20 programs in the country in the pre @-@ season AP Poll .
Notre Dame nonetheless opened the season with a 31 – 7 victory over heavily favored Wisconsin , a game in which Huarte threw for more yards than the team 's leading passer had over the entire 1963 season . Notre Dame players carried Parseghian off the field after the win , which vaulted the team to ninth place in the polls . A string of victories followed , first against Purdue and then Air Force and UCLA . Notre Dame rose to first place in the national polls following a 40 – 0 win over Navy in October . The team went undefeated until the last game of the year against USC , who won 20 – 17 in the final minutes on a touchdown pass from Craig Fertig to Rod Sherman . The loss unseated Notre Dame from the top ranking in the national polls , but the team still won the MacArthur Trophy , a championship awarded by the National Football Foundation .
Huarte passed for 2 @,@ 062 yards and set 12 school records in 1964 , four of which still stood as of 2009 . He also won the Heisman Trophy . Snow led the country in receptions , with 60 . Parseghian , meanwhile , won numerous coach of the year awards for engineering the turnaround , including from the American Football Coaches Association , the Football Writers Association of America , the Washington Touchdown Club , the Columbus Touchdown Club and Football News .
Huarte and Snow graduated after the 1964 season , and Notre Dame felt their absence the following year , posting a 7 – 2 – 1 record . While the team did not contend for a national title , defensive back Nick Rassas led the nation in punt returns and came in sixth in interceptions ; he was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by sportswriters .
= = = = First national title = = = =
In 1966 , Parseghian guided Notre Dame to its first national championship since the Leahy era . Led by quarterback Terry Hanratty , running back Nick Eddy , star receiver Jim Seymour , and fullback Larry Conjar , the offense was best in the nation in scoring , with an average of 36 @.@ 2 points per game . The defense was second in the country in points allowed , thanks to strong performances by linebacker Jim Lynch and defensive end Alan Page .
The season began with eight straight victories , propelling Notre Dame to the top of the national polls . The team then faced Michigan State , which ranked second in the polls and was also undefeated . The contest , one among a number referred to as the " game of the century " , ended in a 10 – 10 tie . Parseghian was criticized for winding down the clock instead of trying to score despite having the ball in the final seconds of the game . He defended his strategy by maintaining that several key starters had been knocked out of action early in the game and that he did not want to spoil a courageous comeback from a 10 – 0 deficit by risking a turnover deep in his own territory late in the game . When Parseghian 's team beat USC 51 – 0 the following week , critics alleged that he ran up the score to impress poll voters who had split the number @-@ one ranking between Notre Dame and Michigan State following the tie . Subsequent to the USC rout , the final wire service polls gave Parseghian 's team the national championship . Nine members of the team were selected as All @-@ Americans , and Parseghian was named coach of the year by Sporting News .
Several winning seasons followed , but Notre Dame did not repeat as national champion in the late 1960s . The team finished with an 8 – 2 – 1 record in 1969 and was invited to play in the postseason Cotton Bowl . The school had a long @-@ standing policy in place forbidding the team from playing bowl games , but the university urgently needed funds for minority scholarships and decided to use the proceeds from the bowl to fund them . Parseghian 's team lost the game 21 – 17 to the eventual national champion Texas Longhorns .
= = = = Later Notre Dame career = = = =
Notre Dame continued to succeed under Parseghian in the early 1970s . Led by senior quarterback Joe Theismann , the team finished second in the polls in 1970 and avenged its Cotton Bowl loss , defeating the Longhorns 24 – 11 in an upset . In 1973 , Parseghian had a perfect season and won a second national championship , topped off by a 24 – 23 win over Alabama in the Sugar Bowl . Both teams were undefeated going into the game , but Alabama had held the top spot in the national polls . Parseghian was named coach of the year after the season by Football News .
Before the 1974 season started , six Notre Dame players were accused of rape and suspended for a year , although no charges were ultimately filed . Parseghian called the loss of the those key defensive players " a great disappointment " . Several other key players were injured . An upset loss to underdog Purdue in the third game of the season derailed the team 's hopes to repeat as national champions . The ever @-@ present pressure to win took its toll , and Parseghian privately decided in the middle of the season to resign for the sake of his health . He was also dealing with the death of three close friends that year and one of his daughters ' battle with multiple sclerosis . He officially stepped down in mid @-@ December after rumors began to surface that he was leaving for a post with another college program or professional team . He said he was " physically exhausted and emotionally drained " after 25 years of coaching and needed a break . His last game was Notre Dame 's 13 – 11 win in a rematch against Alabama in the Orange Bowl . He was succeeded by Dan Devine after 11 seasons as head coach . His record at Notre Dame was 95 – 17 – 4 , giving him the second @-@ most wins by any football coach in school history at the time behind Rockne .
Parseghian , who was 51 at the time , said he planned to at least a year off from coaching before considering a run at a job in the professional ranks . Rumors circulated throughout 1975 that he might return to Notre Dame , but both he and Devine denied them . He finally decided that December that he would not coach in 1976 despite reportedly being pursued by the New York Jets of the National Football League , but would instead host a television show beginning the following fall . His last coaching appearance was with the college players in the annual Chicago College All @-@ Star Game against the defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers on July 23 , 1976 at Chicago 's Soldier Field . The game was halted in the second half when a torrential thunderstorm broke out . Fans rushed onto the field , and play was never resumed . It was the last such game ever played .
During Parseghian 's tenure at Notre Dame , the school 's long @-@ dormant football rivalry with Michigan was revived through an agreement signed in 1970 . The schools , which had not met since 1943 , agreed to restart the series starting in the 1978 season . Notre Dame athletic director Moose Krause orchestrated the deal with Don Canham , his counterpart at Michigan , but Parseghian 's friendship with Wolverine head coach Bo Schembechler also played a role . Parshegian and Schembechler were teammates at Miami University in Ohio and Schembechler served on Parshegian 's staff at Northwestern in 1956 and 1957 . Schembechler told Parseghian in 1970 that he was looking forward to facing Notre Dame , but Parseghian replied that he would " never have that opportunity " .
While at Notre Dame , Parseghian did away with all ornamentation on players ' uniforms , eliminating shamrocks and shoulder stripes , and switched the team 's home jerseys to navy blue . The Irish never wore green jerseys during his tenure . His successful run at Notre Dame is sometimes referred to as the " Era of Ara " .
= = Later life = =
Parseghian launched a broadcasting career after leaving Notre Dame . He served as a color analyst for ABC Sports from 1975 to 1981 , initially alongside Keith Jackson covering a series of regional and national college football games . He jumped to CBS Sports in 1982 , and covered college games for that network until 1988 .
Parseghian , who amassed a career coaching record of 170 – 58 – 6 at Miami , Northwestern and Notre Dame , was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1980 . He was inducted into the Miami University Athletic Hall of Fame as part of its charter class in 1969 , and became a member of the Indiana Football Hall of Fame in 1984 . He was also inducted into the Cotton Bowl Classic Hall of Fame in 2007 . Parseghian was awarded an honorary doctorate in humanities by Miami in 1978 and served on the school 's board of trustees between 1978 and 1987 . He also got an honorary degree from Notre Dame in 1997 and won the Amos Alonzo Stagg Award the same year for his contributions to the sport .
Parseghian was portrayed by his late friend Jason Miller in the 1993 film Rudy , which chronicled Rudy Ruettiger 's determination to overcome his small size and dyslexia and play for Notre Dame in 1974 . Parseghian saw Ruettiger 's drive and placed him on the scout team , but resigned at the end of the year . Devine , Parseghian 's successor , put Ruettiger in on defense at the end of the final game of the 1975 season , and Ruettiger recorded a sack .
Parseghian served as one of two honorary coaches along with Lou Holtz in Notre Dame 's 2007 spring game , an annual scrimmage held in April . Holtz 's Gold team defeated Parseghian 's Blue team , 10 – 6 . The same year , Notre Dame unveiled a statue in Parseghian 's honor by sculptor Jerry McKenna , depicting players carrying him off the field in triumph following the 1971 Cotton Bowl victory over Texas . In 2011 , Miami also unveiled a statue in his honor to add to the RedHawks ' Cradle of Coaches plaza . It shows him wearing a Notre Dame sweater as he kneels and looks ahead to the field .
Parseghian , who is married to the former Kathleen Davis , also became involved with medical causes later in life . Along with Mike and Cindy Parseghian , his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , he founded the Ara Parseghian Medical Research Foundation in 1994 . The foundation is seeking a cure for Niemann @-@ Pick disease Type C , a genetic disorder affecting children that causes the buildup of cholesterol in cells , resulting in damage to the nervous system and eventually death . Three of his grandchildren , Michael , Marcia , and Christa Parseghian , died from the disease . He is also active in the cause to find a cure for multiple sclerosis ; his daughter Karan was diagnosed with the disease .
= = Head coaching record = =
* Note : before the 1974 season , the final Coaches ' Poll , also known then as the UPI Poll , was released before the bowl games , so a team that lost its bowl game could still claim the UPI national championship . This was changed as a result of Alabama winning the 1973 Coaches ' Poll national championship despite losing to Notre Dame in the Sugar Bowl .
= Eliza Meek =
Eliza Meek ( March 3 , 1832 – February 8 , 1888 ) was the daughter of Captain John Meek , an early American settler of the Kingdom of Hawaii . In her early youth , she was renown for her equestrian skills on her father 's land . She later became the royal mistress of King Lunalilo and formed a contentious relationship with Queen Emma of Hawaii and was rumored to the be main obstacle between a possible marriage between the two . Along with a group of other members of the royal court , Eliza accompanied the king to Kailua @-@ Kona during his last illness and remained by Lunalilo 's side until his death from tuberculosis on his return to Honolulu on February 3 , 1874 . Little is known about her later life ; Eliza was financially well @-@ off until her death on February 8 , 1888 .
= = Early life = =
Eliza Meek was born on March 3 , 1832 , to Captain John Meek ( 1792 – 1875 ) and Betsy W. Meek ( 1807 – 1848 ) . John was a New Englander from Marblehead , Massachusetts , who first arrived in Hawaii about 1809 and served for many years as harbor master and pilot of Honolulu . Betsy was the Hawaiian wife of Captain Meek and died on May 5 , 1848 . Eliza grew up with many siblings including her youngest sister Elizabeth " Betsy " Meek ( 1841 – 1895 ) , who married American settler Horace Gate Crabbe in 1857 and had five children . In her youth , Eliza was noted for her equestrian skills on her father 's lands at Lihue and Wahiawa on the island of Oʻahu where their family raised thorough @-@ bred horses which were well known across the islands . According to archivist and historian Albert Pierce Taylor , Eliza was often " seen riding the horse through the streets of Honolulu garbed in a wonderful pa @-@ u , with a dozen or more followers riding behind her wearing the same color of garment " . Eliza was considered a great beauty in her youth and possessed green @-@ color eyes indicative of her hapa @-@ haole ( half @-@ European , half @-@ Hawaiian ) heritage .
= = Relationship with Lunalilo = =
Eliza became the mistress of King Lunalilo , who had remained a bachelor for his entire life . She developed a contentious relationship with Queen Emma of Hawaii , the widow of Kamehameha IV and a close friend of Lunalilo . According to one of Emma 's letters , an elderly palace attendant Waiaha and several other older women had given Lunalilo a " piece of bananannah [ sic ] stalk pressed to drink , medicated with love potions , to produce intense affections for Eliza Meek " . Along with a group of Lunalilo 's personal attendants and relatives ( including his chamberlain and Eliza 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Horace Crabbe ) , Eliza was present during the king 's final months of illness . During this period , Eliza was notoriously hostile to Emma , who occasionally visited the ailing King to help nurse him . According to Dr. Georges Phillipe Trousseau , the King 's personal physician , Lunalilo would have married Emma had it not been for Eliza 's interference . Eliza would refuse to leave Emma alone with Lunalilo even at the king 's command . One night , in a fit of rage , Lunalilo threw a chair and a spittoon at Eliza 's head after an argument with between the two . Emma recounted the instance in a letter to her cousin Peter Kaʻeo :
The last bit of news yesterday morning is the King 's anger against Eliza Wednesday ( yesterday ) night for being impudent to him . He threw a chair at her head and a spitoon also , which made a great cut on the side of her head . The nearest Doctor was sent for [ and ] both McGrew and McKibbin arrived . It seems the King told her to come to bed — she replied what right has a dog or a bitch there , which instantly gave vent to his ill temper that he had been brooding some days , and used a word of four letters belonging only to Waterclosets . She retorted , " Oh , I suppose that is what you eat to exist on . " This brought the King 's rage to an instant climax and [ he ] threw the articles at her head . I had intended to call yesterday to see how he continues to improve , but this domestic fracas of the Royal household puts it out of the question , till a few days more when the King will be settled and not so upset .
Despite the scuffle , Eliza was part of the royal party who accompanied Lunalilo when he sailed to Kailua @-@ Kona , in November 1873 , the following month , in the hope that the dry weather would improve his tuberculosis . However , the trip had no lasting effect on Lunalilo 's health . After returning to Honolulu , Lunalilo succumbed to the disease and died on February 3 , 1874 .
= = Later life = =
Little is known of Eliza 's life after Lunalilo 's death . She died at Peleula – her brother @-@ in @-@ law and sister 's residence – on February 8 , 1888 , at the age of fifty @-@ five . In her later life , Eliza was financially well @-@ off and owned a half interest in property on King Street , near Maunakea . According to The Daily Bulletin newspaper , she had been ill for a month before she died and her death was " caused by a general breaking " .
= Keith Bostic ( American football ) =
William Keith Bostic ( born January 17 , 1961 ) is a former professional American football player who played for seven seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) . During his career he played safety for the Houston Oilers and the Cleveland Browns . Bostic served as the Oiler defensive captain under Jerry Glanville . He earned one Pro Bowl selection and missed another based on a tiebreaker for the last safety chosen . In his Pro Bowl season , he led the American Football Conference in interceptions .
Prior to playing in the NFL , he played for the Michigan Wolverines football team of the Big Ten Conference from 1979 – 1982 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season . During this time Michigan won two Big Ten Conference Championships and Bostic was named first team All @-@ Big Ten . While at Michigan , he accumulated fumble recovery and interception statistics that continue to rank among the leaders in school history . Bostic had a reputation as a very physical safety .
= = College = =
Born in Ann Arbor , Michigan , Bostic starred at his hometown Pioneer High School in Ann Arbor . He then stayed in Ann Arbor to play for the University of Michigan where he earned four varsity letters in football from 1979 @-@ 1982 while wearing the # 13 . In college at the University of Michigan , Bostic started eight games in 1980 , and he had an interception in the January 1 , 1981 Rose Bowl for the 1980 Big Ten Conference Champions . This game was the first bowl game victory for Bo Schembechler . He started eleven games in 1981 and twelve in 1982 . Bostic was first team All @-@ Big Ten for the 1982 Big Ten Champions who also went to the Rose Bowl . When he was drafted into the NFL , he was second on the modern Michigan career interceptions list ( since 1965 ) with ten career interceptions , which places him in a tie for seventh on the list now . He ranks tenth on the All @-@ time list . He ranks second on the All @-@ time single @-@ season fumble recovery list with four and fourth on the career list with six . His 119 interception return yards in 1982 ranks fifth all @-@ time .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Bostic Oilers = = =
During the 1970s Bum Phillips had traded away draft picks for veterans several times and between the 1974 NFL Draft and the 1981 NFL Draft the team only had four first round picks , but reached the AFC Championship game twice during the decade with veterans . They went to the playoffs in 1980 as well . However , by 1981 they were below .500 with an aging team . From the 1982 NFL Draft to the 1987 NFL Draft they had nine first round choices . They complemented their drafting with the signing of Warren Moon out of the Canadian Football League and Mike Rozier out of the United States Football League ( USFL ) , a league that attempted to compete with the NFL in the 1980s .
= = = Biles , Studley , Campbell era = = =
Bostic was drafted with the fourteenth pick of the second round of the 1983 NFL Draft with the 42nd pick overall by the Houston Oilers . He was also drafted by the Michigan Panthers of the United States Football League ( USFL ) in the 1983 Territorial Draft . Bostic joined the Oilers who were rebuilding from being the oldest average age NFL team in 1981 .
Bostic started the last 12 games of the 1983 NFL season and every game thereafter as an Oiler until leaving the team in 1989 . The 1983 Houston Oilers under coaches Ed Biles and Chuck Studley went 2 – 14 . The 1984 and 1985 teams of Hugh Campbell also were below .500 . By 1985 he had nonetheless become one of the best safeties in the league . During the 1985 NFL season he had a career @-@ high five quarterback sacks , three interceptions and a fumble recovery .
= = = Glanville era = = =
Bostic 's physical style of play was well @-@ suited for Jerry Glanville who took over the Oilers ' head coaching job for the 1986 NFL season after having been the team 's defensive coordinator . Bostic signed a contract extension before the 1987 NFL season . Then , Bostic earned a Pro Bowl birth in 1987 and was named second @-@ team All @-@ Pro the same season . During the 1987 season he finished second in the NFL with a career @-@ high six interceptions . That total led the American Football Conference ( AFC ) , and he added three quarterback sacks and a fumble recovery that season . Glanville took the team to both the 1987 @-@ 88 and 1988 @-@ 89 NFL Playoffs . The unheralded 1987 team was a surprise playoff entrant in the first round Wild Card game . Even after a surprise 1987 – 88 NFL playoff run the Oilers fired their defensive backs coach , Tom Bettis who had taken over from Ken Houston . Bostic earned All @-@ Pro honorable mention in 1988 . That season he finished tied for the third and final AFC safety Pro Bowl spot with David Fulcher and missed being invited due to the tiebreaker .
With all the rebuilding turnover Bostic was one of the four longest tenured Oilers by his sixth season with the team . He started 88 consecutive non @-@ strike games for the Oilers . He was replaced by Bubba McDowell as the Oilers ' starting strong safety . In 1989 , the Oilers became fed up with Bostic for his untimely penalties and his moody and unpredictable personality . The Indianapolis Colts signed Bostic as a plan B free agent to a two @-@ year $ 900 @,@ 000 contract , but released him during training camp . They released him during the second week of training camp and it was rumored he might head to the Los Angeles Raiders . The Oilers lost a league high fifteen plan B free agents that season . In 1990 , the Cleveland Browns signed Bostic as a free agent . However , they waived him during the season .
= = = Overall reputation = = =
Bostic 's physical style of play was respected by his peers : Lester Hayes said Raider tight end Todd Christensen is the best receiving tight end and that " The only guy I 've ever seen cover Todd is my son , Keith Bostic ... Bostic 's the only guy I 've ever seen pulverize him . I mean he really pulverized him . I call Bostic and Frank Minnifield ( Cleveland cornerback ) my sons , my sons of dirt . " Hayes meant that Bostic and Minnifield played a physical style , just like Hayes . Bostic is known as a big hitter blessed with athletic ability . He combined strength and speed to play his physical style according to Ozzie Newsome : " He 's as strong as any linebacker and can run like any of the guys on the corner . " Bostic earned the nickname " Batman " for his style of play . Instead of instructing his team to elect captains , Glanville instructed his team to " ... pick the three toughest guys . If somebody throws a grenade into a room , they 're the ones who 'll jump on it . " Bostic was the player chosen from the Oilers ' defense . Although much is made of his strength and toughness , it should also be mentioned that he once collared Tony Dorsett from behind in a footrace . At one point in Bostic 's career , while Glanville was still defensive coordinator , the Oilers considered moving him to cornerback because of his speed .
= = = NFL Single Season Record = = =
Fewest interception return yards ( 1987 ) : -14
= = Personal = =
During the offseasons , Bostic was a regular on the Oilers ' summer basketball team that traveled around the state raising money for charities by playing various local All @-@ star teams . After the team 's twelfth season , Bostic had a reputation as the best player ever to play for the team . During one NFL training camp Bostic played with tape over his mouth to try to win a $ 20 bet with Steve Brown over who could keep from talking the longest .
His son , Tony Bostic , played running back for the New Mexico State Aggies as a non @-@ recruited walk @-@ on . His nephew , Nigel Bostic was a promising college football player who won a scholarship to Oklahoma State but was later arrested for gun trafficking .
= The Raft of the Medusa =
The Raft of the Medusa ( French : Le Radeau de la Méduse ) is an oil painting of 1818 – 1819 by the French Romantic painter and lithographer Théodore Géricault ( 1791 – 1824 ) . Completed when the artist was 27 , the work has become an icon of French Romanticism . At 491 cm × 716 cm ( 16 ' 1 " × 23 ' 6 " ) , it is an over @-@ life @-@ size painting that depicts a moment from the aftermath of the wreck of the French naval frigate Méduse , which ran aground off the coast of today 's Mauritania on 2 July 1816 . On 5 July 1816 , at least 147 people were set adrift on a hurriedly constructed raft ; all but 15 died in the 13 days before their rescue , and those who survived endured starvation and dehydration and practised cannibalism . The event became an international scandal , in part because its cause was widely attributed to the incompetence of the French captain .
Géricault chose to depict this event in order to launch his career with a large @-@ scale uncommissioned work on a subject that had already generated great public interest . The event fascinated him , and before he began work on the final painting , he undertook extensive research and produced many preparatory sketches . He interviewed two of the survivors and constructed a detailed scale model of the raft . He visited hospitals and morgues where he could view , first @-@ hand , the colour and texture of the flesh of the dying and dead . As he had anticipated , the painting proved highly controversial at its first appearance in the 1819 Paris Salon , attracting passionate praise and condemnation in equal measure . However , it established his international reputation , and today is widely seen as seminal in the early history of the Romantic movement in French painting .
Although The Raft of the Medusa retains elements of the traditions of history painting , in both its choice of subject matter and its dramatic presentation , it represents a break from the calm and order of the prevailing Neoclassical school . Géricault 's work attracted wide attention from its first showing and was then exhibited in London . The Louvre acquired it soon after the artist 's death at the age of 32 . The painting 's influence can be seen in the works of Eugène Delacroix , J. M. W. Turner , Gustave Courbet , and Édouard Manet .
= = Background = =
In June 1816 , the French frigate Méduse departed from Rochefort , bound for the Senegalese port of Saint @-@ Louis . She headed a convoy of three other ships : the storeship Loire , the brig Argus and the corvette Écho . Viscount Hugues Duroy de Chaumereys had been appointed captain of the frigate despite having scarcely sailed in 20 years . After the wreck , public outrage mistakenly attributed responsibility for his appointment to Louis XVIII , though his was a routine naval appointment made within the Ministry of the Navy and far outside the concerns of the monarch . The frigate 's mission was to accept the British return of Senegal under the terms of France 's acceptance of the Peace of Paris . The appointed French governor of Senegal , Colonel Julien @-@ Désiré Schmaltz , and his wife and daughter were among the passengers .
In an effort to make good time , the Méduse overtook the other ships , but due to poor navigation it drifted 100 miles ( 161 km ) off course . On 2 July , it ran aground on a sandbank off the West African coast , near today 's Mauritania . The collision was widely blamed on the incompetence of De Chaumereys , a returned émigré who lacked experience and ability , but had been granted his commission as a result of an act of political preferment . Efforts to free the ship failed , so , on 5 July , the frightened passengers and crew started an attempt to travel the 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the African coast in the frigate 's six boats . Although the Méduse was carrying 400 people , including 160 crew , there was space for only about 250 in the boats . The remainder of the ship 's complement — at least 146 men and one woman — were piled onto a hastily built raft , that partially submerged once it was loaded . Seventeen crew members opted to stay aboard the grounded Méduse . The captain and crew aboard the other boats intended to tow the raft , but after only a few miles the raft was turned loose . For sustenance the crew of the raft had only a bag of ship 's biscuit ( consumed on the first day ) , two casks of water ( lost overboard during fighting ) and six casks of wine .
According to critic Jonathan Miles , the raft carried the survivors " to the frontiers of human experience . Crazed , parched and starved , they slaughtered mutineers , ate their dead companions and killed the weakest . " After 13 days , on 17 July 1816 , the raft was rescued by the Argus by chance — no particular search effort was made by the French for the raft . By this time only 15 men were still alive ; the others had been killed or thrown overboard by their comrades , died of starvation , or thrown themselves into the sea in despair . The incident became a huge public embarrassment for the French monarchy , only recently restored to power after Napoleon 's defeat in 1815 .
= = Description = =
The Raft of the Medusa portrays the moment when , after 13 days adrift on the raft , the remaining 15 survivors view a ship approaching from a distance . According to an early British reviewer , the work is set at a moment when " the ruin of the raft may be said to be complete " . The painting is on a monumental scale of 491 × 716 cm ( 193 @.@ 3 × 282 @.@ 3 in ) , so that most of the figures rendered are life @-@ sized and those in the foreground almost twice life @-@ size , pushed close to the picture plane and crowding onto the viewer , who is drawn into the physical action as a participant .
The makeshift raft is shown as barely seaworthy as it rides the deep waves , while the men are rendered as broken and in utter despair . One old man holds the corpse of his son at his knees ; another tears his hair out in frustration and defeat . A number of bodies litter the foreground , waiting to be swept away by the surrounding waves . The men in the middle have just viewed a rescue ship ; one points it out to another , and an African crew member , Jean Charles , stands on an empty barrel and frantically waves his handkerchief to draw the ship 's attention .
The pictorial composition of the painting is constructed upon two pyramidal structures . The perimeter of the large mast on the left of the canvas forms the first . The horizontal grouping of dead and dying figures in the foreground forms the base from which the survivors emerge , surging upward towards the emotional peak , where the central figure waves desperately at a rescue ship .
The viewer 's attention is first drawn to the centre of the canvas , then follows the directional flow of the survivors ' bodies , viewed from behind and straining to the right . According to the art historian Justin Wintle , " a single horizontal diagonal rhythm [ leads ] us from the dead at the bottom left , to the living at the apex . " Two other diagonal lines are used to heighten the dramatic tension . One follows the mast and its rigging and leads the viewer 's eye towards an approaching wave that threatens to engulf the raft , while the second , composed of reaching figures , leads to the distant silhouette of the Argus , the ship that eventually rescued the survivors .
Géricault 's palette is composed of pallid flesh tones , and the murky colours of the survivors ' clothes , the sea and the clouds . Overall the painting is dark and relies largely on the use of sombre , mostly brown pigments , a palette that Géricault believed was effective in suggesting tragedy and pain . The work 's lighting has been described as " Caravaggesque " , after the Italian artist closely associated with tenebrism — the use of violent contrast between light and dark . Even Géricault 's treatment of the sea is muted , being rendered in dark greens rather than the deep blues that could have afforded contrast with the tones of the raft and its figures . From the distant area of the rescue ship , a bright light shines , providing illumination to an otherwise dull brown scene .
= = Execution = =
= = = Research and preparatory studies = = =
Géricault was captivated by accounts of the widely publicised 1816 shipwreck , and realised that a depiction of the event might be an opportunity to establish his reputation as a painter . Having decided to proceed , he undertook extensive research before he began the painting . In early 1818 , he met with 2 survivors : Henri Savigny , a surgeon , and Alexandre Corréard , an engineer from the École nationale supérieure d 'arts et métiers . Their emotional descriptions of their experiences largely inspired the tone of the final painting . According to the art historian Georges @-@ Antoine Borias , " Géricault established his studio across from Beaujon hospital . And here began a mournful descent . Behind locked doors he threw himself into his work . Nothing repulsed him . He was dreaded and avoided . "
Earlier travels had exposed Géricault to victims of insanity and plague , and while researching the Méduse his effort to be historically accurate and realistic led to an obsession with the stiffness of corpses . To achieve the most authentic rendering of the flesh tones of the dead , he made sketches of bodies in the morgue of the Hospital Beaujon , studied the faces of dying hospital patients , brought severed limbs back to his studio to study their decay , and for a fortnight drew a severed head , borrowed from a lunatic asylum and stored on his studio roof .
He worked with Corréard , Savigny and another of the survivors , the carpenter Lavillette , to construct an accurately detailed scale model of the raft , which was reproduced on the finished canvas , even showing the gaps between some of planks . Géricault posed models , compiled a dossier of documentation , copied relevant paintings by other artists , and went to Le Havre to study the sea and sky . Despite suffering from fever , he travelled to the coast on a number of occasions to witness storms breaking on the shore , and a visit to artists in England afforded further opportunity to study the elements while crossing the English Channel .
He drew and painted numerous preparatory sketches while deciding which of several alternative moments of the disaster he would depict in the final work . The painting 's conception proved slow and difficult for Géricault , and he struggled to select a single pictorially effective moment to best capture the inherent drama of the event .
Among the scenes he considered were the mutiny against the officers from the second day on the raft , the cannibalism that occurred after only a few days , and the rescue . Géricault ultimately settled on the moment , recounted by one of the survivors , when they first saw , on the horizon , the approaching rescue ship Argus — visible in the upper right of the painting — which they attempted to signal . The ship , however , passed by . In the words of one of the surviving crew members , " From the delirium of joy , we fell into profound despondency and grief . "
To a public well @-@ versed in the particulars of the disaster , the scene would have been understood to encompass the aftermath of the crew 's abandonment , focusing on the moment when all hope seemed lost — the Argus reappeared two hours later and rescued those who remained .
The author Rupert Christiansen points out that the painting depicts more figures than had been on the raft at the time of the rescue — including corpses which were not recorded by the rescuers . Instead of the sunny morning and calm water reported on the day of the rescue , Géricault depicted a gathering storm and dark , heaving sea to reinforce the emotional gloom .
= = = Final work = = =
Géricault , who had just been forced to break off a painful affair with his aunt , shaved his head and from November 1818 to July 1819 lived a disciplined monastic existence in his studio in the Faubourg du Roule , being brought meals by his concierge and only occasionally spending an evening out . He and his 18 @-@ year @-@ old assistant , Louis @-@ Alexis Jamar , slept in a small room adjacent to the studio ; occasionally there were arguments and on one occasion Jamar walked off ; after two days Géricault persuaded him to return . In his orderly studio , the artist worked in a methodical fashion in complete silence and found that even the noise of a mouse was sufficient to break his concentration .
He used friends as models , most notably the painter Eugène Delacroix ( 1798 – 1863 ) , who modelled for the figure in the foreground with face turned downward and one arm outstretched . Two of the raft 's survivors are seen in shadow at the foot of the mast ; three of the figures were painted from life — Corréard , Savigny and Lavillette . Jamar posed nude for the dead youth shown in the foreground about to slip into the sea , and was also the model for two other figures .
According to Hubert Wellington , Delacroix — who would become the standard @-@ bearer of French Romanticism after Géricault 's death — wrote , " Géricault allowed me to see his Raft of Medusa while he was still working on it . It made so tremendous an impression on me that when I came out of the studio I started running like a madman and did not stop till I reached my own room . "
Géricault painted with small brushes and viscous oils , which allowed little time for reworking and were dry by the next morning . He kept his colours apart from each other : his palette consisted of vermilion , white , naples yellow , two different yellow ochres , two red ochres , raw sienna , light red , burnt sienna , crimson lake , Prussian blue , peach black , ivory black , cassel earth and bitumen . Bitumen has a velvety , lustrous appearance when first painted , but over a period of time discolours to a black treacle , while contracting and thus creating a wrinkled surface , which cannot be renovated . As a result of this , details in large areas of the work can hardly be discerned today .
Géricault drew an outline sketch of the composition onto the canvas . He then posed models one at a time , completing each figure before moving onto the next , as opposed to the more usual method of working over the whole composition . The concentration in this way on individual elements gave the work both a " shocking physicality " and a sense of deliberate theatricality — which some critics consider an adverse effect . Over 30 years after the completion of the work , his friend Montfort recalled :
[ Géricault 's method ] astonished me as much as his intense industry . He painted directly on the white canvas , without rough sketch or any preparation of any sort , except for the firmly traced contours , and yet the solidity of the work was none the worse for it . I was struck by the keen attention with which he examined the model before touching brush to canvas . He seemed to proceed slowly , when in reality he executed very rapidly , placing one touch after the other in its place , rarely having to go over his work more than once . There was very little perceptible movement of his body or arms . His expression was perfectly calm ...
Working with little distraction , the artist completed the painting in eight months ; the project as a whole took 18 months .
= = Influences = =
The Raft of the Medusa fuses many influences from the Old Masters , from the Last Judgment and Sistine Chapel ceiling of Michelangelo ( 1475 – 1564 ) and Raphael 's Transfiguration , to the monumental approach of Jacques @-@ Louis David ( 1748 – 1825 ) and Antoine @-@ Jean Gros ( 1771 – 1835 ) , to contemporary events . By the 18th century , shipwrecks had become a recognised feature of marine art , as well as an increasingly common occurrence as more journeys were made by sea . Claude Joseph Vernet ( 1714 – 1789 ) created many such images , achieving naturalistic colour through direct observation — unlike other artists at that time — and was said to have tied himself to the mast of a ship in order to witness a storm .
Although the men depicted on the raft had spent 13 days adrift and suffered hunger , disease and cannibalism , Géricault pays tribute to the traditions of heroic painting and presents his figures as muscular and healthy . According to the art historian Richard Muther , there is still a strong debt to Classicism in the work . The fact that the majority of the figures are almost naked , he wrote , arose from a desire to avoid " unpictorial " costumes . Muther observes that there is " still something academic in the figures , which do not seem to be sufficiently weakened by privation , disease , and the struggle with death " .
The influence of Jacques @-@ Louis David can be seen in the painting 's scale , in the sculptural tautness of the figures and in the heightened manner in which a particularly significant " fruitful moment " — the first awareness of the approaching ship — is described . In 1793 , David also painted an important current event with The Death of Marat . His painting had an enormous political impact during the time of the revolution in France , and it served as an important precedent for Géricault 's decision to also paint a current event . David 's pupil , Antoine @-@ Jean Gros , had , like David , represented " the grandiosities of a school irredeemably associated with a lost cause " , but in some major works , he had given equal prominence to Napoleon and anonymous dead or dying figures . Géricault had been particularly impressed by the 1804 painting Bonaparte Visiting the Plague @-@ Victims of Jaffa , by Gros .
The young Géricault had painted copies of work by Pierre @-@ Paul Prud 'hon ( 1758 – 1823 ) , whose " thunderously tragic pictures " include his masterpiece , Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime , where oppressive darkness and the compositional base of a naked , sprawled corpse obviously influenced Géricault 's painting .
The foreground figure of the older man may be a reference to Ugolino from Dante 's Inferno — a subject that Géricault had contemplated painting — and seems to borrow from a painting of Ugolini by Henry Fuseli ( 1741 – 1825 ) that Géricault may have known from prints . In Dante , Ugolino is guilty of cannibalism , which was one of the most sensational aspects of the days on the raft . Géricault seems to allude to this through the borrowing from Fuseli . An early study for The Raft of the Medusa in watercolour , now in the Louvre , is much more explicit , depicting a figure gnawing on the arm of a headless corpse .
Several English and American paintings including The Death of Major Pierson by John Singleton Copley ( 1738 – 1815 ) — also painted within two years of the event — had established a precedent for a contemporary subject . Copley had also painted several large and heroic depictions of disasters at sea which Géricault may have known from prints : Watson and the Shark ( 1778 ) , in which a black man is central to the action , and which , like The Raft of the Medusa , concentrated on the actors of the drama rather than the seascape ; The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar , September 1782 ( 1791 ) , which was an influence on both the style and subject matter of Géricault 's work ; and Scene of a Shipwreck ( 1790s ) , which has a strikingly similar composition . A further important precedent for the political component was the works of Francisco Goya , particularly his The Disasters of War series of 1810 – 12 , and his 1814 masterpiece The Third of May 1808 . Goya also produced a painting of a disaster at sea , called simply Shipwreck ( date unknown ) , but although the sentiment is similar , the composition and style have nothing in common with The Raft of the Medusa . It is unlikely that Géricault had seen the picture .
= = Exhibition and reception = =
The Raft of the Medusa was first shown at the 1819 Paris Salon , under the title Scène de Naufrage ( Shipwreck Scene ) , although its real subject would have been unmistakable for contemporary viewers . The exhibition was sponsored by Louis XVIII and featured nearly 1 @,@ 300 paintings , 208 sculptures and numerous other engravings and architectural designs . Géricault 's canvas was the star at the exhibition : " It strikes and attracts all eyes " ( Le Journal de Paris ) . Louis XVIII visited three days before the opening and said : " Monsieur , vous venez de faire un naufrage qui n 'en est pas un pour vous " , or " Monsieur Géricault , you 've painted a shipwreck , but it 's not one for you " . The critics were divided : the horror and " terribilità " of the subject exercised fascination , but devotees of classicism expressed their distaste for what they described as a " pile of corpses " , whose realism they considered a far cry from the " ideal beauty " represented by Girodet 's Pygmalion and Galatea , which triumphed the same year . Géricault 's work expressed a paradox : how could a hideous subject be translated into a powerful painting , how could the painter reconcile art and reality ? Marie @-@ Philippe Coupin de la Couperie , a French painter and contemporary of Géricault , provided one answer : " Monsieur Géricault seems mistaken . The goal of painting is to speak to the soul and the eyes , not to repel . " The painting had fervent admirers too , including French writer and art critic Auguste Jal , who praised its political theme , its liberal position – its advancement of the negro and critique of ultra @-@ royalism – and its modernity . The historian Jules Michelet approved : " our whole society is aboard the raft of the Medusa " .
Géricault had deliberately sought to be both politically and artistically confrontational . Critics responded to his aggressive approach in kind , and their reactions were either ones of revulsion or praise , depending on whether the writer 's sympathies favoured the Bourbon or Liberal viewpoint . The painting was seen as largely sympathetic to the men on the raft , and thus by extension to the anti @-@ imperial cause adopted by the survivors Savigny and Corréard . The decision to place a black man at the pinnacle of the composition was a controversial expression of Géricault 's abolitionist sympathies . The art critic Christine Riding has speculated that the painting 's later exhibition in London was planned to coincide with anti @-@ slavery agitation there . According to art critic and curator Karen Wilkin , Géricault 's painting acts as a " cynical indictment of the bungling malfeasance of France 's post @-@ Napoleonic officialdom , much of which was recruited from the surviving families of the Ancien Régime " .
The painting generally impressed the viewing public , although its subject matter repelled many , thus denying Géricault the popular acclaim which he had hoped to achieve . At the end of the exhibition , the painting was awarded a gold medal by the judging panel , but they did not give the work the greater prestige of selecting it for the Louvre 's national collection . Instead , Géricault was awarded a commission on the subject of the Sacred Heart of Jesus , which he clandestinely offered to Delacroix , whose finished painting he then signed as his own . Géricault retreated to the countryside , where he collapsed from exhaustion , and his unsold work was rolled up and stored in a friend 's studio .
Géricault arranged for the painting to be exhibited in London in 1820 , where it was shown at William Bullock 's Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly , London , from 10 June until the end of the year , and viewed by about 40 @,@ 000 visitors . The reception in London was more positive than that in Paris , and the painting was hailed as representative of a new direction in French art . It received more positive reviews than when it was shown at the Salon . In part , this was due to the manner of the painting 's exhibition : in Paris it had initially been hung high in the Salon Carré — a mistake that Géricault recognised when he saw the work installed — but in London it was placed close to the ground , emphasising its monumental impact . There may have been other reasons for its popularity in England as well , including " a degree of national self @-@ congratulation " , the appeal of the painting as lurid entertainment , and two theatrical entertainments based around the events on the raft which coincided with the exhibition and borrowed heavily from Géricault 's depiction . From the London exhibition Géricault earned close to 20 @,@ 000 francs , which was his share of the fees charged to visitors , and substantially more than he would have been paid had the French government purchased the work from him . After the London exhibition , Bullock brought the painting to Dublin early in 1821 , but the exhibition there was far less successful , in large part due to a competing exhibition of a moving panorama , " The Wreck of the Medusa " by the Marshall brothers firm , which was said to have been painted under the direction of one of the survivors of the disaster .
The Raft of the Medusa was championed by the curator of the Louvre , comte de Forbin who purchased it for the museum from Géricault 's heirs after his death in 1824 . The painting now dominates its gallery there . The display caption tells us that " the only hero in this poignant story is humanity " .
At some time between 1826 and 1830 American artist George Cooke ( 1793 – 1849 ) made a copy of the painting in a smaller size , ( 130 @.@ 5 x 196 @.@ 2 cm ; approximately 4 ft × 6 ft ) , which was shown in Boston , Philadelphia , New York and Washington , D.C. to crowds who knew about the controversy surrounding the shipwreck . Reviews favoured the painting , which also stimulated plays , poems , performances and a children 's book . It was bought by a former admiral , Uriah Phillips , who left it in 1862 to the New York Historical Society , where it was miscatalogued as by Gilbert Stuart and remained inaccessible until the mistake was uncovered in 2006 , after an enquiry by Nina Athanassoglou @-@ Kallmyer , a professor of art history at the University of Delaware . The university 's conservation department undertook restoration of the work .
Because of deterioration in the condition of Géricault 's original , the Louvre in 1859 – 60 commissioned two French artists , Pierre @-@ Désiré Guillemet and Étienne @-@ Antoine @-@ Eugène Ronjat , to make a full size copy of the original for loan exhibitions .
In the autumn of 1939 , the Medusa was packed for removal from the Louvre in anticipation of the outbreak of war . A scenery truck from the Comédie @-@ Française transported the painting to Versailles in the night of 3 September . Some time later , the Medusa was moved to the Château de Chambord where it remained until after the end of the Second World War .
= = Interpretation and legacy = =
In its insistence on portraying an unpleasant truth , The Raft of the Medusa was a landmark in the emerging Romantic movement in French painting , and " laid the foundations of an aesthetic revolution " against the prevailing Neoclassical style . Géricault 's compositional structure and depiction of the figures are classical , but the contrasting turbulence of the subject represents a significant change in artistic direction and creates an important bridge between Neoclassical and Romantic styles . By 1815 , Jacques @-@ Louis David , then in exile in Brussels , was both the leading proponent of the popular history painting genre , which he had perfected , and a master of the Neoclassical style . In France , both history painting and the Neoclassical style continued through the work of Antoine @-@ Jean Gros , Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres , François Gérard , Anne @-@ Louis Girodet de Roussy @-@ Trioson , Pierre @-@ Narcisse Guérin — teacher of both Géricault and Delacroix — and other artists who remained committed to the artistic traditions of David and Nicolas Poussin .
In his introduction to The Journal of Eugène Delacroix , Hubert Wellington wrote about Delacroix 's opinion of the state of French painting just prior to the Salon of 1819 . According to Wellington , " The curious blend of classic with realistic outlook which had been imposed by the discipline of David was now losing both animation and interest . The master himself was nearing his end , and exiled in Belgium . His most docile pupil , Girodet , a refined and cultivated classicist , was producing pictures of astonishing frigidity . Gérard , immensely successful painter of portraits under the Empire — some of them admirable — fell in with the new vogue for large pictures of history , but without enthusiasm . "
The Raft of the Medusa contains the gestures and grand scale of traditional history painting ; however , it presents ordinary people , rather than heroes , reacting to the unfolding drama . Géricault 's raft pointedly lacks a hero , and his painting presents no cause beyond sheer survival . The work represents , in the words of Christine Riding , " the fallacy of hope and pointless suffering , and at worst , the basic human instinct to survive , which had superseded all moral considerations and plunged civilised man into barbarism " .
The unblemished musculature of the central figure waving to the rescue ship is reminiscent of the Neoclassical , however the naturalism of light and shadow , the authenticity of the desperation shown by the survivors and the emotional character of the composition differentiate it from Neoclassical austerity . It was a further departure from the religious or classical themes of earlier works because it depicted contemporary events with ordinary and unheroic figures . Both the choice of subject matter and the heightened manner in which the dramatic moment is depicted are typical of Romantic painting — strong indications of the extent to which Géricault had moved from the prevalent Neoclassical movement .
Hubert Wellington said that while Delacroix was a lifelong admirer of Gros , the dominating enthusiasm of his youth was for Géricault . The dramatic composition of Géricault , with its strong contrasts of tone and unconventional gestures , stimulated Delacroix to trust his own creative impulses on a large work . Delacroix said , " Géricault allowed me to see his Raft of Medusa while he was still working on it . " The painting 's influence is seen in Delacroix 's The Barque of Dante ( 1822 ) and reappears as inspiration in Delacroix 's later works , such as The Shipwreck of Don Juan ( 1840 ) .
According to Wellington , Delacroix 's masterpiece of 1830 , Liberty Leading the People , springs directly from Géricault 's The Raft of the Medusa and Delacroix 's own Massacre at Chios . Wellington wrote that " While Géricault carried his interest in actual detail to the point of searching for more survivors from the wreck as models , Delacroix felt his composition more vividly as a whole , thought of his figures and crowds as types , and dominated them by the symbolic figure of Republican Liberty which is one of his finest plastic inventions . "
The art and sculpture historian Albert Elsen believed that The Raft of the Medusa and Delacroix 's Massacre at Chios provided the inspiration for the grandiose sweep of Auguste Rodin 's monumental sculpture The Gates of Hell . He wrote that " Delacroix 's Massacre at Chios and Géricault 's Raft of the Medusa confronted Rodin on a heroic scale with the innocent nameless victims of political tragedies ... If Rodin was inspired to rival Michelangelo 's Last Judgment , he had Géricault 's Raft of the Medusa in front of him for encouragement . "
While Gustave Courbet ( 1819 – 1877 ) could be described as an anti @-@ Romantic painter , his major works like A Burial at Ornans ( 1849 – 50 ) and The Artist 's Studio ( 1855 ) owe a debt to The Raft of the Medusa . The influence is not only in Courbet 's enormous scale , but in his willingness to portray ordinary people and current political events , and to record people , places and events in real , everyday surroundings . The 2004 exhibition at the Clark Art Institute , Bonjour Monsieur Courbet : The Bruyas Collection from the Musee Fabre , Montpellier , sought to compare the 19th @-@ century Realist painters Courbet , Honoré Daumier ( 1808 – 1879 ) , and early Édouard Manet ( 1832 – 1883 ) with artists associated with Romanticism , including Géricault and Delacroix . Citing The Raft of the Medusa as an instrumental influence on Realism , the exhibition drew comparisons between all of the artists . The critic Michael Fried sees Manet directly borrowing the figure of the man cradling his son for the composition of Angels at the Tomb of Christ .
The influence of The Raft of the Medusa was felt by artists beyond France . Francis Danby , a British painter born in Ireland , probably was inspired by Géricault 's picture when he painted Sunset at Sea after a Storm in 1824 , and wrote in 1829 that The Raft of the Medusa was " the finest and grandest historical picture I have ever seen " .
The subject of marine tragedy was undertaken by J. M. W. Turner ( 1775 – 1851 ) , who , like many English artists , probably saw Géricault 's painting when it was exhibited in London in 1820 . His A Disaster at Sea ( c . 1835 ) chronicled a similar incident , this time a British catastrophe , with a swamped vessel and dying figures also placed in the foreground . Placing a coloured figure in the centre of the drama was revisited by Turner , with similar abolitionist overtones , in his The Slave Ship ( 1840 ) .
The Gulf Stream ( 1899 ) , by the American artist Winslow Homer ( 1836 – 1910 ) , replicates the composition of The Raft of the Medusa with a damaged vessel , ominously surrounded by sharks and threatened by a waterspout . Like Géricault , Homer makes a black man the pivotal figure in the scene , though here he is the vessel 's sole occupant . A ship in the distance mirrors the Argus from Géricault 's painting . The move from the drama of Romanticism to the new Realism is exemplified by the stoic resignation of Homer 's figure . The man 's condition , which in earlier works might have been characterised by hope or helplessness , has turned to " sullen rage " .
In the early 90 's , sculptor John Connell , in his Raft Project , a collaborative project with painter Eugene Newmann , recreated The Raft of the Medusa by making life @-@ sized sculptures out of wood , paper and tar and placing them on a large wooden raft .
Remarking on the contrast between the dying figures in the foreground and the figures in the mid @-@ ground waving towards the approaching rescue ship , the French art historian Georges @-@ Antoine Borias wrote that Géricault 's painting represents , " on the one hand , desolation and death . On the other , hope and life . "
For Kenneth Clark , The Raft of the Medusa " remains the chief example of romantic pathos expressed through the nude ; and that obsession with death , which drove Géricault to frequent mortuary chambers and places of public execution , gives truth to his figures of the dead and the dying . Their outlines may be taken from the classics , but they have been seen again with a craving for violent experience . "
Today , a bronze bas @-@ relief of The Raft of the Medusa by Antoine Étex adorns Géricault 's grave in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris .
= Japanese settlement in the Federated States of Micronesia =
Japanese settlement in what now constitutes modern @-@ day Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) dates back to the end of the 19th century , when Japanese traders and explorers settled on the central and eastern Carolines , although earlier contacts can not be completely excluded . After the islands were occupied by Japan in 1914 , a large @-@ scale Japanese immigration to them took place in the 1920s and 1930s . The Japanese government encouraged immigration to the islands belonging to the South Pacific Mandate to offset demographic and economic problems facing Japan at that time .
The earliest immigrants worked as traders , although most of the later settlers worked as fishermen , farmers or conscript labourers . The majority of immigrants settled in Pohnpei and Chuuk , while other islands were home for only a few Japanese . The total Japanese population reached about 100 @,@ 000 by 1945 . The Japanese immigrants in the central and eastern Carolines were Japanese , Okinawans , and a few Koreans . The settlers brought Shinto and Buddhism religions to the islands , although they were not popular with indigenous people . By 1945 the Japanese language replaced Micronesian languages in day @-@ to @-@ day communications .
Ethnic relations between the Japanese settlers and civil officers with the Micronesians were initially coordial and intermarriage was encouraged between the Japanese and Micronesians , although relations soured as the Japanese administration implemented policies that favoured the Japanese populace and were insensitive to Micronesian cultural norms . After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , virtually all Japanese were repatriated back to Japan . People of mixed Japanese and Micronesian descent were allowed to remain , which most of them chose to do . Many of them assumed leading roles in the political , public and business sectors after World War II , and constitute a large minority within FSM itself . Micronesia began to engage with Japan again in the business and cultural spheres from the 1970s , and established formal diplomatic ties in 1988 , two years after Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) became an independent country .
= = History = =
= = = Early contacts = = =
The first recorded contact between the Japanese and Pacific Islanders ( believed to be Micronesians ) was reflected in the Kokon Chomon Jyu , when eight men arrived at Okinoshima ( an ancient town in modern @-@ day Izu Province ) in July 1171 . They were described to be tall , having dark @-@ brown and tattooed skin , wearing ornaments as well as having coarse hair . The Japanese served them some millet and sake . When the eight men attempted to take the bows and spears , a fight ensued between the Japanese and the eight men , before the latter left Okinoshima . Japanese contact was also suggested by some anthropologists in the 19th century , and at least one , James McKinney Alexander suggested that Micronesians may have intermarried with Japanese fishermen who were strayed off course and stranded in the islands . In an 1895 study , Alexander noted similarities between the cultural traditions , vocabulary and the pre @-@ Christian beliefs between Pohnpeian and Kosraeans . Studies done by other Japanese anthropologists in the 19th and 20th centuries noted that at least 60 Japanese vessels drifted into the Pacific Ocean between the 17th and 19th centuries and could have made windfalls in the Pacific Islands .
A Japanese corvette , Ryujo under the command of Enomoto Takeaki stopped by Pohnpei and Kosrae between 1882 and 1883 . The entire tenth class of the Japanese naval academy was aboard the ship , and was noted as the first Japanese warship to stop by Micronesian waters . The king of Kosrae accorded the Japanese crew a warm welcome , and personally claimed that the Kosraeans had some Japanese ancestry . Some years later , a Japanese cattle farmer , Shinroku Mizutani from the Bonin Islands visited Pohnpei in 1887 and 1889 . In both visits , Mizutani stayed for a few days in the islands before he was chased out by the Spanish .
= = = Late Spanish and German colonial eras ( 1890 – 1914 ) = = =
In 1890 , two Japanese businessmen , Ukichi Taguchi and Tsunenori Suzuki , formed the Nanto Shokai ( South Seas Trading Company ) with the aim of developing Japanese commercial interests in Micronesia . They bought a sailing ship , Tenyu Maru and sailed for Yap in June and befriended a shipwrecked Irish American missionary , Daniel O 'Keefe , but set sail for Pohnpei after two days . They set up a small store peddling Japanese wares under strict conditions imposed by the Spanish , and returned to Japan in December because of dwindling funds . The ship was later sold to the Ichiya company which established two trading stations at Chuuk and Pohnpei . More Japanese businessmen arrived in Chuuk in 1892 under the charge of Mizutani and established a store at Chuuk in 1892 . A few Japanese , notably Koben Mori , began socialising with the Chuukese and led semi @-@ nomadic lifestyles until 1896 before gaining the protection of Spanish guards . Mori lived with a few Japanese compatriots , and became the resident agent for Hiki Shokai , another Japanese trading company that came to set up a shop at Moen .
The Japanese businessmen that were based at Moen were repatriated from Micronesia in 1900 , a year after Spain ceded its sovereignty to Germany as part of the German – Spanish Treaty of 1899 . Only Mori and another Japanese business agent remained behind in Chuuk and Pohnpei , respectively . At the time of German annexation , Mori was serving as the resident agent for a German trading company at that time . Mori lived in isolation until 1907 when the German authorities allowed Japanese trade in Chuuk , and another trading company – Murayama Shokai established a trading post in Tol . Japanese settlers also started to come in small numbers to Chuuk to engage in farming or fishing activities . The German colonial administration granted the Japanese settlers equal rights with other European settlers in German @-@ mandated territories , considering them citizens of an imperialist power . In official statistics the Japanese were legally classified as " White " .
= = = Japanese colonial era ( 1914 – 1945 ) = = =
The First World War saw many nations leap to take Germany 's overseas possessions for themselves , and Micronesia was no exception . A Japanese warship sailed into Truk Lagoon in October 1914 ; it was greeted by Japanese settlers living in the nearby islands . The navy set up its regional headquarters at Chuuk and stationed a garrison at Pohnpei until 1922 , where the region 's administrative capital Kolonia was established under the South Pacific Mandate . When a civilian government was established in March 1922 , there were about 150 Japanese living in Pohnpei , which consisted of traders and government officials . Another seventy Japanese immigrated to Pohnpei by 1930 , and a few individuals settled in neighbouring Chuuk , Kosrae and Yap . In Chuuk , another hundred Japanese businessmen settled at Toloas by the late 1920s to cater to governmental and business interests . A few elementary schools were set up to serve both the local Japanese and Chuukese populace .
The majority of the settlers who came before 1930 consisted of Okinawans . A tuna canning factory was set up at Pohnpei in 1930 , and Japanese settlers from the Tōhoku region and Hokkaido came in greater numbers after that . Some of them became fishermen , while others organised farming communes . The civilian government persuaded twenty @-@ four families to establish a farming commune at Palikir in 1931 , but the settlers faced problems adapting to the tropical climate and bringing their vegetable produce to Kolonia for sale . The civilian government moved in to quickly improve the transport network and electrical supplies throughout Pohnpei . In addition , they granted larger tracts of land to the settlers , and as a result the settlers went into rice cultivation . More settlers followed suit , and an anthropologist , Umesao Tadao reported that the farming settlement in Pohnpei was well established by 1941 .
The Japanese populace at the other islands grew at a slower rate — although less so for Chuuk , and Japanese tend to prefer settling in low @-@ lying areas like Tomil and Tol . Road and electrical infrastructure were built in new towns and hamlets , which were founded or expanded by Japanese settlers . Many towns and hamlets had at least a thousand Japanese inhabitants by 1941 . Some conscript and contract labourers from mainland Japan , Okinawa and Korea hired to build naval facilities at Chuuk and Pohnpei contributed to the increasing immigrant population in the central and eastern Carolines . Kolonia and Palikir had the largest Japanese populace after the Marianas and Palau , and the Japanese outnumbered the natives by a thin margin in 1941 . Kosrae was populated by no more than a few hundred Japanese throughout the colonial era ; a few Japanese policemen were stationed on the island to keep law and order . Japanese and Korean labourers briefly stayed on the island to carry out phosphate mining operations and establish a cotton plantation , but were repatriated back after the plantation failed .
Intermarriage between Japanese men and Micronesian women were encouraged , especially in Pohnpei and Chuuk where there are large Japanese populations . The number of intermarriages between the Japanese and Micronesians were the highest among Okinawan fishermen in the 1930s , many of whom were single men . A sizable community of mixed Japanese – Micronesians by the 1930s , and children of legitimate unions were conscripted into the Japanese military forces . Micronesians and Japanese – Micronesians came under the suspicion of the Kempeitai for sympathies with the Americans , and many reportedly faced harassment as a result . Micronesian islands reverted to military administration in 1943 , and the regional headquarters was relocated from Palau to Chuuk . As food supplies ran scarce during the later months of the Second World War , the Japanese military began stealing breadfruit and food supplies from Micronesian farms . The Japanese military avoided Japanese and Japanese – Micronesian families , especially those that wielded political influence within the local community . In Chuuk , land was also confiscated from Micronesians and Japanese – Micronesians to facilitate the construction of new military facilities .
= = = Recent years ( 1945 – present ) = = =
The Japanese settlers in the central and eastern Carolines were repatriated after the Japanese surrender . The civilians were repatriated first , while the soldiers stayed on as Prisoners of war to carry out repair works to the islands ' infrastructure until 1946 . Most people of mixed Japanese – Micronesian descent stayed behind and were brought up by their mothers , although a few chose to return to Japan with their fathers . The American military government permitted some thirty @-@ three Japanese and Korean settlers to remain with their families , but this was allowed only under exceptional circumstances . Within the first few years after the war , some former Japanese settlers formed philanthropic organisations to promote public understanding and memory of Japan 's colonial legacy in Micronesia . These organisations arranged visitation trips for the former settlers to the Carolines , usually with the purpose of maintaining kinship ties with their Japanese – Micronesian descendants .
Japanese – Micronesians assumed leading positions in the public and private sector , particularly in Chuuk where there is a substantial percentage of Micronesians with Japanese ancestry . Micronesia began to engage with Japan in the business and cultural spheres from the 1970s , and established formal diplomatic ties in 1988 , two years after Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) became an independent country . In turn , Japan is one of the key aid providers to Micronesia . Many mixed Japanese – Micronesians sought closer cultural and business ties with Japan , and politicians of Japanese – Micronesian descent — notably Manny Mori — have made publicised visits to their ancestral homelands as well as personal friendship ties with some former Japanese leaders .
= = Demographics = =
A 1998 census conducted by the Japanese foreign affairs ministry showed 141 Japanese nationals residing in the FSM , the majority whom of are expatriate businessmen . Another 2007 census counted a 114 Japanese nationals in the FSM . The Spanish counted fifteen Japanese traders based in Chuuk in 1895 , after American missionaries reported the Japanese involvement in smuggling weapons and liquor . An 1899 census counted a total of 30 Japanese nationals , mainly businessmen living in the Caroline Islands , with the majority being located on Pohnpei , Chuuk and Palau . The German authorities chased out most of the businessmen in 1900 , leaving only a few Japanese in the Micronesian islands . A few Japanese began settling in the islands in 1907 after the German authorities allowed the Japanese traders to establish their enterprises in Pohnpei and Chuuk . Early Japanese settlers consisted of single men , and official statistics showed a gender imbalance with five Japanese males to one female . Many Japanese men took on Micronesian wives and raised mixed Japanese – Micronesian families .
Japanese arrivals to Micronesia remained modest until the 1920s , following which the islands experienced a quick increase in the number of immigrants , especially in Pohnpei . Immigrants consisted largely of single men in the 1920s , the majority of whom were Okinawan fishermen . The influx of Japanese immigrants to the central and eastern Carolines was not as intense as compared to the Marianas and Japanese settlement in Palau until the early 1930s , and constituted a little more than 10 percent of the total Japanese populace through Micronesia in 1939 . In urban areas , Japanese settlers outnumbered Micronesians around the late 1930s . Many Japanese families migrated to the central and eastern Carolines in the 1930s , and by 1935 there were three Japanese males to two females in the islands . More Japanese were brought to the Central and Eastern Carolines during the Second World War , and the Japanese populace outnumbered the native Micronesians in many islands immediately after the Japanese surrender in 1945 . The majority of Japanese who were brought to the central and eastern Caroline islands consisted of labourers as well as military personnel , and soon outnumbered both Japanese and Micronesian civilians alike .
The Japanese population were repatriated back to Japan after the war , but most people of mixed Japanese – Micronesian remained in the islands and constituted a substantial percentage in the islands ' population . They became assimilated with the Micronesians , and in all official census they are identified by their Micronesian heritage . In 2001 , the director of Japan 's Institute for Pacific Studies Izumi Kobayashi estimated that at least 23 % of FSM 's population was of Japanese ancestry . An official estimate in 2006 puts the number a little below 20 % .
= = Religion = =
Japanese settlers were generally followers of Shinto and Buddhism . In the central and eastern Carolines , religious activities were less widely publicised than in the Marianas or Palau . In towns with a sizeable Japanese populace , the civilian government would fund the construction of at least one public shrine in each town , and in smaller Japanese settlements , community leaders would direct the construction of a small shrine for communal purposes . Two Buddhist temples were also constructed during the Japanese colonial era , one at Dublon in Pohnpei and another in Chuuk .
Christian missionary activities — particularly Protestant — were more commonly seen in the central and eastern Carolines than in the other mandated islands . Four Congregationalist missionaries were sent to the Chuuk and Pohnpei in 1920 and received partial funding from the government . Although Christian missionary activities were intended to cater to the spiritual needs of Micronesians , a few Japanese settlers and government officials also patronised the missionaries . Missionary and church services were suppressed in the late 1930s , but the continued presence of Japanese Christians prompted the civilian government to permit private church services until the Japanese surrender . After the Japanese settlers were repatriated , the Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples were either abandoned or demolished . People of mixed Japanese – Micronesian heritage adopted Christianity in favour of Shinto and Buddhism .
= = Language = =
Early Japanese settlers taught their children to speak Japanese . Some , like traders and settlers with Micronesian wives , learned to speak some Micronesian languages . Japanese replaced the Micronesian languages as the lingua franca for day @-@ to @-@ day communication and administrative purposes for both Japanese and Micronesians . However , regular use of Japanese was discouraged when Micronesia came under United Nations trusteeship , and people of mixed Japanese – Micronesian heritage switched to English and various Micronesian languages . Japan 's economic influence has led cultural organisations to promote learning Japanese among FSM citizens . Elementary Japanese had been offered as a foreign language in some schools , notably in the College of Micronesia @-@ FSM .
= = Economy = =
A few Japanese trading companies established businesses at Chuuk and Pohnpei in the 1890s , and Koben Mori acted as its resident agent , helping to facilitate trade with the islanders . The early Japanese businessmen traded on alcoholic products , explosives and Chinaware . Contraband products like alcohol and weapons were also illegally traded , and the Spanish administration made futile attempts to suppress these activities . The Japanese traders were expelled from Chuuk and Pohnpei in 1900 when the Germans purchased the islands from Spain , but Japanese traders returned to Chuuk in 1907 and set up a trading firm dealing with copra production . After the Japanese annexed Micronesia from Germany in 1914 , they gained a monopoly over the shipping routes in all of the mandated islands . The rate of copra production reached twelve thousand tons per year by the 1920s , and had an export value of two million yen . In the late 1920s , an Okinawan fisherman , Tamashiro established a tuna production factory at Wonei . The Japanese government provided incentives for fishermen to open new fishery production factories , and in 1937 there were at least 1500 Okinawans and Japanese who were employed in the fishery industry . Japanese settlers introduced commercial agriculture in Pohnpei and to a smaller extent in Chuuk and Yap . A few Japanese businessmen also set up firms to oversee the plantation of cash crops , including copra , rice and pineapples . They constituted the main exports in the central and eastern Carolines .
After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , the Allied occupation authorities scrapped all organisations pertaining to overseas trade , banking , finance and colonisation , and effectively led to an end of Japanese influence in Micronesia . Trade restrictions were then enforced between Japan and Micronesia in the first two decades after the war , but were gradually removed between 1973 and 1983 . Japanese tourists began to visit the islands from the 1960s onwards , and private businesses were allowed to invest in hotel construction and fisheries . Japanese tourists — 30 million travel abroad every year — were seen as a possible economic driver for FSM . Sites of historical interests such as the sunken Japanese ships at Chuuk Lagoon received the highest concentration of Japanese visitors .
= = Interethnic relations in society = =
Racial segregation was practiced from the early days of civilian rule , and policies were enforced to restrict Micronesians in the education , work force , health care benefits and civil service to inferior positions as compared to their Japanese counterparts . The local populace was classified according to ethnicity , with the Japanese at the top of the social strata , followed by the Okinawans , Koreans , with the Micronesians at the bottom , although some scholars argued that the Micronesians were accorded a more privileged position than the Koreans , who were often subjected to abuse by the Japanese authorities . In the education sector , Micronesian children attended public schools ( logakko in Japanese ) that emphasised teaching vocational skills , self @-@ discipline and a basic command of Japanese . Japanese , Okinawan and Korean children attended primary schools ( shogakko ) with lessons that were based on the mainstream Japanese curriculum . Very few Micronesians progressed beyond the elementary level , and those who did usually had family connections with influential Japanese figures . Micronesians were generally accorded lower @-@ ranking jobs , and most were employed as language interpreters , administrative assistants or jobs that required menial labour .
The Japanese actively discouraged the practice of Micronesian customs and religions , which they viewed as " primitive " and " barbaric " . Christian missionary activity among the Micronesians was encouraged by the civilian government during the interwar period in order to encourage them to adopt modern cultural practices . Japanese cultural practices were actively encouraged ; many Micronesians learned to speak Japanese fluently and adopted Japanese manners and customs . On the other hand , many Koreans did not speak Japanese well , and the eagerness of Okinawans to engage in manual labour occasionally motivated Micronesians to criticize the Japanese culture promoted by the Japanese administrators . Japanese cultural influences were the strongest in Chuuk and Pohnpei ; in most towns by the 1920s , most Micronesians were dressed in Western or Japanese style @-@ clothing . Micronesians in these two states were also very receptive to promiscuous liaisons between Japanese men and Micronesian women ; the first brothels appeared in both states in the 1910s . Separate brothels were established for Japanese and Micronesian men , although women in both types of brothels were mainly Micronesian women .
In Kosrae and Yap , the Japanese administration had to contend with considerable resistance from the islanders to accept Japanese political and cultural influences . Anti @-@ Japanese sentiment was developed from the early days of Japanese rule in Kosrae , when a Japanese sergeant who was placed in @-@ charge of the island 's administrative affairs often threatened the islanders with physical abuse when dealing with conflicts . A Japanese custom frowned upon by Kosraeans was the practice of cremation of the dead . In addition , the administrators ' indifference towards nudity clashed with the Christian moral values that the islanders held to . Similarly in Yap , the islanders ' negative attitudes towards the Japanese was developed as a result of incidences of cultural insensitivity from the Japanese administrators . In particular , the introduction of Chamorros by the Japanese administration to work as policemen in the island incited racial hatred of Yapese chiefs against the Japanese . As a consequence , few Japanese immigrants chose to settle in Yap or Kosrae .
= = Notable individuals = =
Hiroshi Ismael , former Vice President and physician
Mori Koben , businessman and adventurer
Manny Mori , former President
Masao Nakayama , former politician and diplomat
Tosiwo Nakayama , former President
Regina Shotaro , Olympic athlete
= Gone to Coney Island and Booming Business =
Gone to Coney Island and Booming Business are two 1910 American silent short comedy productions by the Thanhouser Company . Both were released together on a single film reel on July 5 , 1910 . Gone to Coney Island is a comedy that features Coney Island , which the mere subject would make for a successful film . Booming Business may have been the very type of slapstick comedy that Edwin Thanhouser specifically said the Thanhouser Company would not produce . The productions of both films have no credits for the cast or crew , but possible candidates for these roles exist . Reviews of the films favored Gone to Coney Island , but some reviewers specifically refused to explain the plot because Coney Island subjects were deemed self @-@ explanatory . Booming Business received one detailed review in The New York Dramatic Mirror which was negative . The films are presumed lost .
= = Plots = =
Though the films are presumed lost , a synopsis of Gone to Coney Island survives in The Moving Picture World from July 9 , 1910 . It states : " Kate has been employed for a number of years as a maid in the home of Mrs. Greene . Her ' young man , ' Henry , works down at Coney [ Island ] . He induces Kate to leave her place and take a situation as a ticket seller at Luna Park . Kate tries to tell her mistress of her intended departure , but Mrs. Greene is busy and refuses to listen . Mrs. Greene goes out , during her absence , Kate takes French leave , leaving a note saying she is going to Coney Island . Never having visited the Island , Mrs. Greene considers it a jungle place . When she gets Kate 's note , she thinks that her duty to immediately start in pursuit of the misguided girl . Not knowing how to get to the island , she appeals to her old friend , Professor Griggs . He also is ignorant of the ways of Coney , but in turn appeals to his friend Casey , a ward politician , who of course knows the Island , and consents to act as their escort . The three set out for Coney and start on their search for Kate . The hunt is almost forgotten in the joys of looping the loop , shooting the chutes and various other diversions of the Island . When they finally find Kate , she is at her post , selling tickets at Luna . She laughs at Mrs. Greene 's fears for her safety and announces the fact that she is happily married , and presents the lucky man . In a cool Coney corner , Mrs. Greene confesses that she found Coney wasn 't as bad as it was painted , and she is going to revisit it often . "
The second production , Booming Business , was also featured in the same issue of the publication with a short summary . It states : " Jack is an industrious young businessman , who has invested in a small stock of stationery , and set up shop . He unfortunately has no customers , and his various schemes to bring trade prove extremely unlucky but mighty laughable . What they are we had better let the little picture tell . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the two scenarios is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming .
The setting of Gone to Coney Island is Coney Island , a popular amusement park and picture subject . One review in The Moving Picture World went so far as to give a review that was devoid of meaning by stating , " Not much further explanation is needed . Those who have been there and those who have heard of it know what it means . Perhaps nothing further is required . " Bowers notes that the popularity of Coney Island was itself able to make a successful film regardless of the scenario involved . Booming Business is notable because it appears to have contained slapstick comedy if The New York Dramatic Mirror review was accurate . Edwin Thanhouser specifically stated that the company would not produce slapstick comedy in an article in The Moving Picture World .
= = Release and reception = =
The two comedy productions were released on a single reel , approximately 1000 feet in total , on July 5 , 1910 . A Thanhouser Filmography Analysis , provided by Thanhouser Company Film Preservation , lists each film as comprising half a reel without further detail . The films were shown together in theaters , with known advertisements in Indiana , Kansas , Pennsylvania , and North Carolina .
Reviews for the Gone to Coney Island were positive with two positive , but altogether undetailed reviews in The Moving Picture World . A detailed review in the The Moving Picture News acknowledged that the film will have a lasting impact " as it is one of a class of pictures which can almost be shown as a repeater without hurting the reputation of the theatre . " The reviewer praised the photography and found the acting adequate , but the decision to include the marriage scene was deemed peculiar . For Booming Business the The Moving Picture World gave it two sentences which said the film was funny beyond description , but the The New York Dramatic Mirror provides a more detailed and negative review of the film by stating , " This ' comic ' is not up to the usual Thanhouser standard . In fact , it is rather silly all through , the only laughs being brought about by blows , falls , and smashing furniture . The principal character comes down to the camera and indicates the things he intends doing all through the picture , robbing it of every element of reality . He has a small store and adopts various schemes to boom business , such as giving health treatment with a magnetic battery , teaching boxing , and so on . Everything turns out badly and ends in general confusion . " Bowers notes that The New York Dramatic Mirror was not an unbiased reviewer , for the publication was slanted to the favor the Licensed companies instead of the Independents . Another window into the film is provided by an advertisement by the Amuzu in The Twin @-@ City Daily Sentinel which states the grocery @-@ man attempts to spur business in a variety of comical ways .
= Til It Happens to You =
" Til It Happens to You " is a song produced and performed by American singer Lady Gaga . She co @-@ wrote the song with Diane Warren for the 2015 documentary film The Hunting Ground , which deals with campus rape in the United States . The song had leaked onto the Internet through an unofficial recording made at the film 's premiere at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival . It was later released by Interscope Records to digital retailers on September 18 , 2015 . The director and producer of the film had looked for someone influential to write a song for it , and music supervisor Bonnie Greenberg contacted Warren who was interested . She wrote the song with Gaga and producer Nile Rodgers accompanied them during the recording , providing his suggestions .
A universal song about any kind of loss in life , " Til It Happens to You " was placed during two sequences in the film , highlighting the pain of sexual assault . The song consists of an orchestral production with strings , and an emotional vocal delivery from Gaga . Lyrically it asks listeners to stand in a victim 's position and try to understand the turmoil they go through . " Til It Happens to You " was later included as part of a public service announcement video directed by Catherine Hardwicke . The video depicts various instances of violence against women and sexual assaults . It ends with a cautionary note about the effects of such distress , and individuals finding solace with their close friends and relatives .
Both the song and the video received positive critical response . Reviewers complimented Gaga 's vocal delivery , the sympathetic tone of the lyrics as they related to the subject , as well as the realistic depictions of the sexual assaults in the clip , and Hardwicke 's direction . A portion of the proceeds from retail sales was donated to organizations supporting victims of sexual assault . Commercially , the song reached the top thirty in Finland , Greece , and Spain , and it peaked at number 95 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States in March 2016 . " Til It Happens to You " was nominated for a Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards , and for Best Original Song at the 88th Academy Awards , along with numerous awards .
= = Background and release = =
" Til It Happens to You " was written by Diane Warren and Lady Gaga , and recorded by the latter for The Hunting Ground ( 2015 ) , a documentary film about campus rape in the United States . Director Kirby Dick and producer Amy Ziering wanted someone with " major " influence to record a song for the film , believing it would generate publicity and promote the subject . They contacted executive producer Paul Blavin , explaining their idea and added that they did not have the resources to find someone . Blavin started searching and met with music supervisor Bonnie Greenberg , who introduced him to Warren . Warren was moved by the idea saying : " I cannot not write a song for you . And not only can I not not write a song for this movie , I 'm going to gift it to you . " She wrote the song after viewing scenes from the film almost a year before the track 's release . Warren then called Gaga and played her a rough demo , but was unsure about her involvement . So she decided to fly to New York and try to work with Gaga ; the latter accepted the song and decided to record it . Warren said of the song and Gaga 's contributions :
I heard about [ the film ] and it just really touched me , and she had stuff in her life that she could relate to . Gaga is one of the most talented artists I have worked with in my life and I 'm excited about doing more with her ... There are a lot of levels to the song . There 's something very vulnerable about it and something very defiant about it , especially the way [ Gaga ] sings it . The first verse is vulnerable — ' You tell me it 's going to get better ? ' — and the second verse comes in and it builds . Really ? It gets better ? No . You don 't know until it happens to you ...
Warren also added that the song 's message was universal in nature and relatable to any loss faced in life . Gaga , who herself is a victim of rape , revealed during the Producers Guild of America Awards 2015 , that the song 's theme was important to her family as well . Her father 's sister Joanne had been sexually assaulted while attending college , and the subsequent torment worsened her prevailing lupus , resulting in her death and profoundly affecting Gaga 's family . The singer became involved with New York state Governor Andrew Cuomo 's push for new legislation to help eradicate " rape culture " in American universities , signing a letter supporting it . Titled " Enough Is Enough " , the legislation went into effect in July 2015 .
The documentary features two versions of the song , one during the body of the film and the second at its closing , and highlights the sequences of the pain of sexual assault . While the song played , the lead subject , an assault survivor , reminisced about the impact of rape while walking around a college campus . Ziering concluded that having Gaga sing the track fulfilled their need for publicity since she " [ brought ] a whole other demographic . Anyone who has that kind of platform to reach all sorts of people that maybe would not necessarily be inclined to be interested in your issue ... it 's incredible . " " Til It Happens to You " leaked onto the Internet before it was officially released , through an unofficial recording made at the film 's premiere at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival . In April 2015 , Warren confirmed that the song would have an official release and was waiting for a final audio mixing by Gaga . It was later released as a digital download single on September 18 , 2015 .
= = Recording and composition = =
In an interview for a Billboard podcast , Nile Rodgers spoke about the song 's recording sessions and working with Gaga and Warren . He had met Gaga in a party and she invited him to join them in the studio . During recording , Gaga was singing in a D note , over the F note of the music that was being played . Rodgers suggested to Warren that since the D vocals made the song sound like a country track , they could instead inverse the chords into thirteenth ( an octave plus a sixth ) , thus serving a dominant function . Warren accepted the suggestion and the song was re @-@ recorded . Gaga reportedly struggled while recording the song , since it caused her to recall her own trauma . Warren explained that it was : " very emotional for her . She couldn 't even talk through it at times " . Gaga told an interviewer with Variety that Warren had helped her feel comfortable about the song and its subject matter , allowing her to transcend the singing and put the correct emotional depth in her performance .
When Diane first played me what she had begun with the song , I needed no convincing about the record ... it was about sharing that part of myself with the world ... We talked a lot about what I felt the song needed in order to reach as many young people as possible . I felt that it needed to not stay in a purely emotional state , but that it was going to somehow grow throughout the performance and the song and by the end , kind of be full of rage . I feel like what this song accomplishes is women — or men — rising to say , ' You think you can hurt me ? You don 't know about power . Because after what you did to me , you don 't even know how much stronger I am.'
" Til It Happens to You " is a somber tune featuring orchestral production and soaring strings . The pop ballad delivers an empowering message : " Hold your head up and be strong / When you fall you gotta get up " , and has been described as " stirring and emotional " . Featuring a classical production , the song emphasizes Gaga 's vocals , keeping focus on the lyrics : " Til it happens to you / You don 't know how it feels , how it feels / Til it happens to you , you won 't know , it won 't be real / No , it won 't be real , won 't know how I feel . " The lyrics ask those who tell victims how to cope , or pretend to understand their assault , to try to stand in their shoes . Gaga feels that some events need to be experienced in order to understand them . The first verse is sung by Gaga in a vulnerable voice , which gradually changes into an aggressive tone , which then changes to sound like that of a survivor during the final verses . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , " Til It Happens to You " is set in the time signature common for a slow tempo of 59 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A minor with Gaga 's vocals spanning from E3 to D5 . The song follows a basic sequence of Am – C – Fmaj7 – C – G / B as its chord progression .
= = Critical response = =
Jeff Benajmin from Fuse noted that the song contains a " powerful message " while the composition was evocative of her " biting " ballads like " Dope " . Brennan Carly from Spin said the song " highlights [ Gaga ] ' s evocative voice " and is similar in tone to " Speechless " and " Gypsy " . While reviewing the documentary , Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter said that the song provided " an extra jolt of poignancy " in the film . Lauren Valenti from Marie Claire described the track as " robust and orchestral " , adding that the lyrics " command attention " . She complimented the decision to have Gaga sing the track , given her connection to sexual abuse . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse also compared it to " Dope " and " Speechless " , while comparing the string arrangement to the music of Lana Del Rey . Stern described it as a " massive production " complimenting the lyrics by being straightforward . For Manohla Dargis of The New York Times , Dick was able to successfully change the sombre mood of the documentary with the inclusion of the song . Spencer Kornhaber from The Atlantic praised the song and Gaga 's vocals , saying that : " Even with such somber subject matter , [ the singer 's ] booming delivery and dramatic phrasing will probably remind people of the time when [ Gaga 's 2009 single ] ' Bad Romance ' ruled the radio . "
Declaring the song Gaga 's " most stirring " release , Michelle Geslani from Consequence of Sound called the track : " a sweeping and intensely powerful number — it 's not just any ordinary pop song " . Christopher Tapley from Variety praised both Gaga and Warren 's songwriting , describing it as : " something of an anthem for the cause ... It is one of the strongest contenders in this year 's race for best original song [ in the Academy Awards ] . But far more than that , it is a rally cry for a movement . " Lisa Wright wrote in NME that the song is : " a somber piano ballad befitting of the topic with lyrics that depict the frustration of being told to pick yourself up and carry on by people who couldn 't possibly understand your situation . " Idolator 's Robbie Daw claimed that the " powerful , unsettling " visuals were complimented by a " strong vocal performance " from Gaga . Brittany Spanos from Rolling Stone called it an " evocative track " , which highlighted Gaga 's vocals and believed it to be " a perfect follow @-@ up to [ Gaga 's Cheek to Cheek album ] with Tony Bennett " . Spanos added that " [ an Academy Award win would be a triumph ] following [ Gaga 's ] critical and commercial miss with most recent album Artpop and help break Warren 's losing streak at the show . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Til It Happens to You " charted on the Ultratip charts of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) while in Finland it debuted and peaked at number 21 on the Finnish Download Chart . Across Europe it peaked at number 46 in France , number 29 in Spain , and also reached number 5 on the Greece Digital Songs chart published by Billboard . In the United Kingdom , the song entered the UK Download Chart at number 67 , while on the official UK Singles Chart it reached a peak of number 171 . The song also reached a peak of number 52 in Scotland . On the Belgian Ultratip charts , " Til It Happens to You " reached number 45 in Flanders region and number 42 in Wallonia .
In the United States , the song initially failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but later entered at number 95 in March 2016 , following Gaga 's performance of the song at the 88th Academy Awards . According to Billboard , the song had sold less than 2 @,@ 000 downloads during the week before the Academy Awards sales period . Following the performance , the song sold nearly 28 @,@ 000 downloads ( 2 @,@ 120 % sales increase ) , becoming its best digital sales week , and debuted at number 27 on the Hot Digital Songs chart . It also garnered one million streams ( up by 546 % ) for the tracking week , contributing its debut on the Hot 100 . Billboard reported that the song sold more than " Writing 's on the Wall " by Sam Smith , the latter having won the Academy Award for Best Original Song . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Til It Happens to You " has sold a total of 71 @,@ 000 downloads in the country .
On the Dance Club Songs , the song became Gaga 's 14th entry to reach the top of the chart on the issue dated January 23 , 2016 , landing her in 10th place in the ranking of artists with the most number @-@ ones on the dance chart . It was her first song to reach the top of the chart since " Applause " ( 2013 ) . The rise to the top of the dance chart was aided by 30 remixed versions of the track , including those from Dave Audé , Tracy Young and Dirty Pop . On the Billboard issue dated February 20 , 2016 , the song debuted at number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart ; it has reached a peak of number 19 . According to radio program directors , the song received positive response from their listeners prompting airplay .
= = Accolades = =
" Til It Happens to You " won the award for Best Song in a Documentary , at the 2015 Hollywood Music in Media Awards , which took place in November 11 , 2015 , for Best Original Song at the 20th Satellite Awards , and for Best Song from a Movie at the 3rd iHeartRadio Music Awards . Other nominations for the song came from 21st Critics ' Choice Awards and the St. Louis Film Critics Association ( StLFCA ) , where it was listed for Best Song category , from Georgia Film Critics Association and Denver Film Critics Society in the category for Best Original Song , and from the 58th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Song Written for Visual Media . " Til It Happens to You " also received a nomination for an Academy Award in the category of Best Original Song for the 2016 ceremony . It is the fifth song from a documentary to be listed for an award in that category . Gaga dedicated the nomination to survivors of sexual assault , through a message on her Twitter account . In February 2016 , Gaga and Warren were honored at the 11th Annual Los Angeles Italia Film , Fashion and Art Fest , with the festival 's Song of the Year Award . The song also received a nomination at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics , however , just Warren was credited because of their cue sheet accreditation requirement . With its nomination , " Til It Happens to You " became the first song ever to be nominated at the Grammys , Oscars and Emmys in the same year .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
In August 2015 , it was announced that the song would be released as part of a public service announcement ( PSA ) video , directed by Catherine Hardwicke , to raise awareness about sexual assaults in college campuses . The Hollywood Reporter described it as casting " an emotional spotlight on young women in vulnerable situations that college students will readily recognize " . Hardwicke said of the PSA 's important message : " You can 't watch the documentary without screaming at the screen . We tried to capture those stories in a very visceral way and add another voice to this powerful call to action . " Production costs were underwritten by the film 's executive producers , Paul Blavin and Regina K. Scully . The video was released the same day as the digital release , with Gaga tweeting out a link to it and adding : " We hope u feel our love & solidarity through the song & perhaps find some peace in knowing u r not alone through this film " . Warren believed that the PSA video highlighted her observations about victims coming forward to speak about the assault on them :
It seems like it 's all coming out of this dark closet it was in ... It was secretive . It wasn 't what you talked about . But now , people are saying , ' We 're not going to be victims anymore , we 're going to call you on it , whether it 's on a campus or anywhere ' . I want [ people ] to know they 're not alone and they 're not victims , but they 're survivors .
The clip portrays sexual assaults mostly against women , and how they cope after the incident . The black @-@ and @-@ white video opens with a warning message : " The following contains graphic content that may be emotionally unsettling but reflects the reality of what is happening daily on college campuses . " It then shows a girl walking through an empty corridor , followed by young people in various activities in a college campus : reading ( portrayed by actress Nikki Reed ) , a trans man adjusting his chest binder in the bathroom , attending a party ( one of the partygoers being portrayed by actress Kiersey Clemons ) . However they are all sexually assaulted , with one of the scenes showing a couple of young girls being drugged and raped at the party . The heartbroken girls and the trans man cry , while alternate images show them expressing their emotions by inscribing words on themselves . Ultimately they find solace and hope in friendship , and leave the college with their friends , as the words inscribed on their bodies change to positive messages . Near its ending , the music video displays the message : " One in five college women will be sexually assaulted this year unless something changes " , following which the message points the audience to the Facebook page for The Hunting Ground and Itsonus.org , the White House support website for people who have endured a sexual crime . A portion of the earnings from the song 's digital sales will be donated to organizations supporting victims of sexual assault .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Kornhaber described the video as a " sombre , socially conscious curveball " but wondered why Gaga released the PSA @-@ like video , adding that she has : " always been good at surprises , and unfortunately , no time is better than any other when it comes to discussing the issues she 's singing about " . Christopher Rosen from Entertainment Weekly described the clip as " powerful , disturbing and emotional " . Writing for The Daily Telegraph , Radhika Sanghani declared that each scenario in the video appeared realistic and wrote : " by making sure the attacks differ in location , scenario and the appearances of both rapist and victim , Gaga is breaking the myth of there being a ' typical rape ' " . Corinne Heller from E ! believed that the " graphic , emotional and hard to watch " video was able to deliver a " powerful message " , one that was close to Gaga due to her real @-@ life rape experience . Wright described the video for NME as a " brutal , monochrome rendering " of the subject matter , with " harrowing " depictions of the rapes . She added that the rape statistics at the end of the video were " horrifying " but complimented Gaga for using her popularity to promote awareness of the subject . Loretta Donelan from Bustle believed that Gaga 's previous music videos had political aspects but were open to interpretations . But with the music video of " Til It Happens to You " , she showed maturity by featuring " chilling scenes of staged sexual assaults " .
Alex Rees from Cosmopolitan felt that the video contained " uncomfortable footage " , but added that the " emotionally unsettling " images were able to reflect on the actual reality of what happens on college campuses . Claire Hodgson from the same publication described the clip as a " beautifully shot , brilliantly acted short film " , which " really does not hold back when it comes to portraying the real horror of sexual assault in the most graphic way possible " . Emily Shire from The Daily Beast was positive about the clip , calling it : " both chilling and beautiful . The overall effect is as much , if not more , a credit to acclaimed director Catherine Hardwicke . The brutality of these snapshot scenes are remarkably moving in the scariest and most sickening way possible " . However , Shire was disappointed with one aspect of the PSA – that the victims are supported by their friends and close @-@ ones and that was enough to cope through the trauma . Instead Shire wanted to see the legal ramifications of such traumatic incidents , with the victims going to the police . Shire concluded the review saying : " Gaga and Hardwicke deserve props for creating such a powerful , visceral , and aesthetically striking PSA . They 've brought a tremendous amount of attention to rape and sexual assault . Yet , attention alone is inadequate balm for the victims of rape . " Conversely , Dan Solomon of Fast Company believed the video to be an " important statement " from Gaga and believed that it would direct further attention to The Hunting Ground .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga performed " Til It Happens to You " live for the first time on October 29 , 2015 at the annual amfAR gala , along with cover versions of " Call Me Irresponsible " , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " and " La Vie en rose " . She also performed the song at the Billboard Women in Music event on December 11 , 2015 , where she was presented with the award for Woman of the Year . The song was also performed at an intimate gathering at the Peninsula Hotel in Beverly Hills . The audience consisted of the filmmakers and the rape survivors featured in the documentary . Gaga reportedly became emotional while performing the song , and thanked the filmmakers for including the song in the film . She also performed the song at the 2015 Producers Guild of America Awards , where The Hunting Ground was awarded a special recognition trophy . Actress America Ferrera introduced Gaga but she did not appear on stage for sometime leading to a few moments of " nervous laughter from the audience " as Ferrera tried to joke about the situation , until the singer finally arrived in front of her piano on stage .
Gaga performed the song at the 88th Academy Awards after an introduction by Joe Biden , the vice president of the United States . She sang it while sitting in front of a white piano , and near its conclusion survivors of sexual assaults joined her onstage , with words like " survivor " and " not your fault " written on their bodies . Mike Ayers from The Wall Street Journal called it a " poignant performance " of the night . Katie Atkinson from Billboard listed the performance as one of the best moments of the awards show , saying that Gaga " made a huge impact on the Oscars stage . Her performance alone would have been powerful enough , but when the curtains opened behind her to reveal a sea of sexual assault survivors standing in solidarity , the emotional bar was raised to the next level . " Kesha performed a cover of the song , accompanied with Warren on piano , at the Humane Society Gala in Los Angeles on May 7 , 2016 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Digital download
" Til It Happens to You " – 4 : 18
Remixes promotional CD single
" Til It Happens to You " ( Tracy Young 's Ferosh Reconstruction Extended ) – 9 : 18
" Til It Happens to You " ( Tracy Young 's Ferosh Reconstruction Radio Edit ) – 3 : 52
" Til It Happens to You " ( Tracy Young 's Ferosh Reconstruction Mixshow ) – 6 : 04
" Til It Happens to You " ( Tracy Young 's Ferosh Reconstruction Dub ) – 9 : 18
" Til It Happens to You " ( Mike Rizzo Funk Generation Club Mix ) – 5 : 12
" Til It Happens to You " ( Mike Rizzo Funk Generation Radio Mix ) – 3 : 54
" Til It Happens to You " ( Frank Lamboy Late Mix Vocal ) – 7 : 48
" Til It Happens to You " ( Frank Lamboy Late Instrumental ) – 7 : 48
" Til It Happens to You " ( Dirty Pop Club Remix ) – 6 : 24
" Til It Happens to You " ( Division 4 & Matt Consola Mix ) – 7 : 10
" Til It Happens to You " ( Division 4 & Matt Consola Radio Edit ) – 4 : 05
" Til It Happens to You " ( Division 4 & Matt Consola Instrumental ) – 7 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga ( BMI ) Sony ATV Songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing , LLC / GloJoe Music Inc . ( BMI )
Personnel
Credits adapted from Soundtrack.Net
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Tear down this wall ! =
" Tear down this wall ! " is a line from a speech made by US President Ronald Reagan in West Berlin on June 12 , 1987 , calling for the leader of the Soviet Union , Mikhail Gorbachev , to open up the barrier which had divided West and East Berlin since 1961 .
= = Background = =
The " tear down this wall " speech was not the first time Reagan had addressed the issue of the Berlin Wall . In a visit to West Berlin in June 1982 , he 'd stated " I 'd like to ask the Soviet leaders one question [ ... ] Why is the wall there ? " , and in 1986 , 25 years after the construction of the wall , in response to West German newspaper Bild @-@ Zeitung asking when he thought the wall could be " torn down " , Reagan said , " I call upon those responsible to dismantle it [ today ] " .
On the day before Reagan 's 1987 visit , 50 @,@ 000 people had demonstrated against the presence of the American president in Berlin . During the visit itself , wide swaths of Berlin were shut off hermetically from the event to suppress further anti @-@ Reagan protests . The district of Kreuzberg , in particular , was targeted in this respect , with movement throughout this portion of the city in effect restrained completely ( for instance the subway line 1 was shut down ) .
The speech was also a source of considerable controversy within the Reagan administration itself , with several senior staffers and aides advising against the phrase , saying anything that might cause further East @-@ West tensions or potential embarrassment to Gorbachev , with whom President Reagan had built a good relationship , should be omitted . American officials in West Germany and presidential speechwriters , including Peter Robinson , thought otherwise . Robinson traveled to West Germany to inspect potential speech venues , and gained
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@ Vozdooshnykh Seel — Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) .
Despite the teething problems with the MiG @-@ 3 , in 1941 , one of the aircraft 's designers — Mikhail Gurevich — was awarded the State Stalin Prize for his contribution to Soviet aviation .
A number of reports had been received about poor quality aircraft received by the regiments which pointed directly at the NII VVS as it was responsible for monitoring the quality of the aircraft delivered to the VVS . On 31 May 1941 the People 's Commissariat of Defense decreed that the NII VVS had been negligent . A number of senior managers were demoted and the head of the Institute , Major General A. I. Filin was summarily executed .
A number of MiG @-@ 3s were found to have unacceptable performance at high altitudes despite being designed as a high @-@ altitude interceptor . The oxygen supply was often insufficient and the stall and spin characteristics were very dangerous , especially to inexperienced pilots . This was demonstrated on 10 April 1941 when three pilots of the 31st Fighter Regiment of the Air Defenses ( IAP PVO ) attempted to intercept a German high @-@ altitude reconnaissance aircraft over Kaunas , Lithuania flying at 9 @,@ 000 m ( 30 @,@ 000 ft ) . All three aircraft entered irrecoverable spins and the pilots were forced to bail out , one being killed . The NII VVS sent an engineer to investigate and he found that the pilots had flown very few hours on the MiG @-@ 3 and that that was their first high @-@ altitude sortie . Other problems included insufficient fuel and oil pressure at altitude due to problems with the pumps .
= = = Comparison to other fighters = = =
The MiG @-@ 3 's top speed of 640 km / h ( 398 mph ) at 7 @,@ 200 metres ( 23 @,@ 622 ft ) was faster than the 615 km / h ( 382 mph ) of the German Messerschmitt Bf 109F @-@ 2 in service at the beginning of 1941 and the British Supermarine Spitfire V 's 603 km / h ( 375 mph ) . At lower altitudes the MiG 's speed advantage disappeared as its maximum speed at sea level was only 505 km / h ( 314 mph ) while the Bf 109F @-@ 2 could do 515 km / h ( 320 mph ) . Unfortunately for the MiG @-@ 3 and its pilots , aerial combat over the Eastern Front generally took place at low and medium altitudes where it had no speed advantage .
The MiG 's loaded weight of 3 @,@ 350 kg ( 7 @,@ 385 lb ) was greater than the Bf 109F @-@ 2 's 2 @,@ 728 kg ( 6 @,@ 014 lb ) and it was less maneuverable in the horizontal plane than the Bf 109 due to its higher wing loading . This lack of maneuverability was exacerbated by the MiG @-@ 3 's poor climb performance , its instability at high speeds ( which can make aerial gunnery difficult due to the point of aim " wandering " and requiring constant pilot input to remain in target ) , and its underpowered armament .
The MiG @-@ 3 's standard armament was one 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) UBS machine gun and two 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 in ) ShKAS machine guns , all mounted in the engine cowling and synchronized to fire through the propeller arc . In contrast , most versions of the German Messerschmitt Bf 109 that it encountered had one 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannon and two 7 @.@ 92 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns ( although the Bf 109F used during Operation Barbarossa had the 15mm MG 151 / 20 , meaning it was armed little better than the MiG ) . To remedy this problem , 821 aircraft were built with one 12 @.@ 7 mm UBK machine gun in a pod under each wing in mid @-@ 1941 . This lowered its speed by about 20 km / h ( 12 mph ) at all altitudes , which was unpopular with the pilots , some of whom removed the pods . One hundred aircraft were equipped with a pair of UBS machine guns in lieu of the ShKAS weapons . Another 215 aircraft also had just the UBS machine guns but were fitted to carry six RS @-@ 82 rockets . A total of 72 aircraft mounted a pair of 20 mm ShVAK cannon . A wide variety of armaments were experimented with by various units at the requests of their pilots or to make up shortages .
= = = Production = = =
The NKAP ( Narodnyy komissariat aviatsionnoy promyshlennosti — People 's Ministry of the Aircraft Industry ) announced its 1941 production plan on 9 December 1940 . Zavod Nr. 1 would be required to build a total of 3 @,@ 500 in 1941 . Zavod Nr. 43 in Kiev would begin construction of the MiG @-@ 3 and complete one hundred aircraft by the end of the year and Zavod Nr. 21 in Gor 'kiy would start to plan construction of an upgraded version of the MiG @-@ 3 , although this last program was canceled shortly afterwards . 140 were delivered in January 1941 and Zavod Nr. 1 was on pace to exceed its quota with 496 delivered in July , 562 in August and 450 in September . In October the German advance on Moscow forced the factory , and its OKO , to evacuate to Kuybyshev where production resumed under unsuitable conditions . However , shortly afterwards , Stalin sent a telegram to the directors of the plants building the Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 and the MiG @-@ 3 demanding more Il @-@ 2 production , resulting in MiG @-@ 3 production being terminated in favor of the Il @-@ 2 , with a final thirty aircraft built in 1942 from spares . An additional factor in cancellation of the MiG @-@ 3 was that its Mikulin AM @-@ 35A engine was closely related to the Il @-@ 2 's AM @-@ 38 allowing production to be quickly switched from one to the other .
MiG @-@ 3 production at Zavod Nr. 1 had already been planned to be reduced from a NKAP order of 27 August that required the factory to produce 420 fighters in September , declining to 100 in December with Il @-@ 2 production ramping up to 250 in December while the former aircraft repair plant at Khodynka Aerodrome was to be transferred to the NKAP , redesignated as Zavod Nr. 165 , and begin production of MiG @-@ 3s . The German advance disrupted these plans for Zavod 165 and it never produced a single MiG @-@ 3 .
= = Operational history = =
MiG @-@ 3s were delivered to front @-@ line fighter regiments beginning in the spring of 1941 and were a handful for pilots accustomed to the lower @-@ performance and docile Polikarpov I @-@ 152 and I @-@ 153 biplanes and the Polikarpov I @-@ 16 monoplane . It remained tricky and demanding to fly even after the extensive improvements made over the MiG @-@ 1 . Many fighter regiments had not kept pace in training pilots to handle the MiG and the rapid pace of deliveries resulted in many units having more MiGs than trained pilots during the German invasion . By 1 June 1941 , 1 @,@ 029 MIG @-@ 3s were on strength , but there were only 494 trained pilots . In contrast to the untrained pilots of the 31st Fighter Regiment those of the 4th Fighter Regiment were able to claim three German high @-@ altitude reconnaissance aircraft shot down before war broke out in June 1941 . However high @-@ altitude combat of this sort was to prove to be uncommon on the Eastern Front where most air @-@ to @-@ air engagements were at altitudes well below 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) . At these altitudes the MiG @-@ 3 was outclassed by the Bf 109 in all respects , and even by other new Soviet fighters like the Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 . Furthermore , the shortage of ground @-@ attack aircraft in 1941 forced it into that role as well , for which it was totally unsuited . Pilot Alexander E. Shvarev recalled : " The Mig was perfect at altitudes of 4 @,@ 000 m and above . But at lower altitudes it was , as they say , ' a cow ' . That was the first weakness . The second was its armament : weapons failure dogged this aircraft . The third weakness was its gunsights , which were inaccurate : that 's why we closed in as much as we could and fired point blank . "
On 22 June 1941 , most MiG @-@ 3s and MiG @-@ 1s were in the border military districts of the Soviet Union . The Leningrad Military District had 164 , 135 were in the Baltic Military District , 233 in the Western Special Military District , 190 in the Kiev Military District and 195 in the Odessa Military District for a total of 917 on hand , of which only 81 were non @-@ operational . An additional 64 MiGs were assigned to Naval Aviation , 38 in the Air Force of the Baltic Fleet and 26 in the Air Force of the Black Sea Fleet .
The 4th and 55th Fighter Regiments had most of the MiG @-@ 3s assigned to the Odessa Military District and their experiences on the first day of the war may be taken as typical . The 4th , an experienced unit , shot down a Romanian Bristol Blenheim reconnaissance bomber , confirmed by post @-@ war research , and lost one aircraft which crashed into an obstacle on take @-@ off . The 55th was much less experienced with the MiG @-@ 3 and claimed three aircraft shot down , although recent research confirms only one German Henschel Hs 126 was 40 % damaged , and suffered three pilots killed and nine aircraft lost . The most unusual case was the pair of MiG @-@ 3s dispatched from the 55th on a reconnaissance mission to Ploieşti that failed to properly calculate their fuel consumption and both were forced to land when they ran out of fuel .
Most of the MiG @-@ 3s assigned to the interior military districts were transferred to the PVO where their lack of performance at low altitudes was not so important . On 10 July 299 were assigned to the PVO , the bulk of them belonging to the 6th PVO Corps at Moscow , while only 293 remained with the VVS , and 60 with the Naval Air Forces , a total of only 652 despite deliveries of several hundred aircraft . By 1 October , on the eve of the German offensive towards Moscow codenamed Operation Typhoon , only 257 were assigned to VVS units , 209 to the PVO , and 46 to the Navy , a total of only 512 , a decrease of 140 fighters since 10 July , despite deliveries of over a thousand aircraft in the intervening period . By 5 December , the start of the Soviet counter @-@ offensive that drove the Germans back from the gates of Moscow , the Navy had 33 MiGs on hand , the VVS 210 , and the PVO 309 . This was a total of 552 , an increase of only 40 aircraft from 1 October .
Over the winter of 1941 – 42 the Soviets transferred all of the remaining MiG @-@ 3s to the Navy and PVO so that on 1 May 1942 none were left on strength with the VVS . By 1 May 1942 , Naval Aviation had 37 MiGs on strength , while the PVO had 323 on hand on 10 May . By 1 June 1944 , the Navy had transferred all its aircraft to the PVO , which reported only 17 on its own strength , and all of those were gone by 1 January 1945 . Undoubtedly more remained in training units and the like , but none were assigned to combat units by then .
Even with the MiG @-@ 3 's limitations , Aleksandr Pokryshkin , the third @-@ leading Soviet , and Allied , ace of the war , with 53 official air victories ( plus six shared ) , recorded a number of those victories while flying a MiG @-@ 3 at the beginning of the war . He later recalled :
“ Its designers rarely succeeded in matching both the fighter 's flight characteristics with its firepower … the operational advantage of the MiG @-@ 3 seemed to be obscured by its certain defects . However , these advantages could undoubtedly be exploited by a pilot able to discover them ” .
= = Variants = =
There were several attempts to re @-@ engine the aircraft with the engine it was originally designed for , the Mikulin AM @-@ 37 . This was designated the MiG @-@ 7 , and one MiG @-@ 3 was converted to evaluate the engine in May 1941 . It proved to have poor longitudinal stability and the powerplant itself still had a number of problems . The German invasion the following month caused the cancellation of the development of the AM @-@ 37 as Mikulin 's resources were required for the AM @-@ 35 and AM @-@ 38 engines already in production .
To improve the low @-@ level performance of the MiG @-@ 3 , one aircraft was tested with the AM @-@ 38 engine used by the Il @-@ 2 in July 1941 . It proved to be 14 km / h ( 8 @.@ 7 mph ) faster than the normal MiG @-@ 3 at sea level and was more maneuverable as well . It was recommended for production after passing its State acceptance trials in September , provided that a cure for the engine 's tendency to overheat in ambient temperatures above 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) was found . However the sole prototype was shot down on 5 October during flight tests and it was decided not to proceed with the idea as all AM @-@ 38 production was allocated to the Il @-@ 2 . Ironically , later in the war , about 80 MiG @-@ 3s were reengined with AM @-@ 38s to make them airworthy again . Many of these were rearmed with two 20 mm ShVAK cannon as well .
On 13 May 1941 the NKAP ordered the OKO to convert a MiG @-@ 3 to use the Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82A radial engine then entering production . The resulting aircraft had a variety of names , including I @-@ 210 , MiG @-@ 3 @-@ 82 , Samolyot IKh or Izdeliye 65 . The design was a failure , but was promising enough to continue the program as the I @-@ 211 .
A variety of other tests and other projects were conducted using MiG @-@ 3s . Leading edge slats were evaluated in 1941 although they were not fitted on production aircraft , but were used by the I @-@ 210 . A 6 @-@ bladed propeller was fitted on one aircraft to increase thrust at high @-@ altitude to enable the fighter to catch the high @-@ flying Junkers Ju 86P aircraft then overflying Moscow . A new propeller hub was made that mounted six standard VISh @-@ 61 blades , but nothing more is known of the project . Four aircraft were converted to carry AFA @-@ I cameras for evaluation and a fifth was then converted to evaluate all the improvements learned from the first four . It was approved for use after trials at the NII VVS . To improve their service ceiling two aircraft were lightened down to a weight of 3 @,@ 098 kg ( 6 @,@ 830 lb ) , but no further details are known other than one reached a height of 11 @,@ 750 metres ( 38 @,@ 550 ft ) .
There was also a proposal in 1941 to use the MiG @-@ 3 as part of a Zveno combination with a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 8 mother ship . The four @-@ engined bomber would carry two MiG @-@ 3SPB ( Skorostnoy Pikeeruyushchiy Bombardirovshchik — Fast Dive Bomber ) fighters , modified to carry a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) FAB @-@ 250 bomb under each wing , close to the target and would then release them to conduct the attack after which they would fly back to the nearest friendly airbase . Some preliminary work was done before the Germans invaded , but it was abandoned afterwards due to the pressure of other work . The combination was estimated to have a maximum speed of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) and a range of 1 @,@ 450 km ( 900 mi ) .
= = Survivors = =
The Russian company Aviarestoration has rebuilt three MiG @-@ 3s . They all use Allison V @-@ 12 engines . One is in the US in the Military Aviation Museum of Pungo , VA and another , rebuilt from a MiG @-@ 3 shot down in 1942 , first flew again around the start of 2010 . It will remain in Russia .
= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
VVS
PVO
Naval Aviation
= = Specifications ( Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 ) = =
Data from MiG : Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft Design
General characteristics
Crew : One
Length : 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in )
Wingspan : 10 @.@ 20 m ( 33 ft 5 in )
Height : 3 @.@ 30 m ( 10 ft 9 ⅞ in )
Wing area : 17 @.@ 44 m ² ( 188 ft ² )
Airfoil : Clark YH
Empty weight : 2 @,@ 699 kg ( 5 @,@ 965 lb )
Loaded weight : 3 @,@ 355 kg ( 7 @,@ 415 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Mikulin AM @-@ 35A liquid @-@ cooled V @-@ 12 , 993 kW ( 1 @,@ 350 hp )
Performance
Maximum speed : 640 km / h ( 398 mph , 346 knots ) at 7 @,@ 800 m ( 25 @,@ 600 ft )
Maximum speed at sea level : 505 km / h ( 314 mph , 273 knots )
Combat range : 820 km ( 510 mi , 443 NM )
Service ceiling : 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 400 ft )
Wing loading : 155 kg / m ² ( 39 @.@ 3 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : 0 @.@ 30 kW / kg ( 0 @.@ 18 hp / lb )
Climb to 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 250 ft ) : 10 @.@ 28 min
Armament
1 × 12 @.@ 7 mm UBS machine gun
2 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine guns .
2 × 100 kg ( 220 lb ) bombs , 2 spray containers for chemicals , gas or flammable liquids or 6 × 82 mm RS @-@ 82 rockets
= Bass Down Low =
" Bass Down Low " is the debut single by American recording artist Dev , written and performed by Dev and The Cataracs . Produced by The Cataracs , the song was released on November 16 , 2010 , through Universal Republic as the lead single for Dev 's debut studio album , The Night the Sun Came Up ( 2011 ) . Initially , the song was made for The Cataracs with Dev as the featured act , but she was made the main artist as they believed it would be a suitable follow @-@ up to Far East Movement 's " Like a G6 " , which Dev and The Cataracs appeared on . British rapper Tinie Tempah was featured on an official remix of " Bass Down Low " that was made for the song 's release in the United Kingdom . Musically , " Bass Down Low " is an electro song with skittering synths and the lyrics speak of different forms of debauchery .
The song was met with positive reviews from critics . Commercially , " Bass Down Low " performed moderately in the United States , peaking at number sixty one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Top Heatseekers chart . Internationally , the song peaked within the top ten of the charts in the United Kingdom and the top forty of the charts in Canada and the Republic of Ireland . The accompanying music video for " Bass Down Low " takes place in an underground club . The clip was directed by Ethan Lader who took inspiration from fashion and the film Fight Club .
= = Background = =
In 2008 , Dev recorded two songs using the software GarageBand on her MacBook that a friend posted onto her Myspace page . Production duo The Cataracs , consisting of Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar and David Singer @-@ Vine , came across the songs and asked Dev to come to Berkeley , California to produce music with them . Six months later , the first song they made together , " 2night " , gained exposure on the television channel MTVU and local radio channels , which resulted in a debut on the Billboard Hot Dance Airplay chart . In 2009 , Dev signed with Indie @-@ Pop Records and moved to a loft in Los Angeles , California to begin working on her debut album . The Cataracs eventually made the beat for a song called " Booty Bounce " . Afterwards , a hook was written for the song and The Cataracs suggested to interpolate it into a track they were making for Far East Movement . Dev agreed to what would become " Like a G6 " , and later said , " It ended up being a massive song and gave me so much experience and opportunity and it was absolutely beautiful . Thank god I agreed to that ! " The song was released in April 2010 and reached the top ten on several charts worldwide , including the United States , where it reached the top position and sold over three million copies . In August 2010 , Dev issued a viral music video for " Booty Bounce " and subsequently signed a record deal with Universal Republic two months later .
= = Writing and release = =
" Bass Down Low " was written by Dev alongside the production duo The Cataracs . The duo also produced the song , and recorded it at The Indie @-@ Pop Sweat Shop . It was later mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios and mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City . The song was originally conceived with Dev as a featured act , but she was later made the main artist as they believed it represented her . Dev described " Bass Down Low " as " sassy and fun " and considered it a great follow @-@ up to " Like a G6 " . In an interview with teen magazine Seventeen , she spoke of the song 's conception , stating : " We 'd been in the studio writing some really bossy , fun stuff . We 've got a studio in the loft that we live in together , so it was made in there . We were just kind of kickin ' it and it came . There 's one version where The Cataracs are just rapping on it , which I love as well . "
" Bass Down Low " was sent for rhythmic airplay in the United States on November 16 , 2010 , one month after Dev signed her record deal with Universal Republic . It was later released digitally on December 6 , 2010 , and sent for mainstream airplay on January 11 , 2011 . An alternate version with The Cataracs as the main artists was released in a remix extended play ( EP ) on March 29 , 2011 . For the single 's UK release , the track was remixed with guest vocals from British rapper Tinie Tempah . The remix was released as part of a digital EP on April 23 , 2011 . In an interview with Digital Spy in July 2011 , Dev spoke about collaborating with Tempah , stating , " We actually did the duet over the internet as we 're both really busy and it was through the management that I was introduced to him , but he buffed up my track pretty good ! I haven 't caught him live yet , but I 've managed to see him on a couple of late night chatshows and he 's doing an amazing job out there . " The remix was released outside the UK on May 23 , 2011 , labeled " The U.K. Mix " .
= = Composition = =
" Bass Down Low " is a electro song with skittering synths and a pulsating electropop groove . Dev utilizes her sing @-@ talk vocal style throughout the song , but also uses her singing voice near the end . In the song 's hook , she sing @-@ talks in a " deadpan " delivery while remarking that " If you wanna get with me , there 's some things you gotta know / I like my beats fast and my bass down low . " According to Scott Shetler of AOL Radio , Dev entices listeners with lines such as , " Straight buzzin ' Robotussin / Wanna get ya mitts in my oven ? / Wanna get a lick of this lovin ' ? " The song includes a shout @-@ out to The Black Eyed Peas while The Cataracs sing about a sexual promise : " giving you that Black Eyed Peas – you know , that ' Boom Boom Pow ' " . Lyrically , the song speaks of various forms of debauchery , such as taking shots .
= = Critical reception = =
Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic recognized " Bass Down Low " as one of December 2010 's best singles , placing it as number four on his " December 's 10 best singles " list . He wrote , " The Black Eyed Peas may be the ones who earn the shout @-@ out here . But every other element of ' Bass Down Low ' feels custom @-@ made for squeezing 15 extra minutes off that ' Tik Tok ' clock . " Masley praised the spoken @-@ word intro , the song 's electropop groove and Dev 's " Valley Girl swagger " vocals . Masley concluded his review by writing that the song sounds " a whole lot " like Far East Movement 's " Like a G6 " . About.com critic Ron Slomowicz wrote a positive review of the song and called it a " slinky , sleazy , sexy affair " . Slomowicz wrote , " Dev proves she 's got the cahones to challenge anyone on the scene with vulgar and seductive lyrics and a crazy hot beat provided by The Cataracs ... With any justice , this track will dominate in 2011 . " While reviewing The Night the Sun Came Up , Jamie Horne of The Border Mail said that " Bass Down Low " and " In My Trunk " are " certainly Black Eyed Peas @-@ esque but Dev ... is no clone . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Bass Down Low " debuted at number 94 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the issue dated December 25 , 2010 . The following week , it rose to number 74 but fell off the chart afterwards . On the issue dated January 15 , 2011 , the song re @-@ entered the chart at number 99 . It ascended for the next four weeks and reached its peak of number 61 on the issue dated February 12 , 2011 . The song also spent three non @-@ consecutive weeks at number two on the Top Heatseekers chart . To date , the song has sold 443 @,@ 000 downloads in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
In Canada , " Bass Down Low " debuted at number 49 on the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue dated January 1 , 2011 and was the week 's highest new entry . The song later acquired its peak of number 35 on the issue dated February 12 , 2011 and spent a total of 16 weeks on the chart .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number sixty six on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated May 7 , 2011 . On June 12 , 2011 , after having ascended on the chart for five weeks , the song peaked at number ten for the week ending date June 18 , 2011 , becoming Dev 's second top ten hit in Britain following " Like a G6 " , her 2010 collaboration with Far East Movement . The song also peaked at number 28 in Ireland .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Bass Down Low " was directed by Ethan Lader and shot in a warehouse in downtown Los Angeles , California . Lader had previously directed the video for Dev 's promotional single " Booty Bounce " ( 2010 ) . The inspiration behind the " Bass Down Low " clip was " Fight Club meets high fashion " , with Lader describing the approach as " sexiness , but it 's effortless " . The shoot marked the first time Dev worked with extras . She explained that she wanted the video to have an organic party energy . The video had its premiere on the music video site Vevo on December 2 , 2010 , and was later made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on December 7 .
The video takes place at a party in an underground club where Dev gives out signals to the crowd when to dance . It also includes scenes of Dev and several other women standing against a wall while thrusting their chests out . The scenes are interspersed with shots of things being broken and a scrolling shot of people standing still like statues . Ron Slomowicz of About.com positively reviewed the video , calling it " pretty simple but fun " .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Indie @-@ Pop Sweat Shop
Personnel
Songwriting – Devin Tailes , Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar , David Singer @-@ Vine
Production – Niles Hollowell @-@ Dhar
Recording – The Cataracs
Mixing – Manny Marroquin
Mastering – Tom Coyne
Credits adapted from The Night the Sun Came Up liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Radio add dates and release history = =
= One Wonderful Day ( Desperate Housewives ) =
" One Wonderful Day " is the 23rd episode and first season finale of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Desperate Housewives . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC ( American Broadcasting Company ) on May 22 , 2005 . The episode was directed by Larry Shaw and written by John Pardee , Joey Murphy , series creator Marc Cherry , Tom Spezialy , and Kevin Murphy .
In the episode , the mystery surrounding the suicide of series narrator Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) is resolved . Carlos ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) finally discovers the truth about Gabrielle 's ( Eva Longoria ) affair while Bree ( Marcia Cross ) learns that her husband has died . Meanwhile , Zach ( Cody Kasch ) holds Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) hostage and Tom ( Doug Savant ) forces Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) to go back to work .
According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew over 30 million viewers upon its initial broadcasting in the United States , becoming the most @-@ watched program of the night across all networks , as well as the highest @-@ rated episode of Desperate Housewives . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , most of whom complimented the writers for wrapping up the season 's major story arcs . However , Ann Hodgman of Entertainment Weekly criticized the episode for being predictable and spending too much time on the Mary Alice storyline . In 2009 , TV Guide listed " One Wonderful Day " as the 55th best television episode of all @-@ time .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents of Wisteria Lane and primarily on the friends of Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) , whose suicide in the first episode serves as the subject of the season 's mystery . In previous episodes , Paul ( Mark Moses ) avenges his wife 's suicide by killing their neighbor and her blackmailer , Martha Huber ( Christine Estabrook ) ; As a result , Martha 's sister , Felicia Tilman ( Harriet Sansom Harris ) asks Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) to kill Paul . Additionally , Mike investigates the years @-@ long disappearance of his girlfriend , Deirdre Taylor ( Jolie Jenkins ) , whom he suspects Paul murdered .
Elsewhere , Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) discovers she is pregnant , but is unsure if the father of her child is her husband , Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) , or her lover and former gardener , John Rowland ( Jesse Metcalfe ) . Carlos is charged with a hate crime for attacking two gay men whom he suspected are sleeping with his wife . Bree and Rex 's ( Steven Culp ) marriage continues to deteriorate and Rex suffers a second heart attack . Tom Scavo ( Doug Savant ) quits his job after learning that his wife , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) , sabotaged his promotion for the sake of their family and Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike decide to move in together .
= = = Episode = = =
Felicia takes in Paul 's son , Zach ( Cody Kasch ) , informing him that Paul will not be returning . Zach violently attacks Felicia , forcing her to reveal that Mike has taken Paul away to kill him . Later that day , Susan goes to Mike 's house to feed his dog and discovers Zach waiting with a gun . He holds Susan hostage and explains his plan to kill Mike when he returns home . Meanwhile , Mike takes Paul to a desert and coerces him into explaining the truth behind Dierdre 's death . Paul explains that twelve years earlier , Dierdre , a drug addict , sold Mary Alice and Paul her baby . The couple relocate to Wisteria Lane to avoid the discovery of their crime . Sometime later , a sober Dierdre finally tracked down the Young family and attempted to take her son back . Mary Alice stabbed and killed Dierdre to prevent her from taking Zach . Together , Mary Alice and Paul buried Dierdre 's body beneath their pool .
Rex learns that he will have to undergo surgery following his heart attack . Before the operation , Rex 's doctor suggests that Bree may have been poisoning him , citing their marital issues as a possible motive . Rex writes a note informing Bree that he understands and forgives her and dies soon after . During Carlos 's trial , John informs Carlos that he had been having an affair with Gabrielle , sending Carlos into a violent outburst in the courthouse . Elsewhere , Lynette learns that Tom has quit his job as a result of Lynette 's betrayal . He then decides that she will go back to work and he will be a stay @-@ at @-@ home father .
= = Production = =
" One Wonderful Day " was directed by Larry Shaw and written by John Pardee , Joey Murphy , series creator Marc Cherry , Tom Spezialy , and Kevin Murphy . It was filmed in April 2005 . The writers were still working on the script when filming began ; as a result , the ending narration was written based on the visuals that had been filmed . The episode focused largely on the conclusion of the Mary Alice mystery storyline . Cherry had wanted there to be a " definite end " to the mystery , hoping to avoid similar viewer fatigue that Twin Peaks suffered after drawing out its central mystery past its first season . The storyline relied on two flashback sequences , which featured Jolie Jenkins as Dierdre Taylor . Though " One Wonderful Day " was her first on @-@ screen appearance in the series , Jenkins was cast in the role in the fall of 2004 , as scenes earlier in the season required photographs of the Dierdre character . Because no material had been written for the character at the time , Jenkins did not have to audition for the role . ABC executives initially protested the writers ' decision to have Mary Alice purposefully kill Dierdre , prompting the writers to make Dierdre violent in order to justify Mary Alice 's actions . The writers struggled with whether or not to include a gunshot at the end of the episode when Mike returns to his house where Zach is holding Susan hostage . Ultimately , Spezialy convinced the other writers not to include it .
" One Wonderful Day " also introduced the second @-@ season mystery surrounding Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) and Matthew Applewhite ( Mehcad Brooks ) . Cherry revealed , " they come on the street ; they seem like nice people — but they 've got a secret . And it 's pretty gothic . It 's real and human and awful all at the same time . " Another scene featuring the Applewhite family , in which Betty brings food to a prisoner in their basement , was cut from this episode but was used in the second season premiere , " Next " . Cherry 's inspiration for the Lynette storyline came from his own childhood experience when his mother returned to work . He commented : " The predicament of any working woman is that you can love your career , but there is something ... to be said for getting to stay home every day with your kids , and you don 't want anyone else to be better at it than you are . Felicity Huffman expressed satisfaction with how her storyline was handled , explaining that Lynette " didn 't deal with [ Tom 's potential promotion ] in the most straightforward way , but she was fighting for her family . They were noble motives . " While discussing the courtroom scene in which Carlos attacks John , Ricardo Antonio Chavira commented : " People can see the full rage that is in my character . I 'm yelling at him , ' I 'm gonna kill you ' ... Then I broke into Spanish : " Yo voy a matar ! " ... I just went for it ... Then I looked , and Jesse [ Metcalfe ] had the most honest look of sheer terror . I think I scared the living shit out of him . "
The scene in which Susan , Lynette , and Gabrielle comfort Bree at the hospital was the last scene of the season involving the four principal characters . Teri Hatcher commented : " It was a heavy scene . There was a very genuine and deeply felt recognition that all four of us together as a team appreciated the ride we 'd had this season and were grateful that we 'd survived it together . " An extension of the scene , in which the women discuss Susan 's discovery of Martha Huber 's journal , was cut for time , though it was aired on Good Morning America on May 23 , 2005 , one day after the episode 's broadcast , and was included on the first season DVD set . The death of one housewife 's husband was confirmed prior to the episode 's broadcast . Steven Culp was not surprised when his character was killed off , stating " I had a sneaking suspicion someone was going to go . " Producer and writer Kevin Murphy explained the reasoning for killing off the Rex character : " As we neared the end of season 1 , our plan was that each woman would enter a new life chapter . Gabrielle would learn to function without Carlos , Susan and Mike would build their relationship , Lynette would go back to work , and Bree would become a single woman . We either had to have Rex divorce her or die . " Cherry named the scene in which Bree finishes her spring cleaning before mourning the death of her husband as one of his top three favorites of the season , stating : " It was one of the favorite things I wrote because it was so true to her character . She had to finish the cleaning she started , and she comes in and everything ’ s perfect . " A scene between Gabrielle and John was also cut for time .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to ABC , " One Wonderful Day " drew 30 @.@ 620 million viewers . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode scored a 13 @.@ 2 rating among viewers 18 to 49 years of age , a 28 @.@ 2 percent increase from the season 's average rating of 10 @.@ 3 in the demographic . It was the most @-@ watched program of the night across all networks , outperforming repeat episodes of CSI and Crossing Jordan on CBS and NBC , respectively , as well as Fox 's broadcast of Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones . The episode was the third most @-@ watch program of the week across all networks and one of only three programs to surpass 30 million viewers . It was also the most @-@ watched season finale for a freshman series since ER ten years earlier .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Dalton Ross named the episode as one of the season 's best , commending the fact that " most of the main questions were actually answered , " unlike the season finale of Lost . He praised the Bree storyline as well as the conclusion to the Mary Alice mystery , calling it " both shocking and satisfying . " Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC also compared the episode to the Lost season finale , writing : " ' Desperate Housewives ' is willing to answer some of its mysterious questions and give readers a little bit of closure . ' Lost , ' heading into its own two @-@ hour finale this Wednesday , is still dangling a dozen carrots in front of impatient viewers . " Cooper felt that the episode was a satisfying conclusion to the season opining that " by allowing some of its plots to remain tantalizing mysteries , yet offering up the satisfaction of explaining others , ' Desperate Housewives ' has smartly set things up for its audience to return for its new season next fall . " Frazier Moore of USA Today called the finale " a smashing close " to the first season . Moore expressed interest in how the cliffhangers would be resolved , as well as in the Betty Applewhite character . He also theorized that Rex 's death was a ruse , writing : " Reminder : The audience saw no death scene and no body . When has Desperate Housewives exercised restraint without an ulterior motive ? "
Ann Hodgman of Entertainment Weekly was negative in her review and dismissed the episode for feeling " like a plateful of warmed @-@ up leftovers . " Hodgman criticized the writers ' decision to devoting too much of the episode to the Mary Alice storyline rather than focusing on the other characters . She wrote that Rex 's death did not come as a surprise , noting : " Just as a TV or movie cop is inevitably shot after he announces that he 's about to retire , we know it 's over for Rex the minute Bree rests her head on his feeble chest and promises him he 'll make it . " Hodgman stated that her interest in the Gabrielle and Carlos storyline was ruined by John telling Carlos about the affair rather than Carlos discovering it himself . She also declared that the Lynette storyline was " wrapped up almost as perfunctorily , or maybe it only seems that way because it 's long been so obvious that they were heading toward one of those folktales where the husband and wife switch places . " Hodgman concluded by saying the fates of Susan and Mike are predictable , as the characters are too important to be killed off . In 2009 , TV Guide ranked the episode # 55 on its list of " 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time " . The Futon Critic ranked the episode as the 19th best television episode of 2005 , calling it " note @-@ perfect . "
= Brian Josephson =
Brian David Josephson , FRS ( born 4 January 1940 ) , is a Welsh theoretical physicist and professor emeritus of physics at the University of Cambridge . Best known for his pioneering work on superconductivity and quantum tunnelling , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 for his prediction of the Josephson effect , made in 1962 when he was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old PhD student at Cambridge . Josephson is the only Welshman to have won a Nobel Prize in Physics . He shared the prize with physicists Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever , who jointly received half the award for their own work on quantum tunnelling .
Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group at Cambridge 's Cavendish Laboratory . He has been a fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge since 1962 , and served as professor of physics from 1974 until 2007 .
In the early 1970s Josephson took up transcendental meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the parameters of mainstream science . He set up the Mind – Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature , the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness , and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism , broadly known as quantum mysticism . Those interests have led him to express support for topics such as parapsychology , water memory and cold fusion , and have made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Education = = =
Josephson was born in Cardiff , Wales , to Jewish parents , Mimi ( née Weisbard , 1911 – 1998 ) and Abraham Josephson . He attended Cardiff High School , where he credits some of the school masters for having helped him , particularly the physics master , Emrys Jones , who introduced him to theoretical physics . In 1957 he went up to Cambridge , where he read mathematics at Trinity College , Cambridge . After completing Maths Part II in two years , and finding it somewhat sterile , he decided to switch to physics .
Josephson was known at Cambridge as a brilliant , but shy , student . Physicist John Waldram recalled overhearing Nicholas Kurti , an examiner from Oxford , discuss Josephson 's exam results with David Shoenberg , then reader in physics at Cambridge , and asking : " Who is this chap Josephson ? He seems to be going through the theory like a knife through butter . " While still an undergraduate , he published a paper on the Mössbauer effect , pointing out a crucial issue other researchers had overlooked . According to one eminent physicist speaking to Physics World , Josephson wrote several papers important enough to assure him a place in the history of physics even without his discovery of the Josephson effect .
He graduated in 1960 and became a research student in the university 's Mond Laboratory on the old Cavendish site , where he was supervised by Brian Pippard . American physicist Philip Anderson , also a future Nobel Prize laureate , spent a year in Cambridge in 1961 – 1962 , and recalled that having Josephson in a class was " a disconcerting experience for a lecturer , I can assure you , because everything had to be right or he would come up and explain it to me after class . " It was during this period , as a PhD student in 1962 , that he carried out the research that led to his discovery of the Josephson effect ; Cambridge unveiled a plaque on the Mond Building dedicated to the discovery in November 2012 . He was elected a fellow of Trinity College in 1962 , and obtained his PhD in 1964 for a thesis entitled Non @-@ linear conduction in superconductors .
= = = Discovery of the Josephson effect = = =
Josephson was 22 years old when he did the work on quantum tunnelling that won him the Nobel Prize . He discovered that a supercurrent could tunnel through a thin barrier , predicting , according to physicist Andrew Whitaker , that " at a junction of two superconductors , a current will flow even if there is no drop in voltage ; that when there is a voltage drop , the current should oscillate at a frequency related to the drop in voltage ; and that there is a dependence on any magnetic field . " This became known as the Josephson effect and the junction as a Josephson junction .
His calculations were published in Physics Letters ( chosen by Pippard because it was a new journal ) in a paper entitled " Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling , " received on 8 June 1962 and published on 1 July . They were confirmed experimentally by Philip Anderson and John Rowell of Bell Labs in Princeton ; this appeared in their paper , " Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect , " submitted to Physical Review Letters in January 1963 .
Before Anderson and Rowell confirmed the calculations , the American physicist John Bardeen , who had shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics ( and who shared it again in 1972 ) , objected to Josephson 's work . He submitted an article to Physical Review Letters on 25 July 1962 , arguing that " there can be no such superfluid flow . " The disagreement led to a famous confrontation in September that year at Queen Mary College , London , at the Eighth International Conference on Low Temperature Physics . When Bardeen ( then one of the most eminent physicists in the world ) began speaking , Josephson ( still a student ) stood up and interrupted him . The men exchanged views , reportedly in a civil and soft @-@ spoken manner .
Whitaker writes that the discovery of the Josephson effect led to " much important physics , " including the invention of SQUIDs ( superconducting quantum interference devices ) , which are used in geology to make highly sensitive measurements , as well as in medicine and computing . IBM used Josephson 's work in 1980 to build a prototype of a computer that would be up to 100 times faster than the IBM 3033 mainframe .
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
Josephson was awarded several important prizes for his discovery , including the 1969 Research Corporation Award for outstanding contributions to science , and the Hughes Medal and Holweck Prize in 1972 . In 1973 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics , sharing the $ 122 @,@ 000 award with two other scientists who had also worked on quantum tunnelling . Josephson was awarded half the prize " for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier , in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects . "
The other half of the award was shared equally by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki of the Thomas Watson Research Center in Yorktown , New York , and Norwegian @-@ American physicist Ivar Giaever of General Electric in Schenectady , New York , " for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors , respectively . " Unusually , none of the winners had held professorships before being awarded the prize .
= = = Positions held = = =
Josephson spent a postdoctoral year in the United States ( 1965 – 1966 ) as research assistant professor at the University of Illinois . After returning to Cambridge , he was made assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1967 , where he remained a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter group , a theoretical physics group , for the rest of his career . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1970 , and the same year was awarded a National Science Foundation fellowship by Cornell University , where he spent one year . In 1972 he became a reader in physics at Cambridge and in 1974 a full professor , a position he held until he retired in 2007 .
A practitioner of transcendental meditation ( TM ) since the early seventies , Josephson became a visiting faculty member in 1975 of the Maharishi European Research University in the Netherlands , part of the TM movement . He also held visiting professorships at Wayne State University in 1983 , the Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore in 1984 , and the University of Missouri @-@ Rolla in 1987 .
= = Parapsychology = =
= = = Early interest and transcendental meditation = = =
Josephson became interested in philosophy of mind in the late sixties and , in particular , in the mind – body problem , and is one of the few scientists to argue that parapsychological phenomena ( telepathy , psychokinesis and other paranormal themes ) may be real . In 1971 he began practising transcendental meditation ( TM ) , which had become popular with several celebrities , most famously the Beatles .
Winning the Nobel Prize in 1973 gave him the freedom to work in less orthodox areas , and he became increasingly involved – including during science conferences , to the irritation of fellow scientists – in talking about meditation , telepathy and higher states of consciousness . In 1974 he angered scientists during a colloquium of molecular and cellular biologists in Versailles by inviting them to read the Bhagavad Gita ( 5th – 2nd century BCE ) and the work of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , the founder of the TM movement , and by arguing about special states of consciousness achieved through meditation . " Nothing forces us , " one scientist shouted at him , " to listen to your wild speculations . " Biophysicist Henri Atlan wrote that the session ended in uproar .
In May that year Josephson addressed a symposium held to welcome the Maharishi to Cambridge . The following month , at the first Canadian conference on psychokinesis , he was one of 21 scientists who tested claims by Matthew Manning , a Cambridgeshire teenager who said he had psychokinetic abilities ; Josephson apparently told a reporter that he believed Manning 's powers were a new kind of energy . He later withdrew or corrected the statement .
Josephson said that Trinity College 's long interest in the paranormal meant that he did not dismiss these ideas out of hand . Several presidents of the Society for Psychical Research had been fellows of Trinity , and the Perrott @-@ Warrick Fund , set up in Trinity in 1937 to fund parapsychology research , is still administered by the college . He continued to explore the idea that there is intelligence in nature , particularly after reading Fritjof Capra 's The Tao of Physics ( 1975 ) , and in 1979 took up a more advanced form of TM , known as the TM @-@ Sidhi program . According to Anderson , the TM movement produced a poster showing Josephson levitating several inches above the floor . Josephson argued that meditation could lead to mystical and scientific insights , and that , as a result of it , he had come to believe in a creator .
= = = Fundamental Fysiks Group = = =
Josephson became involved in the mid @-@ seventies with a group of physicists associated with the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California , Berkeley , who were investigating paranormal claims . They had organized themselves loosely into something called the Fundamental Fysiks Group , and had effectively become the Stanford Research Institute 's ( SRI ) " house theorists , " according to historian of science David Kaiser .
There was a lot of popular and government interest at the time in quantum mechanics – the American government was financing research at SRI into telepathy – and physicists able to understand it found themselves in demand . The Fundamental Fysiks Group used ideas from quantum physics , particularly Bell 's theorem and quantum entanglement , to explore issues such as action at a distance , clairvoyance , precognition , remote viewing and psychokinesis .
In 1976 Josephson travelled to California to meet two leading members of the group , laser physicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff , authors of Mind Reach ( 1977 ) . Targ and Puthoff had set up a parapsychology ( " psi " ) lab at SRI and had had papers published about their work – which included testing later @-@ discredited claims by Uri Geller that he could make objects move using psychokinesis – in Nature and other peer @-@ reviewed journals . The San Francisco Chronicle covered Josephson 's visit .
Josephson co @-@ organized a symposium on consciousness at Cambridge in 1978 , publishing the proceedings as Consciousness and the Physical World ( 1980 ) , with neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran . A conference on " Science and Consciousness " followed a year later in Cordoba , Spain , attended by physicists and Jungian psychoanalysts , and addressed by Josephson , Fritjof Capra and David Bohm ( 1917 – 1992 ) .
By 1996 he had set up the Mind – Matter Unification Project at the Cavendish Laboratory to explore intelligent processes in nature . In 2002 he told Physics World : " Future science will consider quantum mechanics as the phenomenology of particular kinds of organised complex system . Quantum entanglement would be one manifestation of such organisation , paranormal phenomena another . "
= = = Reception and views on the scientific community = = =
Josephson delivered the Pollock Memorial Lecture in 2006 , the Hermann Staudinger Lecture in 2009 and the Sir Nevill Mott Lecture in 2010 .
Matthew Reisz wrote in Times Higher Education in 2010 that Josephson has long been one of physics ' " more colourful figures . " His support for unorthodox causes has attracted criticism from fellow scientists since the 1970s , including from Philip Anderson . Josephson regards the criticism as prejudice , and believes that it has served to deprive him of an academic support network .
He has repeatedly criticized " science by consensus , " arguing that the scientific community is too quick to reject certain kinds of ideas . " Anything goes among the physics community – cosmic wormholes , time travel , " he argues , " just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age @-@ ish . " Referring to this position as " pathological disbelief , " he holds it responsible for the rejection by academic journals of papers on the paranormal . He has compared parapsychology to the theory of continental drift , proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener ( 1880 – 1930 ) to explain observations that were otherwise inexplicable , which was resisted and ridiculed until evidence led to its acceptance after Wegener 's death .
Science writer Martin Gardner criticized Josephson in 1980 for complaining to the New York Review of Books , along with three other physicists , about an article by J. A. Wheeler that ridiculed parapsychology . Several physicists complained in 2001 when , in a Royal Mail booklet celebrating the Nobel Prize 's centenary , Josephson wrote that Britain was at the forefront of research into telepathy . Physicist David Deutsch said the Royal Mail had " let itself be hoodwinked " into supporting nonsense , although another physicist , Robert Matthews , suggested that Deutsch was skating on thin ice given the latter 's own work on parallel universes and time travel .
In 2004 Josephson criticized an experiment by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry to test claims by Russian schoolgirl Natasha Demkina that she could see inside people 's bodies using a special kind of vision . The experiment involved her being asked to match six people to their confirmed medical conditions ( plus one with none ) ; to pass the test she had to make five correct matches , but made only four . Josephson argued that this was statistically significant , and that the experiment had set her up to fail . One of the researchers , Richard Wiseman , professor of psychology at the University of Hertfordshire , responded that Josephson had no record of publishing on parapsychology . Keith Rennolis , professor of applied statistics at the University of Greenwich , supported Josephson 's position but that the experiment was " woefully inadequate " to determine any effect .
Josephson 's reputation for promoting unorthodox causes was cemented by his support for the ideas of water memory and cold fusion , both of which are rejected by mainstream scientists . Water memory is purported to provide an explanation for homeopathy ; it is mostly dismissed by scientists as pseudoscience , although Josephson has expressed support for it since attending a conference at which French immunologist Jacques Benveniste first proposed it . Cold fusion is the hypothesis that nuclear reactions can occur at room temperature . When Martin Fleischmann , the British chemist who pioneered research into it , died in 2012 , Josephson wrote a supportive obituary in the Guardian and complained to Nature that its obituary had failed to give Fleischmann due credit . Antony Valentini of Imperial College London withdrew Josephson 's invitation to a 2010 conference on the de Broglie @-@ Bohm theory because of his work on the paranormal , although it was reinstated after complaints .
= = Awards = =
= = Selected works = =
= Boeing Chinook ( UK variants ) =
The Boeing Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . A series of variants based on the United States Army 's Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook , the RAF Chinook fleet is the largest outside the United States . RAF Chinooks have seen extensive service including fighting in the Falklands War , peace @-@ keeping commitments in the Balkans , and action in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars .
The Chinook aircraft , normally based at RAF Odiham , provides heavy @-@ lift support and transport across all branches of the British armed forces , and is supported by the smaller , medium @-@ lift helicopters such as the AgustaWestland Merlin HC.3 of the Royal Navy 's Commando Helicopter Force and the RAF 's Westland Puma HC.2 , based at RNAS Yeovilton and RAF Benson .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Chinook HC Mk1 = = =
In March 1967 an order was placed for fifteen Chinook HC Mk1s , standing for Helicopter , Cargo Mark 1 , for the Royal Air Force to replace the Bristol Belvedere . This original MK1 variant was to be based on the CH @-@ 47B but the order was cancelled in a review of defence spending in November 1967 .
UK Chinook procurement ambitions were revived in 1978 with an announced requirement for a new heavy @-@ lift helicopter to replace the Westland Wessex . Thirty Chinooks were ordered at a price of US $ 200 million . These helicopters , comparable to the CH @-@ 47C with Lycoming T55 @-@ L @-@ 11E engines , were again designated Chinook HC Mk1 , and entered service in December 1980 . Eight more Mk1s were delivered from 1984 to 1986 with the CH @-@ 47D 's Lycoming T55 @-@ L @-@ 712 turboshafts .
The replacement of the Mk1 's metal rotor blades with aluminium and glass fibre composite rotor blades saw these aircraft designated Chinook HC Mk1B . All surviving aircraft were later returned to Boeing and updated to the Chinook HC Mk2 standard for further service within the RAF .
= = = Chinook HC Mk2 = = =
The US Army 's next generation Chinook , the CH @-@ 47D , entered service in 1982 . Improvements from the CH @-@ 47C included upgraded engines , composite rotor blades , a redesigned cockpit to reduce pilot workload , redundant and improved electrical systems , an advanced flight control system ( FCS ) and improved avionics . The RAF returned their original Mk1s to Boeing for upgrading to CH @-@ 47D standard , the first of which returned to the UK in 1993 .
Three additional HC Mk2 Chinooks were ordered with delivery beginning in 1995 . Another six were ordered in 1995 under the Chinook HC Mk2A designation ; the main difference between these and the standard Mk2 was the strengthening of the front fuselage to allow the fitting of an aerial refuelling probe in future .
One Argentine CH @-@ 47C was captured during the Falklands War , and used by the RAF as a training aid . The rear fuselage was later used to repair a crashed RAF Chinook in 2003 .
In 2006 , the retirement dates for the Mk2 and Mk2A fleets were scheduled for 2015 and 2025 respectively , but if planned upgrades are made both types could expect to be flying until 2040 .
= = = Chinook HC Mk3 = = =
Eight Chinook HC Mk3s were ordered in 1995 as dedicated special forces helicopters , which were intended to be low @-@ cost variants of the US Army 's MH @-@ 47E . The Mk3s include improved range , night vision sensors and navigation capability . The eight aircraft were to cost £ 259 million and the forecast in @-@ service date was November 1998 . Although delivered in 2001 , the Mk3 could not receive airworthiness certificates as it was not possible to certify the avionics software .
Unfortunately the procurement was " a profoundly inept piece of procurement " : Sir Peter Spencer , who as head of Defence Procurement inherited the project , said that : the " original requirement was ... actually impossible . I mean , there were 100 essential requirements . I read all of them . One of them said to give protection against any missile coming from any direction . " Spencer later commented : " it is always hard to imagine why people think you would be able cost effectively to buy a bespoke requirement for a very small production run . "
The avionics were unsuitable due to poor risk analysis and necessary requirements omitted from the procurement contract . The Times claimed that the Ministry of Defence planned to perform software integration itself , without Boeing 's involvement , in order to reduce costs . While lacking certification , the helicopters were only permitted to fly in visual meteorological conditions and subsequently stored in climate controlled hangars .
After protracted negotiations to allow them to enter service , Air Forces Monthly reported in November 2006 that the Defence Aviation Repair Agency would likely receive a contract to install the Thales " TopDeck " avionics system on the Chinook HC Mk3s . However , the Ministry of Defence announced in March 2007 that this so @-@ called " Fix to Field " programme would be cancelled , and instead it would revert the helicopters ' avionics to Chinook Mk2 / 2A specification . The programme was estimated to cost £ 50 – 60 million . In June 2008 , the National Audit Office issued a scathing report on the MoD 's handling of the affair , stating that the whole programme was likely to cost £ 500 million by the time the helicopters enter service . On 6 July 2009 the first of the eight modified Chinook HC Mk3s made its first test flight at MoD Boscombe Down as part of the flight testing and evaluation phase of the HC Mk3 " reversion " program .
= = = Chinook HC Mk4 / Mk5 / Mk6 = = =
A programme to upgrade 46 Chinook Mk2 / 2A and Mk3 helicopters was initiated in December 2008 . Called Project Julius , it includes new digital flight deck avionics based on the Thales TopDeck avionics suite , comprising new multifunction displays , a digital moving map display and an electronic flight bag , installation of a nose @-@ mounted FLIR detector , and upgrading the engines to the more powerful T55 @-@ 714 standard . Upgraded Mk2 / 2A and Mk3 aircraft will be redesignated Mk4 from Mk2 / 2a , and Mk5 from Mk3 . Deliveries are expected to commence in 2011 . The first conversion , a Chinook HC Mk4 , first flew on 9 December 2010 . Initial operating capability status was reached in June 2012 with seven aircraft delivered .
The Chinook HC Mk6 designation has been assigned to the 24 ( later reduced to 14 ) CH @-@ 47F @-@ derived Chinooks ordered in 2009 . These have digital flight @-@ control systems and have all now been delivered
= = Operational history = =
= = = Overview = = =
RAF Chinooks have been widely deployed in support of British military engagements , serving their first wartime role in Operation Corporate , the Falklands War , in 1982 . Chinooks were used in Operation Granby in the 1991 Gulf War , attached to large peace @-@ keeping commitments in the Balkans , the continued British presence in Afghanistan , and in Operation Telic in the 2003 Iraq War . They provide routine supply and support missions to the British military , notably in Operation Banner in Northern Ireland . The helicopter has also been of use in military humanitarian missions and the extraction of civilians from warzones , such as the evacuation of Sierra Leone in 2000 , and the evacuation from Lebanon in 2006 .
One Chinook in particular , known by its original squadron code Bravo November , has come to widespread public recognition due to its remarkable service record . It has seen action in every major operation involving the RAF in the helicopter 's 25 @-@ year service life , including the Falkland Islands , Lebanon , Germany , Northern Ireland , Iraq , and Afghanistan .
= = = Falklands War = = =
During the Falklands War , Chinooks were deployed by both the British and Argentinian forces . In April 1982 , five Chinooks were loaded aboard the container ship MV Atlantic Conveyor bound for the Falkland Islands , to support the British operations . On 25 May 1982 , the Chinook Bravo November was sent to pick up freight from HMS Glasgow . While the helicopter was airborne , the Atlantic Conveyor was attacked by an Argentine Navy Dassault Super Étendard with an Exocet sea @-@ skimming missile . Bravo November avoided the ship 's destruction , assisted in the evacuation of the ship , and later landed on the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes , gaining the nickname " The Survivor " . Owing to the rapid spread of fire and smoke aboard the Atlantic Conveyor after the Exocet strike , it was not possible to fly any of the helicopters that remained on the ship 's deck .
One Argentine Army Chinook was captured intact by British Army forces after the surrender . RAF Chinooks were part of an estimated force of 40 helicopters in the British task force , alongside Westland Sea King and Westland Wessex helicopters . Post @-@ war , two Chinooks were operated by No. 78 Squadron as part of the Falklands Garrison ; this was reduced to a single helicopter in the mid @-@ 1990s and the type was eventually withdrawn from the Falklands in 2006 in order to free up resources and craft for operations in Afghanistan .
= = = First Gulf War = = =
The Chinook became a vital transit tool during the 1991 Gulf War in Iraq . They were used for moving troops into the region at the start of the conflict ; a Chinook was used on 22 January 1991 to transport a Special Air Service ( SAS ) patrol on the infamous Bravo Two Zero mission . In the aftermath of the conflict as many as nine British Chinooks delivered food and supplies to thousands of Kurdish refugees from Iraq .
= = = Kosovo = = =
On 6 June 1999 , two Chinooks of No. 27 Squadron left base at RAF Odiham in Hampshire , carrying paratroopers to join NATO forces serving in the Balkans ; six more arrived the following week in Kosovo to support operations such as casualty evacuations and transporting vital supplies . On 12 June 1999 , waves of Chinooks , escorted by Westland Lynx and American AH @-@ 64 Apache attack helicopters , were used to rapidly deploy British infantry forces into Kosovo as a part of NATO 's first phase of deployment . On 10 August 1999 hundreds of Chinooks around the world , including those used by the British armed forces , were grounded due to cracking discovered in the landing gear of a British helicopter during routine inspection .
= = = Sierra Leone = = =
In May 2000 , several Chinook helicopters airlifted British and European Union citizens out of Freetown in Sierra Leone in an evacuation due to regional instability . In September 2000 Chinooks were being used to evacuate casualties from fighting in Freetown to RFA Sir Percivale , a support ship docked there .
= = = Lebanon = = =
In July 2006 , 3 Chinook helicopters of No. 27 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus to evacuate British citizens from Lebanon ; the squadron also flew the EU foreign affairs representative Javier Solana to Beirut at the start of the crisis . Members of the SAS and Special Boat Service ( SBS ) units were deployed via Chinooks into Lebanon to locate and make contact with British citizens .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
Chinook helicopters have been relied upon heavily to support the British forces in Afghanistan continuously since the start of the war in Afghanistan in 2001 ; Operation Snipe saw the helicopters used to assist the 1 @,@ 000 British Commandos sweeping a region of southeathern Afghanistan . Due to the threat of improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) scattered throughout the terrain by insurgents , transport helicopters have become highly valued and demanded units in this style of warfare . By April 2006 six Chinooks had been deployed by C @-@ 17 transport planes to Kandahar in Southern Afghanistan , in support of Operation Herrick . Two RAF Chinooks were lost in August 2009 during combat operations with the Taliban , one of which was brought down by enemy fire , in spite of warnings months before of Taliban plans to attack the helicopters .
The continued operation of the fleet was made more cost effective when maintaince and support regimes were altered in 2006 – 7 . On 15 December 2009 the British government announced its Future Helicopter Strategy including the purchase of 24 new build Chinooks , 22 to expand the force and two to replace losses in Afghanistan , to be delivered to the Royal Air Force from 2012 . The number of additional Chinooks was cut to 12 with the October 2010 defence review , however . This will bring the total fleet size to 60 aircraft ; as of 2009 , the RAF had 48 Chinooks in inventory .
= = Variants = =
Chinook HC Mk1
New @-@ build aircraft for the RAF based on the CH @-@ 47C , 41 built .
Chinook HC Mk1B
Modification of the 41 Mk1s with metal rotor blades , survivors converted to Mk2 .
Chinook HC Mk2
Conversion by Boeing of 32 surviving Mk1Bs to CH @-@ 47D standard , and 3 new build @-@ aircraft
Chinook HC Mk2A
Similar to the HC2 with strengthened fuselage using milled structure manufacturing techniques , 6 built .
Chinook HC Mk3
Special forces variant based on the CH @-@ 47SD , 8 built .
Chinook HC Mk4
Mk2 / 2A aircraft with upgraded engines and avionics under Project Julius . 46 conversions planned .
Chinook HC Mk5
Mk3 aircraft with upgraded avionics under Project Julius .
Chinook HC Mk6
New @-@ build Chinooks announced in 2009 , expected to be delivered beginning in 2014 . Originally 24 aircraft , later reduced to 14 ( 12 helicopters plus 2 attrition replacements ) .
= = Operators = =
RAF Odiham
7 Squadron - Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing
18 ( B ) Squadron
27 Squadron
RAF Benson
28 ( R ) Squadron - Joint Chinook and Puma HC.2 OCU
There is a suggestion that 78 Squadron , which previously operated the Merlin HC.3 from RAF Benson , could reform as a new Chinook squadron when new HC.6 aircraft on order from Boeing are delivered .
The day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance of Nos. 18 and 27 Squadron aircraft is carried out by 18 / 27 ( Engineering ) Squadron , a separate Squadron using the innovative ' fight by flight ' structure to provide the efficiencies of combined engineering whilst maintaining aircrew / ground crew relationships when deployed .
When deployed , the detachment of Nos. 18 and 27 Squadron aircrew and 18 / 27 ( Engineering ) Squadron groundcrew is known as No. 1310 Flight . The RAF has a total of 48 Chinooks in inventory as of late August 2009 .
= = Notable incidents and accidents = =
On 13 May 1986 , Chinook HC Mk1 ZA715 crashed in bad weather in the Falkland Islands . The helicopter , with four crew and 12 troops , crashed into a hill 4 miles from its destination . With rescuers hampered by blizzards , the personnel were recovered but one crew member had died shortly after the crash , and the co @-@ pilot and a soldier died on the way to hospital . The board of enquiry concluded that the crew had become disorientated due to " white @-@ out " conditions .
On 27 February 1987 , Chinook HC Mk1 ZA721 crashed in the Falkland Islands on a test flight following servicing . After leaving RAF Mount Pleasant , the helicopter was at a normal cruising speed and an altitude of between 300 and 700 feet when it nosed down and crashed into the ground about 6 kilometres south @-@ east of the airfield ; it was destroyed by a subsequent fire . The board of enquiry was unable to determine the exact cause but it may have been the forward @-@ swivelling upper boost actuator jamming . All seven on board , three crew and four technicians , were killed .
On 6 May 1988 , Chinook HC Mk1 ZA672 hit a pier at Hannover Airport while taxiing into position in a confined space . Its front rotor struck the underside of Pier 10 , causing the helicopter to rear up vertically and then fall on its side . A fire started at the rear of the fuselage and soon spread . Three crew members were killed and one had major injuries ; the Chinook was destroyed .
On 2 June 1994 , Chinook HC Mk2 ZD576 crashed on the Mull of Kintyre , Scotland , killing all 25 passengers and all four crew members ; the cause is disputed .
On 19 August 2009 , Chinook HC Mk2 ZA709 the Ministry of Defence announced that a Chinook made an emergency landing following an RPG strike and subsequent engine fire after a cargo drop @-@ off just north of Sangin in Helmand Province , Afghanistan . The Chinook flew two kilometres to a safe area before landing . None of the crew sustained any injuries and all evacuated the aircraft before they were rescued by a second Chinook on the same sortie . The damaged aircraft was then destroyed by coalition air strikes to prevent it falling into the hands of the Taliban .
On 30 August 2009 , Chinook HC Mk2 ZA673 the loss of another Chinook was announced . The helicopter made a hard landing while on operations near Sangin , Helmand province . It suffered damage to the undercarriage , nose and front rotor , but the crew and 15 soldiers on board were unharmed . According to the Ministry of Defence due to the location of the crash it was not possible to safely recover the aircraft and it was destroyed with explosives deliberately . The cause of the hard landing is being investigated , although it is not thought to have been shot down .
= = Specifications ( Chinook ) = =
Data from Royal Air Force .
General characteristics
Crew : 3 – 4 ( pilot , copilot , one or two air loadmasters depending on aircraft role )
Capacity : 55 soldiers and equipment
Length : 30 @.@ 1 m ( 98 ft 9 in )
Rotor diameter : 18 @.@ 3 m ( 60 ft 0 in )
Height : 5 @.@ 7 m ( 18 ft 8 in )
Empty weight : 10 @,@ 185 kg ( 22 @,@ 450 lb )
Loaded weight : 12 @,@ 100 kg ( 26 @,@ 680 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 22 @,@ 680 kg ( 50 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Honeywell T55 @-@ GA @-@ 712 turboshaft , 2 @,@ 800 kW ( 3 @,@ 750 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 295 km / h ( 183 mph ; 159 kn )
Service ceiling : 5 @,@ 600 m ( 18 @,@ 500 ft )
Rate of climb : 10 @.@ 1 m / s ( 1 @,@ 980 ft / min )
Armament
2 × M134 Miniguns and 1 × M60 machine gun
= Powder Alarm =
The Powder Alarm was a major popular reaction to the removal of gunpowder from a magazine by British soldiers under orders from General Thomas Gage , royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , on September 1 , 1774 . In response to this action , amid rumors that blood had been shed , alarm spread through the countryside to Connecticut and beyond , and American Patriots sprang into action , fearing that war was at hand . Thousands of militiamen began streaming toward Boston and Cambridge , and mob action forced Loyalists and some government officials to flee to the protection of the British Army .
Although it proved to be a false alarm , the Powder Alarm caused political and military leaders to proceed more carefully in the days ahead , and essentially provided a " dress rehearsal " for the Battles of Lexington and Concord seven and a half months later . Furthermore , actions on both sides to control weaponry , gunpowder , and other military supplies became more contentious , as the British sought to bring military stores more directly under their control , and the Patriot colonists sought to acquire them for their own use .
= = Background = =
In 1772 , many of the thirteen British colonies , in response to unpopular British actions and the negative British reaction to the Gaspee Affair ( the destruction by colonists of a grounded ship involved in enforcing customs regulations ) , elected to form Committees of Correspondence . These allowed communities to formally communicate with each other , raise awareness of incidents occurring elsewhere , and to coordinate actions ; as such , they became instrumental in managing the colonial response to enforcement of the Tea Act , the Intolerable Acts , and other unpopular British colonial legislation . The colonists of Massachusetts had not yet taken concerted action to organize themselves militarily against actions of the British regulars , although statements were made about supporting Boston ( whose port had been closed earlier in 1774 under the Boston Port Act ) " at the risque of our lives and fortunes . "
General Thomas Gage , who had become the military governor of Massachusetts in May 1774 , was charged with enforcement of the highly unpopular Intolerable Acts , which British Parliament had passed in response to the Boston Tea Party . Seeking to prevent the outbreak of war and to keep the peace between the American Patriot ( Whig ) majority and the Loyalist ( Tory ) minority , he believed that the best way to accomplish this was by secretly removing military stores from storehouses and arsenals in New England . The secrecy of these missions was paramount , as Gage feared that leakage of any plans would result in the seizure or concealment of the stores by Patriot sympathizers before his men got there .
There were several places throughout the colonies where the British army had stockpiled supplies . Some of these places were fortifications that were manned by small garrisons ; others were merely locked magazines . Most of the powder in these was under the control of the provincial government , though some was the property of individual towns . One locked storehouse near Boston , in what was then part of Charlestown , now Powder House Square in Somerville , was controlled by William Brattle , the leader of the provincial militia and an appointee of the governor . Brattle , who had not obviously sided with either Loyalists or Patriots , notified Governor Gage in a letter dated August 27 that the provincial ( " King 's " ) powder was the only supply remaining in that storehouse , as the towns had removed all of theirs . Gage decided that this powder had to be brought to Boston for safekeeping .
= = Expedition = =
On August 31 , Gage sent Middlesex County sheriff David Phips to Brattle with orders to remove the provincial powder ; Brattle turned the key to the powder
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announced in October of that year .
= = Plot = =
Tina ( McShera ) arrives at a Victorian villa for a séance . Hives ( Shearsmith ) settles Tina before retrieving Talbot ( Steadman ) , who arrives shrouded in black and carrying a doll . Talbot , an elderly woman with heavy cataracts , speaks in a high @-@ pitched voice , unnerving Tina . When the séance begins , objects fly around the room , Talbot 's voice becomes demonic and ectoplasm seeps from her mouth . Hives encourages Tina not to break the circle , but she does so when a blue @-@ faced demon ( Starkey ) appears behind her . She is terrified until Hives reveals himself to be Terry , the host of a hidden camera programme called Scaredy Cam .
Scaredy Cam production crew , including the director Gemma ( Lloyd ) and the make @-@ up artist Amanda ( Lowe ) , enter to prepare for the next prank . " Talbot " is being played by the demanding stage actress Ann , but the other crew are unable to remember the name of the extra ( who they falsely believe to be a dwarf ) playing " Blue Demon Dwarf " . They mostly ignore him , despite his eagerness to talk about his acting experiences and his requests for a drink . Terry is irritable and impatient , unwilling to talk to Tina or Gemma about a prank with him dressed up as a gorilla . This prank led to a young boy wetting himself and a previous cancellation of Scaredy Cam . The programme is due to return on a different channel , and Terry has chosen a different prank to be announced as the winner of a " public " vote for the programme 's best . The extra confronts Terry about the fact he was originally cast as " Spirit of Little Boy " , but Terry does not care , and the extra is sent back into a chest to wait for the next member of the public .
Pete ( Pemberton ) , a new mark , enters , but the prank does not work as well as with Tina . Among other problems , Pete swears too much and does not seem affected by the atmosphere , while cues are missed by the pranksters . Terry is surprised to hear a child 's voice during Anne 's performance as Madam Talbot , and , backstage , the camera stream is blurry . When " Blue Demon Dwarf " appears , Pete punches him , and the production crew rush in . The extra drifts in and out of consciousness before Gemma — having covered her face in blue paint after giving mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth — says he has died . Backstage , people wait for the police and ambulance ; Terry is worried about his career , Ann wants to get away for some food and Amanda is keen to retrieve props from the corpse , but Pete and Gemma show some remorse . When alone , Terry looks to the camera feed and sees the extra standing in the séance room , and , relieved , runs to see him . Facing away from Terry and speaking in a rasping voice , the figure introduces himself as " Spirit of Little Boy " , and talks of a suicide after the embarrassment of wetting himself on television . After speaking to the " boy " , Terry believes that he himself is on Scaredy Cam , but no one is watches from backstage . When he touches the figure , the extra collapses , but a child 's voice continues to shout . A corpse @-@ like child ( Wall ) begins to rise from the cot used for Madam Talbot 's doll . Backstage , Gemma and a police officer look for Terry . They find him in the séance room ; he has wet himself , and insists that he is on Scaredy Cam . The child 's face appears on the camera feed .
= = Analysis = =
" Séance Time " draws inspiration from horror films and " the pretensions of actors " — two themes favoured by the writers . Horror tropes noted by journalists include the Insidious @-@ inspired arrival of " Blue Demon Dwarf " and Madam Talbot 's demonic voice , reminiscent of a similar voice in The Exorcist . For one critic , Pete 's initial failure to believe the prank results in a memorable sequence that " was a lovely statement about how old @-@ fashioned horror imagery and well @-@ worn tropes can be terrifying in the right hands , and plain ludicrous if you refuse to enter into the spirit of things " .
Though the episode begins with horror , similar to " The Harrowing " , it quickly moves into the more meta subject of television production ; something " more intimidating and probably a lot crueller " than the supernatural . For the television critic Matt Baylis , the episode is a criticism of the callousness of reality television ( such as Candid Camera ) from the perspective of television plays . The horror at the start of the episode , he argues , continues even once the ruse is revealed . " Ugliness " remains in Terry 's arrogance , Anne 's self @-@ obsession and the indifference of Gemma and Amanda . This builds gradually into a " moral horror " in which " the unkind got their desserts " .
Phoebe @-@ Jane Boyd , writing for the entertainment website Den of Geek , compared the television crew to individuals pulled out of the " Summerland " of cancelled television . Terry is " parasitic and dead of heart " , an example of a particular brand of " washed @-@ up middle @-@ aged television presenters " . Amanda is " so deadened to the bitchery of the entertainment industry " that she is unfazed at the thought of retrieving props from a corpse . Anne behaves in a " bitter and narcissistic " way . The " heartless asides " concerning the previous misjudged prank are mirrored by the distaste directed towards Clive .
= = Reception = =
Critics responded positively to " Séance Time " , with a number of them characterising it as genuinely scary . Vicki Power , writing for The Daily Telegraph , described the episode as " clever and chilling " , while Julia Raeside and Victoria Segal , writing for The Sunday Times , called it " cleverly executed " , and Baylis described it as " a faith @-@ restorer for those who love " television drama . Mark Jones , writing for theguardian.com , called the episode " suitably spooky " and a " fitting end to a second series that has excelled at times " , and Chris Bennion , writing for The Independent , similarly described it as a " brilliant series finale " . A contrary opinion was offered in a review in the Liverpool Echo ; the author called " Séance Time " a " decent enough watch " , but felt that it was " a relatively disappointing episode " which was " unable to match what had gone before " . Baylis and Bennion stressed that the episode was very scary , with Bennion comparing it to " The Harrowing " ; he was complimentary of both , particularly their respective final scenes . Owen also compared the two , but noted that " Séance Time " contains more humour .
Bennion commended the writing , saying that Pemberton and Shearsmith were able to subvert expectations of séances several times ; " just as you 're smugly congratulating yourself for working out every twist and turn , they pull it from your grasp " . Owen praised the writing and subversion of expectations , and , though he found some of the twists predictable and felt that the ending needed more groundwork , felt that the final sequence " was worth it for another brown @-@ trouser moment " . Bennion felt that the " genius " of the episode was the way that tension was " undercut " with humour , but felt that the humour actually served to raise the tension . He highlighted the joke involving blue paint as particularly funny . Patrick Mulkern , of Radio Times , also praised the mix of humour and horror .
Raeside and Segal felt that Steadman 's performance was the highlight of the episode , and it was also praised in the Liverpool Echo . Bennion said that Steadman " [ hammed ] it up beautifully " and " [ nailed ] each [ joke ] with aplomb " , also commending the " comic turns " from Lowe and Lloyd . Mulkern described Steadman 's Madam Talbot as " hilariously theatrical " , and Boyd said that Steadman 's Anne provided " some of the best fun of the episode " .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . Séance Time ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 10 April 2016 .
= Garden Party ( The Office ) =
" Garden Party " is the fourth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 156th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 13 , 2011 . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Justin Spitzer and was directed by David Rogers and marks Mindy Kaling 's first credit as executive producer . " Garden Party " features a guest appearance from Josh Groban , Dee Wallace and Stephen Collins .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) throws a garden party at Schrute Farms to impress Robert California ( James Spader ) , with his parents and brother in attendance . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) works to make it a classy event .
" Garden Party " features a substantial appearance by Josh Groban ; Kaling had asked Groban if he could guest star in the series , through Twitter . The episode received mixed reviews from critics , with criticism towards its repetition of plot ideas . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Garden Party " drew more than 6 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , staying even with the previous episode , " Lotto " . It ranked third in its timeslot , and ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series on Thursday .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to throw a garden party at Schrute Farms to impress his parents and Robert California ( James Spader ) , and exhaustively explains party manners to the office workers . Andy is jealous at the amount of attention his younger brother Walter Bernard , Jr . ( Josh Groban ) receives from his father , and thinks that by throwing an elaborate party he can ensure his father 's blessings . At first , the party goes along smoothly . Andy makes a toast to Robert in order to get his fellow employees to toast him , as if to show to his parents and California that he is valued by his employees . His plan backfires , however , and instead more people toast Robert . To get everybody 's mind off of Robert , Andy decides to sing " More Than Words " as a duet with his father . This too goes awry as his father corrects his playing and singing , and ultimately decides to sing a duet with Walter Jr. instead of Andy . Upset , Andy takes his guitar and storms off . His father confronts him privately about his outburst , and when Andy admits to trying to win his father 's affection , he reacts with annoyance . This conversation is overheard by the other staff on the baby monitor Jim and Pam brought for their daughter , and Pam quickly turns off the monitor to let Andy save face . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) and Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) confide to the camera that they now understand why Andy feels he needs to prove himself to everyone . After his family leaves , a dejected Andy , feeling unwanted by his family and co @-@ workers , says goodbye to the office staff as they turn the garden party into a barbecue . Darryl and Oscar , however , convince Andy to stay with a cheeseburger and a beer .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) wants to make the garden party a classy event to expand Schrute Farms ' clientelle . He thoroughly reads a book called The Ultimate Guide to Throwing A Garden Party that he bought online , actually written by Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) under the pseudonym " James Trickington " . The book gives outlandish advice such as announcing each guest 's name as they arrive in an extremely loud manner , imitating The Last Supper in the middle of a meal , dancing with his party staff , and a fire court dance as the closing ceremonies , all of which Dwight follows to the letter .
Also , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) feuds with co @-@ worker Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) over baby names . Pam and Angela learn they 've both chosen the name Phillip for their soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ born sons , with Pam naming her child after her deceased grandfather and Angela after her favorite cat . Angela , annoyed that Pam doesn 't relinquish the name , makes a toast to " my son Phillip " at the garden party — only to have Pam make the same toast but describe in great detail how the name honors her grandfather . Angela , unwilling to reveal her feline @-@ centric reasons for the name , grouses to the camera that Pam is always copying her .
Meanwhile , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) keeps hinting how cold she is , hoping Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) will offer his jacket . However , Ryan instantly offers his jacket to Robert , who isn 't even cold . Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) also offers his , hinting at a rivalry between them in terms of sucking up to Robert , later evidenced in Pool Party . Dwight 's cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) has fun being a valet , lining them up to perform a motorcycle stunt . However , he fails to get his motorcycle up the ramp , and instead runs across the cars .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Justin Spitzer , his 10th writing credit for the series . It was directed by series editor David Rogers , his 4th directing credit for the series . Beginning with this episode , Mindy Kaling was promoted to executive producer . Before this , it was speculated that she might not return to the series as a writer . The episode features guest appearance from Stephen Collins , Dee Wallace and Josh Groban as Andy 's father , mother and brother , respectively . Collins and Wallace were reported to appear on the series by Joyce Eng of TV Guide . Josh Groban was later reported to appear on the series the next day . Writer Mindy Kaling had sent Groban a message through Twitter asking if he would want to appear on the series . He responded yes with the filming week of the episode lining up with his Los Angeles concert for his Straight to You Tour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on October 13 , 2011 , " Garden Party " was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 050 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . Although seeing a 3 @.@ 8 % increase in viewership , the episode matched the 18 @-@ 49 demo rating from the previous episode , " Lotto " . The episode ranked third in its timeslot beating Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic and The Secret Circle which received a 0 @.@ 8 rating / 2 % share , but was defeated by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 9 % share and The X Factor which received a 3 @.@ 6 rating / 10 % share .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall stated that the episode " offered more laughs than some of this season 's other episodes " . Despite this , he criticized the episode 's main plot with Andy commenting that " where giving Michael Scott power made him a funnier character than he would have been were he just another salesman , Andy has somehow become less funny since the promotion " . Chris Plante of New York called the episode " funny , weird , touching , and unpredictable . A gem , really " . National Post writer Barry Hertz compared the episode to " Booze Cruise " , " Beach Games " and " The Search " . M. Giant of Television without Pity gave the episode a B- . Several critics praised the return of former Office writer , Michael Schur as Mose Schrute . Barry Hertz said that " the sight gag of him running atop a field of cars like a watered @-@ down Evel Knievel was enough to give this episode an easy A " .
Despite this , the episode received some negative reviews . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt was more negative towards the episode writing that " Here , we have a case where an episode could have signaled at least some sense of what else the show might be interested in other than Andy as the well @-@ meaning but hapless boss and Pam and Angela 's dueling pregnancies , and all we got were variations on those storylines with no new angle either narratively " . He gave the episode a C. IGN writer Cindy White considered the episode superior to previous " external " episodes " Christening " and " Phyllis 's Wedding " , but considered it inferior to the " Niagara " and the " classic " " Booze Cruise " . She criticized the main plot for rehashing previous plot lines and ultimately gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 / 10 .
= Thomas Playford IV =
Sir Thomas Playford GCMG ( 5 July 1896 – 16 June 1981 ) was a South Australian politician . He served continuously as Premier of South Australia and leader of the Liberal and Country League from 5 November 1938 to 10 March 1965 . Though controversial , it was the longest term of any elected government leader in the history of Australia , or indeed of anywhere under the Westminster system . His tenure as premier was marked by a period of population and economic growth unmatched by any other Australian state . Playford took a unique , strong and direct approach to the premiership and personally oversaw his industrial initiatives . He was known for his parochial style in pushing South Australia 's interests , and was known for his ability to secure a disproportionate share of federal funding for the state as well as his shameless haranguing of federal leaders . His string of election wins was enabled by a system of a malapportionment gerrymander that bore his name , the ' Playmander ' − which saw the Australian Labor Party win clear majorities of the statewide two @-@ party vote whilst failing to form government in 1944 , 1953 , 1962 and 1968 .
Born into an old political family , Playford was the fifth Thomas Playford and the fourth to have lived in South Australia ; his grandfather Thomas Playford II had served as premier in the 19th century . He grew up on the family farm in Norton Summit before enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in World War I , fighting in Gallipoli and Western Europe . After serving , he continued farming until his election as a Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) representative for Murray at the 1933 state election . In his early years in politics , Playford was an outspoken backbencher who often lambasted LCL colleagues and ministers and their policies , and had a maverick strategy , often defying party norms and advocating unadulterated laissez faire economics and opposing protectionism and government investment , in stark contrast to his later actions as premier . With the resignation of the LCL 's leader , Richard Layton Butler , Playford ascended to the premiership in 1938 , having been made a minister just months earlier in an attempt to dampen his insubordination . Playford inherited a minority government and many independents to deal with , and instability was expected ; Playford was seen as a transitional leader . However , Playford dealt with the independents adroitly and went on to secure a one @-@ seat majority at the next election .
In office , Playford turned his back on laissez faire economics and used his negotiating skills to encourage industry to relocate to South Australia during World War II , as the state was far from the battlefield . He built upon this in the post @-@ war boom years , particular in automotive manufacturing ; although a liberal conservative , his approach to economics was pragmatic , and he was derided by his colleagues for his " socialism " as he nationalised electricity companies and used state enterprises to drive economic growth . Generally , Playford had more dissent from within his own party than the opposition centre @-@ left Australian Labor Party ; the main obstructions to his initiatives came from the upper house , where the restriction of suffrage to landowners resulted in a chamber dominated by the conservative landed gentry . The Labor leader Mick O 'Halloran worked cooperatively with Playford and was known to be happy being out of power , quipping that Playford could better serve his left @-@ wing constituents . Playford 's policies allowed for the supply of cheap electricity to factories , minimal business taxes , and he kept wages low to make the state more attractive to industrial investment . Playford kept salaries low by using the South Australian Housing Trust to building vast amounts of public housing and using government price controls to keep housing and other costs of living low to attract workers and migrants , angering the landlord class . Implemented in the 1940s , these policies were seen as dangerous to Playford 's control of his party , but they proved successful and he cemented his position within the LCL .
During the 1950s , Playford and the LCL 's share of the vote declined continually despite the economic growth , and they clung to power mainly due to the Playmander . Playford became less assured in parliament as Labor became more aggressive , their leading debater Don Dunstan combatively disrupting the previously collaborative style of politics , targeting the injustice of the Playmander in particular . Playford 's successful economic policies had fuelled a rapid expansion of the middle @-@ class , and they wanted more government attention to education , public healthcare , the arts , the environment and heritage protection . However , Playford was an unrelenting utilitarianist , and was unmoved by calls to broaden policy focus beyond economic development . This was exacerbated by Playford and his party 's failure to adapt to changing social mores , remaining adamantly committed to restrictive laws on alcohol , gambling and police powers . A turning point in Playford 's tenure was the Max Stuart case in the 1950s , when he came under heavy scrutiny for his hesitation to grant clemency to a murderer on death row amid claims of judicial wrongdoing . Although Playford eventually commuted the sentence under heavy criticism of the judicial review process , the controversy was seen as responsible for his government losing its assurance , and he eventually lost office in the 1965 election . He relinquished the LCL leadership to Steele Hall and retired at the next election , serving on various South Australian company boards until his death in 1981 .
= = Family = =
The Playford family heritage can be traced back to 1759 , when a baby boy was left at the door of a house in Barnby Dun , Yorkshire , England , with a note to christen the child ' Thomas Playford ' . The occupants of the house , who were to raise the child , were given instructions to receive money from a bank account for the deed . The child grew up to be a simple farmer in the village , and had a son in 1795 who he christened ' Thomas Playford ' . The tradition of naming the firstborn son in the family in this way has continued since .
The second Playford was something of a loner , but at the age of 15 he developed a relationship with a girl five years his senior with whom he fathered a child . In order to avoid the social stigma of the situation , and on the advice of his parents , Playford enlisted in the British Army in 1810 . While three years under the acceptable age , Playford 's height ( 6 ft 2 in ) enabled him to pass as eighteen . He spent 24 years in the service of the Life Guards , fighting all over Europe in Portugal , Spain and France , including the Battle of Waterloo at the age of 20 .
While a soldier , Playford became a devout Christian , and journeyed and listened to many different churches and sermons . He was sceptical of many pastors and church men , dismissing their " high sounding barren words " . He left the Life Guards in 1834 , received a land grant in Canada for his service , and journeyed there with his wife and family . His wife and a child died in the country , so he and his remaining kin returned to England . He worked as a historian for the Life Guards until 1844 when he migrated to the then @-@ province of South Australia . Playford became a pastor there , built a property at Mitcham , and preached regularly for his own ' Christian Church ' , which was essentially Baptist in character .
The third Playford , Thomas Playford II , was born at Bethnal Green , London in 1837 to the second wife of Pastor Playford . He was raised on the Mitcham property in South Australia , was intellectual and bookish , and wished to go the prestigious St Peter 's College to study law . He was rebuked by his father and subsequently became a farmer like his predecessors , buying property at Norton Summit and growing vegetables , plums and apples . He was elected to the local East Torrens Council in 1863 at the age of 27 ; and then to the State Parliament in 1868 as a ' liberal ' ( parties had not yet formed ) , representing the constituency of Onkaparinga . He became known as ' Honest Tom ' for his straightforward and blunt ways . He lost his seat in 1871 and regained it in 1875 only to lose it again until he was re @-@ elected in 1887 , upon which he became Premier of South Australia . He subsequently lost the premiership in 1889 , regained it in 1890 , and then spent a great deal of his term absent in India . After losing an election , he relocated to London to represent South Australia as Agent General to the United Kingdom . While in England , Playford was thrice offered a knighthood , but declined it each time .
He returned to South Australia to assist Charles Kingston in his government , but ultimately crossed the floor to bring down Kingston over his plans to lessen the power of the Legislative Council . With the advent of Australian Federation , Playford became a Senator for South Australia . He was leader of the Senate and the 7th Minister for Defence . After one term as a Senator , Playford was defeated . He ran again in 1910 , was unsuccessful , and retired to Kent Town , where he died in 1915 at the age of 78 .
The fourth Playford , father of Sir Thomas , was born in 1861 . Unlike his own father and grandfather , who had led lives as soldiers , churchmen and politicians , he became a simple farmer at the Norton Summit property and was dominated by his wife , Elizabeth . He was , like his forebears , a regular churchgoer , and only once was involved in politics with a short stint on the East Torrens District Council . In comparison , Elizabeth was the local correspondent of The Advertiser , treasurer and chief member of the local Baptist Church , and a teacher . Four children were born to the couple ; three daughters and one son , Sir Thomas .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Playford was the third child born to the family , with two sisters before him and one following . He started school at the age of six , going to the local Norton Summit School . The school had one room , one teacher , two assistants and 60 students , and taught children aged six to twelve . Playford , while an adept learner , frequently argued with his teacher , and was the first child to have been caned there . While learning , he accompanied his father down to the East End Markets with their farming produce . Playford later dubbed the East End Markets his ' university ' , due to the work that he carried out there .
It was the influence of Playford 's mother Elizabeth that contributed to his relative Puritanism and social habits . She was a devout Baptist Christian , and it was primarily because of her that he publicly abstained from alcohol , smoking and gambling throughout his lifetime . However , despite her influence on his social habits , he did not regularly attend church like his family .
His father suffered a fall and a broken leg when Playford was thirteen . He requested permission to leave school and take over the family farm ; this was granted , and the boy , even after his father had recovered , dominated the management of the farm . While out of school , Playford continued to learn ; he joined the local Norton Summit Society , and took part in classes and debates in Adelaide . He won a public speaking award for a speech he made to an Adelaide literary society .
World War I broke out in 1914 , and Playford wished to join the Australian Imperial Force . His parents persuaded him to assist them on the farm until close to his 19th birthday . He entered Keswick Barracks on 17 May 1915 , was enlisted as a private and placed in the 27th Battalion , 2nd Division . The news of the bloody landings at Gallipoli on 25 April had not reached Adelaide by the time Playford left on HMAT Geelong on 31 May . The Geelong picked up more soldiers at Perth , and then sailed to Suez , Egypt . The Australian soldiers received training in Egypt , but during the evenings left their camps to indulge themselves in the Egyptian towns and cities . Frequent fights broke out between the Australian troops and the locals , with responsible soldiers left to take the rest back to camp . Playford assisted in this and dragged Australian soldiers from the beds of Egyptian prostitutes . Training was completed after two months and Playford landed at Anzac Cove on 12 September 1915 .
After taking part in the Gallipoli Campaign , Playford and his battalion left for France on 15 March 1916 . He fought on the Western Front and was shot and wounded on 20 October , evacuated to London , and kept out of action for a year . Playford endured many operations during this time to remove the shrapnel that had penetrated his body , although some of it remained within him , and his hearing was permanently damaged . Turning down an offer for a staff job in India , Playford returned to his battalion in October 1917 and continued fighting in Belgium and France .
With the end of the Great War , Playford returned to South Australia with his battalion , disembarking at Outer Harbor , Adelaide on 2 July 1919 . He had received no decorations , but had been commissioned from the ranks as an officer and was honourably discharged in October with the rank of lieutenant . Despite Playford 's intellectual capability , he shunned the Government 's offer of free university education for soldiers and returned to his orchard . He continued growing cherries on the property , and engaged in his hobby of horticulture . His involvement in various organisations and clubs was renewed .
Through relatives Playford met his future wife Lorna Clark , who lived with her family in Nailsworth . Although both families were religiously devout , the Clarks were even more so than the Playfords , and a long courtship ensued . Taking her out on his Harley Davidson motorcycle at night , the two were forced to leave the theatre half @-@ way through performances so as to not raise the ire of the Clarks . Before their wedding on 1 January 1928 , they were engaged for three years . During their engagement , Playford built their new house on his property , mostly by his own hands and indented in the hills themselves ; it remained their home throughout their lives .
Two years later , on Christmas Day , 1930 , the family 's first daughter was born , Margaret . Two more children were born to the family ; Patricia in 1936 , and Thomas in 1945 . All three of them attended private schools : Patricia attended the Presbyterian Girls ' College , becoming a teacher ; and Margaret attended Methodist Ladies ' College , later training as a child psychiatrist . The sixth Thomas wanted to attend university , but , like his forbears , was rebuked and worked on the orchard . Like a Playford before him , he became a minister of religion in his later life .
= = Political career = =
Among the organisations that Playford belonged to was the local branch of the Liberal Federation , yet until the months preceding his eventual election , he never talked of holding political office . The Liberal Federation was considering a merger with the Country Party to avoid Labor retaining office during the Great Depression . Archie Cameron , an old wartime friend of Playford 's and a federal Coalition MP , influenced Playford to run for office when he heard of the merger . In 1932 the Liberal and Country League ( LCL ) was created , and Playford ran for the multi @-@ member constituency of Murray at the 1933 election .
Along with the other LCL hopefuls , Playford journeyed around the electorate advocating his platform . The constituency had a considerable German element , descendants of refugees who had escaped persecution in the German Empire . Grateful for the past help of Playford 's grandfather , they swung their strong support behind him and he was comfortably elected to the South Australian House of Assembly . With a split in the Labor vote , the first LCL government was formed with Richard Layton Butler as Premier .
For the next five years Playford was to remain a backbencher , and to involve himself relatively little in government matters . His speeches were short , but to the point , and , running against the norm , he often attacked the government itself when he saw fit . The historian Peter Howell said that Playford was " an unusually insolent and disloyal backbencher , always concerned to cut a figure and ridicule his party 's leader " . A new member 's maiden speech is traditionally heard politely without the interruption and heckling prevalent in Australian politics , but Playford 's aggressive debut in parliament was not accorded this privilege as " a casual visitor could have mistaken him " for an opposition member . At one point , a visibly angry Premier Butler interjected after Playford attacked the members of the Employment Promotion Council . In his opening address , Playford individually mocked the bureaucrats who comprised various government bodies , and then condemned public transport monopolies , as well as declaring " It is not our business to worry whether people go broke or not " . This comment provoked interjections from both government and opposition members — in the midst of the Great Depression , Playford 's unashamed and aggressive promotion of his unbridled laissez faire philosophy stood out amidst the increasing prevalence of government intervention .
During his first term in parliament , Playford also gained attention for his unconvincing command of the English language ; he developed a reputation for pronouncing common words incorrectly , bad syntax and speaking in a monotone . He continued to attack his ministers , and complaints from the likes of Public Works Minister Herbert Hudd only encouraged Playford to further mock him . Playford also consistently opposed the liberalisation of liquor trading , having been unimpressed by the drunken behaviour he had witnessed while in the military . He continued to stridently support economic rationalism , something he would later renege on as premier . He opposed government investment in capital works as a means of generating employment and stimulating the economy during the Depression , and called for a decrease in dairy production within the state on the basis that it was more efficient to import from interstate , where rainfall was higher and grazing was more effective . Playford further criticised government subsidies to work farms designed to alleviate unemployment among Indigenous Australians , claiming that the cost exceeded that of the standard jobless payment . He also endorsed the privatisation of unprofitable state railways and denounced tariff protection as rewarding inefficiency and non @-@ innovation . In 1936 , Playford defied his party by voting against the formation of the South Australian Housing Trust . Nevertheless , despite his refusal to toe the party line , Playford was well regarded for his studious attitude to research and his preparation of his speeches .
Around Playford , much activity was occurring . Legislation provided for the tools that he was to inherit later as Premier : aggressive economic initiatives , a malapportioned electoral system and a staid internal party organisation . The state had been persistently in deficit in recent times , and as an agriculture @-@ dominant state , had been at the mercy of commodity prices , so a strategy of industrialisation was initiated under the guidance of senior politicians , public servants and industrialists . The creation of the LCL was dependent on the implementation of various policies to ensure the strength of the party 's country faction . There had been an electoral bias in favour of rural areas since the Constitution Act of 1857 , but it was now to dramatically increase . In 1936 , legislation was brought in that stipulated that electoral districts were to be malapportioned to a ratio of at least 2 : 1 in favour of country areas . In addition , the 46 multimember districts were replaced with 39 single @-@ member districts — 13 in Adelaide and 26 in the country . Over the next three decades , Adelaide 's population grew until it had triple the population of the country , but the distribution of seats in the legislature gave rural voters a disproportionate influence by a factor of six . The desired long @-@ term effect was to lock the opposition Labor Party out of power ; the unexpected short @-@ term effect was a large number of dissatisfied rural independents in the 1938 election . Although he played no part in its development or implementation , the electoral system gerrymander was later christened the ' Playmander ' , as a result of its benefit to Playford , and his failure to take action towards reforming it . Playford also benefited from the friendly line pursued by The Advertiser , who persistently told them .
After the Liberals won the 1938 election , with Playford having transferred to Gumeracha , Butler sought to tame Playford 's aggressive oratory approach towards the LCL cabinet by offering him a ministry . Playford entered the cabinet in March 1938 as the Commissioner of Crown Lands , and held portfolios in Irrigation and Repatriation . The new frontbencher subsequently adopted a more moderate style of parliamentary conduct . Butler abandoned the Premiership in November to seek election for the federal seat of Wakefield , a Liberal stronghold that had been vacated by the death of sitting member Charles Hawker in an aviation accident . Despite having been in cabinet for only a few months , Playford was unanimously elected as the new leader of the LCL by his peers , and thus became the 33rd Premier of South Australia . Like Butler , he also served as Treasurer of South Australia . Regarded as a compromise candidate who was able to appeal to both urban and rural voters , it was thought that Playford would only be a transitional leader before someone else took over the Liberal leadership , but he was to remain for almost 27 years .
Upon his ascension , Playford headed a minority government ; the LCL only held 15 of the 39 seats in the lower house . The balance of power was held by 13 mostly conservative independents . Many had gained from discontent over Butler 's relatively liberal social stances , so Playford sought to assuage them by having his LCL colleagues refrain from upsetting social conservatives . He also used the threat of an early election to deter the independents from stalling his initiatives — with their lack of party infrastructure and funding , they would be the most vulnerable to election campaigns .
= = World War II = =
Playford became a wartime Premier in 1939 when Australia , as part of the British Empire , entered World War II . Later in the war , cut off from traditional suppliers of manufactures , the country was forced to create its own . Armaments and munitions factories needed to be created to supply the war effort , and Playford was vociferous in advocating South Australia as the perfect location for these . It was far from the battlegrounds and had the most efficient labour force in the nation . British Tube Mills opened a mill in the inner @-@ northern suburbs . Ammunition factories were built in the northern and western suburbs of Adelaide , as well as in some smaller installations in regional centres , and construction on a shipyard began in Whyalla . Having strenuously opposed a construction of a pipeline to pump water from Morgan in the River Murray to Whyalla for the steelworks and blast furnace there before his ascension to the premiership , Playford oversaw approval of the Morgan @-@ Whyalla pipeline in 1940 and its completion in 1944 . He also reversed his previous opposition to Butler 's pine plantation and sawmill program , authorising an expansion of the program in the state 's southeast .
Salisbury , then a dormitory town to the north of Adelaide , became a defence centre ; the shipyards at Whyalla began launching corvettes in 1941 just as Japan entered the war . All of these developments were done under Playford 's watch , with most of the factories being built by the Department of Manpower and the South Australian Housing Trust . In Woodville in western Adelaide , a large plant for Actil cotton was built . The explosives factory at Salisbury was converted into an aerospace research facility after the war , as various companies worked on matters related to rocket testing at Woomera in the state 's far north ; the Salisbury complex became the second largest employer of South Australians for a period after the war . The munitions factory in the western suburb of Hendon was later converted into a plant for the electrical appliance firm Philips and at its peak employed more than three thousand people .
In order for these developments to occur , Playford personally had to attend to the bureaucracy that stood in the way . He confronted obstinate public service workers , and successfully negotiated with the heads of private companies . But it was negotiations with the Federal Government that were to prove the hardest . In his time as Premier , Playford was to confront seven different Prime Ministers : Lyons , Page , Menzies , Fadden , Curtin , Forde and Chifley . Strangely , he enjoyed best relations with the Laborite Chifley , and had a poor rapport with his fellow conservative , Menzies . During the wartime years , Menzies ' reluctance to meet with Playford initially hampered industrial efforts , but Playford 's other federal colleagues made sure that deals could be made .
To Playford 's advantage there was usually a disproportionate number of South Australians in federal cabinets , both Liberal and Labor . This clout , combined with his own intensive and unconventional negotiating tactics , made sure that South Australia regularly got more federal funds than it would have been allocated otherwise . This was to Menzies ' chagrin : " Tom wouldn 't know intellectual honesty if he met it on the end of a pitch fork but he does it all for South Australia , not for himself , so I forgive him . " By the time of his departure from power , Playford gained the reputation of being " a good South Australian but a very bad Australian " , and for using " threats to bully recalcitrant Prime Ministers " . For his part , Playford remained unrepentant , claiming that federal authorities had infringed the constitution of Australia and had consistent exercised powers over the states that were not rightfully theirs . Playford accused the High Court of Australia of helping the federal parliament under Curtin to legislate to give itself a monopoly on the acquisition of income tax , which he claimed was contrary to the intention of the constitution to prevent excessive centralisation of power in the federal government . In 1958 , he threatened to take the federal government to the High Court , which led to South Australia being given more compensation under the River Murray Waters Agreement for the loss of water from the Snowy River . Three years later he went to the High Court in an attempt to have Canberra pay for the standardisation of the gauge on the Broken Hill @-@ Port Pirie railway .
During the war , two state elections were held , in 1941 and 1944 . In the 1941 election , there was a significant decrease in the independent vote , and both the Labor Party and the LCL made gains , with Playford forming the LCL 's first majority government . This was in large part due to the LCL 's shift to the right on social issues to usurp the independents ' appeal . In 1942 , compulsory voting ( but not enrolment ) was introduced , and first took effect at the 1944 election , with an increase in voter turnout from 51 % to 89 % . Again Playford won with a one @-@ seat LCL majority , hanging on with the help of the malapportioned electoral system .
Power and water schemes were expanded to be able to cope with the industrial development occurring . The state was at a disadvantage in that it was completely reliant on imports for its fuel supply . South Australia 's near @-@ monopoly electricity supplier , the Adelaide Electricity Supply Company ( AESC ) , was reluctant to build up coal reserves in case of a transportation problem . They ran on coal that was shipped over from New South Wales ( NSW ) , where the mines were inefficient and plagued by communist @-@ agitated industrial strife . Playford demanded that supplies be built up so the factories could keep producing ; he managed to secure eight months worth of coal reserves from NSW , but even that began to dwindle due to the continued industrial action . Coal supplies were ordered from South Africa in desperation , at Playford 's behest . The frustration he experienced while dealing with the AESC would later prove disastrous to the company as the Premier took action against them .
= = Industrialisation = =
The AESC continued to snub the government . Playford advocated the use of brown coal from the South Australian Leigh Creek mine to avoid supply complications , and even made into law a bill encouraging its use . He also championed the development of the town and the expansion of the mine , which had been dormant for several decades , to ease the state 's dependency on imported coal . Much state and federal government money was invested in the scheme , the town infrastructure was built , and the production started in February 1944 . Shortly afterwards , the AESC responded by buying new boilers which would only be able to the more productive black coal . With more conflicts ensuing , and even with the company slowly relenting , Playford did not stop his struggle . A Royal Commission in March 1945 was appointed to ascertain a solution between the two parties , and presented its report in August with a recommendation that the AESC be nationalised . A few months later , Playford 's stance received a boost when heavy strikes in New South Wales forced shutdowns in South Australia that saw thousands of labourers out of work . By then at the head of the only conservative government in the nation , when Playford requested commonwealth funds to assist in the nationalisation of the AESC Prime Minister Chifley responded with glee and enthusiasm . On 11 October , he presented a bill to Parliament to nationalise the AESC and create the Electricity Trust of South Australia .
Labor , astonished that such an action was to come from a Liberal Premier , resolutely supported the bill , guaranteeing it passage through the House of Assembly 29 – 6 , the only dissenters being LCL members . However , the Legislative Council was dominated by economic conservatives , fierce adherents of free enterprise and opponents of what they considered to be undue government intervention in the economy . The LCL councillors tried to have the bill watered down to allow merely for government control of AESC for a brief period . In the Council , where suffrage was reliant upon wage and property requirements , the ALP only held four seats out of twenty , and only five LCL members supported the nationalisation . Thus , on 7 November , the bill failed to pass and it was not put to the Parliament again until 1946 . On 6 April , after months of campaigning on Playford 's part , he managed to change the mind of MLC Jack Bice , and the bill passed . The Electricity Trust of South Australia was formed , and was to become a major aid to post @-@ war industrialisation .
The decision to nationalise AESC and develop Leigh Creek proved to be prescient . In early 1947 , mines in New South Wales were again crippled by communist @-@ inspired strikes . The worst strike came in 1949 , forcing Chifley to send in the armed forces to extract coal . While the other states had to suffer industrial power rationing and thus reduced manufacturing output and more unemployment , South Australia managed to escape as the miners at Leigh Creek worked around the clock . Within four years the mine was operating at a surplus and the town was further rewarded with federal funding . From 1947 until the end of Playford 's leadership in 1965 , the output of the mine increased tenfold to almost two million tons a year . Transport infrastructure was improved , European immigrant workers were recruited , and twin power plants at Port Augusta were completed in 1960 and named after the premier . The new plants exclusively used Leigh Creek coal and by 1970 , the whole state was self @-@ sufficient for electricity . ETSA and the mine were generating enough revenue to maintain the town — sometimes dubbed Uncle Tom 's Baby — and mine of Leigh Creek and making a profit as well . From 1946 to 1965 , the proportion of South Australians connected to electricity increased from 70 to 96 % .
The nationalisation of the AESC was the most prominent manifestation of Playford 's economic pragmatism ; although ideologically a free enterprise man like his colleagues , he saw ideology as secondary if it got in the way of his objectives . He had little time for those who objected to plans that were for the betterment of South Australia , despite these plans being contrary to particular interpretations of party ideology . The struggle for Leigh Creek was seen as a critical point in Playford 's premiership ; a second legislative failure was seen as being potentially fatal for Playford 's leadership of his party , but the successful passage of the bill enhanced his image and gave himi enduring control over his party for the rest of his career , although it angered some of the staunch LCL conservatives in the upper house for some time ; a significant number of them refused to talk to Playford for a substantial period of time thereafter .
During the post @-@ war boom , the methods used to set up business in South Australia were unique . Playford 's government would charge little to no business tax , supply cheap electricity , land and water , and have the Housing Trust build the factories and workers ' homes . Consumer goods and automotive factories were created in the northern and western suburbs of Adelaide ; mining , steel and shipbuilding industries appeared in the ' Iron Triangle ' towns of Whyalla , Port Pirie and Port Augusta . Prices and wages were kept relatively low to enable continued investment , and South Australia was slower than the other states to abolish these wartime measures to increase its industrial competitiveness . The government initiatives managed to overcome the large logistic burden , as Adelaide and South Australia were far from the markets where the goods would be sold .
The Housing Trust was a key plank in Playford 's campaign to keep costs low and promote investment . By providing cheap housing , workers could also be persuaded to accept lower salaries , therefore keeping production costs down . In 1940 , Playford introduced the Housing Improvement Act to parliament , having seen the benefits of the Housing Trust 's activities . The main aims of the legislation were " to improve the adverse housing conditions " by replacing " insanitary , old , crowded , or obsolete dwelling houses " with better @-@ quality buildings — at the time many older residences in the city centre were made of corrugated iron and many areas were slum @-@ like . The law forced landlords to provide a minimum standard of housing and enacted rent controls , setting a maximum rent for various houses ; at the time many landlords bought large numbers of low @-@ quality dwellings and charged tenants exorbitant prices . It also expanded the role of the Housing Trust , potentially undercutting the rentier class . Labor were taken aback by Playford 's move , as this was the start of a trend whereby the nominally conservative government pursued policies that were more left @-@ wing than other Labor governments across the country . After expressing shock at Playford 's " loving kindness to the poor and distressed " , Labor helped to get the legislation — which threatened the interests of the landlord class that traditionally supported the LCL — passed into law . During one 15 @-@ year period , Housing Trust rents were not increased once despite steady inflation .
Playford served briefly during 1955 as Attorney @-@ General of South Australia .
Many of the methods that Playford used were described by economic conservatives as ' socialism ' , drawing opposition from within his own party , especially in the Legislative Council . It is even said that the Liberal leader in that chamber — Sir Collier Cudmore — once referred to Playford as a ' Bolshevik ' . The unique economic intervention earned Playford scorn from his own colleagues , but the Labor movement was much more receptive . Indeed , Labor leader Mick O 'Halloran would dine with Playford on a weekly basis to discuss the development of the state , and the pair were on close personal terms . At a dinner party , O 'Halloran remarked that " I wouldn 't want to be Premier even if I could be . Tom Playford can often do more for my own voters than I could if I were in his shoes . " O 'Halloran 's lack of ambition was mocked in a political cartoon , but the Labor leader took the piece as a compliment and had it framed and put on display . As Playford had more opposition from his LCL colleagues in the upper house than Labor , O 'Halloran was often described as the premier 's ' junior partner " . Playford called Labor " our Opposition " , in comparison to opponents in his party , which he decried as being " critical without being helpful " . This cooperative nature of party politics would not change until Don Dunstan 's prominence in the late 1950s , when Playford would be assailed not for his economics , but for his government 's comparatively low expenditure on public services such as education and healthcare .
Large projects were commenced . The city of Elizabeth was built by the Housing Trust in Adelaide 's north , for the production of GM Holden motor vehicles . Populated mainly by working @-@ class English migrants , it was , before its eventual economic and social decline , a showcase of successful city planning .
Playford also successfully coaxed Chrysler to stay in Adelaide and expand its operations . The Housing Trust sold the Tonsley Park where the car manufacturing plant was set up , and helped to install railyards , electricity and water infrastructure there , as it had done at Elizabeth . By the time Playford left office , Holden and Chrysler employed around 11 @,@ 000 workers , 11 % of the state 's manufacturing employees . After earlier failed attempts to bring a tyre factory to Adelaide , the plans to build the Port Stanvac oil refinery — which would produce hydrocarbons used in synthetic rubber — in the early 1960s were enough to convince both a Dunlop Rubber @-@ Olympic joint venture and SA Rubber Mills ( later Bridgestone Australia ) to start manufacturing operations .
Playford also sought to involve South Australia in uranium mining , which he saw as both a means of providing electricity for powering industrial development , and as a means of ensconcing the state in the anti @-@ communist alliance in the midst of the Cold War . He was supported his venture by federal subsidies and concessions . After the deposits at Mount Painter were deemed to be unsuitable , the focus turned to Radium Hill and significant state government money was invested into research . State and federal laws were changed to allow for mining at Radium Hill and exportation of uranium ; Playford also publicly advocated for nuclear power . Rewards were offered for the discovery of uranium deposits , but no suitable reserves were found , so Radium Hill was the only project to proceed . The Korean War had just erupted , and the American government was anxious to secure uranium for nuclear weapons . Playford was able to exploit this to secure " the easiest and most generous [ deal ] in the history of uranium negotiations " . It was the highest purchase of uranium the Americans made during the Cold War and they contributed £ 4m for infrastructure development . Mining started in November 1954 , and lasted for the seven @-@ year @-@ period of the contract with the Americans . Almost a million tonnes of ore had been mined , amounting to nearly £ 16m in contracts . Radium Hill had made a profit but was closed as higher @-@ grade alternatives were discovered elsewhere and a new buyer could not be found . Playford also attempted to have the Australian Atomic Energy Commission based in the state , but failed ; the nation 's only nuclear reactor was built at Lucas Heights on the outskirts of Sydney .
When Playford left office in 1965 , South Australia 's population had doubled from 600 @,@ 000 in the late 1930s to 1 @.@ 1 million , the highest proportionate rate among the states . The economy had done likewise , and personal wealth had increased at the same rate , second only to Victoria . During Playford 's 27 years in power , employment in manufacturing in South Australia had increased by 173 % ; Western Australia was in second place with 155 % growth , while the national average was during the period was 129 % . The state 's share of Australia 's manufacturing sector increased from 7 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 2 % . However , there was criticism that Playford had diversified secondary industries enough , that industrial growth was beginning to lag the other states in the last decade of his leadership , and that the reliance on automotive production — Holden and Chrysler were 15 % of the economy — made the economy more vulnerable to shocks in the future . Playford was also criticised for his informal style and tendency to rely on a small circle of public servants , sidelining much of his cabinet and not leaving a legacy of industrial infrastructure . Blewett and Jaensch said that Playford 's " ad hoc methods and personalised administration " had worked well but said he needed a " more sophisticated " approach in later years , and was unable to adapt .
= = Don Dunstan = =
At the 1953 election , the young lawyer Don Dunstan was elected to the House of Assembly as the Labor member for Norwood , ousting the LCL incumbent . Playford had landed unexpectedly in his role as the undisputed leader of his party , while Dunstan was , from the start of his parliamentary career , a stand @-@ out among his own ranks and an excellent orator in parliament . Dunstan and Playford were each other 's principal antagonists .
Playford , used to cooperating with Labor leaders more than attacking them , sensed Dunstan 's promise and , predicting that one day Dunstan would be at the helm , attempted to establish bonds . So , after a late session of parliament at night , Playford would give Dunstan a lift home in his car . As Dunstan 's home was situated on George Street , Norwood , it was only a small deviance from Playford 's normal route to his home in Norton Summit . The topics that the two discussed were not ever completely revealed , yet Playford , according to Dunstan , would talk to him in a paternalistic manner . The two built up somewhat of a relationship and developed a respect for each other , but due to the strength of their respective views ( Playford was a liberal conservative , Dunstan a libertarian socialist ) , did not establish the same type of bond that Playford had with earlier Laborites .
To face an opposition that was becoming uncooperative was not what Playford has expected , or could satisfactorily handle . Before the effect Dunstan had on Parliament , Playford would meet with Labor leaders to discuss bills , and ensure bipartisan support in the House of Assembly for them ; there was little discordance on matters . The belligerents were previously only rural independent members .
Even while the economic boom continued , the LCL vote gradually declined after 1941 . The LCL never held more than 23 seats during Playford 's tenure due to being almost nonexistent in Adelaide . With few exceptions , its support in the capital was limited to the eastern crescent and the Holdfast Bay area even at the height of Playford 's power . It relied on favourable preferences from minor parties and independents and the malapportioned electoral system in order to stay in office . It did , however , win a majority of actual votes , barring 1944 and 1953 , on a two @-@ party @-@ preferred basis until 1962 . Labor had begun to combat the Playmander by directing its efforts at individual seats , and abandoning a statewide campaign . Slowly , seats were whittled away — the loss of Norwood in 1953 was followed by the losses of Murray , Millicent and Frome in 1956 , and Mt Gambier and Wallaroo in 1957 – 8 by @-@ elections . Playford 's dominance over the party and his ignorance of the wishes of its broad membership base brought about a degree of disillusionment , and the party machine began to decay . The dominance stopped the emergence of a new generation of political talent , and had a " stultifying " effect . Although the Playmander ensured his ongoing electoral success , and Playford was credited with South Australia 's economic success , the LCL polled a lower percentage than the corresponding Liberal government at federal level .
During this period , Prime Minister Menzies recommended that Playford be bestowed with a form of honours . Playford 's wish was to be made a privy councillor , yet , while entirely possible , if granted it would lead to demands from other state Premiers . Playford 's grandfather had declined a KCMG , and Playford himself did initially , but under the influence of Menzies he eventually accepted the honour and was knighted in 1957 .
= = Max Stuart trial = =
In December 1958 , an event that initially had nothing to do with Playford , occurred , and eventually intensified into a debacle that was regarded as a turning point in his premiership and marked the end of his rule .
A young girl was found raped and murdered , and Max Stuart , an Aborigine , was convicted and sentenced to be executed only a month later , on the basis of a confession gained during interrogation , although he had protested his innocence in pidgin English . Stuart 's lawyer claimed that the confession was forced , and appeals to the Supreme and High Courts were dismissed . A linguist who investigated the case thought that the style of English in the confession was inconsistent with Stuart 's background and speech . This aroused disquiet and objections against the fairness of the trial among an increasing amount of legal academics and judges , and The News brought much attention to Stuart 's plight with an aggressive , tabloid @-@ style campaign . Soon , the case attracted international attention , some on the assumption that the legal system was racist . The former High Court Justice Sir John Latham also spoke out .
During this time , Stuart 's execution had been delayed on multiple occasions . On 6 July , Playford and the Executive Council decided not to reprieve Stuart , and he was due to be executed the next day , but an appeal to the Privy Council in London stalled proceedings again . However , this also failed . Labor then tried to introduce legislation to stall the hanging .
Amid loud outcry , Playford started a Royal Commission to review the case . However , two of the Commissioners appointed , Chief Justice Mellis Napier and Justice Geoffrey Reed , had already been involved , Napier as presiding judge in the Full Court appeal and Reed as the trial judge . This provoked worldwide controversy with claims of bias from the likes of the President of the Indian Bar Council , the esteemed British judge Norman Birkett , the leader of the United Kingdom Liberal Party Jo Grimond and former British Prime Minister Clement Attlee . Years later , Playford admitted that he erred in his appointments of Reed and Napier and that it could have shaken public confidence on the fairness of the hearing .
The Royal Commission began its work and the proceedings were followed closely and eagerly debated by the public . As Playford had not shown an inclination to commute Stuart 's sentence , Dunstan introduced a bill to abolish capital punishment . The vote was split along party lines and was thus defeated , but Dunstan used the opportunity to attack the Playmander with much effect in the media , portraying the failed legislation as an unjust triumph of a malapportioned minority who had a vengeance mentality over an electorally repressed majority who wanted a humane outcome .
Amid the continuing uproar , Playford decided to grant clemency . He gave no reason for his decision . The Royal Commission continued its work and concluded that the guilty verdict was sound . Although a majority of those who spoke out against the handling of the matter thought that Stuart was probably guilty , the events provoked heated and bitter debate in South Australian society and destabilised Playford 's administration . According to Ken Inglis , " most of the responsibility for letting the ... general controversy ... [ lies with ] Sir Thomas Playford and his ministers ... [ Theirs ] was the response of men who were convinced that the affairs of the society were in good hands , and that only the naive and the mischievous would either doubt this general truth or challenge any particular application of it . " Blewett and Jaensch said that the " clumsy handling " of the case was a manifestation of " the inevitable hubris of men too long in power " .
= = Political decline = =
Playford was confronted with an economic recession when he went into the election of 1962 . Earlier , in late 1961 , the federal Liberal @-@ Country coalition suffered a 13 @-@ seat swing and barely held onto government . Menzies ' majority was slashed from 32 to 2 . In the 1962 election , the Labor Party gained 54 @.@ 3 % of the two @-@ party @-@ preferred vote to the LCL 's 45 @.@ 7 percent . However , due to the Playmander , this was only enough to net Labor 19 seats to the LCL 's 18 . The balance of power rested with two independents , Tom Stott and Percy Quirke . On election night , it was thought that Playford 's long tenure was over , but he did not concede . There was speculation that Playford would let an inexperienced Labor form a minority government as the economic difficulties might make it a poisoned chalice . After a week of silence he said he would not resign , and would see how the independents lined up when parliament reconvened . Labor needed the support of only one of the independents to make its leader , Frank Walsh , premier , while the LCL needed them both for a 10th term in government They swung their support behind Playford and allowed his government to continue for another term ; in return Quirke joined the LCL and was appointed to cabinet , while Stott was appointed speaker . Nonetheless , much media fanfare was made of the result , and of the detrimental effects of the ' Playmander ' . Walsh declared the result " a travesty of electoral injustice " and lobbied the governor to not invite Playford to form government , to no avail .
Electoral legislation remained unchanged . Labor introduced bills for reform , but these were defeated in both houses of Parliament . The premier introduced electoral legislation that would have entrenched his government further than under the Playmander . As electoral legislation was part of the South Australian constitution , it required an absolute parliamentary majority ( 20 seats , under the current system ) to be changed . The LCL relied on Stott in the house , so Labor could obstruct changes by keeping members away and forcing a pair .
While the political situation was becoming increasingly untenable , Playford himself continued with his job of building the state . Plans for Adelaide 's future development , including a road transport plan , were commissioned . Playford saw a modern road transport system as crucial to continuing the industrialisation of the state , and motor vehicle registrations , which had increased by a factor of 50 since the end of the war , required road expansion . The Metropolitan Plan , a 1962 publication of the Town Planning Committee called for the construction of 56 km of freeways and speculated that three times as much would be needed in future . However , most of this never materialised ; only the South Eastern Freeway was approved during Playford 's term , and construction just after he left office . A more ambitious plan for a freeway system was commissioned , but the study was not completed until after Playford 's departure and was scrapped by later governments due to widespread public objections to the proposed demolition of entire suburbs for interchanges . Playford was criticised for seeing roads only from an engineering and utilitarian standpoint and neglecting the social and community effects of such building . The state 's population hit in the one million mark in 1963 and the Port Stanvac oil refinery was completed . Adelaide 's water supply was increased and the pipeline from Morgan to Whyalla was duplicated .
= = = Changing policy expectations = = =
The economic success of Playford 's administration also fuelled the rapid growth of an immigrant , working and middle @-@ class whose social expectations differed markedly from his traditionalist stance , loosening his grip on power . The demographic changes brought on by Playford 's successful economic policies increased the number of people who had rather different views to his on matters such as education , health , arts , the environment , gambling and alcohol . Blewett and Jaensch said " it can be argued that the development he fostered ultimately brought about his own political demise . " The state 's social fabric became more complex , but Playford was unable or unwilling to adapt to their more complicated policital desires .
Playford was known for his lack of funding for education , regarding it as a distraction from the industrialisation of the state . During this period , only the financial elite could afford a university education , and less than one percent of the population had a degree by the time Playford left office . Despite this , university attendance more than tripled , and secondary and technical school enrolments more than quintupled , far outstripping the 77 % population growth during his time in office , as incomes — and hence access to education — rose steadily as the need for teenagers to find a job to help support the family declined . Although the government expenditure on education increased from 10 to 17 % from 1945 to 1959 , the number of teachers had only doubled by the time he left office , so class sizes increased . The premier 's education policy was criticised for being too conservative and lacking in innovation . Playford also did not allow the teaching of languages other than English in schools on the grounds that " English is good enough " . Howell said that Playford 's " prejudices ... served to limit the capacity of many able South Australians to participate in trade negotiations or diplomatic work . " University academics and Public Examinations Board called for the inclusion of biology and the broadening of senior high school curriculum to better prepare students for tertiary education , but were rebuffed . In 1963 the minimum school leaving age was raised to 15 , but this was still lower than most states in Australia .
The premier was also known for his suspicious attitude towards the University of Adelaide and tertiary education in general ; many of their graduates moved interstate and he thought that scientific research done within the state was not sufficiently focussed on practical applications . The antipathy was mutual and originated from Playford 's days as a backbencher , when he formally complained to the university about a lecture given by a political science professor about Marxism . Playford saw the discussion of such a topic as misuse of public funds for promotion of socialism , and his continued outspokenness about political curricula angered academics , who saw it as an attempt to curtail intellectual freedom . One vice @-@ chancellor was angered to the point of telling a senior public servant that Playford " an uneducated country colonial " . Playford also opposed the establishment of a second university in the state as the population increased . While academics thought that another institution would bring more academic diversity , Playford thought this would increase competition for resources , so he allowed only a new campus of the University of Adelaide , which became Flinders University after his departure from power . In his defence , Playford pointed that he had never rejected a funding request since the state took responsibility for universities in 1951 , and that his proportional expenditure on tertiary education matched that of other states .
Healthcare in South Australia also lagged behind during Playford 's rule . Hospitals were overcrowded and the Royal Adelaide Hospital 's beds were crammed together with a density twice higher than developed world standards . After a media expose and criticism from health sector professionals , two more hospitals were built in the western and northern suburbs of Adelaide respectively . Playford 's attitude to social welfare also led to dismay . He said that it was up to charity , not the government , to support orphans and disadvantaged sectors of the community so that they could enjoy a better standard of living . Spending on social welfare lagged behind that in other states , and legislative reforms on this front were non @-@ existent .
Arts , which Playford showed no personal interest in , and regarded as " frills not fundamentals " and " non @-@ productive " , became a more prominent issue among the emerging middle @-@ class . For his attitude , Playford was often mocked by his opponents and critics for his " philistinism " . The Nation derisorily quipped that " It is axiomatic that the Premier draws his orchard spray gun at the mention of the word ' culture ' " . Sir Arthur Rymill , an LCL member of the upper house , criticised the demolition of the Theatre Royal , lobbied Playford for increased funding without success , pointing out that world @-@ class performing arts venues were generally subsidised by the government . Hurtle Morphett , a former State President of the LCL , quipped that if Playford " had wanted to convert the Art Gallery on North Terrace into a power house he would have done it without hesitation " . In the 1960s , the Adelaide Festival started , while the Australian Dance Theatre and the State Theatre Company of South Australia was founded in the capital , with minimal assistance from Playford 's government . The festival was well @-@ received despite the effect of censorship in a state well known for social conservatism . With the success of the festival , public interest in arts increased , and with increasing calls for government funding , particularly from Dunstan , Playford finally agreed to fund the " non @-@ productive area " in 1963 by allocating funding for the eventual building of the Festival Centre .
Playford 's focus on development above all also led to controversy over heritage preservation . In 1955 , the City of Adelaide legislated to rezone much of the city centre from residential to commercial land for office blocks . Many older houses , as well as the Exhibition Building were demolished , sparking calls by many parliamentarians , Dunstan prominent among them , for Playford to intercede to preserve the historic character of the city . The premier was unmoved , backing the redevelopment and claiming that many of the demolished structures were " substandard " .
While Playford was known for his use of price controls to restrain the price of living and therefore attract blue @-@ collar workers to settle in the state and fuel industrialisation , South Australia also lagged behind in consumer protection laws in regards to quality control . It was believed that he was opposed to compulsory pasteurisation and other quality standards on milk to avoid offending his rural support base . Playford 's reluctance to introduce regulations for tradesmen such as builders , electricians and plumbers were often seen to have resulted from his being an avid do @-@ it @-@ yourself handyman .
The conservatism of the Liberal and Country League did not keep up with the expectations of a modern @-@ day society . There was dissatisfaction with the restrictive drinking laws ; environmentalists campaigned for more natural parks and more ' green ' practices ; police powers stood strong , ' no loitering ' legislation remained in place ; gambling was almost completely restricted . The constituents who loudly demanded changes were mostly immigrants and their offspring , used to more libertine conditions in their countries of origin . Their homes , usually built by the Housing Trust , sprawled into ' rural ' electoral districts that were controlled by the League . Labor pledged to introduce social legislation to meet their demands ; Playford , who did not drink , smoke or gamble , had no interest in doing so . His own candidates knew that the 1965 election would be unwinnable if Playford did not budge . The economy was still going strong and incomes were still increasing , so the Premier did not change his position on social reform .
= = Fall from power = =
Playford went into the 1965 election confident that he would build upon his previous result . Labor was continuing its practice of concentrating on individual seats : this time the effort was invested in the electorates of Barossa and Glenelg . In Barossa , northern Adelaide urban sprawl was overflowing into an otherwise rural and conservative electorate ; in Glenelg , a younger generation of professionals and their families were settling . On election day , 6 March , both seats fell to Labor with substantial swings . The LCL lost power for the first time in 35 years . In seats that were contested by both parties , Labor led on the primary vote with 52 @.@ 7 to 43 @.@ 3 % . Playford stayed up on the night to see the result , and conceded defeat at midnight . He appeared calm when announcing the loss to the public , but wept when he told his family of it . Playford had been premier for 26 years and 126 days .
After the loss , there were calls for Playford to be offered the post of Governor of South Australia or Governor @-@ General of Australia , but nothing came of that . Playford continued to lead the LCL opposition for a further one and a half years until he relinquished the leadership . In the subsequent ballot , Steele Hall , a small farmer like Playford , won and led the LCL to victory at the following election with the Playmander still in place . Contrary to perceptions , Playford was loath to favour or groom a successor , and he did not publicly hint at whom he voted for in the leadership ballot ; there was speculation that the former premier may have been one of those who abstained from the vote . Playford retired from politics at the same time , presumably for reasons of age , but stated that " I couldn 't cope with the change in the attitudes of some MPs , even some in the highest places ... I found I could no longer cope with the change ... I can 't handle a liar who doesn 't turn a hair while he 's lying ... I decided I couldn 't take it any longer " .
= = Retirement = =
Playford retired from Parliament with a pension of $ 72 a week ; he had resisted giving higher pensions to Ministers or longer @-@ serving MPs throughout his tenure . Regardless of what people thought of the Playmander , Playford was held in high regard for his integrity ; during his premiership , there were no complaints of corruption or government largesse . Playford also prohibited his ministers from sitting on the board of directors of public companies or owning shares , lest they became conflicted in their decision @-@ making . He returned to his orchard at Norton Summit , and took a continued interest in South Australian politics , but did not typically raise his opinions publicly ; he was still consulted in private by Liberals up until his death , however . His closeness to Labor figures did not end either , offering advice to their new South Australian ministers , and assisting in a memorial to the former Labor Prime Minister John Curtin . In line with his reputation for promoting his state , Playford also privately lobbied the Liberal government in Canberra on behalf of the state Labor administration for more infrastructure funding . In 1977 , when Don Dunstan celebrated his 50th birthday party , Playford was the only Liberal invited . There he socialised with former and future Labor Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam and Bob Hawke , Dunstan , and other Laborites .
He served on the boards of the Electricity Trust and the Housing Trust , among others . Here , unused to not being in absolute control , and having little specific scientific knowledge , he occasionally stumbled in his decisions . This also created difficulties with the other board members , who were reluctant to disagree with their former boss , regardless of their expertise . But his thrift , a theme throughout his Premiership , did not abate ; he was constantly forcing the trusts to use cost @-@ saving methods and old vehicles for their work . This extended to his family property ; he vigorously opposed his son 's desire to install a new irrigation system in the orchard .
Playford had begun experiencing serious health problems since his first heart attack in June 1971 , and underwent treatment and procedures for ten years . On 16 June 1981 , he experienced a massive heart attack and died . Two days later his memorial service was held at the Flinders Street Baptist Church . The funeral procession carried his coffin from the city , along Magill and Old Norton Summit Roads where thousands turned out to pay their respects , to the Norton Summit cemetery where his forebears had been buried . There his gravestone was emblazoned with the phrase : ' a good man who did good things ' .
= Operation Turkey Buzzard =
Operation Turkey Buzzard , also known as Operation Beggar , was a British supply mission to North Africa that took place between March and August 1943 , during the Second World War . The mission was undertaken by No. 2 Wing , Glider Pilot Regiment and No. 295 Squadron Royal Air Force , prior to the Allied invasion of Sicily . Unusually , the mission was known by different names in different branches of the British Armed Forces : the British Army called the operation " Turkey Buzzard " , while in the Royal Air Force it was known as " Beggar " .
The mission involved Royal Air Force Handley Page Halifax bombers towing Airspeed Horsa gliders 3 @,@ 200 miles ( 5 @,@ 100 km ) from England to Tunisia . The British Horsas were needed to complement the smaller American Waco gliders , which did not have the capacity required for the operations planned by the 1st Airborne Division .
During the mission one Halifax @-@ and @-@ Horsa combination was shot down by German Focke Wulf Condor long @-@ range patrol aircraft . Altogether five Horsas and three Halifaxes were lost , but twenty @-@ seven Horsas arrived in Tunisia in time to participate in the invasion of Sicily . Although this supply operation was a success , few of the gliders made it to their landing zones in Sicily during the two British airborne operations that followed , many becoming casualties of the weather conditions or anti @-@ aircraft gunfire .
= = Background = =
By December 1942 , with Allied forces advancing through Tunisia , the North African campaign was coming to a close ; victory in North Africa being imminent , discussions began between the Allies over what their next objective should be . Many Americans argued for an immediate invasion of France , while the British believed that it should be the island of Sardinia , as did General Dwight D. Eisenhower . In January 1943 the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , and the President of the United States , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , met at the Casablanca conference and settled the debate : the island of Sicily would be the Allies ' next objective . The invasion and occupation of Sicily would benefit the Allies by opening Mediterranean sea routes for Allied shipping and allowing Allied bombers to operate from airfields that were much closer to mainland Italy and Germany . The codename Operation Husky was eventually decided on for the invasion , and planning began in February . The British Eighth Army , under the command of General Bernard Montgomery , would land on the south @-@ eastern corner of the island and advance north to the port of Syracuse , while the US Seventh Army , commanded by General George Patton , would land on the south coast and move towards the port of Palermo on the western corner of the island . The landings would be made simultaneously along a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 @-@ km ) stretch of the island 's south @-@ eastern coastline .
For their part , the 1st Airborne Division was to conduct three brigade @-@ size airborne operations ; the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse was to be captured by 1st Airlanding Brigade ( Operation Ladbroke ) , the port of Augusta was to be seized by 2nd Parachute Brigade ( Operation Glutton ) , and finally the Primasole Bridge over the River Simeto was to be taken by 1st Parachute Brigade ( Operation Fustian ) .
When the plans for the British airborne operations were being discussed , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel George Chatterton , the commander of No. 2 Wing , Glider Pilot Regiment , brought up a problem with the only glider then in theatre , the American Waco CG @-@ 4 , known in British service as the Hadrian : its small size . The Waco 's capacity was only two pilots and thirteen troops , and for cargo either a jeep or an artillery gun but not both together . The plan for Operation Ladbroke involved a coup de main assault on the Ponte Grande Bridge by the 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment . Using the Horsa glider , which could carry twenty @-@ seven troops or a jeep and gun together , they could deliver a larger force at the bridge during the initial assault . Chatterton decided he needed around forty Horsas , as well as the American Wacos , for the British missions .
= = Mission = =
The only Horsa gliders were in England at the time , and transporting them to North Africa would require a tow of 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) over the Atlantic Ocean around the coast of Portugal and Spain , then a further 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) across North Africa to reach Tunisia . No one had ever towed a glider that distance before , and it was not known if it was even possible . To test the concept and prove they had the necessary endurance , Handley Page Halifax bombers of No. 295 Squadron RAF towed Horsa gliders around the coastline of Britain .
The mission was given the go @-@ ahead ; the Horsas were modified to jettison their landing gear after takeoff to reduce drag , while the Halifax bombers were modified with long @-@ range fuel tanks fitted in the bomb bays . The pilots for the gliders came from No. 2 Wing , having been left in England when most of the wing departed for Tunisia earlier in the year . An eleven @-@ week period of training followed , during which four crashes killed thirteen men . At a mission conference on 21 May 1943 , hosted by No. 38 Wing RAF , the impossibility of training the bomber crews to tow the gliders and deliver forty gliders to North Africa was discussed . In the end it was decided that as a priority ten bomber crews would be fully trained to deliver around fifteen gliders to North Africa by 21 June .
The Halifaxes and Horsas were moved to RAF Portreath in Cornwall , to shorten the distance they would have to travel . Even so , they were left with a ten @-@ hour flight to Sale airport in Morocco . On arrival at Sale the gliders were released to land on a sand @-@ patch alongside the runway . Once on the ground each Horsa was fitted with the spare landing gear it carried inside , and the flight immediately took off again on the next leg of the journey , to Mascara in Algeria . Their journey did not end here ; they left for the final destination , Kairouan Airfield in Tunisia , as soon as possible . During the flight the gliders were provided with three pilots , who had to change around every hour to relieve fatigue .
The flights were carried out between 3 June and 7 July ; the first Horsas arrived at Kairouran on 28 June , only twelve days before they were to be used in Operation Ladbroke . During the flight from England , for its first three hours over the Bay of Biscay the Halifax – Horsa combination was escorted by RAF Bristol Beaufighters or Mosquito long @-@ range fighter aircraft . They kept to an altitude of 500 ft ( 150 m ) to avoid German radar so the escorting fighters could return safely when short of fuel . The mission was not without its dangers . Four hours into one flight , a Horsa snapped its tow @-@ rope while trying to avoid low cloud and ditched in the sea . Another Horsa and Halifax were discovered by a pair of German Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200s and shot down . After surviving attacks from Luftwaffe fighter patrols and experiencing often @-@ turbulent weather , a total of twenty @-@ seven Horsas were delivered to North Africa in time for the invasion of Sicily . The total losses during the flights were three Halifaxes and five Horsas , with twenty @-@ one RAF aircrew and seven glider pilots killed .
= = Aftermath = =
The first British airborne operation in Sicily began at 18 : 00 on 9 July 1943 , when the gliders transporting the 1st Airlanding Brigade left Tunisia for Sicily . En route they encountered strong winds and poor visibility , and at times were subjected to anti @-@ aircraft fire . To avoid gunfire and searchlights , pilots of the towing aircraft climbed higher or took evasive action . In the confusion surrounding these manoeuvres , some gliders were released too early and sixty @-@ five of them crashed into the sea , drowning around 252 men . Fifty @-@ nine of the remaining gliders missed their landing zones , by as much as 25 miles ( 40 km ) ; others either failed to release and returned to Tunisia or were shot down . Only twelve landed on target ; of these gliders a single Horsa , carrying a platoon of infantry from the Staffords , landed near the Ponte Grande Bridge . Its commander , Lieutenant Withers , swam across the river with half his men to take up positions on the opposite bank . The objective was captured following a simultaneous assault from both ends ; the platoon then dismantled demolition charges that had been fitted to the bridge , and dug in to wait for reinforcement or relief . Another Horsa came down about 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the bridge but exploded on landing , killing all on board . Three of the other Horsas carrying the South Staffordshire Regiment coup @-@ de @-@ main party had landed within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the bridge , their occupants eventually finding their way to the site .
The second and last mission — Operation Fustian — began at 19 : 30 on 12 July , when the first aircraft carrying the 1st Parachute Brigade took off from North Africa . Following behind the parachute force were the glider @-@ towing aircraft , comprising twelve Albemarles and seven Halifaxes , towing eleven Horsa and eight Waco gliders . The first glider casualties occurred on takeoff , when two aircraft towing Waco gliders crashed . While en route , one glider was released prematurely by its towing aircraft and crashed into the sea . Arriving over Sicily , having lost the element of surprise , four gliders were shot down by coastal anti @-@ aircraft batteries . By the time the gliders arrived at their landing zones , two hours had lapsed since the start of the parachute landings . With the German defences alerted , only four Horsa gliders managed to land mostly intact , all the others being caught by German machine @-@ gun fire and destroyed on their approach . The surviving Horsas had been carrying three of the brigade 's anti @-@ tank guns , which were now included in their defence of Primosole Bridge .
= Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes =
The conservation @-@ restoration of the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel was one of the most significant conservation @-@ restorations of the 20th century .
The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV within the Vatican immediately to the north of St. Peter 's Basilica and completed in about 1481 . Its walls were decorated by a number of Renaissance painters who were among the most highly regarded artists of late 15th century Italy , including Ghirlandaio , Perugino , and Botticelli . The Chapel was further enhanced under Pope Julius II by the painting of the ceiling by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512 and by the painting of the Last Judgment , commissioned by Pope Clement VII and completed in 1541 , again by Michelangelo . The tapestries on the lowest tier , today best known from the Raphael Cartoons ( painted designs ) of 1515 – 16 , completed the ensemble .
Together the paintings make up the greatest pictorial scheme of the Renaissance . Individually , some of Michelangelo 's paintings on the ceiling are among the most notable works of western art ever created . The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel and in particular the ceiling and accompanying lunettes by Michelangelo have been subject to a number of restorations , the most recent taking place between 1980 and 1994 . This most recent restoration had a profound effect on art lovers and historians , as colours and details that had not been seen for centuries were revealed . It has been claimed that as a result " Every book on Michelangelo will have to be rewritten " . Others , such as the art historian James Beck of ArtWatch International , have been extremely critical of the restoration , saying that the restorers have not realised the true intentions of the artist . This is the subject of continuing debate .
= = Previous restorations = =
The frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel had a number of interventions prior to the restoration process which was started in 1980 . Initial problems with the ceiling appear to have been caused by water penetrating through the floor above . In about 1547 Paolo Giovio wrote that the ceiling was being damaged by saltpetre and cracks . The effect of saltpetre is to leave a white efflorescence . Gianluigi Colalucci , Head Restorer at the Laboratory for the Restoration of Paintings for Papal Monuments , Museums and Galleries , states in his essay Michelangelo 's colours rediscovered , that the early conservators treated this cosmetically by an application of linseed or walnut oil which had the effect of making the crystalline deposit more transparent .
In 1625 , a restoration was carried out by Simone Lagi , the " resident gilder " , who wiped the ceiling with linen cloths and cleaned it by rubbing it with bread . He occasionally resorted to wetting the bread to remove the more stubborn accretions . His report states that the frescoes " were returned to their previous beauty without receiving any harm " . Colalucci states that Lagi " almost certainly " applied layers of glue @-@ varnish to revive the colours but does not state this in his report in the interests of " preserving the secrets of their [ the restorers ' ] craft " .
Between 1710 and 1713 a further restoration was carried out by the painter Annibale Mazzuoli and his son . They used sponges dipped in Greek wine which Colalucci suggests was necessitated by the accretion of grime caused by soot and dirt trapped in the oily deposits of the previous restoration . Mazzuoli then worked over the ceiling , according to Colalucci , strengthening the contrasts by overpainting details . They also repainted some areas the colours of which were lost because of the efflorescence of salts . Areas of repainting were hatched or treated with a linear brushstroke . Colalucci states that Mazzuoli also applied a great deal of glue varnish . The restoration concentrated on the ceiling and less attention was paid to the lunettes .
The penultimate restoration was undertaken by the Restoration Laboratory of the Vatican Museum between 1935 – 38 . The scope of the work was to consolidate some areas of the intonaco at the eastern end of the building and partially remove the soot and dirt .
= = Modern restoration = =
The preliminary experimentation for the modern restoration began in 1979 . The restoration team comprised Gianluigi Colalucci , Maurizio Rossi , Piergiorgio Bonetti , and others , who took as their guidelines the Rules for restoration of works of art as established in 1978 by Carlo Pietrangeli , director of the Vatican 's Laboratory for the Restoration of Pictures , which govern the procedure and methods employed in restoration . An important part of modern restoration procedure , as established by these rules , is the study and analysis of the artwork . Part of this was the recording of every stage of the restoration process . This was done by the photographer Takashi Okamura for Nippon Television Network Corporation .
Between June 1980 and October 1984 the first stage of restoration , the work upon Michelangelo 's lunettes , was achieved . The focus of the work then transferred to the ceiling , which was completed in December 1989 and from there to the Last Judgment . The restoration was unveiled by Pope John Paul II on 8 April 1994 . The final stage was the restoration of the wall frescoes , approved in 1994 and unveiled on 11 December 1999 .
= = = Aims of the conservators = = =
The aims of the conservators were as follows :
To study the frescoes progressively , to analyse any discoveries and utilise the appropriate technical responses .
To record every step of the operation in archival reports , photographs and film .
To use only those procedures and materials which were simple , extensively tested , not harmful , and reversible .
To repair cracks and structural damage that threatened the stability of the plaster .
To remove layers of grime consisting of candle wax and soot that had been deposited by the burning of candles in the chapel for 500 years .
To remove repainting by previous restorers that attempted to counteract the effects of soot and other accretions .
To remove oil and animal fat used to counteract salination of areas where water had leaked through .
To remove crystalline accretions of salt that had whitened areas where water had leaked through .
To conserve surfaces that were in danger of further deterioration because of bubbling , and flaking .
To restore sympathetically those areas where deterioration of one sort or another had obliterated details and caused loss of integrity to the whole , for example , filling a bad crack and painting the plaster in a colour matching the original .
To maintain in small defined areas a physical historical record of the previous restorations that had taken place .
= = = Preparation and approach = = =
In 1979 Colalucci undertook a series of experiments to discover the right approach for the restoration of the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel . The investigation began by testing small areas of the wall fresco , Conflict over the Body of Moses by Matteo de Lecce , which had similar physical and chemical attributes to the painting techniques employed on Michelangelo 's frescoes . Trials to find the right solvents were continued on a small portion of the Eleazar and Matthan lunette .
Because of the height of the ceiling and the inaccessibility of the ceiling frescoes , the precise nature of the damage and the problems that would be encountered by the restoration team could not be entirely foreseen until after the decision to restore was taken , and the scaffolding was in place . According to Colalucci , the continued scientific analysis and the response of the restorers to the particular problems was an ongoing part of the process , rather than the conservation team deciding on a single treatment for every part of the building .
In 1980 the decision to undertake a total restoration was taken . Nippon Television Network Corporation of Japan provided major funding of US $ 4 @.@ 2 million in exchange for the filming rights .
= = = Scaffold = = =
The team of restorers completed the first stage of the restoration , on the vertical surfaces and curved spandrels around the upper sections of the windows , from aluminium scaffolding projecting from just below the lunettes and using the same holes in the wall that had been made for Michelangelo 's scaffold . When they moved to the ceiling , they likewise employed a system similar to Michelangelo 's , which involved cantilevering a shelf outwards from the scaffolding to support a stepped and arched platform . The advantages of modern lightweight materials meant that the platform could be wheeled , facilitating easy movement along the length of the building rather than dismantling and replacement , as Michelangelo had done in 1506 .
= = = State of the frescoes = = =
The findings of the investigation of 1979 were that the entire interior of the chapel , but particularly the ceiling , was covered with a grime of candle smoke comprising wax and soot ( amorphous carbon ) . Above the windows ( the main source of ventilation ) , the lunettes were particularly stained from the smoke and exhaust fumes of the city , being " much dirtier than the ceiling proper " . The building was a little unstable and had already shifted considerably prior to Michelangelo 's work of 1508 , causing cracking of the ceiling , the crack in the " Judith " pendentive being so large that it had to be filled with bricks and mortar before painting . The upper part of the ceiling provided Michelangelo an irregular surface due to cracks and water seepage .
Continued ingress of water from the roof and from unroofed exterior walkways above the ceiling level had caused seepage which carried down salts from the building mortar and deposited them on the ceiling through evaporation . In places this caused the surface of the frescoes to bubble and lift . Although discolouration was a serious problem , bubbling was not , because the thinness and transparency of the paint which Michelangelo employed on the greater part of the ceiling permitted the salts to pass through rather than accumulating beneath the surface .
Earlier restorations had all left their marks on the frescoes . To counteract the whitening caused by salination , animal fat and vegetable oil had been applied , which effectively made the salt crystals transparent , but left a sticky layer that accumulated dirt . An additional problem , most obvious in the small putti which hold the nameplates on the pendentives , was saltpetre seeping through small cracks and appearing as dark rings on the surface . Unlike the white crystalline salt deposits , this could not be removed and the staining was irreversible . Layers of varnish and glue had been applied to many areas . This had darkened and become opaque . Restorers had repainted details over the darkened areas in order to define the features of figures . This was particularly the case for the lunettes , spandrels and lower parts of the pendentives .
Close examination revealed that apart from smoky deposits , seepage deposits and structural cracks , the thin " pictorial skin " of Michelangelo 's frescoes was in excellent condition . Colalucci describes Michelangelo as having employed the best possible fresco techniques , as described by Vasari . Most of the paint was well adhered and required little retouching . The plaster , or intonaco , on which the paintings were executed was found , for the most part , to be secure , as previous restorers had fixed it in places with bronze pins .
= = = Interventions = = =
Prior to the restoration the team spent six months investigating the composition and condition of the frescoes , questioning members of the team that had restored the frescoes in the 1930s and making a detailed scientific study to ascertain which solvents and methods were best employed upon particular painted surfaces .
The first stage of the physical restoration was to re @-@ attach any areas of the plaster surface ( which was approximately 5 mm thick ) that were in danger of separating and breaking away . This was done by injecting a polyvinylacetate resin . Earlier bronze braces that had been used to stabilise surfaces were removed in those places where they were causing cracking , and the holes filled . Pigments that appeared to be not well adhered were consolidated with the application of diluted acrylic resin .
The restorers washed the surfaces using a variety of solvents . Distilled water was used wherever possible to remove soot and dissolve water @-@ soluble gums . Retouching and repainting that had been part of previous later restorations were removed with a gelatinous solvent , applied in several stages for measured times , and washed with distilled water . Salt efflorescences of calcium carbonate were treated by the application of a solution of dimethylformamide . The final step was the application of a weak solution of acrylic polymer to consolidate and protect the surface , and further washing .
Where necessary some areas were retouched in watercolour , to integrate the pictorial material . These areas are distinctively textured with vertical brushstrokes , not visible from a distance but easily discernible as restoration work when viewed close up .
Certain small areas were left unrestored , in order to maintain a physical record of the previous restorations that had taken place , for example , an area left with overpainting and candle wax , and another area demonstrating the attempt to counteract salination with oil .
= = Environmental protection of the frescoes = =
Once the many layers of candle wax , varnish , and animal glue were removed from the surface of the Sistine Chapel frescoes , they became subject to dangers that could not have been predicted by previous restorers .
One of the major dangers to the frescoes is automotive exhaust , and they are also vulnerable to the effects of the crowds of tourists that pass through the chapel every day , bringing with them heat , humidity , dust and bacteria . The clean plaster surfaces are more in danger from these destructive elements than they were when they were covered with a layer of smoky wax .
Previously , the Sistine Chapel 's only ventilation was from its windows in the upper level of the walls . To prevent exhaust fumes and wind @-@ blown pollutants from entering , the windows are now permanently closed and an air conditioning system has been installed . The installation is by Carrier of the United Technologies Corporation and was developed with the cooperation of the Vatican 's Office of Technical Services . It has been designed to counteract the various problems specific to the Chapel , in particular the rapid changes of heat and humidity that occur with the admission of the first crowds of tourists each morning and the departure of the last visitors each afternoon . The air conditioning varies not only the heat but also the relative humidity between the summer and winter months so that changes to the atmospheric environment occur gradually . The air near the ceiling is kept at a temperate level , while the air in the lower section of the building is cooler and circulates more rapidly , with the effect that dirt particles fall towards the floor rather than being streamed upwards . Bacteria and chemical pollutants are filtered out .
Environmental specifications :
Air filtration units : remove particles down to 0 @.@ 1 micrometre
Air temperature : 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) in summer , moving gradually to 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) in winter .
Relative humidity at ceiling : 55 % ± 5 % .
Sensors : 92 , of which about half are for back @-@ up purposes .
Wiring : 26 km ( 85 @,@ 000 ft )
= = Response to the restoration = =
= = = Criticism and praise = = =
When the restoration of the Sistine Chapel was announced , it sparked a barrage of queries and objections from art historians around the world . One of the most vocal of these critics was James Beck , of ArtWatch International , who issued repeated warnings about the possibility of damage to Michelangelo 's work from over @-@ strenuous restoration . An argument that was used repeatedly was that all the previous interventions had caused damage of one sort or another . Any restoration , as opposed to conservation , puts an artwork at risk . Conservation , on the other hand , aids in the preservation of the work in its present state and in prevention of further deterioration . Beck has written about his concerns in Art Restoration , the Culture , the Business and the Scandal .
In the rhetoric of this conversation , [ the conservators ] say that the previous restoration was no good – now we 're going to make a really good one . It 's like having a facelift . How many times can people go through one without their poor faces looking like an orange peel ?
While James Beck became " embroiled in a public debate " with Gianluigi Colalucci , Ronald Feldman , a New York art dealer , started a petition supported by 15 well @-@ known artists including Robert Motherwell , George Segal , Robert Rauschenberg , Christo and Andy Warhol asking Pope John Paul II to call a halt to the procedure and also the restoration of Leonardo da Vinci 's Last Supper .
An undertaking of the restoration team was that everything would be handled in a transparent fashion , that reporters , art historians and others with a bona fide interest should have ready access to information and to view the work . However , a single company , Nippon Television Network Corporation , had sole photography rights . Michael Kimmelman , chief art critic of The New York Times , wrote , in 1991 , that the criticism of the restoration of the ceiling and lunettes was in part fuelled by the Nippon Television Network 's reluctance to make public those photographs that they had taken by exclusive right , which had recorded every stage of the process and which were the only solid evidence that the work was being done appropriately .
According to Kimmelman , the reason for their reluctance to produce the detailed photos , which could have put to rest the worst fears of many of the interested parties , was the intention of the company to produce a large limited @-@ edition two @-@ volume coffee @-@ table book ( " as large as a coffee table " ) . This book , when produced retailed for US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Kimmelman refers to the fact that these photos were only made available to the few who could afford the exorbitant price as " ungenerous " and " immoral " .
As the work was progressively completed , there were those who were delighted ; Pope John Paul II spoke an inaugural homily after each stage . In December 1999 , after the completion of the wall frescoes , he said :
It would be difficult to find a more eloquent visual commentary on this biblical image than the Sistine Chapel , whose full splendour we can enjoy today thanks to the recently completed restoration . Our joy is shared by the faithful throughout the world , who not only cherish this place because of the masterpieces it contains , but also for the role it plays in the Church 's life .
Cardinal Edmund Szoka , governor of Vatican City , said : " This restoration and the expertise of the restorers allows us to contemplate the paintings as if we had been given the chance of being present when they were first shown . "
Other writers were less flattering . Andrew Wordsworth of The Independent , London , expressed the major point of concern :
There seems little doubt that the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was in part painted a secco ( that is , once the plaster was dry ) , but the restorers none the less decided that radical cleaning was necessary , given the amount of dirt that had accumulated ( in particular from candle smoke ) . As a result the ceiling now has a curiously washed @-@ out look , with pretty but flavourless colouring – an effect quite unlike that of Michelangelo 's intensely sensual sculpture .
This crucial matter was also emphasised by Beck and defined in very clearly expressed terms on the website of the artist , Peter Layne Arguimbau .
= = = Issues raised by critics = = =
That part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel which has caused the most concern is the ceiling , painted by Michelangelo . The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe . Despite warnings , the work on the ceiling proceeded and , according to critics such as James Beck , their worst fears were confirmed once the ceiling was completed .
The cause for dissent lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo , and the technical response of the restorers to their understanding of those techniques . A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in " buon fresco " ; that is , the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state . In other words , Michelangelo did not work " a secco " ; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster .
The restorers , by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting , took a universal approach to the restoration . A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and " lamp black " , all of the wax , and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another : smoke deposits , earlier restoration attempts and painted definition by later restorers in attempt to enliven the appearance of the work . Based on this decision , according to Arguimbau 's critical reading of the restoration data that has been provided , the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint @-@ impregnated plaster . After treatment , only that which was painted " buon fresco " would remain .
According to critics , the inherent problem with this approach is that it relied heavily upon an assumption that Michelangelo only painted buon fresco , that he was always satisfied with the result at the end of the day , and that in four and a half years spent on the ceiling , he stuck exclusively to one approach , and never made small alterations or added details . Arguimbau , on his website , quotes Colalucci , the head of the team , as contradicting himself on this matter .
A summary of the relevant statements of Colalucci , in the order that they occur in the Appendix entitled Michelangelo 's colours uncovered is as follows :
The elderly restorers who had taken part in the restoration of the 1930s were interviewed as part of the preparatory process . They claimed that Michelangelo worked over the frescoes a secco using velature or glazes as a binder . Colalucci rejects this , stating that Michelangelo worked exclusively in buon fresco . Colalucci then contradicts this by stating that Michelangelo had worked a secco , but " to a minimal degree " and " not at all in the lunettes " .
Colalucci then talks of Michelangelo 's " rigorous maintenance " of buon fresco technique , contradicting this by describing the a secco retouchings that Michelangelo made to the shoulder of Eleazar and the foot of Reboam , both of which are in the lunettes . He then says that Michelangelo worked in buon fresco with " no pentimenti proper " , ( pentimenti means the changes ) but only small corrections in fresco .
The on @-@ going criticism has been that the restorers presumed to know what end result the master was seeking to achieve in every separate case across the ceiling , and by what method he sought to achieve it . The disagreements about this have been vociferous and are unresolved .
= = = = Carbon black problem = = = =
The restorers took for granted that all of the layers of grease and soot on the ceiling were the result of candle smoke . Contrary to this view , James Beck and numerous artists have suggested that Michelangelo used carbon black in a wash of glue to lay on shadows and crisp dark definition , a secco . If this is the case , then the greater part was removed in the restoration .
On some of the figures , however , there still remains clear evidence of painting in carbon black . The apparent explanation for this is that over the long period that Michelangelo was at work , he probably , for a variety of reasons , varied his technique . Things that might affect the degree of finish achieved on a particular giornata include the heat and humidity of the day and the length of daylight hours . Whatever the reason for the difference is , a difference in approach to the light and shade on the individual figures is clearly apparent .
There are still intense areas of shadow which throw the Cumaean Sibyl into relief . But it is more than relief ; it is the three @-@ dimensionality which art @-@ lovers expect to see in the work of the man who sculpted Moses . Critics of the restoration claim that this was Michelangelo 's aim and that many frescoes had brightly contrasting colours laid side @-@ by @-@ side that were then worked over a secco to achieve this effect and that this is what has been lost by a too @-@ scrupulous cleaning .
Consistently missing from the restored ceiling is the crisp a secco detailing of the architecture : the scallop shells , acorns and " bead and reel " ornament which Michelangelo possibly would have left for completion by an assistant , when he moved on to the next panel . The treatment of these details varied considerably . In a few places , around the Ezekias spandrel , for example , the architectural detailing was painted buon fresco and remains intact .
A comparison of two spandrels reveals different post @-@ restoration states . The one on the left has shadows and details defined in black . The green robe with yellow highlights has been washed with black and defined with deep shadow . On the fictive architecture each motif is picked out in black . The eyes of the child are detailed in black and white . The continued presence of these details suggests that they were completed while the plaster was damp . The entire right spandrel has an unfinished look . Before cleaning it also had black defining the shadows of the robes and crisp detailing on the architecture .
On the corner pendentives , each of which depicts a violent subject , the removal of the carbon black has diminished the dramatic intensity of all four scenes . This is particularly noticeable in the loss of depth in the Punishment of Haman . Where once the figure projected starkly against the darkly shadowed interior , now foreshortening , definition and drama is lost in the pastel monotone that remains .
= = = = Colour = = = =
The curator , Fabrizio Mancinelli , quotes the 18th @-@ century French traveller De Lalande in saying that the colouring of the ceiling was , by that time , monotonous , " tend [ ing ] towards dull red and grey " . Mancinelli writes that the restoration reveals " a new Michelangelo " as a colourist and that this " new character makes much better sense of his historical position " . He goes on to say that perceptive viewers of the Sistine Chapel ceiling have always been aware that the range of colours used was very different from that which could be seen , and included the same pinks , apple greens , oranges , yellows and pale blues that were employed by Michelangelo 's teacher , Domenico Ghirlandaio , one of the most competent fresco painters of the Renaissance .
The brilliant palette ought to have been expected by the restorers as the same range of colours appears in the works of Giotto , Masaccio and Masolino , Fra Angelico and Piero della Francesca , as well as Ghirlandaio himself and later fresco painters such as Annibale Carracci and Tiepolo . The reason for employing this range of colours is that many other pigments are not usable in fresco as they have chemical properties that react badly in interaction with wet plaster . The colour that is noticeably missing from Michelangelo 's ceiling , but not The Last Judgment , is the intense blue of lapis lazuli . This colour , achieved by grinding semi @-@ precious stone , was always applied as a secondary , a secco stage , along with the gold leaf applied as haloes and decoration to robes .
The aspect of the colouring which was most unexpected was Michelangelo 's treatment of shadows . The painting of the Libyan Sibyl and the Prophet Daniel , which are side @-@ by @-@ side , are exemplary . On the yellow dress of the Sibyl , Michelangelo has bright yellow highlights , passing through carefully graded tones of deeper yellow to pale orange , darker orange and almost to red in the shadows . While red shadows are of themselves unusual in a fresco , the gradation through adjacent parts of the spectrum is a natural enough solution . On Daniel 's robes , there is no such gentle gradation . The yellow lining of his cloak becomes a sudden dense green in the shadows , while the mauve has shadows that are intensely red . These colour combinations , which are best described as iridescent , can be found at various places on the ceiling , including the hose of the young man in the Mathan lunette which is pale green and reddish purple .
In some instances , the colour combinations look garish : this is particularly the case with the Prophet Daniel . A comparison of the " restored " and " unrestored " figure gives strong evidence that Michelangelo worked over this figure in a wash of carbon black , and that the technique was preplanned . The bright red used on the robes of Daniel and the Libyan Sibyl does not , on its own , create effective shadows . In these and many other cases it appears to have been intended as underpainting , to be seen only through a thin black wash and with the deepest shadows picked out in more intense black , as they still are on the Cumaean Sibyl . This use of bright , contrasting colours as underpainting is not a common feature of frescoes , but it is commonly employed in both oil painting and tempera . Like Daniel , the Libyan Sibyl 's yellow garment once had much more subtlety in its folds and shadows than it has now .
There is absolutely no doubt that before the restoration , the whole ceiling was dirtier , more muted and more monochrome than Michelangelo ever intended , but when images of the frescoes are viewed in their stained and unrestored state the subtle washes and intense definitions , described by Beck and Arguimbau , still make their presence known , giving mass and bulk to the forms .
The painter and biographer Giorgio Vasari , in his Lives of the Artists , describes the figure of Jonah as it appeared in the mid @-@ 16th century :
" Then who is not filled with admiration and amazement at the awesome sight of Jonah , the last figure in the chapel ? The vaulting naturally springs forward , following the curve of the masonry ; but through the force of art it is apparently straightened out by the figure of Jonah , which bends in the opposite direction ; and thus vanquished by the art of design , with its lights and shades , the ceiling even appears to recede . "
The large figure of Jonah is of great significance to the total composition , both pictorially and theologically , being symbolic of the Risen Christ . The figure occupies the pendentive which rises from the altar wall to support the vault , and strains backward , his eyes turned towards God . The foreshortening described by Vasari was innovative and highly influential to later painters . The cleaning of this significant figure has left a few remnants of black shadow visible to the extreme left side of the painting . All the other , less intense , black lines and washes have been removed , lessening the impact of the radical foreshortening , and also robbing the great fish , the genii behind Jonah , and the architectural figures of much detail .
= = = = Eyes = = = =
The missing depth is not the only factor that the critics deplore . An important feature of Michelangelo 's work which , in many places , has disappeared forever is the painting of the eyeballs . Eyes appear in many instances to have been painted buon fresco . Wherever they have not been painted buon fresco but added a secco , they have been removed by the restorers .
They are an essential part of the most impressive and famous of the frescoes , the Creation of Adam . Adam gazes at God . God looks directly at Adam . And under God 's protective arm , Eve turns her eyes sideways in a look of admiration for her husband @-@ to @-@ be . Again and again , Michelangelo painted telling gazes into the faces of his characters . The eye sockets of the family in the Zorobabel lunette are empty as are the eyes of the man in the Aminadab lunette , but the removal that has caused the most distress to the critics are the eyes of the little figure in green and white who once looked out of the gloom above the lunette of Jesse .
Arguimbau says :
Have you ever felt that some things never fade and remain an inspiration for all time ? That was the Sistine Chapel , now chemically stripped down of divine inspiration and looking shockingly out of place . ... It is the duty of the restorer not to alter the intent of the artist , but the scientist cannot help himself . Who cares if Colalucci discovered Michelangelo as a colorist and can explain the Colorist trends of Pontormo and Rossi . His job is to make sure the thing is stuck on there and leave it alone . In comparing before and after photos there is much proof that Colalucci removed ‘ a secco ' passages and left many areas sketchy and thin and . [ sic ] Proof of one single change of the artist 's intent is negligence of which there are many .
Richard Serrin , in an essay entitled Lies and Misdemeanors , Gianluigi Colalucci 's Sistine Chapel Revisited says :
The [ so @-@ called ] Glorious Restoration of Michelangelo 's frescoes has destroyed them forever . What we say now cannot bring them back to life . We can only speak out to document the accountability of the Vatican restorers so that it does not pass unrecognized .
= = Restoring the light = =
Carlo Pietrangeli , former Director General of the Vatican Museums , writes of the restoration : " It is like opening a window in a dark room and seeing it flooded with light . " His words resonate with those of Giorgio Vasari who , in the 16th century , said of the Sistine Chapel ceiling :
There is no other work to compare with this for excellence ... The ceiling has proved a veritable beacon for our art , of inestimable benefit to all painters , restoring light to a world that for centuries had been plunged into darkness .
Pietrangeli , in his foreword to The Sistine Chapel , written after the restoration of the lunettes , but prior to the restoration of the ceiling , commends those who had the courage to commence the restoration process , and thanks not only those who visited the restoration while it was in progress and gave the benefit of their knowledge and experience , but also those who were critical of the enterprise . Pietrangeli made acknowledgement that these people spurred the team on to punctilious documentation so that a full report of criteria and methods should be available to those who are interested , both in the present and the future .
= Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site =
The Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site , also known as the Vassall @-@ Craigie @-@ Longfellow House and , until December 2010 , Longfellow National Historic Site , is a historic site located at 105 Brattle Street in Cambridge , Massachusetts . For almost fifty years , it was the home of noted American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . It had previously served as the headquarters of General George Washington , 1775 @-@ 76 .
The house was built in 1759 for John Vassall , who fled the Cambridge area at the beginning of the American Revolutionary War because of his loyalty to the king of England . George Washington occupied the house as his headquarters , beginning July 16 , 1775 . It served as his base of operations during the Siege of Boston , until he moved out on April 4 , 1776 . Andrew Craigie , Washington 's Apothecary General , was the next person to own the home for a significant period of time . After purchasing the house in 1791 , he instigated the home 's only major addition . Craigie 's financial situation at the time of his death in 1819 forced his widow Elizabeth Craigie to take in boarders . It was as a boarder that Henry Wadsworth Longfellow came into the home . He became its owner in 1843 , when his father @-@ in @-@ law Nathan Appleton purchased it as a wedding gift . He lived in the home until his death in 1882 .
The last family to live in the home was the Longfellow family , who established the Longfellow Trust in 1913 for its preservation . In 1972 , the home and all of its furnishings was donated to , and was made part of , the National Park Service . The home , which represents the mid @-@ Georgian architectural style , is seasonally open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The original house was built in 1759 for Loyalist John Vassall who inherited the land along what was called the King 's Highway in Cambridge when he was 21 . He demolished the structure that had stood there and built a new mansion . The home became his summer residence with his wife Elizabeth ( Oliver ) and children until 1774 . His wife 's brother was Thomas Oliver , then royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts , who in 1766 moved to Cambridge and built the nearby mansion now known as Elmwood . On the eve of the American Revolution in September 1774 , they fled Boston .
In the days after the Battles of Lexington and Concord , the home was used as a temporary hospital . Colonel John Glover and the Marblehead Regiment occupied the house as their temporary barracks in June 1775 . Initially , General George Washington , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the newly formed Continental Army , used the Benjamin Wadsworth House at Harvard College as his headquarters , but decided he needed more space for his staff . Washington moved into the Vassall House on July 16 , 1775 , and used it as his headquarters and home until he departed on April 4 , 1776 . During the Siege of Boston , he found the view of the Charles River from the house particularly useful . The home was shared with several aide @-@ de @-@ camps , including colonel Robert H. Harrison . During his time there , Washington was visited by John Adams and Abigail Adams , Benedict Arnold , Henry Knox , and Nathanael Greene . In his study , Washington also confronted Dr. Benjamin Church with evidence that he was a spy . It was in this house that Washington received a poem written by Phillis Wheatley , the first published African @-@ American poet . " If you should ever come to Cambridge " , he wrote to her , " I shall be happy to see a person so favored by the Muses " .
Martha Washington joined her husband in December 1775 and stayed until March 1776 . She brought with her Washington 's nephew George Lewis as well as her son John Parke Custis and his wife Eleanor Calvert . On Twelfth Night in January 1776 , the couple celebrated their wedding anniversary in the home . Mrs. Washington reported to a friend that " some days we have [ heard ] a number of cannon and shells from Boston and Bunkers Hill " . She used the front parlor as her personal reception room , still furnished with the English @-@ made furniture left behind by the Vassalls . The Washingtons also had several servants , including a tailor named Giles Alexander , and several slaves including " Billy " Lee . They also entertained very often . Surviving household accounts show that the family purchased large quantities of beef , lamb , wild ducks , geese , fresh fish , plums , peaches , barrels of cider , gallons of brandy and rum , and 217 bottles of Madeira wine purchased in a two @-@ week period .
Washington left the house in April 1776 . Nathaniel Tracy , who had made a great fortune as one of the earliest and most successful privateers under Washington , owned the house from 1781 to 1786 . He then went bankrupt and sold the house to Thomas Russell , a wealthy Boston merchant , who in turn occupied it until 1791 .
= = = Craigie family and boarders = = =
Andrew Craigie bought the house in 1791 ; Craigie had been the first Apothecary General of the American army . In his ballroom , Craigie hosted Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the father of Queen Victoria . While living in the home , he married the daughter of a Nantucket clergyman , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Elizabeth Craigie , 17 years her elder . Craigie overspent in trying to restore the home and , when he died in 1819 , he left his wife Elizabeth in great debt ; Mrs. Craigie took in boarders to support herself , most often people connected to nearby Harvard University . Short @-@ term residents of the home included Jared Sparks , Edward Everett , and Joseph Emerson Worcester . Sparks , who moved into the home in April 1833 , was then preparing a biography of Washington based on original documents . He recorded in his journal : " It is a singular circumstance that , while I am engaged in preparing for the press the letters of General Washington which he wrote at Cambridge after taking command of the American army , I should occupy the same rooms that he did at that time . " Another lodger was Sarah Lowell , an aunt of James Russell Lowell .
Longfellow moved to Cambridge to take a job at Harvard College as Smith Professor of Modern Languages and of Belles Lettres . A friend , Cornelius Conway Felton , recommended that Longfellow rent a room on the third floor of the home of a Professor Stearns on Kirkland Street ; Longfellow stayed there for the 1836 – 1837 academic year . He disliked the place , however , and sought out better accommodations . Beginning in the summer of 1837 , he rented rooms on the east side of the second floor of the home on Brattle Street , now owned by Elizabeth Craigie . At first , Mrs. Craigie thought he was a student at Harvard and refused to rent to him until he convinced her that he was a professor as well as the author of the book she was reading , Outre @-@ Mer .
Longfellow 's new landlady had earned a reputation for being eccentric and often wore a turban . In the 1840s , Longfellow wrote about an incident when canker @-@ worms were devastating the elm trees on the property . Mrs. Craigie " would sit by the open window and let them crawl over her white turban . She refused to have the trees protected against them & said , Why , sir , they have as good a right to live as we — they are our fellow worms " . The maid at the time , a woman named Miriam , served Longfellow his meals in his room . Longfellow called her " the giantess " .
Upon moving into the home in August 1837 , Longfellow wrote to his father , " The new rooms are above all praise , only the do want painting . " The rooms Longfellow rented were the same ones once used personally by George Washington while it was his headquarters . He proudly wrote to his friend George Washington Greene : " I live in a great house which looks like an Italian villa : have two large rooms opening into each other . They were once Gen. Washington 's chambers " .
The first major works Longfellow composed in the home were Hyperion , a prose romance likely inspired by his pursuit for the affections of Frances Appleton , and Voices of the Night , a poetry collection which included " A Psalm of Life " . 20th @-@ century literary scholar Edward Wagenknecht notes that it was these early years at the Craigie House which marked " the real beginning of Longfellow 's literary career " . His landlady , Elizabeth Craigie , died in 1841 .
= = = Longfellow family = = =
After Elizabeth Craigie 's death , the entire property was leased by Joseph Emerson Worcester from her heirs ; he in turn rented the eastern half of the house to Longfellow . In 1843 , the house was purchased by Nathan Appleton , who gave the house to Longfellow as a wedding gift when Longfellow married Nathan 's daughter Frances . He paid $ 10 @,@ 000 for the home . Frances wrote to her brother Thomas Gold Appleton on August 30 , 1843 : " We have decided to let Father purchase this grand old mansion " , especially after Longfellow 's friend George Washington Greene reminded them " how noble an inheritance this is — where Washington dwelt in every room " . Longfellow was proud of the connection to Washington and in 1844 purchased a bust of the home 's former occupant , a copy of the sculpture by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon . Worcester and his wife became tenants under Longfellow in the western half of the house until their new home a few doors down was completed that spring . Mrs. Longfellow wrote on May 5 , 1844 , " Worcester family left us in complete possession [ of the house ] , with rooms nicely cleaned , and uncarpeted stairs and entries " .
Nathan Appleton also purchased the land across the street , as Longfellow 's mother wrote , " so that their view of the River Charles may not be intercepted " . In all , Longfellow 's gift included nine acres of land .
Longfellow lived in the house for the next four decades , producing many of his most famous poems including " Paul Revere 's Ride " and " The Village Blacksmith " , as well as longer works such as Evangeline , The Song of Hiawatha , and The Courtship of Miles Standish . In all , while living in this house , Longfellow published eleven poetry collections , two novels , three epic poems , and several plays as well as a translation of Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy . Even as the poet 's popularity increased , Longfellow and his wife most often referred to the home as " Craigie House " or " Craigie Castle " .
Longfellow oversaw the creation of a formal garden and his wife oversaw decorating the interior . Mrs. Longfellow purchased several items from Tiffany 's in New York as well as $ 350 worth of carpets . They installed central heating in 1850 and gaslight in 1853 . During their time in the house , the Longfellows hosted famous artists , writers , politicians and other luminaries who were attracted to Longfellow 's hospitality and fame . Specific visitors included Charles Dickens , William Makepeace Thackeray , singer Jenny Lind , and actress Fanny Kemble . Dom Pedro II , Emperor of Brazil also visited the house privately and requested the company of Longfellow , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , and James Russell Lowell . Mr. and Mrs. Longfellow also raised their three daughters and two sons in the home . Longfellow and his wife stayed in the home until their respective deaths but spent their summers after 1850 in Nahant , Massachusetts .
Longfellow often wrote in his first @-@ floor study , formerly Washington 's office , surrounded by portraits of his friends , including charcoal portraits by Eastman Johnson of Charles Sumner , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Nathaniel Hawthorne , and Cornelius Conway Felton . Longfellow would write either at the center table , at the desk , or in the armchair by the fire .
Fanny Longfellow died in the home in July 1861 after her dress accidentally caught fire ; her husband attempted to quell the flames , managing to keep her face from burning . Longfellow himself was burned on his own face and was scarred badly enough that he began growing a beard to hide it .
= = Preservation and current use = =
Longfellow died in 1882 and his daughter Alice Longfellow was the last of his children to live in the home . In 1913 , the surviving Longfellow children established the Longfellow House Trust to preserve the home as well as its view to the Charles River . Their intention was to preserve the home as a memorial to Longfellow and Washington and to showcase the property as a " prime example of Georgian architecture " .
In 1962 , the trust successfully lobbied for the house to become a national historic landmark . In 1972 , the Trust donated the property to the National Park Service and it became the Longfellow National Historic Site and open to the public as a house museum . On display are many of the original nineteenth century furnishings , artwork , over 10 @,@ 000 books owned by Longfellow , and the dining table around which many important visitors gathered . Everything on display was owned by the Longfellow family . The site was renamed to Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site on December 22 , 2010 , to ensure that the connection to Washington was not lost in the memory of the general public .
The site also possesses some 750 @,@ 000 original documents relevant to the former occupants of the home . These archives are open to scholarly research by appointment .
Across the street from the Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site is the municipal park known as Longfellow Park . In the middle sits a memorial by sculptor Daniel Chester French dedicated in 1914 . In addition to a bust of the poet , a carved bas @-@ relief by Henry Bacon depicts the famous characters Miles Standish , Sandalphon , the village blacksmith , the Spanish student , Evangeline , and Hiawatha . The monument is similar to one French designed for the street that leads to Sunnyside , the former home of Washington Irving .
= = Architecture and landscape = =
The structure of the original house was built in the Georgian architectural style . The pair of large pilasters that frame the facade expressed John Vassall 's aristocratic background . In 1791 , Andrew Craigie added the two side piazzas and the two @-@ story back ell and also expanded the library into a twenty by thirty foot ballroom with its own entrance . During the Longfellow family 's time in the home , very few structural changes were made . As Frances Longfellow wrote , " we are full of plans & projects with no desire , however , to change a feature of the old countenance which Washington has rendered sacred " .
The Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site is noted for its garden on the northeast end of the property . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow oversaw the creation of the original garden , shaped as a lyre , shortly after his wedding . In 1845 , he began refurbishing the garden in earnest and imported trees from England with help from Asa Gray . These trees included " a number of evergreens , among them a cedar of Lebanon and pines from the Himalayas , Norway , Switzerland and Oregon " . The lyre shape proved impractical and a new design was made with the help of a landscape architect named Richard Dolben in 1847 . The new design was a square surrounding a circle that was cut into four tear @-@ shaped garden beds outlined by trimmed boxwood . Mrs. Longfellow referred to the shape as a " Persian rug " .
After her father 's death in 1882 , Alice Longfellow commissioned two of America 's first female landscape architects , Martha Brookes Hutcheson and Ellen Biddle Shipman , to redesign the formal garden in the Colonial Revival style . The garden was recently restored by an organization called Friends of the Longfellow House , which completed the final stage of its reconstruction , the historic pergola , in 2008 .
= = Replicas = =
For a time , Longfellow 's home was one of the most photographed and most recognizable homes in the United States . In the early twentieth century Sears , Roebuck and Company sold scaled @-@ down blueprints of the home so that anyone could build their own version of Longfellow 's home . Several replicas of Longfellow 's home appear throughout the United States . One replica , simply called Longfellow House , still exists in Minneapolis . Originally built by businessman Robert " Fish " Jones , it currently serves as an information center for the Minneapolis Park System and is on the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway . A full @-@ scale replica of the house was built in Great Barrington , Massachusetts at the turn of the 20th century . This building is the only remaining full @-@ scale replica of Longfellow 's original home maintaining all the original historical character .
= Saskatchewan Highway 16
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Chinese college student . A friend in his dormitory ( Bai Ling ) says the victim was a student leader at the Tiananmen Square protest and had been hunted ever since . The detectives go to Washington , D.C. to talk to the Chinese embassy about the murder , but they deny any knowledge of the incident . Secret Service agent Gruszynski ( Ed Lauter ) confronts Lewis and Crosetti and tells them not to waste the embassy 's time , but agrees to give the detectives a tour of Washington before they go . Crosetti is excited to see the landmarks but Lewis , who believes the Secret Service agent knows who committed the murder , remains confrontational with Gruszynski . When Gruszynski still refuses to help , Crosetti and a frustrated Lewis leave Washington .
Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) and Howard ( Melissa Leo ) prepare to testify in the murder trial of " Pony " Johnson ( Geoffrey C. Ewing ) . State prosecutor Danvers ( Željko Ivanek ) tells an anxious Howard that the case depends entirely on her testimony . Felton , who in contrast to Howard is very relaxed , claims Howard is in love with Danvers , which she vehemently denies . Howard testifies , but nervously fumbles facts and allows defense attorney Darin Russom ( Michael Willis ) to create reasonable doubt to the jury . After receiving reassurance from Danvers , however , Howard is recalled and performs much better , seriously damaging Russom 's case . Johnson is found guilty of murder and Danvers offers to buy Howard dinner , which she accepts much to Felton 's amusement .
Munch ( Richard Belzer ) and Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) respond to a corpse found in the woods , next to a van full of low @-@ quality marijuana . Munch proves to be an expert on hemp , and discusses how the plant was grown by founding fathers Thomas Jefferson and George Washington . The detectives eventually identify the victim as a middle man for a drug dealer , and Bolander finds a neighbor who saw Jones holding a gun to the victim 's head the night before the murder . Munch , Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) and narcotics detective Russ DeSilva ( Steven Marcus ) debate whether drugs should be illegal ; the homicide detectives claim legalization would reduce violent crime and that drug revenue could go to good causes . Bolander asks Munch if he smokes pot , but he refuses to answer . That night , Munch and Bolander arrest the drug dealer at home .
Captain Barnfather ( Clayton LeBouef ) and Colonel Granger ( Gerald F. Gough ) offer Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) a promotion to lieutenant and the vacant shift commander position working alongside Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) . Pembleton asks for time to consider it , and the duo ask him not to mention the offer to Gee . Gee is inquisitive and immediately senses Pembleton is lying when he says the discussion was nothing . After discussing the offer with his wife Mary ( Ami Brabson ) , Pembleton decides not to take the job and confesses to Gee , who has already learned the truth and is disappointed Pembleton did not tell him sooner . The episode ends with Pembleton going to the bar with his fellow detectives , which he seldom does .
= = Production = =
" And the Rockets Dead Glare " was written by Jorge Zamacona based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Peter Markle . It marked the first appearances of defense attorney Darin Russom ( Michael Willis ) and Frank Pembleton 's wife Mary , both of whom became recurring characters throughout the rest of the series . Mary Pembleton is played by Ami Brabson , who is married to actor Andre Braugher in real life . Brabson auditioned for the role shortly after Braugher was cast in the series , and Braugher said of their on @-@ screen pairing , " We have an instant rapport that we don 't have to create . " Willis , in real life , has a low opinion of trial lawyers , and did little to research for his role as Russom . " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " also featured a guest appearance by actress and model Bai Ling , a student and apparent friend to the Chinese refugee murdered in the episode . Although relatively unknown at the time , Ling went on to star in such films as Red Corner ( 1997 ) and Anna and the King ( 1999 ) , and was named one of People Magazine 's " 50 Most Beautiful People in the World " in 1998 .
The " Pony " Johnson murder trial is based on a real @-@ life trial featured in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series . In that real @-@ life trial , a Baltimore detective misspeaks during his testimony and nearly jeopardizes the outcome of the case . This is mirrored by the actions of Kay Howard , who accidentally says the victim was dead at least 24 hours when she meant to say 12 hours , leaving an opening for defense attorney Darin Russom to question her recollection and expertise . The defense attorney in the real @-@ life trial lost the case for himself with a procedural misstep similar to the one portrayed in " And the Rockets Dead Glare " . In the episode , Russom asks Howard whether she had ever seen a murder victim killed by both a knife and a gun . This allows Howard to mention a second victim police suspect " Pony " Johnson murdered , which she would not have been allowed to mention had Russom not asked her . Homicide filmmakers sought to portray the trial scenes in a far more realistic light than most police drama shows , particularly with the inclusion of less dramatic courtroom elements such as Howard 's waiting anxiously to testify and the awkward pauses during her testimony .
" And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " presents a case for drug liberalization , arguing from the perspectives of homicide detectives Tim Bayliss and , particularly , John Munch that legalizing drugs would help curb violent crime . Munch 's pro @-@ drug liberalization comments in the episode were inspired by actor Richard Belzer 's real @-@ life personal history with drug abuse and drug dealing , which would go on to inspire further development of Munch 's druggie and hippie past in future episodes . An arrangement of Frédéric Chopin 's Fantaisie @-@ Impromptu in C Minor , conducted by Louis Knatchvull , appears in " And the Rockets Dead Glare " , as does the song " Rhythm and Blues " by Benjamin Antin .
= = Release and reception = =
Ratings for Homicide : Life on the Street gradually declined since the series first premiered . In response , NBC announced to fans that a decision about whether Homicide would be renewed or canceled would depend on how the last four episodes of the season fared in the ratings , including " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " . In its original American broadcast on March 17 , 1993 , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 61 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 7 @.@ 1 rating . This constituted a decline in viewership compared to the previous week 's episode , " A Dog and Pony Show " , which was seen by 8 @.@ 47 million viewers and received a 9 @.@ 1 rating . Homicide ranked low in the Nielsen ratings compared to other shows the week of " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " , ranking 78th for the week of March 15 to 21 , with its timeslot competitor , the ABC comedy series Home Improvement , ranking number one with 22 @.@ 3 million household viewers .
Harold Schindler of The Salt Lake Tribune praised the episode , making it one of his weekly recommendations and declaring Homicide " one of the better police procedural dramas to reach television " . " And the Rockets Dead Glare " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Royal Blue ( train ) =
The Royal Blue was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( B & O ) ' s flagship passenger train between New York City and Washington , D.C. , in the United States , beginning in 1890 . The Baltimore @-@ based B & O also used the name between 1890 and 1917 for its improved passenger service between New York and Washington launched in the 1890s , collectively dubbed the Royal Blue Line . Using variants such as the Royal Limited and Royal Special for individual Royal Blue trains , the B & O operated the service in partnership with the Reading Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey . Principal intermediate cities served were Philadelphia , Wilmington , and Baltimore . Later , as Europe reeled from the carnage of World War I and connotations of European royalty fell into disfavor , the B & O discreetly omitted the sobriquet Royal Blue Line from its New York passenger service and the Royal Blue disappeared from B & O timetables . Beginning in 1917 , former Royal Blue Line trains were renamed : the Royal Limited ( inaugurated on May 15 , 1898 ) , for example , became the National Limited , continuing west from Washington to St. Louis via Cincinnati . During the Depression , the B & O hearkened back to the halcyon pre @-@ World War I era when it launched a re @-@ christened Royal Blue train between New York and Washington in 1935 . The B & O finally discontinued passenger service north of Baltimore on April 26 , 1958 , and the Royal Blue faded into history .
Railroad historian Herbert Harwood said , in his seminal history of the service , " First conceived in late Victorian times to promote a new railroad line ... it was indeed one of the most memorable images in the transportation business , an inspired blend of majesty and mystique ... Royal Blue Line ... Royal Blue Trains ... the Royal Blue all meant different things at different times . But essentially they all symbolized one thing : the B & O 's regal route . " Between the 1890s and World War I , the B & O 's six daily Royal Blue trains providing service between New York and Washington were noted for their luxury , elegant appearance , and speed . The car interiors were paneled in mahogany , had fully enclosed vestibules ( instead of open platforms , still widely in use at the time on U.S. railroads ) , then @-@ modern heating and lighting , and leaded glass windows . The car exteriors were painted a deep " Royal Saxony blue " color with gold leaf trim .
The B & O 's use of electrification instead of steam power in a Baltimore tunnel on the Royal Blue Line , beginning in 1895 , marked the first use of electric locomotives by an American railroad and presaged the dawn of practical alternatives to steam power in the 20th century . Spurred by intense competition from the formidable Pennsylvania Railroad , the dominant railroad in the lucrative New York – Washington market since the 1880s , the Royal Blue in its mid @-@ 1930s reincarnation was noted for a number of technological innovations , including streamlining and the first non @-@ articulated diesel locomotive on a passenger train in the U.S. , a harbinger of the steam locomotive 's eventual demise .
= = History = =
= = = 1880s – 1918 = = =
Prior to 1884 , the B & O and the Philadelphia @-@ based Pennsylvania Railroad both used the independent Philadelphia , Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad ( PW & B ) between Baltimore , Maryland , and Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , for their New York – Washington freight and passenger trains . In 1881 , the Pennsylvania Railroad purchased a controlling interest in the PW & B , and in 1884 it denied the B & O further use of the PW & B to reach Philadelphia .
The B & O then built a new line from Baltimore to connect to the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad in Philadelphia , completed in 1886 . The B & O 's passenger trains then used the Reading 's tracks northward from Philadelphia to Bound Brook , New Jersey , where the Jersey Central 's rails were used to reach the Communipaw Terminal in Jersey City connecting to ferry for a twelve @-@ minute crossing of the Hudson River to Manhattan .
The new route presented problems in Baltimore , because a ferry boat was necessary to cross the harbor between Locust Point and Canton to connect with the B & O 's Washington Branch . The solution was the Baltimore Belt Line , which included a 1 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) long tunnel under Howard Street in downtown Baltimore . Work began on the tunnel in 1891 and was completed on May 1 , 1895 , when the first train traversed the tunnel . To avoid smoke problems from steam engines working upgrade in the long tunnel under the middle of Baltimore , the B & O pioneered the first mainline electrification of a U.S. railroad , installing an overhead third rail system in the tunnel and its approaches . An electric locomotive first pulled a Royal Blue train through the Howard Street tunnel on June 27 , 1895 .
The project also included the construction of B & O 's second passenger terminal in Baltimore , Mount Royal Station , at the north end of the Howard Street tunnel in the fashionable Bolton Hill neighborhood . Designed by Baltimore architect E. Francis Baldwin in a blend of modified Romanesque and Renaissance styling , the station was built of Maryland granite trimmed with Indiana limestone , with a red tile roof and landmark 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) clocktower . The station 's interior featured marble mosaic flooring , a fireplace , and rocking chairs . It opened the following year on September 1 , 1896 . " It was considered , " said the Baltimore Sun , " the most splendid station in the country built and used by only one railroad . " That evaluation was shared by railroad historian Lucius Beebe , who proclaimed Mount Royal " one of the celebrated railroad stations of the world , ranking in renown with Euston Station , London , scene of so many of Sherlock Holmes ' departures , the Gare du Nord in Paris , and the feudal fortress of the Pennsylvania [ Railroad ] at Broad Street , Philadelphia " .
Even before the Baltimore Belt Line project was finished , the B & O launched its Royal Blue service on July 31 , 1890 . Powered by 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotives having exceptionally large 78 @-@ inch ( 198 cm ) diameter driving wheels for speed , the Royal Blue trains occasionally reached 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . After the Baltimore Belt Line project was completed , travel time between New York and Washington was reduced to five hours , compared to nine hours in the late 1860s .
The trains were noted for their elegance and luxury . The parlor cars ' ceilings and upholstery were covered in royal blue , and the dining cars Queen and Waldorf , panelled in mahogany , featured elaborate cuisine such as terrapin and canvasback prepared by French @-@ trained chefs . A Railway Age magazine article of the time reporting on the Royal Blue called it " the climax in railway car building " .
= = = 1918 – 1920s = = =
As a result of the U.S. entry into World War I and resulting congestion on the nation 's railroads , the wartime U.S. Railroad Administration ( USRA ) ordered the Pennsylvania Railroad to permit B & O passenger trains to use its Hudson River tunnels and Pennsylvania Station in Manhattan , beginning April 28 , 1918 , eliminating the B & O 's need for the ferry connection from Jersey City . Following the end of World War I , the Pennsylvania Railroad continued to allow B & O passenger trains to use Pennsylvania Station for another eight years . On September 1 , 1926 , the Pennsylvania Railroad terminated its contract with the B & O , and the latter 's trains reverted to the use of the Jersey Central 's Jersey City terminal . Passengers were then transferred to buses that met the train right on the platform . These buses were ferried across the Hudson River into Manhattan and Brooklyn , where they proceeded to various " stations " around the city on four different routes , including the Vanderbilt Hotel , Wanamaker 's , Columbus Circle , and Rockefeller Center . B & O 's busiest Royal Blue bus terminal at 42nd street in Manhattan opened on December 17 , 1928 . Connected to Grand Central Terminal by an underground concourse , it was trimmed in marble and furnished with Art Deco lighting fixtures and leather sofas . This arrangement would continue until the eventual demise of the Royal Blue in 1958 .
= = = 1930s – 1940s = = =
As the 1930s dawned , the B & O 's New York passenger service faced two significant competitive disadvantages , compared to the Pennsylvania Railroad . First , the B & O lacked direct access to Manhattan , resulting in slower overall travel time . Second , the Pennsylvania 's move in the early 1930s to replace steam power with modern , smokeless electric service along its entire New York – Washington mainline was met with enthusiastic public approval . The B & O responded by introducing Diesel locomotives , air conditioning , and streamlining on its New York trains . On June 24 , 1935 , the B & O inaugurated the first lightweight , streamlined train in the eastern U.S. , when it began operating a re @-@ christened Royal Blue train between Washington and New York . In 1937 the B & O partially Dieselized the train with locomotive # 50 , buying the first of the new E @-@ Series road Diesel locomotives from General Motors ' Electro Motive Company . Previously , early experiments with internal combustion engines to replace steam in railroad applications included short , articulated trainsets ( such as Burlington 's Pioneer Zephyr and Union Pacific 's M @-@ 10000 ) , double @-@ head sets of " boxcab " locomotives ( developed by EMC ) used to power the 1936 version of the AT & SF ( Santa Fe ) Super Chief , and the cab / booster unit combinations developed with Union Pacific 's M @-@ 10002 and M @-@ 10003 - M @-@ 10006 trainsets . The E units took the most advanced developments of Diesel locomotive technology and made them available to all operators using the consists of their choice . The earliest adopters of the new E units demonstrated the improved flexibility , efficiency and reduced maintenance costs of Diesel power in daily service compared to steam and gave impetus to the Dieselization of the railroad industry .
Recalling the past glamor of the 1890s Royal Blue Line , the B & O introduced its Martha Washington @-@ series dining cars , which were particularly noted for their fresh Chesapeake Bay cuisine , served on Dresden china in ornate cars with glass chandeliers and colonial @-@ style furnishings . The B & O 's manager of dining car services said his department 's objective was " ... to be hospitable to our patrons in all respects – to make them feel the comfort , convenience and homelike atmosphere of our accommodations as soon as they step on our trains . " Dining car specialties included oysters and Chesapeake Bay fish served with cornmeal muffins . B & O president Daniel Willard personally sampled his dining cars ' cuisine while traveling about the line , and recognized particularly pleasing meals with letters of appreciation and autographed pictures given to the dining car chefs .
The B & O was not entirely satisfied with the ride quality of the lightweight Royal Blue train , however , and replaced it on April 25 , 1937 , with streamlined , refurbished heavyweight equipment , painted light gray and royal blue with gold striping , designed by Otto Kuhler . The B & O conveyed the displaced trainset to the Alton Railroad , where it ran as the Abraham Lincoln for decades . The train was pulled by the streamlined Diesel locomotive , B & O # 51 , of the 3 @,@ 600 h.p. EMC EA / EB model built by Electro Motive Company . Praised for its beauty and handsome profile , this first streamlined production model Diesel " dazzled the press and public " , said one magazine writer of the groundbreaking locomotive 's introduction . Kuhler also streamlined one of B & O 's 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 " Pacific " steam locomotives for use on the Royal Blue . Its bullet @-@ shaped shroud became an iconic image for the Royal Blue and was modeled for years by American Flyer . Time magazine , in reporting on the precarious financial condition of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and other Depression @-@ ravaged rail lines in 1937 , referred to the B & O 's " swashbuckling " Royal Blue streamliner launched that year as having " symbolize [ d ] the new era in railroading ... "
President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt was a frequent passenger on the B & O 's Royal Blue Line during his time in office ( 1933 – 1945 ) , when he traveled between Washington and his family home in Hyde Park , New York . A special presidential train from Washington used the regular B & O – Reading – Jersey Central route to Jersey City , continuing on the New York Central Railroad 's West Shore Line along the Hudson River to Highland , New York ( opposite Poughkeepsie ) , where the President was met by automobile .
Along with most other rail passenger services in the U.S. during World War II , the Royal Blue enjoyed a surge in passenger traffic between 1942 and 1945 as volume doubled to 1 @.@ 2 million passengers annually on B & O 's eight daily New York – Washington trains . Following the end of the war , however , passenger volumes soon dropped below prewar levels and the B & O discontinued one of its daily New York – Washington trains . In addition to its flagship Royal Blue , six other B & O passenger trains continued to serve New York until April 1958 : the Metropolitan Special , Capitol Limited , National Limited , Diplomat , Marylander , and Shenandoah .
= = = 1950s and the end = = =
Although all of B & O 's Washington – Jersey City passenger trains had been fully dieselized by September 28 , 1947 , no new passenger cars were built for the Royal Blue in the postwar period . The refurbished 8 @-@ car 1937 Royal Blue trainset continued in operation to the end . The overwhelming market dominance of the Pennsylvania Railroad was evident when it introduced the 18 @-@ car stainless steel Morning Congressional and Afternoon Congressional streamliners in 1952 . By the late 1950s , most U.S. passenger trains suffered a steep decline in patronage as the traveling public abandoned trains in favor of airplanes and automobiles , utilizing improved Interstate Highways . The Royal Blue was no exception , as operating deficits approached $ 5 million annually and passenger volume declined by almost half between 1946 and 1957 . Amidst the downward trend , the Royal Blue Line briefly recaptured the regal splendor of its early years on October 21 , 1957 , when Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip travelled on the B & O from Washington to New York .
As financial losses mounted , the B & O finally ceded the New York – Washington market to the Pennsylvania Railroad altogether , discontinuing all passenger service north of Baltimore on Saturday , April 26 , 1958 , and bringing the venerable Royal Blue to an end . As the engineer was about to ease the locomotive 's throttle open for the Royal Blue 's final departure from Washington Union Station at 3 : 45 p.m. , the event was covered in a trainside remote broadcast by Edward R. Murrow on a CBS network See It Now television special . The train 's 7 : 49 p.m. arrival at Jersey City Terminal was met by news reporters from The New York Times , the New York Post , Life magazine and The Saturday Evening Post , on hand to cover the legendary Royal Blue 's demise . In an editorial the next day , the Baltimore Sun lamented the end of the Royal Blue , saying it " may have been one of the most famous named trains in history " .
The New York Times , in a front page article accompanied by a photograph of train engineer Michael Goodnight bidding farewell to a 7 @-@ year old passenger , said " It was a sad and simple story yesterday as the nation 's oldest railroad discontinued its crack Royal Blue and its five other passenger trains ... end [ ing ] sixty @-@ eight years of continuous through service , operated in a gentlemanly fashion ... a kind of ante @-@ bellum , gracious way of life ... and the reputation for very special service . "
Mount Royal Station continued as the eastern terminus of B & O 's passenger service until June 30 , 1961 , when it closed permanently as a rail passenger facility . It was one of thirteen Baltimore buildings selected in 1959 for the Historic American Buildings Survey . The building and trainshed were subsequently acquired by the Maryland Institute College of Art ( MICA ) in 1964 and are preserved as examples of late 19th century industrial architecture .
= = Schedule and equipment = =
In the 1890s – 1910s period , the Royal Limited operated in both directions simultaneously , with 3 p.m. departures in New York and Washington , arriving at its destination five hours later , at 8 p.m. By the 1930s , travel time between Jersey City and Washington was reduced to four hours . From 1935 to the end of service in 1958 , the Royal Blue made a daily round trip , departing New York in the morning and returning from Washington in the evening . According to the Official Guide of February , 1956 , the Royal Blue operated on the following schedule as train # 27 ( unconditional stops highlighted in blue , bus connections in yellow ) :
Eastbound , the train departed Washington at 3 : 45 p.m. as train # 28 , arriving at Jersey City 7 : 40 p.m.
Between 1937 and 1958 , the Royal Blue was equipped with air @-@ conditioned coaches , parlor cars with private drawing rooms , a lounge car for coach passengers , a full dining car serving complete meals , and a flat @-@ end observation car with a " cafe @-@ lounge " bringing up the rear of the train . Beginning in mid @-@ August 1947 , onboard telephone service was provided , making the B & O ( along with the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad ) one of the first three railroads in the U.S. to offer telephone service on its trains , using a forerunner of cell phone technology .
= Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei =
Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei ( English : The King of Torture , Pulikecei the 23rd ) is a 2006 Indian Tamil language historical @-@ comedy film written and directed by Chimbu Deven . The film stars Vadivelu in his debut as a lead actor . Monica and Tejashree play the female leads , while Manorama , Nassar , Ilavarasu , Sreeman and Nagesh play supporting roles . Sabesh @-@ Murali composed the soundtrack album and background score . S. Shankar produced and distributed the film under his production banner S Pictures .
Set in the late 18th century during the early stages of the British Raj , the film tells the story of twin brothers separated at birth . Pulikecei XXIII , the foolish elder brother , becomes a puppet of his uncle , the Chief Minister , while Ukraputhan , the wise younger brother , becomes a patriot intent on saving his land and his brother .
Principal photography began in November 2005 at Prasad Studios . Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei was released on 8 July 2006 , and was the first historical Tamil film released since Madhuraiyai Meetta Sundharapandiyan ( 1978 ) . The film received positive reviews , with critics praising the screenplay , the performances , and the dialogues . A box office success , the film won two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards and one Filmfare Award . The film was dubbed into Telugu as Himsinche 23 Va Raju Pulikesi .
= = Plot = =
In the South Indian kingdom of Cholapuram Paalayam in the year 1771 , Raja Mokkaiyappar and his queen , Rajamatha Bhavani Ammaiyar are desperate for a child , as all their previous twenty @-@ two children have died at birth . Unknown to them , Bhavani 's brother , Sangilimayan , who is also the Rajaguru ( Chief Minister ) , is responsible for the death of their children . Sangilimayan is shocked to see that his sister has given birth to twins . Before informing the king about the birth , he calls the palace astrologer , Chinnavadayaan , who predicts that the elder twin will be incapable of making decisions on his own while the younger one will be smarter . Sangilimayan orders the palace doctor , Kailasakaruppan , to kill the younger one , but Chinnavadayaan tells Sangilimayan that his actions would not be good for the kingdom . Instead , Sangilimayan orders the palace doctor to abandon the child in a nearby river . The elder child is named Pulikecei XXIII . Maragathavalli , Kailasakaruppan 's childless wife , rescues the abandoned child from the river , and the couple decides to raise him as their own , naming him Ukraputhan .
Twenty @-@ five years pass , and Pulikecei is now the king of Cholapuram Paalayam . As foretold , he is foolish as well as lecherous . He is a puppet in the hands of Sangilimayan , who collaborates with the British for his own personal gain and does not attend to the needs of the people of his kingdom . Pulikecei also tortures his subjects . He creates an outdoor stadium for different castes to fight against each other and punishes his palace guards even when they make the slightest of mistakes ; he also uses his guards as targets for shooting practice . Ukraputhan , now an educated revolutionary , collaborates with his friends to overthrow the British . Ukraputhan falls in love with Vasantha Sundari , who reciprocates his feelings . When Ukraputhan tries to kill Pulikecei , he is shocked to see that they look alike .
Ukraputhan then learns about his birth from his foster @-@ parents . To save the land from Sangilimayan and the British , Ukraputhan captures Pulikecei and trades places with him as the king whilst sending Pulikecei to prison in his place . As the king , Ukraputhan joins Agandamuthu , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , and helps brings about new reforms . He converts the palace harem into a playground and helps fund and provide for the education of children ; to grow crops , he creates fertile land for tilling the soil . In a break with past policies of the kingdom , Ukraputhan refuses to pay tributes and taxes demanded by the British . Bhavani Ammaiya praises Ukraputhan 's reforms , unaware that Ukraputhan is disguised as Pulikecei . In jail , Pulikecei is taken care of by Soolayini , who provides refreshments to the soldiers . Eventually , the two fall in love .
All of this happens while Sangilimayan is away on a business trip visiting British officers in Chennaipattinam . When he learns of the new reforms , he confronts Ukraputhan . Later , Pulikecei escapes from prison and overhears a conversation between Ukraputhan , Agandamuthu and Chinnavadayaan . Pulikecei learns the truth about his birth and confronts the trio . He joins forces with Ukraputhan to reform the kingdom , but is beaten by one of Sangilimayan 's men and is locked up in the palace . However , he escapes with the help of Kollan , the palace blacksmith . Believing that Agandamuthu was responsible for Pulikecei 's change of mind , Sangilimayan arrests him and Ukraputhan . After escaping , Pulikecei appears before Sangilimayan as Ukraputhan but is recognised by his minister , Mangunipandiyan . A fight between Ukraputhan , Pulikecei , Sangilimayan and the British follows ; Sangilimayan is overpowered by the twins and is about to be killed when Bhavani Ammaiya intervenes . Feeling guilty for betraying his kingdom , Sangilimayan has a change of heart and apologises to his sister ; she forgives him . The kingdom attains independence from British rule and Pulikecei and Ukraputhan get married to their respective lovers , Soolayini and Vasantha Sundari .
= = Cast = =
Note : Vadivelu 's name features in the opening credits , while the rest of the cast members are listed as per the closing credits .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Chimbu Deven worked as a cartoonist in the Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan before venturing into mainstream cinema as an associate to director Cheran in three of his films , Vetri Kodi Kattu ( 2000 ) , Pandavar Bhoomi ( 2001 ) and Autograph ( 2004 ) . Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei draws inspiration from a cartoon created by Deven , which originally appeared in Ananda Vikatan . Deven , who wrote the script , showed it to director S. Shankar . Shankar was impressed with the script as soon as he read it , and offered to produce and distribute the film under his production company S Pictures , making the film his third as producer after Mudhalvan ( 1999 ) and Kaadhal ( 2004 ) .
As a former comic strip illustrator , Deven used the storyboard technique to develop the film . Cinematography was handled by Arthur A. Wilson and editing by G. Sasikumar . P. Krishnamoorthy was signed up as the film 's art director . S. Naveen , who later directed Moodar Koodam ( 2013 ) , worked as an assistant director in the film . The dialogues for the film were written in chaste Tamil . Research was conducted at the Roja Muthiah Research Library .
= = = Casting = = =
Deven approached Vadivelu in October 2005 and offered him the lead roles . Vadivelu was initially hesitant to accept the offer as he felt that the audience would not want to see him as the central character , but after Vadivelu read the script , he took the role . Regarding the selection of Vadivelu for the roles , Deven noted that one of the royal characters from his comic book strip in Ananda Vikatan closely resembled Vadivelu , including his complexion and nativity .
Both Swarnamalya and actress Nagma were considered for the female leads , but Monica and Tejashree eventually got the parts . Director @-@ actor Ilavarasu played the role of Pulikecei 's minister , Mangunipandiyan . Actress M. N. Rajam played Ukraputhan 's mother .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began at Prasad Studios on 16 November 2005 , under the working title of Imsai Mannan 23am Pulikesi . It was the first historical film made in Tamil cinema since Madhuraiyai Meetta Sundharapandiyan ( 1978 ) almost three decades previously . To accurately capture the historical period , palaces , gardens and war scenes were shot on large sets spread across 30 acres . Shooting also took place at AVM Studios . The second schedule of the film was held in Prasad Studios .
The song " Aah Adivaa " was shot at Prasad Studios and choreographed by Sivasankar . Due to poor weather , the outdoor portions of the song were shot indoors . A total of eleven sets were created for all of the filming schedules . Filming also took place in Chengalpattu , Tiruvannamalai and Pondicherry . Spoofs on Sivaji Ganesan , M. G. Ramachandran and Avvaiyar are seen in the film . Wipes and split screen transitions are commonly used . Principal photography was completed in 55 — 61 days .
= = Themes and influences = =
Although Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei is a historical film set in the late 18th century AD , most of the issues it raises are contemporary . Topics discussed include child labour , globalisation , the bureaucratic inefficiency of government , pesticide usage in soft drinks , and divisions in the caste system .
In their 2010 book , Cinemas of South India : Culture , Resistance , Ideology under the section Dualities and Negotiation 23rd Imsai Arasan Pulikesi , Sowmya Dechamma C. C. , Elavarthi Sathya Prakash and Jananie Kalyanaraman , the soft drinks that are satirised include Coca @-@ Cola and Pepsi . The two are called Akka Mala and Gup @-@ C respectively . They also note that Pulikecei and Ukraputhan have contrasting differences with respect to attitude towards women , education , governance , and demonstration of both skill in weaponry and physical prowess . Kalyanaraman compares Vadivelu 's balancing of both his comic and heroic abilities through the roles of Pulikecei and Ukraputhan to Nagesh 's roles in Server Sundaram ( 1964 ) and Ethir Neechal ( 1968 ) , where Nagesh plays more serious roles .
The moustache sported by Vadivelu is inspired and modelled after moustaches worn by the Spanish Catalan surrealist painter , Salvador Dali and Tamil poet , Subramania Bharati . Historical references in the film include places like Nalanda University , which was active around the 2nd century AD , and people like Veerapandiya Kattabomman , Robert Clive , and Ettappan .
G. Dhananjayan , S. Theodore Baskaran and Malathi Rangarajan called the film a parody of Uthama Puthiran ( 1958 ) . Malathi Rangarajan said that the sequences in the song " Aah Aadivaa " are reminiscent of scenes from the song " Yaaradi Nee Mohini " from Uthama Puthiran . Theodore Baskaran also compared the film to M. G. Ramachandran films like Malaikkallan ( 1954 ) and Nadodi Mannan ( 1958 ) . Saraswathy Srinivas of Rediff compared the film to Alexandre Dumas 's novel , The Man in the Iron Mask .
= = Music = =
Sabesh @-@ Murali composed both the film 's soundtrack album and background score . The soundtrack album features five songs with lyrics written by Pulamaipithan . The songs were rendered in a style authentic to the film 's period setting . The soundtrack album was released on 10 May 2006 .
The album was received positively by critics . G. Dhananjayan , in his book Best of Tamil Cinema , said the songs contributed to the film 's success and were popular during its theatrical run . Praises were directed mainly towards the musicians , the melodious interludes of " Aah Aadivaa " and the fusion of modern western and traditional Indian music in " Vaanam Namakul " .
= = Release = =
The satellite rights of the film were sold to Kalaignar TV . The film was originally scheduled for release on 19 May 2006 . However , the film 's release was delayed due to its use of animals without prior approval from the Animal Welfare Board of India ( AWBI ) . According to a rule issued in 2001 , film producers must obtain prior approval from the AWBI to use animals in a film . Further , scenes with animals must be filmed with a veterinary physician on the set . Crucial to the film 's story , the scenes were not re @-@ edited . In an interview , Deven stated that the elephants and horses in the film were not subjected to any cruelty .
When Shankar approached the AWBI for a No Objection Certificate ( NOC ) , he was denied . On 18 May , the Madras High Court requested that the AWBI issue the necessary certificate , but the organisation refused and said that it was the responsibility of the Central Board of Film Certification ( CBFC ) . In response , the CBFC said cited a rule issued by the Bombay High Court , noting that it was mandatory for the AWBI to provide an NOC to films which used animals . This led to the initial postponement of the film 's release until 9 June . On 13 June , the Madras High Court ordered that the film be given a censorship certificate by 19 June , along with the NOC from the AWBI . Because of this sequence of events , the film 's release date was further postponed .
Shankar and Vadivelu requested the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , M. Karunanidhi , to intervene . A week before the release date , and with the help of Karunanidhi , Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei was cleared by the Central Government . The film received an NOC , and was subsequently given a ' U ' ( Universal ) certificate without any cuts by the certification board . After months of delay , the film 's release finally occurred on 8 July in 135 screens across Tamil Nadu . R. B. Choudary 's Mega Super Good Films purchased the theatrical rights of the Telugu dubbed version .
The film was banned in Karnataka as the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce objected to a spoof film with Pulikecei 's name in the title being released in their state . Pulakesi II was a famous king who belonged to the Western Chalukyan Dynasty and ruled the Karnataka region in the seventh century . Vadivelu 's voice was dubbed by Brahmanandam in the Telugu version , which was released with the title , Himsinche 23 Va Raju Pulikesi .
Post @-@ release , vendors sold unauthorised copies of the film on VCD in many areas of Tamil Nadu , especially in Chennai , where CDs were sold for ₹ 35 to 40 , and Madurai and Dindigul , where CDs were sold at ₹ 45 to 50 . Police conducted raids in the Avadi and Ambattur areas of Chennai where they seized 6636 VCDs . Although infringement helped increase the film 's popularity , its theatrical run at the box office was still a financial success .
Sri Lankan Cricketer Muttiah Muralitharan watched the film in Kamala Theatres in Chennai with his family on 11 July 2006 . He praised the film 's innovative story , further saying that Vadivelu had developed a huge fan following in Sri Lanka through this film . To further promote the film , 50 children who watched it were given " Pulikesi moustaches " . [ sic ] The moustache became quite popular with children and further boosted the film 's popularity . Deven said that the moustache would become as popular as Superman 's outfit and Spider @-@ Man 's mask .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics responded positively to Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei , noting the quality of its story , Vadivelu 's performance , its highlighting of contemporary political and social concerns , and the film 's art direction , cinematography , and music . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu approved of the way Deven presented comedy , saying that it came in " the most unexpected situations . " Film historian Sundararaj Theodore Baskaran described Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei as " a parody with healthy concerns " .
Both Bijoy Bharathan of The Times of India and Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu applauded Vadivelu 's comic timing . Ananda Vikatan , in its original review of the film , lauded Vadivelu 's performance . S. Sudha also said that Vadivelu was the strength of the film .
S. Sudha credited the film 's art direction and cinematography as one of its major highlights . Art director Krishnamoorthy performed intense research to create the costumes for the characters and to design the palace sets . According to Theodore Baskaran , Arthur A. Wilson 's cinematography " creates a series of arresting images " which helps facilitate the directorial narrative . However , Sify criticised the inclusion of songs in the film post @-@ interval , stating that they " mar the film 's tempo " .
= = = Box office = = =
Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei was a box office success . The film opened to full houses in theatres across Chennai , Coimbatore and Madurai . At the Mayajaal Multiplex centre in Chennai , the film grossed ₹ 301 @,@ 000 in its first week and a total of ₹ 427 @,@ 000 by the end of the second week of its theatrical run . Tickets were sold in black at the Devi Cineplex in Chennai for ₹ 150 against the original theatre price of ₹ 50 .
The film completed a theatrical run of 100 days at the box office . The film 's 100th day celebration function was held on 14 October 2006 at the Kalaivanar Arangam located in the Chepauk district of Chennai . Rajinikanth , Vijay , Vivek , Sathyaraj , Prabhu Ganesan , Abirami Ramanathan and directors Lingusamy and Balaji Sakthivel attended the function . Rajinikanth presented Vadivelu with a trophy for his performance in the film . Technicians who were involved with the film were also honoured .
According to G. Dhananjayan , the film is estimated to have collected ₹ 200 million worldwide , whereas T. V. Mahalingam of Business Today states that the film grossed a worldwide box office collection of ₹ 150 million .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film won two Tamil Nadu State Film Awards . Vadivelu won the Best Comedian award while P. Krishnamoorthy won the Best Art Director award . Vadivelu also won the Filmfare Award for Best Comedian for his performance in the film .
= = Legacy = =
Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei became an important film in Vadivelu 's career . The film continued a trend of films with different themes that focused on social issues . K. Jeshi of The Hindu placed the film in a category of films that discuss social issues along with other films like Sethu ... ( 1999 ) , Kaadhal ( 2004 ) , Veyil ( 2006 ) , Mozhi ( 2007 ) and Paruthiveeran ( 2007 ) . Another critic from The Hindu , Sumit Bhattacharjee , put the film in league with other period films like The Ten Commandements ( 1956 ) Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) Titanic ( 1997 ) , Gladiator ( 2000 ) , 300 ( 2007 ) and Jodhaa Akbar ( 2008 ) .
J. Mahendran included Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei in his list of all @-@ time favourite films . H. Murali , who produced the film Jaganmohini ( 2009 ) , in an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu , says the success of Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei inspired him to make Jaganmohini . Subha J. Rao and K. Jeshi of The Hindu placed the film in league with other successful comedy films like Kadhalikka Neramillai ( 1964 ) , Thillu Mullu ( 1981 ) and Michael Madana Kama Rajan ( 1990 ) .
Behindwoods included the " Pulikesi moustache " in its list of " Best accessories used in Tamil Cinema " . It also included " Pulikesi 's costume " in its list of Halloween costumes . A dialogue spoken by Vadivelu in the film , " Ka Ka Ka Po " , which expands into Karuththukkalai Katchithamaaga Kavvikkondir Pongal ( English : You have understood what I am saying ) , became a very popular meme used on social networking sites . Behindwoods included this dialogue in its list of Vadivelu memes . The website , in its list named " Tamil Superstars ' tyrst with facial hair " , called Pulikecei 's moustache " Quirky " .
= Met Gala =
The Met Gala , formally called the Costume Institute Gala and also known as the Met Ball , is an annual fundraising gala for the benefit of the Metropolitan Museum of Art 's Costume Institute in New York City . It marks the grand opening of the Costume Institute 's annual fashion exhibit . Each year 's event celebrates the theme of that year 's Costume Institute exhibition , and the exhibition sets the tone for the formal dress of the night , since guests are expected to choose their fashion to match the theme of the exhibit . Each year the event also has honorary celebrity event day chairpersons .
= = Details = =
The Costume Institute Gala is a major fundraising benefit that serves as an opening celebration for the Institute 's annual fashion exhibit . Following the event , the exhibition runs for several months . The 2014 exhibition was scheduled to run from May 8 until August 10 , 2014 . The Gala is widely regarded as one of the most exclusive social events in New York and one of the biggest fundraising nights in the city with $ 9 million raised in 2013 and a record of $ 12 million the following year . It is one of the most notable sources of funding for the Institute . The affair , attended by personalities from the arts , fashion , high @-@ society , film and music , has been held at the Met since 1946 and is considered to be the fashion industry 's premier annual red carpet event . Its red carpet fashions are widely photographed , reviewed , critiqued and emulated . The museum is closed to the general public on the first Monday of May due to the gala occurring .
Anna Wintour , Vogue editor @-@ in @-@ chief and a chair of the event since 1995 ( excluding 1996 and 1998 ) , oversees both the benefit committee and the guest list , with Vogue staffers helping assemble the list of invitees . According to Cathy Horyn of The New York Times , the gathering rivals the West Coast 's Vanity Fair Oscar Party , which is said to have more " star power " but less fashion panache . In 2014 , the individual tickets cost $ 25 @,@ 000 for those outside the official guest list , after prices were raised $ 10 @,@ 000 from the prior year to increase the exclusivity of the event . The annual guest list includes only 650 – 700 people .
= = Themes = =
Each year the event has a theme , and includes a cocktail hour and a formal dinner . During the cocktail hour , guests arrive to walk on the red carpet , tour the years special themed exhibition , and be seated before the dinner party that includes entertainment from the preeminent entertainers of the day . The theme not only sets the tone for the annual exhibit , but also for the guests who attempt to dress to uphold the theme of the year , oftentimes causing runs on certain fashion themes among the world 's leading fashion retailers . Sometimes , such as in 2013 , the theme is a bit befuddling because it does not provide a clear stylistic directive , while at other times , such as 2014 the theme may be far more challenging to one gender than the other .
1971 – 1972 : Fashion Plate ( October 1971 – January 1972 )
1972 – 1973 : Untailored Garments ( January – July 1972 )
1973 – 1974 : The World of Balenciaga ( March – September 1973 )
1974 – 1975 : Romantic and Glamorous Hollywood Design ( November 1974 – August 1975 )
1975 – 1976 : American Women of Style ( December 1975 – August 1976 )
1976 – 1977 : The Glory of Russian Costume ( December 1976 – August 1977 )
1977 – 1978 : Vanity Fair : A Treasure Trove ( December 1977 – September 1978 )
1978 – 1979 : Diaghilev : Costumes and Designs of the Ballets Russes ( November 1978 – June 1979 )
1979 – 1980 : Fashions of the Habsburg Era : Austria @-@ Hungary ( December 1979 – August 1980 )
1980 – 1981 : The Manchu Dragon : Costumes of China , the Chi 'ng Dynasty ( December 1980 – August 1981 )
1981 – 1982 : The Eighteenth @-@ Century Woman ( December 1981 – September 1982 )
1982 – 1983 : Le Belle Époque ( December 1982 – September 1983 )
1983 – 1984 : Yves Saint Laurent : 25 Years of Design ( December 1983 – September 1984 )
1984 – 1985 : Man and the Horse ( December 1984 – September 1985 )
1985 – 1986 : Costumes of Royal India ( December 1985 – August 1986 )
1986 – 1987 : Dance ( December 1986 – September 1987 )
1987 – 1988 : In Style : Celebrating Fifty Years of the Costume Institute ( November 1987 – April 1988 )
1988 – 1989 : From Queen to Empress : Victorian Dress 1837 – 1877 ( December 1988 – April 1989 )
1989 – 1990 : The Age of Napoleon : Costume from Revolution to Empire , 1789 – 1815 ( December 1989 – April 1990 )
1990 – 1991 : Théâtre de la Mode – Fashion Dolls : The Survival of Haute Couture ( December 1990 – April 1991 )
1991 – 1992 : Gala held , but no concurrent costume exhibition
1992 – 1993 : Fashion and History : A Dialogue ( December 1992 – March 1993 )
1993 – 1994 : Diana Vreeland : Immoderate Style ( December 1993 – March 1994 )
1994 – 1995 : Orientalism : Visions of the East in western dress ( December 1994 – March 1995 )
1995 – 1996 : Haute Couture ( December 1995 – March 1996 )
1996 – 1997 : Christian Dior ( December 1996 – March 1997 )
1997 – 1998 : Gianni Versace ( December 1997 – March 1998 )
1998 – 1999 : Cubism and Fashion ( December 10 , 1998 – March 14 , 1999 )
1999 – 2000 : Rock Style ( December 9 , 1999 – March 19 , 2000 )
2000 – 2001 : No costume exhibition gala presented
2001 : Jacqueline Kennedy : The White House Years ( May 1 – July 29 , 2001 )
2001 – 2002 : No costume exhibition gala presented
2003 : Goddess : The Classical Mode ( May 1 – August 3 , 2003 )
2004 : Dangerous Liaisons : Fashion and Furniture in the 18th Century ( April 2 ? , – August 8 , 2004 )
2005 : The House of Chanel ( May 5 – August 7 , 2005 )
2006 : AngloMania : Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion ( May 3 – September 6 , 2006 )
2007 : Poiret : King of Fashion ( May 9 – August 5 , 2007 )
2008 : Superheroes : Fashion and Fantasy ( May 7 – September 1 , 2008 )
2009 : The Model As Muse : Embodying Fashion ( May 6 – August 9 , 2009 )
2010 : American Woman : Fashioning a National Identity ( May 5 – August 10 , 2010 )
2011 : Alexander McQueen : Savage Beauty ( May 4 – August 7 , 2011 )
2012 : Schiaparelli and Prada : Impossible Conversations ( May 10 – August 19 , 2012 )
2013 : Punk : Chaos to Couture ( May 9 – August 14 , 2013 )
2014 : Charles James : Beyond Fashion ( May 8 – August 10 , 2014 )
2015 : China : Through the Looking Glass ( May 7 – August 16 , 2015 )
2016 : Manus x Machina : Fashion In An Age Of Technology
The 2015 Gala and its theme of " China : Through the Looking Glass " became the subject of a documentary — The First Monday in May ' directed by Andrew Rossi produced by Condé Nast Entertainment , Vogue and Relativity Studios . 225 approved photographers , reporters and social media participants will document the event for the documentary . All other attendees were forbidden from using social media at the event .
= = Honorary event day chairs = =
In addition to Wintour 's role of chairing the whole event , there are annual chairs and co @-@ chairs for the day of the event . For the Gala in 2014 , the chair was Aerin Lauder while the co @-@ chairs were Bradley Cooper , Oscar de la Renta , Sarah Jessica Parker , Lizzie and Jonathan Tisch , and Anna Wintour herself . The list of past honorary event day chairs includes the following :
1995 : Karl Lagerfeld and Gianni Versace
December 7 , 1998 : None
December 6 , 1999 : None
April 23 , 2001 : Caroline Kennedy and Edwin A. Schlossberg
April 28 , 2003 : None
April 26 , 2004 : Jacob Rothschild and Jayne Wrightsman
May 2 , 2005 : Caroline , Princess of Hanover
May 1 , 2006 : Rose Marie Bravo and Stoker Cavendish
May 7 , 2007 : François @-@ Henri Pinault
May 5 , 2008 : Giorgio Armani
May 4 , 2009 : Marc Jacobs
May 3 , 2010 : None
May 2 , 2011 : François @-@ Henri Pinault and Salma Hayek
May 7 , 2012 : Jeff Bezos
May 6 , 2013 : Beyoncé
May 5 , 2014 : Aerin Lauder
May 4 , 2015 : Silas Chou
May 2 , 2016 : Nicolas Ghesquière , Karl Lagerfeld and Miuccia Prada
= = Controversy = =
In 2015 the theme " China : Through the Looking Glass " was previously named " Chinese Whispers : Tales of the East in Art , Film and Fashion " . The same year 's theme was met with critics saying it was " A reminder of the subtle institutionalised racism that 's been compounded by centuries of Asian isolationism across the board , and enduring Western stereotypes exacerbated by ignorance and the meme @-@ able nature of social media . " In 2016 , Madonna whilst channeling the theme " Manus x Machina : Fashion in an Age of Technology " , provided one of the most controversial outfits in the gala 's history . She appeared in an ensemble designed by Givenchy creative director Riccardo Tisci exposing both her breasts and buttocks . Madonna hit back on her official social media channels by stating " We have fought and continue to fight for civil rights and gay rights around the world . When it comes to women ’ s rights we are still in the dark ages . My dress at the Met Ball was a political statement as well as a fashion statement " .
= Sinclair Executive =
The Sinclair Executive was the world 's first " slimline " pocket calculator , and the first to be produced by Clive Sinclair 's company Sinclair Radionics . Introduced in 1972 , there were at least two different versions of the Sinclair Executive , with different keyboard markings , and another called the Sinclair Executive Memory , introduced in 1973 .
Its small size was made possible by pulsing the current to the Texas Instruments integrated circuit , reducing the power consumption by a factor of more than 10 . The Executive was highly successful , making GB £ 1 @.@ 8 million of profit for Sinclair and winning a Design Council Award for Electronics .
= = History = =
The Executive was launched in September 1972 at the price of GB £ 79 @.@ 95 plus VAT , equivalent to £ 950 in 2015 when adjusted for inflation . This was around half the price of comparable calculators , but still twice the average weekly wage . It was the first pocket calculator , and the first to be mass @-@ produced , and its introduction to the market coincided with a number of other companies entering the calculator market .
Clive Sinclair , reckoning that the market for " executive toys " was not especially sensitive to price , ordered components for 100 @,@ 000 calculators . The Executive was highly successful , and made 1 @.@ 8 million pounds profit for Sinclair Radionics . It was well received by both domestic and foreign markets , and US $ 1 @.@ 5 million worth of Executives were sold in Japan in early 1974 at six times the price of Japanese models . The parts , consisting of the TI 1802 chip , 22 transistors , 50 resistors and 17 capacitors , cost close to GB £ 10 , compared with a sale price of close to GB £ 80 . The Executive impressed the engineers at Texas Instruments , who had used the same chip to produce a longer and wider calculator that was over three times as thick and a great deal more expensive . In 1974 , sales of the Executive were greater than GB £ 2 @.@ 5 million , and Sinclair was producing 100 @,@ 000 calculators each month , of which 55 % were exported .
A Sinclair Executive purchased by a Russian diplomat exploded in his breast pocket , allegedly leading to an official Soviet investigation . It was found that it had been left on by accident , leading to a current drain on the batteries that overheated them until they burst .
= = Design = =
It was significantly smaller than any of its competitors , and the first calculator that could easily be carried in a pocket . According to a Sinclair executive quoted in the Financial Times , " one must always bear a packet of cigarettes in mind as the ideal size , " possibly a quip on Clive Sinclair 's smoking habit . The Executive weighed 2 @.@ 5 ounces ( 71 g ) and measured 56 by 138 by 9 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 20 in × 5 @.@ 43 in × 0 @.@ 35 in ) . The case , designed by Richard Torrens and made of black injection @-@ moulded polycarbonate , required flexible glue to hold the two halves together .
Design Magazine described it as " at once a conversation piece , a rich man 's plaything and a functional business machine " . An example of the calculator is displayed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York , and the futuristic design earned it the Design Council Award for Electronics in 1973 . It was the first calculator designed to appeal to people because of its looks , and New Scientist described it as " not so much a professional calculator - more a piece of personal jewellery " .
= = = Functions = = =
As well as four @-@ function arithmetic , the Executive had the ability to compute squares , reciprocals , and multiply or divide by a fixed constant . The Executive could carry out sums to two , four or six decimal places , or use a floating decimal point .
= = = Chip = = =
The calculator was powered by a Texas Instruments GLS 1802 , a metal oxide semiconductor integrated circuit with 7000 transistors . A chip of this kind normally consumes 350 milliwatts , but by pulsing the power this requirement was reduced to 20 milliwatts . It was discovered that an early prototype continued to work if the batteries were disconnected and then reapplied quickly enough , as the capacitors in the circuit could hold a charge for up to five seconds .
Power is supplied to the chip in 1 @.@ 7 microsecond pulses as determined by the storage time of a control transistor . An oscillator clock operating at 200 kilohertz during calculations and dropping to 15 kilohertz between each operation means shut off time ranges from 3 @.@ 3 microseconds during calculations to over 65 microseconds between . The device relies on the capacitance of the chips to store information when there is no power , and 1 @.@ 7 microseconds proved sufficient for the chip to carry out a single change of state of the electronics . Any calculation can be done in 1000 such changes . This had the effect of extending battery life to about 20 hours of continuous use with three small hearing aid batteries , equivalent to about four months of normal usage .
= = = Screen = = =
The screen on the Executive was a monolithic seven @-@ segment gallium arsenide light emitting diode display , bought from a Canadian firm . Its small size reduced the power consumption and material cost , but it was still changed several times in pursuit of lower power consumption , creating issues with the reliability .
= = Executive Memory = =
The Executive Memory was launched in November 1973 , with the same physical dimensions as the original , but with the ability to memorise subtotals from any number of chain calculations . There were at least 3 versions , including the black and white Type 1 , and the Type 2 with a gold keyboard . The Executive Memory sold at the lower price of GB £ 24 @.@ 95 .
= Scream ( Usher song ) =
" Scream " is a song by American recording artist Usher , released through RCA Records , as the second single from his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . It was written by Usher , Savan Kotecha , Max Martin and Shellback , with production handled by the latter two . The song premiered on the internet on April 26 , 2012 , and was released the following day as a digital download . " Scream " is primarily a synthpop and dance @-@ pop track . Critics compared its musical structure to that of Usher 's 2010 single " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " , which was also co @-@ written by Martin , Kotecha , and Shellback . " Scream " was noted to contain heavily sexual overtones within its lyrics .
" Scream " peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and went on to sell over one million copies in the country . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song peaked within the top five in several other countries , including Canada , Scotland , South Korea and the United Kingdom . It went on to be certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) and IFPI Denmark ( IFPI ) for shipments of 150 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 copies , respectively . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its production , though some were ambivalent towards its originality .
Usher performed " Scream " during several events and shows , including the Off @-@ Broadway show Fuerza Bruta , the 2012 Billboard Music Awards and during E3 2012 . An accompanying music video premiered on the internet on June 12 , 2012 . Directed by direction duo BB GUN , the video contains footage from the Fuerza Bruta show , with Usher reenacting his role as The Running Man , dancing with his love interest and running into a brick wall towards the video 's closure .
= = Production and release = =
" Scream " premiered on the internet on April 26 , 2012 and was released as a digital download the following day . It was sent to mainstream and rhythmic radio on May 1 , 2012 . The song was released as the follow @-@ up to " Climax " , as the second single from Usher 's seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself . Usher explained to MTV that " Scream " was a record which " represented the other side of the [ album ] " , comparing " Climax " to the former song :
Whereas the first song was a little bit more artistic and a little bit more soulful , and it has done everything , it probably exceeded my expectations , I mean , from the moment I was able to give it away . I was able to kind of be reintroduced in a way musically , and thank you to [ producer ] Diplo , but ' Scream ' is really like the next step . It 's just in time for summer and the type of experience that I want people to get out of the album .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Scream " has a running duration of three minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . It is written in the key of G minor . The synthpop and dance @-@ pop track . It contains a four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor rhythmic pattern , while making heavy use of synthesizers and bass . DJ Booth described its sound as keeping with " current audiences " saying " Max Martin goes for broke on the production tip " with instrumentals " that builds to an explosive , synth @-@ drenched chorus " . About.com wrote that in terms of themes , " Scream " is similar to Usher 's " Yeah ! " ( 2004 ) and " Love in This Club " ( 2008 ) . Rap @-@ Up compared its musical elements to Usher 's 2010 hits " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " and " OMG " . Idolator 's Robbie Daw wrote that the song " follows a dance @-@ pop formula you can hear when flipping to any pop station on the radio . " Steve Jones of USA Today perceived that " Scream " achieves the same effect as the " crunk @-@ fueled " " Yeah ! " along with " Euphoria " .
" Scream " contains heavily sexual lyrics . MTV 's Jenna Hally Rubenstein wrote that Usher sings about a " hot chick and how it 'll be a total cinch for him to get her home " , in the line " I see you over there , so hypnotic / Thinking ' bout what I do to that body ... / Got no drink in my hand / But I 'm wasted / Getting drunk of the thought of you naked / I get you like ooh , baby , baby . " In the chorus , he sings " If you wanna scream ‘ yeah , ’ let me know and I ’ ll take you there / Get you going like a @-@ ooh baby baby , ooh baby baby , a @-@ ooh baby baby , ooh baby / If you want it done right , hope you ’ re ready to go . " DJ Booth depicted the track to be about orgasms . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner wrote that " Scream " contains " sex @-@ fuelled lyrics " portrayed in the line " I see you over there so hypnotic / Thinkin ' ' bout what I 'd do to that body " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Andrew Leahey of The Washington Times liked the track 's use of instrumentals , perceiving that Usher " holds onto his crown " by doing this , and by combining " Ibiza club music " . PopMatters ' Matt Cibula lauded Usher 's vocals , writing that he " absolutely rips " Climax " and " What Happened to U " , nails party anthems like " Scream " and " Euphoria " to the wall " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy depicted " Scream " to be " a seductive club number of chest @-@ popping beats and sex @-@ fuelled lyrics " . DJ Booth viewed that Usher " takes to the track like a fish to water " by portraying confidence and sex @-@ appeal to a woman in a club . Rap @-@ Up depicted the song as an " adrenaline @-@ fueled record " comparing it to Usher 's " OMG " and " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " ( 2010 ) . Billboard 's Jem Aswad declared " Scream " as one of the " stellar " tracks on the album .
By contrast , The A.V. Club 's Evan Rytlewski wrote that the song opens Looking 4 Myself on a " discouragingly perfunctory note " , though complimented Usher for not using auto @-@ tune to alter his vocals . Idolator 's Robbie Daw was ambivalent towards the track , writing that " Scream " contains " a dance @-@ pop formula you can hear when flipping to any pop station on the radio " . Neon Limelight disproved the track as a whole for being generic , saying that the song is a disappointment compared to its previous single " Climax " . Melinda Newman of HitFix showed a similar opinion , also noting the track as generic .
= = Chart performance = =
On the Billboard Hot 100 " Scream " moved from number eleven to ten on the week of June 30 , 2012 , becoming Usher 's eighteenth top ten single on the chart . It sold 119 @,@ 000 digital copies that week . With the song , Usher remains the male artist with the most Hot 100 top @-@ ten hits , commencing from September 6 , 1997 , his first single to enter the top @-@ ten . On the week of July 21 , 2012 " Scream " had sold one million digital copies , selling 76 @,@ 000 units that week . " Scream " remained on the Hot 100 for 21 weeks before dropping out . On the week of September 15 , 2012 the song topped the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , becoming Usher 's first number one and second top three single on the chart from Looking 4 Myself , following " Climax " . The song reached number six on the US Pop Songs chart , where it remained for twenty weeks before dropping out . It peaked at number 25 on the US Adult Pop Songs chart , dropping off after thirteen weeks . " Scream " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 24 , 2012 .
" Scream " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 48 on the week of August 19 , 2012 , reaching its peak at number eleven twelve weeks later . It remained on the chart for fifteen weeks , and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . Due to digital downloads , " Scream " debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number thirty on April 22 , 2012 , with sales of 9 @,@ 333 digital copies . The following week , it rose 26 positions to its peak at number four , selling 51 @,@ 758 digital units . " Scream " peaked at number four on Canadian Singles Chart and the Scottish Singles Chart . The song debuted and peaked at number five on the UK Singles Chart , becoming the second single from Looking 4 Myself to reach the top five in the country , following " Climax " . " Scream " reached the top ten on the Hungarian Singles Chart and Japanese Singles Chart , charting at number six and seven , respectively .
" Scream " peaked in the top thirty on several charts , including the Austrian Singles Chart , Dutch Singles Chart , Swiss Singles Chart and German Singles Chart ; the song was certified gold in Germany by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , for shipments of 150 @,@ 000 units . It was certified gold by the IFPI Denmark ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of 15 @,@ 000 copies . The song was less successful in other countries , peaking within the top thirty in several territories . " Scream " charted in several year @-@ end charts , including the UK Singles Chart , US Billboard Hot 100 and US Hot Dance Club Songs , peaking at number 83 , 44 and 25 , respectively .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for the song premiered on June 12 , 2012 . The video was directed by BB GUN ( consisting of Maxim Bohichik and Alex Bergman ) . The video integrates footage from Usher 's performance during the Off @-@ Broadway show Fuerza Bruta , where he first performed the song . In the video Usher takes the role of The Running Man , the character he portrayed during his performance . Dressed in a white suit , the video opens with Usher strolling and singing to the song . Throughout the video inter @-@ cuts to a woman swimming above the ceiling . Entering the chorus , Usher begins to run , which he then instantly changes into different attire for the second verse , with the video inter @-@ cutting to both the women and Usher in his original white suit . Following the second chorus , Usher starts dancing with the women . He then begins to sprint , ending the video with him bursting through a brick wall , showing clips of the Fuerza Bruta performance with Usher running across the venue 's conveyor belt . Rap @-@ Up reviewed the music video positively , writing that Usher " makes all the right moves in the exhilarating video [ ... ] Mr. Raymond shows off his fancy footwork in a crisp white suit as he glides across the stage during his show with Broadway 's Fuerza Bruta . "
= = Live performances = =
Usher performed the song for the first time during the Off @-@ Broadway show Fuerza Bruta . He appeared on Saturday Night Live on May 12 , 2012 to perform " Scream " and " Climax " . Usher performed with two back up singers and dancers who flanked him on either side , with his band accompanying him with instrumentals . He performed the song at the 2012 Billboard Music Award . Dressed in a tuxedo suit and top hat , Usher was met with a woman dressed in a mask and red ball gown . The two then started dancing intimately onstage , executing numerous dance sequences . In a positive review of the performance , Gil Kaufman of MTV News wrote that Usher " got all gothic and mysterious with a flashy , Las Vegas @-@ worthy , high @-@ concept staging . " On June 11 , 2012 , Usher performed the song during his concert at Hammersmith Apollo , London . The song was performed during E3 2012 to promote Dance Central 3 in which Usher performed choreography portrayed in the video game to the attendees .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Vocal recording – MXM Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; Glenwood Place Studios , Los Angeles , CA ; Conway Recording Studios , Hollywood , CA
Mixing – Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , VA .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= The Sweet Escape =
The Sweet Escape is the second studio album by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani , released on December 1 , 2006 by Interscope Records . Having originally intended to return to No Doubt after her debut solo album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) , Stefani decided to record a second album as a way to release some of the material left over from the Love . Angel . Music . Baby. writing sessions . The album musically resembles its predecessor while exploring more modern pop sounds . It was released to generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics , receiving criticism for its strong similarities to Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
It was preceded by the lead single " Wind It Up " , which charted moderately across the world , and produced the follow @-@ up single " The Sweet Escape " , which proved more successful worldwide . The Sweet Escape reached the top five in the United States , Canada , and Australia and peaked inside the top 20 in the United Kingdom . The album 's supporting tour , The Sweet Escape Tour , kicked off in April 2007 , covering North America , Colombia , Australia , Asia , and Europe .
= = Conception = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the release of her debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , Stefani announced that she had intended to return to No Doubt and record a sixth studio album with the band . After the commercial success of L.A.M.B. , she decided to release several leftover tracks from the album as an EP or as extra tracks on a DVD . However , Pharrell Williams , with whom she had collaborated to write " Hollaback Girl " , convinced Stefani to create " a L.A.M.B. part two " , and the two recorded several songs during sessions in Miami in July 2005 .
The two produced " Wind It Up " , " Orange County Girl " , " U Started It " , " Yummy " , " Breaking Up " , and " Candyland " during these sessions , and the songs were used for a fashion show premiering the 2006 collection of Stefani 's fashion line L.A.M.B. She included performances of " Wind It Up " and " Orange County Girl " when she embarked on the Harajuku Lovers Tour in October 2005 . Stefani put the project on hold in December 2005 when she discovered that she was pregnant , before returning to the studio in August 2006 . The album 's working title was Candyland , sharing its name with an unreleased track that has only been looped via her fashion show soundtrack . The title was changed to The Sweet Escape , the title of the second track , to emphasize the album 's themes of wanting to escape to a better life .
= = = Album cover = = =
The album cover was taken by photographer Jill Greenberg . The image was part of a series of promotional images taken by Greenberg , inspired by her previous End Times exhibition . To create End Times , Greenberg gave lollipops to toddlers but took them back after several moments , provoking emotional outbursts . Greenberg used the images as a representation of American politics and society . Greenberg was accused of child abuse for the photo shoots ; Stefani , however , commented , " I didn 't think ' child abuse ' — I just thought , ' That 's beautiful . ' Every kid cries , " she asserts , and as if on cue , Kingston pipes up in the next room . " Other people reacted like , ' Oh my God . That 's so disturbing , ' or ' That 's so sad . ' I guess that 's what art 's all about . It 's supposed to make you think . "
Stefani 's appearance on the album cover is inspired by that of Elvira Hancock , a cocaine addict portrayed by Michelle Pfeiffer in the 1983 film Scarface . Stefani first gained inspiration for the style while shooting the music video for " Cool " in Lake Como , Italy . During the shoot , Stefani saw her No Doubt bandmate Tony Kanal and his girlfriend , who had on a " long , peach , polyester [ late @-@ 1970s style ] dress " . It was this dress that got Stefani thinking " about Michelle Pfeiffer and how amazingly styled she was [ in Scarface ] " , which in turn drew inspiration for the cover . The pair of oversized sunglasses on the album cover is intended to represent her " guarded exterior " , and the other images symbolize her various emotions .
= = Composition = =
The Sweet Escape has themes of romantic situations and details of her career and personal life , while sonically the album features " sparsely rhythmic tracks where she chants as much as she sings " and " pop songs that aim for choruses . " It starts with " Wind It Up " , which features fanfares and samples from The Sound of Music 's " The Lonely Goatherd " , having " material @-@ minded lyrics touting her fashion line and her shape . " The second and title track , " The Sweet Escape " , is a dance @-@ pop and doo wop song , which features Akon that provides a " wee @-@ oh ! " hook , with lyrics about a " feisty sort of apology . " " Orange County Girl " is an autobiographical rap song , where Stefani shows how she is " grateful for her success while recalling the simpler days of her youth . " The album 's first ballad , " Early Winter " , has influences of 80 's soft rock and lyrics about the need for fidelity and transparency in romantic relationship . " Now That You Got It " features military snare drums , loping hip @-@ hop beat and a staccato piano sample . Its lyrics has Stefani " act [ ing ] as if she 's doing a lover a favor and challenges him to come through . "
The sixth track " 4 in the Morning " is an 80 's @-@ inspired synthpop ballad , that lyrically deals with a relationship on the edge , while " Yummy " is a dance song , with a tribal rhythm , cameo by Pharrell Williams and lyrics that finds Stefani declaring that " making babies leaves her eager to feel sexy again . " " Fluorescent " features Angelo Moore on saxophone , and was compared to the works of Madonna and Prince , while " Breakin ' Up " has influences of hip @-@ hop and electronica and it 's " a breakup song built on a dying cell phone metaphor . " The tenth track , " Don 't Get It Twisted " , talks about an unexpected pregnancy , in a song influenced by reggaeton . " U Started It " was noted for having " lilting melody , silken harmonies , and pizzicato strings " , while the final track , " Wonderful Life " , was named a Depeche Mode @-@ style synth ballad about how much she misses her first love and how the person had a profound impact on her .
= = Critical reception = =
The Sweet Escape received mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 58 , based on 24 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote , " From the stilted production to the fashion fetish , all the way down to her decision to rap on far too much of the album , all the dance @-@ pop here seems like a pose . " Alex Miller 's review for the NME was more emphatic , dubbing it " this year 's bargain @-@ bin fodder " , and stated that " the majority of this record serves only to bury what made Gwen Stefani unique in the first place . " At Entertainment Weekly , Sia Michel noted that the album " has a surprisingly moody , lightly autobiographical feel " but that " Stefani isn 't convincing as a dissatisfied diva " . Pitchfork Media 's Mark Pytlik described the album 's oddities as a career risk for Stefani , where most of the " gonzo pop songs yield some degree of payout " but that Stefani 's tight scheduling during production of the album leaves the result " somewhere between the vanguard and the insipid . " Paul Flynn of The Observer , however , characterized the album as less interesting than Fergie 's The Dutchess and Nelly Furtado 's Loose . Robert Christgau cited the song " Yummy " as a " choice cut " ( ) .
The album received criticism for its similarities to Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine opined that " [ h ] istory will likely view The Sweet Escape as a retread of Stefani 's well @-@ received solo debut , but it shares that album 's general inconsistency and , thus , its peaks and valleys " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone agreed , viewing it as " her hasty return " to music lacking the energy of L.A.M.B. and in which " she sounds exhausted . " The New York Times ' Jon Pareles commented that Stefani " rebooks some of the same producers and repeats some of the old tricks with less flair " , adding that " superficiality is more fun when it doesn 't get so whiny . " Caroline Sullivan disagreed in her review for The Guardian , in which she stated that although some of the songs date back to the 2003 writing sessions for L.A.M.B. , " generally The Sweet Escape feels minty @-@ fresh . " PopMatters ' review by Quentin B. Huff , however , referred to The Sweet Escape as L.A.M.B. : Reloaded and described The Sweet Escape and L.A.M.B. as " the same album , just add more rap , a glossy Next @-@ Top @-@ Model @-@ ish photo for the cover , and a few more recent @-@ sounding influences . "
= = Commercial performance = =
The Sweet Escape debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 243 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It sold another 149 @,@ 000 copies during its second week , falling to number 14 . The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on June 25 , 2007 , and had sold 1 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 copies in the United States by February 2016 . The Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) certified The Sweet Escape platinum eight days prior to the album 's release , and double platinum on March 5 , 2007 .
In the United Kingdom , The Sweet Escape debuted at number 26 on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 33 @,@ 632 copies . Three months later , on March 4 , 2007 , the album reached a new peak position of number 14 . It was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on July 22 , 2013 and , as of March 2016 , has sold 365 @,@ 143 copies in the UK . The album was moderately successful across Europe , peaking in the top 10 in Norway and Switzerland ; the top 20 in Austria , Finland , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , and Sweden ; and the top 40 in Belgium , Denmark , France and the Netherlands . The Sweet Escape reached number two for two consecutive weeks on the ARIA Albums Chart in Australia , and was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
= = The Sweet Escape Tour = =
The Sweet Escape Tour was Stefani 's follow @-@ up to the Harajuku Lovers Tour . It went worldwide as compared to her previous tour which was constricted only to North America and had more than double the number of shows . It was Stefani 's last solo effort as she rejoined her band No Doubt after the tour ended . The main feature were usage of various props such as a prison for Stefani 's opening act , a six @-@ piece band and a large multimedia screen in the backdrop showing videos and animations .
The tour had its own set of controversies . A group of students making up for The National Union of Malaysian Muslim Students , banned Stefani 's concert that was slated to take place August 21 , 2007 at Putra Indoor Stadium in Kuala Lumpur . The union 's vice president , Abdul Muntaqim , said , " Her performance and her attire are not suitable for our culture . It promotes a certain degree of obscenity and will encourage youth to emulate the western lifestyle . The concert should be stopped . " The organizer of the event , Maxis Communications , later responded , " Stefani has confirmed that her concert will not feature any revealing costumes . She will abide by the Malaysian authorities ' guidelines to ensure that her show will not be offensive to local sensitivities . " In April 2007 , Akon drew criticism for engaging in on @-@ stage dirty dancing with a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl at a club in Port of Spain , Trinidad and Tobago , as part of a fake contest . As a result , Verizon Wireless terminated its sponsorship of the tour .
Stefani donated $ 166 @,@ 000 from her October 30 , 2007 concert in San Diego to the San Diego Foundation , in benefit of the victims of the October 2007 California wildfires . On her June 22 and June 23 concerts in Irvine , California , Stefani was joined onstage by her No Doubt bandmates . They performed the band 's songs " Just a Girl " , " Spiderwebs " , " Sunday Morning " , " Hella Good " , and their cover of Talk Talk 's " It 's My Life " .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
^ c signifies an additional vocal producer
" Wind It Up " contains interpolations from the composition " The Lonely Goatherd " , written by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= In Flanders Fields =
" In Flanders Fields " is a war poem in the form of a rondeau , written during the First World War by Canadian physician Lieutenant @-@ Colonel John McCrae . He was inspired to write it on May 3 , 1915 , after presiding over the funeral of friend and fellow soldier Alexis Helmer , who died in the Second Battle of Ypres . According to legend , fellow soldiers retrieved the poem after McCrae , initially dissatisfied with his work , discarded it . " In Flanders Fields " was first published on December 8 of that year in the London @-@ based magazine Punch .
It is one of the most popular and most quoted poems from the war . As a result of its immediate popularity , parts of the poem were used in propaganda efforts and appeals to recruit soldiers and raise money selling war bonds . Its references to the red poppies that grew over the graves of fallen soldiers resulted in the remembrance poppy becoming one of the world 's most recognized memorial symbols for soldiers who have died in conflict . The poem and poppy are prominent Remembrance Day symbols throughout the Commonwealth of Nations , particularly in Canada , where " In Flanders Fields " is one of the nation 's best @-@ known literary works . The poem also has wide exposure in the United States , where it is associated with Memorial Day .
= = Background = =
John McCrae was a poet and physician from Guelph , Ontario . He developed an interest in poetry at a young age and wrote throughout his life . His earliest works were published in the mid @-@ 1890s in Canadian magazines and newspapers . McCrae 's poetry often focused on death and the peace that followed .
At the age of 41 , McCrae enrolled with the Canadian Expeditionary Force following the outbreak of the First World War . He had the option of joining the medical corps because of his training and age , but he volunteered instead to join a fighting unit as a gunner and medical officer . It was his second tour of duty in the Canadian military . He had previously fought with a volunteer force in the Second Boer War . He considered himself a soldier first ; his father was a military leader in Guelph and McCrae grew up believing in the duty of fighting for his country and empire .
McCrae fought in the second battle of Ypres in the Flanders region of Belgium where the German army launched one of the first chemical attacks in the history of war . They attacked the Canadian position with chlorine gas on April 22 , 1915 , but were unable to break through the Canadian line , which held for over two weeks . In a letter written to his mother , McCrae described the battle as a " nightmare " : " For seventeen days and seventeen nights none of us have had our clothes off , nor our boots even , except occasionally . In all that time while I was awake , gunfire and rifle fire never ceased for sixty seconds .... And behind it all was the constant background of the sights of the dead , the wounded , the maimed , and a terrible anxiety lest the line should give way . " Alexis Helmer , a close friend , was killed during the battle on May 2 . McCrae performed the burial service himself , at which time he noted how poppies quickly grew around the graves of those who died at Ypres . The next day , he composed the poem while sitting in the back of an ambulance at an Advanced Dressing Station outside Ypres . This location is today known as the John McCrae Memorial Site .
= = Poem = =
The first chapter of In Flanders Fields and Other Poems , a 1919 collection of McCrae 's works , gives the text of the poem as follows :
As with his earlier poems , " In Flanders Fields " continues McCrae 's preoccupation with death and how it stands as the transition between the struggle of life and the peace that follows . It is written from the point of view of the dead . It speaks of their sacrifice and serves as their command to the living to press on . As with many of the most popular works of the First World War , it was written early in the conflict , before the romanticism of war turned to bitterness and disillusion for soldiers and civilians alike .
= = Publication = =
Cyril Allinson was a sergeant major in McCrae 's unit . While delivering the brigade 's mail , he watched McCrae as he worked on the poem , noting that McCrae 's eyes periodically returned to Helmer 's grave as he wrote . When handed the notepad , Allinson read the poem and was so moved he immediately committed it to memory . He described it as being " almost an exact description of the scene in front of us both " . According to legend , McCrae was not satisfied with his work . It is said he crumpled the paper and threw it away . It was retrieved by a fellow member of his unit , either Edward Morrison or J. M. Elder , or Allinson himself . McCrae was convinced to submit the poem for publication .
Another story of the poem 's origin claimed that Helmer 's funeral was actually held on the morning of May 2 , after which McCrae wrote the poem in 20 minutes . A third claim , by Morrison , was that McCrae worked on the poem as time allowed between arrivals of wounded soldiers in need of medical attention . Regardless of its true origin , McCrae worked on the poem for months before considering it ready for publication . He submitted it to The Spectator in London , but it was rejected . It was then sent to Punch , where it was published on December 8 , 1915 . It was published anonymously , but Punch attributed the poem to McCrae in its year @-@ end index .
The word that ends the first line of the poem has been disputed . According to Allinson , the poem began with " In Flanders Fields the poppies grow " when first written . However , since McCrae ended the second @-@ to @-@ last line with " grow " , Punch received permission to change the wording of the opening line to end with " blow " . McCrae himself used either word when making handwritten copies for friends and family . Questions over how the first line should end have endured since publication . Most recently , the Bank of Canada was inundated with queries and complaints from those who believed the first line should end with " grow " when a design for the ten @-@ dollar bill was released in 2001 that featured the first stanza of " In Flanders Fields " , ending the first line with " blow " .
= = Popularity = =
According to historian Paul Fussell , " In Flanders Fields " was the most popular poem of its era . McCrae received numerous letters and telegrams praising his work when he was revealed as the author . The poem was republished throughout the world , rapidly becoming synonymous with the sacrifice of the soldiers who died in the First World War . It was translated into numerous languages , so many that McCrae himself quipped that " it needs only Chinese now , surely " . Its appeal was nearly universal . Soldiers took encouragement from it as a statement of their duty to those who died while people on the home front viewed it as defining the cause for which their brothers and sons were fighting .
It was often used for propaganda , particularly in Canada by the Unionist Party during the 1917 federal election amidst the Conscription Crisis . French Canadians in Quebec were strongly opposed to the possibility of conscription , but English Canadians voted overwhelmingly to support Prime Minister Robert Borden and the Unionist government . " In Flanders Fields " was said to have done more to " make this Dominion persevere in the duty of fighting for the world 's ultimate peace than all the political speeches of the recent campaign " . McCrae , a staunch supporter of the empire and the war effort , was pleased with the effect his poem had on the election . He stated in a letter : " I hope I stabbed a [ French ] Canadian with my vote . "
The poem was a popular motivational tool in Great Britain , where it was used to encourage soldiers fighting against Germany , and in the United States where it was reprinted across the country . It was one of the most quoted works during the war , used in many places as part of campaigns to sell war bonds , during recruiting efforts and to criticize pacifists and those who sought to profit from the war . American composer Charles Ives used " In Flanders Fields " as the basis for a song of the same name that premiered in 1917 . Fussell criticized the poem in his work The Great War and Modern Memory ( 1975 ) . He noted the distinction between the pastoral tone of the first nine lines and the " recruiting @-@ poster rhetoric " of the third stanza . Describing it as " vicious " and " stupid " , Fussell called the final lines a " propaganda argument against a negotiated peace " .
= = Legacy = =
McCrae was moved to the medical corps and stationed in Boulogne , France , in June 1915 where he was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel , and placed in charge of medicine at the Number 3 Canadian General Hospital . He was promoted to the acting rank of Colonel on January 13 , 1918 , and named Consulting Physician to the British Armies in France . The years of war had worn McCrae down , however . He contracted pneumonia that same day , and later came down with cerebral meningitis . On January 28 , 1918 , he died at the military hospital in Wimereux and was buried there with full military honours . A book of his works , featuring " In Flanders Fields " was published the following year .
" In Flanders Fields " has attained iconic status in Canada , where it is a staple of Remembrance Day ceremonies and may be the most well known literary piece among English Canadians . It has an official French adaptation , entitled " Au champ d 'honneur " , written by Jean Pariseau and used by the Canadian government in French and bilingual ceremonies . In addition to an excerpted appearance on the ten @-@ dollar bill from 2001 to 2013 , the Royal Canadian Mint has released poppy @-@ themed quarters on several occasions . A version minted in 2004 featured a red poppy in the centre and is considered the first multi @-@ coloured circulation coin in the world . To mark the poem 's centennial in 2015 , a colored and uncolored poppy quarter and a " toonie " ( $ 2 coin ) were issued as circulation coins , as well as other collector coins . Among its uses in popular culture , the line " to you from failing hands we throw the torch , be yours to hold it high " has served as a motto for the Montreal Canadiens hockey club since 1940 .
Canada Post honored the 50th anniversary of John McCrae 's death with a stamp in 1968 , and marked the centennial of his famous poem in 2015 . Other Canadian stamps have featured the poppy , including ones in 1975 , 2001 , 2009 , 2013 and 2014 , and other postal authorities have employed the poppy as a symbol of remembrance , including those of Australia , Gibraltar , the United Kingdom and United States .
McCrae 's birthplace in Guelph , Ontario has been converted into a museum dedicated to his life and the war . McCrae himself was designated a National Historic Person in 1946 , and his house was designated a National Historic Site in 1966 .
In Belgium , the In Flanders Fields Museum in Ypres , named after the poem and devoted to the First World War , is situated in one of Flanders ' largest tourist areas . A monument commemorating the writing of the poem is located at Essex Farm Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , which is thought to have been the location of Helmer 's burial and now lies within the John McCrae Memorial Site .
Despite its enduring fame , " In Flanders Fields " is often ignored by academics teaching and discussing Canadian literature . The poem is sometimes viewed as an anachronism ; It spoke of glory and honour in a war that has since become synonymous with the futility of trench warfare and the wholesale slaughter produced by 20th century weaponry . Nancy Holmes , professor at the University of British Columbia , speculated that its patriotic nature and usage as a tool for propaganda may have led literary critics to view it as a national symbol or anthem rather than a poem .
= = = Remembrance poppies = = =
The red poppies that McCrae referred to had been associated with war since the Napoleonic Wars when a writer of that time first noted how the poppies grew over the graves of soldiers . The damage done to the landscape in Flanders during the battle greatly increased the lime content in the surface soil , leaving the poppy as one of the few plants able to grow in the region .
Inspired by " In Flanders Fields " , American professor Moina Michael resolved at the war 's conclusion in 1918 to wear a red poppy year @-@ round to honour the soldiers who had died in the war . She also wrote a poem in response called " We Shall Keep the Faith " . She distributed silk poppies to her peers and campaigned to have them adopted as an official symbol of remembrance by the American Legion . Madame E. Guérin attended the 1920 convention where the Legion supported Michael 's proposal and was herself inspired to sell poppies in her native France to raise money for the war 's orphans . In 1921 , Guérin sent poppy sellers to London ahead of Armistice Day , attracting the attention of Field Marshal Douglas Haig . A co @-@ founder of The Royal British Legion , Haig supported and encouraged the sale . The practice quickly spread throughout the British Empire . The wearing of poppies in the days leading up to Remembrance Day remains popular in many areas of the Commonwealth of Nations , particularly Great Britain , Canada , and South Africa , and in the days leading up to ANZAC Day in Australia and New Zealand .
= NSB Class 92 =
NSB Class 92 ( Norwegian : NSB type 92 ) is a class of 15 diesel multiple units built by Duewag for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The two @-@ car trains were delivered in 1984 and 1985 , and put into service on the Røros Line and southern part of the Nordland Line — which later became the Trøndelag Commuter Rail . Later , they also entered service on the Meråker Line as part of the international Mittnabotåget service . Previously , the trains were also used on the Solør Line , further north on the Nordland Line and on the now electrified Arendal Line . In 2000 , a unit was involved in the Åsta accident , which killed 19 people . The trains were refurbished in 2005 and 2006 , and NSB plans to replace them by around 2019 . Each twin unit seats 168 people , is 49 @.@ 45 meters ( 162 @.@ 2 ft ) long and weighs 92 tonnes ( 91 long tons ; 101 short tons ) . The front car is powered with two electric motors , giving a power output of 714 kilowatts ( 957 hp ) and a maximum speed of 140 kilometers per hour ( 87 mph ) .
= = History = =
By the 1980s , the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Class 86 and Class 91 trains were in need of replacement . NSB described them as unable to satisfy demands in terms of economy , comfort or speed . Class 92 was bought to take over all passenger transport on the Røros Line and on the Nordland Line south of Grong . The 15 two @-@ car units cost NOK 200 million and were built by Duewag in Germany .
When introduced , the schedules were also changed to cut a number of the smallest intermediate stops . Class 92 has considerably better curve speed , and is able to operate at least at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) through all curves on the main lines and on the steepest sections . It also features better acceleration and deceleration than its predecessors . With the change of schedules from 2 June 1985 , this resulted in travel time between Røros and Hamar being reduced by one hour , a reduction of 25 minutes between Trondheim and Steinkjer , and a reduction of 50 minutes between Trondheim and Grong . At the same time , the schedules were changed for optimal correspondence , such as with the night train in Trondheim and departures from Trondheim Airport , Værnes . The Røros Line also received a single daily through train from Røros to Oslo .
From June 1986 , the class was also put into the morning train from Mo i Rana to Trondheim and the return trip in the evening . The new service increased the average speed , including stops , to 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) and a maximum speed on straight section of 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) , as well as 10 percent higher speeds in curves . The service allowed passengers taking the morning train from Oslo to arrive in Mo i Rana in the evening . The class was also used on the Arendal Line and the Solør Line . It remained in used on the Arendal Line until 1995 , when the line was electrified .
In 1993 , NSB announced that the traffic around Trondheim would become the Trøndelag Commuter Rail , which would take over most of the Class 92 trains . The service started on 1 September 1993 . The changes to the schedule involved almost a doubling of the number of departures , particularly between Trondheim and Stjørdal , where a one @-@ hour headway was introduced . The service from Trondheim to Steinkjer had ten daily round trips . While local trains had existed previously north of Trondheim , the services south to Oppdal were all new in an area which was previously only served by intercity and night trains . The initial services consisted of four services from Trondheim — northwards along the Nordland Line to Steinkjer , east along the Meråker Line to Storlien , south along the Dovre Line to Oppdal and south @-@ east along the Røros Line to Tynset .
On 4 January 2000 , a Class 92 train was damaged beyond repair in the Åsta accident near Åsta Station on the Røros Line . Nineteen people were killed in the accident . From 7 January 2001 , NSB made several major changes to the commuter rail . A fixed , hourly headway was introduced on the trains from Steinkjer to Trondheim ; including extra rush @-@ hour trains from Lerkendal to Stjørdal , giving 23 departures per day in each direction . South of Trondheim , the service was rerouted to terminate at Lerkendal . Part of the reason for the expansion was that the delivery of the new Class 93 trains for regional services freed up more Class 92 units . This also allowed NSB to operate some of services with double unit ( four @-@ car ) trains in rush @-@ hour .
From 22 September 2002 , NSB and the Public Transportation Authority in Jämtlands County started a cooperation that involved two daily round trips with an Class 92 trains between Trondheim and Östersund in Sweden , on the Meråker Line and Central Line . Branded as Mittnabotåget , the trains were manned by NSB on the Norwegian side of the border , and by BK Tåg staff on the Swedish side , after the latter had won a public service obligation contract with the Swedish authority .
The class was upgraded in 2005 and 2006 , which included given them a new interior and a new paint scheme . NSB has stated that the last year the Class 92 will be in use is 2019 . There are plans to electrify the Nordland Line from Trondheim to Steinkjer , as well as the Meråker Line . Once these lines are electrified , the Class 92 can be retired , although no date has yet been set . During May and June 2012 all NSB Class 92 trains based in Trondheim were fitted with free wireless Internet access for the passengers .
= = Specifications = =
The units were built by Duewag in 1984 and 1985 and consist of two cars , giving a seating capacity of 168 people . A double @-@ unit is 49 @.@ 45 meters ( 162 @.@ 2 ft ) long and weighs 92 tonnes ( 91 long tons ; 101 short tons ) , of which the motor car weighs 58 tonnes ( 57 long tons ; 64 short tons ) . Only the one car is powered , and is equipped with a Daimler @-@ Benz OM424A prime mover which powers two electric motors , giving a power output of 714 kilowatts ( 957 hp ) . The trains are capable of 140 kilometers per hour ( 87 mph ) and are equipped with vending machines . The trailer units were delivered with three different layouts : with standard seating , with seating and a freight room , and with seating and a freight and post room . The latter was planned used on the Røros Line , but after delivery , the railway postal service was closed .
= Epsilon Eridani =
Epsilon Eridani ( ε Eri , ε Eridani ) , or Ran , is a star in the southern constellation Eridanus , along a declination 9 @.@ 46 ° south of the celestial equator . This allows it to be viewed from most of Earth 's surface . At a distance of 10 @.@ 5 light years ( ly ) , it has an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 73 . It is the third closest individual star or star system visible to the unaided eye and is the closest star known to host a planet . Its age is estimated at less than a billion years . Because of its youth , Epsilon Eridani has a higher level of magnetic activity than the present @-@ day Sun , with a stellar wind 30 times as strong . Its rotation period is 11 @.@ 2 days at the equator . Epsilon Eridani is smaller and less massive than the Sun , and has a comparatively lower level of elements heavier than helium . It is a main @-@ sequence star of spectral class K2 , which means that energy generated at the core through nuclear fusion of hydrogen is emitted from the surface at a temperature of about 5 @,@ 000 K , giving it an orange hue .
The motion of Epsilon Eridani along the line of sight to Earth , known as the radial velocity , has been regularly observed for more than twenty years . Periodic changes in this data yielded evidence of a giant planet orbiting Epsilon Eridani , making it one of the nearest extrasolar systems with a candidate exoplanet . The detection of this orbiting planetary object , Epsilon Eridani b , was announced by Bruce Campbell , Gordon Walker and Stephenson Yang in 1987 . A preliminary orbit was published in 2000 by a team of astronomers led by Artie Hatzes , based on six independent data sets with four different telescopes . Current data indicate that this planet orbits with a period of about 7 years at a mean separation of 3 @.@ 4 astronomical units ( AU ) , where 1 AU is the mean distance between Earth and the Sun . Although this discovery has been controversial because of the amount of background noise in the radial velocity data , many astronomers now regard the planet as confirmed .
The system includes two belts of rocky asteroids : one at about 3 AU and a second at about 20 AU , whose structure may be maintained by a hypothetical second planet , Epsilon Eridani c . Epsilon Eridani harbors an extensive outer debris disk of remnant planetesimals left over from the system 's formation .
Epsilon Eridani 's designation was established in 1603 by Johann Bayer . It may be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group of stars that share a similar motion through the Milky Way
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, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise . " On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude ; he opposed abortion on moral grounds , believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one .
= = = Views on race and gender = = =
Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that " blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley 's writings " . Sutin thought Crowley " a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper @-@ class contemporaries " , noting that he " embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time : deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of their culture , coupled with a fascination with people of colour " . Crowley insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg using anti @-@ Semitic slurs , and he had mixed opinions about Jews as a group . Although he praised their " sublime " poetry and stated that they exhibited " imagination , romance , loyalty , probity and humanity " , he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jews to exhibit " avarice , servility , falseness , cunning and the rest " . He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups , for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a " spiritual superiority " to the English , and praised Muslims for exhibiting " manliness , straightforwardness , subtlety , and self @-@ respect " .
Crowley also exhibited a " general misogyny " that Booth believed arose from his bad relationship with his mother . Sutin noted that Crowley " largely accepted the notion , implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology , of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility " . Crowley described women as " moral inferiors " who had to be treated with " firmness , kindness and justice " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Crowley has remained an influential figure , both amongst occultists and in popular culture , particularly that of Britain , but also of other parts of the world . In 2002 , a BBC poll placed Crowley seventy @-@ third in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons . Richard Cavendish has written of him that " In native talent , penetrating intelligence and determination , Aleister Crowley was the best @-@ equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century . " Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of " the dark side of the occult " , while philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a " Modern Master " when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff , P.D. Ouspensky , Rudolf Steiner , or Helena Blavatsky , also describing him as a " living embodiment " of Oswald Spengler 's " Faustian Man " . Biographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley " a pioneer of consciousness research " , and Sutin thought that he had made " distinctly original contributions " to the study of yoga in the West .
Thelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley 's death . In 1969 , the O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry ; in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group , the Society Ordo Templi Orientis , led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta . Another American Thelemite was the filmmaker Kenneth Anger , who had been influenced by Crowley 's writings from a young age . In the United Kingdom , Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation , the Typhonian O.T.O. , later renamed the Typhonian Order . Also in Britain , an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley 's son ; this has been refuted by academic investigation . Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings , which Amado claimed to be propagating .
Several Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley . Gerald Gardner , founder of Gardnerian Wicca , made use of much of Crowley 's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy , and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley 's ideas . L. Ron Hubbard , the American founder of Scientology , was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s ( with Jack Parsons ) , and it has been argued that Crowley 's ideas influenced some of Hubbard 's work . Two prominent figures in religious Satanism , Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino , were also influenced by Crowley 's work .
Crowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture . He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles ' album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , and his motto of " Do What Thou Wilt " was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin 's album Led Zeppelin III ( 1970 ) . Led Zeppelin co @-@ founder Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971 , and part of the band 's film The Song Remains the Same was filmed in the grounds . He sold it in 1992 . David Bowie made reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song " Quicksand " ( 1971 ) , while Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled " Mr Crowley " ( 1980 ) .
= So Beautiful or So What =
So Beautiful or So What is the twelfth studio album by American folk rock singer @-@ songwriter Paul Simon . For the album , he reunited with former collaborator and record producer Phil Ramone . Having experimented with rhythm @-@ based textures for much of the previous two decades , Simon returned to composing songs rather traditionally using only his acoustic guitar . These songs were further augmented by experimental recording practices in the studio . The album was largely recorded in a small cottage at Simon 's home in New Canaan , Connecticut .
The music of So Beautiful or So What features West African blues @-@ inspired guitar playing , Indian @-@ style percussion , and experimentation with samples , which ranged from an excerpt from a 1941 sermon to nighttime ambience in Kenya . The songs were recorded with little bass but with a very large presence of bells . Much of Simon 's lyrics touch on themes of spirituality and mortality , which Simon said was unintentional and resulted naturally in his songwriting process for the album .
When So Beautiful or So What was released by Hear Music on April 8 , 2011 , it received widespread acclaim from critics , many of whom considered it Simon 's best work in two decades . It appeared on many year @-@ end critics ' lists as one of the year 's best records . The album also became his highest US chart debut , reaching number four on the Billbooard 200 , and charted within the top ten in nine other countries .
= = Recording and production = =
For So Beautiful or So What , Simon reunited with record producer and former collaborator Phil Ramone , who previously worked with him on Simon & Garfunkel 's 1982 live album The Concert in Central Park . According to Simon , the reunion came casually ; he told Ramone when they met each other that he was beginning to work on a new album and , as Ramone lived in the next town , they decided it would be easy to work together again . Simon recorded the album at his small cottage in New Canaan , Connecticut . The recording sessions often consisted solely of Simon , Ramone , and engineer Andy Smith . Throughout the production of the record , the album ’ s engineers would gradually make upgrades to the space during months off . As it was not acoustically designed or soundproofed , Smith often employed iZotope RX software to rid the recordings of extra noise , such as an oak tree above the home from which acorns fell , interrupting recordings . Keeping in line with his experimental attitude , Simon decided to record the acorns , remarking , " All sounds are musical once you start to listen . " Occasionally , Simon would record in the control room instead . Like all of Simon ’ s output from his 1997 effort Songs from The Capeman onward , the album was recorded digitally using Pro Tools .
Much time was spent on getting guitars to sound as Simon preferred . A bit of experimentation among the additional session players occurred , from which Simon would edit himself , compiling them together or often deleting them altogether . Many songs were recorded with a hand @-@ built cigar @-@ box guitar , which Simon bought from Mississippi blues musician Super Chikan . Analogue effects were applied before recording digitally to keep mixes simple ; this method also inspired Simon while arranging the songs . Smith would burn Simon a compact disc each evening of the day ’ s session , and he would return the next day with notes on the recordings . This resulted in mixes being created as the album developed , rather than at the end of the process . Simon and Ramone often listened to their recordings while driving around , noting what would need changes .
The process lasted over a year . Additional recording took place at Simon ’ s summer home in Montauk , New York on Long Island , but less so than his previous efforts . Home recording , as Ramone told Sound on Sound shortly after the album ’ s release , required a certain discipline . Simon would often arrive in the morning and recording until nightfall . Percussion and vocals were overdubbed at Germano Studios . The Indian ensemble on " Dazzling Blue " was recorded at Clinton Studios in New York City , while a bluegrass ensemble was cut at Tony Bennett ’ s New Jersey studio . Simon ’ s wife , Edie Brickell , and his teenage daughter Lulu contributed harmonies , while Chris Bear of indie rock band Grizzly Bear contributed electronic drum parts to the album .
Simon financed the recording of So Beautiful or So What himself after being released from his 30 @-@ year record contract with Warner Bros. Records . After the recording sessions were finished , he signed a deal with Concord Music Group to distribute the album . Simon said , " It 's the best work I 've done in 20 years . " The cover art , titled " DNA Mutation " , was designed by visual artist and NASA systems engineer Sven Geier .
= = Music and lyrics = =
So Beautiful or So What finds Simon returning to more harmonic @-@ based compositions than rhythm @-@ based . This was spurred from when he realized his favorite song on his 2006 effort Surprise , " Everything About It Is a Love Song " , contained a chord progression he found particularly interesting . After coming to this realization , he focused on the album ’ s three ballads , " Questions for the Angels " , " Amulet " , and " Love and Hard Times " . Unlike his previous rhythm @-@ based albums , in which he would gain inspiration for his guitar parts from pre @-@ recorded backing tracks , Simon took a more traditional approach to building the songs on So Beautiful or So What . He wrote songs at home before developing them further in the studio with the help of a natural click track , such as " a percussion instrument , or even just tapping out a rhythm on his guitar . " He overdubbed additional elements afterwards , including additional guitar parts and percussion . Simon began envisioning the album ’ s sequencing when he only had a few songs written , letting it inform his songwriting .
The music for So Beautiful or So What was inspired by West African blues , which Simon combined with " Indian drumming , Old Hollywood strings and bluegrass harmony singing . " The songs employ a wide variety of samples , including from older blues and gospel recordings . " Love Is Eternal Sacred Light " contains a harmonica sample from Sonny Terry , and " Love and Blessings " lifts from The Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet . Simon did not want to record an ordinary studio album and instead , according to Ramone , wanted " lots of space with lots of atmosphere and feeling ... Rather than go for hugely orchestrated ideas he was going , for example , for overtones in bells and gongs . Or if a sax or a kora comes in , they 're there to do something specific , and not to fill in the space . " The album 's music is also largely devoid of heavy bass ( some tracks actually using a baritone guitar instead ) , and drums are very quiet and reserved . Smith said percussion instruments , including exotic bells , ancient hand bells , and glockenspiels , were Simon 's favorite to record with for the album . In using bells to augment the sound , Simon put them behind certain guitar notes to “ highlight ” the sound , as he wanted the recordings to be devoid of echo ; he found that using bells created only a slight echo , with an odd , atmospheric tone that he preferred . Drummer Jim Oblon placed towels over each drums to emphasize the higher @-@ frequency percussive instruments .
The songs on So Beautiful or So What touch on subjects such as love , mortality , and faith . In terms of songwriting , Simon did not approach each new song with a theme ; instead , he let them evolve naturally from the first line he would compose . Simon had no plans to pursue religious writing , but it ended up particularly strong in the album ’ s lyrics . He noted that " five of the first six " songs he wrote touched on themes of God : " I wondered whether there was a subconscious theme that I was tapping into . I have used Christian symbols and imagery before in songs . It ’ s very strongly evocative , so it may just be coincidence — but it may not be . " The A.V. Club suggested that the album 's gospel influence inspired the touch of humor when discussing dark subjects such as death .
" Getting Ready for Christmas Day " was one of the album ’ s earliest completed songs , and it contains a sample from a 1941 sermon by the Reverend J.M. Gates . The sermon inspired the song ’ s creation , with a certain rhythmic tone to his oration that interested him . Simon heard the sermon on a box set titled Goodbye Babylon , which consists early 20th century Americana . It came together quicker than other songs , with Simon recording his guitar live . The track also references his nephew , who served multiple tours in the Iraq War . " The Afterlife " concerns a man dying and getting to heaven , where he waits in line to meet with God , where everyone is " filling out forms and waiting in line to catch ' a glimpse of the divine . ' " While in line , he unsuccessfully hits on a woman . When he finally meets God , he is taken aback , and can only spout gibberish . The point of the song is that having questions for God would cease to be relevant if one were to confront God face @-@ to @-@ face due the enormity of such a theoretical situation .
" Dazzling Blue " is based on his relationship with wife Edie Brickell , and the title references her favorite color . " The CAT scan 's eye sees what the heart 's concealing " , sang Simon over African cadences and Indian tablas , before marvelling at how his wife and he " were born beneath a star of dazzling blue " . He said the song reminded him of his work as a part of Simon & Garfunkel . " Rewrite " features segments of recordings made on a small digital recorder by Brickell on a 2009 family trip together in Kenya . Simon was frustrated over the guitar tone in his song and attached the sound of a wildebeest to a certain guitar note each time it occurred , in an effort to create an interesting sound . The song contains nighttime ambience recorded during the trip . It was written about a burned out Vietnam veteran imagining that he could rewrite his life , in order to give it a happy ending . " Love and Hard Times " is an affirmation of love for Brickell . The beginning of the song references “ God and his only son ” visiting Earth . Simon noted that the song ’ s thesis is being thankful at the highest level . The track contains orchestral arrangement from Gil Goldstein , which was recorded at Avatar Studios , as Ramone wanted a larger room to record in .
" Questions for the Angels " includes a reference to American rapper Jay @-@ Z , which was inspired by a billboard featuring him that was present over the Brooklyn Bridge for a time . Simon mentioned that he would pass it on his way to the Brooklyn Academy of Music when they were holding a month @-@ long celebration of his music in April 2008 . Simon included the line to create a sharp transition from angels in Heaven to a downtown Brooklyn street . " So Beautiful or So What " contains what Simon once admitted is " one of [ his ] favorite Bo Diddley rhythms , " and the song ’ s title references Miles Davis 's " So What " . The title is a question Simon envisioned when facing the enormity of the infinite . The song almost became a collaboration with Bob Dylan ; Simon felt two verses might be nice for him and sent him a message through their mutual manager . Although Dylan said that he liked the song , Simon did not hear back in sufficient time , as the album was on a deadline .
= = Release and reception = =
Many songs from So Beautiful or So What were made available in various forms before their release on the album . " Rewrite " and " Love and Hard Times " appeared in Simon 's 2008 book Lyrics ; 1964 @-@ 2008 , " Questions for the Angels " was included on the 2009 Starbucks compilation This Better Be Good , and the lead single " Getting Ready for Christmas Day " premiered on National Public Radio on November 16 , 2010 . On April 5 , 2011 , So Beautiful or So What was available for streaming on the album 's website of the same name for the week preceding its official release . It was released on formats including digital download , vinyl LP , and a CD deluxe edition with a DVD featuring footage of Simon 's live performances at Webster Hall . Rolling Stone held a sweepstakes for fans to win a collector 's edition box set , which was released in a limited amount of 1 @,@ 000 copies and included the CD / DVD deluxe edition , a vinyl copy , and a 12 ' x 12 ' lithograph and replica notebook .
When So Beautiful or So What was released in the United States , it debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and sold 68 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It was Simon 's highest chart debut on the Billboard 200 , and by October 2011 , it had sold 254 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number six on the British albums chart , selling 21 @,@ 993 copies in its first week . It was Simon 's ninth top @-@ ten solo album in the UK .
So Beautiful or So What received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 85 , based on 27 reviews . Many critics compared its diverse influences to Simon 's style on his 1986 album Graceland . In a review for AllMusic , senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine said the music is not only focused but " vivid , vibrant , and current in a way none of [ Simon 's ] peers have managed to achieve " . Los Angeles Times writer Margaret Wappler praised its " multiethnic landscape " of American folk and Afropop influences on an album that is his best since 1990 's Rhythm of the Saints . In The New York Times , Jon Pareles took note of Simon 's lyrics : " Sketches of individuals and moments are intertwined with grander pronouncements ; unforced humor tempers gloomier reflections " . Will Hodgkinson from The Times believed his meditations on the afterlife are informed by both youthful enthusiasm and the wisdom of old age , while The Guardian 's Maddy Costa said Simon " finds an answer to the ineffable in song " .
Many reviewers took note of the rather overt religious symbolism in Simon 's lyrics ; one Irish blogger facetiously called So Beautiful or So What the year 's best Christian music album , while American evangelical journalist Cathleen Falsani said it was the most significant record of spiritually reflective music in recent years . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau found Simon 's usual folk rock " graced with global colors that sound as natural " as his guitar and said his lyrics are imbued with gratitude for his wife 's love and God , although he disagreed with Simon 's view of God 's benevolent nature . Andy Gill from The Independent was more critical and found Simon 's ruminations on love , age , and mortality trivial , while Pitchfork Media critic Stephen M. Deusner said the record " can be stodgy in its emotions and a bit too devoted to its motifs " . At the end of 2011 , So Beautiful or So What was voted the 14th best album of the year in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide . Christgau , the poll 's creator , ranked it 3rd on his year @-@ end list for The Barnes & Noble Review . Rolling Stone also named it the year 's 3rd best record , while Mojo ranked it 15th .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul Simon .
" Getting Ready for Christmas Day " – 4 : 06
" The Afterlife " – 3 : 40
" Dazzling Blue " – 4 : 32
" Rewrite " – 3 : 49
" Love and Hard Times " – 4 : 09
" Love Is Eternal Sacred Light " – 4 : 02
" Amulet " – 1 : 36
" Questions for the Angels " – 3 : 49
" Love and Blessings " – 4 : 18
" So Beautiful or So What " – 4 : 07
Sample credits
" Getting Ready for Christmas Day " contains excerpts from the 1941 sermon of the same name by Reverend J. M. Gates with congregation .
" Love Is Eternal Sacred Light " contains excerpts from " Train Whistle Blues " .
" Love and Blessings " contains excerpts from " Golden Gate Gospel Train " , recorded by The Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet in 1938 .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Ben Linus =
Benjamin " Ben " Linus is a fictional character portrayed by Michael Emerson on the ABC television series Lost . Ben was the leader of a group of island natives called the Others and was initially known as Henry Gale to the survivors of Oceanic Flight 815 . He began as the main antagonist during the second and third seasons , but in subsequent seasons , becomes a morally ambiguous ally to the main characters . Other characters frequently describe him as loyal only to himself , though it is also often hinted that he may be driven by some higher purpose .
As with most characters on Lost , Ben 's history is revealed through flashbacks and episodes set in other time periods which are revealed slowly as the series progresses . Sterling Beaumon first portrayed a young Ben late in season three , in the character 's first centric episode , " The Man Behind the Curtain " . Ben 's childhood is further explored in the fifth season of the series , partially set in 1977 . Fifth season episode " Dead Is Dead " explores Ben 's fragile state following the events of the fourth season , in which his loyalty to the island led to the death of his adoptive daughter Alex Rousseau ( Tania Raymonde ) , and flashbacks show the audience Ben 's original acquisition of Alex and his rise to leadership of the Others , after exiling his rival Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) . Originally cast for three guest appearances in the second season , Emerson 's role was expanded . As leader of the Others , Ben became a regular cast member from the third season onward . Reviews of the show would often focus on Ben 's mysterious motives . Emerson 's portrayal garnered many positive reviews , resulting in nominations for the Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor year @-@ on @-@ year from 2007 to 2010 , winning in 2009 .
In 2010 , Ben Linus was ranked # 24 on the TV Guide Network special 25 Greatest TV Characters of All Time . In 2016 , Rolling Stone ranked him # 1 of their " 40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time " .
= = Arc = =
= = = Prior to the crash = = =
Flashbacks during " The Man Behind the Curtain " show Benjamin Linus being born in the woods outside of Portland , Oregon , to Roger ( Jon Gries ) and Emily Linus ( Carrie Preston ) . Emily dies after giving birth to Ben . When Ben is young , he and his father move to the Island , after his dad is offered a job working for the Dharma Initiative . On the Island , Ben begins to see visions of his mother , while Roger starts drinking heavily and verbally abusing him . Ben develops a hatred for the Dharma Initiative and one day runs away from the Barracks . He comes across Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , one of the Island natives known to the Initiative as the " Hostiles " , in the jungle , who grants Ben 's request to join his group but tells him he needs to be very patient .
Season five 's " Namaste " shows a young Ben coming into contact with a captured Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , who along with several other Oceanic Flight 815 survivors has been brought back in time from 2007 . In the following episode , " He 's Our You " , he helps free Sayid under the impression Sayid was sent by the Others to bring him to Richard . Sayid instead shoots Ben and leaves him for dead . Fellow crash survivor Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) refuses to help the boy , so Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) take Ben to Richard , who informs them Ben will henceforth lose his innocence and always be one of the Others . In 1988 , Charles Widmore , leader of the Others , sends Ben to kill French scientist Danielle Rousseau ( Melissa Farman ) , who was marooned on the island . However , when Ben learns Rousseau has a child , he kidnaps the baby Alex Rousseau , warning Rousseau to never come looking for the baby if she wants either of them to live . Four years after this , it is revealed in flashbacks Ben kills his father with poison gas , then discovers every Dharma Initiative member dead , also from poison gas . He banishes Charles Widmore from the island and assumes his leadership role , as he is the only one who can allegedly interact with their real leader , Jacob , and communicate his will to the group .
Two days before the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 , Ben discovers he has a spinal tumor . After witnessing the crash , he sends Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) and Goodwin Stanhope ( Brett Cullen ) to investigate . He chooses Goodwin in order to remove Ben 's competition for the affections of Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) , a woman recruited to the island three years previously in order to help the Others with their fertility problems .
= = = After the crash = = =
= = = = Seasons two to four = = = =
In the season 3 episode " Exposé " , Ben and Juliet enter a Dharma station , the Pearl , and watch Jack on a monitor . Ben tells Juliet he will convince Jack to perform surgery on him . After Goodwin dies , Ben shows Juliet the corpse , so she knows she is Ben 's and will be on the Island forever . Ben makes his first appearance in the season two episode " One of Them " , where he is caught in a trap set by Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) . He pretends to be Henry Gale , a man from Minnesota who crashed on the island while traveling via hot air balloon . Rousseau turns him over to Sayid , who takes him to the Swan Station , where he is held captive and interrogated . Ben is exposed as a fraud when the body of the real Henry Gale is found , but he is set free by Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) , a crash survivor whose son has been kidnapped by the Others . When Michael successfully brings Jack , Kate , and Sawyer to the pier , Ben gives him a boat so he can leave the Island with his son . Ben then takes Jack , Kate , and Sawyer to a smaller island nearby .
In the beginning of season three , Ben gives Juliet the task of interrogating Jack , while Kate and Sawyer are kept in cages . He admits to Jack about having a tumor on his spine , and asks him to remove it in order for him to leave the Island . During the surgery he wakes up , where Jack refuses to finish until Kate and Sawyer are safely away from the Others . After they escape , Ben 's operation is finished . He returns to the Barracks with the rest of the Others , and Jack in tow . When John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) comes to rescue Jack , he and Ben have a confrontation . Ben tells Locke of a " magic box " which can produce whatever someone wishes for and shows him his father , Anthony Cooper ( Kevin Tighe ) , who they are holding captive and was brought to the Island because of the box . Ben offers Locke the opportunity to join the Others , but only if he kills Cooper ; Ben knows he won 't kill in cold blood , and so makes the offer as a way to humiliate Locke . Locke returns a few days later with Cooper 's corpse , having used Sawyer to do the deed for him , so Ben takes him to meet Jacob . When Ben discovers Locke can hear Jacob , he shoots Locke and leaves him for dead . He returns to the Others ' camp , and tells Richard , now his second @-@ in @-@ command , to lead the remaining Others to the Temple . Ben takes Alex with him as he attempts to prevent Jack from sending a radio message to a nearby freighter . He reunites Alex with her mother , and claims if Jack contacts the freighter , every single person on the Island will die . Ben is beaten and taken hostage , and forced to watch as the freighter is contacted .
In the first episode of season four , " The Beginning of the End " , the survivors divide into two groups . Those who believe the people from the freighter to be dangerous , Ben among them , join Locke and head to the Barracks . After Ben confesses the freighter crew has come to capture him , Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , a medium from the freighter , makes a deal with Ben , asking for $ 3 @.@ 2 million in exchange for reporting Ben as dead to Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , the man who sent the freighter . Ben agrees after Miles rebuffs his claims such a small fortune is beyond him . Ben eventually gets his freedom when he tells Locke who sent the freighter . Once free , Ben urges Alex , and her boyfriend and mother , to travel to the Temple , for protection from the people on the freighter . However , they are ambushed en route by mercenaries from the freighter and all but Alex are killed . Alex is taken hostage after revealing herself to be Ben 's daughter . In " The Shape of Things to Come " , Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) , the leader of the mercenaries , threatens to shoot Alex if Ben does not come forward ; Ben staunchly denies any attachment to her , which results in her execution . Ben claims Widmore has " changed the rules " , then summons the smoke monster to attack the mercenaries . He then leaves with Locke and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) to communicate with Jacob . Locke enters Jacob 's cabin alone , and returns stating they need to move the Island . They go to the Orchid , a Dharma station which allows them to do this . Ben sends Locke to become the new leader of the Others , then enters a secret level of the Orchid . He turns a large frozen wheel in the wall , which teleports the Island to a new location . Ben himself is transported to the Sahara Desert , specifically , Tunisia , which was formerly the ancient country of Carthage .
The flashforwards in " The Shape of Things to Come " show Ben arrives in the Sahara Desert ten months ahead of when he left the Island . Ben finds Sayid at the funeral of his wife Nadia ( Andrea Gabriel ) , and recruits Sayid as his personal assassin , telling him Widmore ordered the assassination of his wife . Ben provides Sayid with a list of targets , all of which he successfully kills over the next three years . At one point , Ben infiltrates Widmore 's penthouse apartment in London to inform him of his intention to kill his daughter , Penelope ( Sonya Walger ) , as retribution for the death of Alex .
= = = = Seasons five and six = = = =
When Locke leaves the island to bring the survivors back to the island , Ben tracks him down . He gets Locke to reveal what he knows about returning to the island , then kills him and stages it as a suicide . Ben visits Jack in the funeral home housing Locke 's body , telling Jack he will help him return to the island , but the only way to get back is to bring everyone who had left it , including Locke 's corpse . Ben boards Ajira Airways Flight 316 with the rest of survivors , which then crashes on the island . Jack , Kate , Hurley , and Sayid are transported to 1977 , while Sun and Ben remain in the 2007 with a resurrected Locke . The plane crash lands on the Hydra Island , so Ben attempts to take a boat to the main island . Sun strikes him in the back of the head and takes the boat with Frank , so Ben is left in the care of the other survivors , including Locke . After Ben regains consciousness and finds Locke to be alive , he convinces Locke he knew bringing him to the island would resurrect him , and he stopped Locke 's suicide attempt merely to gain information . Locke travels with Ben , who is to be judged by the Monster . After they fail to find the Monster at the Barracks , they head to the Temple . As Ben and Locke travel through a series of tunnels beneath the Temple , Ben falls through the floor , so Locke leaves to get something that he can pull him up with . The Monster flows out of a grate below and surrounds Ben , showing flashes of decisions he made in his life involving Alex . The Monster takes the form of Alex and pushes Ben against a wall . She says she knows Ben is planning to kill Locke again , and if he does she will hunt him down and destroy him . She orders him to follow Locke and do whatever he asks , then disappears . They return to the Others ' camp , where Locke gathers the group together and announces he is taking them to see Jacob . As they are walking , Ben relates his experience with the Monster and his promise to do whatever Locke asks , so Locke convinces Ben to kill Jacob . Richard leads them to the base of the statue , where Jacob lives . Within , they are met by Jacob ( Mark Pellegrino ) . Jacob greets Locke and observes Locke has found a loophole . It is revealed that Locke was not resurrected , and is instead the Monster taking the form of Locke . Ben confronts Jacob about why he never revealed himself at any time during Ben 's tenure as leader , but when Jacob is dismissive towards him , he stabs Jacob twice , killing him - and in doing so , binds his destiny to the island , sealing his own fate .
After Jacob 's death , the Monster tells Ben to fetch Richard , as he wants to speak to him . However , when Ben exits the statue , Richard throws him down beside the corpse of the real John Locke , which has been brought to the statue by survivors of the Ajira flight , led by Ilana Verdansky ( Zuleikha Robinson ) . Ben is forced by Ilana 's group to bring them to the imposter Locke . They start shooting at the Monster , but he disappears , then returns in its black smoke form , killing Ilana 's group . The Monster returns to Locke 's form and mockingly informs Ben of the real Locke 's last thoughts , while being strangled by Ben . Afterwards , Ben comforts Ilana when he finds her crying in Jacob 's chamber and sets off with her , Sun , and Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) to bury Locke before going to the Temple , where they believe they will be safe from the Monster . At Locke 's funeral , Ben provides the eulogy , and expresses his sincere apologies for killing Locke . When they arrive at the Temple , the Monster is destroying the place . They return to the beach as a temporary shelter , and Ben attempts to make amends with everyone for killing Jacob . Ilana then forces him to dig a grave and explains she will kill Ben for murdering her father figure . Later , the Monster visits Ben , telling him to join him and then magically frees Ben . After Ben escapes , Ilana chases after him , and the two come face @-@ to @-@ face at the jungle when Ben points a rifle at her . Ben explains to her why he really killed Jacob , particularly grieving his daughter . Ilana understands and allows him to rejoin their group , which he does . Hurley , Jack , and Richard show up and join their group , then have a meeting , deciding what to do next . Richard suggests they should stop the Monster escaping by blowing up the Ajira plane . After Hurley destroys the available dynamite from the shipwrecked Black Rock , Richard insists he will find other explosives . Ben and Miles join Richard , while the rest decide to go talk to the Monster . When Ben , Richard and Miles arrive at the Barracks , Widmore is there , and is soon joined by the Monster . Ben murders Widmore before he is able to make a deal with the Monster to spare his daughter . The Monster and Ben find Desmond and the Monster forces him to go destroy the Island . They run into Jack 's group and they both go to the heart of the Island , where Desmond removes the cork of the Island , causing the Island to begin collapsing . After Jack kills the Monster , Ben and Hurley volunteer to stay behind on the Island with Jack to assist him relighting the Island . Jack tells them he will die doing this and Jack gives Hurley the new position of being protector of the Island . Ben advises him to approach his Island duties with his kindness and helpful attitude . Hurley asks Ben to become his advisor , to which he is honored . After an undisclosed period of time , Ben , on orders from Hurley , arrives at the Dharma Logistics Warehouse in Guam . He speaks to the two workers there and instructs them that the facility is being shut down . Afterward , Ben arrives at the Santa Rosa Mental Hospital and visits Walt . Ben tells him that he is still special and that he can help his father , Michael , even though he is dead , and offers Walt a job to return to the island .
The afterlife experienced by the survivors is shown during season six . In " The Substitute " , Ben Linus is shown as a teacher of European History . In " Dr. Linus " , Ben laments his life in general , particularly because his principal , Reynolds , does not care for the school . He is living with his father , Roger ( Jon Gries ) , who is on life support . At school , he is shown to have a close relationship with his star pupil , Alex , and befriends a substitute teacher , John Locke . While studying together , Alex tells Ben that Principal Reynolds is having a sexual affair with one of the school nurses on campus . Ben attempts to blackmail Reynolds , threatening to reveal his affair and citing his position as principal as the demand . However , Reynolds swiftly retaliates by saying if he makes good on his threats , Alex 's chances of going to Yale University will decrease substantially , as he is requested to write her a recommendation letter . Wanting to save Alex 's educational future , Ben backs down . Days later , Ben notices Desmond Hume waiting outside the school in his car for an extended amount of time . Desmond runs over Locke , and swiftly drives off . As soon as the ambulance arrives , Ben gets in and sits next to the critically injured Locke , assuring him everything will be all right . When Locke returns to the school , Desmond does as well , and Ben catches him . Desmond beats Ben severely saying he was only trying to help Locke let go . Ben has a vision from his previous life during Desmond 's beating . Ben believes him and relays Locke this information . When Alex sees how badly Ben was beaten , she invites him to her house where her mother , Danielle , fixes him supper . Danielle tells Ben that Alex views him as a father , and Ben begins to cry . Ben waits outside the chapel where the Oceanic survivors plan to move on together , and he sees Locke for the last time . Ben sincerely apologizes to Locke for killing him , and Locke forgives him . Hurley later comes out of the chapel and invites Ben in , but Ben politely declines saying he is not ready to move on , saying he " has a few things to work out " . Hurley accepts this , and tells Ben that he was a " real good number two " , thanking him for his help in protecting the island . Ben , touched by this , responds " And you were a great number one , Hugo . "
= = Personality = =
Ben , although extremely well @-@ mannered , has an impeccable ability to lie and manipulate the people around him , even when he is at a physical disadvantage . He often speaks in a low , emotionless monotone when at his most unreadable , frequently sprinkling his speech with sarcasm or dry , humorless jokes . He can also be petty and vindictive , even to the point of murder , when he does not get what he wants . He claims to have been born on the Island , leading to him being thought of as a miracle by the Others , as pregnant women die on the island ; but later confesses to Locke that he was lying . He unsuccessfully tries to convince the survivors he is Henry Gale , although succeeds in manipulating Locke to turn against Jack while held prisoner under this guise . While he claims he will not sacrifice innocent lives in order to accomplish his goals , he has been shown to do quite the opposite . In the third season finale , Ben is informed by Tom Friendly ( M. C. Gainey ) , an Other , that they have captured three of the crash survivors : Sayid Jarrah , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) , and Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) . When Tom tells Ben they are unwilling to reveal any information about the rest of the survivors , Ben quickly replies " Shoot Kwon ... You want them to answer questions , kill Kwon - do it now " . Conversely , Ben refuses to allow his spy on the freighter to destroy it long before it reaches the Island , as he would not kill anyone who " did not deserve to die " . Furthermore , when Locke confronts Ben about causing the freighter to explode , Ben coldly replies , " So ? "
Ben 's unclear motives have led to speculation about his possible status as a villain . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones from Digital Spy describes Ben as a " supposed villain " , pondering " Could he really have been the good guy all along " following the fourth season episode " The Shape of Things to Come " . Actor Michael Emerson suspects where Ben 's loyalties lie will always be ambiguous , making this a " wonderful role " . He is rarely shown losing control of his emotions , but when he does , it is done in a big and childish way . Emerson explains " He 's cold because any trace of warmth makes him vulnerable to his enemies " . Ben is also known for his commitment to the island and doing whatever is necessary to protect it . He has no qualms with Locke attempting to kill Naomi ( Marsha Thomason ) and even Jack after the survivors begin to call the freighter . He undertakes the risky and unpredictable step of moving the Island to prevent the freighter crew , and thus Charles Widmore , from finding it . He always has a plan and is described by Kevin Thompson from The Palm Beach Post as a " know @-@ it @-@ all " , which another reviewer thinks is because " [ Ben ] talks quietly , in a menacingly measured drawl ... with lots of pauses and emphases " .
Ben also appears to know Turkish , as he asks the bedouins on horseback " Türkçe biliyor musunuz ? " late in season 4 .
= = Development = =
In 2001 , Michael Emerson won a Primetime Emmy Award for his guest appearance as serial killer William Hinks on The Practice . The Lost producers liked his work on The Practice , so they were keen to cast Emerson in the role of Ben , then known as " Henry Gale " , as they thought he would fit the character well . He was originally contracted to appear in just three episodes of Lost , making his first appearance midway through the second season , in episode " One of Them " . The producers were so impressed by him that they contracted him for a further five episodes , citing the scene at the end of " The Whole Truth " where Ben asks for milk as the moment they knew he was a " keeper " . He was then made a part of the regular cast from the third season . Had Emerson not worked out during his initial appearances a different actor would have been cast for the leader of the Others , but it was always intended the survivors would have the leader right under their noses and not realize it . During one episode of the Official Lost Podcast , the producers state they always knew Ben would be the " Big Bad " . Emerson had no idea of his character 's importance during his second season recurring role . He was told nothing about Ben 's backstory and would only receive scripts at the last minute . He enjoyed how the ambiguity of Ben 's motives allowed him to " paint it the way [ he ] please [ s ] " . Sterling Beaumon was cast to play Ben in the flashbacks of episode " The Man Behind the Curtain " . Emerson 's wife Carrie Preston was cast as Ben 's mother following Emerson telling people at parties she was desperate for a part on the show .
Referring to the scene in the third season where Ben seemingly fits Sawyer with a lethal pacemaker , Emerson comments " Sadistic may be the word , but he doesn 't seem to take much relish in it . He 's just sort of detached , he looks at it coldly . I sometimes feel like everything to him is a sort of scientific experiment and he is interested in a dispassionate way in how the experiment runs its course . I think some day if we ever find out what his parentage is , that his parents were people of science " . Elizabeth Mitchell , who plays Juliet , did not think it was a " huge surprise for Juliet that Ben had feelings for [ Juliet ] , but I still think it was ... it was horrifying under the circumstances " . She also thought " [ Juliet has ] this kind of wonderful mind , and I think that Ben probably has a tremendous respect for that . It 's not because Juliet is so enticing , it 's just the fact that she 's got this amazing mind , she has this amazing , you know , intelligence , and I think that 's what intrigues him , that 's what draws him into her " . During season four the producers deliberately left it ambiguous as to whether Ben was a part of the Oceanic 6 ( six survivors of the plane crash that make it off the Island ) after he appeared in one of Sayid 's flashforwards .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
During the beginning of season three , Chris Carabott from IGN described Ben as " one of the best ' villains on television ' , due to his ' eerie manner ' and ' methodical delivery ' " . Later in the season Carabott had a problem with Ben being so deceptive , as " anything he imparts must be taken with a grain of salt " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly also noted this , saying " I don 't trust Ben . I have no idea when he 's lying and when he 's telling the truth . The only thing I 'm reasonably sure of is that everything he says is for the purpose of impacting a character — and the audience " . Ben 's father issues revealed towards the end of season three are described as " not the most original Lost character trait by any means but it is the thrust behind Ben 's development into the genocidal maniac he eventually becomes " . Following the penultimate episode of the season , Carabott stated " Even with his limited screen time , Michael Emerson 's performance shines through and we hope that he survives the events of the finale because we love seeing his character every week . " Erin Martell from TV Squad picked the Others as one of her season three highlights , partly due to the development of Ben , adding " I cannot even picture the final three seasons without Ben " . Martell also gave six reasons to look forward to season four , one of which was Ben Linus .
Aubry D 'Arminio of Entertainment Weekly describes " savvy Ben " as a " captivating minor character " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly praised Emerson 's acting in the beginning of season four , calling him " a genius in [ the ] role " . Alan Sepinwall from The Star @-@ Ledger worried " the actor is so good and the character so popular that he 's kept alive even though it makes all the heroes look like idiots " . Following " Confirmed Dead " , Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen felt " Isn 't the whole business of Ben manipulating Locke with the promise of Island secrets getting just a little bit old ? " SyFy Portal 's Dan Compora said that " The more I hate Ben , the more I realize that Michael Emerson is just a very fine actor doing his job " . Don Williams of BuddyTV said " consider my mind blown again " , referring to the flashforward in " The Economist " where it is revealed that Sayid is working for Ben . Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called Emerson an acting " god " . Chris Carabott from IGN found one of the best moments of " Eggtown " , was the power struggle between Locke and Ben , because " Their scenes together are amongst the best in the series and the one that opens " Eggtown " is a perfect display of how well Michael Emerson and Terry O 'Quinn work together . O 'Quinn captures Locke 's uncertainty perfectly in the opening scene and it 's always fun to watch Ben prey on any weakness of character . " Kevin Thompson of The Palm Beach Post wrote " with those big ol ' eyes of his , [ Emerson ] could always say more with a lengthy stare than he could with twenty pages of dialogue .... [ He has ] , once again , proved why he has become Lost 's star as well as its heart and soul .... an Emmy should belong to [ him ] . " Jennifer Godwin of E ! wrote that " no one has ever done better work humanizing a supervillain . " Matt Roush of TV Guide puts Ben in " The Shape of Things to Come " in the top 20 moments of the week , stating " Michael Emerson on Lost . It doesn 't get better than that " . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy describes Emerson 's performance as " fantastic " , with " many layers of intrigue and humanity " . John Kubicek of BuddyTV also found his performance " fantastic " , adding " he nailed it " . Critic Kelly Woo , from TV Squad , placed him on second on her list of " Seven new characters that worked " , ranking just below Desmond Hume , also from Lost .
= = = Awards = = =
In 2006 , Michael Emerson was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series , Miniseries , or Television Film , but lost out to Tony Plana from Ugly Betty .
In 2007 , following the third season , Emerson was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television , losing to Masi Oka from Heroes . Later in the year , Emerson was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to fellow Lost cast member Terry O 'Quinn . Emerson was nominated again for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor - Series , Miniseries , or Television Film , this time losing to David Zayas from Dexter , but eventually won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television , beating out fellow Lost actors Terry O 'Quinn and Josh Holloway . Emerson was also nominated for the Teen Choice Award for Best Villain .
In 2008 , Emerson was nominated again for the Primetime Emmy Award at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to Željko Ivanek from Damages .
On September 20 , 2009 , Emerson finally won the Primetime Emmy Award for his portrayal of Ben Linus at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards .
In 2010 , Emerson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series , Miniseries , or Television Film , but lost to John Lithgow from Dexter . For his final nomination for his portrayal of Ben Linus , Emerson was nominated again for the Primetime Emmy Award at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , this time losing to Aaron Paul from Breaking Bad .
= 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( film ) =
2001 : A Space Odyssey is a 1968 epic science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Kubrick . The screenplay , written by Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke , was partially inspired by Clarke 's short story " The Sentinel " . Clarke concurrently wrote the novel 2001 : A Space Odyssey , published soon after the film was released . The film follows a voyage to Jupiter with the sentient computer Hal after the discovery of a mysterious black monolith affecting human evolution . The film deals with the themes of existentialism , human evolution , technology , artificial intelligence , and extraterrestrial life . It is noted for its scientifically accurate depiction of space flight , pioneering special effects , and ambiguous imagery . It uses sound and minimal dialogue in place of traditional narrative techniques ; the soundtrack consists of classical music such as The Blue Danube and Also sprach Zarathustra .
Financed and distributed by American studio Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , 2001 : A Space Odyssey was filmed and edited almost entirely in England , using the studio facilities of the MGM @-@ British Studios and those of Shepperton Studios , mostly because of the availability of much larger sound stages than in the United States . Production was subcontracted to Kubrick 's production company and care was taken that the film would be sufficiently British to qualify for subsidy from the Eady Levy . Having already shot his previous two films in England , Kubrick decided to settle there permanently during filming .
Despite initially receiving mixed reactions from critics and audiences , 2001 : A Space Odyssey garnered a cult following and slowly became the highest @-@ grossing North American film of 1968 . It was nominated for four Academy Awards , and received one for its visual effects . A sequel directed by Peter Hyams was released in 1984 .
Today , 2001 : A Space Odyssey is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made . In 1991 , it was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . The critics ' polls in the 2002 and 2012 editions of Sight & Sound magazine ranked 2001 : A Space Odyssey sixth in the top ten films of all time ; it also tied for second place in the directors ' poll of the same magazine . In 2010 , it was named the greatest film of all time by The Moving Arts Film Journal .
= = Plot = =
In an African desert millions of years ago , a tribe of man @-@ apes faces starvation and competition for a water hole by a rival tribe . They awaken to find a featureless black monolith has appeared before them . Guided in some fashion by the Black Monolith , one man @-@ ape realizes how to use a bone as a tool and weapon ; the tribe learns to hunt for food , and kills the leader of their rivals , reclaiming the water hole .
Millions of years later , a Pan Am space plane carries Dr. Heywood R. Floyd to a space station orbiting Earth for a layover on his trip to Clavius Base , a United States outpost on the moon . After a videophone call with his daughter , Floyd 's Soviet scientist friend and her colleague ask about rumors of a mysterious epidemic at Clavius . Floyd declines to answer . At Clavius , Floyd heads a meeting of base personnel , apologizing for the epidemic cover story but stressing secrecy . His mission is to investigate a recently found artifact buried four million years ago . Floyd and others ride in a Moonbus to the artifact , which is a monolith identical to the one encountered by the man @-@ apes . Sunlight strikes the monolith and a loud high @-@ pitched radio signal is heard .
Eighteen months later , the U.S. spacecraft Discovery One is bound for Jupiter . On board are mission pilots and scientists Dr. David Bowman and Dr. Frank Poole with three other scientists in cryogenic hibernation . Most of Discovery 's operations are controlled by the ship 's computer , HAL 9000 , referred to by the crew as " Hal " . Bowman and Poole watch Hal and themselves being interviewed on a BBC show about the mission , in which the computer states that he is " foolproof and incapable of error . " When asked by the host if Hal has genuine emotions , Bowman replies that he appears to , but that the truth is unknown . Later , Hal questions Dave on the mysterious purpose of the mission , then reports the imminent failure of an antenna control device . The astronauts retrieve the component making use of an EVA Pod but find nothing wrong with it . Hal suggests reinstalling the part and letting it fail so the problem can be found . Mission Control advises the astronauts that results from their twin HAL 9000 backups indicate that Hal is in error . Hal insists that the problem , like previous issues ascribed to HAL series units , is due to human error . Concerned about Hal 's behavior , Bowman and Poole enter an EVA pod to talk without Hal overhearing , and agree to disconnect Hal if he is proven wrong . Hal secretly follows their conversation by lip reading .
While Poole attempts to replace the unit during a space walk , his EVA pod , controlled by Hal , rams him , severing his oxygen hose and setting him adrift . Bowman takes another pod to attempt rescue , leaving his helmet behind in haste . Meanwhile , Hal turns off the life support functions of the crewmen in suspended animation . When Bowman returns to the ship with Poole 's body , Hal refuses to let him in , stating that the astronauts ' plan to deactivate him jeopardizes the mission . Bowman opens the ship 's emergency airlock manually , enters the ship , and proceeds to Hal 's processor core . Hal tries to reassure Bowman , then pleads with him to stop , and finally expresses fear . As Bowman deactivates the circuits controlling HAL 's higher intellectual functions , HAL regresses to his earliest programmed memory , the song " Daisy Bell " , which he sings for Bowman .
When Hal is finally disconnected , a prerecorded video message from Floyd reveals the existence of the monolith on the moon , its purpose and origin unknown . With the exception of one short but extremely powerful radio emission aimed at Jupiter , the object has been inert . At Jupiter , Bowman leaves Discovery One in an EVA pod to investigate another monolith discovered in orbit around the planet . The pod is pulled into a vortex of colored light , and Bowman races across vast distances of space , viewing bizarre cosmological phenomena and strange landscapes of unusual colors .
He finds himself , still in the pod , in a bedroom appointed in the neoclassical style . He sees older versions of himself , his point of view switching each time , first standing in the bedroom , middle @-@ aged , and still in his spacesuit , then dressed in leisure attire and eating dinner , and finally as an old man lying in the bed . A black monolith appears at the foot of the bed , and as Bowman reaches for it , he is transformed into a fetus enclosed in a transparent orb of light . The film ends as the new being floats in space beside the Earth , gazing at it .
= = Cast = =
= = Development = =
= = = Writing = = =
= = = = Meeting of Kubrick and Clarke = = = =
After completing Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) , director Stanley Kubrick became fascinated by the possibility of extraterrestrial life , and resolved to make " the proverbial good science fiction movie " . Searching for a collaborator in the science fiction community , Kubrick was advised by a mutual acquaintance , Columbia Pictures staffer Roger Caras , to talk to writer Arthur C. Clarke . Although convinced that Clarke was " a recluse , a nut who lives in a tree " , Kubrick allowed Caras to cable the film proposal to Clarke , who lived in Ceylon . Clarke 's cabled response stated that he was " frightfully interested in working with enfant terrible " , and added " what makes Kubrick think I 'm a recluse ? " Meeting for the first time at Trader Vic 's in New York on April 22 , 1964 , the two began discussing the project that would take up the next four years of their lives . Clarke kept a diary throughout his involvement with 2001 , excerpts of which were published in 1972 as The Lost Worlds of 2001 .
= = = = Search for source material = = = =
Kubrick told Clarke he wanted to make a film about " Man 's relationship to the universe " , and was , in Clarke 's words , " determined to create a work of art which would arouse the emotions of wonder , awe ... even , if appropriate , terror " . Clarke offered Kubrick six of his short stories , and by May 1964 , Kubrick had chosen " The Sentinel " as the source material for the film . In search of more material to expand the film 's plot , the two spent the rest of 1964 reading books on science and anthropology , screening science fiction films , and brainstorming ideas . They spent two years transforming " The Sentinel " into a novel , and then into a script for 2001 . Clarke said that his short story " Encounter in the Dawn " inspired the film 's " Dawn Of Man " sequence .
Kubrick and Clarke privately referred to the project as How the Solar System Was Won as a reference to MGM 's 1962 Cinerama epic , How the West Was Won . On February 23 , 1965 , Kubrick issued a press release announcing the title Journey Beyond The Stars . Other titles considered include Universe , Tunnel to the Stars , and Planetfall . In April 1965 , eleven months after they began working on the project , Kubrick selected 2001 : A Space Odyssey ; Clarke said the title was " entirely " Kubrick 's idea . Intending to set the film apart from the " monsters and sex " type of science fiction films of the time , Kubrick used Homer 's The Odyssey as inspiration for the title . Kubrick said , " [ i ] t occurred to us that for the Greeks the vast stretches of the sea must have had the same sort of mystery and remoteness that space has for our generation . "
= = = = Parallel development of film and novel = = = =
Kubrick and Clarke planned to develop the 2001 novel first , free of the constraints of film , and then write the screenplay . They planned the writing credits to be " Screenplay by Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke , based on a novel by Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick " to reflect their preeminence in their respective fields . In practice , the screenplay developed in parallel to the novel , and elements were shared between both . In a 1970 interview , Kubrick said :
There are a number of differences between the book and the movie . The novel , for example , attempts to explain things much more explicitly than the film does , which is inevitable in a verbal medium . The novel came about after we did a 130 @-@ page prose treatment of the film at the very outset . This initial treatment was subsequently changed in the screenplay , and the screenplay in turn was altered during the making of the film . But Arthur took all the existing material , plus an impression of some of the rushes , and wrote the novel . As a result , there 's a difference between the novel and the film ... I think that the divergences between the two works are interesting .
The screenplay credits were shared whereas the 2001 novel , released shortly after the film , was attributed to Clarke alone . Clarke wrote later that " the nearest approximation to the complicated truth " is that the screenplay should be credited to " Kubrick and Clarke " and the novel to " Clarke and Kubrick " .
Clarke and Kubrick wrote the novel and screenplay simultaneously . Clarke opted for clearer explanations of the mysterious monolith and Star Gate in the novel ; Kubrick made the film more cryptic by minimising dialogue and explanation . Kubrick said the film is " basically a visual , nonverbal experience " that " hits the viewer at an inner level of consciousness , just as music does , or painting " .
= = = = Depiction of alien life = = = =
Astronomer Carl Sagan wrote in his book The Cosmic Connection that Clarke and Kubrick asked his opinion on how to best depict extraterrestrial intelligence . Sagan , while acknowledging Kubrick 's desire to use actors to portray humanoid aliens for convenience 's sake , argued that alien life forms were unlikely to bear any resemblance to terrestrial life , and that to do so would introduce " at least an element of falseness " to the film . Sagan proposed that the film suggest , rather than depict , extraterrestrial superintelligence . He attended the premiere and was " pleased to see that I had been of some help . " Kubrick hinted at the nature of the mysterious unseen alien race in 2001 by suggesting , in a 1968 interview , that given millions of years of evolution , they progressed from biological beings to " immortal machine entities " , and then into " beings of pure energy and spirit " ; beings with " limitless capabilities and ungraspable intelligence " .
= = = = Stages of script and novel development = = = =
The script went through many stages . In early 1965 , when backing was secured for the film , Clarke and Kubrick still had no firm idea of what would happen to Bowman after the Star Gate sequence . Initially all of Discovery 's astronauts were to survive the journey ; by October 3 , Clarke and Kubrick had decided to leave Bowman the sole survivor and have him regress to infancy . By October 17 , Kubrick had come up with what Clarke called a " wild idea of slightly fag robots who create a Victorian environment to put our heroes at their ease . " HAL 9000 was originally named Athena after the Greek goddess of wisdom and had a feminine voice and persona .
Early drafts included a prologue containing interviews with scientists about extraterrestrial life , voice @-@ over narration ( a feature in all of Kubrick 's previous films ) , a stronger emphasis on the prevailing Cold War balance of terror , and a different and more explicitly explained breakdown for HAL . Other changes include a different monolith for the " Dawn of Man " sequence , discarded when early prototypes did not photograph well ; the use of Saturn as the final destination of the Discovery mission rather than Jupiter , discarded when the special effects team could not develop a convincing rendition of Saturn 's rings ; and the finale of the Star Child exploding nuclear weapons carried by Earth @-@ orbiting satellites , which Kubrick discarded for its similarity to his previous film , Dr. Strangelove . The finale and many of the other discarded screenplay ideas survived into Clarke 's novel .
Kubrick made further changes due to his desire to make the film more non @-@ verbal , communicating at a visual and visceral level rather than through conventional narrative . Vincent LeBrutto writes that Clarke 's novel has " strong narrative structure " , while the film is a mainly visual experience where much remains symbolic .
= = = = Remnants of early drafts in final film = = = =
While many ideas were discarded in totality , at least two remnants of previous plot ideas remain in the final film .
= = = = = HAL 's breakdown = = = = =
Although the film leaves it mysterious , early script drafts made clear that HAL 's breakdown is triggered by authorities on Earth who order him to withhold information from the astronauts about the purpose of the mission ( this is also explained in the film 's sequel 2010 ) . Frederick Ordway , Kubrick 's science advisor and technical consultant , stated that in an earlier script Poole tells HAL there is " ... something about this mission that we weren 't told . Something the rest of the crew knows and that you know . We would like to know whether this is true " , to which HAL responds : " I 'm sorry , Frank , but I don 't think I can answer that question without knowing everything that all of you know . " HAL then falsely predicts a failure of the hardware maintaining radio contact with Earth ( the source of HAL 's difficult orders ) during the broadcast of Frank Poole 's birthday greetings from his parents .
The final script removed this explanation , but it is hinted at when HAL asks David Bowman if Bowman is bothered by the " oddities " and " tight security " surrounding the mission . After Bowman concludes that HAL is dutifully drawing up the " crew psychology report " , the computer makes his false prediction of hardware failure . Another hint occurs at the moment of HAL 's deactivation when a video reveals the purpose of the mission .
In an interview with Joseph Gelmis in 1969 , Kubrick stated that HAL " had an acute emotional crisis because he could not accept evidence of his own fallibility " .
= = = = = Military nature of orbiting satellites = = = = =
Kubrick originally planned a voice @-@ over to reveal that the satellites following a match cut from a bone @-@ weapon are nuclear weapons , and that the Star Child would detonate the weapons at the end of the film . However , he decided this would create associations with his previous film Dr. Strangelove , and decided not to make it so obvious that they were " war machines " . A few weeks before the release of the film , the U.S. and Soviet governments had agreed not to put any nuclear weapons into outer space .
In a book he wrote with Kubrick 's assistance , Alexander Walker states that Kubrick eventually decided that as nuclear weapons the bombs had " no place at all in the film 's thematic development " , now being an " orbiting red herring " which would " merely have raised irrelevant questions to suggest this as a reality of the twenty @-@ first century " .
Kubrick scholar Michel Ciment , discussing Kubrick 's attitude toward human aggression and instinct , observes : " The bone cast into the air by the ape ( now become a man ) is transformed at the other extreme of civilization , by one of those abrupt ellipses characteristic of the director , into a spacecraft on its way to the moon . " In contrast to Ciment 's reading of a cut to a serene " other extreme of civilization " , science fiction novelist Robert Sawyer , speaking in the Canadian documentary 2001 and Beyond , saw it as a cut from a bone to a nuclear weapons platform , explaining that " what we see is not how far we 've leaped ahead , what we see is that today , ' 2001 ' , and four million years ago on the African veldt , it 's exactly the same — the power of mankind is the power of its weapons . It 's a continuation , not a discontinuity in that jump . "
= = = = Dialogue = = = =
The film contains no dialogue for the first and last 20 minutes or so . By the time shooting began , Kubrick had removed much of the dialogue and narration ; what remains is notable for its banality ( making the computer Hal seem to have more emotion than the humans ) juxtaposed with epic space scenes .
The first scenes of dialogue are Floyd 's encounters on the space station : chit @-@ chat with the colleague who greets him , his telephone call to his daughter , and the friendly but strained encounter with Soviet scientists . Later , en route to the monolith , Floyd engages in trite exchanges with his staff while a spectacular journey by Earth @-@ light across the Lunar surface is shown . Hal is the only character who expresses anxiety , as well as feelings of pride and bewilderment .
= = = = Influence of Universe = = = =
According to biographer Vincent Lobrutto , one of Kubrick 's visual — and aural — inspirations was the 1960 National Film Board of Canada animated short documentary Universe . The 29 minute film , which had also proved popular at NASA for its realistic portrayal of outer space , achieved " the standard of dynamic visionary realism that he was looking for . " Wally Gentleman , one of the special effects artists on Universe , worked briefly on 2001 . The short film 's most notable influence may have been Kubrick 's decision to cast the narrator of Universe , actor Douglas Rain , relatively unknown outside Canada , as the voice of HAL .
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began December 29 , 1965 , in Stage H at Shepperton Studios , Shepperton , England . The studio was chosen because it could house the 60 @-@ by @-@ 120 @-@ by @-@ 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m × 37 m × 18 m ) pit for the Tycho crater excavation scene , the first to be shot . The production moved in January 1966 to the smaller MGM @-@ British Studios in Borehamwood , where the live action and special effects filming was done , starting with the scenes involving Floyd on the Orion spaceplane ; it was described as a " huge throbbing nerve center ... with much the same frenetic atmosphere as a Cape Kennedy blockhouse during the final stages of Countdown . " The only scene not filmed in a studio — and the last live @-@ action scene shot for the film — was the skull @-@ smashing sequence , in which Moonwatcher ( Richter ) wields his new @-@ found bone " weapon @-@ tool " against a pile of nearby animal bones . A small elevated platform was built in a field near the studio so that the camera could shoot upward with the sky as background , avoiding cars and trucks passing by in the distance .
Filming of actors was completed in September 1967 , and from June 1966 until March 1968 Kubrick spent most of his time working on the 205 special effects shots in the film . The director ordered the special effects technicians on 2001 to use the painstaking process of creating all visual effects seen in the film " in camera " , avoiding degraded picture quality from the use of blue screen and traveling matte techniques . Although this technique , known as " held takes " , resulted in a much better image , it meant exposed film would be stored for long periods of time between shots , sometimes as long as a year . In March 1968 , Kubrick finished the ' pre @-@ premiere ' editing of the film , making his final cuts just days before the film 's general release in April 1968 .
The film was initially planned to be photographed in 3 @-@ film @-@ strip Cinerama ( like How the West Was Won ) , because it was a part of a production / distribution deal between MGM and Cinerama Releasing Corporation , but that was changed to Super Panavision 70 ( which uses a single @-@ strip 65 mm negative ) on the advice of special photographic effects supervisor Douglas Trumbull , due to distortion problems with the 3 @-@ strip system . Color processing and 35 mm release prints were done using Technicolor 's dye transfer process . The 70 mm prints were made by MGM Laboratories , Inc. on Metrocolor . The production was $ 4 @.@ 5 million over the initial $ 6 @.@ 0 million budget , and sixteen months behind schedule .
Russian documentarian Pavel Klushantsev 's 1957 film Road to the Stars is believed to have significantly influenced Kubrick 's technique in 2001 : A Space Odyssey , particularly in its accurate depiction of weightlessness and a rotating space station . Encyclopedia Astronautica describes some scenes from 2001 as a " shot @-@ for @-@ shot duplication of Road to the Stars " . Specific comparisons of shots from the two films have been analyzed by the filmmaker Alessandro Cima . A 1994 article in American Cinematographer says , " When Stanley Kubrick made 2001 : a Space Odyssey in 1968 , he claimed to have been first to fly actor / astronauts on wires with the camera on the ground , shooting vertically while the actor 's body covered the wires " but observes that Klushantsev had preceded him in this .
For the opening sequence involving tribes of apes , professional mime Daniel Richter in addition to playing the lead ape was also responsible for choreographing the movements of the other man @-@ apes , who were mostly portrayed by his standing mime troupe .
= = = Set design and furnishings = = =
Kubrick involved himself in every aspect of production , even choosing the fabric for his actors ' costumes , and selecting notable pieces of contemporary furniture for use in the film . When Floyd exits the Space Station V elevator , he is greeted by an attendant seated behind a slightly modified George Nelson Action Office desk from Herman Miller 's 1964 " Action Office " series . First introduced in 1968 , the Action Office @-@ style " cubicle " would eventually occupy 70 percent of office space by the mid @-@ 2000s . Danish designer Arne Jacobsen designed the cutlery used by the Discovery astronauts in the film .
Other examples of modern furniture in the film are the bright red Djinn chairs seen prominently throughout the space station and Eero Saarinen 's 1956 pedestal tables . Olivier Mourgue , designer of the Djinn chair , has used the connection to 2001 in his advertising ; a frame from the film 's space station sequence and three production stills appear on the homepage of Mourgue 's website . Shortly before Kubrick 's death , film critic Alexander Walker informed Kubrick of Mourgue 's use of the film , joking to him " You 're keeping the price up " . Commenting on their use in the film , Walker writes :
Everyone recalls one early sequence in the film , the space hotel , primarily because the custom @-@ made Olivier Mourgue furnishings , those foam @-@ filled sofas , undulant and serpentine , are covered in scarlet fabric and are the first stabs of color one sees . They resemble Rorschach " blots " against the pristine purity of the rest of the lobby .
Detailed instructions in relatively small print for various technological devices appear at several points in the film , the most visible of which are the lengthy instructions for the zero @-@ gravity toilet on the Aries Moon shuttle . Similar detailed instructions for replacing the explosive bolts also appear on the hatches of the E.V.A. pods , most visibly in closeup just before Bowman 's pod leaves the ship to rescue Frank Poole .
The film features an extensive use of Eurostile Bold Extended , Futura and other sans serif typefaces as design elements of the 2001 world . Computer displays show high resolution fonts , color and graphics — far in advance of computers in the 1960s when the film was made .
= = = Special effects = = =
= = = = Front projection = = = =
2001 pioneered the use of front projection with retroreflective matting . Kubrick used the technique to produce the backdrops in the Africa scenes and the scene when astronauts walk on the moon .
The technique consisted of a separate scenery projector set at a right @-@ angle to the camera , and a half @-@ silvered mirror placed at an angle in front that reflected the projected image forward in line with the camera lens onto a backdrop made of retroreflective material . The reflective directional screen behind the actors could reflect light from the projected image a hundred times more efficiently than the foreground subject did . The lighting of the foreground subject had to be balanced with the image from the screen , making the image from the scenery projector on the subject too faint to record . The exception was the eyes of the leopard in the " Dawn of Man " sequence , which glowed orange from the projector illumination . Kubrick described this as " a happy accident " .
Front projection had been used in smaller settings before 2001 , mostly for still photography or television production , using small still images and projectors . The expansive backdrops for the African scenes required a screen 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall and 110 feet ( 34 m ) wide , far larger than had been used before . When the reflective material was applied to the backdrop in 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) strips , variations at the seams of the strips led to visual artifacts ; to solve this , the crew tore the material into smaller chunks and applied them in a random " camouflage " pattern on the backdrop . The existing projectors using 4- × -5 @-@ inch ( 10 × 13 cm ) transparencies resulted in grainy images when projected that large , so the crew worked with MGM 's special effects supervisor Tom Howard to build a custom projector using 8- × -10 @-@ inch ( 20 × 25 cm ) transparencies , which required the largest water @-@ cooled arc lamp available . The technique was used widely in the film industry afterwards until it was replaced by blue / green screen systems in the 1990s .
= = = = Models = = = =
To heighten the reality of the film very intricate models of the various spacecraft and locations were built . Their sizes ranged from about two foot long models of satellites and the Aries translunar shuttle up to a 55 foot long Discovery One spacecraft . " In @-@ camera " techniques were again used as much as possible to combine models and background shots together to prevent degradation of the image through continual duplicating .
In shots where there was no perspective change , still shots of the models were photographed and positive paper prints were made . The image of the model was cut out of the photographic print and mounted on glass and filmed on an animation stand . The undeveloped film was re @-@ wound to film the star background with the silhouette of the model photograph acting as a matte to block out where the spaceship image was .
Shots where the spacecraft had parts in motion or the perspective changed were shot by directly filming the model . For most shots the model was stationary and camera was driven along a track on a special mount , the motor of which was mechanically linked to the camera motor — making it possible to repeat camera moves and match speeds exactly . Elements of the scene were recorded on same piece of film in separate passes to combine the lit model , stars , planets , or other spacecraft in the same shot . In moving shots of the long Discovery One spacecraft , in order to keep the entire model in focus , multiple passes had to be made with the lighting on it blocked out section by section . In each pass the camera would be focused on the one lit section . Many matting techniques were tried to block out the stars behind the models , with film makers sometimes resorting to hand tracing frame by frame around the image of the spacecraft ( rotoscoping ) to create the matte .
Some shots required exposing the film again to record previously filmed live action shots of the people appearing in the windows the spacecraft or structures , achieved by mounting projection devices inside the model or , when two dimensional photographs were used , projecting from the backside through a hole cut in the photograph .
All of the shots required multiple takes so that some film could be developed and printed to check exposure , density , alignment of elements , and to supply footage used in further elements such as matting .
= = = = Rotating sets = = = =
For spacecraft interior shots , ostensibly containing a giant centrifuge that produces artificial gravity , Kubrick had a 30 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 27 t ) rotating " ferris wheel " built by Vickers @-@ Armstrong Engineering Group at a cost of $ 750 @,@ 000 . The set was 38 feet ( 12 m ) in diameter and 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide . Various scenes in the Discovery centrifuge were shot by securing set pieces within the wheel , then rotating it while the actor walked or ran in sync with its motion , keeping him at the bottom of the wheel as it turned . The camera could be fixed to the inside of the rotating wheel to show the actor walking completely " around " the set , or mounted in such a way that the wheel rotated independently of the stationary camera , as in the jogging scene where the camera appears to alternately precede and follow the running actor . The shots where the actors appear on opposite sides of the wheel required one of the actors to be strapped securely into place at the " top " of the wheel as it moved to allow the other actor to walk to the " bottom " of the wheel to join him . The most notable case is when Bowman enters the centrifuge from the central hub on a ladder , and joins Poole , who is eating on the other side of the centrifuge . This required Gary Lockwood to be strapped into a seat while Keir Dullea walked toward him from the opposite side of the wheel as it turned with him .
Another rotating set appeared in an earlier sequence on board the Aries translunar shuttle . A stewardess is shown preparing in @-@ flight meals , then carrying them into a circular walkway . Attached to the set as it rotates 180 degrees , the camera 's point of view remains constant , and she appears to walk up the " side " of the circular walkway , and steps , now in an " upside @-@ down " orientation , into a connecting hallway .
= = = = Zero gravity effects = = = =
The realistic @-@ looking effects of the astronauts floating weightless in space and inside the spacecraft were accomplished by suspending the actors from wires attached to the top of the set , and placing the camera underneath them . The actors ' bodies blocked the camera 's view of the suspension wires , creating a very believable appearance of floating . For the shot of Poole floating into the pod 's arms during Bowman 's rescue attempt , a stuntman replaced a dummy on the wire to realistically portray the movements of an unconscious human , and was shot in slow motion to enhance the illusion of drifting through space . The scene showing Bowman entering the emergency airlock from the E.V.A. pod was done in a similar way : an off @-@ camera stagehand , standing on a platform , held the wire suspending Dullea above the camera positioned at the bottom of the vertically configured airlock . At the proper moment , the stagehand first loosened his grip on the wire , causing Dullea to fall toward the camera , then , while holding the wire firmly , he jumped off the platform , causing Dullea to ascend back up toward the hatch .
= = = = Star Gate sequence = = = =
The colored lights in the Star Gate sequence were accomplished by slit @-@ scan photography of thousands of high @-@ contrast images on film , including Op art paintings , architectural drawings , Moiré patterns , printed circuits , and crystal structures . Known to staff as " Manhattan Project " , the shots of various nebula @-@ like phenomena , including the expanding star field , were colored paints and chemicals swirling in a pool @-@ like device known as a cloud tank , shot in slow @-@ motion in a dark room . The live @-@ action landscape shots in the ' Star Gate ' sequence were filmed in the Hebridean islands , the mountains of northern Scotland , and Monument Valley . The coloring and negative @-@ image effects were achieved by the use of different color filters in the process of making duplicate negatives .
= = = Music = = =
Main article : 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( soundtrack ) . See also : 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( score ) .
Music plays a crucial part in 2001 , and not only because of the relatively sparse dialogue . From very early on in production , Kubrick decided that he wanted the film to be a primarily nonverbal experience , one that did not rely on the traditional techniques of narrative cinema , and in which music would play a vital role in evoking particular moods . About half the music in the film appears either before the first line of dialogue or after the final line . Almost no music is heard during any scenes with dialogue .
The film is notable for its innovative use of classical music taken from existing commercial recordings . Most feature films then and now are typically accompanied by elaborate film scores or songs written specially for them by professional composers . In the early stages of production , Kubrick had actually commissioned a score for 2001 from Hollywood composer Alex North , who had written the score for Spartacus and also worked on Dr. Strangelove . However , during postproduction , Kubrick chose to abandon North 's music in favor of the now @-@ familiar classical pieces he had earlier chosen as " guide pieces " for the soundtrack . North did not know of the abandonment of the score until after he saw the film 's premiere screening .
Also engaged to score the film was composer Frank Cordell . Cordell stated in interviews that the score would primarily consist of arrangements of Gustav Mahler works . This score remains unreleased . Like North 's score , Cordell 's work was recorded at the now demolished Anvil , Denham studios .
2001 is particularly remembered for using pieces of Johann Strauss II 's best @-@ known waltz , The Blue Danube , during the extended space @-@ station docking and Lunar landing sequences . This is the result of the association that Kubrick made between the spinning motion of the satellites and the dancers of waltzes . It also makes use of the opening from the Richard Strauss tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra performed by the Vienna Philharmonic conducted by Herbert von Karajan . The use of Strauss 's Zarathustra may be a reference to the theme of mankind 's eventual replacement by supermen ( Übermensch ) in Nietzsche 's work Thus Spoke Zarathustra . Gayane 's Adagio from Aram Khachaturian 's Gayane ballet suite is heard during the sections that introduce Bowman and Poole aboard the Discovery , conveying a somewhat lonely and mournful quality .
In addition to the majestic yet fairly traditional compositions by the two Strausses and Khachaturian , Kubrick used four highly modernistic compositions by György Ligeti that employ micropolyphony , the use of sustained dissonant chords that shift slowly . This technique was pioneered in Atmosphères , the only Ligeti piece heard in its entirety in the film . Ligeti admired Kubrick 's film but , in addition to being irritated by Kubrick 's failure to obtain permission directly from him , he was offended that his music was used in a film soundtrack shared by composers Johann and Richard Strauss . Other music used is Ligeti 's Lux Aeterna , the second movement of his Requiem and an electronically altered form of his Aventures , the last of which was also used without Ligeti 's permission and is not listed in the film 's credits .
Hal 's version of the popular song " Daisy Bell " ( referred to by Hal as " Daisy " in the film ) was inspired by a computer @-@ synthesized arrangement by Max Mathews , which Arthur C. Clarke had heard in 1962 at the Bell Laboratories Murray Hill facility when he was , coincidentally , visiting friend and colleague John R. Pierce . At that time , a speech synthesis demonstration was being performed by physicist John Larry Kelly , Jr . , by using an IBM 704 computer to synthesize speech . Kelly 's voice recorder synthesizer vocoder recreated the song " Daisy Bell " ( " Bicycle Built For Two " ) ; Max Mathews provided the musical accompaniment . Arthur C. Clarke was so impressed that he later used it in the screenplay and novel .
Many non @-@ English language versions of the film do not use the song " Daisy " . In the French soundtrack , Hal sings the French folk song " Au Clair de la Lune " while being disconnected . In the German version , Hal sings the children 's song " Hänschen klein " ( " Little Johnny " ) , and in the Italian version Hal sings " Giro giro tondo " ( Ring a Ring o ' Roses ) .
A recording of British light music composer Sidney Torch 's " Off Beat Moods Part 1 " was chosen by Kubrick as the theme for the fictitious BBC news programme " The World Tonight " seen aboard the Discovery .
On June 25 , 2010 , a version of the film specially remastered by Warner Bros , without the music soundtrack , opened the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary celebrations of the Royal Society at Southbank Centre in cooperation with the British Film Institute . The score was played live by the Philharmonia Orchestra and Choir .
On June 14 , 2013 , a repeat presentation of the film accompanied by live orchestra and choir was performed at Symphony Hall in Birmingham , again accompanied by the Philharmonia Orchestra conducted by Benjamin Wallfisch together with the choir Ex Cathedra .
A presentation of the film accompanied by live orchestra and choir premiered in the United States on August 18 , 2015 at The Hollywood Bowl in Hollywood , California , accompanied by the Los Angeles Philharmonic conducted by Brad Lubman together with the choir Los Angeles Master Chorale .
= = = Editing = = =
Kubrick filmed several scenes that were deleted from the final film . These fall into two categories : scenes cut before any public screenings of the film , and scenes cut a few days after the world premiere on April 2 , 1968 .
The first ( ' pre @-@ premiere ' ) set of cuts included a school @-@ room on the Lunar base — a painting class around a decorative fountain that included Kubrick 's daughters , additional scenes of life on the base , and Floyd buying a bush baby from a department store via videophone for his daughter . Additionally , a ten @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white opening sequence featuring interviews with actual scientists , including Freeman Dyson discussing off @-@ Earth life , were removed after an early screening for MGM executives . The actual text survives in the book The Making of Kubrick 's 2001 by Jerome Agel .
The second ( ' post @-@ premiere ' ) set of cuts included details about the daily life on Discovery : additional space @-@ walks , astronaut Bowman retrieving a spare part from an octagonal corridor , elements from the Poole murder sequence including the entire space @-@ walk preparation and shots of Hal turning off radio contact with Poole , and a close @-@ up of Bowman picking up a slipper during his walk in the alien room . Agel describes the 19 minutes of post @-@ premiere cuts , made on April 5 – 6 , as coming from " Dawn of Man , Orion , Poole exercising in the centrifuge , and Poole 's pod exiting from Discovery . "
Kubrick 's rationale for editing the film was to tighten the narrative . Reviews suggested the film suffered too much by the radical departure from traditional cinematic story @-@ telling conventions . Regarding the cuts , Kubrick stated , " I didn 't believe that the trims made a critical difference . ... The people who like it , like it no matter what its length , and the same holds true for the people who hate it " . As was typical of most films of that era released both as a " road @-@ show " ( in Cinerama format in the case of Space Odyssey ) and subsequently put into general release ( in seventy @-@ millimetre in the case of Odyssey ) , the entrance music , intermission music ( and intermission altogether ) , and postcredit exit music were cut from most prints of the latter version , although these have been restored to most DVD releases .
According to Kubrick 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Jan Harlan , the director was adamant the trims were never to be seen , and that he " even burned the negatives " — which he had kept in his garage — shortly before his death . This is confirmed by former Kubrick assistant Leon Vitali : " I 'll tell you right now , okay , on Clockwork Orange , The Shining , Barry Lyndon , some little parts of 2001 , we had thousands of cans of negative outtakes and print , which we had stored in an area at his house where we worked out of , which he personally supervised the loading of it to a truck and then I went down to a big industrial waste lot and burned it . That 's what he wanted . "
= = = Missing cuts rediscovered = = =
In December 2010 , Douglas Trumbull announced that Warner Bros. had located seventeen minutes of lost footage , " perfectly preserved " , in a Kansas salt mine vault that originated from the post @-@ premiere cuts . No immediate plans have been announced for the footage .
= = Soundtrack = =
The initial MGM soundtrack album release contained none of the material from the altered and uncredited rendition of Ligeti 's " Aventures " , used a different recording of " Also sprach Zarathustra " from that heard in the film , this time performed by the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Herbert von Karajan , and a longer excerpt of " Lux aeterna " than that in the film .
In 1996 , Turner Entertainment / Rhino Records released a new soundtrack on CD which included the material from " Aventures " and restored the version of " Zarathustra " used in the film , and used the shorter version of " Lux aeterna " from the film . As additional " bonus tracks " at the end , this CD includes the versions of " Zarathustra " and " Lux aeterna " on the old MGM soundtrack , an unaltered performance of " Aventures " , and a nine @-@ minute compilation of all of Hal 's dialogue from the film .
North 's unused music had its first public appearance in Telarc 's issue of the main theme on Hollywood 's Greatest Hits , Vol . 2 , a compilation album by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra . All the music North originally wrote was recorded commercially by North 's friend and colleague Jerry Goldsmith with the National Philharmonic Orchestra and was released on Varèse Sarabande CDs shortly after Telarc 's first theme release but before North 's death . Eventually , a mono mix @-@ down of North 's original recordings , which had survived in the interim , would be released as a limited @-@ edition CD by Intrada Records .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The film 's world premiere was on April 2 , 1968 , at the Uptown Theater in Washington , D.C. It opened two days later at the Warner Cinerama Theatre in Hollywood and the Loew 's Capitol in New York . Kubrick then deleted nineteen minutes of footage from the film before its general release in five other U.S. cities on April 10 , 1968 , and internationally in five cities the following day , where it was shown in 70mm format , used a six @-@ track stereo magnetic soundtrack , and projected in the 2 @.@ 21 : 1 aspect ratio . The general release of the film in its 35mm anamorphic format took place in autumn 1968 and used either a four @-@ track magnetic stereo soundtrack or an optical monaural soundtrack .
The original seventy @-@ millimetre release , like many Super Panavision 70 films of the era such as Grand Prix , was advertised as being in " Cinerama " in cinemas equipped with special projection optics and a deeply curved screen . In standard cinemas , the film was identified as a seventy @-@ millimetre production . The original release of 2001 : A Space Odyssey in seventy @-@ millimetre Cinerama with six @-@ track sound played continually for more than a year in several venues , and for one hundred and three weeks in Los Angeles .
The following year , 2001 was appointed by a United States Department of State committee to be the American entry at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival . The film was re @-@ released in 1974 , 1977 , and again in 1980 . Once 2001 , the film 's timeset , arrived , a restoration of the seventy @-@ millimetre version was screened at the Ebert 's Overlooked Film Festival , and the production was also reissued to selected film houses in North America , Europe and Asia .
= = = Home video = = =
The film has been released in several forms :
In 1980 , MGM / CBS Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax home video .
In 1983 , it was released on LaserDisc by MGM in full screen .
In 1987 , it was released on VHS by MGM / UA Home Video .
In 1989 , The Criterion Collection released a 3 @-@ disc special LaserDisc edition with a transfer monitored by Kubrick himself .
In 1997 , MGM released the film on DVD .
In 1999 , it was re @-@ released on VHS , and as part of the " Stanley Kubrick Collection " in both VHS format ( 1999 ) and DVD ( 2000 ) with remastered sound and picture . In some video releases , three title cards were added to the three " blank screen " moments ; " OVERTURE " at the beginning , " ENTR 'ACTE " during the intermission , and " EXIT MUSIC " after the closing credits .
Additionally , the film has been released in high definition on both HD DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc .
The film 's distribution rights were transferred to Warner Bros. in 1999 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box @-@ office = = =
The film earned $ 8 @.@ 5 million in theatrical gross rental from roadshow engagements throughout 1968 , contributing to North American rentals of $ 15 million during its original release . Reissues have brought its cumulative exhibition gross to $ 56 @.@ 9 million in North America , and over $ 190 million worldwide .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Upon release , 2001 polarized critical opinion , receiving both ecstatic praise and vehement derision . Some critics viewed the original 161 @-@ minute cut shown at premieres in Washington D.C. , New York , and Los Angeles , while others saw the nineteen @-@ minute @-@ shorter general release version that was in theatres from April 10 , 1968 onwards .
In The New Yorker , Penelope Gilliatt said it was " some kind of great film , and an unforgettable endeavor ... The film is hypnotically entertaining , and it is funny without once being gaggy , but it is also rather harrowing . " Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times opined that it was " the picture that science fiction fans of every age and in every corner of the world have prayed ( sometimes forlornly ) that the industry might some day give them . It is an ultimate statement of the science fiction film , an awesome realization of the spatial future ... it is a milestone , a landmark for a spacemark , in the art of film . " Louise Sweeney of The Christian Science Monitor felt that 2001 was " a brilliant intergalactic satire on modern technology . It 's also a dazzling 160 @-@ minute tour on the Kubrick filmship through the universe out there beyond our earth . " Philip French wrote that the film was " perhaps the first multi @-@ million @-@ dollar supercolossal movie since D.W. Griffith 's Intolerance fifty years ago which can be regarded as the work of one man ... Space Odyssey is important as the high @-@ water mark of science @-@ fiction movie making , or at least of the genre 's futuristic branch . " The Boston Globe 's review indicated that it was " the world 's most extraordinary film . Nothing like it has ever been shown in Boston before or , for that matter , anywhere ... The film is as exciting as the discovery of a new dimension in life . " Roger Ebert gave the film four stars in his original review , believing the film " succeeds magnificently on a cosmic scale . " He later put it on his Top 10 list for Sight & Sound . Time provided at least seven different mini @-@ reviews of the film in various issues in 1968 , each one slightly more positive than the preceding one ; in the final review dated December 27 , 1968 , the magazine called 2001 " an epic film about the history and future of mankind , brilliantly directed by Stanley Kubrick . The special effects are mindblowing . " Director Martin Scorsese has also listed it as one of his favourite films of all time . Critic David Denby later compared Kubrick to the monolith from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , calling him " a force of supernatural intelligence , appearing at great intervals amid high @-@ pitched shrieks , who gives the world a violent kick up the next rung of the evolutionary ladder " .
Pauline Kael said it was " a monumentally unimaginative movie " , and Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic called it " a film that is so dull , it even dulls our interest in the technical ingenuity for the sake of which Kubrick has allowed it to become dull . " Renata Adler of The New York Times wrote that it was " somewhere between hypnotic and immensely boring . " Variety 's ' Robe ' believed the film was a " [ b ] ig , beautiful , but plodding sci @-@ fi epic ... A major achievement in cinematography and special effects , 2001 lacks dramatic appeal to a large degree and only conveys suspense after the halfway mark . " Andrew Sarris called it " one of the grimmest films I have ever seen in my life ... 2001 is a disaster because it is much too abstract to make its abstract points . " ( Sarris reversed his opinion upon a second viewing of the film , and declared , " 2001 is indeed a major work by a major artist . " ) John Simon felt it was " a regrettable failure , although not a total one . This film is fascinating when it concentrates on apes or machines ... and dreadful when it deals with the in @-@ betweens : humans ... 2001 , for all its lively visual and mechanical spectacle , is a kind of space @-@ Spartacus and , more pretentious still , a shaggy God story . " Eminent historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr. deemed the film " morally pretentious , intellectually obscure and inordinately long ... a film out of control " . The BBC said that its slow pacing often alienates modern audiences more than it did upon its initial release .
= = = Science fiction writers = = =
Science fiction writers had a range of reactions to the film . Ray Bradbury praised the film 's photography , but disliked the banality of most of the dialogue , and believed that the audience does not care when Poole dies . Both he and Lester del Rey were put off by the film 's feeling of sterility and blandness in all the human encounters amidst all the technological wonders , while both praised the pictorial element of the film . Del Rey was especially harsh , describing the film as dull , confusing , and boring , predicting " [ i ] t will probably be a box @-@ office disaster , too , and thus set major science @-@ fiction movie making back another ten years . " However , the film was praised by science @-@ fiction novelist Samuel R. Delany who was impressed by how the film undercuts the audience 's normal sense of space and orientation in several ways . Like Bradbury , Delany picked up on the banality of the dialogue ( in Delany 's phrasing the characters are saying nothing meaningful ) , but Delany regards this as a dramatic strength , a prelude to the rebirth at the conclusion of the film . Without analyzing the film in detail , Isaac Asimov spoke well of Space Odyssey in his autobiography , and other essays . The film won the Hugo Award for best dramatic presentation , an award heavily voted on by science fiction fans and published science @-@ fiction writers . James P. Hogan liked the film but complained about the ending that didn 't make any sense to him , leading to a bet about whether he could write something better or not ; " I stole Arthur 's plot idea shamelessly and produced Inherit the Stars . "
= = Influence = =
= = = Influence on film = = =
The influence of 2001 on subsequent filmmakers is considerable . Steven Spielberg , George Lucas and others , including many special effects technicians , discuss the impact the film has had on them in a featurette titled Standing on the Shoulders of Kubrick : The Legacy of 2001 , included in the 2007 DVD release of the film . Spielberg calls it his film generation 's " big bang " , while Lucas says it was " hugely inspirational " , labeling Kubrick as " the filmmaker 's filmmaker " . Sydney Pollack refers to it as " groundbreaking " , and William Friedkin states 2001 is " the grandfather of all such films " . At the 2007 Venice film festival , director Ridley Scott stated he believed 2001 was the unbeatable film that in a sense killed the science fiction genre . Similarly , film critic Michel Ciment in his essay " Odyssey of Stanley Kubrick " stated , " Kubrick has conceived a film which in one stroke has made the whole science fiction cinema obsolete . " However , others credit 2001 with opening up a market for films such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Alien , Blade Runner and Contact ; proving that big @-@ budget " serious " science @-@ fiction films can be commercially successful , and establishing the " sci @-@ fi blockbuster " as a Hollywood staple . Science magazine Discover 's blogger Stephen Cass , discussing the considerable impact of the film on subsequent science @-@ fiction , writes that " the balletic spacecraft scenes set to sweeping classical music , the tarantula @-@ soft tones of HAL 9000 , and the ultimate alien artifact , the Monolith , have all become enduring cultural icons in their own right . "
= = = Influence on media = = =
One commentator has suggested that the image of the Star Child and Earth has contributed to the rise of the " whole earth " icon as a symbol of the unity of humanity . Writing in The Asia Pacific Journal Robert Jacobs traces the history of this icon from early cartoons and drawings of Earth to photographs of Earth from early space missions , to its historic appearance on the cover of The Whole Earth Catalog . Noting that images of the entire planet recur several times in A Space Odyssey , Jacobs writes
the most dramatic use of the icon was in the film 's conclusion . In this scene ... Bowman is reborn as the Star Child ... depicted as a fetus floating in space in an amniotic sac . The Star Child turns to consider the Whole Earth floating in front of it , both glowing a bright blue @-@ white . The two appear as newborn versions of Man and Earth , face @-@ to @-@ face , ready to be born into a future of unthinkable possibilities .
= = = Influence on technology = = =
In August 2011 , in response to Apple Inc . ' s patent infringement lawsuit against Samsung , the latter argued that Apple 's iPad was effectively modeled on the visual tablets that appear aboard spaceship Discovery in the Space Odyssey film , which constitute prior art .
" Siri " , Apple 's natural language voice control system for the iPhone 4S , features a reference to the film : it responds " I 'm sorry I can 't do that " when asked to " open the pod bay doors " . When asked repeatedly , it may say , " Without your space helmet , you 're going to find this rather ... breathtaking . "
Inspired by Clarke 's visual tablet device , in 1994 a European Commission @-@ funded R & D project code named " NewsPAD " developed and pilot tested a portable ' multimedia viewer ' aiming for the realisation of an electronic multimedia ' newspaper ' pointing the way to a future fully interactive and highly personalised information source . Involved partners were Acorn RISC Technologies UK , Archimedes GR , Carat FR , Ediciones Primera Plana ES , Institut Català de Tecnologia ES , and TechMAPP UK .
= = Accolades and honors = =
= = = Awards = = =
2001 earned Stanley Kubrick an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , as well as nominations for Best Director and Original Screenplay ( shared with Arthur C. Clarke ) . Anthony Masters was also nominated for Best Art Direction . An honorary award was made to John Chambers in that year for his make @-@ up work on Planet of the Apes , and Clarke reports that he " wondered , as loudly as possible , whether the judges had passed over 2001 because they thought we had used real ape @-@ men " . The film won four Baftas , for Art Direction , Cinematography , Sound Track and as Best Road Show , and was a nominee in the Best Film category .
The National Board of Review listed 2001 among the Top Ten Films of 1968 , and Kansas City Film Critics gave it both the Best Film and Best Director awards . Kubrick earned the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , and was nominated for both the Directors Guild of America Award , and the Laurel Award ( on which 2001 was named the Best Road Show of 1968 ) . Both the Cinema Writers Circle of Spain and the David di Donatello Awards in Italy named 2001 the best foreign production of 1968 .
= = = Top film lists = = =
2001 was No. 15 on AFI 's 2007 100 Years ... 100 Movies , was named No. 40 on its 100 Years , 100 Thrills , was included on its 100 Years , 100 Quotes ( " Open the pod bay doors , Hal . " ) , and Hal 9000 is the No. 13 villain in the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains . 2001 is the only science fiction film to make the Sight & Sound poll for ten best films , and tops the Online Film Critics Society list of " greatest science fiction films of all time . " In 1991 , this film was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry . Other lists that include the film are 50 Films to See Before You Die ( # 6 ) , The Village Voice 100 Best Films of the 20th century ( # 11 ) , the Sight & Sound Top Ten poll ( # 6 ) , and Roger Ebert 's Top Ten ( 1968 ) ( # 2 ) . In 1995 , the Vatican named it as one of the 45 best films ever made ( and included it in a sub @-@ list of the " Top Ten Art Movies " of all time . )
In 2011 , the film was the third most screened film in secondary schools in the United Kingdom .
American Film Institute recognition
1998 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 22
2001 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – # 40
2003 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains :
HAL 9000 – # 13 Villain
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Open the pod bay doors , HAL . " – # 78
" Dave , stop . Stop , will you ? Stop , Dave . Will you stop , Dave ? Stop , Dave . I 'm afraid . " – Nominated
2006 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers – # 47
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 15
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 – # 1 Science Fiction Film
= = Interpretation = =
Since its premiere , 2001 : A Space Odyssey has been analyzed and interpreted by professional film critics , amateur writers and science fiction fans , virtually all of whom have mentioned its deliberate ambiguity . Questions about 2001 range from uncertainty about its deeper philosophical implications about humanity 's origins and final destiny in the universe , to interpreting elements of the film 's more enigmatic scenes such as the meaning of the monolith , or the final fate of astronaut David Bowman . There are also simpler and more mundane questions about what drives the plot , in particular the causes of Hal 's breakdown ( explained in earlier drafts but kept mysterious in the film ) .
Stanley Kubrick encouraged people to explore their own interpretations of the film and refused to offer an explanation of " what really happened " in the film , preferring instead to let audiences embrace their own ideas and theories . In a 1968 interview with Playboy magazine , Kubrick stated :
You 're free to speculate as you wish about the philosophical and allegorical meaning of the film — and such speculation is one indication that it has succeeded in gripping the audience at a deep level — but I don 't want to spell out a verbal road map for 2001 that every viewer will feel obligated to pursue or else fear he 's missed the point .
In a subsequent discussion of the film with Joseph Gelmis , Kubrick said his main aim was to avoid " intellectual verbalization " and reach " the viewer 's subconscious . " However , he said he did not deliberately strive for ambiguity — it was simply an inevitable outcome of making the film nonverbal , though he acknowledged this ambiguity was an invaluable asset to the film . He was willing then to give a fairly straightforward explanation of the plot on what he called the " simplest level , " but unwilling to discuss the metaphysical interpretation of the film which he felt should be left up to the individual viewer .
For some readers , Arthur C. Clarke 's more straightforward novelization of the script is key to interpreting the film . Clarke 's novel explicitly identifies the monolith as a tool created by an alien race that has been through many stages of evolution , moving from organic form to biomechanical , and finally achieving a state of pure energy . These aliens travel the cosmos assisting lesser species to take evolutionary steps . Conversely , film critic Penelope Houston wrote in 1971 that because the novel differs in many key respects from the film , it perhaps should not be regarded as the skeleton key to unlock it .
Multiple allegorical interpretations of 2001 have been proposed , including seeing it as a commentary on Friedrich Nietzsche 's philosophical tract Thus Spoke Zarathustra , or as an allegory of human conception , birth and death . The latter can be seen through the final moments of the film , which are defined by the image of the " star child , " an in utero fetus that draws on the work of Lennart Nilsson . The star child signifies a " great new beginning , " and is depicted naked and ungirded , but with its eyes wide open . Leonard F. Wheat sees Space Odyssey as a multi @-@ layered allegory , commenting simultaneously on Nietzsche , Homer , and the relationship of man to machine .
The reasons for Hal 's malfunction and subsequent malignant behavior have also elicited much discussion . He has been compared to Frankenstein 's monster . In Clarke 's novel , Hal malfunctions because of being ordered to lie to the crew of Discovery and withhold confidential information from them , despite being constructed for " the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment " . Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that Hal , as the supposedly perfect computer , actually behaves in the most human fashion of all of the characters .
Rolling Stone reviewer Bob McClay sees the film as like a four @-@ movement symphony , its story told with " deliberate realism . " Carolyn Geduld believes that what " structurally unites all four episodes of the film " is the monolith , the film 's largest and most unresolvable enigma . Vincent LoBrutto 's biography of Kubrick says that for many , Clarke 's novel is the key to understanding the monolith . Similarly , Geduld observes that " the monolith ... has a very simple explanation in Clarke 's novel , " though she later asserts that even the novel doesn 't fully explain the ending .
McClay 's Rolling Stone review describes a parallelism between the monolith 's first appearance in which tool usage is imparted to the apes ( thus ' beginning ' mankind ) and the completion of " another evolution " in the fourth and final encounter with the monolith . In a similar vein , Tim Dirks ends his synopsis saying " [ t ] he cyclical evolution from ape to man to spaceman to angel @-@ starchild @-@ superman is complete . "
The first and second encounters of humanity with the monolith have visual elements in common ; both apes , and later astronauts , touch the monolith gingerly with their hands , and both sequences conclude with near @-@ identical images of the Sun appearing directly over the monolith ( the first with a crescent moon adjacent to it in the sky , the second with a near @-@ identical crescent Earth in the same position ) , both echoing the Sun – Earth – Moon alignment seen at the very beginning of the film . The second encounter also suggests the triggering of the monolith 's radio signal to Jupiter by the presence of humans , echoing the premise of Clarke 's source story " The Sentinel " .
The monolith is the subject of the film 's final line of dialogue ( spoken at the end of the " Jupiter Mission " segment ) : " Its origin and purpose still a total mystery . " Reviewers McClay and Roger Ebert wrote that the monolith is the main element of mystery in the film ; Ebert described " the shock of the monolith 's straight edges and square corners among the weathered rocks , " and the apes warily circling it as prefiguring man reaching " for the stars . " Patrick Webster suggests the final line relates to how the film should be approached as a whole , noting " The line appends not merely to the discovery of the monolith on the Moon , but to our understanding of the film in the light of the ultimate questions it raises about the mystery of the universe . "
The film conveys what some viewers have described as a sense of the sublime and numinous . Roger Ebert writes in his essay on 2001 in The Great Movies :
North 's [ rejected ] score , which is available on a recording , is a good job of film composition , but would have been wrong for 2001 because , like all scores , it attempts to underline the action — to give us emotional cues . The classical music chosen by Kubrick exists outside the action . It uplifts . It wants to be sublime ; it brings a seriousness and transcendence to the visuals .
In a book on architecture , Gregory Caicco writes that Space Odyssey illustrates how our quest for space is motivated by two contradictory desires , a " desire for the sublime " characterized by a need to encounter something totally other than ourselves — " something numinous " — and the conflicting desire for a beauty that makes us feel no longer " lost in space , " but at home . Similarly , an article in The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy , titled " Sense of Wonder , " describes how 2001 creates a " numinous sense of wonder " by portraying a universe that inspires a sense of awe , which at the same time we feel we can understand . Christopher Palmer wrote that there exists in the film a coexistence of " the sublime and the banal , " as the film implies that to get into space , mankind had to suspend the " sense of wonder " that motivated him to explore space to begin with .
= = Sequels and adaptations = =
Kubrick did not envision a sequel to 2001 . Fearing the later exploitation and recycling of his material in other productions ( as was done with the props from MGM 's Forbidden Planet ) , he ordered all sets , props , miniatures , production blueprints , and prints of unused scenes destroyed . Most of these materials were lost , with some exceptions : a 2001 spacesuit backpack appeared in the " Close Up " episode of the Gerry Anderson series UFO , and one of Hal 's eyepieces is in the possession of the author of Hal 's Legacy , David G. Stork . In 2012 Lockheed engineer Adam Johnson , working with Frederick I. Ordway III , science adviser to Kubrick , wrote the book 2001 : The Lost Science , which for the first time featured many of the blueprints of the spacecraft and film sets that previously had been thought destroyed .
Clarke wrote three sequel novels : 2010 : Odyssey Two ( 1982 ) , 2061 : Odyssey Three ( 1987 ) , and 3001 : The Final Odyssey ( 1997 ) . The only filmed sequel , 2010 , was based on Clarke 's 1982 novel and was released in 1984 . Kubrick was not involved in the production of this film , which was directed by Peter Hyams in a more conventional style with more dialogue . Clarke saw it as a fitting adaptation of his novel , and had a brief cameo appearance in the film . As Kubrick had ordered all models and blueprints from 2001 destroyed , Hyams was forced to recreate these models from scratch for 2010 . Hyams also claimed that he would not have made the film had he not received both Kubrick 's and Clarke 's blessings :
I had a long conversation with Stanley and told him what was going on . If it met with his approval , I would do the film ; and if it didn 't , I wouldn 't . I certainly would not have thought of doing the film if I had not gotten the blessing of Kubrick . He 's one of my idols ; simply one of the greatest talents that 's ever walked the Earth . He more or less said , " Sure . Go do it . I don 't care . " And another time he said , " Don 't be afraid . Just go do your own movie . "
The other two novels have not been adapted for the screen , although actor Tom Hanks has expressed interest in possible adaptations .
In 2012 , two screenplay adaptations of both 2061 and 3001 were posted on the 2001 : Exhibit website , in the hopes of generating interest in both MGM and Warner Bros. to adapt the last two novels into films .
Beginning in 1976 , Marvel Comics published a comic adaptation of the film written and drawn by Jack Kirby , and a 10 @-@ issue monthly series expanding on the ideas of the film and novel , also created by Kirby .
= = Parodies and homages = =
2001 has been the frequent subject of both parody and homage , sometimes extensively and other times briefly , employing both its distinctive music and iconic imagery .
= = = In advertising and print = = =
Mad magazine # 125 ( March 1969 ) featured a spoof called 201 Minutes of a Space Idiocy written by Dick DeBartolo and illustrated by Mort Drucker . In the final panels it is revealed that the monolith is a film script titled " ' How to Make an Incomprehensible Science Fiction Movie ' by Stanley Kubrick " . It was reprinted in various special issues , in the MAD About the Sixties book , and partially in the book " The Making of Kubrick 's 2001 " .
The August 1971 album Who 's Next by The Who featured as its cover artwork a photograph of a concrete slab at Easington Colliery with the band apparently doing up their trouser zips . The decision to photograph this " monolith " image while on their way to a concert followed discussion between John Entwistle and Keith Moon about Kubrick 's film .
Thought to be the first time Kubrick gave permission for his work to be re @-@ used , Apple Inc . ' s 1999 website advertisement " It was a bug , Dave " was made using footage from the film . Launched during the era of concerns over Y2K bugs , the ad implied that Hal 's weird behavior was caused by a Y2K bug , before driving home the point that " only Macintosh was designed to function perfectly " .
= = = In film and television = = =
Mel Brooks ' satirical film History of the World , Part I opens with a parody of Kubrick 's " Dawn of Man " sequence , followed by the parody of One Million Years BC , narrated by Orson Welles . DVDVerdict describes this parody as " spot on " . A similar spoof of the " Dawn of Man " sequence also opened Ken Shapiro 's 1974 comedy The Groove Tube in which the monolith was replaced by a television set . ( The film is mostly a parody of television . Film and Filming held that after this wonderful opening , the film slid downhill . )
Woody Allen cast actor Douglas Rain ( Hal in Kubrick 's film ) in an uncredited part as the voice of the controlling computer in the closing sequences of his science @-@ fiction comedy Sleeper .
Matt Groening 's animated series The Simpsons , of which Kubrick was a fan , and Futurama frequently reference 2001 , along with other Kubrick films . The Simpsons had in the episode " Deep Space Homer " Bart throwing a felt @-@ tip marker into the air ; in slow motion it rotates , before a match cut replaces it with a cylindrical satellite . In 2004 Empire magazine listed this as the third best film parody of the entire run of the show . In the Futurama episode " Love and Rocket " a sentient spaceship revolts in a manner similar to Hal . Games Radar listed this as number 17 in its list of 20 Funniest Futurama parodies , while noting that Futurama has referenced Space Odyssey on several other occasions .
In the 2000 South Park episode " Trapper Keeper " , an interaction between Eric Cartman and Kyle Broflovski parodies the conversation between Hal and Bowman within the inner core .
Peter Sellers starred in Hal Ashby 's comedy @-@ drama Being There about a simple @-@ minded middle @-@ aged gardener who has lived his entire life in the townhouse of his wealthy employer . In the scene where he first leaves the house and ventures into the wide world for the first time , the soundtrack plays a jazzy version of Strauss ' Also Sprach Zarathustra arranged by Eumir Deodato . Film critic James A. Davidson writing for the film journal Images suggests " When Chance emerges from his home into the world , Ashby suggests his childlike nature by using Richard Strauss ' Thus Spake Zarathustra as ironic background music , linking his hero with Kubrick 's star baby in his masterpiece 2001 : A Space Odyssey . "
Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory has a scene ( using actual footage from A Space Odyssey ) in which the monolith morphs into a chocolate bar . Catholic News wrote that the film " had subtle and obvious riffs on everything from the saccharine Disney " Small World " exhibit to Munchkinland to , most brilliantly , a hilarious takeoff on Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey . "
Andrew Stanton , the director of WALL @-@ E , revealed in an interview with Wired magazine that his film was in many ways his homage to Space Odyssey , Alien , Blade Runner , Close Encounters and several other science @-@ fiction films . The reviewer for USA Today described the resemblance of the spaceship 's computer , Auto , to Hal . The same year saw the release of the much less successful film Eagle Eye , about which The Charlotte Observer said that , like 2001 , it featured a " red @-@ eyed , calm @-@ voiced supercomputer that took human life to protect what it felt were higher objectives "
Commenting on the broader use of Ligeti 's music beyond that by Kubrick , London Magazine in 2006 mentioned Monty Python 's use of Ligeti in a 60 @-@ second spoof of Space Odyssey in the Flying Circus episode commonly labeled " A Book at Bedtime " .
The poorly reviewed Canadian spoof 2001 : A Space Travesty has been occasionally alluded to as a full parody of Kubrick 's film , both because of its title and star Leslie Nielsen 's many previous films which were full parodies of other films . However , Space Travesty only makes occasional references to Kubrick 's material , its " celebrities are really aliens " jokes resembling those in Men in Black . Canadian reviewer Jim Slotek said , " It 's not really a spoof of 2001 , or anything in particular . There 's a brief homage at the start , and one scene in a shuttle en route to the Moon that uses The Blue Danube ... The rest is a patched together plot . " Among many complaints about the film , reviewer Berge Garabedian derided the lack of much substantive connection to the Kubrick film ( the latter of which he said was " funnier " ) .
Among spoof references to several science @-@ fiction films and shows , Airplane II features a computer called ROK 9000 in control of a Moon shuttle which malfunctions and kills crew members , which several reviewers found reminiscent of Hal .
Mystery Science Theater 3000 had the design of its main setting , the starship Satellite of Love , based on the bone @-@ shaped satellite featured in the match cut from prehistoria to the future . The one @-@ eyed design of the robot Gypsy led the show to do various scenes comparing it to HAL 9000 , including a scene the 1996 feature film , where the opening featuring Mike Nelson jogging along the walls of the Satellite of Love parodies the scene where Frank Poole does the same in the Discovery .
= = = In software and video games = = =
2001 : A Space Odyssey has also been referenced in multiple video games ( especially Metal Gear ) , usually with reference to either the monolith or Hal .
Several black monoliths can be found in EVE Online , marked by a beacon with name " Black monolith " . Their purpose in game is unknown . The objects are described in @-@ game as " It 's full of stars " , which is reference to the film 's sequel , 2010 : The Year We Make Contact .
Video game director Hideo Kojima has also cited 2001 : A Space Odyssey as his favorite movie of all time and is frequently referenced in the Metal Gear series ; Otacon is named after Hal and Solid Snake 's real name is Dave .
= Hermann Graf =
Hermann Graf ( 24 October 1912 – 4 November 1988 ) was a German Luftwaffe World War II fighter ace . A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . He served on both the Eastern and Western Fronts . He became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 200 aerial victories — that is , 200 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft . He claimed 212 aerial victories in over 830 combat missions , 202 of which were on the Eastern Front .
Graf , a pre @-@ war football player and glider pilot , joined the Luftwaffe in 1935 . He was initially selected for transport aviation and was posted to Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) in May 1939 . At the outbreak of war he was stationed on the German – Franco border flying uneventful patrols . Serving as a flight instructor , he was stationed in Romania as part of a German military mission training Romanian pilots . Graf flew a few ground support missions in the closing days of the German invasion of Crete .
Following the start of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , Graf claimed his first aerial victory on 4 August 1941 . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( German : Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) after 45 Eastern Front victories on 24 January 1942 . By 16 September 1942 his number of victories had increased to 172 for which he was honored with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) . At the time of its presentation to Graf it was Germany 's highest military decoration . On 26 September 1942 he became the first fighter pilot in aviation history to claim 200 enemy aircraft shot down .
By then a national hero , Graf was taken off combat operations and posted to a fighter pilot training school in France before being tasked with leadership of a high flying de Havilland Mosquito intercept unit called Jagdgeschwader 50 ( JG 50 — Fighter Wing 50 ) . In November 1943 Graf returned to combat operations . He was appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 11 ( JG 11 — 11th Fighter Wing ) and claimed his last aerial victory on 29 March 1944 . He was severely injured during this encounter and , after a period of convalescence , became Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) . He and the remainder of JG 52 surrendered to units of the United States Army on 8 May 1945 , and were turned over to the Red Army . Graf was held in Soviet captivity until 1949 . After the war he worked as an electronic sales manager and died of Parkinson 's disease in his home town of Engen on 4 November 1988 .
= = Early life = =
Hermann Anton Graf was born on 24 October 1912 in Engen in the Grand Duchy of Baden not far from the Swiss border , the son of Wilhelm Graf ( 1878 – 1937 ) , a farmer , and his wife Maria , née Sailer ( 1877 – 1953 ) . He was the third of three children , with two older brothers , Wilhelm Wilhelm ( 1904 – 1981 ) and Josef Wilhelm ( 1909 – 1981 ) . His father had fought in World War I as an artillery soldier and was awarded the Iron Cross ( Eisernes Kreuz ) . He did not return home until Hermann was six years old . The young Hermann 's main reference point in his life was his mother , and the bond he formed with her lasted the remainder of her life . Inflation in the Weimar Republic in 1923 wiped out all the family savings , as a result , from a very early age , Hermann learned to work hard to make a living .
= = = Childhood = = =
As a young boy , Graf was fascinated by football . He started with the football club DJK Engen ( Deutsche Jugendkraft — Literally " German Youthful Strength " , a Catholic sports organization dating back to 1920 ) and later became a goalkeeper in FC Höhen . In his teens , he had been selected to join a group of talented young football players who were trained by Sepp Herberger , a former forward ( 1921 – 1925 ) of the German national football team and later head coach of the German team winning the 1954 FIFA World Cup . A broken thumb ended all of Graf 's early hopes for a career on the national football team .
Graf graduated from the Volksschule ( primary school ) in 1926 at the age of thirteen . Since the savings for Graf 's higher education had been lost in the 1923 inflation crisis , he had no option but to apply for a vocational education . For the next three years , Graf worked as a locksmith apprentice at a local factory . A locksmith had a low income and when he received an offer to work as an apprentice clerk , he gladly accepted a change in careers . In this position , Graf helped Jewish families escape to Switzerland at a time when the " J " stamp in German Jews ' passport had been demanded by Germany 's neighboring countries . He took a great personal risk and came close to getting caught . Graf was assisted by Gruppenführer ( Group Leader ) Albert Keller of the Nazi Glider Club NSFK in Engen , who later erased all the bureaucratic traces that Graf had left .
= = = Amateur pilot and joining the Luftwaffe = = =
Graf saw his first aircraft when he was twelve years old and this sight caused an emotional conflict between his old passion for football and a new obsession with aviation . He worked at the Engen town hall in 1930 , saving all his money to buy a glider . Before his 20th birthday he contributed a homemade glider to the newly founded Engen Glider Club . Every Sunday he would go out to the nearby Ballenberg mountain until an almost fatal crash destroyed his glider in the fall of 1932 . In 1935 when Adolf Hitler nullified the Treaty of Versailles , Hermann Graf applied for flight training in the newly created Luftwaffe .
Graf was accepted for the Luftwaffe 's A @-@ level pilot training school in Karlsruhe on 2 June 1936 . Following
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's first pregnancy in 1840 , in the first few months of the marriage , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother . Oxford fired twice , but either both bullets missed or , as he later claimed , the guns had no shot . He was tried for high treason and found guilty , but was acquitted on the grounds of insanity . In the immediate aftermath of the attack , Victoria 's popularity soared , mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis . Her daughter , also named Victoria , was born on 21 November 1840 . The Queen hated being pregnant , viewed breast @-@ feeding with disgust , and thought newborn babies were ugly . Nevertheless , over the following seventeen years , she and Albert had a further eight children : Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( b . 1841 ) , Alice ( b . 1843 ) , Alfred ( b . 1844 ) , Helena ( b . 1846 ) , Louise ( b . 1848 ) , Arthur ( b . 1850 ) , Leopold ( b . 1853 ) and Beatrice ( b . 1857 ) .
Victoria 's household was largely run by her childhood governess , Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover . Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria , and had supported her against the Kensington System . Albert , however , thought Lehzen was incompetent , and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter 's health . After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue , Lehzen was pensioned off , and Victoria 's close relationship with her ended .
= = 1842 – 1860 = =
On 29 May 1842 , Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall , London , when John Francis aimed a pistol at her but the gun did not fire ; he escaped . The following day , Victoria drove the same route , though faster and with a greater escort , in a deliberate attempt to provoke Francis to take a second aim and catch him in the act . As expected , Francis shot at her , but he was seized by plain @-@ clothes policemen , and convicted of high treason . On 3 July , two days after Francis 's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life , John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen , but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge . Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840 . Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail . In a similar attack in 1849 , unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder @-@ filled pistol at Victoria 's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill , London . In 1850 , the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex @-@ army officer , Robert Pate . As Victoria was riding in a carriage , Pate struck her with his cane , crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead . Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years ' transportation .
Melbourne 's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria 's reign , and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated . Peel became prime minister , and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced .
In 1845 , Ireland was hit by a potato blight . In the next four years over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine . In Ireland , Victoria was labelled " The Famine Queen " . She personally donated £ 2 @,@ 000 to the British Relief Association , more than any other individual famine relief donor , and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland , despite Protestant opposition . The story that she donated only £ 5 in aid to the Irish , and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home , was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century .
By 1846 , Peel 's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws . Many Tories — by then known also as Conservatives — were opposed to the repeal , but Peel , some Tories ( the " Peelites " ) , most Whigs and Victoria supported it . Peel resigned in 1846 , after the repeal narrowly passed , and was replaced by Lord John Russell .
Internationally , Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain . She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans , who were related by marriage through the Coburgs . In 1843 and 1845 , she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at château d 'Eu in Normandy ; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French one since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 . When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844 , he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign . Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848 , and fled to exile in England . At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848 , Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House , a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped . Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support , and the scare died down without any major disturbances . Victoria 's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success , but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism .
Russell 's ministry , though Whig , was not favoured by the Queen . She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary , Lord Palmerston , who often acted without consulting the Cabinet , the Prime Minister , or the Queen . Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge , but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative , despite her repeated remonstrances . It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government 's approval of President Louis @-@ Napoleon Bonaparte 's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister . The following year , President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III , by which time Russell 's administration had been replaced by a short @-@ lived minority government led by Lord Derby .
In 1853 , Victoria gave birth to her eighth child , Leopold , with the aid of the new anaesthetic , chloroform . Victoria was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child , Beatrice , despite opposition from members of the clergy , who considered it against biblical teaching , and members of the medical profession , who thought it dangerous . Victoria may have suffered from post @-@ natal depression after many of her pregnancies . Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self @-@ control . For example , about a month after Leopold 's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her " continuance of hysterics " over a " miserable trifle " .
In early 1855 , the government of Lord Aberdeen , who had replaced Derby , fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War . Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry , but neither had sufficient support , and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister .
Napoleon III , since the Crimean War Britain 's closest ally , visited London in April 1855 , and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit . Napoleon III met the couple at Dunkirk and accompanied them to Paris . They visited the Exposition Universelle ( a successor to Albert 's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition ) and Napoleon I 's tomb at Les Invalides ( to which his remains had only been returned in 1840 ) , and were guests of honour at a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ guest ball at the Palace of Versailles .
On 14 January 1858 , an Italian refugee from Britain called Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England . The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government , and Palmerston resigned . Derby was reinstated as prime minister . Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858 , in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere . On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French one . Derby 's ministry did not last long , and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office .
Eleven days after Orsini 's assassination attempt in France , Victoria 's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London . They had been betrothed since September 1855 , when Princess Victoria was 14 years old ; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and Prince Albert until the bride was 17 . The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state . Victoria felt " sick at heart " to see her daughter leave England for Germany ; " It really makes me shudder " , she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters , " when I look round to all your sweet , happy , unconscious sisters , and think I must give them up too – one by one . " Almost exactly a year later , Princess Victoria gave birth to the Queen 's first grandchild , Wilhelm , who would become the last German Kaiser .
= = Widowhood = =
In March 1861 , Victoria 's mother died , with Victoria at her side . Through reading her mother 's papers , Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply ; she was heart @-@ broken , and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for " wickedly " estranging her from her mother . To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief , Albert took on most of her duties , despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble . In August , Victoria and Albert visited their son , the Prince of Wales , who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin , and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney . In November , Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland . Appalled , Albert travelled to Cambridge , where his son was studying , to confront him . By the beginning of December , Albert was very unwell . He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner , and died on 14 December 1861 . Victoria was devastated . She blamed her husband 's death on worry over the Prince of Wales 's philandering . He had been " killed by that dreadful business " , she said . She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life . She avoided public appearances , and rarely set foot in London in the following years . Her seclusion earned her the nickname " widow of Windsor " .
Victoria 's self @-@ imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy , and encouraged the growth of the republican movement . She did undertake her official government duties , yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences — Windsor Castle , Osborne House , and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847 , Balmoral Castle . In March 1864 , a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced " these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant 's declining business " . Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public . She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage .
Through the 1860s , Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland , John Brown . Slanderous rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print , and the Queen was referred to as " Mrs. Brown " . The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown . A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy , and Victoria published a book , Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands , which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly .
Palmerston died in 1865 , and after a brief ministry led by Russell , Derby returned to power . In 1866 , Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert 's death . The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men , though she was not in favour of votes for women . Derby resigned in 1868 , to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli , who charmed Victoria . " Everyone likes flattery , " he said , " and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel . " With the phrase " we authors , Ma 'am " , he complimented her . Disraeli 's ministry only lasted a matter of months , and at the end of the year his Liberal rival , William Ewart Gladstone , was appointed prime minister . Victoria found Gladstone 's demeanour far less appealing ; he spoke to her , she is thought to have complained , as though she were " a public meeting rather than a woman " .
In 1870 , republican sentiment in Britain , fed by the Queen 's seclusion , was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic . A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria 's removal , and Radical MPs spoke against her . In August and September 1871 , she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm , which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray . In late November 1871 , at the height of the republican movement , the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever , the disease that was believed to have killed his father , and Victoria was fearful her son would die . As the tenth anniversary of her husband 's death approached , her son 's condition grew no better , and Victoria 's distress continued . To general rejoicing , he pulled through . Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul 's Cathedral on 27 February 1872 , and republican feeling subsided .
On the last day of February 1872 , two days after the thanksgiving service , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Arthur O 'Connor ( great @-@ nephew of Irish MP Feargus O 'Connor ) waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria 's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace . Brown , who was attending the Queen , grabbed him and O 'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months ' imprisonment . As a result of the incident , Victoria 's popularity recovered further .
= = Empress of India = =
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the British East India Company , which had ruled much of India , was dissolved , and Britain 's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire . The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict , and condemned atrocities on both sides . She wrote of " her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war " , and insisted , urged on by Albert , that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state " should breathe feelings of generosity , benevolence and religious toleration " . At her behest , a reference threatening the " undermining of native religions and customs " was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom .
In the 1874 general election , Disraeli was returned to power . He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 , which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported . She preferred short , simple services , and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England . He also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament , so that Victoria took the title " Empress of India " from 1 May 1876 . The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877 .
On 14 December 1878 , the anniversary of Albert 's death , Victoria 's second daughter Alice , who had married Louis of Hesse , died of diphtheria in Darmstadt . Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as " almost incredible and most mysterious " . In May 1879 , she became a great @-@ grandmother ( on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe @-@ Meiningen ) and passed her " poor old 60th birthday " . She felt " aged " by " the loss of my beloved child " .
Between April 1877 and February 1878 , she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin . Disraeli 's expansionist foreign policy , which Victoria endorsed , led to conflicts such as the Anglo @-@ Zulu War and the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War . " If we are to maintain our position as a first @-@ rate Power " , she wrote , " we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars , somewhere or other , CONTINUALLY . " Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign , protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers : " It is not in our custom to annexe countries " , she said , " unless we are obliged & forced to do so . " To Victoria 's dismay , Disraeli lost the 1880 general election , and Gladstone returned as prime minister . When Disraeli died the following year , she was blinded by " fast falling tears " , and erected a memorial tablet " placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend , Victoria R.I. "
= = Later years = =
On 2 March 1882 , Roderick Maclean , a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria 's refusal to accept one of his poems , shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station . Two schoolboys from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas , until he was hustled away by a policeman . Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity , but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was " worth being shot at — to see how much one is loved " .
On 17 March 1883 , she fell down some stairs at Windsor , which left her lame until July ; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter . Brown died 10 days after her accident , and to the consternation of her private secretary , Sir Henry Ponsonby , Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown . Ponsonby and Randall Davidson , Dean of Windsor , who had both seen early drafts , advised Victoria against publication , on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair . The manuscript was destroyed . In early 1884 , Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands , a sequel to her earlier book , which she dedicated to her " devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown " . On the day after the first anniversary of Brown 's death , Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son , Leopold , had died in Cannes . He was " the dearest of my dear sons " , she lamented . The following month , Victoria 's youngest child , Beatrice , met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria 's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry 's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg . Beatrice and Henry planned to marry , but Victoria opposed the match at first , wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion . After a year , she was won around to the marriage by Henry and Beatrice 's promise to remain living with and attending her .
Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated . She thought his government was " the worst I have ever had " , and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum . Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury . Salisbury 's government only lasted a few months , however , and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone , whom she referred to as a " half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man " . Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule , but to Victoria 's glee it was defeated . In the ensuing election , Gladstone 's party lost to Salisbury 's and the government switched hands again .
= = = Golden Jubilee = = =
In 1887 , the British Empire celebrated Victoria 's Golden Jubilee . Victoria marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited . The following day , she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey . By this time , Victoria was once again extremely popular . Two days later on 23 June , she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters , one of whom was Abdul Karim . He was soon promoted to " Munshi " : teaching her Hindustani , and acting as a clerk . Her family and retainers were appalled , and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League , and biasing the Queen against the Hindus . Equerry Frederick Ponsonby ( the son of Sir Henry ) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage , and reported to Lord Elgin , Viceroy of India , " the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do . " Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice . Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension on her death .
Victoria 's eldest daughter became Empress consort of Germany in 1888 , but she was widowed within the year , and Victoria 's grandchild Wilhelm became German Emperor as Wilhelm II . Under Wilhelm , Victoria and Albert 's hopes of a liberal Germany were not fulfilled . He believed in autocracy . Victoria thought he had " little heart or Zartgefühl [ tact ] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [ sic ] " .
Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election ; he was 82 years old . Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchere to the Cabinet , so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him . In 1894 , Gladstone retired and , without consulting the outgoing prime minister , Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister . His government was weak , and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him . Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria 's reign .
= = = Diamond Jubilee = = =
On 23 September 1896 , Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest @-@ reigning monarch in English , Scottish , and British history . The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897 , to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee , which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain . The prime ministers of all the self @-@ governing dominions were invited to London for the festivities .
The Queen 's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire . The procession paused for an open @-@ air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul 's Cathedral , throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage , to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building . The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Queen .
Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays . In 1889 , during a stay in Biarritz , she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit . By April 1900 , the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable . Instead , the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861 , in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war . In July , her second son Alfred ( " Affie " ) died ; " Oh , God ! My poor darling Affie gone too " , she wrote in her journal . " It is a horrible year , nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another . "
= = = Death and succession = = =
Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood , Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight . Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her lame , and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts . Through early January , she felt " weak and unwell " , and by mid @-@ January she was " drowsy ... dazed , [ and ] confused " . She died on Tuesday , 22 January 1901 , at half past six in the evening , at the age of 81 . Her son and successor King Edward VII , and her eldest grandson , Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , were at her deathbed . Her favourite pet Pomeranian , Turi , was laid upon her deathbed as a last request .
In 1897 , Victoria had written instructions for her funeral , which was to be military as befitting a soldier 's daughter and the head of the army , and white instead of black . On 25 January , Edward VII , the Kaiser and Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught , helped lift her body into the coffin . She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil . An array of mementos commemorating her extended family , friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her , at her request , by her doctor and dressers . One of Albert 's dressing gowns was placed by her side , with a plaster cast of his hand , while a lock of John Brown 's hair , along with a picture of him , was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers . Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown 's mother , given to her by Brown in 1883 . Her funeral was held on Saturday , 2 February , in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , and after two days of lying @-@ in @-@ state , she was interred beside Prince Albert in Frogmore Mausoleum at Windsor Great Park .
With a reign of 63 years , seven months and two days , Victoria was the longest @-@ reigning British monarch and the longest @-@ reigning queen regnant in world history until her great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015 . She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover . Her son and successor Edward VII belonged to her husband 's House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha .
= = Legacy = =
According to one of her biographers , Giles St Aubyn , Victoria wrote an average of 2 @,@ 500 words a day during her adult life . From July 1832 until just before her death , she kept a detailed journal , which eventually encompassed 122 volumes . After Victoria 's death , her youngest daughter , Princess Beatrice , was appointed her literary executor . Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria 's accession onwards , and burned the originals in the process . Despite this destruction , much of the diaries still exist . In addition to Beatrice 's edited copy , Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them . Part of Victoria 's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson , Hector Bolitho , George Earle Buckle , Lord Esher , Roger Fulford , and Richard Hough among others .
Victoria was physically unprepossessing — she was stout , dowdy and no more than five feet tall — but she succeeded in projecting a grand image . She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood , but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s , when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure . Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public . Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available , such as Lytton Strachey 's Queen Victoria of 1921 , are now considered out of date . The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham @-@ Smith , in 1964 and 1972 respectively , are still widely admired . They , and others , conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional , obstinate , honest , and straight @-@ talking .
Through Victoria 's reign , the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued . Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch . In 1867 , Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained " the right to be consulted , the right to encourage , and the right to warn " . As Victoria 's monarchy became more symbolic than political , it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values , in contrast to the sexual , financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy . The concept of the " family monarchy " , with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify , was solidified .
Victoria 's links with Europe 's royal families earned her the nickname " the grandmother of Europe " . Victoria and Albert had 42 grandchildren , of whom 34 survived to adulthood . Their descendants include Elizabeth II , Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , Harald V of Norway , Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden , Margrethe II of Denmark , and Felipe VI of Spain .
Victoria 's youngest son , Leopold , was affected by the blood @-@ clotting disease haemophilia B and two of her five daughters , Alice and Beatrice , were carriers . Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great @-@ grandsons , Tsarevich Alexei of Russia , Alfonso , Prince of Asturias , and Infante Gonzalo of Spain . The presence of the disease in Victoria 's descendants , but not in her ancestors , led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent but a haemophiliac . There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria 's mother , and as male carriers always suffer the disease , even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill . It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria 's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers . Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases .
Around the world , places and memorials are dedicated to her , especially in the Commonwealth nations . Places named after her include the capital of the Seychelles , Africa 's largest lake , Victoria Falls , the capital of Gozo and a line of fortifications in Malta , the capitals of British Columbia ( Victoria ) and Saskatchewan ( Regina ) , and two Australian states ( Victoria and Queensland ) .
The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War , and it remains the highest British , Canadian , Australian , and New Zealand award for bravery . Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May ( Queen Victoria 's birthday ) .
= = Titles , styles , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837 : Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent
20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 : Her Majesty The Queen
At the end of her reign , the Queen 's full style and title were : " Her Majesty Victoria , by the Grace of God , of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen , Defender of the Faith , Empress of India . "
= = = Arms = = =
As Sovereign , Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom . Before her accession , she received no grant of arms . As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover , her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors . Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne .
Outside Scotland , the blazon for the shield — also used on the Royal Standard — is : Quarterly : I and IV , Gules , three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II , Or , a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III , Azure , a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) . In Scotland , the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion , and the second by the English lions . The crests , mottoes , and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Published primary sources = = =
Benson , A.C. ; Esher , Viscount ( editors , 1907 ) The Letters of Queen Victoria : A Selection of Her Majesty 's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861 , London : John Murray
Bolitho , Hector ( editor , 1938 ) Letters of Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of Brandenburg @-@ Prussia , London : Thornton Butterworth
Buckle , George Earle ( editor , 1926 ) The Letters of Queen Victoria , 2nd Series 1862 – 1885 , London : John Murray
Buckle , George Earle ( editor , 1930 ) The Letters of Queen Victoria , 3rd Series 1886 – 1901 , London : John Murray
Connell , Brian ( 1962 ) Regina v. Palmerston : The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister , 1837 – 1865 , London : Evans Brothers
Duff , David ( editor , 1968 ) Victoria in the Highlands : The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria , London : Muller
Dyson , Hope ; Tennyson , Charles ( editors , 1969 ) Dear and Honoured Lady : The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson , London : Macmillan
Esher , Viscount ( editor , 1912 ) The Girlhood of Queen Victoria : A Selection from Her Majesty 's Diaries , 1832 – 40 , London : John Murray
Fulford , Roger ( editor , 1964 ) Dearest Child : Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal , 1858 – 61 , London : Evans Brothers
Fulford , Roger ( editor , 1968 ) Dearest Mama : Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia , 1861 – 64 , London : Evans Brothers
Fulford , Roger ( editor , 1971 ) Beloved Mama : Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess , 1878 – 85 , London : Evans Brothers
Fulford , Roger ( editor , 1971 ) Your Dear Letter : Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia , 1863 – 71 , London : Evans Brothers
Fulford , Roger ( editor , 1976 ) Darling Child : Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia , 1871 – 78 , London : Evans Brothers
Hibbert , Christopher ( editor , 1984 ) Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals , London : John Murray , ISBN 0 @-@ 7195 @-@ 4107 @-@ 7
Hough , Richard ( editor , 1975 ) Advice to a Grand @-@ daughter : Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse , London : Heinemann , ISBN 0 @-@ 434 @-@ 34861 @-@ 9
Jagow , Kurt ( editor , 1938 ) Letters of the Prince Consort 1831 – 61 , London : John Murray
Mortimer , Raymond ( editor , 1961 ) Queen Victoria : Leaves from a Journal , New York : Farrar , Straus & Cudahy
Ponsonby , Sir Frederick ( editor , 1930 ) Letters of the Empress Frederick , London : Macmillan
Ramm , Agatha ( editor , 1990 ) Beloved and Darling Child : Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter , 1886 – 1901 , Stroud : Sutton Publishing , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86299 @-@ 880 @-@ 6
Victoria , Queen ( 1868 ) Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861 , London : Smith , Elder
Victoria , Queen ( 1884 ) More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882 , London : Smith , Elder
= I 'll See You in Court =
" I 'll See You in Court " is the tenth episode of the third season from the TV comedy series Married ... with Children . The episode follows the Bundys ' attempts ( at Marcy Rhoades 's suggestion ) to improve their love life by having marital relations in a different setting . While staying at the Hop @-@ On @-@ Inn , the Bundys discover a secretly recorded video tape of the Rhoades having sex . Despite this , the Bundys decide to have sex and end up having themselves recorded as well . The two families then proceed to sue the establishment for violation of their privacy .
Conflict erupted between the show 's producers and the airing network over the episode 's content , which prevented the episode from being aired for well over a decade , far past Married ... with Children 's initial television run . Even when first shown on American television in 2002 , four lines were removed from the broadcast , despite it having already run uncut in other countries .
= = Plot = =
After writing to a televised sex @-@ help program , Peggy decides that the best way to rekindle her relationship with Al is to have sex in a different location . Upon Marcy 's recommendation , Peggy and Al go to the Hop @-@ On @-@ Inn and discover a videotape waiting for them in their room . After watching some of the tape , the Bundys realize that the couple having sex on the video is Steve and Marcy . Although Al is disgusted , the action turns Peggy on and the couple has sex .
Peggy and Al return home and show the tape to Steve and Marcy , who are embarrassed by the film , much to the delight of the Bundys . The Rhoades express their dismay that they were secretly recorded , but Steve points out that the Bundys may have been videotaped as well . Marcy and Al are upset by this violation of their privacy and propose physical violence against the owners of the motel . Steve and Peg , on the other hand , want to take action against the Hop @-@ On @-@ Inn and make money from the incident .
Peggy convinces Al to sue the motel with her and the Rhoades . Steve , not wanting a lawyer to take any of the million dollars he expects to win from the case , decides to act as one for the two families . The case begins with Steve presenting a lengthy opening statement , during which the stenographer and the judge fall asleep . Next , Steve shows the subpoenaed sex tapes from the motel , despite objections from his wife . After a few hours , the tape runs out and the courtroom applauds Steve and Marcy 's romp . Next , Steve shows Peggy and Al 's tape , which ends after a few seconds .
After the plaintiff rests , the defense lawyer calls Marcy , Al , and Peggy to the stand . She asks Marcy a series of embarrassing questions , hoping to prove Marcy knew that the camera was there . Her tactic with the Bundys is to try to prove sexual intercourse did not occur on the videotape . In the end , the Rhoades are awarded $ 10 @,@ 000 but the Bundys receive nothing , because the jury does not believe that sex occurred . After everyone exits the courtroom , Al attempts to prove that he can perform when he wants to and has sex with Peggy for hours on the judge 's bench , unwittingly while being recorded by the courtroom camera .
= = Production and controversy = =
The episode was written by Jeanne Baruch and Jeanne Romano , both newcomers to Married ... with Children . Directed by Gerry Cohen , the show was taped on January 6 , 1989 , with a planned airing date of February 19 of the same year . The censors of the Fox Broadcasting Company , however , objected to many of the lines in the show . It was not the first time that Fox censors had struggled with the content in Married ... with Children . Earlier in the season , producers and writers Michael G. Moye and Ron Leavitt had to fight with the censors to air " The Camping Show " , an episode where the Bundys and the Rhodes are trapped in a cabin in the wilderness as all three women have their periods at the same time . It was originally intended to be shown in November 1988 , but its airing was delayed while the network wrangled with the subject matter . The episode aired on December 11 , 1988 , but the producers were forced to change the title from " A Period Piece " to " The Camping Show " , despite the fact that the title itself does not appear onscreen and is not mentioned during the program .
The censors ended up pulling " I 'll See You in Court " , preventing it from airing in the United States during the series ' original run . Terry Rakolta , a woman from Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , had launched a letter @-@ writing campaign against the program after viewing the Season 3 episode " Her Cups Runneth Over " in January 1989 . Offended by the episode 's content , she urged advertisers to boycott the show , several of whom did or pledged to more carefully screen the episodes for which they provided advertising . The campaign garnered more media attention than she had expected and the advertisers ' more careful scrutiny of the individual episodes that they supported was a significant factor that led to the pulling of " I 'll See You in Court " . Contributing to this was that the overall topic , sex , was not seen as a topic to be vocally and openly discussed on television .
In an interview with Playboy magazine , Moye claimed that the producers dubbed the episode " The Lost Episode " both because it never aired and because they felt that they lost control of the project . A typical episode of Married ... with Children contained two or three censor notes denoting content that was " too graphic " or " over the edge . " , whereas " I 'll See You in Court " contained a total of 15 . After arguing with the censors and conceding all but four of the notes , Fox still refused to air the episode . Moye claims that the final total of 13 changes was unacceptable because " [ t ] he integrity of the show was shot to hell . "
The episode did , however , premiere in other parts of the world in 1990 . On June 18 , 2002 , the FX network broadcast the episode for the first time on American television . The episode , however , was still not shown in its entirety , as the network cut four lines , less than one minute , during the scene where the two families decide on what to do about the videotapes :
Although the episode has aired in Australia ( although initially in a later than normal time ) , New Zealand , Europe , and Canada unedited , the above omission means that the show has never been broadcast in the United States in its entirety . The total time between when the episode was taped and when it premiered in the United States was 13 years , 5 months , and 12 days .
= = Reception = =
The episode remained unaired for so long in the United States that contemporary critics did not have an opportunity to review it . After the 2002 airing , the episode became available in the United States on the Married with Children , Vol . 1 – The Most Outrageous Episodes DVD , which was released on February 4 , 2003 and the The Complete Third Season , which was released on January 25 , 2005 . DVD Verdict claimed that the content of the show was not overly racy , even by the standards of the era . The review claims that , by 2003 , the content was " so sedate as to be comatose . " Film Freak Central gave the episode a grade of C + , calling the episode " quaint " and warning to " [ n ] ever trust the hype . "
= Butch Woolfolk =
Harold E. " Butch " Woolfolk ( born March 1 , 1960 ) is a former American football running back and kick returner who played in college for the University of Michigan ( 1978 – 1981 ) and in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the New York Giants ( 1982 – 1984 ) , Houston Oilers ( 1985 – 1986 ) and Detroit Lions ( 1987 – 1988 ) . Woolfolk attended Westfield Senior High School in Westfield , New Jersey . Woolfolk led Michigan in rushing three straight years and set the school record with 3 @,@ 850 rushing yards while playing for the Wolverines from 1978 to 1981 . As a sophomore in 1979 , he was the Big Ten Conference scoring champion , and he went on to become a three @-@ time first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection . He had his best season as a senior at Michigan , winning the 1981 Big Ten rushing title and falling just 10 yards short of Rob Lytle 's single @-@ season rushing yards record . He was also selected in 1981 as the Most Valuable Player of both the Rose Bowl played January 1 , 1981 , and the Bluebonnet Bowl played December 31 , 1981 , as well as the Wolverines ' team MVP for the season .
Woolfolk also excelled in track . He was named an All @-@ American in 1980 and won nine Big Ten track and field championships both as an individual and relay race team member . He continues to hold the Michigan outdoor 200 @-@ meter record . He was also a member of relay teams that hold numerous U @-@ M and Ferry Field all @-@ time records .
Woolfolk played seven seasons in the NFL . As a rookie in 1982 , he finished third in the NFL in all @-@ purpose yards . And in 1983 , he set an NFL record with 43 rushing attempts in a single game . He was also fifth in the NFL in receptions in 1985 . Woolfolk was plagued with injuries during his NFL career and was able to play in 16 games only twice — in 1983 and 1985 . In both of those years , he accumulated at least 1200 yards from scrimmage . He also had seven 100 @-@ yard games — five receiving and two rushing .
= = High school = =
Born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , Woolfolk attended Eastridge High School in Kankakee , Illinois in the 1976 – 1977 school year . He moved with his family to Westfield , New Jersey , where he was a multi @-@ sport star at Westfield High School . In 1977 , Woolfolk was first @-@ team All @-@ State in American football and set Westfield High School season records with 1 @,@ 637 yards rushing , 34 touchdowns and 206 points . He also excelled in track and field , winning the State All @-@ Group and International Prep Invitational 100 meter and 200 meter races . He also ran the fastest boy 's high school times in the nation in 1978 .
= = University of Michigan = =
= = = All @-@ time Michigan rushing record = = =
He played college football at the University of Michigan ( 1978 – 1981 ) where he led the Wolverines in rushing three straight years , 1979 , 1980 , and 1981 . He finished his career as the school 's all @-@ time leading rusher with 3 @,@ 861 yards , a record that was eclipsed six years later by Jamie Morris . Woolfolk still holds the U @-@ M record for the longest and third longest runs from scrimmage , a 92 @-@ yard run against Wisconsin in 1979 , and an 89 – yard gain against Wisconsin in 1981 .
Woolfolk now ranks fifth in career rushing at U @-@ M , as shown in the following chart :
= = = 253 yards rushing against Michigan State = = =
He began the 1981 season with five consecutive 100 @-@ yard games , including a 253 @-@ yard effort . Woolfolk 's best game as a Wolverine was the October 10 , 1981 contest against Michigan State . The Wolverines beat the Spartans , 38 @-@ 20 , and Woolfolk rushed for 253 yards in 39 carries . After the game , Coach Bo Schembechler said : " I wondered what a kid like that would do if he ran as much as the guy on the West Coast ( Marcus Allen ) . I didn 't plan on this , but he proved he can do it . Butch is going to be our all @-@ time leading ground gainer . There isn 't any way they 're going to stop him now . And so be it . " His 1981 rushing performance against the Spartans still stands as the fifth best single @-@ game performance by a Wolverine running back .
= = = MVP of the 1981 Rose and Bluebonnet Bowls = = =
Woolfolk was named the Most Valuable Player in both of Michigan 's two bowl game appearances in 1981 . During the January 1981 Rose Bowl , he gained 182 yards against Washington , and during the December 1981 Bluebonnet Bowl , in which he gained 186 yards against UCLA . The hotel where the Wolverines team was staying was evacuated the night before the 1981 Rose Bowl game when a fire alarm was triggered at 2 : 30 a.m. , and Woolfolk only had three hours of sleep that night . He won the MVP award despite the lack of sleep , and after the game Woolfolk called the game his " greatest thrill in football . " Commenting on the MVP trophy , Woolfolk said : " If I could , I 'd break this trophy into 95 pieces and hand it out to all the guys on the squad . " After winning his second MVP trophy in 1981 's Bluebonnet Bowl , Woolfolk said : " I might look back in later years and notice that , but right now all I can think about is that I 've worn a Michigan uniform for the last time . "
= = = Woolfolk 's top ten games at Michigan = = =
Woolfolk 's top ten games in a Michigan uniform are as follows :
= = = Relationship with Bo Schembechler = = =
During his four years at Michigan , Woolfolk had what one reporter described as " a strange love @-@ hate relationship " with Coach Bo Schembechler . Woolfolk noted at the time Schembechler is a " tough coach , " and it was " not easy at all " playing for him . Schembechler was often angered by Woolfolk 's tendency to try to run around defenders rather than banging through them , resulting in Woolfolk being benched more than once . But Schembechler said Woolfolk " came of age " in the November 1980 Ohio State game . After Woolfolk 's MVP performance in the 1981 Rose Bowl helped Schembechler to his first bowl game victory , Bo complimented Woolfolk 's powerful performance , noting : " Butch can be a real load . " By the 1981 season , Schembechler was a true believer in Woolfolk , saying : " Today , I can say without reservation , that I 'd rather go into a big game with Woolfolk at tailback than any other back in the country . " Woolfolk , too , concluded in the end that Schembechler was " key " to his success : " He kept after me . He kept saying I was getting too fancy . He kept saying , ' You 're a big back , a fast back , and you ought to be running over people -- not trying to dance around them . ' "
= = = Track and field = = =
While at Michigan , Woolfolk was also the 1980 Big Ten Conference track champion in the outdoor 200 meter and indoor 300 meter events . He also competed in the 200 meter event in the 1980 Olympic Trials . Through the 2007 season his 1980 outdoor 200 meter time of 20 @.@ 59 seconds remains the all @-@ time University of Michigan record . His 1980 outdoor 100 meter time of 10 @.@ 36 , which is now the fourth fastest in Michigan history was once the school record , and his indoor 300 meter ( event retired ) time of 30 @.@ 38 , which is now the second fastest in Michigan history was also once a school record . The 100 m record and 300 m record were broken by 4 x 100 meter relay race teammate Andrew Bruce in 1981 and 1982 respectively . The men 's track and field team won the Big Ten indoor title in 1982 , and they won the outdoor titles in 1980 , 1981 , 1982 . The 4 x 100 meter relay team won the Big Ten Conference championships in 1981 and 1982 , and their 1980 and 1982 times of 3 : 06 @.@ 95 and 3 : 07 @.@ 34 with Woolfolk running second and Bruce running anchor are the 2nd and 3rd fastest times in Michigan team history . The 1980 relay time continues to be a Ferry Field stadium record . Bruce and Woolfolk also are members of the Michigan team sprint medley record holding team ( 1982 , 3 : 17 @.@ 84 ) .
= = NFL career = =
Woolfolk played three years in the NFL for the New York Giants ( 1982 – 1984 ) , two years with the Houston Oilers ( 1985 – 1987 ) , and two years with the Detroit Lions ( 1987 – 1988 ) . He was a versatile player who accumulated nearly 5 @,@ 000 all @-@ purpose yards and had seven 100 @-@ yard games , five as a receiver out of the backfield and two as a rusher . Three of his 100 @-@ yard games came as a Giant and four as an Oiler .
= = = Offers from agents = = =
Woolfolk told the AP in 1982 of receiving offers of representation from some 50 agents while he was still in college . Woolfolk noted that he was offered under @-@ the @-@ table payments by agents while he was still in school , as well as cars , and even a job for his stepfather , William Johnson , a Newark dockworker . Woolfolk turned down those offers and signed with Jerry Argovitz .
= = = New York Giants = = =
Woolfolk was drafted by the Giants in the first round of the 1982 NFL Draft . Woolfolk , who had graduated from high school in New Jersey and was a Giants fan , recalled watching the draft at his apartment in Ann Arbor : " When there were only four or five choices left before the Giants picked , I was hoping I 'd last . "
In 1982 , Woolfolk was named the NFC 's Offensive Rookie of the Year , after appearing in all nine games of the strike @-@ shortened NFL season , in which he rushed for 439 yards , caught 23 passes for 224 yards , and scored four touchdowns . In a December 1982 game against the Oilers , Woolfolk scored his first two NFL touchdowns , one rushing and one receiving , to help the Giants win , 17 – 14 . With the Giants trailing and less than two minutes remaining in the game , Woolfolk scored on a 40 – yard gain after making a leaping , one @-@ handed catch . The next day , The New York Times published an article headlined , " The Catch By Woolfolk . " The article concluded that with Woolfolk and Rob Carpenter , the Giants " have their best backfield combination since the glory years of Frank Gifford and Alex Webster a quarter of a century ago . " Over the course of the season his 1 @,@ 091 all @-@ purpose yards was third to only James Brooks ( 1 @,@ 383 ) and Marcus Allen ( 1 @,@ 098 ) .
In 1983 , Bill Parcells ' first year as head coach , Woolfolk gained 1 @,@ 225 yards from scrimmage for the Giants ( 857 yards rushing and 368 yards receiving ) -- more yards than any Giants running back in the previous ten years . He also set the NFL record for most rushing attempts in a game with 43 carries ( for 159 yards ) on November 20 , 1983 . Woolfolk gained 115 yards on 26 carries in the first half alone and said after the game : " I 'm not as tired as I thought I would be when somebody told me how many carries I had . " Ironically , Woolfolk 's 43 @-@ carry record was broken in 1988 by Jamie Morris , the same player who also broke Woolfolk 's career rushing record at the University of Michigan .
In 1984 , Woolfolk was relegated to back @-@ up status as Joe Morris took over the starting job at tailback midway through the season . The 1984 Giants made the playoffs , but Woolfolk did not touch the ball . In March 1985 , the Giants traded Woolfolk to the Oilers . In reporting on the trade , The New York Times said : " The mystery of Butch Woolfolk , who in his three seasons with the Giants went from star running back to benchwarmer may be solved next fall , but not with Giants . " Woolfolk said at the time he was " not bitter " about the trade , and Coach Bill Parcells said : " Maybe a new place will be good for Butch . I don 't think he was satisfied with what transpired last year . "
= = = Houston Oilers = = =
Playing for the Oilers during the 1985 NFL season , Woolfolk was fifth in the conference with 80 receptions for 814 yards . He also rushed for 392 yards and had 1 @,@ 206 yards from scrimmage . Woolfolk played three more seasons in the NFL with the Oilers and Lions from 1986 @-@ 1988 but rushed for fewer than 100 yards in each of those years . With the Oilers , Mike Rozier was the leading rusher and Drew Hill was the leading receiver , but Woolfolk led the team 's running backs in receiving yards in both 1985 and 1986 . In 1986 , he switched from tailback to fullback , but he only played in 10 games due to a fractured and dislocated shoulder in the second half of the season . The Oilers drafted Alonzo Highsmith with the third selection overall in the 1987 NFL Draft after trading up in the draft because their top three running backs Rozier , Ray Wallace and Woolfolk had finished the season on injured reserve . At Houston , Woolfolk was reunited with former Michigan teammate Stan Edwards . The sons of both Woolfolk and Edwards ( Braylon Edwards ) would later follow in their fathers ' footsteps by playing at Michigan .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
Woolfolk was released by the Oilers at the beginning of training camp in 1987 and signed with the Lions . Woolfolk appeared in 12 games for the 1987 Lions and contributed 549 yards of total offense — 248 yards receiving , 219 yards on kick returns , and 82 yards rushing . Woolfolk appeared in only three games for the Lions in 1988 and was limited to four yards rushing , four yards receiving and 99 yards on four kick returns . He injured his knee in the season 's third game , was out for the season , and did not make it back into an NFL lineup after the injury .
= = Career after football = =
Woolfolk worked for over 20 years in various real estate ventures . His real estate experience began in 1985 as an independent owner and operator of rental properties in Houston , while he was still playing for the Oilers . In 1992 , as co @-@ owner of New Choice Builders , Woolfolk began building affordable single @-@ family housing in Houston 's revitalized communities . In 1994 , Woolfolk worked with Home Ownership Partners , Inc . , to build affordable housing for residents of Fort Bend County , Texas , a suburban county outside of Houston . Woolfolk procured the largest HUD grant given at that time by Fort Bend County for affordable housing assistance . Starting in approximately 1995 , Woolfolk worked for Intrepid Holdings , Inc. in Houston . At Intrepid , he developed residential lots for several large builders including US Home , Gateway Homes , Texas Colonial , and KB Home .
In June 2007 , Forward Edge , Inc. announced that Woolfolk had joined the company as its new business developer . The company stated at the time that Woolfolk would help the company 's development and implementation of steroid testing for Texas high school athletes . At the time , Woolfolk said : " There 's a lot more to this than just passing a law . Kids are using steroids and they are doing so at dangerous levels . ... I 've been there . I 've watched it . Once you 've watched it , you have more of a commitment to get the kids off of the steroids . It 's not just a business for me . It 's a passion of mine . " Woolfolk remains active in the Houston football community as a Houston Texans ambassador . Various ambassadors sign autographs at locations throughout Reliant Stadium during games .
= = Family = =
Woolfolk and his wife , Regina , have two sons , Jarrel and Troy Woolfolk . Their son Troy Woolfolk was a defensive back at Michigan from 2007 to 2011 . When his son was issued a Michigan jersey with the Woolfolk name on the back , Butch Woolfolk said : " It 's a big day , no doubt . I 'm proud of him and excited for him . But the biggest thing for me is , I know he 's at a place where I don 't have to worry about him . "
= = Statistics = =
Career
100 @-@ Yard Games
N.B. : Home team is in bold .
= Super Mario World =
Super Mario World ( Japanese : スーパーマリオワールド , Hepburn : Sūpā Mario Wārudo ) , subtitled Super Mario Bros. 4 ( スーパーマリオブラザーズ4 , Sūpā Mario Burazāzu fō ) for its original Japanese release , is a 1990 platform video game developed and published by Nintendo as a pack @-@ in launch title for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . Development was handled by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development , led by Shigeru Miyamoto , who produced the game . It also features 2D graphics with linear transformations .
The game centers on the quest of Mario and Luigi to save Dinosaur Land from Bowser , the series ' antagonist . The two brothers must travel across seven worlds to restore order to Dinosaur Land . It built on the gameplay of previous Mario games , introducing new power @-@ ups that augment character abilities , and established conventions that were carried over to future games in the series . Super Mario World marks the first appearance of Yoshi , Mario 's dinosaur sidekick and riding mount .
Super Mario World was a critical and commercial success , selling over 20 million copies worldwide , and is considered by many critics to be one of the best games ever made . It has been re @-@ released four times , first as part of a combo with Super Mario All @-@ Stars on the SNES in 1993 . Secondly , it was released on the Game Boy Advance as Super Mario Advance 2 ( スーパーマリオアドバンス2 , Sūpā Mario Adobansu Tsū ) in 2001 and outside Japan as Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 in 2002 with modified gameplay . The third re @-@ release was for the Wii 's Virtual Console in Japan in 2006 and in North America and PAL regions in 2007 ; there were no changes from the original SNES version . It was also released for the Wii U Virtual Console , which integrated Off @-@ TV Play and Miiverse features to the game , as well as on the New Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario World is a two @-@ dimensional platform game in which the player controls the on @-@ screen protagonist ( either Mario or Luigi ) from a third @-@ person perspective . The game shares similar gameplay mechanics with previous titles in the series — Super Mario Bros. , Super Mario Bros. 2 , and Super Mario Bros. 3 — but introduces several new elements . In addition to the running and jumping moves found in past games , the player can float with the aid of special items and execute new types of jumps such as the spin jump .
The player navigates through the game via two game screens : an overworld map and a sidescrolling playfield . The overworld map displays an overhead representation of the current world and has several paths leading from the world 's entrance to a castle . Paths connect to action panels , fortresses , ghost houses and other map icons , and allow players to take different routes to reach the world 's goal . Moving the on @-@ screen character to an action panel or fortress will allow access to that level 's playfield . The majority of the game takes place in these levels , populated with obstacles and enemies , with the player traversing the stage by running , jumping , and dodging or defeating enemies . The player is given a certain amount of lives , which are lost when Mario is attacked by an enemy while small , falls into a pit or lava , or runs out of time . If all lives are lost at any point in the game , the " Game Over " screen will appear , in which the player can continue from the last level played by selecting " Continue " . Each world features a final stage with a boss to defeat ; each of the seven worlds feature fortresses controlled by one of the Koopalings , and the player also battles Bowser in his castle in the seventh world . In addition to special items from previous games like the " Super Mushroom " and " Fire Flower " , new power @-@ ups are introduced that provide the player with new gameplay options . In addition , the " Spin Attack " jump is initiated with the " A " button . The spin attack allows Mario or Luigi to break blocks beneath him .
The new suit in the game is the cape feather , which gives Mario a cape and allows him to fly . This suit is also similar to the Tanooki Suit from Super Mario Bros. 3 in terms of gameplay mechanics but with a few alterations : the player can now hold the B button to fly when Mario is able to do so , and can glide using the cape as a sail . However , the Super Leaf , Tanooki Suit , Frog Suit , and Hammer Suit power @-@ ups from Super Mario Bros. 3 did not return . The game also introduced the ability to " store " an extra power @-@ up in a box located at the top center of the screen . For example , if Super Mario obtains a Fire Flower or Cape Feather or picks up another Super Mushroom , a Mushroom is stored in the box . If Cape Mario finds a Fire Flower , a Cape Feather will be stored in the box . The power @-@ up can be released by pressing the Select button or will automatically deploy if Mario is hit by an enemy .
The game introduces Yoshi , a dinosaur companion whom Mario can ride and who is able to eat most enemies . If Yoshi attempts to eat a Koopa or its shell , he will hold it in his mouth for a period of time before swallowing it ; Yoshi can also spit out the shell , which will behave as if kicked by Mario . Yoshi gains special abilities while holding a colored shell in his mouth : a blue shell enables Yoshi to fly , a yellow shell causes Yoshi to emit dust clouds that kill nearby enemies , and a red shell allows Yoshi to produce three fireballs . Flashing Koopa shells produce all three abilities , while green shells produce none . The default Yoshi is green , but the game also contains blue , yellow , and red Yoshis ; the player can obtain each Yoshi by finding its egg in Star World and feeding enemies to it until it matures . When holding any Koopa shell in its mouth , a Yoshi gains the ability that corresponds to its own color , in addition to that of the shell .
Super Mario World includes a multiplayer option which allows two players to play the game by alternating turns at navigating the overworld map and accessing stage levels ; the first player controls Mario , while the other controls Luigi . Although Mario and Luigi must generally navigate through seven worlds to reach the end of the game , the player can beat the game much faster by using the Star Road routes . In addition , there are a number of levels that have hidden exits , so Mario can navigate Bowser 's castle in several ways . Furthermore , the exploration of these secret stages can lead to other stages , such as Special World . Completion of Special World permanently alters some sprites and the overworld map 's color scheme .
= = Plot = =
After saving the Mushroom Kingdom in Super Mario Bros. 3 , brothers Mario and Luigi agree to take a vacation to a place called Dinosaur Land , where there are many types of dinosaurs . However , while resting on the beach , Princess Toadstool disappears . When Mario and Luigi wake up they try to find her and , after hours of searching , come across a giant egg in the forest . It suddenly hatches and out of it comes a young dinosaur named Yoshi , who then tells them that his dinosaur friends have also been imprisoned in eggs by evil Koopas . Mario and Luigi soon realize that it must be the evil King Bowser and his Koopalings .
Mario , Luigi and Yoshi set out to save Princess Toadstool and Yoshi 's dinosaur friends , exploring Dinosaur Land for Bowser and his Koopalings . To aid him , Yoshi gives Mario a cape as they begin their journey . Mario and Luigi continue to follow Bowser , defeating the Koopalings in the process , and save all of Yoshi 's dinosaur friends . They eventually make it to Bowser 's castle , where they fight him in a final battle . They defeat Bowser and save the Princess , restoring peace to Dinosaur Land .
= = Development = =
The game was directed by Takashi Tezuka and produced by Shigeru Miyamoto , the creator of Mario and The Legend of Zelda , with Shigefumi Hino as the graphics designer . Development was handled by Nintendo EAD , headed by Miyamoto . It took three years to develop the game with a team of sixteen people . However , Miyamoto stated that he felt that the game was incomplete and that development was rushed toward the end , voicing hope that with time the games for the system would allow for more emotion and story .
Miyamoto stated that he had wanted Mario to have a dinosaur companion ever since Super Mario Bros. ; however , Nintendo engineers could not fit the companion into the limitations of the Nintendo Entertainment System . He said that " we were finally able to get Yoshi off the drawing boards with the SNES " . Yoshi came in one size and four colors , with different powers and huge appetites . Super Mario World arrived in 1991 alongside the Super NES in North America .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
After the success of Super Mario World , the game was packaged in a special version of Super Mario All @-@ Stars titled Super Mario All @-@ Stars + Super Mario World , which was released in 1993 in the United States and in Europe as the pack @-@ in game for the SNES " Super Mario Set " bundle . In this version , Luigi has his own sprite ( in the original , Luigi 's sprite was simply a palette swap of the Mario sprite ) , while the rest remained the same . In 1995 , two companies known as Hummer Team and JY Company ported the Super Famicom version of Super Mario World to the Famicom in China with no license . Super Mario World was one of the first games to be announced for the Wii 's Virtual Console . It was released in Japan on December 2 , 2006 , in the United States on February 5 , 2007 , and in the Europe on February 9 , 2007 . A short timed demo of the game is one of the unlockable " Masterpieces " in the 2008 Wii game Super Smash Bros. Brawl . It was also released for the Wii U in North America and Japan on April 26 , 2013 , and in Europe on April 27 , 2013 , along with the full launch of the Virtual Console for that console .
= = = = Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 = = = =
Between 2001 and 2002 , Super Mario World was ported to the Game Boy Advance as Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 . Some levels were minimally changed , but the most noticeable alteration was making the game for one player only instead of two . However , Luigi was still usable , but this time as an alternate character ; he could jump higher than Mario , but he ran slightly slower . Mario or Luigi could be selected by pressing the GBA shoulder buttons on the map screen . They were also given voices , which were done by Charles Martinet . Luigi 's sprites were changed once again with his appearance closer to the original Super Mario Advance game , which was based on Super Mario Bros. 2 .
= = = Music = = =
Koji Kondo composed the music used in Super Mario World , using only an electronic keyboard . The entirety of the music heard in the game , with the exception of the music played in the title screen , credits , maps , and fighting Bowser , is a variation on the same melody . The melody , played in F major is heard normally on the standard overworld levels . It is slowed down and made to echo in caverns , whereas it moves in a slow , wave @-@ like fashion , a slow ( in 3 / 4 or waltz time ) in underwater levels ( a recurring musical tradition in underwater levels played in Super Mario games ) ; in the athletic theme , it is played quickly and energetically to suit the more risky and lively nature of a level taking place in the air . The castle theme is a symphonic variation of the melody in F minor , then C minor , giving the song an overall ominous tone .
The Super Mario Bros. theme can be heard in the Special Zone if the player leaves the overworld screen open for a few minutes . When riding on Yoshi , the soundtrack of any level is accompanied by bongo drums , a sound design element that was carried over into Super Mario Sunshine , as well as New Super Mario Bros. Wii and Super Mario Galaxy 2 some 18 years later .
The soundtrack for Super Mario World 's overworld and castle levels are present in the animated series and in later Super Mario games .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario World was met with widespread critical acclaim upon release . The game has continued to receive highly favorable reviews for many years . It is ranked as the seventeenth @-@ highest rated video game of all time on GameRankings , where the game received very positive scores , with a 94 @.@ 44 % average score . Allgame gave the game five stars out of five , praising the graphics , sound , and replay value . It was ranked as the eighth best game for a Nintendo console in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list . Official Nintendo Magazine ranked the game seventh in its " 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time " . Famitsu readers ranked it 61st in the magazine 's list of the top 100 video games . In 2009 , a poll conducted by British film magazine Empire voted it " the greatest game of all time . " In the Virtual Console review of the game , IGN said that the game should be downloaded by people who did not own the Game Boy Advance version of the game and gave it an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , a Great score . Super Mario World won Nintendo Power 's game of the year award for 1991 . The game has also appeared on several " best video games of all time " lists such as those from Edge Magazine and Retrogamer . GameSpot consider the game to be one of the greatest games of all time . Game Informer reviewed this game with a 10 / 10 in a classic review . In its final issue , Nintendo Power named Super Mario World the fifth greatest game of all time . In 2015 , USgamer ranked the game the best Mario platformer ever .
More than 20 million copies have been sold worldwide , making it one of the best @-@ selling video games of all time . As a pack @-@ in title for the SNES , Super Mario World helped popularize the console , which has sold 49 @.@ 10 million units worldwide , including 23 @.@ 35 million in the Americas and 17 @.@ 17 million in Japan . In a poll conducted in 2008 , Yoshi was voted as the third @-@ favorite video game character in Japan , with Cloud Strife and Mario placing second and first , respectively .
= = = Legacy = = =
Yoshi became one of the most important characters in the Mario franchise , re @-@ appearing in later Super Mario games and in nearly all Mario sports and spin @-@ off games . Yoshi appears as the main playable character in Super Mario World 's 1995 sequel Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island , which helped lead to multiple video games focused on the character . A Super Mario World clone , titled Super Mario 's Wacky Worlds , was in development for the Philips CD @-@ i device by NovaLogic from 1992 to 1993 , but was cancelled due to console 's commercial failure .
DIC Entertainment produced a Super Mario World animated series based on the game , which consists of thirteen episodes and ran on NBC from September to December 1991 .
A number of Super Mario World ROM hacks have been made by fans , notably Kaizo Mario World .
Super Mario World is one of the four games whose styles are available in Super Mario Maker for the Wii U.
= Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia =
Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia ( Russian : О ́ льга Алекса ́ ндровна ; 13 June [ O.S. 1 June ] 1882 – 24 November 1960 ) was the youngest child and younger daughter of Emperor Alexander III of Russia and younger sister of Tsar Nicholas II .
She was raised at the Gatchina Palace outside Saint Petersburg . Olga 's relationship with her mother , Empress Marie , the daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark , was strained and distant from childhood . In contrast , she and her father were close . He died when she was 12 , and her brother Nicholas became emperor .
In 1901 , she married Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg , who was privately believed by family and friends to be homosexual . Their marriage of 15 years remained unconsummated , and Peter at first refused Olga 's request for a divorce . The couple led separate lives and their marriage was eventually annulled by the Emperor in October 1916 . The following month Olga married cavalry officer Nikolai Kulikovsky , with whom she had fallen in love several years before . During the First World War , the Grand Duchess served as an army nurse at the front and was awarded a medal for personal gallantry . At the downfall of the Romanovs in the Russian Revolution of 1917 , she fled to the Crimea with her husband and children , where they lived under the threat of assassination . Her brother and his family were shot by revolutionaries .
Olga escaped revolutionary Russia with her second husband and their two sons in February 1920 . They joined her mother , the Dowager Empress , in Denmark . In exile , Olga acted as companion and secretary to her mother , and was often sought out by Romanov impostors who claimed to be her dead relatives . She met Anna Anderson , the best @-@ known impostor , in Berlin in 1925 . After the Dowager Empress 's death in 1928 , Olga and her husband purchased a dairy farm in Ballerup , near Copenhagen . She led a simple life : raising her two sons , working on the farm and painting . During her lifetime , she painted over 2 @,@ 000 works of art , which provided extra income for both her family and the charitable causes she supported .
In 1948 , feeling threatened by Joseph Stalin 's regime , Olga emigrated with her immediate family to a farm in Ontario , Canada . With advancing age , Olga and her husband moved to a bungalow near Cooksville , Ontario . Colonel Kulikovsky died there in 1958 . Two years later , as her health deteriorated , Olga moved with devoted friends to a small apartment in East Toronto . She died aged 78 , seven months after her older sister , Xenia . At the end of her life and afterwards , Olga was widely labeled the last Grand Duchess of Imperial Russia .
= = Early life = =
Olga was the youngest daughter of Tsar Alexander III and his consort , Marie Feodorovna , formerly Princess Dagmar of Denmark . She was born in the purple , i.e. during her father 's reign , on 13 June 1882 in the Peterhof Palace , west of central Saint Petersburg . Her birth was announced by a traditional 101 @-@ gun salute from the ramparts of the Peter and Paul Fortress , and similar salutes throughout the Russian Empire . Her mother , advised by her sister , Alexandra , Princess of Wales , placed Olga in the care of an English nanny , Elizabeth Franklin .
The Russian imperial family was a frequent target for assassins , so for safety reasons the Grand Duchess was raised at the country palace of Gatchina , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Saint Petersburg . Olga and her siblings , however , were not accustomed to a lavish early lifestyle . Conditions in the nursery were modest , even Spartan . They slept on hard camp beds , rose at dawn , washed in cold water , and ate a simple porridge for breakfast .
Olga left Gatchina for the first time in the early fall of 1888 when the imperial family visited the Caucasus . On 29 October , their return train approached the small town of Borki at speed . Olga 's parents and their four older children were eating lunch in the dining @-@ car when the train lurched violently and came off the rails . The carriage was torn open ; the heavy iron roof caved in , and the wheels and floor of the car were sliced off . The Tsar crawled out from beneath the crushed roof , and held it up with " a Herculean effort " so that the others could escape . There were 21 fatalities . Empress Marie helped tend the wounded , and made makeshift bandages from her own clothes . An official investigation found that the crash was an accident , but it was widely assumed that two bombs had been planted on the line .
The Grand Duchess and her siblings were taught at home by private tutors . Subjects included history , geography , Russian , English and French , as well as drawing and dancing . Physical activities such as equestrianism were taught at an early age , and they became expert riders . The family was deeply religious . Although Christmas and Easter were times of celebration and extravagance , Lent was strictly observed — meat , dairy products and any form of entertainment were avoided . Family holidays were taken in the summer at Peterhof and with Olga 's grandparents in Denmark .
Empress Marie was reserved and formal with Olga as a child , and their relationship remained a difficult one . However , Olga , her father , and the youngest of her brothers , Michael , had a close relationship . Together , the three frequently went on hikes within the Gatchina forests , where the Tsar taught Olga and Michael woodsmanship . Olga said of her father :
My father was everything to me . Immersed in work as he was , he always spared that daily half @-@ hour . ... once my father showed me a very old album full of most exciting pen and ink sketches of an imaginary city called Mopsopolis , inhabited by Mopses [ pug dogs ] . He showed it to me in secret , and I was thrilled to have him share his own childhood secrets with me .
During 1894 Olga 's father became increasingly ill , and the annual trip to Denmark was cancelled . On 13 November 1894 , he died at the age of 49 . The emotional impact on Olga , aged only 12 , was traumatic , and her eldest brother , the new Tsar Nicholas II , was propelled into a role for which in Olga 's later opinion he was ill @-@ prepared .
= = Court life = =
Olga was due to enter society in the summer of 1899 , but after the death of her brother George at the age of 27 , her first official public appearance was delayed by a year until 1900 . She hated the experience , and later told her official biographer Ian Vorres , " I felt as though I were an animal in a cage — exhibited to the public for the first time . " From 1901 , Olga was appointed honorary Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the 12th Akhtyrsky Hussar Regiment of the Imperial Russian Army . The Akhtyrsky Hussars were famous for their victory over Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Kulm in 1813 , and wore a distinctive brown dolman .
By 1900 Olga , age 18 , was being escorted to the theatre and opera by a distant cousin , Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg , a member of the Russian branch of the House of Oldenburg . He was 14 years her senior and known for his passion for literature and gambling . Peter asked for Olga 's hand in marriage the following year , a proposal that took the Grand Duchess completely by surprise : " I was so taken aback that all I could say was ' thank you ' , " she later explained .
Their engagement , announced in May 1901 , was unexpected by family and friends , as Peter had shown no prior interest in women , and members of society assumed he was homosexual . At the age of 19 , on 9 August 1901 , Olga married 33 @-@ year @-@ old Peter . After the celebration the newlyweds left for the Oldenburg palace on the Field of Mars . Olga spent her wedding night alone in tears , while her husband left for a gambling club returning the next morning . Their marriage remained unconsummated , and Olga suspected that Peter was pushed into proposing by his ambitious mother . Biographer Patricia Phenix thought Olga may have accepted his proposal to gain independence from her own mother , the Dowager Empress , or avoid marriage into a foreign court . The couple initially lived with her in laws Alexander Petrovich and Eugénie Maximilianovna of Oldenburg . It was not an harmonious arrangement as Peter 's parents , both well known for their philanthropic work , berated their only son for his laziness . Eugénie , a close friend of the Dowager Empress , showered her daughter @-@ in @-@ law with gifts including a ruby tiara that had been a present to Joséphine de Beauharnais from Napoleon , but Olga took a dislike towards her mother @-@ in @-@ law . A few weeks after the wedding , Olga and her husband traveled to Biarritz , France , from where they sailed to Sorrento , Italy , on a yacht loaned to them by King Edward VII of Great Britain .
On their return to Russia , they settled into a 200 @-@ room palace ( the former Baryatinsky mansion ) at 46 Sergievskaya Street ( today Tchaikovsky Street ) , Saint Petersburg . The palace , a gift from Tsar Nicholas II to his sister , now houses the Saint Petersburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry . Olga and Peter had separate bedrooms at opposite ends of the building , and the Grand Duchess had her own art studio . Unhappy in her marriage , she fell into bouts of depression that caused her to lose her hair , forcing her to wear a wig . It took two years for her hair to regrow .
Near the Oldenburg 's estate , Ramon in Voronezh province , Olga had her own villa , called " Olgino " after the local town . She subsidized the village school out of her own pocket , and established a hospital . Her daughter @-@ in @-@ law later wrote , " She tried to help every needy person as far as her strengths and means would permit . " At the hospital , she learned basic medical treatment and proper care from the local doctor . She exemplified her strong Orthodox faith by creating religious icons , which she distributed to the charitable endeavours she supported . At Ramon Olga and Peter enjoyed walking through the nearby woods and hunted wolves together . He was kind and considerate towards her , but she longed for love , a normal marriage and children .
In April 1903 , she was introduced to a Blue Cuirassier Guards officer Nikolai Kulikovsky by her brother Michael during a royal military review at Pavlovsk Palace . Olga and Kulikovsky began to see each other , and exchanged letters regularly . The same year , at the age of 22 , she confronted her husband and asked for a divorce , which he refused with the qualification that he might reconsider after seven years . Nevertheless , Oldenburg appointed Kulikovsky as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp , and allowed him to live in the same residence as Oldenburg and the Grand Duchess on Sergievskaya Street . The relationship between Kulikovsky and the Grand Duchess was not public , but gossip about their romance spread through society .
From 1904 to 1906 , Duke Peter was appointed to a military post in Tsarskoye Selo , a complex of palaces just south of Saint Petersburg . In Tsarskoye Selo , the Grand Duchess grew close to her brother Nicholas and his family , who lived at the Alexander Palace near her own residence . Olga prized her connection to the Tsar 's four daughters . From 1906 to 1914 , Olga took her nieces to parties and engagements in Saint Petersburg , without their parents , every weekend throughout the winter . She especially took a liking to the youngest of Nicholas 's daughters , her god @-@ daughter Anastasia , whom she called Shvipsik ( " little one " ) . Through her brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law , Olga met Rasputin , a self @-@ styled holy man who purported to have healing powers . Although she made no public criticisms of Rasputin 's association with the imperial family , she was unconvinced of his supposed powers and privately disliked him . As Olga grew close to her brother 's family , her relationship with her other surviving brother , Michael , deteriorated . To her and Nicholas 's horror , Michael eloped with his mistress , a twice @-@ divorced commoner , and communication between Michael and the rest of the family was essentially cut off .
Public unrest over the Russo @-@ Japanese War and demands for political reform increased in the early years of the twentieth century . At Epiphany 1905 , a band of revolutionaries fired live rounds at the Winter Palace from the Peter and Paul Fortress . Olga and the Dowager Empress were showered with glass splinters from a smashed window , but were unharmed . Three weeks later , on " Bloody Sunday " , at least 92 people were killed by Cossack troops during a demonstration , and a month later Olga 's uncle , Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia , was assassinated . Uprisings occurred throughout the country , and parts of the navy mutinied . Olga supported the appointment of the liberal Pyotr Stolypin as prime minister , and he embarked on a programme of gradual reform , but in 1911 he was assassinated . The public unrest , Michael 's elopement , and Olga 's sham marriage placed her under strain , and in 1912 , while visiting England with her mother , she suffered a nervous breakdown . Tsarina Alexandra was also unwell with fatigue , concerned by the poor health of her hemophiliac son , Alexei . Olga stood in for the Tsarina at public events , and accompanied her brother on a tour of the interior , while the Tsarina remained at home .
= = War and revolution = =
On 1 August 1914 , just before the start of World War I , Olga 's regiment , the Akhtyrsky Hussars , appeared at an Imperial Review before her and the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo . Kulikovsky volunteered for service with the Hussars , who were stationed on the frontlines in Southwestern Russia . With the Grand Duchess 's prior medical knowledge from the village of Olgino , she started work as a nurse at an under @-@ staffed Red Cross hospital in Rovno , near to where her own regiment was stationed . During the war , she came under heavy Austrian fire while attending the regiment at the front . Nurses rarely worked so close to the frontlines and consequently she was awarded the Order of St. George by General Mannerheim , who later became President of Finland . As the Russians lost ground to the Central Powers , Olga 's hospital was moved eastwards to Kiev , and Michael returned to Russia from exile abroad .
In 1916 , Tsar Nicholas II officially annulled the marriage between Duke Peter Alexandrovich and the Grand Duchess , allowing her to marry Colonel Kulikovsky . The service was performed on 16 November 1916 in the Kievo @-@ Vasilievskaya Church on Triokhsviatitelskaya ( Three Saints Street ) in Kiev . The only guests were the Dowager Empress , Olga 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Grand Duke Alexander , four officers of the Akhtyrsky Regiment , and two of Olga 's fellow nurses from the hospital in Kiev .
During the war , internal tensions and economic deprivation in Russia continued to mount and revolutionary sympathies grew . After Tsar Nicholas II abdicated in early 1917 , many members of the Romanov dynasty , including Nicholas and his immediate family , were detained under house arrest . In search of safety , the Dowager Empress , Grand Duke Alexander , and Grand Duchess Olga traveled to the Crimea by special train , where they were joined by Olga 's sister Grand Duchess Xenia . They lived at Alexander 's estate , Ay @-@ Todor , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Yalta , where they were placed under house arrest by the local forces . On 12 August 1917 , her first child and son , Tikhon Nikolaevich was born during their virtual imprisonment . He was named after Tikhon of Zadonsk , the Saint venerated near the Grand Duchess 's estate at Olgino . Although Tikhon was the grandson of an emperor and the nephew of another , neither he nor his younger brother Guri received any title as his father was a commoner .
The Romanovs isolated in the Crimea knew little of the fate of the Tsar and his family . Nicholas , Alexandra , and their children , were originally held at their official residence , the Alexander Palace , but the Provisional government under Alexander Kerensky relocated them to Tobolsk , Siberia . In February 1918 , most of the imperial family at Ay @-@ Todor was moved to another estate at Djulber , where Grand Dukes Nicholas and Peter were already under house arrest . Olga and her husband were left at Ay @-@ Todor . The entire Romanov family in the Crimea was condemned to death by the Yalta revolutionary council , but the executions were delayed by political rivalry between the Yalta and Sevastopol Soviets . By March 1918 , the Central Power of Germany had advanced on the Crimea , and the revolutionary guards were replaced by German ones . In November 1918 , the German forces were informed that their nation had lost the war , and they evacuated homewards . Allied forces took over the Crimean ports , in support of the loyalist White Army , which temporarily allowed the surviving members of the Romanov family time to escape abroad . The Dowager Empress and , at her insistence , most of her family and friends were evacuated by the British warship HMS Marlborough . Nicholas II , however , had already been shot dead and the family assumed , correctly , that his wife and children had also been killed . Unknown to her , Olga 's childhood confidant and brother Michael , Nicholas II 's supposed successor , had been assassinated near Perm on 13 June 1918 .
Olga and her husband refused to leave Russia , and decided to move to the Caucasus , which the White Army had cleared of revolutionary Bolsheviks . An imperial bodyguard , Timofei Yatchik , guided them to his hometown , the large Cossack village of Novominskaya . In a rented five @-@ room farmhouse there , Olga gave birth to her second son , Guri Nikolaevich , on 23 April 1919 . He was named after a friend of hers , Guri Panayev , who was killed while serving in the Akhtyrsky Regiment during World War I. In November 1919 , the family set out on what would be their last journey through Russia . Just ahead of revolutionary troops , they escaped to Novorossiysk , and took refuge in the residence of the Danish consul , Thomas Schytte , who informed them of the Dowager Empress 's safe arrival in Denmark . After a brief stay with the consul , the family were shipped to a refugee camp on the island of Büyükada in the Dardanelles Strait near Istanbul , Turkey , where Olga , her husband and children shared three rooms with eleven other adults . After two weeks , they were evacuated to Belgrade in the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes where she was visited by Regent Alexander Karadjordjevich , later King Alexander I of Yugoslavia . Alexander offered the Grand Duchess and her family a permanent home , but Olga was summoned to Denmark by her mother . On Good Friday 1920 , Olga and her family arrived in Copenhagen . They lived with the Dowager Empress , at first at the Amalienborg Palace and then at the royal estate of Hvidøre , where Olga acted as her mother 's secretary and companion . It was a difficult arrangement at times . The Dowager Empress insisted on having Olga at her beck and call and found Olga 's young sons too boisterous . Having never reconciled with the idea of her daughter 's marriage to a commoner , she was cold towards Kulikovsky , rarely allowing him in her presence . At formal functions , Olga was expected to accompany her mother alone .
= = Anna Anderson = =
In 1925 , Olga and Colonel Kulikovsky traveled to Berlin to meet Anna Anderson , who claimed to be Olga 's niece , Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia . Anderson had attempted suicide in Berlin in 1920 , which Olga later called " probably the only indisputable fact in the whole story " . Anderson claimed that with the help of a man named Tchaikovsky she had escaped from revolutionary Russia via Bucharest , where she had given birth to his child . Olga thought the story " palpably false " , since Anderson made no attempt to approach Queen Marie of Romania , during her entire alleged time in Bucharest . Olga said :
If Mrs. Anderson had indeed been Anastasia , Queen Marie would have recognized her on the spot . ... Marie would never have been shocked at anything , and a niece of mine would have known it . ... There is not one tittle of genuine evidence in the story . The woman keeps away from the one relative who would have been the first to recognize her , understand her desperate plight , and sympathize with her .
Anderson stated she was in Berlin to inform Princess Irene of Prussia ( sister of Tsarina Alexandra and cousin of Tsar Nicholas II ) of her survival . Olga commented , " [ Princess Irene ] was one of the most straightlaced women in her generation . My niece would have known that her condition would have indeed have shocked [ her ] . "
Olga met Anderson , who was being treated for tuberculosis , at a nursing home . Of the visit Olga later said :
My beloved Anastasia was fifteen when I saw her for the last time in the summer of 1916 . She would have been twenty @-@ four in 1925 . I thought Mrs. Anderson looked much older than that . Of course , one had to make allowances for a very long illness ... All the same , my niece 's features could not possibly have altered out of all recognition . The nose , the mouth , the eyes were all different . ... As soon as I sat down by that bed in the Mommsen Nursing Home , I knew I was looking at a stranger . ... I had left Denmark with something of a hope in my heart . I left Berlin with all hope extinguished .
In addition , Olga said she was dismayed that Anderson spoke only German and showed no sign of knowing either English or Russian , while Anastasia spoke both those languages fluently and was ignorant of German . Nevertheless , Olga remained sympathetic towards Anderson , perhaps because she thought that she was ill rather than deliberately deceitful . Olga later explained :
... she did not strike me as an out @-@ and @-@ out impostor . Her brusqueness warred against it . A cunning impostor would have done all she could to ingratiate herself ... But Mrs. Anderson 's manner would have put anyone off . My own conviction is that it all started with some unscrupulous people who hoped they might lay their hands on at least a share of the fabulous and utterly non @-@ existent Romanov fortune ... I had a feeling she was ' briefed , ' as it were , but far from perfectly . The mistakes she made could not all be attributed to lapses of memory . For instance , she had a scar on one of her fingers and she kept telling everybody that it had been crushed because of a footman shutting the door of a landau too quickly . And at once I remembered the real incident . It was Marie , her elder sister , who got her hand hurt rather badly , and it did not happen in a carriage but on board the imperial train . Obviously someone , having heard something of the incident , had passed a garbled version of it to Mrs. Anderson .
Conceivably , Olga was initially either open to the possibility that Anderson was Anastasia or unable to make up her mind . Anderson 's biographer and supporter Peter Kurth claimed that Olga wrote to the Danish ambassador , Herluf Zahle , at the end of October 1925 : " My feeling is that she is not the one she believes — but one can 't say she is not as a fact " . However , within a month she had made up her mind . She wrote to a friend , " There is no resemblance , and she is undoubtedly not A. " Olga sent Anderson a scarf and five letters , which were used by Anderson 's supporters to claim that Olga recognized Anderson as Anastasia . Olga later said she sent the gift and letters " out of pity " , and called the claims " a complete fabrication " . When Olga refused to recognize Anderson as Anastasia publicly and published a statement denying any resemblance in a Danish newspaper , Anderson 's supporters , Harriet von Rathlef and Gleb Botkin , claimed that Olga was acting on instructions received from her sister Xenia by telegram , which Olga denied in private letters and sworn testimony . She told her official biographer , " I never received any such telegram . " The supposed telegram was never produced by Anderson 's supporters , and it has never been found among any of the papers relating to the case . Xenia said ,
[ Anderson 's supporters ] told the most terrible lies about my sister and me ... I was supposed to have sent Olga a telegram saying , ' On no account recognize Anastasia . ' That was a fantasy . I never sent any telegrams , or gave my sister any advice about her visit to Berlin . We were all apprehensive about the wisdom of her going , but only because we feared it would be used for propaganda purposes by the claimant 's supporters . ... My sister Olga felt sorry for that poor woman . She was kind to her , and because of her kindness of heart , her opinions and motives have been misrepresented .
= = Danish residency and exodus = =
The Dowager Empress died on 13 October 1928 at Hvidøre . Her estate was sold and Olga purchased Knudsminde , a farm in Ballerup about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Copenhagen , with her portion of the proceeds . They kept horses , in which Colonel Kulikovsky was especially interested , along with Jersey cows , pigs , chickens , geese , dogs and cats . For transport they had a small car and a sledge . Tihon and Guri ( age thirteen and eleven , respectively when they moved to Knudsminde ) grew up on the farm . Olga ran the household with the help of her elderly , faithful lady 's maid Emilia Tenso ( " Mimka " ) , who had come along with her from Russia . The Grand Duchess lived with simplicity working in the fields , doing household chores and painting .
The farm became a center for the Russian monarchist community in Denmark and many Russian emigrants visited . Olga maintained a high level of correspondence with the Russian émigré community and former members of the imperial army . On 2 February 1935 in the Russian Orthodox Church in Copenhagen , she and her husband were godparents , with her cousin Prince Gustav of Denmark , to Aleksander Schalburg , son of Russian @-@ born Danish army officer Christian Frederik von Schalburg . In the 1930s , the family took annual holidays at Sofiero Castle , Sweden , with Crown Prince Gustaf of Sweden and his wife , Louise . Olga began to sell her own paintings , of Russian and Danish scenes , with exhibition auctions in Copenhagen , London , Paris , and Berlin . Some of the proceeds were donated to the charities she supported .
Neutral Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany on 9 April 1940 , and was occupied for the remainder of World War II . Food shortages , communication restrictions , and transportation closures followed . As Olga 's sons , Tikhon and Guri , served as officers in the Danish Army , they were interned as prisoners of war , but their imprisonment in a Copenhagen hotel lasted less than two months . Tikhon was imprisoned for a further month in 1943 after being arrested on charges of espionage . Other Russian émigrés , keen to fight against the Soviets , enlisted in the German forces . Despite her sons ' internment and her mother 's Danish origins , Olga was implicated in her compatriots ' collusion with German forces , as she continued to meet and extend help to Russian émigrés fighting against communism . On 4 May 1945 , German forces in Denmark surrendered to the British . When economic and social conditions for Russian exiles failed to improve , General Pyotr Krasnov wrote to the Grand Duchess , detailing the wretched conditions affecting Russian immigrants in Denmark . She in turn asked Prince Axel of Denmark to help them , but her request was refused .
With the end of World War II , Soviet troops occupied the easternmost part of Denmark , and the Soviet Union wrote to the Danish government accusing Olga and a Danish Catholic bishop of conspiracy against the Soviet government . The surviving Romanovs in Denmark grew fearful of an assassination or kidnap attempt , and Olga decided to move her family across the Atlantic to the relative safety of rural Canada .
= = Emigration to Canada = =
In May 1948 , the Kulikovskys traveled to London by Danish troopship . They were housed in a grace and favour apartment at Hampton Court Palace while arrangements were made for their journey to Canada as agricultural immigrants . On 2 June 1948 , Olga , Kulikovsky , Tikhon and his Danish @-@ born wife Agnete , Guli and his Danish @-@ born wife Ruth , Guli and Ruth 's two children , Xenia and Leonid , and Olga 's devoted companion and former maid Emilia Tenso ( " Mimka " ) departed Liverpool on board the Empress of Canada . After a rough crossing , the ship docked at Halifax , Nova Scotia . The family proceeded to Toronto , where they lived until they purchased a 200 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) farm in Halton County , Ontario , near Campbellville .
By 1952 , the farm had become a burden to Olga and her husband . They were both elderly ; their sons had moved away ; labor was hard to come by ; the Colonel suffered increasing ill @-@ health , and some of Olga 's remaining jewelry was stolen . The farm was sold , and Olga , her husband and her former maid , Mimka , moved to a smaller five @-@ room house at 2130 Camilla Road , Cooksville , Ontario , a suburb of Toronto now amalgamated into the city of Mississauga . Mimka suffered a stroke that left her an invalid , and Olga nursed her until Mimka 's death on 24 January 1954 .
Neighbors and visitors to the region , including foreign and royal dignitaries , took interest in Olga , and visited her small home , which was also a magnet for Romanov impostors whom Olga and her family considered a menace . Welcome visitors included Princess Marina , Duchess of Kent , in 1954 , and Louis Mountbatten and his wife Edwina , in August 1959 . In June 1959 , Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip visited Toronto and invited the Grand Duchess for lunch on board the Royal Yacht , Britannia .
By 1958 , Olga 's husband was virtually paralyzed , and Olga sold some of her remaining jewelry in an attempt to raise funds . Following her husband 's death in 1958 , she became increasingly infirm until hospitalized in April 1960 at Toronto General Hospital . She was not informed or was not aware that her elder sister , Xenia , died in London that month . Unable to care for herself , Olga went to stay with Russian émigré friends , Konstantin and Sinaida Martemianoff , in an apartment above a beauty salon at 716 Gerrard Street East , Toronto . She slipped into a coma on 21 November 1960 , and died on 24 November at the age of 78 .
She was interred next to her husband in York Cemetery , Toronto , on 30 November 1960 , after a funeral service at Christ the Saviour Cathedral , Toronto . Officers of the Akhtyrsky Hussars and the Blue Cuirassiers stood guard in the small Russian church , which overflowed with mourners . Although she lived simply , bought cheap clothes , and did her own shopping and gardening , her estate was valued at more than 200 @,@ 000 Canadian dollars ( about 1 @.@ 5 million Canadian dollars as of 2013 ) and was mostly held as stock and bonds . Her material possessions were appraised at 350 Canadian dollars in total , which biographer Patricia Phenix considered an underestimate .
= = Legacy = =
Olga began drawing and painting at a young age . She told her official biographer Ian Vorres :
Even during my geography and arithmetic lessons , I was allowed to sit with a pencil in my hand . I could listen much better when I was drawing corn or wild flowers .
She painted throughout her life , on paper , canvas and ceramic , and her output is estimated at over 2 @,@ 000 pieces . Her usual medium was scenery and landscape , but she also painted portraits and still lifes . Vorres wrote ,
Her paintings , vivid and sensitive , are immersed in the subdued light of her beloved Russia . Besides her numerous landscapes and flower pictures that reveal her inherent love for nature , she often also dwells on scenes from simple daily life ... executed with a sensitive eye for composition , expression and detail . Her work exudes peace , serenity and a spirit of love that mirror her own character , in total contrast to the suffering she experienced through most of her life .
Her daughter @-@ in @-@ law wrote ,
Being a deeply religious person , the Grand Duchess perceived the beauty of nature as being divinely inspired creation . Prayer and attending church provided her with the strength not only to overcome the new difficulties befallen her , but also to continue with her drawing . These feelings of gratefulness to God pervaded not only the icons created by the Grand Duchess , but also her portraits and still life paintings .
Her paintings were a profitable source of income . According to her daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Olga preferred to exhibit in Denmark to avoid the commercialism of the North American market . The Russian Relief Programme , which was founded by Tikhon and his third wife Olga in honour of the Grand Duchess , exhibited a selection of her work at the residence of the Russian ambassador in Washington in 2001 , in Moscow in 2002 , in Ekaterinburg in 2004 , in Saint Petersburg and Moscow in 2005 , in Tyumen and Surgut in 2006 , at the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow and Saint Michael 's Castle in Saint Petersburg in 2007 , and at the Vladimir Arsenyev Museum in Vladivostok in 2013 . Pieces by Olga are included in the collections of Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , King Harald of Norway , and private collections in North America and Europe . Ballerup Museum in Pederstrup , Denmark , has around 100 of her works .
= = = Ancestry = = =
= German submarine U @-@ 30 ( 1936 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 30 was a Type VIIA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that served during World War II . She was ordered in April 1935 in violation of the Treaty of Versailles , which prevented the construction and commissioning of any U @-@ boats for the German navy , and as part of the German naval rearmament program known as Plan Z. She sank the liner SS Athenia , the first ship sunk in World War II , on 3 September 1939 , under the command of Fritz @-@ Julius Lemp . She was retired from front @-@ line service in September 1940 after undertaking eight war patrols , having sunk 17 vessels and damaging two others . U @-@ 30 then served in a training role until the end of the war when she was scuttled . She was later raised and broken up for scrap in 1948 .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 30 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 1 April 1935 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her keel was laid down on 24 January 1936 by AG Weser , Bremen as yard number 911 . She was launched on 4 August and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 8 October under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Hans Cohausz .
= = Design = =
Like all Type VIIA submarines , U @-@ 30 had two MAN 6 @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ stroke M6V 40 / 46 diesel engines totalling 2 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 310 PS ( 1 @,@ 540 – 1 @,@ 700 kW ; 2 @,@ 070 – 2 @,@ 280 bhp ) as well as two Brown , Boveri & Cie GG UB 720 / 8 electric motors , that produced 750 PS ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) and allowed her to travel at a maximum of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) while surfaced and 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) submerged . She had a range of 6 @,@ 200 nmi ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) while on the surface and 73 – 94 nmi ( 135 – 174 km ; 84 – 108 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged . U @-@ 30 had five torpedo tubes , ( four in the bow , one in the stern ) . She could also carry a total of eleven 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedoes or 22 TMA mines or 33 TMB mines and had a 8 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) C35 / L45 deck gun ( with 220 rounds ) . She was equipped with one 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) C 30 anti @-@ aircraft gun . After being commissioned and deployed , U @-@ 30 was stationed in the German port city of Wilhelmshaven .
= = Service history = =
During her career U @-@ 30 was involved in eight war patrols and sank 16 merchant ships , totalling 86 @,@ 165 gross register tons ( GRT ) and one auxiliary warship of 325 GRT . U @-@ 30 also damaged one ship of 5 @,@ 642 GRT and damaged the British battleship HMS Barham . All of these attacks took place under the command of Kptlt . Fritz @-@ Julius Lemp .
= = = First patrol and the sinking of Athenia = = =
U @-@ 30 went to sea on 22 August 1939 , before World War II began . Her active service career began on 3 September 1939 , just 12 days after leaving Wilhelmshaven and only 10 hours after Great Britain declared war on Germany , she sank the 13 @,@ 581 ton passenger ship SS Athenia about 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) west of the Hebrides while she was en route from Liverpool to Montreal in Canada . The Athenia was the first ship sunk in World War II ; out of 1 @,@ 400 passengers , 1
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A38 and A39 roads , and traffic went via Bridgwater ; the former inn was demolished c . 1930 .
After the departure of the Romans , the low @-@ lying Somerset Levels appear to have been abandoned , as the archaeological record shows that they were flooded and the former Roman landscape covered with a thick layer of alluvial deposits . Recovery of the levels involved both the construction of sea walls and the containment of the Parrett . Celtic Christianity came to the remoter areas of the Somerset Levels , making use of " island " sites . Glastonbury Abbey , possibly founded in the 7th century ( or earlier ) , was nearby and had undertaken extensive water management to enable it to bring materials by boat to Glastonbury , albeit not via the Parrett . Muchelney Abbey , founded in the mid @-@ 8th century , was sited at the confluence of the Parrett and its tributaries , the rivers Isle and Yeo ; and Athelney Abbey lay on another tributary , the River Tone . These three abbeys together with the Bishop of Bath and Wells were major landowners with fishing and riparian rights , often conflicting , on these rivers . They gained financially from improvements to land and waterways due to the resulting greater fertility of their lands and the increased rents that they were able to charge their tenants .
Continuing land reclamation and control of the Parrett was a long @-@ running cycle of neglect followed by improvement . Work was carried out on the upper River Parrett basin in the Middle Ages by Glastonbury Abbey . Abbot Michael 's survey of 1234 showed 722 acres ( 292 ha ) of meadow recovered around the " island " of Sowy ; from the accounts in the Abbey 's rent books , this had increased to 972 acres ( 393 ha ) by 1240 . Flooding of adjacent moor land was partially addressed in the 13th century by building a number of embankment walls to contain the Parrett . These included Southlake Wall , Burrow Wall and Lake Wall . The River Tone was also diverted by the Abbot of Athelney and other land owners into a new embanked channel , joining the Parrett upstream from its original confluence . After the dissolution of the monasteries in the 16th century , much of the former abbey lands came under the control of the Crown , particularly King 's Sedgemoor , which had been wholly owned by Glastonbury Abbey , with Henry VI 's Courts of Sewers made responsible for maintaining existing drainage and various Commissions made responsible for land improvements . Further reclamation work was carried out over the next 500 years . In 1597 , 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land were recovered near the Parrett estuary ; a few years later 140 acres ( 57 ha ) near Pawlett were recovered by means of embankments ; three further reclamations , totalling 110 acres ( 45 ha ) , were undertaken downstream of Bridgwater by 1660 . Kings James I , Charles I , and Charles II continued to improve King 's Sedgemoor .
Attempts were also made to improve navigation on the lower river . Between 1677 and 1678 , Sir John Moulton cut a new channel at " Vikings Creek " on the Horsey Levels to remove a large meander ; the old river bed soon silted up , providing 120 acres ( 49 ha ) of new land . A further scheme was proposed in 1723 to improve navigation , shorten the journey time for boats , and recover land by obtaining an Act of Parliament to make an artificial cut across the Steart Peninsula . Eventually , after much debate , the cut was not made due to lack of land owner support and concerns over costs and risks . The English Civil War put a stop to most reclamation work ; however , in 1764 a clyse was built at Dunball to contain tidal influences on a run @-@ off stream near King 's Sedgemoor . Extensive land recovery was undertaken in the Somerset Levels by land owners between 1770 and the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , as part of a general scheme of agricultural improvements , including improvements to the Brue Valley and to King 's Sedgemoor . The latter involved the connection of various drainage schemes into a new hand @-@ dug channel connected to the clyse at Dunball – the King 's Sedgemoor Drain . Further drainage improvements were needed in the 19th century , which involved the use of mechanical pumping engines , originally steam powered but later powered by electricity . In January 1940 , further improvements were funded by the Ministry of Supply , during the Second World War , as " Priority War Work " during the construction of Royal Ordnance Factory ( ROF ) Bridgwater . This involved doubling the width of the King 's Sedgemoor Drain at its western end and the excavation of the River Huntspill . In the longer @-@ term this provided a drain for the Brue valley , but in war @-@ time the scheme provided a guaranteed daily supply of 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 20 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water for the ROF .
The town of Bridgwater , from Brigewaltier ( place at ) the bridge held by Walter of Douai , or alternatively " Brugie " from Old English brycg meaning gang plank between ships , or from Old Norse brygja meaning quay , was founded as a new borough about 1200 ; it had a castle and a market and became a port in its own right . It was the major port for Somerset which , around the Quantocks , the Brendon Hills and the Tone valley , was mainly agricultural , producing arable crops and vegetables to supply the new industrial towns . Combwich was the traditional River Parrett pilots ' harbour from at least the 14th century . It also served as a port for the export of local produce and , from the 15th century , the import of timber . Until the late 1930s , when the creek silted up , coastal shipping served Combwich 's local brick and coal yard .
In the medieval era the river was used to transport Hamstone from the quarry at Ham Hill for the construction of churches throughout the county . Later , in the 19th century , coal from south Wales , for heating , Bath bricks , bricks and tiles would be carried . Brick making , which had been carried out intermittently in Bridgwater from the 17th century , by the late 18th century had expanded into an industry based on permanent brickyards in the Bridgwater area adjacent to the Parrett . The brick and tile industry made use of the local alluvial clays and the Parrett 's coastal trade , using ketches mostly based at Bridgwater to transport their products , which were heavy and bulky , and to bring in coal to heat the kilns . The 19th century industrial revolution opened up mass markets leading to further expansion of the industry , particularly beginning in 1850 when the duty ( tax ) on bricks was abolished . Brick and tile works , making use of river transport , were opened in the 1840s and 1850s south of Bridgwater at North Petherton and Dunwear , in Bridgwater itself , and downstream at Chilton Trinity , Combwich , Puriton and Pawlett . Numerous brickworks were also opened elsewhere in Somerset , but many of them used the railways to transport their products ; some 264 sites are listed in the Somerset Industrial Archaeological Society 's Gazetteer of sites . Silt was also dredged from the river over a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch between Somerset Bridge and Castle Fields , Bridgwater , to make Bath bricks , an early abrasive cleaning material patented in 1827 .
= = = Port of Bridgwater = = =
Bridgwater was part of the Port of Bristol until the Port of Bridgwater was created in 1348 , covering 80 miles ( 130 km ) of the Somerset coast line , from the Devon border to the mouth of the River Axe . Under an 1845 Act of Parliament the Port of Bridgwater extends from Brean Down to Hinkley Point in Bridgwater Bay , and includes parts of the River Parrett ( to Bridgwater ) , River Brue and the River Axe .
Historically , the main port on the river was at Bridgwater , where a span crossed the river from 1200 AD onwards . Quays were built at Bridgwater in 1424 , with another quay , the Langport slip , being built in 1488 upstream of the Town Bridge . A custom house was sited at Bridgwater , on West Quay , and a dry dock , launching slips and a boat yard on East Quay . Bridgwater built some 167 ships , the last one being the Irene launched in 1907 .
The river was navigable , with care , to Bridgwater Town Bridge by 400 @-@ to @-@ 500 @-@ tonne ( 390 @-@ to @-@ 490 @-@ long @-@ ton ) vessels . By trans @-@ shipping goods into barges at the Town Bridge , the Parrett was navigable as far as Langport and ( via the River Yeo ) to Ilchester . After 1827 , it was also possible to transport goods to Taunton via the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal at Huntworth . A floating harbour , known as the " docks " , was constructed between 1837 – 1841 , and the canal was extended through Bridgwater to the floating harbour.Lawrence & Lawrence 2005 , pp. 157 – 158 The dock area contained flour mills , timber yards and chandlers .
Shipping to Bridgwater expanded with the construction of the docks , which opened on 25 March 1841 , and reached a peak in the 19th century between 1880 and 1885 , with an average of 3 @,@ 600 ships per year entering the port . Peak tonnage occurred in 1857 , with 142 vessels totaling 17 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 17 @,@ 500 long tons ) . In the short term , the opening of the docks increased the profitability of the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , which carried 81 @,@ 650 tonnes ( 80 @,@ 360 long tons ) of cargo in 1840 . This peaked in 1847 at 88 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 000 long tons ) of cargo ; however , by the mid @-@ 1850s the canal was bankrupt due to competition from the railways .
Combwich Pill , a small creek near the mouth of the river , had been used for shipping since the 14th century . From the 1830s , with the development of the brick and tile industry in the Combwich area , the wharf was used by two local brickyards to import coal and export tiles to Wales and parts of Gloucestershire . This traffic ceased in the 1930s ; in the late 1950s the wharf was taken over and upgraded by the Central Electricity Generating Board ( CEGB ) to bring in heavy materials for the Hinkley Point nuclear power stations . Construction of Hinkley Point A nuclear power station was ordered in 1957 , with a scheduled completion date of 1960 , but was not completed until 1965 . This was followed by Hinkley Point B nuclear power station , which began operation in 1976 . It is proposed to use the wharf again for the construction of Hinkley Point C.
Dunball wharf was built in 1844 by Bridgwater coal merchants , and was linked to the Bristol and Exeter Railway by a rail track which crossed the A38 . The link was built in 1876 , also by coal merchants , and was originally operated as a horse @-@ drawn tramway . In 1875 , the local landowner built The Dunball Steam Pottery & Brick & Tile Works adjacent to the wharf .
The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , which had been bought out by the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1866 and later passed into the control of the Great Western Railway had , by the beginning of the First World War , fallen into disrepair due to lack of trade . This trade , particularly the Wales @-@ Somerset traffic after the opening of the Severn Tunnel in 1886 , had been lost to the railways ; the canal continued to be used as a source of water . In the mid @-@ 1950s , the Port of Bridgwater was importing some 80 @,@ 050 to 106 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 78 @,@ 790 to 105 @,@ 110 long tons ) of cargo , mainly sand and coal by tonnage , followed by timber and flour . It was also exporting some 7 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 7 @,@ 200 long tons ) of bricks and tiles . By then , Bridgwater 's brick and tile industry was in terminal decline . In the 1960s , British Rail , the owner of the docks , which were limited by the size of its locks to boats of maximum size 180 by 31 feet ( 54 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 4 m ) , decided that they were commercially non @-@ viable . British Railways offered to sell the docks to any buyer ; however , there were no takers , so the docks were closed to river traffic .
Although ships no longer dock in the town of Bridgwater , 90 @,@ 213 tonnes ( 99 @,@ 443 short tons ) of cargo were handled within the port authority 's area in 2006 , most of which was stone products via the wharf at Dunball . It is no longer linked to the railway system . The link was removed in the 1960s as part of the railway closures following the Beeching Report . Dunball railway station , which had opened in 1873 , was closed to both passengers and goods in 1964 . All traces of the station , other than " Station Road " , have been removed . The wharf is now used for landing stone products , mainly marine sand and gravels dredged in the Bristol Channel . Marine sand and gravel accounted for 55 @,@ 754 tonnes ( 61 @,@ 458 short tons ) of the total tonnage of 90 @,@ 213 tonnes ( 88 @,@ 788 long tons ) using the Port facilities in 2006 , with salt products accounting for 21 @,@ 170 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 840 long tons ) in the same year , while the roll @-@ on roll @-@ off berth at Combwich is used occasionally for the transfer of heavy goods for the two existing Hinkley Point nuclear power stations . With the possible future construction of the two Hinkley Point C nuclear power stations by EDF Energy , it is proposed that Combwich wharf be employed to transfer heavy goods to the sites . Combwich Pill is the only site where recreational moorings are available in the estuary .
Sedgemoor District Council acts as the Competent Harbour Authority for the port , and has provided pilotage services for all boats over 98 feet ( 30 m ) using the river since 1998 , when it took over the service from Trinity House . Pilotage is important because of the constant changes in the navigable channel resulting from the large tidal range , which can exceed 39 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) on spring tides . Most commercial shipping travels upriver as far as Dunball wharf , which handles bulk cargoes .
= = = Parrett Navigation = = =
The Parrett Navigation was a series of improvements to the river to allow increased boat traffic between Burrowbridge and Thorney . The work , done in the 1830s and 1840s , was made mostly obsolete by the coming of railways in 1853 , though some aspects survive to this day .
= = = = Background = = = =
Trade on the river upstream of Bridgwater had developed during the 18th century , with 20 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 22 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barges operating between Bridgwater and Langport , while smaller barges carrying 6 to 7 long tons ( 6 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 1 t ) operated on the upper reaches between Langport and Thorney , and along the River Yeo to Long Load Bridge and Ilchester . The channel below the junction with the River Tone had been improved as a result of Acts of Parliament passed in 1699 and 1707 , " for making and keeping the River Tone navigable from Bridgewater to Taunton " , and a third act with a similar purpose was passed in 1804 . Traffic on the higher reaches was hindered by shoals in the river and by the Great Bow Bridge at Langport , which consisted on nine small arches , none of them big enough for navigation . All cargoes heading upstream had to be off @-@ loaded from the bigger barges , carried to the other side of the bridge , and reloaded into the smaller barges . Traffic above Langport was sporadic , as the water levels were often inadequate , forcing boats to wait several days for the right conditions before proceeding .
The abortive Ivelchester and Langport Navigation scheme had sought to avoid the Great Bow Bridge by making the Portlake Rhine navigable , rebuilding Little Bow Bridge in the centre of Langport , and making a new cut to Bicknell 's Bridge . Seven locks , each with a small rise , were planned , but the scheme foundered in 1797 due to financial difficulties . After the cessation of hostilities with France at the beginning of the 19th century , there was renewed interest in canal building in Somerset ; the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal was authorised in 1824 , the Glastonbury Canal in 1827 , and the Chard Canal in 1834 .
When the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal was opened in 1827 , it joined the Parrett by a lock at Huntworth , where a basin was constructed , but in 1841 the canal was extended to the new floating harbour in Bridgwater , and the Huntworth link was filled in . The canal and river were not re @-@ connected at this point when the canal was restored , because the tidal Parrett , at Huntworth , is a salt water river laden with silt whereas the canal contains fresh water . Not only is there a risk of silt entering the canal , but the salt water cannot be allowed to contaminate the fresh , as the canal is still used for the transport of drinking water for Bridgwater 's population .
= = = = Construction = = = =
With the prospect of the Chard Canal in particular damaging trade on the Parrett , four traders from Langport including Vincent Stuckey and Walter Bagehot , who together operated a river freight business , commissioned the engineer Joseph Jones to carry out a survey for the Parrett Navigation which was then put before Parliament . It was supported by Brunel and a large quantity of documentary evidence . Objections from local landowners were handled by including clauses in the Parrett Navigation Act to ensure that surplus water would be channelled to the Long Sutton Catchwater Drain by culverts , siphons , and sluices , and the Act of Parliament was passed on 4 July 1836 .
The Parrett Navigation Act allowed the proprietors , of whom 25 were named , to raise £ 10 @,@ 500 in shares and £ 3 @,@ 300 by mortgage , with which to make improvements to the river from Burrow Bridge to Langport , to reconstruct the restrictive bridge at Langport , and to continue the improvements as far as Thorney . The River Isle , which joined the Parrett at Muchelney , was to be improved for its first mile , and then the Westport Canal was to be constructed from there to Westport . Locks were planned at Stanmoor , Langport , and Muchelney , with a half @-@ lock at Thorney . An extra lock was added at Oath , when tests revealed that the depth of water would not meet that specified in the Act without it . Costs were considerably higher than expected , and a second Act of Parliament was obtained in 1839 , to allow an extra £ 20 @,@ 000 to be raised . The lock at Oath has since been replaced by a sluice gate to control flooding .
The section below Langport opened on 28 October 1839 ; the section to Thorney and the Westport Canal were completed in August 1840 . The Langport Bridge was not finished until March 1841 ; of the £ 3 @,@ 749 cost of construction , £ 500 came from the Langport Corporation and the rest was raised by a bridge toll operated from March 1841 until January 1843 . The total cost of the works was £ 38 @,@ 876 , and no dividends were paid until 1853 , as all profits were used to repay the loans which had been taken out . There are no records of traffic , but it has been estimated at 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 long tons ( 61 @,@ 000 to 71 @,@ 000 t ) per year , based on the toll receipts and the knowledge that the Stuckey and Bagehot boats carried about three quarters of the total tonnage .
= = = = Decline = = = =
The Bristol and Exeter Railway opened in late 1853 , and the effects on the Parrett Navigation were immediate . Despite petitions from users of the Westport Canal to keep their section open for navigation , the Commissioners opted to abandon the entire navigation ; however , the Westport Canal was maintained for drain purposes only . Some boats continued to use the river to reach Langport and beyond until the early years of the 20th century . There is still a public right of navigation as far as Oath Lock , but very few private boats use the river , largely due to the fierce tides in the estuary and a lack of moorings along its route .
= = Bridges and structures = =
Much of the history of the river is defined by its bridges , which are described from here mouth to source . The Drove Bridge , which marks the current extent of the Port of Bridgwater , is the nearest to the mouth and the newest road bridge to cross the river . With a span of 184 feet ( 56 m ) , the bridge was constructed as part of the Bridgwater Northern Distributor road scheme ( 1992 ) , and provides a navigable channel which is 66 feet ( 20 m ) wide with 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) headroom at normal spring high tides . Upstream of this is the retractable or Telescopic Bridge , built in 1871 to the design of Sir Francis Fox , the engineer for the Bristol and Exeter Railway . It carried a broad gauge ( later standard gauge ) railway siding over the river to the docks , and was movable , to allow boats to proceed up river . An 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) section of railway track to the east of the bridge could be moved sideways , so that the main 127 @-@ foot ( 39 m ) girders could be retracted , creating a navigable channel which was 78 feet ( 24 m ) wide . It was manually operated for the first eight months , and then powered by a steam engine , reverting to manual operation in 1913 , when the steam engine failed . The bridge was last opened in 1953 , and the traverser section was demolished in 1974 , but public outcry at this resulted in the bridge being listed as a Scheduled monument , and the rest of the bridge was kept . It was later used as a road crossing , until the construction of the Chandos road bridge alongside it , and is now only used by pedestrians . Parts of the steam engine were moved to Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum in 1977 .
The next bridge is the Town Bridge . There has been a bridge here since the 13th century , when Bridgwater was granted a charter by King John . The present bridge was designed by R. C. Else and G. B. Laffan , and the 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) cast iron structure was completed in 1883 . It replaced an earlier iron bridge , which was completed in 1797 and was the first cast iron bridge to be built in Somerset . The stone abutments of that bridge were reused for the later bridge , which was the only road crossing of the river in Bridgwater until 1958 . Above the bridge there were two shoals , called The Coals and The Stones , which were a hazard to barge traffic on the river , and bargees had to navigate the river at high tide , when there was enough water to carry them over these obstructions . In March 1958 a new reinforced concrete road bridge , the Blake Bridge , was opened as part of a bypass to take traffic away from the centre of Bridgwater . It now carries the A38 and A39 roads . At the southern edge of Bridgwater is a bridge which carries the Bristol and Exeter Railway across the River Parrett . Isambard Kingdom Brunel designed a brick bridge , known as the Somerset Bridge , with a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) span but a rise of just 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Work started in 1838 and was completed in 1841 . Brunel left the centring scaffold in place , as the foundations were still settling , but had to remove it in 1843 to reopen the river for navigation . Brunel demolished the brick arch and replaced it with a timber arch within six months without interrupting the traffic on the railway . This was in turn replaced in 1904 by a steel girder bridge . Slightly further east is a modern concrete bridge which carries the M5 motorway over both the river and the railway line . It was started in 1971 and opened in 1973 .
Before 1826 , the bridge at Burrowbridge , just below the junction with the River Tone , consisted of three arches , each only a little wider than the barges that used the river . They restricted the flow of water in times of flood and made navigation difficult . The bridge was highlighted in a report made by William Armstrong in 1824 , as a factor which would prevent the River Tone Navigation competing with the new Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , then being built . An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1824 by the Turnpike Commissioners , authorising the construction of a new bridge and the removal of the old . A design for a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) single @-@ span bridge in cast iron was dropped because of the cost of cast iron at the time , and instead a stone bridge was built , which was completed in 1826 . This is the longest single span masonry road bridge in the county , and was also the last toll bridge in Somerset until it was " freed " in 1946 . It now carries the A361 road . Just below the bridge there was a shoal of rocks and stones , which was also mentioned in Armstrong 's report , but no action was taken to remove it . Except at spring tides , Burrowbridge was the normal upper limit for barges riding the incoming tide . Above here , horses were used to pull the boats , either towards Langport or along the River Tone towards Taunton .
Stanmoor lock was constructed above the junction with the River Tone , but all traces of it have gone . Next to the pedestrian bridge at Stathe four living willow cones , which were woven in 1997 by Clare Wilks , have now rooted and sprouted . Oath lock no longer functions as a lock , but the sluice is used to regulate the river levels . Below Langport , the river is crossed by a lattice girder bridge , carrying the Taunton to Westbury railway line , which approaches the crossing on multi @-@ arched viaducts . This is followed by the derelict remains of the Langport lock and sluice .
At Langport , the Great Bow Bridge , which now carries the A378 , is a three @-@ arched bridge , constructed under the terms of the Parrett Navigation Act of 1836 . Completed in 1841 at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 749 , it replaced the previous medieval bridge , with its nine tiny arches , all too small to allow navigation . A bridge at this site was first mentioned in 1220 . The medieval bridge consisted of a total of 31 arches , of which nine crossed the river , and 19 of the original arches were located by ground @-@ penetrating radar in 1987 , buried beneath the road which runs from Great Bow Bridge to Little Bow Bridge . The Warehouse in Langport was built in the late 18th century of English bond red brick , with Flemish bond extensions . It has clay plain tile roofs with hipped ends . It was built by the Parrett Navigation Company , a trading company owned by Vincent Stuckey and Walter Bagehot , on the banks of the River . When the river became unnavigable , the building was no longer needed , and it was eventually abandoned . The Somerset Trust for Sustainable Development , which became the Ecos Trust , purchased the site , designated as a brown field site , in February 2003 , and worked with Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust , English Heritage and local councils to redevelop it into a craft , heritage learning and small business centre , with the surrounding land being used for an eco @-@ friendly housing development . It is a grade II listed building .
The newest bridge across the Parrett is Cocklemoor Bridge , a pedestrian footbridge close to the Great Bow Bridge . It was erected in 2006 and forms part of the River Parrett Trail . The next bridge upstream is Bicknell 's bridge , which was formerly known as Bickling bridge , which carries the road from Huish Episcopi to Muchelney . It replaced a footbridge in 1829 or 1830 . At Muchelney the Westover Bridge carries a minor road over the river , and another minor road crosses on the Thorney Bridge close to the Thorney ( or silent ) Mill and a lock . The mill , with an iron overshot wheel , was built to grind corn in 1823 . Another bridge and mill occur further upstream at Gawbridge west of Martock , where the mill has been the subject of a feasibility study by the South Somerset Hydropower Group . Carey 's Mill Bridge was built of Ham stone in the 18th century and named after Carey 's Mill , which originally occupied the site . It is surrounded by a collection of buildings known as the Parrett Iron Works , founded in 1855 on the site of a former snuff mill , which included a foundry , with a prominent chimney , ropewalk , workshops and several smaller workshops and cottages . The sluice which powered the waterwheel and sluice keeper 's cottage still exist . Further south the river flows under the A303 near Norton @-@ sub @-@ Hamdon and the A356 near Chedington .
= = Flood prevention = =
The waters of the Severn Estuary , which are heavily laden with silt , flow into the lower reaches of the Parrett and the Tone on each tide . This silt can rapidly gather on the banks of the rivers , reducing the capacity and performance of the channel , and increasing the risk of flooding of surrounding land .
The river is a highland carrier , as it is embanked and the water level is often higher than the land through which it flows . Water from the surrounding countryside does not therefore drain into the river naturally , and drainage schemes have relied on pumping to remove the water . The pumping station at Westonzoyland was built in 1830 , the first mechanical pumping station on the Somerset Levels . It was designed to drain the area around Westonzoyland , Middlezoy and Othery , and the success of the drainage system led to the formation of Internal drainage boards and the construction of other pumping stations .
The pump at Westonzoyland originally comprised a beam engine and scoop wheel , which is similar to a water wheel , except that it is driven round by the engine and lifts water up to a higher level . After 25 years , there were problems pumping the water away as the land surface had dropped as it dried out . A better method was sought , and in 1861 a replacement pump was installed . The engine was built by Easton and Amos of London , to a design patented in 1858 by Charles Amos . It is a twin cylinder , vertical condensing engine , driving a centrifugal pump . A similar engine was on display at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and was shown to be able to lift 100 tons of water per minute ( 1 @,@ 700 L / s ) , to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . The Westonzoyland pump lifts water from the rhyne ( pronounced " reen " ) into the River Parrett . The pump operated until 1951 , when a new diesel @-@ powered pumping station , capable of pumping 35 tons per minute ( 600 L / s ) at any state of the tide , was built beside the old one . The pumping station is now an Industrial Heritage museum of steam powered machinery and land drainage , and houses most of the equipment from the disused Burrowbridge pumping station .
The Somerset River Authority was established in the 1960s , and later became part of Wessex Water . Tidal models were used to explore the effects of any improvements to the river , and the likelihood of adverse consequences , i.e. flooding and subsequent silting . Engineering works were undertaken at the Parrett , King 's Sedgemoor Drain , and River Brue systems , to try to ensure that the agricultural land benefited from a potable water supply in the groundwaters from the Quantock Hills to the coastline .
Various measures including sluice gates , known locally as " clyce " , have been deployed to try and control flooding . Completed in 1972 , the Sowy River is a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) embanked channel which starts at Monks Leaze clyce below Langport , and carries excess water from the river to the Kings Sedgemoor Drain , from where it flows to the estuary by gravity , rejoining the Parrett near Dunball wharf . Construction of the channel , together with improvements to the Kings Sedgemoor Drain and the rebuilding of the clyce at Dunball , to create a fresh water seal which prevents salt water entering the drain from the river , cost £ 1 @.@ 4 million . The scheme has resulted in less flooding on Aller Moor .
In the 1970s a study was commissioned by Wessex Water to investigate the likely effects of constructing a tide @-@ excluding barrier , aimed at stopping the silt , just upriver of Dunball Wharf on the hydraulic , sedimentary and pollutant regime of the estuary . Results showed that a site further upriver could be viable .
The area around the estuary , known as Parrett Reach , around the Steart Peninsula has flooded many times during the last millennium . As a result , the Environment Agency produced the Stolford to Combwich Coastal Defence Strategy Study in 2002 , to examine options for the future . In July 2010 the Environment Agency presented plans to convert the peninsula into wetland habitat ; if the proposed scheme goes ahead , it will be the largest wetland habitat creation scheme in England .
Following summer floods of 1997 and the prolonged flooding of 1999 @-@ 2000 the Parrett Catchment Project was formed , partly funded by the European Union Regional Development Fund , by 30 organisations , including British Waterways , Campaign to Protect Rural England , Countryside Agency , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs , Environment Agency , Kings Sedgemoor and Cary Vale Internal Drainage Board ( now part of Parrett Internal Drainage Board ) , Levels and Moors Partnership , National Farmers Union , Sedgemoor , Somerset County Council , South Somerset District Council , Taunton Deane and Wessex Water . They aim to tackle twelve areas , which , when combined , will make a significant contribution to reducing the adverse effects of flooding . These include the conversion of arable land , adoption of the Sustainable Drainage Systems ( SuDS ) approach to controlling rainwater runoff from developed areas , dredging , raising riverbanks and improving pumping facilities . Further studies of the possible beneficial effects of woodland in reducing flooding have also been undertaken .
During the winter flooding of 2013 – 14 on the Somerset Levels the River Parrett overflowed at new year , during the rain and storms from Storm Dirk , with many residents asking for the Environment Agency to resume river dredging . On 24 January 2014 , in light of the continued flooded extent of the Somerset Moors and forecast new rainfall as part of the winter storms of 2013 – 14 in the United Kingdom , both Somerset County Council and Sedgemoor District Council declared a major incident , as defined under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 . At this time , with 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) of agricultural land having been under water for over a month , the village of Thorney was abandoned and Muchelney was cut off by flood waters for almost a month . Northmoor Green , which is more commonly known as Moorland , was also severely affected . By the end of January , 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) of agricultural land , including North Moor , Curry and Hay Moors and Greylake , had been under water for over a month . Bridgwater was partly flooded on 10 February 2014 , when with 20 @,@ 000 sandbags ready to be deployed . Over 600 houses were flooded , and both flooding and groundwater disrupted services including trains on the Bristol to Exeter Line between Bridgwater and Taunton .
As a result of the extensive flooding , earlier proposals for a tidal barrage across the Parrett were reviewed , and new proposals were suggested to construct the barrage at an estimated cost of between £ 26 @,@ 000 and £ 100 @,@ 000 . Further planning and construction could take up to ten years . The Inland Waterways Association has suggested that the barrage should include a lock to enable boats to travel to Bridgwater and potentially to reopen the link to the harbour and the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal .
= = Geology = =
Close to the source of the river the underlying geology is a thin layer of Fuller 's earth clay over Yeovil Sands . The resulting light soil made the area important for the production of flax and for market gardening in the past .
Burrow Mump , an ancient earthwork owned by the National Trust , is a natural hill of Triassic sandstone capped by Keuper marl , standing at a strategic point where the River Tone and the old course of the River Cary join the River Parrett . It probably served as a natural outwork to the defended royal island of Athelney at the end of the 9th century .
The Levels and Moors are a largely flat area in which there are some slightly raised parts , called " burtles " as well as higher ridges and hills . It is an agricultural region typically with open fields of permanent grass , surrounded by ditches lined with willow trees . Access to the Levels and Moors is by " droves " , i.e. green lanes . The Levels are a coastal sand and clay barrier about 20 feet ( 6 m ) above mean sea level ( roughly west of the M5 motorway ) whereas the inland Moors can be 20 feet ( 6 m ) below peak tides and have large areas of peat . The geology of the area is that of two basins mainly surrounded by hills , the runoff from which forms rivers that originally meandered across the plain but have now been controlled by embanking and clyces . The area is prone to winter floods of fresh water and occasional salt water inundations , the worst of which in recorded history was the Bristol Channel floods of 1607 , which resulted in the drowning of an estimated 2 @,@ 000 or more people , with houses and villages swept away , an estimated 200 square miles ( 520 km2 ) of farmland inundated and livestock destroyed . A further severe flood occurred in 1872 – 1873 when over 107 square miles ( 277 km2 ) were under water from October to March .
The extraction of peat from the Moors is known to have taken place during Roman times , and has been an ongoing practice since the levels were first drained . The introduction of plastic packaging in the 1950s allowed the peat to be packed without rotting . This led to the industrialisation of peat extraction during the 1960s as a major market in horticultural peat was developed . The reduction in water levels that resulted put local ecosystems at risk ; peat wastage in pasture fields was occurring at rates of 1 – 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 8 m ) over 100 years .
= = Ecology = =
The river flows through several areas of ecological interest and supports a variety of rare and endangered species .
From January until May , the Parrett provides a source of European eels ( Anguilla anguilla ) and young elvers , which are caught by hand netting as this is the only legal means of catching them . A series of eel passes have been built on the Parrett at the King 's Sedgemoor Drain to help this endangered species ; cameras have shown 10 @,@ 000 eels migrating upstream in a single night . The 2003 BBC Radio 4 play Glass Eels by Nell Leyshon was set on the Parrett .
To the north of the river bank northwest of Langport are the Aller and Beer Woods and Aller Hill biological Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) . Aller and Beer Woods is a Somerset Wildlife Trust reserve . It consists of large blocks of semi @-@ natural ancient woodland along the west @-@ facing slope of Aller Hill , overlooking King 's Sedgemoor . The reserve is about 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) and the underlying geology of most of it is Lias limestone . Prior to the 20th century it appears to have been managed for centuries as traditional coppice woodland , and it provides an outstanding example of ancient escarpment woodland . The woodland is a variant of the calcareous ash / wych elm stand @-@ type , with pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ) , and ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ) the dominant canopy trees throughout , and with scattered concentrations of wych elm ( Ulmus glabra ) . Ancient woodland indicators include small @-@ leaved lime ( Tilia cordata ) , and wild service tree ( Sorbus torminalis ) , both of which are locally common . Plants of particular interest include bird 's nest orchid ( Neottia nidus @-@ avis ) , greater butterfly orchid ( Platanthera chlorantha ) and the very rare Red Data Book species purple gromwell ( Lithospermum purpurocaeruleum ) . Aller Hill contains three species of plant which are nationally rare and a further three which are of restricted distribution in Somerset . The central area contains a sward dominated by sheep 's fescue ( Festuca ovina ) in combination with yellow oat @-@ grass ( Trisetum flavescens ) and quaking @-@ grass ( Briza media ) . Salad burnet ( Sanguisorba minor ) forms a major component of the sward with the two nationally rare species rough marsh @-@ mallow ( Althaea hirsuta ) and nit @-@ grass ( Gastridium ventricosum ) , also present .
Southlake Moor is another SSSI , which forms part of an extensive grazing marsh and ditch system . When conditions in the River Parrett are suitable , the moor can be deliberately flooded in winter by opening a sluice in the river 's floodbank . Some 96 species of aquatic and bankside vascular plant species have been recorded on Southlake Moor , including the greater water @-@ parsnip ( Sium latifolium ) . When the moor is flooded it can be occupied by large numbers of wildfowl ; up to 22 @,@ 000 wigeon ( Anas penelope ) , 250 Bewick 's swan ( Cygnus bewickii ) and good numbers of pochard ( Aythya ferina ) , teal ( Anas crecca ) and tufted duck ( Aythya fuligula ) . Signs of European otters ( Lutra lutra ) are regularly seen on the muddy banks of the River Parrett . The ditches on the east side of the site are populated by palmate newts ( Triturus helveticus ) .
Langmead and Weston Level is nationally important for its species @-@ rich neutral grassland and the invertebrate community found in the ditches and rhynes . The terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates recorded on the site include four nationally rare species : the great silver diving beetle ( Hydrophilus piceus ) , the soldier fly Odontomyia ornata , which is now called the ornate brigadier , and two other flies , Lonchoptera scutellata and Stenomicra cogani .
The Parrett then flows through the Somerset Levels National Nature Reserve , which contains a rich biodiversity of national and international importance . It supports a vast variety of plant species , including common plants such as marsh marigold ( Caltha palustris ) , meadowsweet ( Filipendula ulmaria ) and ragged robin ( Lychnis flos @-@ cuculi ) . The area is an important feeding ground for birds including Bewick ’ s swan ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii ) , Eurasian curlew ( Numenius arquata ) , common redshank ( Tringa totanus ) , skylark ( Alauda arvensis ) , common snipe ( Gallinago gallinago ) , common teal ( Anas crecca ) , Eurasian wigeon ( Anas penelope ) and whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus ) , as well as birds of prey including the western marsh harrier ( Circus aeruginosus ) and peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) . A wide range of invertebrate species is also present including rare insects , particularly the hairy click beetle ( Synaptus filiformis ) , which until recently was only known in Britain from the Parrett , and other insects , including the lesser silver water beetle ( Hydrochara caraboides ) , Bagous nodulosus , Hydrophilus piceus , Odontomyia angulata , Oulema erichsoni and Valvata macrostoma . In addition , the area supports an important European otter ( Lutra lutra ) population . 282 American mink ( Mustela vison ) have been captured after their escape from breeding farms , which is encouraging water voles ( Arvicola amphibius ) to recolonise areas of the Levels where they have been absent for 10 years . The Levels and Moors include 32 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( twelve of them also Special Protection Areas ) , the Huntspill River and Bridgwater Bay National Nature Reserves , the Somerset Levels and Moors Ramsar Site covering about 86 @,@ 000 acres ( 348 km2 ) , the Somerset Levels National Nature Reserve , Shapwick Heath National Nature Reserve , and numerous Scheduled Ancient Monuments . In addition , some 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 290 km2 ) of the Levels are recognised as an environmentally sensitive area , while other portions are designated as Areas of High Archaeological Potential . Despite this , there is currently no single conservation designation covering the entire area of the Levels and Moors .
On the outskirts of Bridgwater at Huntworth the river passes the Screech Owl local nature reserve where flooded clay pits provide a roost for thousands of common starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) each winter . The mouth of the river is where it flows into the National Nature Reserve at Bridgwater Bay on the Bristol Channel . It consists of large areas of mudflats , saltmarsh , sandflats and shingle ridges , some of which are vegetated . It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest since 1989 , and is designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention . The risks to wildlife are highlighted in the local Oil Spill Contingency Plan .
= = Tourism = =
The 47 @-@ mile ( 76 km ) River Parrett Trail is a long @-@ distance footpath following the Parrett from its source to the sea . The river passes many landmarks and places of interest including : Burrow Hill Cider Farm , Muchelney Abbey , West Sedgemoor ( a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , the Blake Museum , Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum , the site of the Battle of Sedgemoor , and finally discharges into Bridgwater Bay ( another SSSI ) . The Langport and River Parrett Visitor Centre located at Langport details local life , history and wildlife .
Since 2000 , attempts have been made to clarify the legal status and organisational responsibilities for the maintenance of the river and explore issues involving the sustainability and safe use of the waterway for a public trip boat and recreational craft . The work has identified economic and social benefits from the development of the Parrett navigation .
= = Route and points of interest = =
= All Saints ' Church , Runcorn =
All Saints ' Church is the parish church of Runcorn , Cheshire , England , sited on the south bank of the River Mersey overlooking Runcorn Gap . There is a tradition that the first church on the site was founded by Ethelfleda in 915 . That was replaced , probably in about 1250 , by a medieval church that was altered and extended in the 14th and 15th centuries . By the 19th century the building 's structure had deteriorated and become dangerous , and it was replaced by a new church , built between 1847 and 1849 to the designs of Anthony Salvin .
The church is built in local sandstone and is in Early English style with a tall steeple at the southwest corner . Some of the furniture in the church was moved from the previous building , as were some of the memorials , the majority which are to members of the Brooke family from nearby Norton Priory .
All Saints is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester , arranging services on Sundays and home groups during the week , in addition to weddings and funerals , and running a community project . The church is designated as a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
A church has stood on the site of the present structure for centuries . There is a tradition that the first church was founded in 915 by Ethelfleda when she built a castle nearby . Dedicated to St Bertelin , it was probably a simple structure of wood and thatch . Runcorn is not mentioned in the Domesday Book , but there is evidence that Nigel , the first baron of Halton ( died 1080 ) , conferred the church with a priest " in the days of the Conqueror " . A medieval church was subsequently built on the site , during the 19th @-@ century demolition of which Norman capitals were found in the masonry of its tower . Judging by its Early English style of architecture , the local historian H. F. Starkey estimates that the medieval church was probably built in about 1250 . The chancel was rebuilt in the 14th century with Decorated tracery in the east window . During the same century an embattled tower was built at the west end of the church , and this was either rebuilt or increased in size in the following century . A major item of the church furniture was a pre @-@ Reformation rood screen . It was destroyed when the church was rebuilt in the 19th century , although a few fragments were used in the construction of the present choir stalls . The nave of the church measured 52 feet ( 16 m ) by 40 feet ( 12 m ) and the tower was 57 feet ( 17 m ) high . At some time the dedication of the church was changed from St Bertelin to St Bartholomew , and later to All Saints .
By the 18th century the south aisle was in a serious state of decay , and in 1740 it was rebuilt in brick . In 1801 a commission reported that the church " was too small to conveniently contain the inhabitants of the parish " . It was extended by enlarging the south aisle and by adding galleries to it and to the west end . The former Gothic windows were replaced by round @-@ headed windows . During the first half of the 19th century there was increasing concern about the fabric of the church . The tower was becoming dangerous , and the vestry gave orders " that the bells were not to be rung " . In 1817 it was recommended that the height of the tower should be reduced . The south wall of the chancel was leaning and only kept in position by its roof . The south aisle , built only 15 years before , was sinking , and gaps were appearing around the windows . It was concluded that the church should be demolished and replaced . Some temporary repairs were carried out but there was insufficient money available to rebuild the church at that time . In July 1843 it was reported that the church was in a " very dangerous condition " , and calls were made for " necessary repairs to be made forthwith " . By December of that year architectural reports had been obtained from the architectural firm of Scott and Moffatt , and from Anthony Salvin , both of which concluded that the church was beyond repair . In September 1846 the last sermon was preached from the medieval church , and by November contracts for building a new church were completed .
The new church was designed by Salvin . Its foundation stone was laid at Easter 1847 by Richard Brooke , the eldest son of Sir Richard Brooke of Norton Priory , and the church was consecrated by Dr John Graham , Bishop of Chester on 11 January 1849 . The church , which provided seating for 1 @,@ 600 people , cost £ 8 @,@ 052 to build , met by public subscriptions and by the parish rate . The major donors were Miss Orred , the largest land owner in the town , Sir Richard Brooke , the dean and chapter of Christ Church , Oxford , and the Earl of Ellesmere . The stained glass in the chancel windows was donated by Sir Richard Brooke . A clock was installed in the tower in 1851 , and three new lancet windows were added to the chancel in 1900 . In 1910 a papal bull issued by Pope Boniface IX was found in the churchyard that referred to the dissolution of Norton Priory .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The church is built of Runcorn sandstone with a slate roof , and is in Early English style . Its plan consists of a nave of five bays with north and south aisles and a clerestory , a chancel that is lower and narrower than the nave , and a steeple at the southwest corner . The steeple consists of a square tower with an octagonal spire rising to 161 feet ( 49 m ) . The steeple has corner buttresses , large louvred lancets at the bell @-@ stage , and two tiers of lucarnes springing from the base of the tower and from the broach . At the corners of the nave and the chancel are buttresses that rise up as spirelets . On the gables of the chancel and the nave are cross finials and pinnacles . There is an organ chamber at the east end of the north aisle , and a war memorial chapel at the east end of the south aisle . The windows along the clerestory are round with inset quatrefoils ; all the other windows are lancets .
= = = Interior = = =
The five @-@ bay arcades are carried on square columns with angled corners and have foliated capitals . The chancel is paved with Minton encaustic tiles . The marble reredos dates from 1888 , and the alabaster altar rails from 1900 ; both were donated by the daughter of Rev John Barclay , a former vicar of the church who died in 1866 . Mural tablets , some of which were moved from the old church , commemorate members of the Brooke family and previous vicars of the parish . Also brought from the old church was " a curiously designed table said to have been used as a communion table " , two sanctuary chairs ( one in Jacobean style ) , and a chest . In addition , a royal coat of arms of George III , and a benefaction board dating from about 1700 were moved from the old church . The oldest memorial is to two women described as " both good wives " who died in 1672 . The next in age is a large tablet to the memory of Thomas Brooke , who died in 1737 . Two memorials are by John Bacon ; one to Sir Richard Brooke ( died 1792 ) features a putto unveiling an urn and the second , to another Sir Richard Brooke ( died 1796 ) , shows a female figure by an urn . The memorial to Thomas Brooke ( died 1820 ) is by B. F. Hardenburg of London . A memorial to another Sir Richard Brooke ( died 1865 ) is a brass in the form of a cross . In the nave are a number of Georgian tablets including one to John Bankes ( died 1817 ) , by T. Grindrod . The Rev John Barclay has a memorial by Williams and Clay of Warrington containing his portrait in relief . The stained glass in the chancel includes two windows with depictions of the Annunciation and the Resurrection . In the south aisle is a memorial to J. R. Hughes , who died at sea in 1874 ; " he is shown in the water wearing nothing but mutton @-@ chop whiskers and a crown proffered by an angel " . The three @-@ manual organ was installed in 1908 and carries a plate saying it was " assisted by Andrew Carnegie " . There is a ring of eight bells cast in 1851 by Charles and George Mears , the tenor weighing 153 @-@ 3 @-@ 15 in cwts @-@ qtrs @-@ lbs or around 800 kg , having a diameter of 39 inches ( 0 @.@ 99 m ) and tuned to the note E.
= = External features = =
A former hearse house at the southeast corner of the churchyard dates from about 1833 , and has been converted for use as an electricity sub @-@ station . It is a rectangular single @-@ story building of red sandstone with a quarry tile roof . The door opening at the front has a wide semicircular arch with a keystone and springing blocks , above which is a string course and a cornice with moulded eaves . On the west side and at the rear are small vents with semicircular heads and keystones . The hearse house is listed at Grade II .
= = Appraisal = =
All Saints ' Church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a Grade II * listed building , having been designated on 7 December 1965 . Grade II * is the middle of the three grades of listing , and is applied to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . Hartwell et al. in the Buildings of England series comment that the church is " more generous and rounded than many of Salvin 's other later churches " , and refer specifically to its " high , graceful " steeple .
= = Present day = =
The church is an active parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Chester , and the deanery of Frodsham . Its benefice is combined with that of Holy Trinity , Runcorn to form the benefice of Runcorn All Saints with Holy Trinity . The patron of the church is Christ Church , Oxford . All Saints serves the Old Town area of Runcorn , and arranges services on Sundays , together with baptisms , thanksgivings , weddings and funerals . The church also runs a community project known as Open Door . In addition it organises home groups during the week .
= Music of the Drakengard series =
The music for the Drakengard series , known as Drag @-@ On Dragoon ( ドラッグ オン ドラグーン , Doraggu on doragūn , commonly abbreviated as DOD ) in Japan , has been handled by multiple composers since the release of the original game in 2004 . Drakengard 's composers were Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara , Drakengard 2 was handled by Ryoki Matsumoto and Aoi Yoshiki , and Drakengard 3 was composed for by Keiichi Okabe , the composer for series spin @-@ off Nier . Sano remained as a sound director for the second game , and his music was used as a reference for the third . Multiple albums have been released for the music of the series : Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.1 and Vol.2 were released on October and November 2004 , while a two @-@ disc re @-@ release titled Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack was released in April 2011 . The Drag @-@ On Dragoon 2 Original Soundtrack was released on July 20 , 2005 . A promotional disc with two tracks from the soundtrack was released in the same year . The official soundtrack for the third game , Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 Original Soundtrack , was released January 21 , 2014 . An compilation of chiptune remixes of the previous games and Nier , Drag @-@ On Dragoon Chips Music , was released on December 19 , 2013 as part of the Drag @-@ On Dragoon 10 Anniversary Box .
The series has also received theme songs from multiple Japanese pop artists , all of which have been released as singles . A re @-@ orchestration of Mika Nakashima 's single " Hitori " was used as the theme for Drakengard 2 , incorporating elements from the game . Two theme songs were written for Drakengard 3 : " Kuroi Uta " and " This Silence is Mine " . The former was sung by Eir Aoi , a fan of the series , and written by Nier writer Kikuchi Hana . The latter was specially written and sung by Onitsuka Chihiro , who created the song around the themes and characters of the game . Both songs were composed by Okabe . All three singles have been in the top 40 best @-@ selling singles in the Japanese Oricon music charts .
The soundtracks have received mixed to positive reviews from both dedicated video game music outlets and video game critics . The first game was noted for its disturbing style , which both drew criticism for repetitiveness and praise for suiting the game 's atmosphere . It has been generally cited as an experimental soundtrack . The second game 's soundtrack received a more positive reception , with the general opinion being that it was a more traditional and consequently more comfortable soundtrack . The third game 's soundtrack also received fairly positive comments , mainly praising its quality , although critiques were made concerning its variety . The chiptune compilation was generally liked , except for its exclusivity to the special release . The singles have also received praise .
= = Creation and influence = =
The music of the first game in the Drakengard series was composed by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara . In creating the score , they sampled excerpts from pieces of classical music ( selected by Aihara ) , then rearranged , remixed and layered them in various ways . Their main objective was to create music that emulated the game 's hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay , as well as the dark story and general narrative theme of " madness " . The music was intended to be " experimental " and " expressionistic " rather than " commercial " . After being composed , all the tracks were performed by a full orchestra . The team who worked on the music also worked on the Tekken series , and they sought to emulate the music of Northern Europe . One of the soundtracks that inspired Sano and Aihara in their work was the score for The Exorcist . The theme song , " Exhausted " ( 尽きる , Tsukiru ) , was composed by Sano , written by the game 's scenario writer Sawako Natori and sung by Eriko Hatsune .
Drakengard 2 's soundtrack was composed by Ryoki Matsumoto and Aoi Yoshiki , with supervision by Sano , who acted as sound director . Due to widespread criticisms of his work on the first game , Sano was asked by the game 's producer , Takamasa Shiba , to bring in outside help for the second game 's soundtrack , which upset Sano to a degree . Shiba wanted a composer less linked to video games to compose the music : Matsumoto was brought in because of his work on the non @-@ video @-@ game J @-@ pop songs " Yuki no Hana " and " Tsuki no Shizuku " . Because of the size of the project , Matsumoto in turn brought in his friend Yoshiki to help . The soundtrack was designed a fusion of J @-@ pop and video game music , and to evoke the emotions of the various characters and the feeling of battle . The theme song for the game 's English release was " Growing Wings " , a localized version of the first game 's theme song sung by Kari Wahlgren .
The third game 's music was composed by Keiichi Okabe , who also created the score for Nier , a spin @-@ off game of the series . While writing the music , Okabe felt he needed to match Sano 's work on Drakengard , rather than copy it , and so felt that there was no need to " rehash " the original music despite the potential merits . He commented that the musical creation was " a tough production , but for this game , there 's part of it I 'm doing that I 've never experienced before . " At director Taro Yoko 's request , Okabe worked on separating the style of the music from that of Nier : he did this by including both soft , gentle tunes similar to Nier and more intense tracks . The two styles were also inspired by the game 's world theme of " the sense of contrast " . One musical piece , " Exhausted 3 " , is a re @-@ orchestration of Drakengard 's theme song , intended by Okabe as a nod to earlier installments while staying true to Yoko 's wishes .
= = Albums = =
= = = Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack = = =
Music from Drag @-@ on Dragoon has been released in several albums . The soundtrack was originally released in two volumes under the names Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.1 and Vol.2 , released on October 22 and November 21 , 2003 respectively . The soundtrack was re @-@ released on April 20 , 2011 as a two @-@ disc set under the title Drag @-@ On Dragoon Original Soundtrack . The re @-@ release reached # 57 in the Japanese Oricon music charts and remained in the charts for two weeks .
The individual albums received a mixed response from critics . The reviewer for RPGFan was weakly positive about the first album , calling it " extremely experimental " and stating that people needed to be open @-@ minded while listening , while also citing it as better than the soundtrack for Xenosaga Episode I : Der Wille zur Macht . The reviewer echoed most of these sentiments for the second album , while also stating that it contained the better musical pieces from the game of the two albums . Luc Nadeau of Game Music Online , who reviewed all three releases of the soundtrack , was mixed to positive in his opinions . He generally liked the music , but noted , like the RPGFan reviewer , that it was highly experimental and would not be to everyone 's taste . He also cited his preference for the 2011 two @-@ disc re @-@ release over the original albums . Reviewing the re @-@ release , Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version called it " one of the most experimental and disturbing soundtracks I 've heard in a while " . He praised the soundtrack despite not finding it memorable , and commented that he found it more appealing when he knew some of the plot details that were censored in the game 's western release .
Reviewers of the game itself also noted the soundtrack . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot mentioned it as the most distinctive aspect of the game , stating that it was " the most nerve @-@ racking and most intense aspect of [ Drakengard ] " . Adam Jarvis of VideoGamer.com was also positive , calling the soundtrack " haunting " and saying that it " helps create a suitably dark atmosphere " . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham was both impressed by the atmosphere of the tracks and critical of multiple instances of grueling repetition , summing the music up as " disappointing " .
= = = Drag @-@ On Dragoon 2 Original Soundtrack = = =
Unlike Drakengard , Drakengard 2 has only had one soundtrack album released . Drag @-@ On Dragoon 2 Original Soundtrack was released on July 20 , 2005 under the catalog number AICL @-@ 1628 . It consists of 22 tracks lasting 1 : 13 : 03 . It contains the tracks used during gameplay and not those used during cutscenes , but does include the game 's theme song , " Hitori " , which was also released as a separate single . Two tracks from the game were released as a promotional CD for the game , both as a limited giveaway and part of press kits . It included concept art , interviews , and trailers .
The album has received very positive reviews . Chris Greening of Game Music Online praised the shift to a more classical style and the general intensity of multiple tracks , ending the review by applauding Yoshiki 's hard work . Mike Wilson , writing for RPGFan , echoed many of these sentiments despite thinking that there were too few tracks on the album , giving the soundtrack ten out of ten . Both reviewers stated that it was an easier listening experience than the soundtrack for the first Drag @-@ on Dragoon game . Game @-@ OST 's Simon Smith also praised it , calling the soundtrack " a complete attack on the senses as an entire orchestra and full sized choir rampage as much power and tension on you as possible . "
Outside soundtrack reviews , opinions from reviews of the game itself have also been positive . IGN 's Ed Lewis called the music " appropriately dramatic " , though stated it was often drowned out by the ambient noise and voice acting . GameSpot 's Greg Mueller called the music " varied and interesting " , while stating that the vocal theme was " sappy , but it 's used sparingly enough , so it doesn 't get terribly annoying " . The GameTrailers reviewer cited the score as " top @-@ notch " , referring to it as one of the few well @-@ done aspects of the game .
= = = Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 Original Soundtrack = = =
Like the second game , there has only been one soundtrack album release for Drakengard 3 . Drag @-@ on Dragoon 3 Original Soundtrack was released on January 21 , 2014 under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10414 ~ 5 . The game 's two theme songs were released both as part of the soundtrack and as singles .
Christopher Huynh of Game Music Online generally praised the soundtrack 's quality , but felt there was too little variety . RPGFan 's Patrick Gann was generally positive , although he had little commentary on individual tracks , and recommended the album to people who had enjoyed the soundtrack of Nier . The album reached # 18 in the Oricon charts and remained in the charts for four weeks .
Reviewers of the game have also praised the soundtrack . USGamer 's Kat Bailey was fairly positive about it despite not finding it very memorable , calling it " aggressively anime , mixing piano riffs with the odd bit of J @-@ Pop for emphasis " . Chris Carter of Destructoid called the music " stupendous , and one of the best JRPG soundtracks I 've heard in a long while . " Andrew Barker , writing an analysis of the game for RPGFan , called the music " the backbone " of Drakengard 3 . He also cited the music as being " universally praised " by critics .
= = = Drag @-@ On Dragoon Chips Music = = =
In addition to the soundtrack albums , a single compilation of music from across the series has been produced . Drag @-@ On Dragoon Chips Music was released on December 19 , 2013 under the catalog number TGCS @-@ 7750 . The release consists of a selection of tracks from Drakengard ( Sano , Aihara ) , Drakengard 2 ( Aoi , Matsumoto ) and Nier ( Okabe ) remixed as chiptunes . Also included is a version of " Exhausted " by Sano for the piano , used as background music for Drakengard 3 's Japanese website . The compilation was exclusively released as part of the Drag @-@ On Dragoon 10th Anniversary Box , featuring a copy of Drakengard 3 and multiple books and artwork relating to the series . The music was accompanied by images representative of scenes from the game where the selected music plays .
The compilation received mixed to positive opinions from music reviewers . Patrick Gann of RPGFan was generally positive about the remixes , especially those of tracks from Nier . Game Music Online 's Christopher Huynh was a little less enthusiastic , saying that there were " some pieces working better than others but none that should be considered bad . " His main complaint was that there was little creativity in the remixes . Both reviewers were pleased with the piano remix of " Exhausted " , and both criticized its exclusivity to the special bundle .
= = Singles = =
= = = " Hitori " = = =
" Hitori " ( ひとり , Alone ) is the theme song for the Japanese version of Drakengard 2 . It was sung by Mika Nakashima , composed by Ryoki Matsumoto , and written by Satomi . Nakashima also worked as a producer for the soundtrack . The song , originally released as part of Nakashima 's third album Music , was based on a previous composition for Star Ocean : The Second Story . The song was written as a musical followup to " Yuki no Hana " , and the lyrics were written to include thematic connections to the game 's story .
The single was released by Sony Music Entertainment Japan on June 16 , 2005 , containing four versions of the song . It reached # 15 in the Oricon charts upon release and remained in the charts for six weeks . Opinions on the song have been generally positive . In his review of the soundtrack , Game @-@ OST 's Simon Smith called it " a soft jazz song with sultry smooth vocals and a nice tune " , and praised it despite it not becoming one of his favorites . Mike Wilson , writing for RPGFan , referred to it as " possibly the most beautiful vocal I 've ever heard in a video game . " Chris Greening of Game Music Online called it " a strong rival to every single pop ballad released from Square Enix , proving rich yet accessible . "
= = = " Kuroi Uta " = = =
" Kuroi Uta " ( クロイウタ , Black Song ) is one of the two theme songs for Drakengard 3 . It was sung by Eir Aoi , composed by Drakengard 3 composer Keichi Okabe and written by Kikuchi Hana , one of the original scenario writers for Nier . Aoi , a singer native to Hokkaido , was chosen by Okabe to perform the song due to her outspoken admiration of the Drakengard series .
Eir Aoi 's fifth single , " Kuroi Uta " was originally released on November 13 , 2013 as the final track on the single disc " Sirius " . The single reached # 21 in the Oricon charts and remained in the charts for fourteen weeks .
= = = " This Silence is Mine " = = =
" This Silence Is Mine " , the game 's second theme song , was specially written and sung by Onitsuka Chihiro . It was composed by Okabe . Okabe asked Chihiro to help with the song because he felt she would be the perfect singer to project the world and themes of Drakengard 3 . The intention was to make the song emotionally intense , but at the same time " cold " and " empty " . While writing the song , Chihiro was inspired by Zero 's presentation within the game . The original draft of the song was created in around five minutes , and Chihiro had to sing the song five times before Okabe was satisfied with her performance . The song debuted in the game 's trailer at the 2013 Tokyo Game Show .
The single was released on a CD along with a version of her following single " Anata to Science " ( あなたとSciencE , You and Science ) . The single reached 36th place in the Oricon charts . Huynh was positive about the song in his review of the soundtrack , saying that Chihiro " [ brought ] her best , delivering an emotional track with a powerful buildup to a dizzying climax . " Gann was also positive , saying Chihiro 's singing style fitted the tone of both game and series , calling the delivery " superb " . He also called Okabe 's production of the song " very smart " .
= Lauren Zizes =
Lauren Zizes / ˈzaɪsiːz / is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series , Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Ashley Fink , and has appeared in Glee since the season one episode " Wheels " , first broadcast on November 11 , 2009 . Lauren was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan . She is a member of New Directions , the glee club at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio , where the show is set . Her storylines have seen her interact with other members of the glee club and form a relationship with Noah Puckerman ( Mark Salling ) . Lauren is also the president of the AV club , and a member of the school 's wrestling team . She joins the glee club in the show 's second season , putting her in close contact with some of the shows main characters .
Following the character 's significantly expanded role in the second season , Fink 's portrayal has received predominantly positive reviews . Rosie O 'Donnell criticized the character , saying that Fink was unattractive and therefore a bad representation of fat people , but later apologized for these remarks . Lauren made her solo musical debut in the second season , performing The Waitresses ' " I Know What Boys Like " in the episode " Comeback " . The song was well received by critics , and was released as a single , available for download ; it was subsequently included on the EP released in September 2011 through the Target chain , Glee : The Music , Dance Party . Although Lauren also appears in ensemble musical performances , Fink is not credited as a vocalist on the series ' soundtrack albums . Lauren 's role was reduced in the beginning of the third season , and she made a final , non @-@ speaking appearance in the third episode , " Asian F " . After this , it was confirmed she would appear once again in Glee and doing so in the fourth season 's episode " Sadie Hawkins " , which premiered on 24 January 2013 . After this , she made numerous appearances in flashbacks before appearing one final time in the series finale , " Dreams Come True " , during the performance of OneRepublic 's " I Lived " by the glee club 's alumni .
= = Storylines = =
Throughout the first season of Glee , Lauren makes numerous guest appearances . She is a member of the McKinley High wrestling team , as well as president of the AV club . She first appears in the episode " Wheels " , where she unsuccessfully tries out for a spot on the cheerleading team . She reappears in " Hell @-@ O " , when cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester assembles a group of unpopular , lonely students , whom she dubs the " Old Maid 's Club " . Lauren later helps glee club co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) to rig hidden microphones in the choir room to prove that the rest of the glee club are not pulling their weight in rehearsals . She is later seen as the leader of a group of goths who idolize Twilight character Edward Cullen .
Lauren 's role becomes more prominent in the second season . Glee club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) asks her to join New Directions so they will have enough members to qualify for a show choir competition . Lauren accepts , on the condition that she gets seven minutes in heaven with him , though it is later revealed that she became bored with Puck 's kissing style after three minutes . In the Valentine 's Day @-@ themed episode " Silly Love Song " , Puck reveals that he has fallen in love with Lauren , and serenades her with Queen 's " Fat Bottomed Girls " . She finds his song choice insulting and stands him up on a pre @-@ Valentine 's date , but eventually agrees to spend Valentine 's Day with him as friends . Lauren makes her solo debut in the following episode , where she performs a rendition of " I Know What Boys Like . " Puck helps her , by advising her to picture the other members in their underwear , which she does in her timid @-@ turned @-@ confident performance . In the episode , " Sexy " , Lauren enlists Puck to make a sex tape with her , as she believes the publicity will make her a star , but they give up the idea when they learn it would constitute child pornography , as both are underage .
In " Born This Way " , Lauren reveals to Puck that she 'd been a child beauty queen , " Miss Tiara Toddler " , before she gained weight and became ineligible ; Puck tells her he will run a campaign for her to become prom queen , and be her king . When Quinn , who is prom queen frontrunner , sees Lauren putting up posters for her own candidacy , she confronts Lauren , and the ensuing encounter is heated . Lauren decides to dig up dirt on Quinn as a campaign tactic , and aided by Puck , discovers that Quinn used to be overweight and unpopular before slimming down and transferring to McKinley ; Lauren then plasters the school with pictures of the old Quinn , humiliating her . But the tactic backfires , making Quinn more popular , and hurting Lauren 's candidacy . Lauren apologizes to Quinn , Quinn says she respects Lauren , and the two reach an understanding . Neither Lauren nor Puck win the race for prom queen and king , but they remain a couple ; they fly with the rest of New Directions to the nationals competition in New York City , where the glee club comes in twelfth out of fifty teams . This defeat leads Lauren to quit the glee club at the beginning of the third season and break up with Puck .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Lauren is portrayed by actress Ashley Fink . She made routine guest appearances throughout the first season , and became a member of the McKinley High glee club in the episode " Special Education " . Upon receiving the script in which Lauren joins the club , Fink initially reacted with disbelief . She commented , " I didn 't quite believe it at first , I thought I was getting Punk 'd . " She said that being cast in Glee makes her feel like " the luckiest girl in the world " . Fink 's favorite element of Glee is how series creator Ryan Murphy manages to take the underdogs and make them shine . She said , " In life , there 's so much diversity , and it 's not necessarily represented on television . I think Glee is one of the few shows that actually displays the diversity and it ’ s just so inspirational . " When asked about her casting process , Fink said :
I auditioned for the pilot and they brought me in a bunch , which was exciting for me because they kept bringing me in . Eventually I got the Lauren Zizes part ! They had me sing for the pilot and it was very on the fly because Glee works very quickly . The first episode I appeared in I was the wrestler and I was trying out for cheerleading . Then they asked me to come out and sing for Ryan Murphy and the director and I sang and they were like , " Okay , great ! " We shot it and then I just kept coming back .
Fink does not know how long her character will be featured on Glee . When asked about what she likes about her character , Fink said : " I think what I love about Lauren is she 's so strong and so confident and she knows what she wants and I feel very blessed to play a role model for people who have ever felt other or different . I remember how I used to feel watching TV and seeing Sara Rue on Popular because she was an inspiration to me . It 's funny because what I love about Lauren is that she 's unapologetic and she 's confident and she 's making Puck work for it and she 's not just looking for a roll in the hay . I think that they are very sweet together , there is this vulnerability when they are both such bad asses and you put them together and I think there is something really special there . What I appreciate about Lauren is that she 's like I don 't need to give it to you , you 're going to work for it , and I think that 's a great message to send to young girls . I think that he is smitten and she is probably a little smitten too but I think she has enough self esteem not to give everything up for the charming cute boy that 's kind of after her . " Kevin Fallon , a writer for The Atlantic , reacted favorably to the casting of Fink : " Glee hit the trifecta this year with its three major cast additions . First there were Darren Criss — who 's exploded with popularity — and Chord Overstreet . Now there 's Ashley Fink 's Lauren . And while the tough @-@ only @-@ on @-@ the @-@ outside Lauren can deliciously out @-@ sass Santana Lopez , it 's her straight @-@ talking that really has me sold . "
= = = Characterization = = =
In her first episode , it is revealed that Lauren is a member of William McKinley High 's wrestling team . TV Squad has said that " Lauren can deliver a zinger with the bite of Sue Sylvester and the humor of our beloved Brittany Pierce . " Seth Abramovitch of TV.com expressed his dissatisfaction with her attitude : " Zizes isn 't just a heavy , supremely confident girl . She 's also extremely violent . She ’ s on the wrestling team , speaks regularly of injuring Puck , and , in one hallway smackdown against the jealous Santana Lopez , proved she was a lot more than just bark . And you did catch that part about Zizes wanting to be famous for famous ' sake , right ? That she was willing to give herself up to Puck purely in pursuit of a reality show and fragrance line ? There ’ s a word for people who do things like that in the real world : It 's ' asshole ' . " He went on to add : " Zizes has been hailed by feminists groups ( well , by Bust Magazine ) as a new kind of plus @-@ sized heroine — an obese female role model who for once doesn 't hate herself . On the contrary , she thinks she 's the bee 's knees . When ' Puck serenaded her with Queen 's " Fat @-@ Bottomed Girls , " she rebuffed him , saying , ' I look like America looks , and just like America , I need more than just a song to get my juices flowing ' . "
Journalist James Poniewozik of Time magazine commented of the episode " Silly Love Songs " : " It was the kind of twist Glee can sell , partly because of the way the characters are established ( in retrospect , you can see how a really strong woman who rejects him is a turn @-@ on for Puck ) and because of how well its cast ( Ashley Fink has been killing it as Lauren , and sells her confidence and abrasiveness in a way that makes her a person , not an engineered positive @-@ body @-@ image model ) . And while Glee sometimes stretches to pick on @-@ the @-@ nose song choices , " Fat Bottomed Girls " was just a perfect choice and performance — not just on topic but actually in Puck 's musical wheelhouse . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Over the course of Glee 's second season , Lauren forms a relationship with local bad boy and football star Noah Puckerman . As the season progresses , Lauren and Puck 's relationship continues to grow stronger . Their relationship begins to form in the ninth episode of the second season titled " Special Education " . After Puck attempts to recruit new members for the William McKinley High School glee club , members of the football team lock him in a port @-@ a @-@ potty . After being discovered by Lauren , he convinces her to join New Directions , despite her belief that show choir is stupid . Ashley Fink said of their relationship : " I think Ryan Murphy has a master plan and we 're all kind of along for the ride . I know what you mean , but I wouldn 't count us out just yet on that front . We all have to laugh at ourselves but it 's going somewhere . Ultimately , it comes down to whether audiences will buy a relationship between Puck and Lauren . I think there 's a really hilarious chemistry between Puck and Lauren . I think he 's a badass , she 's a badass . I don 't know , I think they 're funny together . There 's something about the two of them together that I like , so I hope it 's not outside the realm of possibility . "
Television critics have responded positively to the pairing . Robert Canning of IGN said of the episode " Silly Love Songs " : " The absolute best part of " Silly Love Songs " was Puckerman 's unexpected longing for Lauren Zizes . Actress Ashley Fink has been fantastic in her small role , delivering great one @-@ liners with ease . She was equally strong in this , the first episode to truly give Lauren a larger role and fill out her character more . Heck , it was nice to even see her smile a few times . The casting on Glee has either been very smart or very lucky since so many background characters have shined as they 've been given bigger parts . The Lauren and Puck pairing came with a lot of laughs , but just as much heart . Puck singing Queen 's " Fat Bottomed Girls , " induced a chuckle at first , then some toe tapping . But it was Lauren 's reaction that truly made the moment : ' That 's the first song you 've sung to me and it made me feel like crap . ' I can 't decide if I want to root for this couple , but I certainly know I 'm going to be rooting for Lauren . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club commented : " For me , the episode 's highlight was the very sweet , funny courtship between Puck and Lauren . This may be because the writers have trouble writing for a self @-@ professed bad boy , even though his escapades are straight out of Archie comics and not actually all that “ bad ” at all . But it ’ s always fun to watch Salling sing , and it ’ s always fun to watch him be smitten . Fink ends up being a good match for him , chemistry @-@ wise , as she projects a confidence and certainty that makes it immediately obvious just what Puck sees in Lauren . The storyline also played out like both characters had something approaching real feelings . " In the following episode , VanDerWerff found her relationship with Puck " a lot less assured " than before , but Entertainment Weekly 's Sandra Gonzalez deemed their scenes " as endearing as they are unrealistic " , and E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins wrote that " the ice around [ her ] heart melted just a bit when Puck mouthed Lauren that little bit of encouragement at the start of her solo . "
= = Reception = =
Lauren has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Canning praised Fink 's performance in the episode " Silly Love Songs " , as well as Lauren 's dialog . Lisa Respers France of CNN commented that she is beginning to really like Lauren , noting : " for me Lauren represents how Ryan Murphy is able to take the concept of the outcast , flip it on its ear and shove it back in our faces with a side order of fabulousness . " Reiter felt that in " Comeback " , new characters Lauren and Sam " managed to shine " .
Rosie O 'Donnell reacted negatively to Fink 's casting and first solo musical performance . In an interview with Access Hollywood , she deemed her rendition of " I Know What Boys Like " underwhelming , and stated that it failed to meet her expectations . She called Lauren " so unlikable , " and questioned why the producers had not cast a " pretty heavy girl " . Fink brushed off O 'Donnell 's comments . O 'Donnell later apologized , and said , " Oh , Ashley – I love your swagger – your acting – your face – your heart – as a famous fat person – I am often asked about the issue … I love the story line – I love the show – and if in any way something I said hurt you – I apologize MORE . You are so talented , and I can 't wait to hear you belt it … as I know you can — the often misquoted Rosie . " Fink was defended by Justin Thompson of Socialite Life , who commented : " I 've loved her character and how they 've developed her and she 's just become a source of great comedy – is that because she 's full @-@ figured ? No . Is it because her character is well @-@ written ? Yes . It ’ s kind of sad to see Rosie lambaste what the show is trying to do . "
Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called Lauren 's performance of " I Know What Boys Like " the highlight of " Comeback " . Gonzalez was less than enthused . She graded it " C − " , after " deductions " , and said the only reason it started with a " C " was due to it being interspersed with shots of the cast in their underwear . Patrick Burns of The Atlantic was also unimpressed , and questioned Lauren 's spot in the glee club , commenting " her brazen character never ceases to please , but it 's just not believable that she would join the glee club if she cannot sing . "
= Henri L 'Estrange =
Henri L 'Estrange , known as the Australian Blondin , was an Australian successful funambulist and accident prone aeronautical balloonist . Modelling himself on the famous French wire @-@ walker Charles Blondin , L 'Estrange performed a number of tightrope walks in the 1870s , culminating in three walks across Sydney 's Middle Harbour in 1877 . He remains the only tightrope performer ever to have walked across a part of Sydney Harbour . L 'Estrange was an early balloonist , and attempted a series of flights in the early 1880s – one being successful , one ending in Australia 's first emergency parachute descent , and the last culminating in a massive fireball causing property damage , personal injury and a human stampede . He tried to return to his original career of tightrope walking but , with new forms of entertainment , humiliating falls and other Blondin imitators , he found success elusive . Public benefits were held in his honour to recoup financial losses and he dabbled in setting up amusement rides but ultimately he faded from public attention and was last recorded to be living in Fitzroy , Victoria in 1894 .
= = Early performances = =
Henri L 'Estrange was born about 1842 in Fitzroy , a suburb of Melbourne . Little is known of his early years , family or private life . He first came to public attention in 1873 as a member of a Melbourne performance group , the Royal Comet Variety Troupe , a gymnastic , dancing and comedic vocal combination with Miss Lulu L 'Estrange and Monsieur Julian . As part of this troupe , L 'Estrange performed in Melbourne and Tasmania throughout 1873 and 1874 , with Henri and Lulu performing together on the tightrope . In 1876 , L 'Estrange performed solo for the first time in Melbourne , and quickly gained a reputation as a fearless performer .
Tightrope walking had grown in popularity in Australia through the 1860s , following reports reaching the Australian Colonies of the exploits of the great French walker , Charles Blondin , who crossed Niagara Falls in 1859 . By the mid @-@ 1860s , Australian wire walkers ( funambulists ) were modelling themselves on Blondin , copying his techniques , with several even calling themselves " the Australian Blondin " . The popularity of the name surged after the original Blondin visited Australia in 1874 , performing his highwire act in Brisbane , Sydney and Melbourne . By the mid @-@ 1880s , there were at least five " Blondins " performing regularly in Sydney and elsewhere .
L 'Estrange began using the moniker " the Australian Blondin " from early 1876 . Arriving in Sydney from Melbourne , L 'Estrange erected a large canvas enclosure in the Domain and began a regular series of performances on the tightrope , copying the location and stunts of the real Blondin who had performed there in August 1874 . His opening night on 26 January 1877 attracted a reported crowd of between two and three thousand people . Newspaper reports commented that his performance was so like that of the original Blondin that people could be forgiven for thinking they had seen the world @-@ renowned rope @-@ walker . With his rope suspended 40 feet ( 12 metres ) above the ground , L 'Estrange walked backwards and forwards , walked in armour , walked covered in a sack , used and sat on a chair , cooked and rode a bicycle , all on the rope . His show also included a fireworks display for the public 's entertainment .
L 'Estrange performed in the Domain from January through to April 1877 , but not without incident . On 7 February 1877 , as L 'Estrange neared the end of his wire act , sparks from the fireworks going off around him fell into the nearby store of gunpowder and fireworks , igniting them . The store 's shed was demolished , a surrounding fence knocked down , part of L 'Estrange 's performance tent caught fire , and two young boys were injured .
= = Sydney Harbour crossing = =
In late March 1877 , advertisements began to appear in the Sydney newspapers for L 'Estrange 's proposed harbour crossing . The first public performance was set for Saturday 31 March , with L 'Estrange having organised 21 steamers to convey spectators from Circular Quay to a special landing stage close to his performance area . L 'Estrange advised those wishing to see his performance to travel on his steamers as they were the only ones with permission to land passengers . This , of course this did not stop other entrepreneurs and captains from carrying spectators of their own . Whilst the event was profitable L 'Estrange considered that the majority of viewers were non @-@ paying " dead @-@ heads " .
Prior to the public performance , L 'Estrange undertook the crossing for a select audience including members of the press . That crossing was a success , and was well reviewed in the papers , no doubt adding to the crowd 's anticipation for the Saturday show . Sadly , bad weather postponed the performance , which did not go ahead until 14 April .
At 1 o 'clock on Saturday 14 April , the steamers began leaving Circular Quay , conveying 8 @,@ 000 of an estimated 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd to Middle Harbour – a large crowd considering the alternative attractions that day of Sydney Royal Easter Show ( known then simply as " the Exhibition " ) and horse racing . The remainder were reported to be walking from St Leonards , with a toll being collected along the way . Spectators clambered up the sides of the bay for vantage points , while hundreds more stayed on board steamboats , yachts and in row boats below . The rope was strung across the entrance to Willoughby Bay , from Folly Point to the head of the bay , a reported length of 1 @,@ 420 feet ( 430 m ) , 340 feet ( 100 m ) above the waters below . The distance meant that two ropes were required , spliced together in the centre , to reach the other side , with 16 stays fixed to the shore and into the harbour to steady the structure .
Everything being ready , precisely at 4 o 'clock L 'Estrange come out of his tent on the eastern shore , dressed in a dark tunic and a red cap and turban . Without hesitation or delay he stepped onto the narrow rope , and , with his heavy balancing @-@ pole , at once set out on his journey across the lofty pathway . As has been before stated , the rope is stretched across the harbour at a great altitude , the width apparently being three hundred yards . At the western end it is higher than at the eastern , and as the weight of the rope causes a dip in the centre , the western end is at a considerable incline . Starting off amidst the cheers of the spectators , L 'Estrange walked fearlessly at the rate of eighty steps to a minute across the rope , until he reached a spliced part near the centre , some twenty feet in length , which he passed more deliberately . Then he stood on his right foot , with his left resting against his right leg . This feat being safely accomplished , he dropped onto his knee , and afterwards sat down and waived [ sic ] his handkerchief to the crowd of spectator . Next he lay on his back along the rope . Resuming the sitting posture , he took out a small telescope and for a moment or two surveyed the onlookers , who warmly applauded his performances . Raising the balancing pole , he lifted one foot onto the rope , then the other , and continued his walk . He took a few steps backward and then proceeded up the inclined part of the rope steadily to the western shore , at the slower speed of about sixty steps a minute , the rope swaying considerably as he went . The remaining part of the distance was safely traversed , the last few steps being walked more quickly : and the intrepid performer stepped on terra firma amidst the enthusiastic cheers of the spectators , the inspiring strains of the bands of music , and the shrill whistling of the steamers .
The successful crossing was greeted with enthusiastic cheers , the tunes of the Young Australian Band , the Albion Brass Band and Cooper and Bailey 's International Show Band , who had all come to entertain the crowds , and the shrilling of the steamers ' whistles . L 'Estrange soon reappeared in a small row boat to greet the crowds , although many had already rushed the steamers to leave , resulting in a few being jostled into the harbour .
While the Illustrated Sydney News proclaimed it a truly wonderful feat , performed with the greatest coolness and consummate ability , not all of Sydney 's press were so enthusiastic . The Sydney Mail questioned the worth of such a performance beyond the profits made , commenting that it was , " ... a mystery to many minds why such large concourses of people should gather together to witness a spectacle which has so little intrinsic merit . There is nothing about it to charm the taste or delight the fancy . "
Despite the criticism , L 'Estrange performed at least once more at Middle Harbour , although crowds were down to a few hundred , requiring only four steamers to transport them . The same night he was guest of honour at a testimonial dinner held at the Victoria Theatre where The Young Australian Band played " The Blondin March " , a piece composed specially by their conductor Mr J. Devlin . He was presented with a large gold star , engraved with a scene of his latest triumph , the date of his public performance . Measuring 3 inches ( 76 mm ) across , it was centred with a 1 ½ carat diamond and suspended by a blue ribbon to a clasp featuring the Australian coat of arms in silver . An illuminated address and a bag of sovereigns , collected from his admirers , were also given . L 'Estrange thereafter took his show on the road , going first to Brisbane in May 1877 , and reportedly afterwards to Singapore , England and America .
= = Ballooning = =
In April 1878 , L 'Estrange reappeared on the Australian scene with a new performance – gas ballooning . The first balloon ascent in Australia had been made in Melbourne in 1853 , with Sydney following five years later in December 1858 . The idea that people could be lifted from the ground to fly and return safely fired the imagination of the public , and the novelty of balloon ascents continued to draw large crowds through the 1860s and 1870s . No doubt the very real chance of disaster and injury added to the crowd 's keen interest , as mishaps were not uncommon .
L 'Estrange came to Sydney with his balloon in November 1878 , accompanied by reports of successful flights already made in India . In a confident appraisal of L 'Estrange 's new venture , the Sydney Morning Herald wrote :
[ L 'Estrange 's ] balloon has been fitted with the newest applications , amongst others a parachute , which in the event of anything going wrong , would prevent the too rapid descent of the aerial voyager . Another novelty is the fixing of bags of sand round the mesh which covers the balloon , the principle of which is that by emptying these , and so lessening the weight , the balloon will ascend . The process is chiefly intended to be an easy method of avoiding buildings ... He is perfectly confident that he will prove successful in travelling amongst the regions of the clouds , and , if so it will prove an agreeable variety after the many failures we have had .
In a letter to the Sydney City Council , L 'Estrange sought permission for the use of the Exhibition grounds in Prince Alfred Park , behind Sydney Central Station for his first attempt . L 'Estrange struggled to fill the balloon through the afternoon of 17 November 1878 , with gas supplied by the Australian Gas Light Company . By 5pm , the crowd was getting restless and L 'Estrange decided to attempt liftoff , despite the balloon not being fully inflated . To lighten the load he removed the car in which he was to sit and instead sat in a loop of rope . The balloon managed only to drag him across the park before clearing the fenceline and landing on a railway truck in the yards of Sydney 's Central railway station next to the park . L 'Estrange blamed the failure on having been supplied with " dense " gas and a filling pipe that was too narrow and leaky .
L 'Estrange wrote to the Council again , this time asking for permission to use Belmore Park for a second attempt . Much like his first attempt , the second ended in failure . Once again the balloon took much of the day to fill , with the lift going ahead at 5 pm on the afternoon of 7 December 1878 . The first attempt dragged him approximately 100 yards ( 91 m ) through the crowd . Returning to the start point , L 'Estrange tried again , shooting up into the air approximately 50 feet ( 15 m ) and sailing away towards the south , before descending again and being dragged across the park . The crowd feared the balloon would crash but once more it lifted , up and over the roof of Carters ' Barracks . L 'Estrange , realising that the balloon was not going to lift higher , threw out the anchor , which caught in the spouting of a building and threw the balloon into the drying yard of the Benevolent Asylum , where it caught in the washing lines and wires and was practically destroyed . Still , L 'Estrange 's place in Sydney hearts had been established and a well @-@ attended benefit was held at the Theatre Royal on 19 December 1878 .
L 'Estrange survived an even more disastrous attempt in Melbourne less than six months later at the grounds of the Agricultural Society in a balloon named Aurora . Having been supplied with a much higher quality gas from the Metropolitan Gas Company he miscalculated the speed at which the balloon would ascend . Having floated much higher than originally anticipated the balloon greatly expanded and a weak seam in the calico fabric suddenly burst . L 'Estrange had the presence of mind to deploy the silk parachute which slowed the rate of descent . His landing was softened by a tree and although severely shaken , L 'Estrange was uninjured . The whole journey took nine minutes . The " catastrophe " was widely reported with the story appearing in local newspapers in Adelaide , Canberra , Sydney and Brisbane within the week . This was the first emergency descent by parachute in Australia , predating the Caterpillar Club by over 50 years .
Despite these setbacks , L 'Estrange persisted , returning to Sydney in August 1880 to prepare for another attempt . Success finally came with a flight on 25 September 1880 from Cook Park , Northwards over the Garden Palace and Sydney harbour to Manly .
= = = Final balloon flight = = =
Buoyed by his achievement , L 'Estrange set himself a second flight day in March 1881 . With his reputation already well known in Sydney , and a successful flight on record , a crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 turned up in the Outer Domain .
As a result of high atmospheric pressure and heavy dew weighing down the balloon , inflation took longer than anticipated , and the crowd grew restless . The officer representing the company supplying the gas also refused to provide a new supply . L 'Estrange was presented with what was described as a " Hobson 's choice " , " ... either to abandon the attempt and risking being seriously maltreated by the mob , or proceed heavenwards without the car , accepting the attendant [ risks ] of such an aerial voyage . " He chose the latter and the lift commenced at 9 @.@ 30 pm with L 'Estrange sitting in a loop of rope much like his attempt three years previously . At first all seemed well , as the balloon lifted above the heads of the crowd , hovering for a moment before first heading over Hyde Park . He described the rest of his voyage in a letter to a friend :
I then got into a westerly current that took me out to sea , on which I determined to come down to mother earth without delay , but picture to yourself my horror when I found the escape valve would not act . I tried with all the strength of the one hand I had to spare to move it , for with the other I had to hold myself in the loop of rope , but all to no purpose , it would not budge an inch . In sheer desperation I took the valve rope in both hands , and it opened with a bang ; but in the effort I had lost my seat in the loop , falling about six feet , and there I was dangling in mid air , clutching the valve rope , the gas rushing out of the balloon as though she had burst ...
Managing to right himself , he became faint from the escaping gas and lashed himself to the ropes to prevent a fall . Realising the attempt was now a danger to himself and the balloon , L 'Estrange set out the grappling hooks to catch onto something and bring the balloon down . However the ropes had become tangled and the hooks were too short .
L 'Estrange 's balloon descended rapidly over the rooftops of Woolloomooloo , slamming into a house near the corner of Palmer Street and Robinson Lane . L 'Estrange managed to disentangle himself and fell first onto a chimney then a shed 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) below . He scrambled down from the rooftops to a waiting mob , who whisked him away to Robinson 's hotel on the William Street corner and would not let him leave . At the crash site , during an attempt to free the balloon , the escaping gas was ignited when the resident of the house opened a window to see what the commotion was and the gas came into contact with the open flame of the room 's chandelier . The resulting fireball destroyed the balloon , burnt a number of bystanders and was bright enough to " ... cast a brief but vivid illumination over the entire suburb " . A panicked crush developed as groups tried to both flee from and rush towards the brief , but extremely bright , conflagration while those further away at the launch site assumed L 'Estrange had been killed . Several people were injured in the crush or burned by the fire with one lady reportedly being blinded .
Although a Masonic benefit was held in his honour to try to recoup some of his financial losses , the fiasco spelt the end of L 'Estrange 's aeronautical career .
= = Return to tightrope walking = =
In a change of direction in March 1882 , L 'Estrange applied to the Sydney City Council to establish a juvenile pleasure gardens at the Paddington Reservoir . The fun park was to have a variety of rides , a maze , merry @-@ go @-@ round and a donkey racecourse . L 'Estrange proposed the park to be free entry with all monies being made via the sale of refreshments on site . While he was given permission , the park does not appear ever to have opened .
Following the disastrous balloon attempt and the failed pleasure grounds , L 'Estrange decided to return to what he knew best , tightrope walking . In April 1881 L 'Estrange , given top billing as " the hero of Middle Harbour " , performed at the Garden Palace on the high @-@ rope as part of the Juvenile Fete , with other acrobats , contortionists and actors . With proof of the continuing popularity of the rope act , he decided to return to his greatest triumph ; the spectacular crossing of the harbour in 1877 which had still not been repeated . On 23 December 1882 , L 'Estrange advised the public that he would cross the harbour once more , this time riding a bicycle across Banbury Bay , close to the site of his original success .
As with his previous crossings , steamers took the crowds from Circular Quay , although this time only four were needed , while another 600 – 700 people made their own way to the site . The ride was scheduled for 3 pm on 23 December , but delays meant L 'Estrange did not appear until 6 pm . Although the length of rope was over 182 metres , it was only just over nine metres above the water . The stay wires were held in boats on either side , with the crews rowing against each other to keep it steady . L 'Estrange rode his bicycle towards the centre , where , with the rope swinging to and fro , he stopped briefly to steady himself but instead , realising he was losing his balance , he was forced to leap from the rope and fell into the water below . Although he was unhurt , it was another knock to his reputation . A repeat attempt was announced for the following weekend . Again steamers took a dwindling crowd to Banbury Bay where they found L 'Estrange 's rope had been mysteriously cut , and he cancelled the performance . The Daily Telegraph reported that many in the crowd , who had paid for tickets on the steamers , felt they had been scammed .
= = Late career = =
With his reputation in tatters after the balloon crash and the attempted second harbour crossing , L 'Estrange slowly slipped out of the public eye . In December 1883 he was reported as performing again on the highwire at the Parramatta Industrial Juvenile exhibition . While his act attracted favourable publicity , " his efforts were not received with the amount of enthusiasm they certainly deserved " .
In April 1885 a benefit was held for L 'Estrange , again at the Masonic Lodge , like the one held after his balloon misadventure . It was advertised that the benefit , under the patronage of the Mayor and Aldermen of Sydney , and with Bill Beach , world champion sculler in attendance , was prompted because L 'Estrange had " lately met with a severe accident " . The nature of the accident is unknown , but it is speculated to have been a fall from his tightrope , explaining the end of his performances .
His apparent decline in popularity may have been as much a reflection of the public 's changing taste for entertainment as it was a comment on his act . By the time L 'Estrange returned to Sydney to attempt his second harbour crossing in 1882 , the city was awash with Blondin imitators performing increasingly dangerous , and probably illegal , feats . At least five were performing in Sydney from 1880 under variations of the title from the " Young Blondin " ( Alfred Row ) to the " Blondin Brothers " ( Alexander and Collins ) , the " Great Australian Blondin " ( James Alexander ) , the " original Australian Blondin " ( Collins ) , the " Great Australian Blondin " ( Signor Vertelli ) , the " Female Australian Blondin " ( Azella ) and another " Australian Blondin " ( Charles Jackson ) .
In 1886 L 'Estrange again applied to the Sydney City Council for permission to establish an amusement ride called " The Rocker " in Belmore Park . The Rocker consisted of a boat which , propelled by horsepower , gave the impression of being at sea . Permission was granted but like his juvenile pleasure grounds , there is no evidence that it was ever erected . After this , L 'Estrange slipped from view in Sydney . In 1894 Edwin L 'Estrange " who a few years ago acquired some celebrity as the Australian Blondin " appeared in court in Fitzroy , Victoria having been knocked down and run over by a horse and buggy being driven by a commercial traveller . The driver was fined and L 'Estrange 's injuries are not recorded .
= Sparks Fly ( song ) =
" Sparks Fly " is a song written and recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift for her third studio album Speak Now ( 2010 ) . Swift wrote the song when she was 16 years old , prior to the release of her debut single " Tim McGraw " in 2006 . Following a 2007 live performance of the song , " Sparks Fly " grew in popularity among Swift 's fanbase . While Speak Now was under production , she received requests from fans to include the song on the album . Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman , the song was serviced to country radio in the United States by Big Machine Records on July 18 , 2011 , as the fifth single from Speak Now . A CD single was released on Swift 's official store for a limited time on August 10 , 2011 .
" Sparks Fly " received generally positive reviews by music critics , who praised it for its upbeat tempo . Others praised Swift 's lyrics of the song and have claimed that the song is a crossover between country and pop . Following the release of Speak Now , the song debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and at number 28 on the Canadian Hot 100 , due to strong digital sales . After the song was released as a single , it re @-@ entered the US Billboard Hot 100 at 84 . It peaked at number one at the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . " Sparks Fly " was used as the opening song for the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . A music video for the song was released , featuring clips of various performances during the Speak Now World Tour .
= = Background and release = =
Swift began work on her third studio album Speak Now two years prior to its release in 2010 . " Sparks Fly " was written by Swift when she was sixteen years old , prior the release of her eponymous album in 2006 . She performed the song live during several bar shows " of forty and fifty people " . A recorded live performance of the song during one of her concerts made its way onto the internet in 2007 . The song became a favorite among Swift 's fans , leading Swift to rework the song and include it on Speak Now after having so many requested for it to be included on the album . Of the song , Swift said that : " This is a song I wrote a few years ago and I have been working on it ever since . It 's been awesome to see it change over the years . The fans have heard it before in concert , but there have been some really cool changes that I am very proud of and can 't wait for them to hear . "
The song was sent to country music radio stations on July 18 , 2011 , as the fifth single from Speak Now . An exclusive package was released to Swift 's official store including a " Speak Now " necklace and an individually numbered " Sparks Fly " CD single . Only 2 @,@ 500 copies of the CD single were made and the package was made available for a limited time . The single was later included in another package that is exclusive to Swift 's official store . The package included the Target exclusive deluxe edition of Speak Now , a free pair of headphones , and the choice between either the " Sparks Fly " , " The Story of Us " , or the " Mean " CD single . The song was featured on a promotional trailer for the CW show , Hart of Dixie . It was also featured on the annual " Macy 's 4th of July Fireworks Show " last 2012 . The song was released on Now That 's What I Call Country Volume 5 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Sparks Fly " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and 22 seconds . The song , written solely by Swift , is in the key of D minor with Swift 's vocals spanning two octaves , from F3 to C5 . Johnathan Keefe claimed that " the a capella " Drop everything now " exclamation simply commands attention , with the desperation in Swift ’ s call @-@ to @-@ action answering the common criticisms that her work is sexless and chaste . " Bobby Peacock stated that " I wouldn 't mind if the banjo from the 2007 version were left in , but its omission is hardly make @-@ or @-@ break . Perhaps my biggest problem is that the song 's chorus undermines itself in the second half – it starts out emphatic and anthemic as usual , but there 's just no " oomph " on the hook . It almost feels as if she 's trailing off mid @-@ sentence . " Blake Boldt of Engine 145 stated " " Sparks Fly " centers around a simple but effective hook — " I see sparks fly whenever you smile " — that further cements Swift ’ s reputation as one the craftiest songwriters in popular music . " Amanda Hensel of Taste of Country commented on the chorus of the song stating , " Though Swift implies that this particular crush is a " bad idea , " she still insists that they should try to make it work in the chorus : " Drop everything now , meet me in the pouring rain / Kiss me on the sidewalk , take away the pain / ‘ Cause I see sparks fly / Whenever you smile , " she sings insistently . "
According to Swift , the song is about " falling for someone who you maybe shouldn 't fall for , but you can 't stop yourself because there 's such a connection and chemistry . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Sparks Fly " received positive reviews from music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised Swift 's vocals on " Sparks Fly " , commenting that her voice in such an upbeat song is unaffected enough to mask how masterful she has become as a singer . Rahul Prabhakar of The Oxonian Review considers it " dopamine @-@ infused , hair @-@ whipping stuff " . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine calls the song " the purest iteration of Swift ’ s template and repertoire " , also saying that it " could turn things around for Swift , as it ’ s perhaps the most perfectly constructed single in a career built on tracks that are marvels of pop production and songwriting . " He concluded by stating that the song " proves how evocative those turns @-@ of @-@ phrase can be in the right context . To that end , “ Sparks Fly ” plays as a template as much as it does as a standalone single , and it ’ s a testament to everything Taylor Swift gets right . " Bobby Peacock of Roughstock claims that he gets " a sense that Taylor is starting to experience a little burnout at radio . Her songs drop like rocks once they peak , and she 's currently 0 for 3 on hitting the top of the Billboard charts . While I don 't think this song has that je ne sais quoi to get her another ' You Belong with Me ' -level hit , I still think that even a slightly lesser effort from her is a worthwhile listen . " Blake Boldt of Engine 145 praised Swift , saying " Her infusion of individual lines with urgency ( “ Drop everything now , ” she insists ) and earnestness ( “ Take away the pain , ” she pleads ) are a tribute to her talent , not so much as a distinguished vocalist but as an excellent communicator . Each frazzled note is freighted with meaning . Should I stay or should I go now ? , she wonders , wiling [ sic ] away the hours before he calls her again . " Amanda Hensel of Taste of Country claimed the song is " just another one of those so @-@ Swift tracks that continually toes the line between country and pop to create a genre that is 100 % Taylor Swift . " Erin Thompson of Seattle Weekly stated he wasn 't to " hot on " the song and compared the song to Swift 's earlier works , " Fearless " , " Hey Stephen " , and " Forever and Always " , and stated that Swift " puts in a line about standing in the rain in so many of her songs that I 'm beginning to think she watches The Notebook every time she gets ready to sit down and write a song . " Mikael Wood of Spin considered it a bubbly tune along with Swift 's song , " Long Live " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the release of Speak Now , on November 4 , 2010 , " Sparks Fly " debuted at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 due to strong digital sales of 113 @,@ 000 downloads making it one of the songs to make Swift the first act to have ten songs debut on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week . With the addition of " Mine " , Swift had a total of 11 songs charting in one week , making Swift the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week . The song made a Hot Shot Debut on the Hot Country Songs at number 49 . Billboard included the song in their Five Potential Pop Hits for 2011 list . The song jumped from 39 and settled on 31 on the Hot Country Songs on the week ending August 6 , 2011 . After its single release , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 84 on the week ending August 27 , 2011 . On the week ending October 8 , 2011 the song jumped from 13 to 10 on the Hot Country Songs . The song has peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Radio Songs Chart . It peaked at number one on the Hot Country Songs in the week of November 26 , 2011 . The song became Swift 's first single in two years to reach atop the aforesaid chart since " You Belong with Me " in 2009 . On November 29 , 2011 , the song was certified Gold by the RIAA . The song was number 37 on the 2011 year @-@ end chart of Hot Country Songs . As of August 2012 , " Sparks Fly " has sold over a million copies in the United States . In Canada , " Sparks Fly " debuted at 28 on the week of November 13 , 2010 .
" Sparks Fly " was nominated for " Favorite Song " on the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards 2012 . The song won the award for " Choice Music : Country Song " on 2012 Teen Choice Awards .
= = Live performances and music video = =
The live performance that was uploaded to YouTube was captured at the Gold Country Casino in Orville , California on May 30 , 2007 . The song was , at the time , unreleased and was performed using banjos and violins and contained different lyrics than the album version . " Sparks Fly " was the opening song of the Speak Now World Tour . The performance begins with an opening montage about how people should " speak now " about how they feel , and Swift then raises from a cloud of smoke and sings " Drop everything now " before starting the actual song performance . Swift also uses a longer interlude into the final chorus of the song . Fireworks were also used during the performance . The performance uses electric guitars instead of banjos and was released on Swift 's first live album , Speak Now World Tour Live . In his review of Speak Now World Tour Live , Matt Bjorke of Roughstock cited Swift 's perforation of " Sparks Fly " a standout during the concert . Swift has also performed the song at the CMA Music Festival . Before beginning the performance Swift walked through the crowd to the stage and began singing .
" Sparks Fly " was the first song Taylor Swift performed on her debut in the iHeart Radio Music Festival 2012 in Las Vegas , Nevada . As introduced by Nina Dobrev , Swift appeared from the audience and opened the performance of the song 's imminent hook , " Drop everything now " , as she walks through the crowd to the stage .
A music video for the song was announced on August 8 , 2011 on Swift 's official website . It premiered on August 10 , 2011 on her official website at 4 : 30 pm CDT . It is directed by Christian Lamb . The video features clips of various performances from her Speak Now World Tour , such as " Speak Now " , " Back to December " , " Better Than Revenge " , " Mean " and other performances , as well as never before seen footage at beginning . Many of the footage for the video was captured at four different tour date locations including one from the show in Newark , New Jersey . The footage with the rain was captured during one of the summer shows at Gillette Stadium . Billy Dukes of Taste of Country praised the video saying , " The magic and theatrics she ’ s able to capture on stage rival what almost anyone else is able to dream up for a more Hollywood @-@ like “ produced ” music video . " During the week of its release , the music video had over 400 @,@ 000 views and helped push Swift up the Billboard 's Social 50 , moving her from number nineteen to ten . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News praised the footage of the video saying that it " perfectly encapsulates the tour 's high @-@ octane energy including theatrical set changes , dancers , aerialists , fireworks , pyrotechnics , costume changes and the occasional rainstorm . " The video was number one on the week 's most streamed videos on August 27 , 2011 for Yahoo ! Music . To date , the video has over 38 million views on YouTube .
= = Track listing = =
Limited Edition CD single
" Sparks Fly " – 4 : 20
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Jack Stewart ( ice hockey ) =
John Sherratt " Black Jack " Stewart ( May 6 , 1917 – May 25 , 1983 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who played 12 National Hockey League ( NHL ) seasons for the Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Black Hawks . He won two Stanley Cup championships with the Red Wings and was named to the post @-@ season NHL All @-@ Star Team on five occasions : three times on the first team and twice on the second . Stewart also played in the first four NHL All @-@ Star Games . After completing his NHL career as captain of the Black Hawks , he went on to coach numerous teams at various levels of hockey .
Stewart was regarded as the hardest hitting defenceman of his time , a reputation that earned him his nickname . His style of play routinely resulted in injuries and scars ; he defied expectations by returning to the game after suffering a ruptured disc in his back and later a fractured skull . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 , and is also honoured by the Manitoba Hockey and Sports Halls of Fame .
= = Playing career = =
Stewart played junior hockey with the Portage Terriers of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League in 1935 – 36 and 1936 – 37 , where he was discovered by a Winnipeg businessman who suggested that James Norris , owner of the Detroit Red Wings , sign him . He was sent to play his first season of professional hockey for the team 's minor league affiliate , the Pittsburgh Hornets of the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ) . He recorded one assist in 48 games in the 1937 – 38 season .
Partway through his second season with the Hornets , the Red Wings recalled Stewart as part of a bid to shake up their team which had been struggling . He appeared in 32 games in his NHL rookie season of 1938 – 39 , and immediately established himself as a physical presence . He played in all 48 games for Detroit in 1939 – 40 ; his lone goal on the campaign was the first of his career . Stewart and the Red Wings reached the Stanley Cup final in both 1941 and 1942 , but lost to the Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs , respectively . In his fifth season , 1942 – 43 , Stewart was named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team on defence and helped lead the Red Wings to the NHL regular season title . Reaching the final for the third consecutive season , Detroit defeated Boston to win the Stanley Cup . Stewart scored one goal , added two assists and had 35 penalty minutes in ten playoff games .
Stewart 's NHL career was interrupted by the Second World War in 1943 . He remained in Canada , serving as a Leading Aircraftman in the Royal Canadian Air Force and playing hockey for the Montreal RCAF and Winnipeg RCAF teams between 1943 and 1945 . Upon his return to the NHL , Stewart was paired up with Bill Quackenbush on the Red Wings defence . He went on to earn four additional all @-@ star selections : he was named to the second team in 1945 – 46 and 1946 – 47 , and to the first team again in 1947 – 48 and 1948 – 49 . Additionally , he played in the first four National Hockey League All @-@ Star Games , held between 1947 and 1950 . Not known for his offence , Stewart never scored more than five goals in a season , and his career high of 19 points was set in 1947 – 48 . He won his second Stanley Cup with the Red Wings in 1950 as they defeated the New York Rangers in double overtime of the deciding seventh game .
Following the championship , the Red Wings dealt Stewart to the Chicago Black Hawks as part of a nine @-@ player trade that was , at the time , the largest in NHL history . Stewart , Harry Lumley , Al Dewsbury , Pete Babando and Don Morrison were sent to Chicago in exchange for Metro Prystai , Bob Goldham , Gaye Stewart and Jim Henry . The Black Hawks named Stewart team captain and assistant coach almost immediately .
Stewart missed the majority of the 1950 – 51 NHL season and his career was believed over after he suffered a serious spinal injury in a December 14 , 1950 , game against the Toronto Maple Leafs . Doctors diagnosed his injury as a ruptured disc and urged him to retire . He was told following the injury that he was lucky he could still walk without a cane and not to risk further damage on the ice . Instead , Stewart had the disc removed and after completing what Black Hawks ' team doctors described as a " most remarkable " recovery , he opted to continue his career and signed with Chicago for the 1951 – 52 season .
Early in the season , Stewart suffered a minor skull fracture after colliding with teammate Clare Martin , an injury that forced him out of the lineup for several weeks . Stewart spent two weeks in hospital , after which he announced his retirement , but he again shocked observers by returning to the ice . However , by mid February 1952 , his injuries led Stewart to ask the Black Hawks for his release so that he could seek a minor league coaching position .
= = Coaching career = =
Stewart was considered as coach of the New Westminster Royals of the Pacific Coast Hockey League , but chose to take the reins of the senior A Chatham Maroons in the Ontario Hockey Association . He served as a player @-@ coach , appearing in 45 games for the Maroons in 1952 – 53 , where he scored two goals and 29 points while accumulating 129 penalty minutes . Stewart played the final games of his career in 1953 – 54 , finishing with eight assists in 21 games .
The following seasons saw Stewart move between several teams as head coach . He left the Maroons to guide the Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen in 1955 – 56 , then the Windsor Bulldogs for two seasons between 1957 and 1959 . At one point in 1957 , he was rumoured to become the next coach of the Chicago Black Hawks , a job that went instead to Rudy Pilous . Stewart moved into the professional ranks in 1961 , taking over as the coach of Chicago 's Eastern Professional Hockey League affiliate , the Sault Thunderbirds . One year later , Stewart moved to the Pittsburgh Hornets , an American Hockey League affiliate of the Detroit Red Wings . After winning only 16 games in 1962 – 63 , Stewart retired after he was dismissed by the Hornets .
= = Playing style = =
During his career , Stewart was regarded as one of the hardest bodycheckers in the National Hockey League . He also carried the heaviest stick in the league , explaining that " I don 't use it for scoring . I use it for breaking arms " . Stewart was known for his large grin when hitting opponents ; teammate Ted Lindsay noted " when he had that smile , it was time for the opposition to look out " . He led the league with 73 penalty minutes in 1945 – 46 , and in the late 1940s , his rivalry with Milt Schmidt of the Boston Bruins was so intense that their physical interactions occasionally overshadowed the games themselves .
Stewart hated his nickname of " Black Jack " , as he believed it made him out to be a dirty player . Hockey Hall of Fame defenceman King Clancy agreed he was not dirty , but stated he was the " roughest son of a gun you 'd ever want to meet . " Stewart 's style of play resulted in numerous injuries ; he had dozens of scars and required over 200 stitches to close various cuts during his career . At one point he played a full season with a broken hand .
On the ice , Stewart showed good judgment as a defenceman and rarely took himself out of position to throw a hit . His coach in Detroit , Jack Adams , called Stewart " one of the best blueliners in the game " , and claimed he was the best defenceman in Red Wings history . Regarded as a good skater , he was able to clear the puck out of his zone and rarely turned it over to the other team . Clare Martin said he was a " defensive defenceman " and that he " didn 't carry the puck too much ... His job was defence and everybody in the league knew it . "
A charter member of the Detroit Red Wings Hall of Fame in 1944 , Stewart was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1964 . He is also an honoured member of the Michigan Sports , Manitoba Hockey and Sports Halls of Fame . He was named to the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame 's First All @-@ Century Team in 2000 .
= = Personal life = =
Stewart was born May 6 , 1917 , in Pilot Mound , Manitoba , where he learned to play hockey on the community 's outdoor rinks . He had three sisters . In the off @-@ seasons , he returned to his family farm , work which was said to have given him the strength he displayed in the NHL . An avid sportsman , Stewart was an active curler during his playing career , and played softball in the summer . Though he was regarded on the ice as one of toughest players in the game , he was also quiet . He was known as " Silent Jack " by his teammates , allowing his actions to speak for him .
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@-@ sharing website YouTube . Bieber performed the song in a number of live appearances including The Dome , The Next Star , and Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest .
= = Background = =
The song was written for Bieber by veteran American hip @-@ hop / R & B producer and songwriter Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , and songwriter and vocal producer Kuk Harrell for their RedZone Entertainment , as his debut single . Before they produced and wrote Bieber 's debut they had penned several hits , including Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies ( Put A Ring On It ) " , Mariah Carey 's " Obsessed " , Fabolous 's " Throw It In the Bag " and others . " One Time " was produced by Stewart and production duo The Movement , while Harrell provided vocal recording and production . The Movement also received writing credits for the song as did Thabiso Nkhereanye . Bieber recorded the song at RedZone 's Triangle Sound Studios in Savannah , Georgia a few hours away from Bieber 's then current home of Atlanta , Georgia . Bieber also recorded some of the track at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California . Mixing was done in Atlanta at Silent Sound Studios by Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado .
= = Composition = =
" One Time " is described to be in a " moderately slow groove " . Washington Post called the track , along with ' Love Me ' " modest club tracks . " About.com described it as a " solid midtempo beat . " The song is composed in the key of C ♯ minor . The song is moderately paced , and the introduction and outro are sung in a sing @-@ and @-@ tell format with Bieber repetitively voicing the line " Me plus you / Imma tell you one time . " The verses are sung with backing R & B infused bass beats with a light string background in the same moderate pace before the bridge prepares for the refrain through the lines " Your world is my world / My fight is your fight / My breath is your breath / And your heart . " Bieber goes into the middle eight the backing is not as much indistinguishable from the rest of the song , but is delivered a little slower leading up to the chorus and outro .
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Lamb of About.com called the song a " perfect kickoff to the career of Justin Bieber " , noting the song had an effect of a younger Chris Brown , commended the production of The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart for making the single contemporary and commercial . However Lamb criticized the song for being too " generic " , and that Bieber had little room to show his voice . Billboard 's Michael Menachem called the song " a hallmark pop song that also taps into a prevalent teen hip @-@ hop aesthetic " . He also compared Bieber to Brown on the track , and said that " [ Bieber 's ] tenor brings to mind [ Brown 's ] vocal debut on " Run It ! " in 2005 , when he , too , was 15 and on the cusp of stardom " . Unlike Lamb , Menachem said the song gave Bieber 's vocals plenty of room to shine as he confidently breaks into the chorus . Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly named the song one of the hottest songs of fall of 2009 , saying that Bieber 's " pop @-@ soul bonafides with this refreshingly age @-@ appropriate chronicle of young love . "
= = Chart performance = =
The song entered at number ninety @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of July 25 , 2009 . The song stayed on the chart for nearly six months before eventually peaking at number seventeen on the chart . Although the song didn 't gain momentum until the near end of 2009 , it managed to chart at number eighty @-@ nine on the 2009 Billboard Year @-@ End Hot 100 , and eighty @-@ one on the Year @-@ End Canadian Hot 100 . It was also number seventy @-@ five on the Year End Hot Digital Singles . After lying dormant outside the top twenty for a few weeks , on the week labeled January 9 , 2010 , due to the release of " One Time : My Heart Edition " on iTunes , and increased sales of My World , the song made a thirty spot jump from forty @-@ seven to number seventeen , reaching a new peak on the chart . The song debuted on the Billboard Pop chart at number eighty @-@ four as the highest debut of the week . It has since peaked at number fourteen . It reached number twelve in Canada , where it remained on the chart for twenty consecutive weeks . The single was certified Platinum in Canada by CRIA in September 2009 . It was certified Platinum by the RIAA in the United States in January 2010 , selling over a million copies . As of February 2011 , the single was sold 2 @,@ 132 @,@ 000 times .
The song has also achieved international success . It debuted in Belgium ( Flanders ) at twenty @-@ six and peaked at twelve on the bubbling under chart , equivalent to peaking at sixty @-@ two on the main chart . It debuted on the Belgium ( Wallonia ) tip chart at twenty @-@ six in its first week , the week ending January 16 , 2010 , and has since peaked at six , equivalent to peaking at forty @-@ four on the main chart . The song debuted in Austria at seventy @-@ one on the week of September 4 , 2009 , and peaked at thirty , remaining on the chart for eleven weeks . " One Time " debuted at fourteen in Germany , which became its peak position on the chart . The song debuted in Australia at number eighty @-@ two and later reached a peak of twenty @-@ three . In Ireland the song debuted at forty @-@ five on the Irish Singles Chart . It has since peaked at thirty @-@ one on the chart . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at 135 , and jumped to fourteen on January 10 , 2010 . A week later on January 17 , 2010 , the song jumped again to number eleven , just missing out on the top ten . The song peaked at number six in New Zealand , and at thirteen in France .
= = Music video = =
The music video , directed by Vashtie Kola , was posted by Bieber on his YouTube channel on June 13 , 2009 , almost a month before the single was released to iTunes . Bieber 's mentor , Usher and one of his closest friends , Ryan Butler make appearances in the video . It features Bieber clad in a grey hooded sweatshirt grinning mischievously into the camera . As of April 2016 , the video had been viewed over 460 million times on YouTube . Bieber made a comment stating " It was really cool going from my webcam to professional videos " . In a review of the video Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblat said : " Bieber does seem to share many of the qualities that made his idols the pop / R & B superstars they 've become , including a clear , supple voice , pinup @-@ boy looks , and bona fide instrument skills " .
In the music video , Usher , Bieber and Butler all portray themselves as the latter two are at Usher 's house playing video games . Bieber receives a phone call from Usher , in which he asks him if could he watch the house until he gets back . After agreeing , Bieber holds a house party and tries to get close to one girl in particular , played by Kristen Rodeheaver , but is disappointed because he thought they were bonding but at the end of the video when they are sitting together at the pool , she kisses him on the cheek , then leaves . Originally , Rodeheaver and Bieber were supposed to hold hands and jump into the pool , but it was too cold . He then stands up and gets caught by Usher .
= = Live performances = =
Bieber performed the song on his promotional " My World " tour throughout the United States . Internationally , he appeared on the European program The Dome and performed " One Time " . As far as televised performances go , he performed " One Time " on MTV 's VMA Tour to precede the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , September 26 , 2009 , on YTV 's The Next Star , and on the Today Show . He also performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 3 , 2009 ; Good Morning America on November 15 , 2009 ; Lopez Tonight on November 17 , 2009 , and The Wendy Williams Show on November 27 , 2009 . The song was Bieber 's ending number while on his two @-@ show stint as an opening act for Taylor Swift 's Fearless Tour . On November 23 , 2009 , while performing in London on the tour , Bieber fractured his foot at the beginning of performing this song during Swift 's Wembley Arena concert , but continued to perform / limp the rest of the song . He was able to perform on stage the next night in Manchester , with a cast and limited dancing . After the televised appearances , the Urban Behavior Tour , and Fearless Tour , Bieber traveled in Europe to promote the album before returning to the US to resume his promotional tour . Bieber performed the song in Las Vegas for Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on December 31 , 2009 . While promoting the album in the United Kingdom , Bieber performed an acoustic rendition of " One Time " on BBC 's Blue Peter on January 12 , 2010 . He performed it on CBS ' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl XLIV programming . Bieber performed the song at a concert at the Hollywood Palladium , and August Brown of the Los Angeles Times commented , " ' One Time ' , helmed by white @-@ hot producer Christopher ' Tricky ' Stewart , is an endearing , swaggering little thing in which Bieber convincingly jumps from Usher ’ s rapid @-@ fire runs to pristine pop harmonies . "
= = My Heart Edition = =
Originally , an acoustic version of " One Time " was set to be released on iTunes on October 27 , 2009 . However plans were changed , and a week before the release , Bieber announced that a new song , " Love Me " would be released . Bieber later on announced on December 19 , 2009 , that an " exclusive unplugged Christmas [ sic ] version " of " One Time " would be released to iTunes the following Tuesday . The song was released a day early on December 21 , 2009 . The cover art for the single features a still from the music video from " One Less Lonely Girl " . Kyle Anderson of MTV stated that the song " strips away the original track 's synths and technology and leaves only Bieber 's able voice " . Bieber performed the acoustic version of the song when he guest starred on True Jackson , VP , during a live session with MTV , and on Blue Peter . It is featured on the Radio Disney Jams , Vol . 12 album .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= I Need a Girl ( Trey Songz song ) =
" I Need a Girl " is a song by American recording artist Trey Songz . The track was written by Johntá Austin , along with the song 's production team , Stargate , who also produced his breakthrough hit , " Can 't Help But Wait . " The song served as the lead single for Songz 's third studio album Ready . " I Need a Girl " received positive to mixed reviews from critics , some of which noted it as generic , and other naming it as a top track from the album . It reached fifty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and six on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The accompanying music video shot in Malibu features Songz and love interests on the beach , as they turn out to be mirages .
= = Background = =
The official remix features Teyana Taylor and rapper Fabolous , and was released by Songz via Twitter during his " Music Monday " series preceding the album . The second features Mase who jumped on dual remixes for the song and Drake 's " Best I Ever Had . " In an interview with New York 's Power 105 @.@ 1 , he said that the death of Michael Jackson inspired his latest comeback , stating , " Mike passed away and it just lit the fire in me — it made me go in the studio and do something . I ’ m excited . "
" I Need A Girl " was also featured in a 2009 episode of Lincoln Heights in which Trey Songz appears as a guest star .
= = Composition = =
" I Need A Girl " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad , featuring guitar riffs . According to Mark Edward Nero of About.com , the song contains familiar qualities of Songz 's breakout hit " Can 't Help But Wait " , also produced by Stargate . The song is lyrically about finding and pleasing the right woman , through lines such as , " I don 't even know your name , but I know that I 'm your man and you are my girl , if I ever meet you I 'm gonna give you the world , Baby please believe me when I tell you that I need a girl . " The song has been described to be a mix of Usher and Justin Timberlake , and has been compared to Chris Brown 's " With You . "
= = Critical reception = =
Mark Edward Nero of About.com said that the song was " sappy " and " cliche " , trying to replicate the success of " Can 't Help But Wait " , but " doesn 't come close . " Nero also commented that the song sounded insincere compared with the rawly sexual songs on the album . Ajitpaul Mangat of Tiny Mix Tapes noted the song as some of the album 's generic work , stating , " with its run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill lyrics about longing hearts , it sounds like the work of any middling R & B singer . " Tyler Lewis of PopMatters said " I Need A Girl " was among the album 's best songs , that it and " Neighbors Know My Name " , " thump as they should . " David Jeffries of Allmusic noted the song as a standout track from Ready . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday said that on the track , Songz " displays a more flexible delivery than usual . " DJBooth said , " Traditional R & B depends on three things : vocals , writing , and production . In a nutshell , I Need A Girl has the whole trifecta , and should be just what Trey needs to get Ready a solid release date . " Reviewing the remix of the song featuring Teyana Taylor and Fabolous , DJBooth said , " Expect the combo of Taylor ’ s cooed vocals and Trey and Loso ’ s time @-@ tested musical chemistry to leave listeners more amped than ever before for the release of Songz ’ [ sic ] latest LP — after waiting this long , I think it ’ s safe to say they ’ re more than Ready . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week labeled May 30 , 2009 , " I Need a Girl " debuted at 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Several weeks later on the week of September 19 , 2009 , it peaked at fifty @-@ nine on the chart , where it stayed for one week , spending a total of sixteen weeks on the chart . After a total of eight weeks on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , on the week labeled July 4 , 2009 , " I Need A Girl " peaked at six on it .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Benny Boom , and filmed in Malibu , California during the weekend of April 4 , 2009 . Stills from the video shoot were released on April 8 , 2009 . The music video was released on May 1 , 2009 . In the video , Songz sees several women along the beach , and plays volleyball with them , walks along the coastline , relaxes on a parked motorcycle , and other things , however in each instance they disappear and turn out to be illusions . In a review AOL Boombox recommended the video as one to watch , commenting , " The crooner admits that it gets ' lonely in this business , ' which is why he needs a companion aka a ' homey ' and he won 't rest ' til he finds the one for him . "
= = Live performances = =
Songz performed the song on September 2 , 2009 and on 106 & Park as a part of a medley with " Successful " and " LOL Smiley Face " , and on September 9 , 2009 on The Wendy Williams Show .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Johntá Austin , Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Eriksen , Espen Lind , Amund Bjorklund
Production - Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Eriksen , Espen Lind , Amund Bjorklund
Recording - Mikkel Eriksen
Vocal recording - Troy Taylor
Guitar - Espen Lind
All other instruments - Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Eriksen
Mixing - Phil Tan , assisted by Josh Houghkirk
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Battle of the Bismarck Sea =
The Battle of the Bismarck Sea ( 2 – 4 March 1943 ) took place in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) during World War II when aircraft of the U.S. Fifth Air Force and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) attacked a Japanese convoy carrying troops to Lae , New Guinea . Most of the task force was destroyed , and Japanese troop losses were heavy .
The Japanese convoy was a result of a Japanese Imperial General Headquarters decision in December 1942 to reinforce their position in the South West Pacific . A plan was devised to move some 6 @,@ 900 troops from Rabaul directly to Lae . The plan was understood to be risky , because Allied air power in the area was strong , but it was decided to proceed because otherwise the troops would have to be landed a considerable distance away and march through inhospitable swamp , mountain and jungle terrain without roads before reaching their destination . On 28 February 1943 , the convoy – comprising eight destroyers and eight troop transports with an escort of approximately 100 fighters – set out from Simpson Harbour in Rabaul .
The Allies had detected preparations for the convoy , and naval codebreakers in Melbourne ( FRUMEL ) and Washington , D.C. , had decrypted and translated messages indicating the convoy ’ s intended destination and date of arrival . The Allied Air Forces had developed new techniques they hoped would improve the chances of successful air attack on ships . They detected and shadowed the convoy , which came under sustained air attack on 2 – 3 March 1943 . Follow @-@ up attacks by PT boats and aircraft were made on 4 March . All eight transports and four of the escorting destroyers were sunk . Out of 6 @,@ 900 troops who were badly needed in New Guinea , only about 1 @,@ 200 made it to Lae . Another 2 @,@ 700 were rescued by destroyers and submarines and returned to Rabaul . The Japanese made no further attempts to reinforce Lae by ship , greatly hindering their ultimately unsuccessful efforts to stop Allied offensives in New Guinea .
= = Background = =
= = = Allied offensives = = =
Six months after Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , the United States won a strategic victory at the Battle of Midway . Seizing the strategic initiative , the United States and its Allies landed on Guadalcanal in the southern Solomon Islands in August 1942 , beginning the Solomon Islands Campaign . The battle for Guadalcanal ended in victory for the Allies with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the island in early February 1943 . At the same time , Australian and American forces in New Guinea repulsed the Japanese land offensive along the Kokoda Track . Going on the offensive , the Allied forces captured Buna – Gona , destroying Japanese forces in that area .
The ultimate goal of the Allied counter @-@ offensives in New Guinea and the Solomons was to capture the main Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain , later codified as Operation Cartwheel , and clear the way for the eventual reconquest of the Philippines . Recognising the threat , the Japanese continued to send land , naval , and aerial reinforcements to the area in an attempt to check the Allied advances .
= = = Japanese plans = = =
Reviewing the progress of the Battle of Guadalcanal and the Battle of Buna – Gona in December 1942 , the Japanese faced the prospect that neither could be held . Accordingly , Imperial General Headquarters decided to take steps to strengthen the Japanese position in the South West Pacific by sending Lieutenant General Jusei Aoki ’ s 20th Division from Korea to Guadalcanal and Lieutenant General Heisuke Abe ’ s 41st Division from China to Rabaul . Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura , the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army at Rabaul , ordered Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi ’ s XVIII Army to secure Madang , Wewak and Tuluvu in New Guinea . On 29 December , Adachi ordered the 102nd Infantry Regiment and other units under the command of Major General Toru Okabe , the commander of the infantry group of the 51st Division , to move from Rabaul to Lae and advance inland to capture Wau . Following the decision to evacuate Guadalcanal on 4 January , the Japanese switched priorities from the Solomon Islands to New Guinea , and it was decided to send the 20th and 41st Divisions to Wewak .
On 5 January 1943 , the convoy , which consisted of five destroyers and five troop transports carrying Okabe ’ s force , set out for Lae from Rabaul . Forewarned by Ultra , United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) aircraft spotted , shadowed and attacked the convoy , which was shielded by low clouds and Japanese fighters . The Allies claimed to have shot down 69 Japanese aircraft for the loss of 10 of their own . An RAAF Consolidated PBY Catalina sank the transport Nichiryu Maru . Although destroyers rescued 739 of the 1 @,@ 100 troops on board , the ship took with it all of Okabe ’ s medical supplies . Another transport , Myoko Maru , was so badly damaged at Lae by USAAF North American B @-@ 25 Mitchells that it had to be beached . Nonetheless , the convoy succeeded in reaching Lae on 7 January and landing its troops , but Okabe was defeated in the Battle of Wau .
Most of the 20th Division was landed at Wewak from naval high speed transports on 19 January 1943 . The bulk of the 41st Division followed on 12 February . Imamura and Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , the commander of the South East Area Fleet , developed a plan to move the command post of the headquarters of the Japanese XVIII Army and the main body of the 51st Division from Rabaul to Lae on 3 March , followed by moving the remainder of the 20th Division to Madang on 10 March . This plan was acknowledged to be risky because Allied air power in the area was strong . The XVIII Army staff held war games that predicted losses of four out of ten transports , and between 30 and 40 aircraft . They gave the operation only a 50 – 50 chance of success . On the other hand , if the troops were landed at Madang , they faced a march of more than 140 mi ( 230 km ) over inhospitable swamp , mountain and jungle terrain without roads . To augment the three naval and two army fighter groups in the area assigned to protect the convoy , the Imperial Japanese Navy temporarily detached 18 fighters from the aircraft carrier Zuihō ’ s fighter group from Truk to Kavieng .
= = = Allied intelligence = = =
The Allies soon began detecting signs of preparations for a new convoy . A Japanese floatplane of the type normally used for anti @-@ submarine patrols in advance of convoys was sighted on 7 February 1943 . The Allied Air Forces South West Pacific Area commander – Lieutenant General George Kenney – ordered an increase in reconnaissance patrols over Rabaul . On 14 February , aerial photographs were taken that showed 79 vessels in port , including 45 merchant ships and six transports . It was clear that another convoy was being prepared , but its destination was unknown . On 16 February , naval codebreakers in Melbourne ( FRUMEL ) and Washington , D.C. finished decrypting and translating a coded message revealing the Japanese intention to land convoys at Wewak , Madang and Lae . Subsequently , codebreakers decrypted a message from the Japanese 11th Air Fleet to the effect that destroyers and six transports would reach Lae about 5 March . Another report indicated that they would reach Lae by 12 March . On 22 February , reconnaissance aircraft reported 59 merchant vessels in the harbour at Rabaul .
Kenney read this Ultra intelligence in the office of the Supreme Allied Commander , South West Pacific Area – General Douglas MacArthur – on 25 February . The prospect of an additional 6 @,@ 900 Japanese troops in the Lae area greatly disturbed MacArthur , as they might seriously affect his plans to capture and develop the area . Kenney wrote out orders , which were sent by courier , for Brigadier General Ennis Whitehead , the deputy commander of the Fifth Air Force , and the commander of its Advance Echelon ( ADVON ) in New Guinea . Under the Fifth Air Force ’ s unusual command arrangements , Whitehead controlled the Allied Air Forces units of all types in New Guinea . This included the RAAF units there , which were grouped as No. 9 Operational Group RAAF , under the command of Air Commodore Joe Hewitt .
Kenney informed Whitehead of the proposed convoy date , and warned him about the usual Japanese pre @-@ convoy air attack . He also urged that flying hours be cut back so as to allow for a large strike on the convoy , and instructed him to move forward as many aircraft as possible so that they could be close to the nearby captured airfields around Dobodura , where they would not be subject to the vagaries of weather over the Owen Stanley Range . Kenney flew up to Port Moresby on 26 February , where he met with Whitehead . The two generals inspected fighter and bomber units in the area , and agreed to attack the Japanese convoy in the Vitiaz Strait . Kenney returned to Brisbane on 28 February .
= = Allied tactics = =
In the South West Pacific , a conventional strategic bombing campaign was out of the question , as industrial targets in Japan were well beyond the range of even the largest strategic bombers operating from bases in Australia and New Guinea . Therefore , the primary mission of the Allied bomber force was interdiction of Japanese supply lines , especially the sea lanes . The results of the effort against the Japanese convoy in January were very disappointing ; some 416 sorties had been flown with only two ships sunk and three damaged , so clearly , a change of tactics was in order . Group Captain Bill Garing , an RAAF officer on Kenney ’ s staff with considerable experience in air @-@ sea operations , including a tour of duty in Europe , recommended that Japanese convoys be subjected to simultaneous attack from different altitudes and directions .
Major Paul I. " Pappy " Gunn and his men at the 81st Depot Repair Squadron in Townsville , Queensland , modified some USAAF Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc light bombers by installing four .50 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns in their noses in September 1942 . Two 450 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 700 l ; 370 imp gal ) fuel tanks were added , giving the aircraft more range . An attempt was then made in December 1942 to create a longer range attack aircraft by doing the same thing to a B @-@ 25 medium bomber to convert it to a " commerce destroyer " , but this proved to be somewhat more difficult . The resulting aircraft was nose heavy despite added lead ballast in the tail , and the vibrations caused by firing the machine guns were enough to make rivets pop out of the skin of the aircraft . The tail guns and belly turrets were removed , the latter being of little use if the aircraft was flying low . The new tactic of having the B @-@ 25 strafe ships would be tried in this battle .
The Allied Air Forces also adopted other innovative tactics . In February 1942 , the RAAF began experimenting with skip bombing , an anti @-@ shipping technique used by the British and Germans . Flying only a few dozen feet above the sea toward their targets , bombers would release their bombs which would then , ideally , ricochet across the surface of the water and explode at the side of the target ship , under it , or just over it . A similar technique was mast @-@ height bombing , in which bombers would approach the target at low altitude , 200 to 500 feet ( 61 to 152 m ) , at about 265 to 275 miles per hour ( 426 to 443 km / h ) , and then drop down to mast height , 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) at about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the target . They would release their bombs at around 300 yards ( 270 m ) , aiming directly at the side of the ship . The Battle of the Bismarck Sea would demonstrate that this was the more successful of the two tactics . The two techniques were not mutually exclusive : a bomber could drop two bombs , skipping the first and launching the second at mast height . Practice missions were carried out against the wreck of the SS Pruth , a liner that had run aground in 1923 .
The Fifth Air Force had two heavy bomber groups . The 43rd Bombardment Group was equipped with about 55 Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . Most of these had seen hard war service over the previous six months and the availability rate was low . The recently arrived 90th Bombardment Group was equipped with Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberators , but they too had maintenance problems . There were two medium groups : the 38th Bombardment Group , equipped with B @-@ 25 Mitchells , and the 22nd Bombardment Group , equipped with Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders , but two of the former ’ s four squadrons had been diverted to the South Pacific Area , and the latter had taken so many losses that it had been withdrawn to Australia to be rebuilt .
There was also a light group , the 3rd Attack Group , equipped with a mixture of Douglas A @-@ 20 Havocs and B @-@ 25 Mitchells . This group was not just short of aircraft ; it was critically short of aircrew as well . To make up the numbers the USAAF turned to the RAAF for help . Australian aircrew were assigned to most of the group ’ s aircraft , serving in every role except aircraft commander . In addition to the RAAF aircrew with the USAAF squadrons , there were RAAF units in the Port Moresby area . No. 30 Squadron RAAF , which had arrived in Port Moresby in September 1942 , was equipped with the Bristol Beaufighter . Both the aircraft and the squadron proved adept at low level attacks . Also in the Port Moresby area were the 35th and 49th Fighter Groups , both equipped with Bell P @-@ 400 , Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawk and Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters , but only the last were suitable for long range escort missions .
= = Battle = =
= = = First attacks = = =
The Japanese convoy – comprising eight destroyers and eight troop transports with an escort of approximately 100 fighters – assembled and departed from Simpson Harbour in Rabaul on 28 February . During the January operation , a course was followed that hugged the south coast of New Britain . This had made it easy to provide air cover , but being close to the airfields also made it possible for the Allied Air Forces to attack both the convoy and the airfields at the same time . This time , a route was chosen along the north coast , in the hope that the Allies would be deceived into thinking that the convoy ’ s objective was Madang . Allied air attacks on the convoy at this point would have to fly over New Britain , allowing interdiction from Japanese air bases there , but the final leg of the voyage would be particularly dangerous , because the convoy would have to negotiate the restricted waters of the Vitiaz Strait . The Japanese named the convoy " Operation 81 . "
The destroyers carried 958 troops while the transports took 5 @,@ 954 . All the ships were combat loaded to expedite unloading at Lae . The commander of the Japanese XVIII Army – Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi – travelled on the destroyer Tokitsukaze , while that of the 51st Division – Lieutenant General Hidemitsu Nakano – was on board the destroyer Yukikaze . The escort commander – Rear Admiral Masatomi Kimura of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla – flew his flag from the destroyer Shirayuki . The other five destroyers were Arashio , Asashio , Asagumo , Shikinami and Uranami . They escorted seven Army transports : Aiyo Maru ( 2 @,@ 716 gross register tons ) , Kembu Maru ( 950 tons ) , Kyokusei Maru ( 5 @,@ 493 tons ) , Oigawa Maru ( 6 @,@ 494 tons ) , Sin @-@ ai Maru ( 3 @,@ 793 tons ) , Taimei Maru ( 2 @,@ 883 tons ) and Teiyo Maru ( 6 @,@ 870 tons ) . Rounding out the force was the lone Navy transport Nojima ( 8 @,@ 125 tons ) . All the ships carried troops , equipment and ammunition , except for the Kembu Maru , which carried 1 @,@ 000 drums of avgas and 650 drums of other fuel .
The convoy , moving at 7 kn ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ; 13 km / h ) , was not detected for some time , because of two tropical storms that struck the Solomon and Bismarck Seas between 27 February and 1 March , but at about 15 : 00 on 1 March , the crew of a patrolling B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bomber spotted the convoy . Eight B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses were sent to the location but failed to locate the ships .
At dawn on 2 March , a force of six RAAF A @-@ 20 Bostons attacked Lae to reduce its ability to provide support . At about 10 : 00 , another Liberator found the convoy . Eight B @-@ 17s took off to attack the ships , followed an hour later by another 20 . They found the convoy and attacked with 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs from 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . They claimed to have sunk up to three merchant ships . Kyokusei Maru had sunk carrying 1 @,@ 200 army troops , and two other transports , Teiyo Maru and Nojima , were damaged . Eight Japanese fighters were destroyed and 13 damaged in the day ’ s action .
The destroyers Yukikaze and Asagumo plucked 950 survivors of Kyokusei Maru from the water . These two destroyers , being faster than the convoy since its speed was dictated by the slower transports , broke away from the group to disembark the survivors at Lae . The destroyers resumed their escort duties the next day . The convoy – without the troop transport and two destroyers – was attacked again on the evening of 2 March by 11 B @-@ 17s , with minor damage to one transport . During the night , PBY Catalina flying boats from No. 11 Squadron RAAF took over the task of shadowing the convoy .
= = = Further attacks = = =
By 3 March , the convoy was within range of the air base at Milne Bay , and eight Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers from No. 100 Squadron RAAF took off from there . Because of bad weather only two found the convoy , and neither scored any hits , but the weather cleared after they rounded the Huon Peninsula . A force of 90 Allied aircraft took off from Port Moresby , and headed for Cape Ward Hunt , while 22 A @-@ 20 Bostons of No. 22 Squadron RAAF attacked the Japanese fighter base at Lae , reducing the convoy ’ s air cover . Attacks on the base continued throughout the day .
At 10 : 00 , 13 B @-@ 17s reached the convoy and bombed from medium altitude of 7 @,@ 000 feet , causing the ships to maneuver , which dispersed the convoy formation and reduced their concentrated anti @-@ aircraft firepower . The B @-@ 17s attracted a number of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , which were in turn attacked by the P @-@ 38 Lightning escorts . A B @-@ 17 broke up in the air , and its crew was forced to take to their parachutes . Japanese fighter pilots machine @-@ gunned some of the B @-@ 17 crew members as they descended and attacked others in the water after they landed . Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B @-@ 17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings , which were also lost . The Allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed , while the B @-@ 17 crews claimed five more . Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged . B @-@ 25s arrived shortly afterward and released their 500 @-@ pound bombs between 3 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 feet , reportedly causing two Japanese vessels to collide . The result of the B @-@ 17 and B @-@ 25 sorties scored few hits but left the convoy ships separated making them vulnerable to strafers and masthead bombers , and with the Japanese anti @-@ aircraft fire being focused on the medium @-@ altitude bombers this left an opening for minimum altitude attacks .
The 13 Beaufighters from No. 30 Squadron RAAF approached the convoy at low level to give the impression they were Beauforts making a torpedo attack . The ships turned to face them , the standard procedure to present a smaller target to torpedo bombers , allowing the Beaufighters to maximise the damage they inflicted on the ships ’ anti @-@ aircraft guns , bridges and crews in strafing runs with their four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) nose cannons and six wing @-@ mounted .303 in ( 7 @.@ 70 mm ) machine guns . On board one of the Beaufighters was cameraman Damien Parer , who shot dramatic footage of the battle . Immediately afterward , seven B @-@ 25s of the 38th Bombardment Group ’ s 71st Bombardment Squadron bombed from about 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) , while six from the 405th Bombardment Squadron attacked at mast height .
Shirayuki was the first ship to be hit , by a combination of strafing and bombing attacks . Almost all the men on the bridge became casualties , including Kimura , who was wounded . One bomb hit started a magazine explosion that caused the stern to break off , and the ship to sink . Her crew was transferred to Shikinami , and Shirayuki was scuttled . The destroyer Tokitsukaze was also hit and fatally damaged . Its crew was taken off by Yukikaze . The destroyer Arashio was hit , and collided with the transport Nojima , disabling her . Both the destroyer and the transport were abandoned , and Nojima was later sunk by an air attack .
Fourteen B @-@ 25s returned that afternoon , reportedly claiming 17 hits or near misses . By this time , a third of the transports were sunk or sinking . As the Beaufighters and B @-@ 25s had expended their munitions , some USAAF A @-@ 20 Havocs of the 3rd Attack Group joined in . Another five hits were claimed by B @-@ 17s of the 43rd Bombardment Group from higher altitudes . During the afternoon , further attacks from USAAF B @-@ 25s and Bostons of No. 22 Squadron RAAF followed .
Garrett Middlebrook , a co @-@ pilot in one of the B @-@ 25s , described the ferocity of the strafing attacks :
They went in and hit this troop ship . What I saw looked like little sticks , maybe a foot long or something like that , or splinters flying up off the deck of ship ; they ’ d fly all around ... and twist crazily in the air and fall out in the water . Then I realized what I was watching were human beings . I was watching hundreds of those Japanese just blown off the deck by those machine guns . They just splintered around the air like sticks in a whirlwind and they ’ d fall in the water .
All seven of the transports were hit and most were burning or sinking about 100 km ( 54 nmi ; 62 mi ) south east of Finschhafen , along with the destroyers Shirayuki , Tokitsukaze and Arashio . Four of the destroyers – Shikinami , Yukikaze , Uranami and Asagumo – picked up as many survivors as possible and then retired to Rabaul , accompanied by the destroyer Hatsuyuki , which had come from Rabaul to assist . That night , a force of ten U.S. Navy PT boats – under the command of Lieutenant Commander Barry Atkins – set out to attack the convoy . Two boats struck submerged debris and were forced to return . The other eight arrived off Lae in the early hours of 4 March . Atkins spotted a fire that turned out to be the transport Oigawa Maru . PT @-@ 143 and PT @-@ 150 fired torpedoes at it , sinking the crippled vessel . In the morning , a fourth destroyer – Asashio – was sunk when a B @-@ 17 hit her with a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) bomb while she was picking up survivors from Arashio .
Some 2 @,@ 700 survivors were taken to Rabaul by the destroyers . On 4 March , another 1 @,@ 000 or so survivors were adrift on rafts . On the evenings of 3 – 5 March , PT boats and planes attacked Japanese rescue vessels , as well as the survivors from the sunken vessels on life rafts and swimming or floating in the sea . This was later justified on the grounds that rescued servicemen would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service , as well as being retaliation for the Japanese fighter planes attacking survivors of the downed B @-@ 17 bomber . While many of the Allied aircrew accepted these attacks as being necessary , others were sickened . On 6 March , the Japanese submarines I @-@ 17 and I @-@ 26 picked up 170 survivors . Two days later , I @-@ 26 found another 54 and put them ashore at Lae . Hundreds made their way to various islands . One band of 18 survivors landed on Kiriwina , where they were captured by PT @-@ 114 . Another made its way to Guadalcanal , only to be killed by an American patrol .
On 4 March the Japanese mounted a retaliatory raid on the Buna airfield , the site of a base that the Allies had captured back in January , though the fighters did little damage . Kenney wrote in his memoir that the Japanese reprisal occurred " after the horse had been stolen from the barn . It was a good thing that the Nip air commander was stupid . Those hundred airplanes would have made our job awfully hard if they had taken part in the big fight over the convoy on March 3rd . "
On Goodenough Island , between 8 and 14 March 1943 , Australian patrols from the 47th Infantry Battalion found and killed 72 Japanese , captured 42 and found another nine dead on a raft . One patrol killed eight Japanese who had landed in two flat @-@ bottomed boats , in which were found some documents in sealed tins . On translation by the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section , one document turned out to be a copy of the Japanese Army List , with the names and postings of every officer in the Japanese Army . It therefore provided a complete order of battle of the Japanese Army , including many units that had never before been reported . A mention of any Japanese officer could now be correlated with his unit . Copies were made available to intelligence units in every theatre of war against Japan .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle was a disaster for the Japanese . Out of 6 @,@ 900 troops who were badly needed in New Guinea , only about 1 @,@ 200 made it to Lae . Another 2 @,@ 700 were saved by destroyers and submarines and returned to Rabaul . About 2 @,@ 890 Japanese soldiers and sailors were killed . The Allies lost 13 aircrew , 10 of whom were lost in combat while three others died in an accident . There were also eight wounded . Aircraft losses were one B @-@ 17 and three P @-@ 38s in combat , and one B @-@ 25 and one Beaufighter in accidents . MacArthur issued a communiqué on 7 March claiming that 22 ships , including 12 transports , three cruisers and seven destroyers , had been sunk along with 12 @,@ 792 troops . Army Air Force Headquarters in Washington , D.C. looked into the matter in mid @-@ 1943 and concluded that there were only 16 ships involved , but GHQ SWPA elected to stick to its original story . After the war , Kenney would repeat the claim .
The Allied Air Forces had used 233 @,@ 847 rounds of ammunition , and dropped 261 500 @-@ pound and 253 thousand @-@ pound bombs . They claimed 19 hits and 42 near misses with the former , and 59 hits and 39 near misses from the latter . Of the 137 bombs dropped in low level attacks , 48 , or 35 percent , were claimed to have hit , but only 29 , or 7 @.@ 5 percent , of the 387 bombs dropped from medium altitude . This compared favourably with efforts in August and September 1942 when only 3 percent of bombs dropped were claimed to have scored hits . It was noted that the high and medium altitude attacks scored few hits but dispersed the convoy , while the strafing runs from the Beaufighters had knocked out many of the ships ' anti @-@ aircraft defences . Aircraft attacking from multiple directions had confused and overwhelmed the Japanese defences , resulting in lower casualties and more accurate bombing . The results therefore vindicated not just the tactics of mast height attack , but of mounting coordinated attacks from multiple directions . The Japanese estimated that at least 29 bombs had hit a ship during the battle . This was a big improvement over the Battle of Wau back in January , when Allied aircraft attacked a Japanese convoy consisting of five destroyers and five troop transports travelling from Rabaul to Lae , but managed to sink just one transport and beach another .
There was no doubt that the Japanese had suffered a major defeat . Imamura 's chief of staff flew to Imperial General Headquarters to report on the disaster . It was decided that there would be no more attempts to land troops at Lae . The losses incurred in the Bismarck Sea caused grave concern for the security of Lae and Rabaul . This resulted in a change of strategy . On 25 March a joint Army @-@ Navy Central Agreement on South West Area Operations gave operations in New Guinea priority over those in the Solomon Islands campaign . The XVIII Army was allocated additional shipping , ordnance and anti @-@ aircraft units , which were sent to Wewak or Hansa Bay . Of the defeat , Rabaul staff officer Masatake Okumiya said , " Our losses for this single battle were fantastic . Not during the entire savage fighting at Guadalcanal did we suffer a single comparable blow . We knew we could no longer run cargo ships or even fast destroyer transports to any front on the north coast of New Guinea , east of Wewak . "
The planned movement of the 20th Division to Madang was revised in the light of events in the Bismarck Sea . The operation was postponed for two days , and the destination was altered from Madang to Hansa Bay further west . To reduce the Allied air threat , the Allied airfield at Wau was bombed on 9 March , and that at Dobodura on 11 March . Three Allied aircraft were destroyed on the ground , and one P @-@ 40 was lost in the air , but the Allied fighters claimed to have shot down nine Japanese planes . The transports reached Hansa Bay unscathed on 12 March , and the troops made their way down to Madang on foot or in barges . The 20th Division then became involved in an attempt to construct a road from Madang to Lae through the Ramu and Markham Valleys . It toiled on the road for the next few months , but its efforts were ultimately frustrated by New Guinea 's weather and the rugged terrain of the Finisterre Range .
Some submarines were made available for supply runs to Lae , but they did not have the capacity to support the troops there by themselves . An operation was carried out on 29 March in which four destroyers successfully delivered 800 troops to Finschhafen , but the growing threat from Allied aircraft led to the development of routes along the coast of New Guinea from Madang to Finschhafen , and along both the north and south coasts of New Britain to Finschhafen , and thence to Lae using Army landing craft . It was by this means that the remainder of the 51st Division finally made the trip to Lae in May . The necessity of delivering troops and supplies to the front in this manner caused immense difficulties for the Japanese in their attempts to halt further Allied advances . After the war , Japanese officers at Rabaul estimated that around 20 @,@ 000 troops were lost in transit to New Guinea from Rabaul , a significant factor in Japan 's ultimate defeat in the New Guinea campaign .
In April , Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto used the additional air resources allocated to Rabaul in Operation I @-@ Go , an air offensive designed to redress the situation by destroying Allied ships and aircraft in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands . The operation was indecisive , and Yamamoto himself became a casualty of Allied intelligence and air power in the Solomon Islands later that year .
= = Game theory = =
In 1954 , O. G. Haywood , Jr . , wrote an article in the Journal of the Operations Research Society of America in which game theory was used to model the decision making in the battle . Since then , the name of the battle has been applied to this particular type of two @-@ person zero @-@ sum game .
= Ugly ( House ) =
" Ugly " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of House and the seventy @-@ seventh episode overall . It aired on November 13 , 2007 . The episode revolves around a teenager named Kenny Cyrus with a major facial deformity . He is set to get surgery in order to remove the deformity , but has a heart attack just prior to the surgery . Dr. Gregory House , who still has not hired a new diagnostic team out of six interns , tries to figure out what is wrong with Kenny . Kenny was being filmed by a documentary crew during the process of the surgery , so House has to find out what is wrong with Kenny while being filmed by the crew .
The episode was watched by 11 @.@ 4 million viewers , making it the eighth most @-@ watched program of the week . The episode gained positive reviews by critics , who were surprised by the story surrounding Dr. Chris Taub , one of the fellowship applicants , in the episode .
= = Plot = =
A documentary film crew is chronicling a teenager named Kenny ( Khleo Thomas ) with a major facial deformity who opts to undergo a dramatic reconstructive procedure . When Kenny suffers a heart attack just prior to the surgery , House and the team are called in to determine the cause , since the surgery cannot proceed until Kenny 's cardiac condition is diagnosed .
As the film crew continues to document Kenny , House becomes increasingly annoyed and tries to avoid them by briefing his team by the MRI machine and in surgery . However , ultimately he cannot escape the cameras and the candidates find themselves acting self @-@ consciously in front of the lens . Meanwhile , House begins to regret recruiting former CIA doctor Samira Terzi ( Michael Michele ) when she fails to demonstrate the intelligence he witnessed at Langley . Wilson , who believes that House is being distracted by Terzi 's looks , offers up the solution to quickly fire her and then ask her out on a date . He also notes House 's propensity to hire attractive women , which led him to this situation . House argues that he 's " not that guy " ; Wilson retorts " every guy is that guy " . During the episode the film crew also interviews Cameron , asking why she resigned and making it look like she was romantically attracted to House .
Dr. Taub , using his experience as a plastic surgeon , gains Kenny 's and his father 's trust and frequently clashes with House on the diagnosis . House believes Kenny is suffering juvenile rheumatoid arthritis while Taub believes it is merely the side effects of increased intracranial pressure . By persuading Kenny 's father not to follow House 's treatment and by attempting to kick him off the case , House fires Taub , only to have his decision reversed by Cuddy . Ultimately both House and Taub are proven wrong when Thirteen realizes Kenny is suffering Lyme disease , with the telltale rash hidden by his hair . Incensed by Taub 's actions , House begins to dig into his life , and gets him to confess that he resigned his old position as a plastic surgeon because he was discovered having a secret affair with his nurse . He signed a non @-@ compete agreement with his former partners in exchange for their keeping quiet about the affair , effectively blackballing him out of his area of expertise .
In the end Taub is not fired , but Dr. Terzi is let go and House 's request for a date is turned down . Cuddy and House watch an early cut of the documentary , which has been edited to portray House as a compassionate , sympathetic doctor . House is aghast and leaves the room , questioning whether he can still trust Michael Moore movies . The documentary continues , revealing that the surgery was successful , and that Kenny thanks Dr. House .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Sean Whitesell , who had previously worked as co @-@ executive producer on the series . To date , this is the only House episode Whitesell has written . The episode became the second House episode to be directed by David Straiton , who had previously directed " Family " . " Ugly " featured the second appearance of Dr. Samira Terzi ( Michael Michele ) , who made her first appearance in " Whatever it Takes " . Michele had previously played a doctor named Cleo Finch on the medical drama ER . Omar Epps , who stars in House as Dr. Eric Foreman , also starred on ER , but two years before Michele . As usual , the filming took place on the Fox lot in Century City . This episode contained the song ' My home is your head ' by Joseph Arthur .
= = Reception = =
The episode was the eighth most @-@ watched program of the week along with NBC 's Sunday Night Football , with 11 @.@ 4 million viewers , it received a 17 share in the ratings . Overall , the episode was well received by critics . Nina Hämmerling Smith of TV Guide quoted : " Perhaps the best thing about the episode was the amount of screen time given to old favorites like Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) and Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) . The show 's most convincing writing has always been in the scenes when those two spar with House , and I was thrilled to see more of that " . Most critics were surprised and interested by the performance of Chris Taub in this episode . Richard Keller of TV Squad , wrote that he was almost certain of the fact that Taub was going to be fired and he was glad that he wasn 't . He also quoted , " For some reason I like Taub . Maybe because he 's not pretty like the rest of them . He 's just an everyday schlub who 's a pretty decent doctor " .
Buzz Byrne from Critics rant called Taub , " interesting " . James Chamberlin of IGN did not think that the black and white documentary really worked for him , and when it was over he didn 't feel like he had just watched an episode of House . Chamberlin graded the episode with a 7 @.@ 7 . Michelle Romero , of Entertainment Weekly commented " I loved it when House told his crew that she Dr. Terzi got the gig because she had more experience than the swimsuit model " . Television without Pity graded the episode with a B- ( out of 84 votes ) . According to Glen L. Diaz , of BuddyTV , various fans think that the smile on Cuddy 's face at the end of the episode explains everything about how she thinks of House . Peter Jacobson submitted the episode for a Primetime Emmy Award on his behalf in the category Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . Sean Whitesell submitted the episode on his behalf in the category Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series . Neither nomination came through .
= The Care Bears ' Big Wish Movie =
The Care Bears ' Big Wish Movie is a 2005 children 's animated feature film , produced by Nelvana Limited and released by Lions Gate Home Entertainment . Directed by Larry Jacobs and Ron Pitts , and written by Jeffrey Alan Schechter , the film is a follow @-@ up to the Care Bears ' previous efforts in 2004 's Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot . It was the fifth film to feature the Bears , and the second to be computer @-@ animated .
The Big Wish Movie centres on Wish Bear , a Care Bear who can make and grant wishes . After some of them do not work , she feels worried that the other bears have overlooked her abilities , and wishes for a few new friends who care more than she does . Those three — Messy Bear , Me Bear and Too Loud Bear — cause further trouble for Wish Bear , her wishing star Twinkers , and all of Care @-@ a @-@ lot .
As with Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , Toronto 's Nelvana produced and self @-@ financed the Big Wish Movie ; additional work was handled by India 's Crest Animation Productions . Production involved various personnel from the previous film , among them Ron Pitts , composer Ian Thomas and various voice actors including Stephanie Beard , Stevie Vallance and Julie Lemieux . The Big Wish Movie was released on DVD by Lions Gate on October 18 , 2005 ; prior to this , it premiered on U.S. and Canadian television , and was accompanied by a tie @-@ in book from Scholastic Press . It subsequently received favourable reviews from Parenting magazine and the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette . This was Nelvana 's final production with the Care Bears , before SD Entertainment of California assumed responsibility for future instalments in the franchise .
= = Plot = =
This movie starts when , atop the roof of an observatory at their cloud @-@ filled home of Care @-@ a @-@ lot , the Care Bears hear Wish Bear 's story of how she ( as a Cub ) found her new friend , a wishing star named Twinkers . The Care Bears are touched by this tale , but are a bit worried when she uses Twinkers ' inherent power to wish them all some popcorn . Cheer Bear raises concern that this may be a frivolous use of Twinkers ' power . Wish Bear , however , assures everyone that she is a trained professional .
The next day , Wish Bear uses the wishing power to help her friends . She wishes for plenty of rainbow sap for Share Bear , and for Grumpy Bear 's rocket to have " zoom " , but the wishes backfire when the sap overflows and the rocket spins out of control .
A monthly meeting of Care @-@ a @-@ lot 's steering committee ( with Champ Bear presiding ) reveals a problem with the Caring Meter . The machine , which measures how much caring there is in Care @-@ a @-@ lot , has moved towards the raincloud side . Wish Bear suggests using her wishes , but is rejected since not all of them work as intended ; they didn 't like their wishes ( " I Wish " ) . Disappointed , she decides to wish for other bears who like wishing as much as she does . This causes three new bears to arrive in Care @-@ a @-@ lot : Me Bear , Messy Bear , and Too Loud Bear .
Everyone is pleased to welcome the new neighbours at first , but things soon get out of control . The new bears unwittingly make a huge mess of everything ( especially when the huge mansion they asked for causes pollution ) . Then , after a confrontation with them at a picnic ( " Get a Lot " ) Wish Bear accidentally wishes Twinkers away to the new bears ; they soon abuse the star 's power with an amusement park focusing on Me Bear , a mud pie for Messy Bear , and a huge noisy motorcycle for Too Loud Bear . Once the new bears finally realise their problem , they try to fix it with more wishes , but to no avail — Care @-@ a @-@ lot becomes a blank white space ( wishing that all of this was gone ) , the bears begin to glow in color ( wishing for everything to be back how it was , but with more color ) , Grumpy Bear turns black and white ( wishing for less color ) , and Messy Bear turns into Messy Cub ( wishing for everything to be like it used to be ) . When they try to wish Twinkers back to Wish Bear , the star ultimately loses his power from exhaustion ( because they had been pushing him much too hard ) . Wish Bear uses Grumpy Bear 's rocket to bring him to the Big Wish , a grandmother star , in the sky . Big Wish restores his power , but not before Wish Bear assures her that she has learned her lesson , which is wishing is fun , but it is far more important to work hard to achieve your dreams .
Wish Bear tells them that wishes are not an effective solution any more , and everyone works together to make their home beautiful again ( " It Takes You and Me " ) . In the end , Me Bear , Messy Bear , and Too Loud Bear , having seen the error of their ways , apologize and ask if they can still live in Care @-@ a @-@ lot . The rest of the bears agree , and decide to go on a road trip , and the movie ends .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
As with 2004 's Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , The Care Bears ' Big Wish Movie was self @-@ financed by the Nelvana studios in Toronto , Ontario . The second computer @-@ animated production with the Care Bears , it is also the franchise 's fifth feature instalment . Director Larry Jacobs had previously worked on another Nelvana venture , a public television series entitled Cyberchase . Mike Fallows , the director of Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , served as the supervising director . The film featured various voices from Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , among them Stephanie Beard , Julie Lemieux , Stevie Vallance , Robert Tinkler , Andrew Sabiston and Scott McCord . Animation was handled by Nelvana in Canada , and Crest Animation Productions in India . Big Wish marked the last time Nelvana embarked on a Care Bears project ; from 2006 onward , the California @-@ based SD Entertainment was responsible for future animated fare with these characters , starting with Oopsy Does It ! in 2007 .
= = Release = =
The Care Bears ' Big Wish Movie first aired on Canadian television on October 3 , 2005 ; in the United States , it premiered on cable television 's Disney Channel on October 17 . The day after the U.S. premiere , it became one of Lions Gate Home Entertainment 's five direct @-@ to @-@ DVD " marquee " offerings for young viewers ; restaurant chain Burger King served as the promotional partner . Twice during 2005 , Stephanie Beard ( the voice of Wish Bear ) promoted the film in the Toronto Star under the alias Suga Baybee ; in October , she proclaimed that it " is going to be a classic " . The film charted on Video Business ' Top Kids Rentals list for January 23 , 2006 , where it ranked 20th . On August 11 , 2007 , it placed seventh on Billboard 's Top Kid DVD Sales chart . Jeffrey Alan Schechter , the film 's writer , was nominated for a Writers Guild of Canada Award . The film is known under two French @-@ language titles : À vos souhaits les Calinours ! ( in Canada 's Quebec province ) and De Nouveaux Arrivants chez les Bisounours ( in France ) .
Days before the release of the Big Wish Movie , Scholastic Press published a Care Bears storybook based on the film ; it was written by Sonia Sander and illustrated by Jay Johnson . One scene in the book involves Wish Bear and the three new Bears grocery shopping ; this does not appear in the film . Later in the book , when Messy Bear wishes for everything to be like it used to be , it causes the Bears to travel back to the age of the dinosaurs ; in the film , Twinkers just turns Messy Bear into Messy Cub .
Bruce Kluger of Parenting magazine referred to the Big Wish Movie as " Cute stuff , if a tad sticky @-@ sweet : Heart @-@ shaped toothbrushes , toasters , and waffles abound . " Cristina Rouvalis of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette gave it three stars out of four , and said that " Young Care Bear fanatics will wish for more . " In April 2010 's Journal of Aging Studies , Sylvia Henneberg commented that Big Wish , the grandmother star , served as " a poor substitute for a truly three @-@ dimensional maternal figure " .
= = Music = =
The music for the Big Wish Movie was composed by Ian Thomas ( also from Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot ) , and conducted and orchestrated by Peter Cardinali . At his studio , Thomas worked with the Hamilton Children 's Choir on the film 's opening theme . In February 2005 , Stephanie Beard said that " I Wish " , a track she performed , " is my favourite cartoon song yet . It 's so cute ; I can 't wait for the world to hear it . "
= International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry =
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC , / ˈaɪjuːpæk / or / ˈjuːpæk / ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries . It is a member of the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . The international headquarters of IUPAC is in Zürich , Switzerland . The administrative office , known as the " IUPAC Secretariat " , is in Research Triangle Park , North Carolina , United States . This administrative office is headed by IUPAC 's executive director , currently Lynn Soby .
IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry . Its members , the National Adhering Organizations , can be national chemistry societies , national academies of sciences , or other bodies representing chemists . There are fifty @-@ four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations . IUPAC 's Inter @-@ divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols ( IUPAC nomenclature ) is the recognized world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and compounds . Since its creation , IUPAC has been run by many different committees with different responsibilities . These committees run different projects which include standardizing nomenclature , finding ways to bring chemistry to the world , and publishing works .
IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry and other fields of science , but IUPAC has publications in many fields including chemistry , biology and physics . Some important work IUPAC has done in these fields includes standardizing nucleotide base sequence code names ; publishing books for environmental scientists , chemists , and physicists ; and improving education in science . IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees , the Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights .
= = Creation and history = =
The need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz . This committee was the first international conference to create an international naming system for organic compounds . The ideas that were formulated in that conference evolved into the official IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry . IUPAC stands as a legacy of this meeting , making it one of the most important historical international collaborations of chemistry societies . Since this time , IUPAC has been the official organization held with the responsibility of updating and maintaining official organic nomenclature . IUPAC as such was established in 1919 . One notable country excluded from this early IUPAC is Germany . Germany 's exclusion was a result of prejudice towards Germans by the Allied powers after World War I. Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC during 1929 . However , Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC during World War II .
During World War II , IUPAC was affiliated with the Allied powers , but had little involvement during the war effort itself . After the war , East and West Germany were eventually readmitted to IUPAC . Since World War II , IUPAC has been focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science without interruption .
= = Committees and governance = =
IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities . The committees are as follows : Bureau , CHEMRAWN ( Chem Research Applied to World Needs ) Committee , Committee on Chemistry Education , Committee on Chemistry and Industry , Committee on Printed and Electronic Publications , Evaluation Committee , Executive Committee , Finance Committee , Interdivisional Committee on Terminology , Nomenclature and Symbols , Project Committee , and Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board . Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries .
The steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows :
All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere .
Any committee may start a project .
If a project 's spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding , it must take the issue to the Project Committee .
The project committee either increases the budget or decides on an external funding plan .
The Bureau and Executive Committee oversee operations of the other committees
= = Nomenclature = =
IUPAC committee has a long history of officially naming organic and inorganic compounds . IUPAC nomenclature is developed so that any compound can be named under one set of standardized rules to avoid duplicate names . The first publication , which is information from the International Congress of Applied Chemistry , on IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds , can be found from the early 20th century in A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds ( 1900 ) .
= = = Organic nomenclature = = =
IUPAC organic nomenclature has three basic parts : the substituents , carbon chain length and chemical ending . The substituents are any functional groups attached to the main carbon chain . The main carbon chain is the longest possible continuous chain . The chemical ending denotes what type of molecule it is . For example , the ending ane denotes a single bonded carbon chain , as in " hexane " ( C
6H
14 ) .
Another example of IUPAC organic nomenclature is cyclohexanol :
The substituent name for a ring compound is cyclo .
The indication ( substituent name ) for a six carbon chain is hex .
The chemical ending for a single bonded carbon chain is ane
The chemical ending for an alcohol is ol
The two chemical endings are combined for an ending of anol indicating a single bonded carbon chain with an alcohol attached to it .
= = = Inorganic nomenclature = = =
Basic IUPAC inorganic nomenclature has two main parts : the cation and the anion . The cation is the name for the positively charged ion and the anion is the name for the negatively charged ion .
An example of IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is potassium chlorate ( KClO3 ) :
" Potassium " is the cation name .
" Chlorate " is the anion name .
= = Amino acid and nucleotide base codes = =
IUPAC also has a system for giving codes to identify amino acids and nucleotide bases . IUPAC needed a coding system that represented long sequences of amino acids . This would allow for these sequences to be compared to try to find homologies . These codes can consist of either a one letter code or a three letter code .
These codes make it easier and shorter to write down the amino acid sequences that make up proteins . The nucleotide bases are made up of purines ( adenine and guanine ) and pyrimidines ( cytosine and thymine or uracil ) . These nucleotide bases make up DNA and RNA . These nucleotide base codes make the genome of an organism much smaller and easier to read .
The codes for amino acids ( 24 amino acids and three special codes ) are :
= = Publications = =
= = = Non @-@ series books = = =
= = = Experimental Thermodynamics book series = = =
The Experimental Thermodynamics books series covers many topics in the fields of thermodynamics .
= = = Series of books on analytical and physical chemistry of environmental systems = = =
= = = Colored cover book and website series ( nomenclature ) = = =
IUPAC color code their books in order to make each publication distinguishable .
= = International Year of Chemistry = =
IUPAC and UNESCO were the lead organizations coordinating events for the International Year of Chemistry , which took place in 2011 . The International Year of Chemistry was originally proposed by IUPAC at the general assembly in Turin , Italy . This motion was adopted by UNESCO at a meeting in 2008 . The main objectives of the International Year of Chemistry were to increase public appreciation of chemistry and gain more interest in the world of chemistry . This event is also being held to encourage young people to get involved and contribute to chemistry . A further reason for this event being held is to honour how chemistry has made improvements to everyone 's way of life .
= William the Silent ( statue ) =
A bronze statue of William the Silent ( also known as Willie the Silent and Still Bill ) was installed in 1928 on the Voorhees Mall section of Rutgers University 's College Avenue Campus in New Brunswick , New Jersey . It is located along Seminary Place , a street at the western end of the Voorhees Mall , and is near several academic buildings , including the university 's Graduate School of Education , Van Dyke Hall , and Milledoler Hall .
The statue was donated to Rutgers by Dr. Fenton B. Turck to commemorate the university 's Dutch heritage . Turck , with the assistance of railroad executive and Rutgers alumnus Leonor F. Loree , collaborated to arrange the anonymous donation of the statue through the Holland Society of New York . It is a statue of William I , Prince of Orange ( 1533 @-@ 1584 ) , an early leader of the Dutch revolt against Habsburg Spain which led to the independence of the Netherlands in 1648 . The statue has continued to be included in student life as the Voorhees Mall was used as the site of student and community events , including graduation ceremonies , pep rallies , festivals , and protests . Occasionally , the statue is a target of vandalism in an ongoing historical rivalry between students of Rutgers and Princeton University . The statue was restored in 2006 in an effort funded by alumni donations .
= = History = =
= = = Acquisition and installation = = =
While travelling in Europe after World War I , biologist and physician Dr. Fenton Benedict Turck ( 1857 – 1932 ) purchased a bronze statue of William I ( 1533 – 1584 ) , Count of Nassau , Prince of Orange , and national hero of the Netherlands . William , known as " William the Silent " ( Dutch : Willem de Zwijger ) and " William of Orange " ( Dutch : Willem van Oranje ) , was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years ' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648 . For this reason , William is
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26 to June 13 , the team posted a 14 – 4 record , starting their run with a 15 – 6 win over the Astros and ended with a 20 – 2 win over the Cardinals , as their record reached a first @-@ half high of 13 games over .500 at 41 – 28 . However , the offense took a downturn as the Phillies pitchers began to sacrifice more runs in the latter part of the month . The Phillies went 3 – 11 over the remainder of June , as the pitchers allowed an average of 4 @.@ 79 runs per game , compared to the offense 's 3 @.@ 36 runs scored per game . This was punctuated by a season @-@ high six @-@ game losing streak . The poor records coincided with the Phillies ' stretch of interleague play for 2008 , as they were swept by the Angels , and lost their series with the Red Sox , A 's , and Rangers , in addition to dropping two NL series against the Cardinals and Marlins . While Hamels and Kyle Kendrick each managed to post a 3 – 1 record in the rotation , the other starters ( Moyer , Adam Eaton , and Brett Myers ) were not so lucky . Myers ' poor performance received arguably the most scrutiny , based on management 's decision to move him back to the rotation from the bullpen after the 2007 season . Myers would eventually accept an option to Triple @-@ A to work on his mechanical issues and confidence .
= = = = July = = = =
July began with the announcement that Chase Utley and Brad Lidge would represent the team at the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game ; Utley garnered the most votes of all National League players . Pat Burrell was also selected as a " Final Vote " candidate , but lost out on the opportunity for his first All @-@ Star appearance to Milwaukee outfielder Corey Hart . The Phillies went 8 – 5 in July before the All @-@ Star break , compiling a four @-@ game win streak , a four @-@ game losing streak , and winning four of their last five . The team posted a sweep of the Braves , a series loss to the Mets , and series wins over the Cardinals and the Diamondbacks .
In a move to bolster their starting rotation in preparation for the pennant race , the Phillies traded three minor league players , including second baseman Adrian Cardenas , pitcher Josh Outman , and outfielder Matthew Spencer to the Oakland Athletics for starting pitcher Joe Blanton on July 17 . The move would prove necessary , as Blanton 's start was the only game of their next series against the Mets that the Phillies would win ; bullpen pitchers earned the victory ( Chad Durbin ) or suffered the loss ( Ryan Madson and Romero ) in each game of the series . The Phillies managed to go 7 – 5 after the All @-@ Star break within their own division , dropping series to the Marlins and Mets , but besting the Braves and sweeping the Nationals . Brad Lidge posted a save in six straight Phillies wins , and the team ended the month on a five @-@ game winning streak , with a final record of 15 – 10 .
= = = = August = = = =
The Phillies opened August by taking two of three from the Cardinals , though they followed that by dropping a series to the Marlins . On August 7 , the Phillies acquired left @-@ handed reliever Scott Eyre from the Cubs . After taking two of three from the Pittsburgh Pirates , the Phillies went west for their first trip to Dodger Stadium , dropping three consecutive games to the Los Angeles Dodgers . The first game saw the team sacrifice a 7 @-@ run lead that they could not overcome , and the second two of the series were both blown by the bullpen . The Dodgers ' sweep in Los Angeles was completed as the Phillies dropped the last game of the series , leaving them out of first place in the division . However , the Phillies struck back , taking two of three from both the Padres and the Nationals , and completing a revenge sweep of the Dodgers at Citizens Bank Park . The following evening , the Phillies saw starter Jamie Moyer give up seven runs over the first three innings of their game against the Mets . However , the offense made up that deficit by scoring the tying run in the ninth ; catcher Chris Coste capped the comeback by going four @-@ for @-@ four coming off of the bench and driving in the winning run with a bases @-@ loaded single to deep center in the bottom of the 13th inning . They ended up splitting the short series with the Mets and the next four @-@ game series against the Cubs to close out the " dog days " of summer .
= = = = September = = = =
With a nearly @-@ full slate of division rivals in the final month , the Phillies opened by dropping series to the Nationals and Marlins , with a 2 – 1 series win over division leaders New York between the two losses . However , they pushed back into contention on the back of strong pitching , sweeping the Brewers over a four @-@ game set while allowing only eight runs . Brett Myers ' return to the rotation in late July bolstered the strength of the Phillies ' starters toward the end of the season ; he boasted a 7 – 2 record and a 1 @.@ 80 ERA from his return until September 15 . Taking their winning ways south to Atlanta , the Phillies completed a series sweep of the Braves ; the Phillies also swept the Braves at Turner Field for the season and handed the Braves franchise its first nine @-@ game home losing streak against a single team since 1909 . With an 8 – 4 win over the Washington Nationals on September 26 , the Phillies secured their first 90 @-@ win season since 1993 . The next day , the Phillies clinched the NL East Division title for the second consecutive season , beating the Nationals by a score of 4 – 3 . Jamie Moyer contributed a one @-@ run , six @-@ hit performance over six innings and Jayson Werth led off the fifth inning with a home run . They won the division title as Brad Lidge earned his 41st consecutive save on a game @-@ ending double play . Having gone an entire season without losing a save opportunity , Lidge was recognized as 2008 's National League Comeback Player of the Year .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = = National League East = = = =
= = = = Record vs. opponents = = = =
= = = Game log = = =
= = = Roster = = =
All players who made an appearance for the Phillies during 2008 are included .
= = Postseason = =
= = = National League Division Series = = =
Following their four @-@ game sweep of Milwaukee in the beginning of September , the Phillies recorded their first playoff win since their 1993 World Series appearance on October 1 , defeating the Brewers in Game 1 . Cole Hamels was the victor , earning his first career playoff win . Hamels allowed no runs and two hits over his eight innings of work . Chase Utley batted in two runs , while Ryan Howard walked three times in the game . In Game 2 , Shane Victorino 's grand slam was all the run support starter Brett Myers needed , as he pitched seven innings and allowed only two runs . The Phillies ' second consecutive victory was also supported by a pair of doubles from Victorino and from Jayson Werth . In a reversal of fortune , the Brewers scored two runs in the first inning of Game 3 , and it proved to be enough to win the game . Brewers starter Dave Bush and closer Salomón Torres were able to hold off the Phillies despite a rally in the top of the ninth inning , keeping the Brewers alive for Game 4 . However , the Phillies defeated the Brewers in Game 4 at Miller Park to win the series , 3 – 1 . Jimmy Rollins , Jayson Werth and Pat Burrell all hit solo home runs , and Burrell contributed a three @-@ run homer as well . Joe Blanton struck out seven Brewers , holding the team to one run on five hits through six innings .
= = = = Box scores = = = =
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
= = = National League Championship Series = = =
Facing off against the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS for the fourth time in history , Derek Lowe stifled the Phillies ' offense for the first five innings of Game 1 ; however , the Phillies came from behind to score three runs in the sixth on home runs by Utley and Burrell . Hamels followed his stellar NLDS performance with a seven @-@ inning , two @-@ run outing , and Brad Lidge earned his 44th consecutive save in 2008 . Manny Ramírez ' home run could not overcome the Phillies ' potent offense in Game 2 , who scored four runs in both the second and third innings to win the game , 8 – 5 . Starting pitcher Brett Myers was 3 for 3 at the plate , driving in three runs to help his own cause . He was supported by two @-@ hit performances from Victorino and Greg Dobbs , who started at third base . Tensions escalated the following night in the third inning . After a beanball and a throw @-@ behind by the Phillies in the previous game and no retaliation from the Dodgers , Los Angeles starter Hiroki Kuroda threw a fastball up and in to Shane Victorino , narrowly missing his head . Victorino gestured angrily , warning Kuroda to throw at other parts of his body , but not his head . This soon escalated to clearing the benches , and the Dodgers rode their momentum to the end of the game , defeating the Phillies 7 – 2 after posting five runs in the first inning . The Phillies staged another comeback in the following game . Down 5 – 3 in the eighth inning , two home runs by Shane Victorino and pinch @-@ hitter Matt Stairs plated four runs and put the Dodgers in a hole out of which they could not climb ; the Phillies won the game 7 – 5 . In the first decisions of the series for either bullpen , right @-@ handed reliever Ryan Madson got the win for Philadelphia , while Cory Wade suffered the loss for Los Angeles . Dodgers fans were hoping for a comeback in game five ; however , Jimmy Rollins started the contest with a leadoff homer off of Chad Billingsley , who was forced out of the game in the third inning because of a pair of Phillies runs . Philadelphia added two runs on a trio of Rafael Furcal errors in the fifth . Ramírez did bring the Dodger Stadium crowd to life with a solo homer in the bottom of the sixth , but the Dodgers never threatened after that . The Phillies won the series in five games ; winning pitcher Cole Hamels was named the series Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . Thus , the Phillies advanced to the World Series for the first time since 1993 .
= = = = Box scores = = = =
Game 1
Game 2
Game 3
Game 4
Game 5
= = = 2008 World Series = = =
The Phillies played in their first Fall Classic in fifteen years , which began on October 22 against the Tampa Bay Rays . The first two games were played at Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg , followed by three games at Citizens Bank Park . The Rays had home field advantage for the series , due to an American League victory in the 2008 All @-@ Star Game . The Phillies defeated Tampa Bay , four games to one . Starting pitcher Cole Hamels ( 4 – 0 , 1 @.@ 80 ERA , 30 K in the postseason ) was named the series MVP .
= = = = Game 1 = = = =
Philadelphia scored the first runs of the series when Chase Utley hit a home run with Jayson Werth on base in the top of the first inning . Tampa Bay loaded the bases in the bottom of the third inning ; however , Upton grounded into an inning @-@ ending double play and the score remained 2 – 0 . The Phillies extended their lead when Carlos Ruiz batted in Victorino in the fourth inning . A solo home run from Carl Crawford pulled the Rays back within two runs . Tampa Bay added their second run the following inning on an RBI double by Akinori Iwamura . Philadelphia starter Cole Hamels pitched seven innings and allowed only two runs , while Brad Lidge recorded his 47th consecutive save in 2008 .
= = = = Game 2 = = = =
Tampa starter James Shields shut down the Phillies lineup , scattering seven hits and allowing no runs in 5 ⅔ innings of work . Outfielder B. J. Upton ( 2 for 4 , one run scored , one RBI ) and catcher Dioner Navarro ( 2 for 3 , one run scored ) led the offensive charge for the Rays as Brett Myers gave up four runs ( three earned ) while notching two strikeouts and three walks . Rather than power @-@ hitting Matt Stairs , Charlie Manuel opted to go with Greg Dobbs as the DH ; Dobbs was 1 for 3 for the Phillies , while Victorino and Howard supplied two hits each . Cliff Floyd extended the Rays ' lead to four runs after leading off the bottom of the fourth inning with a single , advancing to third base , and scoring on a Jason Bartlett sacrifice bunt . The Phillies ' loss tied the series at 1 – 1 .
= = = = Game 3 = = = =
After a 91 @-@ minute rain delay , the offenses fought back and forth , scoring run after run in an up @-@ and @-@ down affair in Philadelphia . Ryan Howard ended his home run drought , hitting his first round @-@ tripper since the end of September . Chase Utley and Carlos Ruiz also hit home runs for the Phillies , while Carl Crawford and Dioner Navarro contributed a double each for the Rays . Philadelphia starter Jamie Moyer turned in his first strong performance of the post @-@ season , allowing three runs over 6 ⅓ innings . His counterpart Matt Garza allowed four runs over six innings , but neither would factor in the decision . After the Rays tied the game in the top of the eighth , the Phillies loaded the bases on two intentional walks with Eric Bruntlett on third base . Even with a five @-@ man infield , Ruiz was still able to engineer some late @-@ game heroics , sneaking a dribbling ground ball down the third base line to score Bruntlett . Philadelphia took a 2 – 1 series lead .
= = = = Game 4 = = = =
The Phillies ' offensive woes seemed in the distant past as the lineup broke out in a big way during Game 4 . Led by Ryan Howard 's 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 , 2 home run performance , and home runs by Jayson Werth and starting pitcher Joe Blanton , the Phillies pushed 10 runs across the plate . Blanton became the first World Series pitcher to hit a home run in 34 years , in addition to a strong performance on the mound , pitching six innings and allowing two earned runs on four hits . Roster addition Eric Hinske hit a home run for the Rays , as did left fielder Carl Crawford , his second of the series .
= = = = Game 5 = = = =
Philadelphia scored in the first inning for the third consecutive game , taking a 2 – 0 lead when Shane Victorino and Pedro Feliz batted in Jayson Werth and Pat Burrell respectively . Tampa Bay cut the lead in half in the fourth inning ; Carlos Peña doubled and was batted in on Evan Longoria 's single , both players ' first hits of the Series . The Rays then tied the game in the sixth inning when B. J. Upton scored from second base on a Peña single . The game was suspended after the top of the sixth inning due to rain , making it the first game in World Series history to not be played through to completion or declared a tie .
After the game was suspended , home plate umpire Tim Tschida told reporters that he and his crew ordered the players off the field because the wind and rain threatened to make the game " comical " . Chase Utley agreed , saying that by the middle of the sixth inning , " the infield was basically underwater . " Rain continued to fall in Philadelphia on Tuesday , further postponing the game to Wednesday .
Under normal conditions , games are considered to be official games after five innings , or four and a half if the home team is leading at that point . However , both Rays and Phillies management knew before the first pitch that Commissioner Bud Selig , who is responsible for the scheduling of post @-@ season games , would not allow a team to clinch the Series by winning a rain @-@ shortened game . Thus , the game resumed on October 29 in the middle of the sixth inning at Citizens Bank Park , with the Phillies batting in the bottom of the sixth inning . Pinch hitter Geoff Jenkins led off with a double and was bunted to third by Rollins . Batting third , Jayson Werth batted in Jenkins to give the Phillies the lead , 3 – 2 . Rocco Baldelli re @-@ tied the game at three runs with a solo home run in the top of the seventh inning , but Jason Bartlett was thrown out at home to end the inning on a fake throw @-@ over by Utley , who could not get the ball to first in time to catch the speedy Akinori Iwamura . In the bottom of the seventh , Pat Burrell led off with a double ; Eric Bruntlett entered as a pinch runner and scored on a hit by Pedro Feliz to put the Phillies up by a run again . Brad Lidge gave up a single and a stolen base but struck out Eric Hinske for the final out , sealing the Phillies ' first World Series championship since the 1980 World Series , and the city 's first major sports championship in 25 years .
= = = Breaking the curse = = =
The alleged curse of Billy Penn was sometimes used to explain the failure of professional sports teams based in Philadelphia to win championships . In March 1987 , One Liberty Place , a 945 @-@ foot ( 288 m ) tall skyscraper , opened three blocks from the 548 ft ( 167 m ) high statue of William Penn atop Philadelphia City Hall . For many decades , a gentlemen 's agreement stated that the Philadelphia Art Commission would approve no building in the city that would rise above this statue . The supposed curse had gained such prominence in Philadelphia that a documentary film entitled The Curse of William Penn was produced about it .
The curse ended on October 29 , 2008 when the Phillies won the World Series , a year and four months after a statuette of the William Penn figure atop City Hall was affixed to the final beam put in place during the June 2007 topping @-@ off of the Comcast Center , then the tallest building in the city .
= = Awards = =
The 2008 team won the Commissioner 's Trophy for its World Series title and the Warren C. Giles Trophy as National League champions . It was also named " Team of the Year " by the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association and received the Pride of Philadelphia Award from the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame . In 2009 , the Philadelphia Sports Congress presented the team with the John Wanamaker Athletic Award . In May 2009 , the team was recognized at the White House .
Starter Cole Hamels received the NLCS and World Series MVP awards . He also received the Babe Ruth Award from the New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) .
Closer Brad Lidge was named the Major League Baseball Comeback Player of the Year and the DHL Delivery Man of the Year for his perfect 48 @-@ for @-@ 48 performance throughout the 2008 regular season and postseason . He also received the Rolaids NL Relief Man Award , the Sporting News NL Reliever of the Year Award , the Philadelphia Sports Writers Association ( PSWA ) Outstanding Pro Athlete award , and the Daily News Sportsperson of the Year award .
Shortstop Jimmy Rollins and center fielder Shane Victorino were honored by Rawlings with Gold Gloves , honoring their defense in 2008 . Rollins also received the Fielding Bible Award for shortstop . Rollins posted a fielding percentage of .988 , compiling 193 putouts and 393 assists while making only seven errors ; Victorino 's fielding percentage was even higher , at .994 , notching 7 assists from the outfield along with 328 putouts .
Clean @-@ up hitter and first baseman Ryan Howard was named the recipient of the Babe Ruth Home Run Award ( in MLB ) and the Negro Baseball League Museum 's Josh Gibson Legacy Award , as the NL leader in home runs . Howard hit 48 home runs in 2008 , more than any other player in the National League . Howard also batted in 146 runs , and finished the regular season with 11 homers and 32 RBIs during September . Second baseman Chase Utley also won his third consecutive Silver Slugger Award , given annually to the best hitter in each league at his position .
Four of the This Year in Baseball Awards also went to the Phillies . Lidge was recognized as the Closer of the Year , while Utley won the Postseason Moment of the Year award for his fake throw to first base which allowed him to throw out Rays ' shortstop Jason Bartlett at home plate during the World Series . Manager Charlie Manuel and general manager Pat Gillick were also named Manager of the Year ( distinct from Major League Baseball 's Manager of the Year award ) and Executive of the Year , respectively , for their leadership of the 2008 team and for winning the World Series .
The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) presented its annual franchise awards to Brad Lidge ( " Mike Schmidt Most Valuable Player Award " ) , Cole Hamels ( " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher Award " ) , Jamie Moyer ( " Dallas Green Special Achievement Award " ) , and Greg Dobbs ( " Tug McGraw Good Guy Award " ) .
Shane Victorino also received the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award for displaying character and integrity both on and off the field .
Pat Gillick also received the ceremonial title of King of Baseball from Minor League Baseball , in recognition of longtime dedication and service to professional baseball .
= = Regular season player statistics = =
All statistics are current through the 2008 regular season .
= = = Key = = =
= = = Batting = = =
Note : G
= Games played ; AB =
At bats ; R
= Runs scored ; H =
Hits ; 2B
= Doubles ; 3B =
Triples ; HR
= Home runs ; RBI =
Runs batted in ; AVG
= Batting average ; SB =
Stolen bases
= = = Pitching = = =
Note : W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; ERA
= Earned run average ; G =
Games pitched ; GS
= Games started ; SV =
Saves ; IP
= Innings pitched ; R =
Runs allowed ; ER
= Earned runs allowed ; BB =
Walks allowed ; K = Strikeouts
= = Farm system = =
LEAGUE CHAMPIONS : GCL Phillies
= Keechaka Vadham =
Keechaka Vadham ( English : The Extermination of Keechaka ) alternatively spelt as Keechaka Vatham , is an Indian silent film produced , directed , filmed and edited by R. Nataraja Mudaliar . The film is based on an episode from the Hindu epic Mahabharata focusing on the characters Kichaka and Draupadi ; it stars Raju Mudaliar as Keechaka and Jeevarathnam as Draupadi , the female lead .
Keechaka Vadham was the first silent film made in South India . The film was shot in five weeks at Nataraja Mudaliar 's studio , India Film Company . Despite being a silent film , the cast members were from Tamil Nadu , hence it was also considered the first Tamil film . Keechaka Vadham received critical acclaim upon its release and went on to become a commercially successful venture . The film 's success prompted Nataraja Mudaliar to make a series of similar historical films . Because no print of the film is known to survive , this makes it a lost film .
= = Cast = =
Raju Mudaliar as Keechaka
Jeevarathnam as Draupadi
= = Production = =
Mooppanar , a wealthy landowner based in Thanjavur , had owned a Williamson 35mm camera and a printer purchased in England . R. Nataraja Mudaliar , then an automobile dealer in Madras , had taken the entire equipment from him at a price of less than ₹ 2 @,@ 000 , thereby making his debut in the film industry . Nataraja Mudaliar developed a passion for moving pictures after watching the films of Dadasaheb Phalke . At the time cinematographers from Britain were filming a documentary on Lord Curzon , then the Governor @-@ General and Viceroy of India . Nataraja Mudaliar got introduced to Stewart Smith , one of the cinematographers who worked in the documentary , and learned about the basics of photography in film @-@ making through him . This eventually led to Nataraja Mudaliar establishing his production house , India Film Company . He brought together some of his business associates , allowing them to invest in the production house , and established South India 's first film studio on Miller 's Road , Purasawalkam , Madras .
Nataraja Mudaliar sought the advice of his friend , Pammal Sambandha Mudaliar , one of the founding fathers of the Renaissance of Tamil Theatre , who suggested that he should picturise the story of the Mahabharata characters Draupadi and Kichaka . Some of Nataraja Mudaliar 's relatives objected to it as they felt that it was not a proper story for his debut venture . But Nataraja Mudaliar decided to proceed and launched his maiden film titled Keechaka Vadham , which was based on an episode from the Mahabharatha . The episode follows the attempts made by Keechaka , one of the generals of King Virata , to woo and marry Draupadi before she reports about it to Bhima , who kills him . Nataraja Mudaliar was not a writer , so he had to take assistance from his close friend C. Rangavadivelu , a lawyer by profession . Besides writing the screenplay , Rangavadivelu agreed to coach artistes on sets . Nataraja Mudaliar engaged stage actors Raja Mudaliar and Jeevarathnam to play the roles of Keechaka and Draupadi respectively . The total budget of the film was ₹ 35 @,@ 000 , which was then considered high .
According to film historian S. Muthiah , filming began in 1917 , and was shot in a span of five weeks . The entire film was shot at the India Film Company . The film 's intertitles were written in English , Tamil and Hindi . The Tamil intertitles were written by Pammal Sambandha Mudaliar while the Hindi intertitles were written by Mahatma Gandhi 's son Devdas Gandhi . Nataraja Mudaliar also handled the film 's production , cinematography and editing . Despite being a silent film , the cast was filled with Tamil people , hence it was considered the first Tamil film . The final length of the film was 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
= = Release and legacy = =
Keechaka Vadham was the first silent film made in South India . According to film historian Randor Guy , Nataraja Mudaliar established a film laboratory of his own in Bangalore to process the film negatives as there was no film laboratory in Madras . Nataraja Mudaliar believed that Bangalore 's colder climate " would be kind to his exposed film stock " . He processed the film negatives there each weekend and return on Monday morning to resume the film 's shooting .
According to Muthiah , Keechaka Vadham was released in January 1918 at the Elphinstone Theatre . He states that the film netted ₹ 50 @,@ 000 after being screened throughout India and in Burma , Ceylon , the Federated Malay States and Singapore resulting in a yield of ₹ 15 @,@ 000 , a " tidy profit in those days . " According to writer Firoze Rangoonwalla , a reviewer from The Mail rated the film 's success highly by commenting " It has been prepared with great care and is drawing full houses " . With the film 's critical and commercial success , Nataraja Mudaliar had " created history " . No print of it is known to survive , so it is considered a lost film .
The success of the film incited Nataraja Mudaliar to make a series of historical films such as Draupadi Vastrapaharanam ( 1918 ) , Lava Kusa ( 1919 ) , Shiv Leela ( 1919 ) , Rukmini Satyabhama ( 1922 ) and Mahi Ravana ( 1923 ) . In 1923 , the death of his son that occurred in a fire accident which also burnt up his entire studio led Nataraja Mudaliar to retire from filmmaking and close up shop . Nataraja Mudaliar is widely recognised as the father of Tamil cinema and his films helped in laying the foundation for the South Indian cinema industry . Nataraja Mudaliar 's work inspired Raghupathi Prakasa , son of Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu , later revered as the father of Telugu cinema , and J. C. Daniel , who was later revered as the father of Malayalam cinema .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
= = = Websites = = =
= USS Nebraska ( BB @-@ 14 ) =
USS Nebraska ( BB @-@ 14 ) was a Virginia @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy , the second of five members of the class , and the first ship to carry her name . She was built by the Moran Brothers shipyard in Seattle , Washington , with her keel laying in July 1902 and her launching in October 1904 . Slipping into the water eleven minutes ahead of schedule , her quick thinking sponsor , Mary Nain Mickey , the daughter of Nebraska state governor John H. Mickey , still managed to christen her before she slipped out of reach . The completed ship was commissioned into the US Navy in July 1907 . The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Nebraska joined the Great White Fleet after it reached the west coast of the United States in 1908 and continued with it during its circumnavigation of the globe . From 1909 to 1914 , the ship conducted normal training and ceremonial duties with the Atlantic Fleet . She was deployed twice to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution , in mid @-@ 1914 and mid @-@ 1916 , before being decommissioned briefly in 1916 . She was reactivated shortly before the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , and was thereafter used as a training ship and later as a convoy escort . After the war , she transported American soldiers back from France , and in 1919 she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet , though she remained in service for less than a year , being decommissioned in July 1920 . The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty mandated her disposal , which was effected in November 1923 , when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Nebraska was 441 feet 3 inches ( 134 @.@ 49 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 3 in ( 23 @.@ 24 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 948 long tons ( 15 @,@ 188 t ) as designed and up to 16 @,@ 094 long tons ( 16 @,@ 352 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 40 Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets ; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets , with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel . The 6 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twelve 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns , mounted in casemates along the side of the hull , and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Nebraska carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
Nebraska 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets ( and the secondary turrets on top of them ) had 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The conning tower had 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
= = = Pre @-@ World War I = = =
The keel for Nebraska was laid down at the Moran Brother 's Shipyard in Seattle , Washington on 4 July 1902 . She was launched on 7 October 1904 and was commissioned into the fleet on 1 July 1907 , the last member of the class to enter service . Her first commander was Captain Reginald F. Nicholson . After entering service , she conducted shakedown cruises and had minor alterations made . In May 1908 , she steamed to San Francisco , arriving on the 6th . There , she joined the Great White Fleet , which had departed Hampton Roads , Virginia , the previous year on the first leg of its global cruise . Nebraska replaced the battleship USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 8 ) , and the fleet departed San Francisco on 7 July .
The Great White Fleet then began its crossing of the Pacific , with a visit to Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland . After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt .
After the conclusion of the ceremonies , Nebraska remained in service with the Atlantic Fleet . In late 1909 she took part in the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York . The celebration saw an international fleet of warships from Germany , Britain , France , Italy , and other countries join the Atlantic Fleet to commemorate Henry Hudson 's discovery of the Hudson River . In 1912 , Nebraska took part in a ceremony for the centennial anniversary of Louisiana 's entrance into the United States . The ship was deployed to Mexico twice to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution , the first from 1 May to 21 June 1914 , and the second from 1 June to 13 October 1916 . For these actions , the ship was awarded the Mexican Service Medal . The ship was briefly decommissioned in 1916 , but returned to service on 3 April 1917 .
= = = World War I = = =
Three days after Nebraska was recommissioned , the United States declared war on Germany over the latter 's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign , thereby joining World War I. The ship was assigned to the 3rd Division , Battleship Force of the Atlantic Fleet , and on 13 April , she joined the rest of the fleet for battle training in the Chesapeake Bay . She remained on the eastern coast of the United States and was tasked with training guard crews for transport ships . On 15 April 1918 , she entered the Norfolk Navy Yard for periodic maintenance . On 16 May , Nebraska embarked the remains of the recently deceased Uruguayan ambassador , Carlos DePena , at Hampton Roads . She departed that day with the armored cruiser Pittsburgh — the flagship of the Pacific Fleet — and arrived in Montevideo , Uruguay on 10 June . The commander of the Pacific Fleet came aboard Nebraska for the transfer ceremonies . The two ships left Montevideo on 15 June and reached Hampton Roads on 26 July .
Starting in September , Nebraska began to be employed as an escort for convoys to Europe . On the 17th , she departed New York with convoy HX 49 , a group of eighteen ships ; the rest of the escort included the destroyer Dent and the armed merchant cruiser ( AMC ) Rochester , and the British AMC HMS Arlanza . At a rendezvous point in the eastern Atlantic , she handed the convoy off to other escorts that would take the ships to France . Nebraska arrived back in Hampton Roads on 3 October . She escorted another two convoys before the war ended in November 1918 . In December , she was equipped to carry American soldiers back from France . She made four such trips to Brest , France , and carried some 4 @,@ 540 men back to the United States . The first trip began on 30 December ; she reached Brest on 11 January 1919 and after embarking a contingent of soldiers , departed for Newport News , Virginia , where they arrived on 28 January . The fourth trip concluded on 21 June 1919 , also in Newport News .
On 22 June 1919 , Nebraska was transferred from the Cruiser and Transport Force to the Pacific Fleet . She departed the east coast shortly thereafter , bound for the Pacific . On 2 July 1920 , the ship was decommissioned , and on the 15th she was reclassified as BB @-@ 14 . She remained out of service until 12 July 1922 when she was stricken from the naval register in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty signed earlier that year . The terms of the treaty mandated significant reductions in naval strength , and on 9 November 1923 , Nebraska was declared to have been rendered unfit for further warlike service in accordance with the treaty . She was then sold to ship breakers .
= Rainie Cross =
Lorraine " Rainie " Cross is a fictional character from the BBC One soap opera EastEnders , played by Tanya Franks . Introduced as the drug @-@ addicted sister of Tanya Branning ( Jo Joyner ) , Franks has had three separate guest stints in 2007 ( two episodes ) , 2008 ( four episodes ) and 2010 ( seven episodes ) and between 12 April and 8 December 2011 . Rainie returned on 16 June 2014 , when she was revealed as Ian Beale 's ( Adam Woodyatt ) mystery phone contact , having been with Ian on Good Friday , the night of Lucy Beale 's murder .
Described as " the slightly broken sister who 's one step away from a vodka bottle " , Rainie 's storylines have often centred on her addictions to drugs and alcohol . During her seven episode guest stint in 2010 , Rainie was involved in a highly criticised crack cocaine storyline with Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) . It was branded " inappropriate " and " horrid " by the Daily Record . EastEnders star Natalie Cassidy ( who plays Sonia Fowler ) also criticised the storyline , saying she was " shocked " , but Franks defended the storyline , though she herself was not surprised that viewers had complained .
In January 2015 , it was confirmed that Rainie would return for the conclusion of the Lucy Beale murder storyline .
= = Storylines = =
= = = 2007 – 08 = = =
Rainie first appears at Tanya 's house claiming that she is no longer using drugs but Tanya catches her attempting to inject heroin and gives her a choice — take £ 500 and never see Tanya or her children again , or stay the night and get help with her problems . Rainie leaves with the money without Tanya noticing but ignores the ultimatum , returning the following year . Tanya is in an emotional state , having recently split from her husband Max Branning ( Jake Wood ) . Rainie returns the money to Tanya and says she is not using drugs , so Tanya allows her to stay but she tests positive for cannabis so Tanya asks her to leave .
= = = 2010 – 11 = = =
Rainie returns to Walford in 2010 and tells Max she is clean and sober , and asks Max for Tanya 's phone number . Tanya 's daughter , Abi Branning ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) , wants Rainie to stay and Max agrees . She steals money out of Max 's sister Carol Jackson 's ( Lindsey Coulson ) purse , which she uses to buy crack cocaine . Max catches her with the drugs and throws her out . She starts looking for her drugs where a drunken Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) approaches , finds Rainie 's crack cocaine and is tempted to try some after she says it helps her block out her memories . Phil and Rainie get high at Phil 's home . Rainie goes to get more drugs when Phil steals money from The Queen Victoria public house , but is mugged by a drug dealer . Phil 's girlfriend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) offers to help him get clean but throws Rainie out of the house , calling her pathetic .
In 2011 , Rainie returns to Tanya 's house as their mother , Cora Cross ( Ann Mitchell ) , is visiting . Rainie says she is now completely clean and is staying with Cora because her counsellor wants her to reconnect with her family . When Tanya and Greg Jessop ( Stefan Booth ) go on their honeymoon , Rainie looks after their house and meets Phil at R & R. They talk about their past but he tells her that he does not want to associate with her and leaves . She and Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) then get drunk together and later go to his flat and have sex . Jack rejects Rainie the following morning . Tanya and Greg return and see how much trouble Rainie has caused . She also causes trouble with Shirley so Tanya asks her to leave but Rainie persuades Tanya to let her stay , much to Greg 's disappointment . Rainie visits Jack 's wife Ronnie Branning ( Samantha Womack ) to find the knickers she supposedly left behind and taunts Ronnie , asking her to tell Jack to phone her , leading to her being kicked out again . She joins a support group to help her stay off drugs and alcohol which Phil also attends . Rainie struggles and calls her drug dealer but Phil catches Rainie with drugs and takes them from her , destroying them . She gets drunk and goes to Tanya 's salon , where Tanya takes her home . Greg throws her out after Tanya lies that Rainie tried to stab her . A few days later , Phil finds Rainie in the pub and Shirley catches them talking and wrongly assumes they are romantically involved but finds out that Phil has been sponsoring Rainie . Shirley almost gives Rainie a job in the café but changes her mind .
Rainie leaves Walford again but insists on her return that she is still not taking drugs . However , she faces several temptations by people offering her drugs , eventually buying some from Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) . When Phil finds out , he asks Ryan to not sell to Rainie again . Dot Branning ( June Brown ) takes pity on Rainie and helps her to clean herself up , telling her about drug addict Donna Ludlow ( Matilda Ziegler ) and giving her a Bible , which makes Rainie decide to change as she finds religion . Rainie apologises to Tanya for being rude to her earlier in the week , and Tanya agrees to let her stay with her and Greg . Rainie and Cora confide in one another when Rainie says Tanya treats her like a child . When it is revealed that Tanya had an affair with Max , Rainie nearly turns to drink , but stops herself . She gets a job at the R & R club , unaware that she only got it because her boss , Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) wanted to irritate Phil . The next week , Phil demands Janine sack Rainie and she agrees but Rainie later applies for a job as an office worker with Janine 's new property management business but Janine makes her a cleaner . When Phil is sent photos relating to an incident from his past , Rainie stops him turning to drink . Phil tells her about the incident and they start to kiss , but are interrupted by Pat Evans ( Pam St Clement ) . Rainie mentions the photos to Shirley , making Shirley think Rainie is sending them so she threatens Rainie , telling her to stop .
Rainie later discovers that Tanya has cervical cancer . Max returns with his brother , Derek ( Jamie Foreman ) , and Derek recognises Rainie from Max and Tanya 's wedding and is attracted to her , later mentioning that they had sex . Rainie demands to know why Tanya stopped her treatment and she explains that it did not work for their father and admits she helped him die , shattering Rainie and Cora . Though Tanya and Cora reconcile , Rainie is still angry , telling Tanya she hopes the cancer kills her . She sleeps rough , but then meets Derek and starts a sexual relationship him . When Rainie asks Tanya to apologise over their father but she refuses , as she does not regret it . Cora backs Tanya up and tells Rainie she is ashamed to be her mother so Rainie decides to leave for Tanya 's sake , though she apologises for her comments . She breaks up with Derek and leaves .
In October 2012 , Tanya and Max decide to remarry . Tanya wants Rainie to attend the wedding but doesn 't know where she is and asks Cora to track her down . With help from Jack , Cora manages to get in touch with Rainie and arranges to meet her at a pub , but upon arriving , Rainie has sent her sponsor Olivia ( Samantha Best ) , to the pub with a letter . Olivia explains that Rainie has been sober for 41 days and has a boyfriend . Rainie is pleased to have been invited to the wedding but declines to attend , stating that Cora is the reason for her alcohol and drug addictions , requesting that she will leave her alone from now on .
= = = 2014 – 15 = = =
For several weeks following the death of his daughter Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) , Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) receives texts and calls from " R " , all of which he ignores . After texting her to leave him alone , " R " comes to Walford and is revealed to be Rainie . She blackmails Ian , threatening to tell his fiancée Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) and son Peter Beale ( Ben Hardy ) that he was seeing her as a prostitute on Good Friday , the night of Lucy 's death . When Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) sees Rainie , she reveals what Ian has done , but he is unable to tell Denise when he suffers a stroke . Ian meets Rainie to tell her that he will not pay her anymore , but Mick Carter ( Danny Dyer ) catches Ian and pulls up behind him . Ian drives away so Rainie approaches Mick , thinking he is a customer . He rejects her but the police arrest him for soliciting a prostitute . To protect Ian , Mick pleads guilty . Rainie and Cora meet at the court , as Cora has come to support Linda Carter ( Kellie Bright ) . Cora confronts Rainie , and realises that she is the prostitute involved , and sees how low she has fallen and gives her money to fund her addiction so she can stop her prostitution . Ian tells Phil what has happened , so Phil pays Rainie , telling her to stop blackmailing Ian . Phil finds a flat for Rainie in Walford but she is thrown out by her landlord because of her prostitution . Phil takes Rainie to Cora to deal with her , so Cora lets Rainie live with her . Rainie tries to blackmail Mick into giving her more money but he insults and humiliates her . She then tells Denise about her night with Ian . Cora promises to help her get clean , but when she goes out , she returns to find Rainie gone and that she has stolen all her money . A flashback later reveals what happened between Rainie and Ian on the day Lucy died .
= = Development = =
= = = Introduction and characterisation = = =
The character originally appeared for two episodes on 2 and 3 August 2007 , and then returned for four episodes between 7 and 11 January 2008 . Franks was asked to return again later in 2008 but could not make it , so Franks thought Rainie would not be seen again . She returned for the longer stint in 2010 , starting on 3 August . Franks did not expect to be asked to return in 2010 , and said the call came as a surprise . She said it was " ideal " because it fitted in with another acting job she was undertaking at the time . She commented that Rainie would be " unlikely to return without stirring up a bit of trouble " . Rainie returned again on 12 April 2011 as a regular character , for Tanya 's wedding to Greg Jessop , along with Tanya and Rainie 's mother Cora , where Cora tries to build bridges between the sisters .
In April 2011 it was reported by The Sun that Rainie would have a one @-@ night stand with Jack Branning on 6 May 2011 after he discovers his son is dead and she comforts him . In May 2011 , it was announced that Cora would return to the series , and executive producer Bryan Kirkwood said he was " keen to establish the Cross women — Rainie completes the mix as the slightly broken sister who 's one step away from a vodka bottle . " Rainie has been described as " troublesome " and " troubled " . On her official BBC character profile she is described as sly , manipulative and ruthless , and that she " spells trouble with a capital T ! " . It finishes saying , " But behind the wild partying , Rainie is a lost soul with a soft , vulnerable side that yearns to get her life back on track and impress her older sister Tanya . "
= = = Notable relationships = = =
= = = = Phil Mitchell = = = =
Rainie 's relationship with Phil Mitchell ( McFadden ) was first explored during her stint in 2010 . Rainie and Phil were to be involved in a storyline involving the taking of crack cocaine . Discussing her return in 2010 , she said she was pleased to be working closely with McFadden as they had not worked together . Franks explained that after being thrown out of the house by Tanya 's ex @-@ husband Max , and moving in with Phil that , " it gets quite dark and dirty , really . Phil and Rainie are two people who meet at a point in their lives where they both see something equivalent in each other . He offers her something that she wants , and that is a place to be , while she has something that he wants , and that 's drugs — so it 's a match at that time . " Franks was given advice from the charity DrugScope on how to act the part and also undertook some of her own research , and she said she believed the scenes to be very realistic . She wanted the drugs storyline to help people , saying , " If there are people who have a drugs problem , or an addiction problem of any kind really , they might watch something like this and it could trigger something in their mind that is relevant to them , or someone that they know . Hopefully it could make people think twice about carrying on with that , and perhaps look into getting some help . The organisation that we worked with , DrugScope , gives a lot of help and advice for people with drug addictions . I think it can be hugely helpful when a show as popular as EastEnders does something like this . " She also stated that if EastEnders " has saved one life by putting this story out it 's been worth it . The whole point of soaps is to reflect a certain amount of everyday life . Some of it is going to be light entertainment , some isn 't . "
= = = = Tanya Branning = = = =
Rainie 's relationship with Tanya has always been fractured , though Rainie tries to resolve the tension with Tanya during her return in 2011 . When Rainie was first announced on 13 July 2007 , it was said Rainie was said to " [ drag ] up a past which Tanya would rather forget " . Rainie persuades Tanya to let her stay and forgive her and then going back on the promise , which leads Rainie to be kicked out . When Franks returned in 2010 she said " she was disappointed not to be working with Joyner this time . " On her return to for Tanya 's wedding , a spokesperson said , “ Tanya soon softens towards Rainie and her mother but will the harmony last between all three women or will past problems cause the women to Cross swords once again ? ” . Franks has commented that she is excited about exploring the family dynamic between the Cross ladies in upcoming storylines and her future in EastEnders . Joyner said that Tanya would forgive Rainie for her past actions . In an interview with Digital Spy , Kirkwood said that he was ' delighted ' at the expansion of Tanya 's family and that " The new characters are excellent additions to a cast that 's already very strong . "
= = = 2014 return = = =
Tanya Franks returned to the role of Rainie Cross for a stint on 16 June 2014 . Her return was kept a secret by the cast and crew of EastEnders , and followed the surprise returns of Laurie Brett , Nicholas Bailey and Emma Barton as Jane Beale , Anthony Trueman and Honey Mitchell respectively . All of these returns were under new executive producer Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins .
Rainie was reintroduced as part of the ' Who Killed Lucy Beale ? ' storyline , a story that began in April 2014 when Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) was murdered , and climaxed as part of the 30th anniversary celebrations of EastEnders in February 2015 . Lucy 's father Ian Beale 's ( Adam Woodyatt ) alibi was revealed as fake soon after Lucy 's death , and on 16 June 2014 it was revealed that he was seeing Rainie , who had become a prostitute to fund her drug addiction , on the night Lucy died . Rainie then began blackmailing Ian for more money in return for keeping his actions secret from the police and his fiance Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) .
Her appearances became more regular from July 2014 onwards , with her stepping up her blackmail and revealing Ian 's actions to Denise 's protective father figure , Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) . In August 2014 , Ian 's friend Mick Carter , played by Danny Dyer , pulled over behind Ian and Rainie when he spotted them talking . Ian drove off and Rainie approaches Mick , believing him to be a customer of her prostitute services . The police then pulled up behind Mick , and arrested him for soliciting . When Ian explained Rainie 's blackmail , Mick agreed to cover for him , to ensure the safety of his fake alibi . As a result of this , Rainie was reconciled with her mother , Cora Cross ( Ann Mitchell ) , as Cora supported Mick 's wife Linda Carter ( Kellie Bright ) in court before bumping into her daughter . Rainie wants nothing to do with Cora , and pretends the allegations against Mick are true .
The storyline also saw Franks film scenes alongside Steve McFadden , who plays Phil Mitchell , for the first time since their controversial drugs storyline in 2010 . Ian told Phil about Rainie 's blackmail , and Phil took Rainie to the allotments to ' deal with her ' . He later told Ian that she would not be a ' problem ' any longer , leaving Ian fearful of what lengths Phil had gone to . Phil was later revealed to have set Rainie up in a flat , but when his fiance Sharon Rickman ( Letitia Dean ) discovered what he was doing she ordered him to let Rainie go as she was not his problem . As a result , he abandoned Rainie on Cora 's doorstep , where Rainie promises to get clean with Cora 's help . Ian 's actions were revealed when Rainie , depressed after a confrontation with Mick Carter and his family , told Denise about their night together . Cora and Rainie have a heart to heart , but when Cora heads out for a short time , she returns and find Rainie gone along with her purse .
= = Reception = =
Franks said that after her stint in 2008 , many people recognised her in the street and asked if she would return . Scenes showing Phil and Rainie taking the drug crack cocaine in 2010 prompted over 200 complaints from viewers who felt the scenes were inappropriate . The BBC responded by saying " EastEnders in no way — and at no point — glamorises or condones the use of drugs , and furthermore we took great care to avoid any demonstration on how to prepare or take drugs . [ ... ] We took care to signal the nature of the episode 's content to viewers in advance through programme publicity and billings , and the BBC Action Line was trailed following the episode for anyone affected by the issue . In addition to this , our website includes links to organisations who can offer help and advice on this issue . [ ... ] We worked closely with drug and alcohol charities , including Addaction and DrugScope , throughout the editorial process to ensure that we handled the storyline accurately and sensitively . " The Daily Mail asked some viewers about the scenes , including one who said , " I was shocked at the content of the episode . The graphic detail of the drug use with Phil and his friend was terrible and in view of the time that the episode was aired , entirely inappropriate . Viewers do not need to see this kind of storyline . Please , BBC , no more of these horrid storylines . " Other viewers said , " They look like they 're having a good time . They 're in danger of making it look appealing . " Finally , " It was a bit much . I 've found EastEnders distressing over the last month . " The Daily Record described the scenes as ' disturbing ' .
EastEnders star , Natalie Cassidy also criticised the scenes , saying , " You can 't swear or show two people making love before the watershed , yet you can show people smoking class A drugs ? I was really shocked . " Franks was not surprised that people complained , but defended the storyline , saying that " the good that comes from storylines like this far outweighs whatever concerns people might have " .
= Holstein ( station ) =
Holstein is a station on the Sognsvann Line ( line 6 ) of the Oslo Metro in Norway . The station is located between Kringsjå and Østhorn stations . Holstein was opened during the Second World War , in 1941 . Formerly Nordberg was the next southbound station , but it was closed in 1992 , at the same time as Holstein was re @-@ built with longer platforms and new ticket machines . The name Holstein is believed to origin from Schleswig @-@ Holstein in Germany .
= = History = =
The Sognsvann Line opened on 10 October 1930 . It was built by Akersbanerne , and ran from Majorstuen to Sognsvann station . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . In 1939 , the section Korsvoll – Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn . Two years later , Holstein was opened , although the accurate date of opening remains undisclosed .
In 1990 , it was decided to upgrade the Sognsvann Line to metro standard , which involves a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , installation of third rail power supply and a new signaling system . Many residents feared that Holstein station would be closed together with Frøen , but only the latter was closed . The upgrade started three years later , when Tåsen station was moved 150 metres ( 490 ft ) further north , and Nordberg Station was closed . Holstein was closed for traffic during the construction period . Underpasses were built at both Holstein and Nordberg stations , and new ticket machines were installed at Holstein Station .
= = Service = =
Holstein is served by the line 6 on the Sognsvann Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 7 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 13 minutes .
The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 22 and 25 in Carl Kjeldsens vei , a two minutes walk away .
= = Facilities = =
Holstein has two platforms , each with a wooden shed . The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalist and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel . Located between the streets Kongleveien and Holsteinveien , the station serves the residential area Nordberg . There is a kindergarten and a senior center close to the station .
The origin of the station 's name is disputed . Professor H. O. Christophersen stated in 1952 that it origined from the German region Holstein . Journalist Arvid Sagen stated in 2001 that the name owed its origins to the Norwegian word " hole " ; which means a round hill , and " stein " , which means stone .
= Air ( Stargate Universe ) =
" Air " is the three @-@ part opening episode of the military science fiction television series Stargate Universe . The first two parts aired on Syfy in the United States on October 2 , 2009 , while the third part aired on October 9 . In Canada , SPACE aired the first two in tandem with Syfy . Sky1 broadcast the first two parts on October 6 , and the third on October 13 , whilst Sci Fi Australia aired the two @-@ parter on October 9 , and the third part on October 16 . " Air " was written by series creators Robert C. Cooper and Brad Wright , and was directed by Andy Mikita .
In the episode a group of evacuees from Icarus Base , an offworld human outpost that fell under attack end up on the Destiny , an Ancient starship located several billion light @-@ years from Earth . Their first problems involve the ship 's failing life support system , where the new crew are tasked to fix it . The episode features some of the well known characters from Stargate SG @-@ 1 , a previous series in the Stargate franchise . Parts of the third part are filmed on location in White Sands , New Mexico , which doubles as a desert planet . The first two parts were given generally positive reviews , mainly commending the cast and the style of the episode . The premiere was seen by over 2 @.@ 3 million Americans , and was considered a ratings success in Australia , Canada and the United Kingdom .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 = = =
The majority of the first part takes place in flashbacks while a team of ill equipped soldiers and scientists arrive at the Destiny . Eli Wallace ( David Blue ) solves a mathematical equation in an online computer game , planted there by Stargate Command . For his achievement , Dr. Nicholas Rush ( Robert Carlyle ) and General Jack O 'Neill ( Richard Dean Anderson ) recruit Wallace to the Icarus program , which is attempting to dial a nine @-@ chevron address with the Stargate . Wallace 's solution is the key to controlling the power levels for the Gate . He is taken aboard the Hammond , an Earth Daedalus @-@ class starship , to be taken to the planet where Icarus is set up . During the journey , he meets Chloe Armstrong ( Elyse Levesque ) , daughter of Senator Alan Armstrong ( Christopher McDonald ) .
At the top @-@ secret Icarus Base , the group is introduced to Colonel Everett Young ( Louis Ferreira ) , Colonel David Telford ( Lou Diamond Phillips ) , and First Lieutenant Matthew Scott ( Brian J. Smith ) . Wallace 's solution is tested but fails to establish a lock . During dinner , three Ha 'tak vessels , believed to be under the control of the Lucian Alliance , attack the planet . An evacuation is begun while the Hammond which is manned by Colonel Samantha Carter ( Amanda Tapping ) and a squadron of F @-@ 302s led by Colonel Telford battle the enemy . Rush , desperate to see his project succeed , enlists Wallace 's aid in figuring out what went wrong . Wallace suggests that the final symbol of the address is wrong , and that they should use the symbol for Earth . Rush aborts the dialing sequence to Earth , arguing that the energy release from the exploding planet could follow them through the Gate , and tests the theory , which succeeds . With the planet 's unstable core about to go critical and lacking any other means of escape , the remaining survivors in the base ( roughly 80 people ) are forced to risk heading to an unknown destination . The planet explodes shortly after everyone is evacuated , destroying the three Ha 'tak vessels . The Hammond survives , but the fate of those in the base is a mystery to Stargate Command .
= = = Part 2 = = =
The unlikely expedition team ends up on the Destiny , an Ancient starship located billions of light @-@ years from Earth . The ship jumps to FTL shortly after the Stargate shuts down . Rush uses an Ancient communication device to contact Stargate command , taking control of Bill Lee ( Bill Dow ) . When he returns , Rush claims that O 'Neill put him in charge of the expedition , though the others are not quick to believe him . Meanwhile , the ship , having suffered millennia of wear and tear , has a failing life support system and an inadequately sealed hull breach in one of the shuttles , which can be sealed only from inside the shuttle . Senator Armstrong learns of this and , already badly injured , sacrifices his life to seal the shuttle off and buy the team time . However , the main life support is not so easily fixed . The CO2 scrubbers are decayed beyond repair , and within a day carbon dioxide poisoning will kill everyone . The Destiny , apparently aware of the problem , drops out of FTL and dials the Stargate to a desert planet with the necessary materials to repair the scrubbers . Four other locations are listed but locked out by the dialing computer . A 12 @-@ hour countdown begins , at the end of which the Destiny will continue on its journey automatically .
= = = Part 3 = = =
On the desert planet , the search begins for a suitable source of lime to filter the air on Destiny . The sand itself has a small concentration of calcite , but not enough to be useful , so the team starts looking for a dry lake bed , which should have heavy deposits of lime . The group splits into two : Rush , Scott and Ronald Greer ( Jamil Walker Smith ) form one group , while Wallace leads the remainder in a different direction . After several failed tests , those in Wallace 's group give up on the search , instead intending to try out the Stargate addresses the Destiny rejected . When Wallace informs the others , Scott sends Rush and Greer back to stop them while he continues searching . They make it back in time to stop Franklin ( Mark Burgess ) , the member carrying the dialing remote , but the other two make it through . Rush is vehemently against the idea of exploring the other addresses , believing that the ship locked them out for a reason , and several failed attempts to contact the two lost expedition members seem to support his concerns .
On the ship , Chloe and Young use the communication stones to contact Earth , allowing Chloe to inform her mother of her situation and Senator Armstrong 's death . Young , meanwhile , is encouraged by O 'Neill to repair the ship ; in spite of his protests that their expedition is not cut out for it , O 'Neill insists that no one really is ready for their kind of work .
In his search for the lime , Scott discovers a strange , swirling cloud of dust that absorbs moisture . He follows it until he collapses in front of a lake bed . He has a brief hallucination where he engages in a spiritual conversation with a priest he knew on Earth . Meanwhile , the cloud moves up to him and condenses into water , waking him . Realizing what he 's found , Scott shovels as much of the lime as possible into his bag and makes his way to the Gate . Greer , having set out to look for him , finds him along the way and helps carry the lime . Wallace sticks his arm into the wormhole to delay the countdown . The team returns with the lime successfully , which is used to repair the CO2 scrubbers . In the end , a recovering Scott tells Chloe that his parents and the priest died when he was young , and that the best way to deal with the grief is to keep moving forward . As everyone starts to breathe easier , a Nakai fighter detaches itself from the Destiny .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
" Air " first surfaced in December 2008 as a working title for the opening episode of Universe , where it was suggested to be a three @-@ parter , according to executive producer Joseph Mallozzi . With casting concerned , several of the previous SG @-@ 1 characters made an appearance for the series premiere , including Michael Shanks , who reprises his role as Doctor Daniel Jackson in a cameo , Richard Dean Anderson as General Jack O 'Neill , Gary Jones as Walter Harriman , Amanda Tapping as Samantha Carter , Bill Dow as Doctor Bill Lee and Martin Christopher as Kevin Marks . Christopher McDonald of Happy Gilmore and Requiem for a Dream fame made a " pivotal " guest appearance as Senator Alan Armstrong , father of series regular , Chloe Armstrong ( Elyse Levesque ) . Another guest star is Ona Grauer , previously known for playing the Ancient Ayiana in Stargate SG @-@ 1 's " Frozen " and Stargate Atlantis 's " Rising " .
= = = Filming = = =
" Air " was directed by Andy Mikita . When filming the first three episodes , Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper decided to hire the Director of Photography from The Shield . The shooting for the episode started on February 18 , 2009 . The show is filmed on stages 2 , 4 ( Destiny set ) and 5 ( Icarus Base set ) at The Bridge Studios Previous franchise series Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis were filmed on stage 5 and 6 . " Air ( Part 3 ) " was filmed in and around Alamogordo , New Mexico from late April through early May 2009 . A couple of scenes were deleted from the actual outtake , the two most notable being a scene with Eli Wallace ( David Blue ) on the desert planet and a flashbacks scene featuring Chloe Armstrong and her mother . The game Wallace played when solving the puzzle was a preview shot of Stargate Worlds , a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game based on the Stargate franchise . The game was referenced throughout the pilot . The announcement of Stargate Worlds marked the first bit of news published on the game 's official website since May 26 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and viewership = = =
The first two parts received a total household rating of 1 @.@ 7 , which represents 2 @.@ 35 million viewers on Syfy , which was the best franchise 's season premiere since the second season premiere of Stargate Atlantis . Among the figures , 1 @.@ 32 million were viewed by adults in the 25 @-@ 54 age demographic , and 1 @.@ 12 million among the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Part 3 gathered 2 @.@ 4 million viewers , a small increase from the season premiere . In both cases , the ratings were higher than Fox 's Dollhouse , which aired on the same time slot . Plus the 7 DVR , the second part reached a household rating of 2 @.@ 1 , totalling 2 @.@ 99 million viewers , including 1 @.@ 7 million Adults 18 @-@ 49 and 1 @.@ 85 million Adults 25 @-@ 54 . This makes " Air " the most viewed Stargate episode since March 2005 .
After its premiere in Canada , the first two parts were seen by 565 @,@ 000 , which made it SPACE 's most viewed single episode in its run . This also made Stargate Universe the number 1 non @-@ sports speciality program of the day . Including the ratings from two additional airings the following day also totalled the ratings up to 2 @.@ 3 million , comparable to the US release . In the United Kingdom , the first part was seen by 1 @.@ 165 million viewers , while the second part were seen by 1 @.@ 061 million , placing Stargate Universe the first and second most viewed series the week it aired on Sky1 , and the UK 's highest Stargate audience in five years . The third part was seen by 765 @,@ 000 viewers , again making it the most watched programme on the multichannel TV station . The Sci Fi Channel Australia premiere of the episode attracted 149 @,@ 000 viewers , becoming the second most watched episode that week , while being bested by a soccer match .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reviews of the premiere were generally positive . According to Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the premiere has received a " generally favorable " score of 61 , based on 9 reviews . In all three cases the film ranks lowest in the series . Joseph Dilworth Jr. of Pop Culture Zoo praised the premiere of Stargate Universe , stating that it " feels less like a weekly TV series and much more like the beginning of a twenty part long form story , " and is also described as a cross between Star Trek : Voyager , Battlestar Galactica and Firefly , though the series seems to be a spiritual successor to Battlestar . Dilworth also praised the cast , stating it as " one of the finest ensemble casts I 've seen in a long time . " Curt Wagner of Chicago Now rated the episode 4 stars out of four , stating that it shares the optimism of Star Trek : Voyager , and the grimness of Battlestar Galactica , as well as playing homage to its franchise forbears SG @-@ 1 and Atlantis , but looks and feels new . IGN reviewer Ramsey Isler gave the episode 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , starting his review with " Yes , it 's another Stargate show . But this might become the best of them all . " Further saying the premiere had its " own unique tone . "
Being one of the few Stargate franchise releases that were well received by major media publishers , Mike Hale from The New York Times was generally positive towards the pilot episodes , saying the Stargate franchise was " catching up " with the long @-@ running Star Trek franchise . Hale also agreed with Syfy 's promotion of it being an " edgier " Stargate . The Boston Globe reviewer Joanna Weiss also reacted positively towards the pilot episodes , saying it felt like " early Lost " , while the story arc followed the patterns of " Battlestar Galactica " . Mark Wilson from About.com gave the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of 5 , saying Universe accomplishes what Stargate Atlantis was not able to , and said it was " exceptionally well made " compared to other shows . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette both praised the show , calling it " intriguing " , for not abandoning its premise as Star Trek : Voyager did and criticized it by pointing out that the characters spend " far too much time wandering a desert planet " in " Air ( Part 3 ) " . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette summarized their review by saying that , " [ g ] iven time , Stargate Universe may become worth watching if it develops its characters and continues to mine its premise for stories . " David Hinckley , a reviewer from The New York Daily News gave the episodes four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars , saying that " Eli 's not the only one playing a high @-@ stakes game here . "
Among reviewers who were negative towards the new installments was Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune . The reviewer wrote that the " gloomy , underwhelming Universe seems to have ditched many of the elements that the previous " Stargate " shows had , notably camaraderie and a sense of adventure , without adding much in the way of narrative suspense or complexity . " The only characters she felt were " worth following " were Eli Wallace ( David Blue ) and Nicholas Rush ( Robert Carlyle ) . Vince Horiuchi from The Salt Lake Tribune started the review with " Syfy Channel -- is one of the worst displays of the genre on television , " and attacked the television series , " Battlestar Galactica " . Having no interest in the previous Stargate series ' including the feature film , while not overall positive to the series , he said the cast and characters were a " little more likable and interesting . " Reviewer Laura Freis from Variety magazine concluded her review with " Sure , SGU is grittier , darker and psychologically deeper than previous versions . But so far , it 's also a lot less fun . " While negative towards the show , she called Robert Carlyle an " excellent " actor . The Hollywood Reporter noted a lack of " intelligent " and " surprising stories " and was overall negative towards Stargate Universe , and even more so on the previous Stargate franchise releases .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In January 2010 , the episodes were nominated for a Visual Effects Society Award for " Outstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Series " , against Battlestar Galactica , V , Defying Gravity and Fringe . They were also nominated for four Leo Awards in 2010 ; one resulted in a win . Mike Banas was nominated for " Best Picture Editing for a Dramatic Series " , James C. D. Robbins for " Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series " , and James Bamford for " Best Stunt Coordination in a Dramatic Series . " Mark Savela and the special effects team won the Leo Award for " Best Visual Effects in a Dramatic Series " for their work in the episodes . In July 2010 , the visual effects team were nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects , along with " Space " for the upcoming 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards .
= 189th Infantry Brigade ( United States ) =
The 189th Infantry Brigade is an Infantry brigade of the United States Army based at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , Washington . It is a training brigade subordinate to First Army .
Originally organized as a part of the 95th Infantry Division for World War I , the brigade never saw combat in that conflict . Kept active and in the reserve through much of the 20th century , the brigade in name was reorganized into a different unit for fighting during World War II . Seeing numerous moves , activations and deactivations , the brigade has been used principally as a training unit for most of its existence . Reactivated again in 2006 , the brigade is now primarily responsible for training provincial reconstruction teams and their supporting elements for deployment to the War in Afghanistan .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 189th Infantry Brigade was first constituted and activated on 24 June 1921 in the Organized Reserves , and assigned to the 95th Division . The brigade was organized in 1922 at Muskogee , Oklahoma . However , it would never be mobilized for World War I , and thus never received participation credit for the action . It would stay active as a reserve brigade for the interwar period , but it would never be used .
On 23 March 1925 the formation was reorganized as the 189th Brigade . On 24 August 1936 the formation was reorganized again as the 189th Infantry Brigade . In 1940 , the brigade 's headquarters was changed to McAlester , Oklahoma .
= = = World War II = = =
The formation saw great changes in preparation for mobilization to fight during World War II . On 13 February 1942 the brigade structure was downsized greatly and converted into a reconnaissance element . It was combined with assets from the 190th Infantry Brigade to form the 95th Reconnaissance Troop which was subsequently assigned to the 95th Division once again . The troop was ordered into active military service on 15 July 1942 and reorganized at Camp Swift , Texas , as the 95th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop , an element of the 95th Division . The division itself was also in the process of being reorganized into the 95th Infantry Division .
On 1 August 1943 , the group was reorganized , given vehicles , and redesignated as the 95th Reconnaissance Troop , Mechanized . It was then deployed with the 95th Infantry Division to England on 17 August 1944 was subsequently deployed to northern France . The troop fought with the Division through northern France , and eventually northern Germany capturing town after town until the end of the war . Retrieved 5 December 2008 . The formation received four campaign streamers for its participation , the only four it was to earn .
After the end of World War II , the troop returned home and began the process of demobilization . It inactivated on 8 October 1945 at Camp Shelby , Mississippi .
On 26 December 1947 , the inactive formation was redesignated as the 95th Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop . It was then activated on 9 January 1948 at Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . On 17 December 1948 , the brigade headquarters was moved to Stillwater , Oklahoma . On 30 June 1949 , the troop was again reorganized as the 95th Reconnaissance Company . This allowed it to take on a larger structure and control more personnel . The formation was inactivated on 15 September 1951 at Stillwater , Oklahoma .
It was again activated 1 March 1952 at Jonesboro , Arkansas . The company had its location changed to Wewoka , Oklahoma on 1 June 1955 . The Company would be inactivated for their last time four years later on 1 April 1959 when it was disbanded in Wewoka .
The 95th Reconnaissance Company would never see action again . Its elements would return to their designations before World War II . On 21 January 1963 , the main elements of the company were reconstituted as the 189th Infantry Brigade . It was then allotted to the Active duty force . Though inactive , if the brigade was ever activated again it would be formed as a part of the active duty force as a separate brigade . The 190th Infantry Brigade would not be reactivated , either . Its assets would be designated as 3rd Brigade , 24th Infantry Division , having never been reorganized after its redesignation in 1942 .
On 24 October 1997 , the brigade was activated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina as a training brigade . With a population of nearly 50 @,@ 000 soldiers and numerous other tenant units , the fort had a large contingent of soldiers necessitating multiple brigades for training . However , after two years of service on the Fort , it was inactivated on 16 October 1999 at the base . The elements of the brigade were subsequently merged with the 4th Brigade , 78th Division ( Training Support ) , another training brigade on base responsible for exercises .
= = = Reactivation = = =
The 189th Infantry Brigade was activated once again on 1 December 2006 at Fort Bragg . This was done by reflagging the 4th Brigade , 78th Division back to the 189th Infantry Brigade . The reflagging was just one part of the overall streamlining of the First Army from five training support Divisions commanding 16 divisional brigades to two larger regions commanding 16 separate brigades . The process was also designed to make identification of the brigades easier . It was assigned to Division East of the First Army . Division East contains eight training brigades with responsibilities for the entire region east of the Mississippi River .
The brigade was organized as a training brigade preparing Army Reserve and Army National Guard units for deployment . The brigade prepares other units for mobilization and provides training , assistance , and support to them during pre @-@ deployment exercises , and evaluates performance and progress of these units as they are deploying . Since its reactivation , the brigade has specialized in training provincial reconstruction teams ( PRTs ) deploying to Afghanistan . In early 2007 , the 189th Infantry Brigade , along with the 158th Infantry Brigade , cooperated to train the first 12 PRTs at once at Fort Bragg for three @-@ month training exercises . PRT personnel were trained in a wide range of scenarios , ranging from hospital repairs to childbirth scenarios and language labs . Afterwards , they conducted a conference on the training , in which it was decided that cultural awareness and language training needed to be stressed for future PRTs . It was during this training that the brigade finally received its distinctive unit insignia and shoulder sleeve insignia on 25 May 2008 . In early 2008 , the Brigade began training another group of 12 PRTs . Several months later , the Brigades began training the next 12 PRTs for a 270 @-@ day deployment to Afghanistan .
In 2011 , the 189th Infantry Brigade transferred from the authority of Division East , First Army , to Division West , First Army , and uncased its colors at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord on 7 September .
The brigade has worked closely with the Civilian Response Corps to standardize and institutionalize the training for the PRTs . All members of the PRTs are required to assemble for the training , which lasts approximately six weeks . These PRTs include members of the Army , Navy , Air Force , and civilian military contractors , as well as members of the UN Assistance Mission Agency ( sic : United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan ? ) , and numerous other groups . It has also been responsible for training security forces that guard the PRTs , including elements of the 33rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team . Soldiers of the brigade have also trained on Avid Technology , part of a modernization of Army public affairs .
= = Organization = =
The brigade contains four subordinate battalions in a separate company attached to its Headquarters and Headquarters Company . The brigade is , in turn , subordinate to Division West of First Army . Like all of the formations in First Army , the brigade is not a combat unit , but instead trains other units preparing for deployment .
The Headquarters and Headquarters Company of the brigade is located at Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , and acts as the command element for the formation , overseeing all subordinate battalions which are also located at JBLM . These battalions include the 1st Battalion , 310th Regiment , 1st Battalion , 311th Regiment , 2nd Battalion , 311th Regiment , and 1st Battalion , 313th Regiment . Additionally , a direct reporting unit , A Company , 189th Infantry Brigade , provides all the services of a regular brigade 's special troops battalion .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
Army Superior Unit Award , Streamer embroidered 2008 @-@ 2011
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Sisters at Heart =
" Sisters at Heart " is the thirteenth episode of the seventh season , and 213th episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) fantasy television sitcom Bewitched . This Christmas episode aired on ABC on December 24 , 1970 , and again the following December .
The narrative follows Lisa Wilson ( Venetta Rogers ) , an African @-@ American girl , as she visits her friend Tabitha Stephens ( Erin Murphy ) , a white girl . Meanwhile , Tabitha 's father Darrin Stephens ( Dick Sargent ) , who works at an advertising agency , fails to land a million @-@ dollar account with toy company owner Mr. Brockway ( Parley Baer ) because Mr. Brockway is racist and incorrectly believes Darrin to be married to Lisa 's mother Dorothy ( Janee Michelle ) . In an attempt to convince Mr. Brockway to overcome his bigotry , Darrin 's wife Samantha ( Elizabeth Montgomery ) , who is a witch , casts a spell on Mr. Brockway so he sees everyone , including himself , as having black skin .
The story of " Sisters at Heart " was written by 22 African @-@ American students from a tenth grade English class at Jefferson High School after Montgomery and her husband William Asher , the director of the episode , had the students visit the set of Bewitched . Most students at the school were unable to read , write , or comprehend at a high school level , with 44 % reading at a third grade level and very few students reading at a level much higher than that . Sargent said that the students , " who might have been stuck in the ghetto for the rest of their lives , loved Bewitched , and with just a little approval and motivation , came alive on the set . " Montgomery considered " Sisters at Heart " her favorite episode of the series , and said that it " was created in the true spirit of Christmas ... conceived in the image of innocence and filled with truth . " The episode received the Governors Award at the 23rd Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1971 . Montgomery 's biographer Herbie Pilato wrote that " no episode of the series more clearly represented [ the ] cry against prejudice " than " Sisters at Heart " . Critic Walter Metz praised Asher 's choice of camera angles , but denounced the episode 's liberalism as excessively sentimental and simplistic .
= = Plot = =
Keith Wilson ( Don Marshall ) , his wife Dorothy ( Janee Michelle ) , their daughter Lisa ( Venetta Rogers ) , and Keith 's boss , Larry Tate ( David White ) , visit the home of the Stephens family , with whom Lisa is to spend a few days while Keith is away on a business trip for Larry . The Wilsons are African @-@ American and all of the other characters are white , including the Stephens family : Darrin ( Dick Sargent ) , his wife Samantha ( Elizabeth Montgomery ) , their daughter Tabitha ( Erin Murphy ) , and their son Adam ( David Lawrence ) . Tabitha is glad to be able to spend a few days with Lisa and says they will temporarily be sisters . Darrin is another of Larry 's employees at advertising agency McMann and Tate . Darrin is trying to land a million @-@ dollar account from Mr. Brockway ( Parley Baer ) , who owns a toy company . Mr. Brockway visits the Stephens residence unannounced to find out if Darrin has any dark secrets . When Mr. Brockway arrives , Samantha is tending to Adam upstairs , so Lisa answers the door . When Lisa says her father works for McMann and Tate and that she is Tabitha 's sister , Mr. Brockway leaves , saying he has seen enough .
Samantha takes the children to the park , where another child tells Lisa and Tabitha that they cannot be sisters because they have different skin colors . When they arrive home , Tabitha casts a spell on herself and Lisa so that Tabitha 's skin has black spots and Lisa 's skin has white spots . Lisa thereby discovers that Tabitha and Samantha are witches . When Samantha finds the two girls polka @-@ dotted , she tells Tabitha to reverse the spell , which Tabitha unsuccessfully tries to do . Eventually , Samantha realizes that Tabitha 's attempt was unsuccessful because Tabitha subconsciously wants the spots to remain so she and Lisa will continue to be sisters . Samantha tells the girls that differences in appearance won 't prevent them from being sisters , and Tabitha then successfully reverses the spell just as Lisa 's parents arrive to pick up Lisa .
Larry tells Darrin that Mr. Brockway has insisted that Darrin be removed from the account . Darrin and Samantha host a Christmas party which Larry , Keith , and Dorothy attend . When Mr. Brockway arrives , he sees Darrin and Dorothy standing next to each other and assumes they are married to each other . When Mr. Brockway realizes his mistake , and that Darrin is instead married to Samantha , Mr. Brockway tells Larry that he is willing to allow Darrin back on the account . After discovering that Mr. Brockway initially was unwilling because he thought Darrin was married to an African @-@ American woman , Larry rejects Mr. Brockway 's offer . Mr. Brockway expresses disbelief that anyone would reject such a lucrative account . Through witchcraft , Samantha causes Mr. Brockway to see everyone in the room , including himself , as having black skin . On Christmas Day , while the Wilsons are visiting the Stephens , Mr. Brockway arrives , apologizes for his previous actions , and repents of his racism . Samantha invites Mr. Brockway to join them for Christmas dinner , and he accepts .
= = Production = =
In 1969 , Marcella Saunders , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old teacher at Jefferson High School in Los Angeles , found that her ninth @-@ grade students were unable to read the short stories and poetry in the class textbook . She thought that , because her students were more familiar with television than poetry or short stories , she would have more success in teaching her students if she taught them by way of a television series . She found that her students liked Bewitched , Room 222 , and Julia , so she contacted the corresponding television studios to tell them about her idea . Only Bewitched responded . Having gained an audience with Montgomery and her husband William Asher , Saunders told the couple that most students at the school were unable to read , write , or comprehend at a high school level , with 44 % reading at a third grade level and very few students reading at a level much higher than that ; less than 1 % were reading at a ninth grade level . Saunders added that Bewitched was the students ' favorite television series .
Out of concern for the students in Saunders ' English class , Montgomery and Asher invited Saunders ' class of 22 African @-@ American students to visit the set of Bewitched . Because many of these teenagers , now in the tenth grade , did not have the financial means to make their way to Hollywood , Montgomery and Asher paid for all 22 to be transported there and back by chartered bus . The students were impressed by the visit and later collaborated to write a teleplay for a Bewitched episode under Saunders ' supervision . The teleplay was called " Sisters at Heart . " At Christmas in 1969 , they presented Montgomery and Asher with the teleplay , gift @-@ wrapped . Montgomery and Asher were impressed with the quality of the script . Montgomery later said , " We 've had bad scripts submitted by professional writers that weren 't as well written or creative . "
Asher told Barbara Avedon about the students ' script , saying that it only needed a little reworking , and he asked if she would help the students with the rewrite . Avedon , who had written for The Donna Reed Show and been a regular writer for Bewitched , accepted his request . Avedon visited Jefferson High School and later said of the experience , " I was horrified . Locker doors were hanging off their hinges . There wasn 't a blade of grass in sight . " Avedon expressed amazement over the script the students produced and helped them revise it and expand its length so it would sustain a full half @-@ hour episode . She promised the students that no changes would be made to the script unless they approved . It was because of her recommendation that the story was reformulated as a Christmas episode , which she suggested because the script " was so imbued with the spirit . " She said that one of the students indicated a desire to write for Bewitched because the series deals with miscegenation by way of a marriage between a witch and a mortal .
All 22 students attended a production and rehearsal meeting for the episode . The government of California gave Jefferson High School a grant to support a program to allow the students to be part of the filming and post @-@ production of the episode . Film production company Screen Gems joined Montgomery and Asher in making donations to the program as well . The students donated the money they received for writing the episode to a foundation to keep the program going . Two more trips were organized , bringing a total of fifty Jefferson High School students to the set of Bewitched . Asher sent copies of thirty scripts of other Bewitched episodes to the school for use in classrooms . Saunders found the program a great success , saying " kids who could never write before were now writing three pages . Kids who could not read were now doubling up on scripts and fighting over who would be able to play the leads . " Asher also expressed pleasure with the program 's success , and recommended that other white businesspeople invite minority groups into their lives . Sargent considered Saunders the main reason for the success of the program , saying , " She was interested in innovative forms of teaching . These kids , who might have been stuck in the ghetto for the rest of their lives , loved Bewitched , and with just a little approval and motivation , came alive on the set . "
Asher produced and directed the episode . A high school student who was granted the role of assistant director at one point screamed " Quiet on the set ! " , a memory that Sargent later recalled fondly . For the scene in which Samantha casts a spell that makes Mr. Brockway see everyone as having black skin , the white actors , including Sargent and White , appeared in blackface . The name of Mr. Brockway 's toy company is never mentioned . Samantha 's statement at the end of the episode , " We 're having integrated turkey : white meat and dark " , was repeated in Spike Lee 's 1986 film She 's Gotta Have It . The final shot of the episode , which zooms out from the scene of Samantha and Darrin kissing to reveal the French doors at the back of their house as " Silent Night " plays in the background , is the only shot in any episode of Bewitched to depict the interior of the house from the perspective of the backyard . " Sisters at Heart " is the only episode of the series in which Lisa appears . Seven years before acting together in " Sisters at Heart " , Montgomery and Baer appeared together in an episode of the CBS television series Rawhide called " Incident at El Crucero " , which aired when the pilot episode of Bewitched was in pre @-@ production . In 1970 , Montgomery appeared on The Merv Griffin Show to promote " Sisters at Heart " , thereby making one of the only three talk show appearances of her career . After Griffin left the network , CBS wiped all episodes of The Merv Griffin Show produced between 1969 and 1972 , but a copy of the episode featuring Montgomery 's promotion of " Sisters at Heart " was later discovered when it became known that relevant kinescopes and master tapes had survived .
Endorsed by meat production company Oscar Mayer , " Sisters at Heart " is a half @-@ hour , color episode that aired on December 24 , 1970 , as the 213th episode of Bewitched to be aired . As an introduction and conclusion to the episode , Montgomery briefly spoke to the camera about the episode , saying that it " was created in the true spirit of Christmas ... conceived in the image of innocence and filled with truth . " ABC aired the episode only once more , in December 1971 . Unlike many of the other episodes in the season , it was neither a remake of an episode from a previous season nor part of the Salem , Massachusetts , story arc that was filmed in the area where the 17th @-@ century Salem witch trials took place . Don Marshall , who made a guest appearance in " Sisters at Heart " as Keith Wilson , was known for his role in Land of the Giants , while Janee Michelle , who portrayed Dorothy Wilson in " Sisters at Heart " , later became best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain . " Sisters at Heart " was Montgomery 's favorite episode of the series . Reflecting on the episode in 1989 , she said , " Yeah , this is what I want Bewitched to be all about . " Sony Pictures Home Entertainment eventually released the episode on a VHS collection called A Bewitched Christmas 2 . On June 16 , 2005 , the episode was screened in Salem as the first entry in " The Art and Politics of Elizabeth Montgomery " , a film @-@ watching and discussion group that met at First Church in Salem .
= = Reception = =
" Sisters at Heart " received the Governors Award at the 23rd Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1971 . Montgomery 's biographer Herbie Pilato wrote that the theme of overcoming prejudice is central to Bewitched because of the prominence of the marriage between a witch and a mortal , and that " no episode of the series more clearly represented this cry against prejudice than the holiday story , ' Sisters at Heart . ' " A reviewer from the Australian newspaper the Daily Liberal wrote that " Sisters at Heart " is " very thoughtful " and argued that it is the sole episode of the series that is not simply a " lightweight offering " reflective of " the United States ' post @-@ war society of new consumerism and advertising . " When the seventh season of Bewitched was released on DVD in 2009 , DVD Talk reviewer Paul Mavis wrote that " Sisters at Heart " has a more overt message than any other episode of the season . He praised the actors ' performances in the episode and wrote that , because of the episode 's obvious @-@ yet @-@ effective critique of racism , " what 's highly ironic about Sisters at Heart today is that it would most likely be dubbed politically incorrect and ' insensitive ' by some because the cast wear blackface at one point . "
Hal Erickson of AllMovie called the episode " refreshingly free of the patronization which usually attended ' racially sensitive ' TV episodes of the period . " In his book about Bewitched , critic Walter Metz writes that " Sisters at Heart " exemplifies the liberalism endorsed by the series , which he argues is excessively sentimental and simplistic . He praises Asher for his " skillful understanding of film aesthetics " , calling particular attention to Asher 's choice of camera angles in the scene in which Mr. Brockway first meets Lisa . Metz argues that the Stephens ' foyer is an important location in the series , and that this importance is exemplified in the episode both by the scene of Mr. Brockway 's first encounter with Lisa as well as in the epilogue when Mr. Brockway revisits the house and apologizes for his prior racism . Metz criticizes Mr. Brockway 's " magically found soft @-@ heartedness " as a " paternalistic approach to liberal racial tolerance [ that ] implies that only white patriarchs have the cultural authority to declare that racism is wrong . " Metz further argues that the episode problematically figures Samantha as the protector and provider for black people , a role that he says Samantha also fills in " Samantha at the Keyboard " , another Bewitched episode .
= Zebras ( Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ) =
" Zebras " is the twenty @-@ second episode and season finale of the tenth season of the police procedural television series Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , and the show 's 224th episode overall . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on June 2 , 2009 . In the episode , an open @-@ and @-@ shut case against a mentally disturbed murderer , played by Nick Stahl , is blown when a forensics technician makes a technical error . As Elliot and Olivia investigate additional murders believed to be the work of the same killer , they uncover a plot within their own department .
The episode was written by Amanda Green and Daniel Truly , and directed by Peter Leto . It was the final appearance of Mike Doyle , who had played forensics technician Ryan O 'Halloran since 2003 and appeared on the show more than 50 times ; the character was killed by fellow technician Dale Stuckey ( Noel Fisher ) as part of a surprise twist conceived by executive producer and showrunner Neal Baer . " Zebras " also included guest appearances by Kelly Bishop , Judith Light and Carol Kane as Gwen Munch , the conspiracy theorist ex @-@ wife of Detective John Munch ; Kane had previously played the same role opposite actor Richard Belzer in a 1997 episode of Homicide : Life on the Street .
According to Nielsen ratings , " Zebras " was watched by 11 @.@ 34 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated show of the night and the series ' most watched episode in more than a year . The episode received higher ratings than Inside the Obama White House , a one @-@ hour special documenting one day in the White House of U.S. President Barack Obama , which aired earlier in the evening on NBC and was seen by 9 @.@ 1 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
A father and daughter rollerblading in Central Park stumble across the body of a woman with several lacerations hidden in a bush . Munch ( Richard Belzer ) and Fin ( Ice @-@ T ) learn Peter Harrison ( Nick Stahl ) , who was performing community service for a prior crime against a woman , left work early with a cut thumb around the time of the murder . Stabler ( Christopher Meloni ) and Benson ( Mariska Hargitay ) question Harrison , who spouts wild conspiracy theories about the police . During an interrogation , Harrison suggests he killed the woman in Central Park for taking photos of him before his attorney , Julia Zimmer ( Kelly Bishop ) , stops the questioning . Munch and Fin find a bloody knife during a search of Harrison 's apartment and forensics technician Ryan O 'Halloran ( Mike Doyle ) confirms the DNA matches the victim , resulting in an open @-@ and @-@ shut case against Harrison . However , Zimmer finds a technical error by forensics technician Dale Stuckey ( Noel Fisher ) in the evidence paperwork . Though Stuckey insists he made no mistake , Judge Elizabeth Donnelly ( Judith Light ) is forced to set Harrison free , and makes a harsh rebuke against Stuckey .
Shortly afterward , another woman is found murdered at Coney Island in a similar manner ; Stuckey finds a soda can with a bloody fingerprint on it , later confirmed to be Harrison 's . The police learn Harrison disclosed his hiding place to a friend on a conspiracy theorist website ; Munch recognizes the friend as his ex @-@ wife Gwen ( Carol Kane ) , whom he convinces to reveal Harrison 's location . After Harrison evades capture , Stabler and Benson ask for help from Zimmer , who said she has been taking care of Harrison since he lost his parents as a child . An unstable Harrison visits Zimmer , who calls Stabler and Benson to arrest him . As they are about to return to the precinct , Zimmer gets locked into her car and a poisonous gas is released into the air ; Stabler breaks her car window , but is unable to save her in time .
Later , Judge Donnelly is nearly killed when she sits on a needle filled with potassium chloride at her home ; she is saved when Stabler and Benson rush her to the hospital . O 'Halloran tells Stabler and Benson that a mosquito sucked the blood from the killer as he or she was rigging Zimmer 's car , and that the DNA from the blood will likely implicate Harrison . As the DNA is later being processed , however , O 'Halloran is stabbed and killed by someone in the forensics lab . Stabler arrives and sees on the computer screen that the DNA matches Stuckey just before Stuckey knocks him out from behind . Stuckey then answers Elliot 's phone when Benson calls to say that Stabler went out for lunch and forgot his phone . He then ties Stabler to a chair and starts torturing him . Stuckey admits he killed the woman at Coney Island in order to frame Harrison , and that he attacked Zimmer and Donnelly for embarrassing him . Benson arrives and is held at gunpoint by Stuckey , but she convinces Stuckey that she , too , hates Stabler and is in love with Stuckey . While Benson kisses Stuckey to distract him , Stabler kicks him from behind , allowing Benson to knock Stuckey out and free Stabler . When Stabler asks how Benson knew he was in trouble , Benson says that Stuckey told her he went out for sushi , which she knows that he hates .
= = Production = =
" Zebras " was written by Amanda Green and Daniel Truly , and directed by Peter Leto . The surprise twist in the episode , in which forensics technician Ryan O 'Halloran is killed by fellow technician Dale Stuckey , was conceived by Neal Baer , the series executive producer and showrunner . Baer said the decision to kill the character in the story " just came to [ him ] one day " and thought that " this may be a really interesting way to bring [ the ] cast together and deal with this story point " . In particular , Baer said he wanted to kill a long @-@ recurring character so the show could " explore characters ' reactions to a death in an interesting way " . Mike Doyle , the actor who played O 'Halloran , was notified about the decision by Baer in a phone call a few weeks before the episode was filmed in May 2009 . Baer said Doyle and the rest of the cast took the news well because , in his words , " I think everybody knew that somebody was going , so they weren 't shocked . " During a May 2009 interview , Baer hinted at the twist by telling media outlets that the season finale would include a surprise ending : " One of our own is murdered . "
" Zebras " was the final episode for Doyle , who had been a recurring character since 2003 and had made more than 50 appearances on the show . The episode also marked the seventh on @-@ screen death for the actor , who had been killed in several films and television episodes , including on the HBO series Oz . Christopher Meloni , who also appeared on Oz , comforted Doyle about his character 's death by saying , " At least you 're not getting gang @-@ raped " , a reference to Doyle 's death scene from that show . The climax scene of " Zebras " , in which Dale Stuckey threatens Elliot Stabler as Olivia Benson tries to talk him down , was filmed on May 7 , 2009 , in a warehouse in North Bergen , New Jersey . A crew member shouted " dead man walking ! " to Doyle as he arrived on the set . The knife protruding from Doyle was staged by strapping to his chest a metal plate with a center slot holding the retractable blade of the fake knife .
Carol Kane played Gwen Munch , Detective John Munch 's conspiracy theorist ex @-@ wife . Kane played the same part alongside actor Richard Belzer in 1997 on the series Homicide : Life on the Street , which also starred Belzer as John Munch .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was watched by 11 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it the highest rated show of the night . It was the most watched episode of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit in more than a year , and was about two million viewers over its season average . It captured more viewers than the first one @-@ hour episode of Inside the Obama White House , NBC 's two @-@ part special documenting one day in the White House of U.S. President Barack Obama ; the show , which aired at 9 p.m. , one hour before " Zebras " , was seen by 9 @.@ 1 million viewers , the most of its time @-@ slot . The two shows made NBC , which had been experiencing poor ratings in recent years , the highest @-@ watched network for the fourth night in a row . " Zebras " received a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 9 % share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , and a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 8 % share among viewers between 18 and 34 . E ! writer Joel Ryan , however , noted that Law & Order : Special Victims Unit had little competition other than re @-@ runs because it aired during the summer season .
= = = Critical response = = =
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly called the death of O 'Halloran and the twist involving Stuckey " very welcome , because they added a fresh element of uncertainty to a show that can be predictable " . Tucker also praised the return of Kelly Bishop as an attorney . In writing of the episode , Nick Zaino of TV Squad said : " Overall , a well @-@ paced , well @-@ written episode , and a whole lot of creepy fun " , and said the scenes with Kane and Belzer were " laugh @-@ out @-@ loud funny " .
= The Winter 's Tale ( 1910 film ) =
The Winter 's Tale is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The plot is an adaptation of The Winter 's Tale by William Shakespeare and requires fore @-@ knowledge of the plot in order to understand the condensed one reel work . The film focuses on the conflict arising from two Kings , one of Bohemia and one of Sicilia , during a meeting . Queen Hermione enrages her jealous husband , Leontes , by entertaining Polixenes . Leontes decides to kill him with poison , but the plan is foiled by the courtier tasked with the assassination . For this , Leontes imprisons his wife . Hermione gives birth to a daughter and Leontes orders the baby to die out in the wilderness . Hermione is then brought before the court and apparently dies after interrogation . Fifteen years pass and Polixenes confronts and then secretly follows his son , appearing as he declares his intention to marry a shepherdess . The two lovers seek protection with Leontes , the King of Sicilia . Mourning and repentant for his past actions , Leontes learns the shepherdess is his daughter and blesses the marriage of the lovers . The royal party goes to see a statue of the late queen Hermoine and is revealed to be alive . The cast includes Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Martin Faust , but the directorial and production credits for the film are unknown . The production was a success for the Thanhouser Company and the film was met with positive reception following its May 27 , 1910 release . The film survives in the Library of Congress , but it is missing the final scene of the production . The surviving print suffers from significant deterioration .
= = Plot = =
The film is an adaptation of The Winter 's Tale by William Shakespeare , the shortened single reel adaption of the play . The film opens with the meeting of the kings of Bohemia and Sicilia . Hermione , the queen of Sicilia , entertains Polixenes , king of Bohemia . This arouses jealousy in Leontes , the king of Sicilia . Leontes decides to poison Polixenes and orders a courtier to carry out the task . The courtier slips the poison into the cup , but he changes his mind and confesses to the murderous plot . Polixenes and the courtier depart safely , but this enrages the Leontes , who has his wife imprisoned . In prison , Hermoine gives birth to a daughter and sends it to her husband , Hoping to quell his anger . This further upsets Leontes and he orders the child to be taken out to the wilderness to die . Hermione is then brought before a tribunal , swoons , and is pronounced dead by Paulina .
In a departure from the play , the film shows Hermoine 's revival and departure to Paulina 's house to dwell in seclusion . The infant princess is raised up by a shepherd of Bohemia . After a time lapse of 15 years , Polixenes confronts his son over his wanderings . He refuses to answer and the king follows him in secret . The prince , disguised as a shepherd , woos the young shepherdess and announces his intention to marry her . The king arrives and forbids it , but a faithful courtier advises them to seek protection of the king of Sicilia . Leontes has long mourned and come to regret his past actions . There , the identity that the shepherdess as his daughter is revealed and the marriage is approved . The royal party is invited to Paulina 's house to view a statue of the late queen Hermoine . At the party , Hermoine disguised as a statue , extend her hand and surprises the grieving Leontes , who then rejoices .
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond as the Queen of Sicilia
Martin Faust as the King of Sicilia
Frank H. Crane as the King of Bohemia
Amelia Barleon as the Princess of Sicilia
Alfred Hanlon as the Prince of Bohemia
= = Production = =
The adaptation of the scenario is credited to Lloyd F. Lonergan and Gertrude Thanhouser . While the director of the film is not known , two directors are possible . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . Bowers does not attribute either as the director for this particular production nor does Bowers credit a cameraman . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
The Thanhouser adaption notably foregoes the famous Shakespearean stage directions : Exit , pursued by a bear. and allows Antigonus a peaceful exit . Another difference in the production is that following the collapse and reported death of Hermione . In the play , the audience is aligns with Leontes ' view and gives no reason to doubt Hermione 's death , but the Thanhouser adaptation shows the mechanism and conspiracy formed by showing Hermione 's revival and departure . Instead of using the Shakespeare character of Time to frame the passage of time , the role is performed by an inter @-@ title . The final scene is missing from the surviving print .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on May 27 , 1910 . The surviving fragment in the Library of Congress is 12 minutes 35 seconds long , but it does not include the final scene with the disguised Queen of Sicilia . The surviving fragment has suffered significant damage due to deterioration . The film was re @-@ released by the Thanhouser Company Film Preservation with a new original score composed and performed by Raymond A. Brubacher .
The film was positively reviewed by the contemporary trade publications that garnered almost universal acclaim . The Moving Picture News stated that this was the first Shakespeare adaptation by an Independent producer and said , " We were asked to inspect and criticize this film , and there was nothing for us to do but give our full approval and applause , which we do right heartily . " The New York Dramatic Mirror praised the production and commented on the clear adaptation of Shakespeare 's work , resulting in an unusually clear presentation of the story . Another review in the The Moving Picture World praised the film in a follow @-@ up to the first review , commenting on the ephemeral nature of the productions by saying " Few , indeed , will be the releases of the month to surpass this , and few , indeed , are the pictures that seem so complete and in every way satisfactory . "
A modern review was given by University of York Professor Judith Buchanan . Buchanan recognizes that the film 's acting was commended for its action and highlights the acting of the fool , placed prominently in the foreground , and says that it seems as if he has been imported from King Lear . This fool serves as an exaggerated proxy for the audience and filters a set of responses for the audience and goes on to steal the reunion scene with his expressions . Buchanan says that adapting the Shakespeare play to the one reel format required foreknowledge of the subject for audiences to intelligibly follow the subject . Buchanan also notes that this transitional period included lecturers who were hired to give supplementary lectures or commentary on the film being exhibited and the additional commentary for Shakespeare adaptations was desirable .
= Equine nutrition =
Equine nutrition is the feeding of horses , ponies , mules , donkeys , and other equines . Correct and balanced nutrition is a critical component of proper horse care .
Horses are non @-@ ruminant herbivores of a type known as a " hindgut fermenter . " Horses have only one stomach , as do humans . However , unlike humans , they also have to utilize plant fiber ( largely cellulose ) that comes from grass and hay . Ruminants like cattle are foregut fermenters , and digest fiber in plant matter by use of a multi @-@ chambered stomach , whereas horses use microbial fermentation in a part of the digestive system known as the cecum ( or caecum ) to break down the cellulose .
In practical terms , horses prefer to eat small amounts of food steadily throughout the day , as they do in nature when grazing on pasture . Although this is not always possible with modern stabling practices and human schedules that favor feeding horses twice a day , it is important to remember the underlying biology of the animal when determining what to feed , how often , and in what quantities .
The digestive system of the horse is somewhat delicate . Horses are unable to regurgitate food , except from the esophagus . Thus , if they overeat or eat something poisonous , vomiting is not an option . They also have a long , complex large intestine and a balance of beneficial microbes in their cecum that can be upset by rapid changes in feed . Because of these factors , they are very susceptible to colic , which is a leading cause of death in horses . Therefore , horses require clean , high @-@ quality feed , provided at regular intervals , and may become ill if subjected to abrupt changes in their diets . Horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins . For this reason , they must never be fed contaminated fermentable materials such as lawn clippings . Fermented silage or " haylage " is fed to horses in some places ; however , contamination or failure of the fermentation process that allows any mold or spoilage may be toxic .
= = The digestive system = =
Horses and other members of the genus Equus are adapted by evolutionary biology to eating small amounts of the same kind of food all day long . In the wild , horses ate prairie grasses in semi @-@ arid regions and traveled significant distances each day in order to obtain adequate nutrition . Therefore , their digestive system was made to work best with a small but steady flow of food that does not change much from day to day .
= = = Chewing and swallowing = = =
Digestion begins in the mouth . First , the animal selects pieces of forage and picks up finer foods , such as grain , with sensitive , prehensile , lips . The front teeth of the horse , called incisors , nip off forage , and food is ground up for swallowing by the premolars and molars .
The esophagus carries food to the stomach . The esoph
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agus enters the stomach at an acute angle , creating a one @-@ way valve , with a powerful sphincter mechanism at the gastroesophageal junction , which is why horses cannot vomit . The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke . ( see Illnesses related to improper feeding below )
= = = The stomach and small intestine = = =
Horses have a small stomach for their size , which limits the amount of feed that can be taken in at one time . The average sized horse has a stomach with a capacity of only 4 US gallons ( 15 l ) , and works best when it contains about 2 US gallons ( 7 @.@ 6 l ) . One reason continuous foraging or several small feedings per day are better than one or two large meals is because the stomach begins to empty when it is two @-@ thirds full , whether the food in the stomach is processed or not .
The small intestine is 50 to 70 feet ( 15 to 21 m ) long and holds 10 US gallons ( 38 l ) to 12 US gallons ( 45 l ) . This is the major digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream . Bile from the liver acts here , combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine itself . Equids do not have a gall bladder , so bile flows constantly , an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food , and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings .
= = = The cecum and large intestine = = =
The cecum is the first section of the large intestine . It is also known as the " water gut " or " hind gut . " It is a blind @-@ ended pouch , about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) long that holds 7 US gallons ( 26 l ) to 8 US gallons ( 30 l ) . The small intestine opens into the cecum , and the cellulose plant fiber in the food is fermented by microbes for approximately seven hours . The fermented material leaves the cecum through another orifice and passes to the large colon . The microbes in the cecum produce vitamin K , B @-@ complex vitamins , proteins , and fatty acids . The reason horses must have their diets changed slowly is so the microbes in the cecum are able to modify and adapt to the different chemical structure of new feedstuffs . Too abrupt a change in diet can cause colic , because new materials are not properly digested .
The large colon , small colon , and rectum make up the remainder of the large intestine . The large colon is 10 to 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) long and holds up to 20 US gallons ( 76 l ) of semi @-@ liquid matter . Its main purpose is to absorb carbohydrates which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum . Due to its many twists and turns , it is a common place for a type of horse colic called an impaction . The small colon is also 10 to 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) long , holds about 5 US gallons ( 19 l ) , is the area where the majority of water is absorbed , and where fecal balls are formed . The rectum is about one foot long , and acts as a holding chamber for waste , which is then expelled from the body via the anus .
= = Nutrients = =
Like all animals , equines require five main classes of nutrients to survive : water , energy ( primarily in the form of fats and carbohydrates ) , proteins , vitamins , and minerals .
= = = Water = = =
Water makes up between 62 @-@ 68 % of a horse 's body weight and is essential for life . Horses can only live a few days without water , becoming dangerously dehydrated if they lose 8 @-@ 10 % of their natural body water . Therefore , it is critically important for horses to have access to a fresh , clean , and adequate supply of water .
An average 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) horse drinks 10 US gallons ( 38 l ) to 12 US gallons ( 45 l ) of water per day , more in hot weather , when eating dry forage such as hay , or when consuming high levels of salt , potassium , and magnesium . Horses drink less water in cool weather or when on lush pasture , which has a higher water content . When under hard work , or if a mare is lactating , water requirements may be as much as four times greater than normal . Though they need a great deal of water , horses spend very little time drinking ; usually 1 – 8 minutes a day , spread out in 2 @-@ 8 episodes .
Water plays an important part in digestion . The forages and grains horses eat are mixed with saliva in the mouth to make a moist bolus that can be easily swallowed . Therefore , horses produce up to 10 US gallons ( 38 l ) or 85 lb. of saliva per day .
= = = Energy nutrients and protein = = =
Nutritional sources of energy are fat and carbohydrates . Protein is a critical building block for muscles and other tissues . Horses that are heavily exercised , growing , pregnant or lactating need increased energy and protein in their diet . However , if a horse has too much energy in its diet and not enough exercise , it can become too high @-@ spirited and difficult to handle .
Fat exists in low levels in plants and can be added to increase the energy density of the diet . Fat has 9 megacalories ( 38 MJ ) per kilogram of energy , which is 2 @.@ 25 times that of any carbohydrate source . Because equids have no gall bladder to store large quantities of bile , which flows continuously from the liver directly into the small intestine , fat , though a necessary nutrient , is difficult for them to digest and utilize in large quantities . However , they are able to digest a greater amount of fat than can cattle . Horses benefit from up to 8 % fat in their diets , but more does not always provide a visible benefit . Horses can only have 15 @-@ 20 % fat in their diet without the risk of developing diarrhea .
Carbohydrates , the main energy source in most rations , are usually fed in the form of hay , grass , and grain . Soluble carbohydrates such as starches and sugars are readily broken down to glucose in the small intestine and absorbed . Insoluble carbohydrates , such as fiber ( cellulose ) , are not digested by the horse 's own enzymes , but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large colon to break down and release their energy sources , volatile fatty acids .
Soluble carbohydrates are found in nearly every feed source ; corn has the highest amount , then barley and oats . Forages normally have only 6 @-@ 8 % soluble carbohydrate , but under certain conditions can have up to 30 % . Sudden ingestion of large amounts of starch or high sugar feeds can cause at the least an indigestion colic , and at the worst potentially fatal colitis or laminitis .
Protein is used in all parts of the body , especially muscle , blood , hormones , hooves , and hair cells . The main building blocks of protein are amino acids . Alfalfa and other legumes in hay are good sources of protein that can be easily added to the diet . Most adult horses only require 8 @-@ 10 % protein in their diet ; however , higher protein is important for lactating mares and young growing foals .
= = = Vitamins and minerals = = =
Horses that are not subjected to hard work or extreme conditions usually have more than adequate amounts of vitamins in their diet if they are receiving fresh , green , leafy forages . Sometimes a vitamin supplement is needed when feeding low @-@ quality hay , if a horse is under stress ( illness , traveling , showing , racing , and so on ) , or not eating well . Grain has a different balance of nutrients than forage , and so requires specialized supplementation to prevent an imbalance of vitamins and minerals .
Minerals are required for maintenance and function of the skeleton , nerves , and muscles . These include calcium , phosphorus , sodium , potassium , and chloride , and are commonly found in most good @-@ quality feeds . Horses also need trace minerals such as magnesium , selenium , copper , zinc , and iodine . Normally , if adult animals at maintenance levels are consuming fresh hay or are on pasture , they will receive adequate amounts of minerals in their diet , with the exception of sodium chloride ( salt ) , which needs to be provided , preferably free choice . Some pastures are deficient in certain trace minerals , including selenium , zinc , and copper , and in such situations , health problems , including deficiency diseases , may occur if horses ' trace mineral intake is not properly supplemented .
Calcium and phosphorus are needed in a specific ratio of between 1 : 1 and 2 : 1 . Adult horses can tolerate up to a 5 : 1 ratio , foals no more than 3 : 1 . A total ration with a higher ratio of phosphorus than calcium is to be avoided . Over time , imbalance will ultimately lead to a number of possible bone @-@ related problems such as osteoporosis .
Foals and young growing horses through their first three to four years have special nutritional needs and require feeds that are balanced with a proper calcium : phosphorus ratio and other trace minerals . A number of skeletal problems may occur in young animals with an unbalanced diet . Hard work increases the need for minerals ; sweating depletes sodium , potassium , and chloride from the horse ’ s system . Therefore , supplementation with electrolytes may be required for horses in intense training , especially in hot weather .
= = Types of feed = =
Equids can consume approximately 2 @-@ 2 @.@ 5 % of their body weight in dry feed each day . Therefore , a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) adult horse could eat up to 25 lb ( 11 kg ) of food . Foals less than six months of age eat 2 @-@ 4 % of their weight each day .
Solid feeds are placed into three categories : forages ( such as hay and grass ) , concentrates ( including grain or pelleted rations ) , and supplements ( such as prepared vitamin or mineral pellets ) . Equine nutritionists recommend that 50 % or more of the animal 's diet by weight should be forages . If a horse is working hard and requires more energy , the use of grain is increased and the percentage of forage decreased so that the horse obtains the energy content it needs for the work it is performing . However , forage amount should never go below 1 % of the horse 's body weight per day .
= = = Forages = = =
Forages , also known as " roughage , " are plant materials classified as legumes or grasses , found in pastures or in hay . Often , pastures and hayfields will contain a blend of both grasses and legumes . Nutrients available in forage vary greatly with maturity of the grasses , fertilization , management , and environmental conditions . Grasses are tolerant of a wide range of conditions and contain most necessary nutrients . Some commonly used grasses include timothy , brome , fescue , coastal Bermuda , orchard grass , and Kentucky bluegrass . Another type of forage sometimes provided to horses is beet pulp , a byproduct left over from the processing of sugar beets , which is high in energy as well as fiber .
Legumes such as clover or alfalfa are usually higher in protein , calcium , and energy than grasses . However , they require warm weather and good soil to produce the best nutrients . Legume hays are generally higher in protein than the grass hays . They are also higher in minerals , particularly calcium , but have an incorrect ratio of calcium to phosphorus . Because they are high in protein , they are very desirable for growing horses or those subjected to very hard work , but the calcium : phosphorus ratio must be balanced by other feeds to prevent bone abnormalities .
Hay is a dried mixture of grasses and legumes . It is cut in the field and then dried and baled for storage . Hay is most nutritious when it is cut early on , before the seed heads are fully mature and before the stems of the plants become tough and thick . Hay that is very green can be a good indicator of the amount of nutrients in the hay ; however , color is not the sole indicator of quality — smell and texture are also important . Hay can be analyzed by many laboratories and that is the most reliable way to tell the nutritional values it contains .
Hay , particularly alfalfa , is sometimes compressed into pellets or cubes . Processed hay can be of more consistent quality and is more convenient to ship and to store . It is also easily obtained in areas that may be suffering localized hay shortages . However , these more concentrated forms can be overfed and horses are somewhat more prone to choke on them . On the other hand , hay pellets and cubes can be soaked until they break apart into a pulp or thick slurry , and in this state are a very useful source of food for horses with tooth problems such as dental disease , tooth loss due to age , or structural anomalies .
Haylage , also known as Round bale silage is a term for grass sealed in airtight plastic bags , a form of forage that is frequently fed in the United Kingdom and continental Europe , but is not often seen in the United States . Because haylage is a type of silage , hay stored in this fashion must remain completely sealed in plastic , as any holes or tears can stop the preservation properties of fermentation and lead to mold or spoilage . Rodents chewing through the plastic can also spoil the hay introducing contamination to the bale . If a rodent dies inside the plastic , the subsequent botulism toxins released can contaminate the entire bale .
Sometimes , straw or chaff is fed to animals . However , this is roughage with little nutritional value other than providing fiber . It is sometimes used as a filler ; it can slow down horses who eat their grain too fast , or it can provide additional fiber when the horse must meet most nutritional needs via concentrated feeds . Straw is more often used as a bedding in stalls to absorb wastes .
= = = Concentrates = = =
= = = = Grains = = = =
Whole or crushed grains are the most common form of concentrated feed , sometimes referred to generically as " oats " or " corn " even if those grains are not present , also sometimes called straights in the UK .
Oats are the most popular grain for horses . Oats have a lower digestible energy value and higher fiber content than most other grains . They form a loose mass in the stomach that is well suited to the equine digestive system . They are also more palatable and digestible than other grains .
Corn ( USA ) , or maize ( British English ) , is the second most palatable grain . It provides twice as much digestible energy as an equal volume of oats and is low in fiber . Because of these characteristics , it is easy to over @-@ feed corn , causing obesity , so horses are seldom fed corn all by itself . Nutritionists caution horse owners that moldy corn is poisonous if fed to horses .
Barley is also fed to horses , but needs to be processed to crack the seed hull and allow easier digestibility . It is frequently fed in combination with oats and corn , a mix informally referred to by the acronym " COB " ( for Corn , Oats and Barley ) .
Wheat is generally not used as a concentrate . However , wheat bran is sometimes added to the diet of a horse for supplemental nutrition , usually moistened and in the form of a bran mash . Wheat bran is high in phosphorus , so must be fed carefully so that it does not cause an imbalance in the Ca : P ratio of a ration . Once touted for a laxative effect , this use of bran is now considered unnecessary , as horses , unlike humans , obtain sufficient fiber in their diets from other sources .
= = = = Mixes and Pellets = = = =
Many feed manufacturers combine various grains and add additional vitamin and mineral supplements to create a complete premixed feed that is easy for owners to feed and of predictable nutritional quality . Some of these prepared feeds are manufactured in pelleted form , others retain the grains in their original form . In many cases molasses is used as a binder to keep down dust and for increased palatability . Grain mixes with added molasses are usually called " sweet feed " in the United States and " coarse mix " in the United Kingdom . Pelleted or extruded feeds ( sometimes referred to as " nuts " in the UK ) may be easier to chew and result in less wasted feed . Horses generally eat pellets as easily as grain . However , pellets are also more expensive , and even " complete " rations do not eliminate the necessity for forage .
= = = = Supplements = = = =
The average modern horse on good hay or pasture with light work usually does not need supplements ; however , horses subjected to stress due to age , intensive athletic work , or reproduction may need additional nutrition . Extra fat and protein are sometimes added to the horse 's diet , along with vitamin and mineral supplements . There are hundreds , if not thousands of commercially prepared vitamin and mineral supplements on the market , many tailored to horses with specialized needs .
Soybean meal is a common protein supplement , and averages about 44 % crude protein . The protein in soybean meal is high @-@ quality , with the proper ratio of dietary essential amino acids for equids . Cottonseed meal , Linseed meal , and peanut meal are also used , but are not as common .
= = Feeding practices = =
Most horses only need quality forage , water , and a salt or mineral block . Grain or other concentrates are often not necessary . But , when grain or other concentrates are fed , quantities must be carefully monitored . To do so , horse feed is measured by weight , not volume . For example , 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of oats has a different volume than 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of corn . When continuous access to feed is not possible , it is more consistent with natural feeding behavior to provide three small feedings per day instead of one or two large ones . However , even two daily feedings is preferable to only one . To gauge the amount to feed , a weight tape can be used to provide a reasonably accurate estimate of a horse 's weight . The tape measures the circumference of the horse 's barrel , just behind the withers and elbows , and the tape is calibrated to convert circumference into approximate weight .
Actual amounts fed vary by the size of the horse , the age of the horse , the climate , and the work to which the animal is put . In addition , genetic factors play a role . Some animals are naturally easy keepers ( good doers ) , which means that they can thrive on small amounts of food and are prone to obesity and other health problems if overfed . Others are hard keepers ( poor doers ) , meaning that they are prone to be thin and require considerably more food to maintain a healthy weight .
Veterinarians are usually a good source for recommendations on appropriate types and amounts of feed for a specific horse . Animal nutritionists are also trained in how to develop equine rations and make recommendations . There are also numerous books written on the topic . Feed manufacturers usually offer very specific guidelines for how to select and properly feed products from their company , and in the United States , the local office of the Cooperative Extension Service can provide educational materials and expert recommendations .
= = = Feeding forages = = =
Equids always require forage . When possible , nutritionists recommend it be available at all times , at least when doing so does not overfeed the animal and lead to obesity . It is safe to feed a ration that is 100 % forage ( along with water and supplemental salt ) , and any feed ration should be at least 50 % forage . Hay with alfalfa or other legumes has more concentrated nutrition and so is fed in smaller amounts than grass hay , though many hays have a mixture of both types of plant .
When beet pulp is fed , a ration of 2 lb ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) to 5 lb ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) is usually soaked in water for 3 to 4 hours prior to feeding in order to make it more palatable , and to minimize the risk of choke and other problems . It is usually soaked in a proportion of one part beet pulp to two parts water . Beet pulp is usually fed in addition to hay , but occasionally is a replacement for hay when fed to very old horses who can no longer chew properly . It is available in both pelleted and shredded form , pellets must be soaked significantly longer than shredded beet pulp .
Some pelleted rations are designed to be a " complete " feed that contains both hay and grain , meeting all the horse 's nutritional needs . However , even these rations should have some hay or pasture provided , a minimum of a half @-@ pound of forage for every 100 lb ( 45 kg ) of horse , in order to keep the digestive system functioning properly and to meet the horse 's urge to graze .
When horses graze under natural conditions , they may spend up to 18 hours per day doing so . However , on modern irrigated pastures , they may have their nutritional needs for forage met in as little as three hours per day , depending on the quality of grass available .
Recent studies address the level of various non @-@ structural carbohydrates ( NSC ) , such as fructan , in forages . Too high an NSC level causes difficulties for animals prone to laminitis or equine polysaccharide storage myopathy ( EPSM ) . NSC cannot be determined by looking at forage , but hay and pasture grasses can be tested for NSC levels .
= = = Feeding concentrates = = =
Concentrates , when fed , are recommended to be provided in quantities no greater than 1 % of a horse 's body weight per day , and preferably in two or more feedings . If a ration needs to contain a higher percent of concentrates , such as that of a race horse , bulky grains such as oats should be used as much as possible ; a loose mass of feed helps prevent impaction colic . Peptic ulcers are linked to a too @-@ high concentration of grain in the diet , particularly noticed in modern racehorses , where some studies show such ulcers affecting up to 90 % of all race horses .
In general , the portion of the ration that should be grain or other concentrated feed is 0 @-@ 10 % grain for mature idle horses ; between 20 @-@ 70 % for horses at work , depending on age , intensity of activity , and energy requirements . Concentrates should not be fed to horses within one hour before or after a heavy workout . Concentrates also need to be adjusted to level of performance . Not only can excess grain and inadequate exercise lead to behavior problems , it may also trigger serious health problems that include Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis , or " tying up , " in horses prone to the condition . Another possible risk are various forms of horse colic . A relatively uncommon , but usually fatal concern is colitis @-@ X , which may be triggered by excess protein and lack of forage in the diet that allows for the multiplication of clostridial organisms , and is exacerbated by stress .
= = = Access to water = = =
Horses normally require free access to all the fresh , clean water they want , and to avoid dehydration , should not be kept from water longer than four hours at any one time . However , water may need to be temporarily limited in quantity when a horse is very hot after a heavy workout . As long as a hot horse continues to work , it can drink its fill at periodic intervals , provided that common sense is used and that an overheated horse is not forced to drink from extremely cold water sources . But when the workout is over , a horse needs to be cooled out and walked for 30 – 90 minutes before it can be allowed all the water it wants at one time . However , dehydration is also a concern , so some water needs to be offered during the cooling off process . A hot horse will properly rehydrate while cooling off if offered a few swallows of water every three to five minutes while being walked . Sometimes the thirst mechanism does not immediately kick in following a heavy workout , which is another reason to offer periodic refills of water throughout the cooling down period .
Even a slightly dehydrated horse is at higher risk of developing impaction colic . Additionally , dehydration can lead to weight loss because the horse cannot produce adequate amounts of saliva , thus decreasing the amount of feed and dry forage consumed . Thus , it is especially important for horse owners to encourage their horses to drink when there is a risk of dehydration ; when horses are losing a great deal of water in hot weather due to strenuous work , or in cold weather due to horses ' natural tendency to drink less when in a cold environment . To encourage drinking , owners may add electrolytes to the feed , additives to make the water especially palatable ( such as apple juice ) , or , when it is cold , to warm the water so that it is not at a near @-@ freezing temperature .
= = = Special feeding issues for Ponies = = =
Ponies and miniature horses are usually easy keepers and need less feed than full @-@ sized horses . This is not only because they are smaller , but also , because they evolved under harsher living conditions than horses , they use feed more efficiently . Ponies easily become obese from overfeeding and are at high risk for colic and , especially , laminitis . Fresh grass is a particular danger to ponies ; they can develop laminitis in as little as one hour of grazing on lush pasture .
Incorrect feeding is also as much a concern as simple overfeeding . Ponies and miniatures need a diet relatively low in sugars and starches and calories , but higher in fibers . Miniature horses in particular need fewer calories pound for pound than a regular horse , and are more prone to hyperlipemia than regular horses , and are also at higher risk of developing equine metabolic syndrome .
It is important to track the weight of a pony carefully , by use of a weight tape . Forages may be fed based on weight , at a rate of about 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of forage for every 100 lb ( 45 kg ) . Forage , along with water and a salt and mineral block , is all most ponies require . If a hard @-@ working pony needs concentrates , a ratio of no more than 30 % concentrates to 70 % forage is recommended . Concentrates designed for horses , with added vitamins and minerals , will often provide insufficient nutrients at the small serving sizes needed for ponies . Therefore , if a pony requires concentrates , feed and supplements designed specially for ponies should be used . In the UK , extruded pellets designed for ponies are sometimes called " pony nuts . " .
= = = Special feeding issues for mules and donkeys = = =
Like ponies , mules and donkeys are also very hardy and generally need less concentrated feed than horses . Mules need less protein than horses and do best on grass hay with a vitamin and mineral supplement . If mules are fed concentrates , they only need about half of what a horse requires . Like horses , mules require fresh , clean water , but are less likely to over @-@ drink when hot .
Donkeys , like mules , need less protein and more fiber than horses . Although the donkey ’ s gastrointestinal tract has no marked differences in structure to that of the horse , donkeys are more efficient at digesting food and thrive on less forage than a similar sized pony . They only need to eat 1 @.@ 5 % of their body weight per day in dry matter . It is not fully understood why donkeys are such efficient digestors , but it is thought that they may have a different microbial population in the large intestine than do horses , or possibly an increased gut retention time .
Donkeys do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods , as is natural for them in an arid climate . They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought . If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture , they require hay or a similar dried forage , with no more than a 1 : 4 ratio of legumes to grass . They also require salt and mineral supplements , and access to clean , fresh water . Like ponies and mules , in a lush climate , donkeys are prone to obesity and are at risk of laminitis .
= = = Treats = = =
Many people like to feed horses special treats such as carrots , sugar cubes , peppermint candies , or specially manufactured horse " cookies . " Horses do not need treats , and due to the risk of colic or choke , many horse owners do not allow their horses to be given treats . There are also behavioral issues that some horses may develop if given too many treats , particularly a tendency to bite if hand @-@ fed , and for this reason many horse trainers and riding instructors discourage the practice .
However , if treats are allowed , carrots and compressed hay pellets are common , nutritious , and generally not harmful . Apples are also acceptable , though it is best if they are first cut into slices . Horse " cookies " are often specially manufactured out of ordinary grains and some added molasses . They generally will not cause nutritional problems when fed in small quantities . However , many types of human foods are potentially dangerous to a horse and should not be fed . This includes bread products , meat products , candy , and carbonated or alcoholic beverages .
It was once a common practice to give horses a weekly bran mash of wheat bran mixed with warm water and other ingredients . It is still done regularly in some places . While a warm , soft meal is a treat many horses enjoy , and was once considered helpful for its laxative effect , it is not nutritionally necessary . An old horse with poor teeth may benefit from food softened in water , a mash may help provide extra hydration , and a warm meal may be comforting in cold weather , but horses have far more fiber in their regular diet than do humans , and so any assistance from bran is unnecessary . There is also a risk that too much wheat bran may provide excessive phosphorus , unbalancing the diet , and a feed of unusual contents fed only once a week could trigger a bout of colic .
= = Feed storage = =
All hay and concentrated feeds must be kept dry and free of mold , rodent feces , and other types of contamination that may cause illness in horses . Feed kept outside or otherwise exposed to moisture can develop mold quite quickly . Due to fire hazards , hay is often stored under an open shed or under a tarp , rather than inside a horse barn itself , but should be kept under some kind of cover . Concentrates take up less storage space , are less of a fire hazard , and are usually kept in a barn or enclosed shed . A secure door or latched gate between the animals and any feed storage area is critical . Horses accidentally getting into stored feed and eating too much at one time is a common but preventable way that horses develop colic or laminitis . ( see Illnesses related to improper feeding below )
It is also important to never give a horse feed that was contaminated by the remains of a dead animal . This is a potential source of botulism . This is not an uncommon situation . For example , mice and birds can get into poorly stored grain and be trapped ; hay bales sometimes accidentally contain snakes , mice , or other small animals that were caught in the baling machinery during the harvesting process .
= = Feeding behavior = =
Horses can become anxious or stressed if there are long periods of time between meals . They also do best when they are fed on a regular schedule ; they are creatures of habit and easily upset by changes in routine . When horses are in a herd , their behavior is hierarchical ; the higher @-@ ranked animals in the herd eat and drink first . Low @-@ status animals , who eat last , may not get enough food , and if there is little available feed , higher @-@ ranking horses may keep lower @-@ ranking ones from eating at all . Therefore , unless a herd is on pasture that meets the nutritional needs of all individuals , it is important to either feed horses separately , or spread feed out in separate areas to be sure all animals get roughly equal amounts of food to eat . In some situations where horses are kept together , they may still be placed into separate herds , depending on nutritional needs ; overweight horses are kept separate from thin horses so that rations may be adjusted accordingly . Horses may also eat in undesirable ways , such as bolting their feed , or eating too fast . This can lead to either choke or colic under some circumstances .
= = Dental issues = =
Horses ' teeth continually erupt throughout their life , are worn down as they eat , and can develop uneven wear patterns that can interfere with chewing . For this reason , horses need a dental examination at least once a year , and particular care must be paid to the dental needs of older horses . The process of grinding off uneven wear patterns on a horse 's teeth is called floating and can be performed by a veterinarian or a specialist in equine dentistry .
= = Illnesses related to improper feeding = =
Colic , choke , and laminitis can be life @-@ threatening when a horse is severely affected , and veterinary care is necessary to properly treat these conditions . Other conditions , while not life @-@ threatening , may have serious implications for the long @-@ term health and soundness of a horse .
= = = Colic = = =
Horse colic itself is not a disease , but rather a description of symptoms connected to abdominal pain . It can occur due to any number of digestive upsets , from mild bloating due to excess intestinal gas to life @-@ threatening impactions . Colic is most often caused by a change in diet , either a planned change that takes place too quickly , or an accidental change , such as a horse getting out of its barn or paddock and ingesting unfamiliar plants . But colic has many other possible triggers including insufficient water , an irregular feeding schedule , stress , and illness . Because the horse cannot vomit and has a limited capacity to detoxify harmful substances , anything upsetting to the horse must travel all the way through the digestive system to be expelled .
= = = Choke = = =
Choke is not as common as colic , but is nonetheless commonly considered a veterinary emergency . The most common cause of choke is horses not chewing their food thoroughly , usually because of eating their food too quickly , especially if they do not have sufficient access to water , but also sometimes due to dental problems that make chewing painful . It is exceedingly difficult for a horse to expel anything from the esophagus , and immediate treatment is often required . Unlike choking in humans , choke in horses does not cut off respiration .
= = = Laminitis = = =
Horses are also susceptible to laminitis , a disease of the lamina of the hoof . Laminitis has many causes , but the most common is related to a sugar and starch overload from a horse overeating certain types of food , particularly too much pasture grass high in fructan in early spring and late fall , or by consuming excessive quantities of grain .
= = = Growth disorders = = =
Young horses that are overfed or are fed a diet with an improper calcium : phosphorus ratio over time may develop a number of growth and orthopedic disorders , including osteochondrosis ( OCD ) , angular limb deformities ( ALD ) , and several conditions grouped under the popular term " contracted tendons . " If not properly treated , damage can be permanent . However , they can be treated if caught in time , given proper veterinary care , and any improper feeding practices are corrected . Young horses being fed for rapid growth in order to be shown or sold as yearlings are at particularly high risk . Adult horses with an improper diet may also develop a range of metabolic problems .
= = = Heaves = = =
Moldy or dusty hay fed to horses is the most common cause of Recurrent airway obstruction , also known as COPD or " heaves . " This is a chronic condition of horses involving an allergic bronchitis characterized by wheezing , coughing , and labored breathing .
= = = " Tying up " = = =
Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis , also known as " tying up " or azoturia , is a condition to which only some horses are susceptible and most cases are linked to a genetic mutation . In horses prone to the condition , it usually occurs when a day of rest on full grain ration is followed by work the next day . This pattern of clinical signs led to the archaic nickname , " Monday morning sickness . " The condition may also be related to electrolyte imbalance . Proper diet management may help minimize the risk of an attack .
= Pinkerton ( album ) =
Pinkerton is the second studio album by the American rock band Weezer , released on September 24 , 1996 on DGC Records . After abandoning plans for a rock opera titled Songs from the Black Hole , Weezer recorded Pinkerton between songwriter Rivers Cuomo 's terms at Harvard University , where he wrote much of the album .
To better capture their live sound , Weezer produced Pinkerton themselves , creating a darker , more abrasive album than their 1994 self @-@ titled debut . Cuomo 's lyrics express disillusionment with the rock lifestyle ; the album is named after the character BF Pinkerton from Giacomo Puccini 's 1904 opera Madama Butterfly , whom Cuomo described as an " asshole American sailor similar to a touring rock star " . Like the opera , the album contains references to Japanese culture .
Pinkerton debuted at number 19 on the US Billboard 200 and fell short of sales expectations after the success of Weezer 's debut . It initially received mixed reviews , but went on to achieve cult status and wide acclaim years later ; the 2010 " Deluxe Edition " reissue holds a perfect score on aggregate review website Metacritic . The album produced three singles : " El Scorcho " , " The Good Life " and " Pink Triangle " . It is the last Weezer album to feature bassist Matt Sharp .
= = Background = =
In 1994 , after the multi @-@ platinum success of Weezer 's self @-@ titled debut album , Weezer took a break from touring for the Christmas holidays . In his home state of Connecticut , songwriter Rivers Cuomo began preparing material for Weezer 's next album using an 8 @-@ track recorder . His original concept was a science fiction rock opera titled Songs from the Black Hole that expressed his mixed feelings about success . Weezer developed Songs from the Black Hole through intermittent recording sessions throughout 1995 .
In March , Cuomo , who was born with one leg shorter than the other , had extensive leg surgery to lengthen his right leg , followed by painful physiotherapy sessions . This affected his songwriting , as he would spend long periods hospitalized , unable to walk without the use of a cane , and under the influence of painkillers . In the same period , Cuomo applied to study classical composition at Harvard University with an application letter describing his disillusionment with the rock lifestyle , writing :
Fans ask me all the time what it is like to be a rock star . I can tell that they are dreaming , as I dreamed , when I was a kid , of someday ruling the world with a rock band . I tell them the same thing I would tell any young rock @-@ star @-@ to @-@ be [ ... ] you will get lonely . You will meet two hundred people every night , but each conversation will generally last approximately thirty seconds , and consist of you trying to convince them that no , you do not want their underwear . Then you will be alone again , in your motel room . Or you will be on your bus , in your little space , trying to kill the nine hours it takes to get to the next city , whichever city it is . This is the life of a rock star .
Cuomo felt frustrated by the " limitations of rock " . Every night after performing with Weezer , he would listen to Giacomo Puccini 's 1904 opera Madama Butterfly ; the " depth of emotion and sadness and tragedy " inspired him to go further with his music . By May 1996 , Cuomo 's songwriting had become " darker , more visceral and exposed , less playful " , and the Songs from the Black Hole concept was abandoned . Weezer 's second album would instead feature songs written while Cuomo was at Harvard , chronicling his loneliness and frustration , or what Cuomo referred to as his " dark side " .
= = Recording = =
In 1995 , a few days before Cuomo left to study at Harvard University , Weezer gathered for two weeks of recording at New York City 's Electric Lady Studios where they had recorded their debut , and tracked the songs " Why Bother ? " , " Getchoo " , " No Other One " and " Tired of Sex " . Weezer hoped to explore " deeper , darker , more experimental stuff " which would better resemble the band 's live sound ; to this end , they decided against hiring a producer , feeling that " the best way for us to sound like ourselves is to record on our own . " To give the album a live , " raw " feel , Cuomo , guitarist Brian Bell and bassist Matt Sharp recorded their vocals in tandem around three microphones rather than overdubbing them separately .
While Cuomo was at Harvard , other Weezer members worked on side projects . Sharp promoted the debut album by his band The Rentals . Bell and drummer Patrick Wilson worked on material for their bands the Space Twins and the Special Goodness , respectively . In January 1996 , during Cuomo 's winter break , Weezer regrouped for a two @-@ week recording session at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California to complete the songs they had worked on the previous August . After recording new songs " El Scorcho " and " Pink Triangle " , Weezer separated again while Cuomo returned to Harvard .
During Cuomo 's 1996 spring break , Weezer regrouped at Sound City Studios and recorded three new songs , " The Good Life " , " Across the Sea " and " Falling for You " , before Cuomo returned to Harvard for his university finals . The band put the finishing touches on the album in the summer of 1996 in Los Angeles . Two additional tracks , " I Swear It 's True " and " Getting Up and Leaving " , were abandoned prior to the mixing process .
= = Writing and composition = =
Pinkerton features a darker , more abrasive sound than Weezer 's debut . Writing from a more direct and personal perspective , Cuomo wrote of his dysfunctional relationships , sexual frustration , and struggles with identity . The album charts his " cycle between ' lame @-@ o and partier ' . " At just under thirty @-@ five minutes , Pinkerton is , according to Cuomo , " short by design . "
The album 's first song , " Tired of Sex " , written before the release of the Blue Album , has Cuomo describing meaningless sex encounters with groupies , reciting his list of encounters and wondering why true love eludes him . " Across the Sea " was inspired by a letter Cuomo received from a Japanese fan : " When I got the letter , I fell in love with her . It was such a great letter . I was very lonely at the time , but at the same time I was very depressed that I would never meet her . " Second single " The Good Life " chronicles the rebirth of Cuomo after an identity crisis as an Ivy League loner . Cuomo , who felt isolated at Harvard , wrote the song after " becoming frustrated with that hermit 's life I was leading , the ascetic life . And I think I was starting to become frustrated with my whole dream about purifying myself and trying to live like a monk or an intellectual and going to school and holding out for this perfect , ideal woman . And so I wrote the song . And I started to turn around and come back the other way . " Lead single " El Scorcho " addresses Cuomo 's shyness and inability to approach a girl while at Harvard ; he explained that the song " is more about me , because at that point I hadn 't even talked to the girl , I didn 't really know much about her . " The album 's final single , " Pink Triangle " , describes a man who falls in love and wants to get married , but discovers the object of his devotion is a lesbian .
= = Themes = =
Pinkerton is named after the character BF Pinkerton from Madama Butterfly , who marries a Japanese woman named Butterfly . Calling him an " asshole American sailor similar to a touring rock star " , Cuomo felt the character was " the perfect symbol for the part of myself that I am trying to come to terms with on this album . " Other titles considered included Playboy and Diving into the Wreck ( after a poem by Adrienne Rich ) .
Like Madama Butterfly , Pinkerton views Japanese culture from the perspective of an outsider who considers Japan fragile and sensual ; the album infuses the Japanese allusions with its narrator 's romantic disappointments and sexual frustration . Cuomo wrote that Pinkerton " is really the clash of East vs West . My hindu , zen , kyokushin , self @-@ denial , self @-@ abnegation , no @-@ emotion , cool @-@ faced side versus my Italian @-@ American heavy metal side . " He stated that " the ten songs are sequenced in the order in which I wrote them ( with two minor exceptions ) . So as a whole , the album kind of tells the story of my struggle with my inner Pinkerton . "
= = = Artwork = = =
The artwork on the album 's cover is Kambara yoru no yuki ( " Night snow at Kambara " ) , print number 16 in Japanese ukiyo @-@ e artist Hiroshige 's popular 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō series . Lyrics from Madama Butterfly are printed on the Pinkerton CD in their original Italian : " Everywhere in the world , the roving Yankee takes his pleasure and his profit , indifferent to all risks . He drops anchor at random ... "
Behind the album 's CD tray is a map with the title " Isola della farfalla e penisola di cane " ( Italian for " Island of the Butterfly and Peninsula of Dog " ) ; on the map are a ship named USS Pinkerton and " Mykel and Carli Island " , an allusion to Weezer 's fan club founders . The map includes the names of some of Cuomo 's influences , including Howard Stern , Yngwie Malmsteen , Brian Wilson , Lou Barlow , Joe Matt , Camille Paglia and Ace Frehley .
= = Release and promotion = =
Geffen A & R rep Todd Sullivan described Pinkerton as a " very brave record , " but worried : " What sort of light does this put the band in ? It could have been interpreted as them being a disposable pop band . " The label was pleased with the record and felt that " no one 's going to be disappointed " .
Weezer turned down a video treatment for lead single " El Scorcho " proposed by Spike Jonze , who had previously helped raise the band 's status with his videos for " Undone – The Sweater Song " and " Buddy Holly " . Cuomo explained : " I really don 't want the songs to come across untainted this time around ... I really want to communicate my feelings directly and because I was so careful in writing that way . I 'd hate for the video to kinda misrepresent the song , or exaggerate certain aspects . " The final video featured the band playing in an assembly hall in Los Angeles , surrounded by light fixtures flashing in time to the music . Mark Romanek , the video 's director , quit after numerous arguments with Cuomo , leaving Cuomo to edit the video himself . The video debuted on MTV 's 120 Minutes and received moderate airplay .
A day before Pinkerton was to be released on September 24 , 1996 , a restraining order was obtained against the band and Geffen by Encino , California @-@ based security firm Pinkerton 's Inc . The company sued Weezer and Geffen for alleged federal trademark infringement , claiming they were trying to capitalize on the company 's reputation . Under the terms of the restraining order , which had Pinkerton 's Inc seeking two million dollars in damages , Weezer would be kept from " selling , distributing , or advertising an album with the name Pinkerton . " Geffen spokesman Dennis Dennehy defended the title , arguing that " to Weezer , Pinkerton is a character in Puccini 's opera Madama Butterfly ... It was not meant to be aimed at any sort of corporate entity . " Cuomo wrote a six @-@ page paper defending his choice of the title , explaining " why I chose it , and how it works for the album , and how it 's essential . " The case was thrown out of court after the judge determined that " the hardship of not issuing the Pinkerton disc would be greater for Geffen than any hardship Pinkerton 's Inc or its shareholders might incur from consumers who mistakenly presume the company has anything to do with the album . "
As it became apparent that Pinkerton was not meeting expected sales figures , Weezer felt pressure to make another music video more to the liking of MTV . The music video for " The Good Life " , directed by Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris , stars Mary Lynn Rajskub as a pizza delivery girl and uses simultaneous camera angles appearing on screen as a fractured full image . Geffen rush @-@ released the video to try to save the commercially failing album , but was not successful .
In October 1996 , the band toured the Far East with concert appearances in Australia , New Zealand and Japan . Afterwards , the band flew home to Los Angeles , where Patrick Wilson and Matt Sharp made a promotional appearance on the nationally syndicated radio show Modern Rock Live in an attempt to improve the album 's standing on the US album charts . A few days later , on November 1 , Weezer launched its tour of North America at the Ventura Theatre in Ventura , California . On November 6 , Weezer performed an acoustic set at Shorecrest High School in Seattle due to a contest won by a student . A few of the songs performed at the acoustic set were released in 1997 on the Good Life EP . Weezer continued to tour until Christmas 1996 .
= = = " Deluxe edition " and demo releases = = =
In July 2009 , Karl Koch , the webmaster for Weezer 's website , revealed that Weezer was preparing a " deluxe edition " of Pinkerton . On November 20 , 2010 , the reissue debuted at number six on the Billboard Catalog Albums chart .
On December 12 , 2011 , Cuomo released the third album of his demos , Alone III : The Pinkerton Years . It comprises demos recorded between 1993 and 1996 , when Cuomo was studying at Harvard and writing material for Pinkerton and the abandoned Songs from the Black Hole project . The album was included with a book , The Pinkerton Diaries , which collects Cuomo 's writings from the era .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial = = =
Pinkerton peaked at number 19 on the US Billboard charts , falling far short of sales of its multi @-@ platinum predecessor , The Blue Album . Initial reviews were mixed . Jeff Gordinier of Entertainment Weekly criticized Weezer 's choice to self @-@ produce the album and dismissed it as " a collection of get @-@ down party anthems for agoraphobics " . Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob O 'Connor called the songwriting " juvenile " and described the song " Tired of Sex " as " aimless " . Rolling Stone readers voted the album the third worst of 1996 .
Melody Maker praised Pinkerton 's music , but advised the listener " to ignore the lyrics entirely . " NME praised the album , writing that " by the time the affecting acoustic lament ' Butterfly ' wafts in like Big Star at a wildlife protection meeting , Pinkerton starts feeling like a truly moving album . " Pitchfork awarded the album 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , writing that " Pinkerton might actually be a bit much for fans who were wooed with the clean production and immediately accessible sound of these guys ' debut , but if given a chance , it might surprise even some anti @-@ Weezer folk . "
Cuomo was embarrassed by the album 's mixed reception and the confessional nature of its songs . In August 1997 , he wrote : " This has been a tough year . It 's not just that the world has said Pinkerton isn 't worth a shit , but that the Blue album wasn 't either . It was a fluke . It was the [ " Buddy Holly " ] video . I 'm a shitty songwriter . " In 2001 , he told Entertainment Weekly : " It 's a hideous record ... It was such a hugely painful mistake that happened in front of hundreds of thousands of people and continues to happen on a grander and grander scale and just won 't go away . It 's like getting really drunk at a party and spilling your guts in front of everyone and feeling incredibly great and cathartic about it , and then waking up the next morning and realizing what a complete fool you made of yourself . "
= = = Retrospect = = =
Despite its mixed initial reception , Pinkerton has had enduring sales ; by August 2009 , it had sold 852 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and was certified gold . In later years it garnered critical acclaim and cult status through internet word @-@ of @-@ mouth , and eventually came to be considered among Weezer 's best work by fans and critics .
In 2002 , Rolling Stone readers voted Pinkerton the 16th greatest album of all time . In 2004 , Rolling Stone gave the album a new review , awarding it five stars out of five and adding it to the " Rolling Stone Hall of Fame " . In 2005 , Spin named it number 61 in its list of the 100 best albums from 1985 to 2005 . In 2003 , Pitchfork placed Pinkerton at # 53 on their " Top 100 Albums of the 1990s " list , and also gave it a perfect rating . In 2007 , Drowned in Sound praised it as " the ultimate break @-@ up album , the best unrequited love album and the greatest collection of confused emotions captured in the universe ... EVER ! " Guitar World ranked it # 76 on its list of the " Top 100 Guitar Albums of All @-@ Time " . New Zealand 's The Movement placed it # 12 on its list of " The 101 Best Albums of the 90s " and Pure Pop of Mexico ranked it # 21 on its list of " The 50 Best Albums of the 90s . " It received perfect scores from both AllMusic and Tiny Mix Tapes , the latter calling it " one of the best albums of the 20th century . " The 2010 " Deluxe Edition " reissue holds a perfect 100 out of 100 score ( indicating " universal acclaim " ) on aggregate review website Metacritic .
By 2008 , Cuomo had reconsidered the album , saying : " Pinkerton 's great . It 's super @-@ deep , brave , and authentic . Listening to it , I can tell that I was really going for it when I wrote and recorded a lot of those songs . " In 2010 , Brian Bell told The Aquarian Weekly : " Pinkerton has definitely taken on a life of its own and became more successful and more accepted ... As an artist , you just have to do what you believe in at the time , whether it ’ s accepted or not . You just have to keep going with it . " In 2015 , following the Pinkerton reissue and the " Memories " tour , in which Weezer performed Blue and Pinkerton in their entirety , Cuomo said :
The experience of learning those songs again , singing them every night , working on them with the guys , and then being in a relatively small venue with 1 @,@ 000 of the most hardcore Weezer fans and hearing them sing every syllable , seeing them air @-@ drum all the fills — it was such an amazing experience and so different from what we 'd been doing the years before that ... So it was a great feeling of validation from the fans , for this album that was so personal to me and had been such a source of pain for years .
Pinkerton has been influential on acts including Manchester Orchestra , Yellowcard , Saves the Day , Taking Back Sunday , The Ataris , Thursday , the Used , The Brobecks , Dashboard Confessional , The Promise Ring , The Long Goodbye , and Rye Coalition .
= = = Accolades = = =
Pinkerton has featured in several music publication " best of " lists .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Rivers Cuomo , except where noted .
= = = Deluxe Edition = = =
= = Sales chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Personnel = =
All information is derived from the booklet enclosed with the album .
Weezer
Rivers Cuomo – guitar , vocals , keyboards , xylophone
Patrick Wilson – drums
Brian Bell – guitar , backing vocals
Matt Sharp – bass , backing vocals
Karl Koch – percussion on " Butterfly "
Production
= Chamois Niortais F.C. =
Chamois Niortais Football Club ( often referred to as simply Les Chamois ) is a French association football club based in the commune of Niort , in the Deux @-@ Sèvres department of western France . It was founded in 1925 by Charles Boinot , the son of the owner of a local chamois leather factory . The club 's badge shows a chamois goat standing on a football . The club 's home stadium is the Stade René Gaillard in Niort , which has a capacity of 10 @,@ 898 although in the last 20 years attendances have generally averaged below 5 @,@ 000 per match due to the club 's relatively small fan base . Chamois Niortais has traditionally played in an entirely blue home strip , although away strips regularly differ .
For the first 20 years of the club 's existence they played in local leagues around the Centre @-@ Ouest region . In 1945 , after the Second World War , the side joined the Championnat de France amateur . They achieved promotion to Division 3 in 1970 and stayed in the division for the following eight seasons . Between 1980 and 1984 , the team played in Division 4 before winning promotion back to Division 3 . The club gained professional status for the first time the following year when they were promoted to Division 2 . After another promotion in 1987 , they played in Division 1 for the only time in the 1987 – 88 season , but were relegated after one season .
Chamois Niortais were relegated to the Championnat National in 2008 , and relegated again a season later , thereby losing their professional status . After finishing as runners @-@ up in the Championnat National , the team were promoted back to Ligue 2 for the 2012 – 13 season .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
After the First World War , local chamois leather factory owner , Theophile Boinot , established the first sports club in Niort , Amicale Club Niortais . Soon after , the football section of the club was founded and named Étoile Sportive Niortaise . In 1923 , many players were conscripted into the French army . In 1925 , a number of the players returned to the town and Boinot 's son , Charles , set up the first proper association football team in the town , which he named Chamois Niortais Football Club .
For the first season , the presidency of the club was entrusted to Jean Gavaggio , a chemical engineer at the Boinot factory . Georges Poussard , also a worker in the factory , was appointed as the club 's first secretary . The original team played in a fully white strip , and competed in the regional championship of the Ligue de Charentes . In 1929 , the Swiss footballer Franchina was named as the club 's first manager and the first committee was elected . Throughout the 1930s the club continued to grow in size , enlisting more players and members , despite the team performing relatively poorly in the league .
For the 1932 – 33 season , Chamois Niortais joined the DH Centre @-@ Ouest , the highest level of regional football in France , and finished eighth in their first season . The side achieved consecutive sixth- and seventh @-@ place finishes in the next two seasons , before being relegated to the Promotion d 'Honneur in 1936 . The team played in the division for three seasons , until they gained promotion back to the DH Centre @-@ Ouest at the end of the 1938 – 39 campaign . In 1939 , Joseph Boinot was appointed president of the club . The following year the club pulled off a major coup with the signing of Czechoslovakia international Ferdinand Faczinek , who played for the club for one season before transferring to FC Sète at the end of the 1940 – 41 campaign , after which the Second World War halted competitive football for two years in France . In 1943 , the club were one of the founder members of the Championnat de France amateur ( CFA ) , the highest level of amateur football in France .
= = = After the Second World War = = =
Chamois Niortais were soon relegated from the CFA and returned to the DH Centre @-@ Ouest in 1945 . Led by Faczinek , who had returned to the club as player @-@ manager in 1943 , the side won the DH Centre @-@ Ouest for three consecutive seasons . Despite this success , Faczinek left the club in 1948 and was replaced by former France international Maurice Banide . The team re @-@ joined the CFA for the 1948 – 49 season and played in the division for the following five campaigns , achieving a second @-@ place finish in 1951 , when they finished behind Stade Quimpérois by five points . In 1953 , the side finished bottom of the division and were relegated back to the DH Centre @-@ Ouest . Following the relegation , manager Nicolas Hibst was sacked and replaced by Georges Hatz , who had previously coached AJ Auxerre . The side remained in the DH Centre @-@ Ouest until 1960 when , under the guidance of Nordine Ben Ali , they won the league title by a single point ahead of Poitiers FC to return to the CFA .
The side struggled in their first season back in the third tier , achieving a tenth @-@ placed finish . After being runners @-@ up in the division for two consecutive seasons in 1961 – 62 and 1962 – 63 , the team secured a number of mid @-@ table league finishes under Kazimir Hnatow . After Hnatow left Chamois Niortais in 1966 , the club 's fortunes on the pitch began to diminish and they were eventually relegated at the end of the 1968 – 69 campaign after ending the season with just 12 points from 26 matches . Upon the restructuring of the league system , the team joined the newly formed Division 3 in 1970 . They played there for the following eight years , but never finished higher than fourth in the division . In 1978 , the club finished last and were again relegated to the fourth level , but were immediately promoted back to Division 3 after finishing as runners @-@ up in 1979 . However , they again finished bottom of the division and in 1980 returned to Division 4 , where they played for the next four seasons . In April 1984 , Patrick Parizon was appointed as manager and the following month , the side secured a third @-@ placed finish to gain promotion back to Division 3 . In 1984 – 85 , the team lost only three matches in the entire campaign as they finished comfortably top of the division . A 2 – 1 victory over Montauban on 18 May 1985 confirmed their promotion to Division 2 for the first time in the history of Chamois Niortais .
= = = Professional status = = =
Thanks to the promotion , Chamois Niortais became a professional club for the 1985 – 86 season . The season began well for the side , as they achieved a 1 – 0 win against USL Dunkerque on 16 July 1985 . They went on to accomplish a respectable fifth @-@ placed finish in their first season with a total of 37 points . The next campaign saw unprecedented success for the team , as they racked up a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run on the way to the league championship . Their title triumph was confirmed with a 2 – 0 victory over US Orléans at the Stade René Gaillard on 23 May 1987 .
The following season turned out to be the club 's only season to date in the top tier of French football . The season began with a 1 – 1 draw with RC Lens and the side 's first victory came against Montpellier HSC on 1 August 1987 . The team also managed a win in their first ever televised match , defeating AS Saint @-@ Étienne 2 – 1 on 18 August 1987 . After a promising start , the team languished around the bottom of the division for the majority of the campaign , and were eventually relegated back to Division 2 on 10 June 1988 , after being beaten 3 – 0 by SM Caen , finishing just one point behind RC Lens .
The relegation saw the end of Patrick Parizon 's reign as head coach as he was replaced by Victor Zvunka . Zvunka remained manager for the following three seasons , until the side were relegated to Division 3 at the end of the 1990 – 91 campaign . The team returned to the second tier after just one season as they comfortably won Division 3 . The next 13 consecutive seasons saw a number of mid @-@ table finishes in Ligue 2 , until a poor 2004 – 05 campaign , in which the team lost 21 of their 38 league matches . Philippe Hinschberger was appointed as the new manager in 2005 , and he successfully escaped from the Championnat National at the first attempt , securing the title with a 2 – 0 victory over Sporting Toulon Var on 13 May 2006 . Niort found the following two seasons difficult in Ligue 2 , finishing 16th in the 2006 – 07 season and then suffering relegation in 2007 – 08 after conceding an injury time goal to US Boulogne .
= = = To regional football and back again = = =
Denis Troch was hired as the club 's new manager in August 2008 , and despite hopes of a swift return to Ligue 2 , the team performed poorly throughout the 2008 – 09 campaign . The side failed to win a league match during the first three months of the season , and that form continued into 2009 . They went into their final match of the season , away at Pacy Vallée @-@ d 'Eure , requiring three points to avoid successive relegations . However , the side could only procure a 0 – 0 draw and were relegated to the Championnat de France amateur for the first time since 1970 . The relegation saw the end of Chamois Niortais 's era as a professional club , as they were forced to become a semi @-@ professional outfit due to the DNCG rules . In June 2009 , Pascal Gastien was appointed as manager for his third spell in charge of the club , handed the task of achieving promotion back to the Championnat National at the first attempt . The club won the CFA Group C that season , and was subsequently promoted back to the National division for the following campaign . Niort secured their third @-@ tier status with an 11th @-@ place finish in the 2010 – 11 season . The following season , the team finished as runners @-@ up in the Championnat National behind Nîmes Olympique to return to Ligue 2 for the 2012 – 13 campaign and regain their professional status .
= = Colours and badge = =
The badge of Chamois Niortais features a chamois goat standing on a football , and the background of the crest is royal blue , which has featured in the club 's home colours since its founding . When the club was founded in 1925 , Chamois Niortais adopted a white strip . Since then , however , the club has usually played in a home strip of royal blue jersey , shorts and socks . In the 2007 – 08 season the team played in a gold and black kit for the first time , to commemorate 20 years since the club competed in Division 1 .
For the following season , the home kit reverted to the usual all @-@ blue strip and the jersey currently has a white sash across it . The away kit for the current season is the reverse of the home strip , and consists of a white jersey with blue sash , white shorts and white socks . For the 2009 – 10 season , the club 's kits are produced by Italian sportswear company , Erreà , and the main shirt sponsor is Cheminées Poujoulat .
= = Stadium = =
When Chamois Niortais were founded , the club had no fixed home ground and played friendly matches at various venues in and around Niort . In 1926 , when the team joined the Ligue du Charentes , the club adopted the small Stade de Genève as their first home . They continued to play at the Stade de Genève for the majority of the following 50 years until , in the early 1970s , it was announced that the side would move into a new stadium . On 3 August 1974 , the Stade Venise Verte was opened , with the inaugural game being an exhibition match between Chamois Niortais and Dynamo Kyiv . Some time later , the stadium was renamed the Stade René Gaillard in honour of René Gaillard , the former mayor of Niort .
At present , the stadium has four stands : the Tribune d 'Honneur , the Tribune Pasages , the Tribune Populaire Nord , and the Tribune Populaire Sud . The four stands currently have a combined capacity of 10 @,@ 898 , with 1 @,@ 324 of these being standing places . The stadium is typical of many continental European grounds , with an athletics track between the pitch and the stands . Next to the stadium there is a small annexed ground where the club 's reserve and youth teams play their matches . The first televised match at the ground took place on 18 August 1987 , when AS Saint @-@ Étienne were beaten 2 – 1 . The record attendance at the stadium was set on 24 October 1987 , when 16 @,@ 715 people saw Chamois Niortais defeat Olympique de Marseille by two goals to one in a Division 1 encounter .
= = Supporters = =
Chamois Niortais have always had a relatively small fan base , with very few fans from outside of the area around Niort . The club has one main supporters ' organisation , named " Unicamox 79 " . The name is taken from " uni " , the French for united , " camox " , the Latin word meaning chamois . The 79 symbolises the department number of Deux @-@ Sèvres . The organisation has no history of violence or extremism , and works closely with the football club to try to improve the atmosphere at home matches .
To date , the highest ever average attendance in a season was 10 @,@ 142 during the club 's Division 1 campaign of 1987 – 88 . Since then , the average attendance has usually been under 5 @,@ 000 spectators . In the 2008 – 09 season , the average was as low as 2 @,@ 348 when the club was playing in the Championnat National .
= = Current squad = =
As of 9 June 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Other teams = = =
The club also fields a reserve team , which competes in the DH Centre @-@ Ouest , and has youth teams ranging from under @-@ 7 to under @-@ 15 .
= = Managers = =
Since the appointment of the first Chamois Niortais manager , the Swiss coach Franchina , there have been 31 different first @-@ team managers . Three of the coaches , Kazimir Hnatow , Robert Charrier and Pascal Gastien , have had more than one spell in charge of the club . The current manager is Pascal Gastien , who was given the job in 2009 after Denis Troch was sacked following the side 's relegation from the Championnat National . Gastien , a former Chamois Niortais player , is currently in his third spell as manager . To date , the only manager to have coached the club in the top division of French football is Patrick Parizon , during the 1987 – 88 season . The club 's longest @-@ serving manager was Ferdinand Faczinek , who had a five @-@ year tenure between 1943 and 1948 .
= = = Managerial history = = =
= = Honours = =
= = Records = =
= = = Club = = =
Biggest win : 9 – 0 ( v. Velles , Coupe de France Seventh Round , November 1997 )
Highest league finish : 18th , Division 1 ( 1987 – 88 )
Record home attendance : 16 @,@ 715 ( v. Marseille – 24 October 1987 )
= = = Players = = =
Most league appearances : 435 – Franck Azzopardi
Most league goals : 51 – Joël Bossis
Most league goals in one season : 17 – Walquir Mota ( 1995 – 96 )
= Thanksgiving Orphans =
" Thanksgiving Orphans " is the ninth episode of the fifth season of the American television sitcom , Cheers , co @-@ written by Cheri Eichen and Bill Steinkeller and directed by James Burrows . It originally aired on November 27 , 1986 , on NBC . The characters do not have families or friends to spend time with , and some of their plans backfire . They gather for a Thanksgiving feast , which degenerates into a food fight . Burrows filmed the food @-@ fight scene ( which was only partially choreographed ) twice .
= = Plot = =
On Thanksgiving , Sam ( Ted Danson ) is with his fiancée Wendy . Frasier ( Kelsey Grammer ) is lonely , and wants some company . Cliff 's mother volunteers to feed the homeless , but Cliff ( John Ratzenberger ) — who has done that during the past year — is unwilling . Norm ( George Wendt ) does not want to go to his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's overheated house , which lacks beer and a television . Woody ( Woody Harrelson ) is still in Indiana , away from his family . Carla 's children are with Nick , her ex @-@ husband . At Diane 's insistence , Carla ( Rhea Perlman ) invites the gang for a Thanksgiving potluck . However , Diane ( Shelley Long ) has been invited to her American literature professor 's annual Thanksgiving party where she hopes to meet William Styron .
The scene in Carla 's new house ( first seen in the 1986 episode , " House of Horrors with Formal Dining and Used Brick " ) begins with Woody , Cliff , and Frasier watching television . Norm arrives with an uncooked turkey and puts it in Carla 's oven while he explains that Vera went to her mother 's house . Sam arrives with dessert , but without Wendy ; she and her sister , who arrived from out of town , did not want to go to Carla 's . Diane then arrives , dressed as a pilgrim . At the professor 's party she discovered that she had been invited to be domestic help , and left in tears . The gang , including a reluctant Carla , decides to allow her to stay for dinner .
They continue watching television for a while until Diane turns it off and forces them to have dinner . In the dining room , when they are eager to eat , Diane tells them to suspend their eating until the turkey is ready . As suppertime comes and goes , the turkey is still very undercooked and the trimmings have gone cold . Carla and Norm start blaming each other for the turkey 's slow cooking . Norm throws some of Carla 's peas at her and then she throws carrots back at him . Cliff throws mashed yams at Frasier , who throws gravy skin back at Cliff but misses and accidentally hits Woody . The whole gang are poised to start a food fight until Diane stands up and loudly tells them to stop . When she is close to scolding them , Sam throws cranberry sauce at her , so the food fight resumes . By the time the food fight ends , the turkey is finally cooked . The gang calms down and decides to eat what they can . Diane comes out of the kitchen and throws a pumpkin pie to spite Sam for throwing the cranberry sauce at her . The pie misses Sam but accidentally hits Vera as she enters . Vera tells Norm to fetch Norm 's own coat , i.e. take her home , and Norm remorsefully agrees .
= = Production = =
Cheri Eichen and Bill Steinkellner wrote the episode and it was directed by James Burrows . Burrows shot the food fight scene twice , with the scene unchoreographed after the point where the character Sam Malone throws cranberry sauce at Diane Chambers ' face . The extended takes resulted in a strong food odor around the set . In one of the food fight takes , the floor was covered with a " plastic tarp " in order to prevent vital materials from being broken while the cast was slipping on the floor during the scene . However , the attempt was ineffective . After the episode aired , the production crew received a few angry letters disapproving of the food fight scene " at a time when world hunger was a political cause du jour . " According to Burrows , the food not used for the scene was donated to charity .
Bernadette Birkett , whose husband George Wendt portrays Norm Peterson , appears in the episode as Norm 's wife Vera , though Birkett is not credited for the role and Vera 's face is never visible to the audience because she is struck by a pumpkin pie thrown by Diane . Birkett had previously appeared in a 1984 episode , " Fairy Tales Can Come True " , as Sharon O 'Hare , who dressed as Tinker Bell on Halloween .
= = Reception = =
The episode aired on NBC on Thanksgiving Day , November 27 , 1986 . For the week ending November 30 , it had the sixth highest Nielsen rating at 21 @.@ 7 , with a 38 share . Leigh Weingus of The Huffington Post included the food fight sequence in a list of the 10 Most Awkward Thanksgiving Scenes of All Time from movies and television . TV Guide ranked it number seven on its 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time list . IGN called it the fourth best Cheers episode , highlighting the witty dialogue and the bonding between characters .
An A.V. Club retrospective group review praised the episode , especially for the food fight . The reviewers also highlighted the effective short reference by the characters to a past colleague , the late Coach Ernie Pantusso , and the setting of much of the episode at Carla 's house rather than the bar . Molly Eichel , one of the reviewers , was especially interested in moments other than the food fight , such as the " childishness " ( also described as " devolution " ) of the characters , Diane 's motherliness toward the gang , and Eichel 's " favorite part " , Vera 's long @-@ awaited appearance , even though her face was covered with pumpkin pie .
= Natural Selection ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =
" Natural Selection " is the third episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , which is based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man , created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . In the episode , Spider @-@ Man must face " The Lizard , " who was a lab professor he was interning for until he was mutated by a serum designed to regrow his missing arm .
" Natural Selection " was written by Matt Wayne , known for his work on Justice League Unlimited , and was the first time he had done so for The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man . David Bullock directed it . " Natural Selection " originally aired on March 15 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! block for The CW network , and met overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics , who praise it for its action sequences , narrative direction , and the new design for Lizard .
= = Plot summary = =
During his patrol , Spider @-@ Man stops a group of thieves who are breaking into a bakery . Simultaneously , Spider @-@ Man takes pictures to give to the Daily Bugle . He happily leaves and makes it back home in times for his curfew , but discovers after developing his photos that he has messed them up . Meanwhile , Dr. Curt Connors injects himself with lizard serum to aid the regrowth of his arm . When he awakes , his arm has regrown , but knowing that he experimented on himself , his wife , Martha , is furious .
At school , Peter is attacked with water balloons by Flash Thompson and his sidekick Kenny Kong , which he dodges until he realizes it might reveal his secret identity as Spider @-@ Man . Gwen steps in and gets everyone to laugh at Flash instead . Gwen and Peter go to the Connors lab and help Eddie clean up from a previous battle with Electro . Martha announces that Curt 's arm had grown back and they celebrate until they realize scales are growing on his arm , determining that the reptilian half of his brain his taking over . Peter tries to comfort the Connors 's son , Billy , but gets interrupted when Curt transforms into a hulking , humanoid lizard and runs off .
While Eddie goes in pursuit , Peter manages to slip out and goes after Connors as Spider @-@ Man . While trying to communicate with him , they end up on a subway train fighting both inside , outside , and underneath it . Finally , Spider @-@ Man falls off the train and Connors escapes . Spider @-@ Man returns to the lab and is given a gene cleanser from Martha which must be administered to Connors orally . He then goes off to Bronx Zoo , where Connors is reportedly at .
Spider @-@ Man enters the lizard room where Connors has taken refuge . Connors knocks him out and Eddie arrives to help him out . When he regains consciousness , Spider @-@ Man comes up with a plan to trick him into the polar bear pond . They almost succeed when Connors is alerted by Spider @-@ Man 's cellphone ringing . Billy then arrives and tries to talk some sense into his father , but it is useless and Spider @-@ Man leaps in to get Connors into the pond . Spider @-@ Man pours the cleanser into the mouth of Connors who , as a result , returns to normal , his arm lost once more .
The next day , Peter gets the Lizard photos published in the Bugle and gets the money he needs . However , when Gwen , Eddie , and the Connors find out , they are outraged that he ran off simply to take pictures and say he has lost their trust . Although Martha understands the difficult choices that Peter had , she fires him . He secretly grabs another vial of gene cleanser and returns home , frustrated about his reputation . Blaming the events that gave him his powers , he is about to take the vial when he sees a photo of himself with Ben . Realizing that he had saved Curt either way , he decides that Spider @-@ Man is needed and hides the vial under his desk .
= = Production = =
" Natural Selection " was the first episode to be written by Matt Wayne . Wayne wrote two other episodes in the first season : " The Invisible Hand " and " Persona . " David Bullock was the episode 's director . Dee Bradley Baker , a voice actor for animated series and video games , continued his role as Dr. Connors / The Lizard .
The episode originally broadcast on March 15 , 2008 , on the Kids WB ! programming block for The CW Network . When Disney XD premiered The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man on March 23 , 2009 , it aired " Natural Selection " after the previous two episodes , " Survival of the Fittest " and " Interactions . "
= = Cultural references = =
Greg Weisman , one of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man 's producers came up with a continuing title scheme that follows " The Education of Peter Parker . " The first three episode titles ( " Survival of the Fittest " , " Interactions " , and " Natural Selection " ) follow a biology theme . Peter 's ringtone is " The Itsy Bitsy Spider . " The episode incorporates several bullet time moments that are referent to the same style employed in The Matrix films .
= = Reception = =
Natural Selection received critical acclaim . Eric Goldman of IGN gave it an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 ( " Great " ) . Goldman praised the Lizard 's design , calling it " the most visually familiar villain the show had introduced yet " and called the fight sequences " great , " especially that of the climactic fight between Spider @-@ Man and Lizard . Goldman called Peter 's loss of the Connors 's and Eddie 's trust " a very well done , classic Peter Parker @-@ can 't @-@ win scenario " and that the episode did a " great job " blending the normal and Spider @-@ Man parts of Peter 's life .
Season Elliot , senior editor of iF Magazine , gave the episode an A- , writing " The Lizard himself was a nice update of the original Lizard and he was still in his torn pants , shirt , and lab coat . " Elliot praised the design for differentiating itself from that used for Spider @-@ Man or Spider @-@ Man : The New Animated Series , and that he " can 't wait for the action figure of this guy ! " Like Goldman and Tanaka , Elliot enjoyed the action style and fight sequences and the callbacks to Lizard 's original comic book appearance .
= Harmondsworth Great Barn =
Harmondsworth Great Barn ( also known as Manor Farm Barn ) is a medieval barn on the former Manor Farm in the village of Harmondsworth , in the London Borough of Hillingdon , England ( previously part of the historic county of Middlesex ) . It is north @-@ west of fields and the A4 next to Heathrow Airport . Built in the early 15th century by Winchester College , it is the largest timber @-@ framed building in England and is regarded as an outstanding example of medieval carpentry . It was described by the English poet John Betjeman as the " Cathedral of Middlesex " . A similar though smaller barn is part of the Manor Farm complex in Ruislip .
The barn was briefly in royal ownership but passed into the hands of three families who continued to use it for agricultural purposes until as late as the 1970s . It was subsequently owned by a property development company which redeveloped the farm complex . After the company went bankrupt in 2006 , the barn was bought by property speculators betting on its compensation value if the nearby Heathrow Airport was expanded . The barn fell into disrepair and was closed to the public for all but one day a year . English Heritage stepped in , using a rare legal procedure to carry out repairs without the owner 's consent , and eventually purchased the barn in January 2012 . It is now open to the public from April to October on the second and fourth Sunday of each month under the management of the Friends of the Great Barn group .
= = Structure = =
The barn measures 58 @.@ 55 metres ( 192 @.@ 1 ft ) long , 11 @.@ 3 metres ( 37 ft ) wide , and 11 @.@ 9 metres ( 39 ft ) high , with twelve bays , running in a north – south direction . It occupies a footprint of about 661 square metres ( 7 @,@ 110 sq ft ) and has an internal volume of about 4 @,@ 890 cubic metres ( 173 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . There are three doors on the east side to permit the entry of wagons . The exterior of the barn is weatherboarded , with a hipped tiled roof . It was originally a much larger structure , with two wings , but the north wing was dismantled in 1774 and rebuilt in the now @-@ demolished hamlet of Heathrow , on the site of the modern airport . The vast majority of the surviving structure is original ; it has been estimated that 95 per cent of the timbers , including the external weatherboarding , have survived from the original building . It has been described by English Heritage as " a supreme example of late @-@ medieval craftsmanship – a masterpiece of carpentry containing one of the best and most intact interiors of its age and type in all of Europe . "
It is an outstanding example of a late medieval aisled barn and is the largest timber @-@ framed building in England . Barns of this type were based on a longitudinal frame , with two rows of posts connected by arcade plates . Because such barns tend to be both long and high , they experience high structural loads from the wind . They therefore have numerous internal braces , acting in much the same way as buttresses , to strengthen the structure . This gives the barn its distinctive internal appearance , with a lattice of beams and braces holding up the roof . The techniques used in its construction are similar to those employed on the great cathedrals being built at the time , and some of the same craftsmen were probably involved .
The barn 's main posts are made of oak . Each is about 14 inches ( 36 cm ) square and sits on a block of Reigate sandstone , a common building material in medieval London . The posts were cut into shape using axes , adzes and saws , the marks from which can still be seen in some instances . The builders cut and fitted the timberwork together on the ground and scratched Roman numerals , called assembly marks , on the joints to indicate where pieces of timber were to be combined . Some of the pairs of main posts were made from the trunks of very large individual trees which were cut in two . They were all placed upside down , relative to the original direction of the tree . This was because the bottom of a tree is always wider than the top ; the greater width was needed to accommodate the joints with the beams that support the roof . Despite the care that the builders took to get the joints right , they may have made some mistakes along the way , as some of the timbers have holes for pegs and mortises that were never used . Alternatively , the timbers may have been reused from another construction .
The rows of arcade posts support tie beams , with curved braces to strengthen the frame . The collar beam , which supports the opposing principal rafters , is supported by the crown post . Roof purlins run the length of the barn and are tenoned into the principal rafters , with additional support from curved wind braces . Some aspects of this design are unusual , both in the way that they are executed and in terms of their early date . A number of features in the barn 's carpentry are described by English Heritage as " experimental , precocious and regionally unusual , " which is attributed to the very high level of skill of the master carpenters who built it .
The use of aisles enabled the barn 's architects to increase its width and by doing so , provided the maximum space for threshing floors . The longer the barn was , the more threshing floors could be provided . English barns went through an evolution in the number of threshing floors ; the earliest had just one central floor , a design that became the commonest to be found in Britain . Harmondsworth Great Barn is unusual in having three threshing floors , allowing much more grain to be threshed at one time .
The boards on the exterior of the barn are made from a mixture of oak , elm and softwoods such as pine and fir . Some are of modern or relatively modern origins ; those on the south end of the barn are noticeably lighter in colour than the rest and are the result of the repairs made after the 1972 fire . Each side of the barn 's roof holds 92 tile courses and a total of around 76 @,@ 000 tiles , which were originally held in place by oak pegs . Many of the tiles have been replaced over the years and the oak pegs have been replaced by galvanised peg nails due to the effects of decay .
The floor of the barn was originally made of hard @-@ packed flint gravel held together with iron panning , excavated from a local gravel deposit , which was used as a more readily available alternative to stone . In subsequent years it was repaired with brick , tile and , ultimately , cement , obscuring the original appearance of the floor . An indication of how it would have looked can still be obtained from the outside of the west side of the barn .
The design of the barn has provided inspiration to a number of architects in the 19th and 20th centuries who were involved with the Gothic Revival movement . Sir George Gilbert Scott visited the barn in 1850 and sketched it , using its design as the basis for proposals for the new ChristChurch Cathedral in Christchurch , New Zealand . The library of Mansfield College , Oxford designed by Basil Champneys in the late 1880s also owes its inspiration to the barn . Bedales School 's library , completed in 1922 and designed by Ernest Gimson , may also have had its origins in the barn 's design .
= = History = =
The manor of Harmondsworth was owned before the Norman Conquest by King Harold Godwinson , but was seized by William the Conqueror after Harold 's death at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 . Three years later , William granted it to William FitzOsbern , one of his close confidants . It was subsequently transferred to the Abbey of Rouen . In 1391 , it was acquired from the abbot and prior by William of Wykeham , the Bishop of Winchester . He gave it to Winchester College , which he had founded in 1382 , as part of his endowment of that establishment . Its revenues went towards supporting the college .
There was already a " Great Barn " on the site , and as early as 1110 a manor record shows that men who were not wanted for ploughing were required to " thresh in the Great Barn until sunset " . A granary was recorded in a survey conducted in 1293 – 4 and a further survey of 1324 recorded the existence of a monastic grange in addition to the granary . The wheat barn at Harmondsworth was damaged in a storm in 1398 and records from Winchester College show that two carpenters were sent to make repairs , for which a large quantity of tiles , nails and other roofing materials was purchased . By this time , however , the existing barn was evidently becoming inadequate . The college 's records indicate that in 1426 – 7 it commissioned two men , William Kypping ( or Kipping ) and John atte Oke , to obtain timbers from Kingston upon Thames to use for a new barn at Harmondsworth . This date matches an early fifteenth @-@ century origin for the Great Barn 's timbers , which has been established through dendrochronology . The architect is not known , but it is possible that William Wyse may have been involved . He was the main carpenter for New College , Oxford and the master carpenter at Windsor Castle in 1430 , and worked on repairing the aisles at the church of St Mary 's in Harmondsworth , practically next door to the manor . Carpenters from Ickenham and Uxbridge were also involved and a tiler appears to have been employed by the college at the same time . Once completed , the barn would have been used to thresh and store grain from the manor farm .
In 1544 , the manor was taken by King Henry VIII to add to his hunting estate around Hampton Court but he does not appear to have used it , and shortly afterwards he granted it to the Paget family . It remained in their hands until 1869 . During the first half of the 20th century the manor was owned by the Ashby family . The last Ashby to farm there died in 1948 and the farm was sold in 1950 to Peter Purser , who died in the late 1970s . It was already a Scheduled Monument and was given Grade I listed building status in March 1950 when new heritage protection legislation was brought into force . The barn continued to be used for agricultural purposes until as late as the 1970s . It had a couple of narrow escapes during the 20th century ; during the Second World War a German V @-@ 1 flying bomb flattened a nearby barn , but only managed to dislodge a few roof tiles on the Great Barn . The barn 's southern bay was seriously damaged by fire in 1972 but it was subsequently restored . The building was greatly admired by the Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman , who dubbed it " the cathedral of Middlesex " . It underwent a detailed eighteen @-@ month survey in the late 1980s by the craftsman Peter McCurdy ( who later went on to rebuild Shakespeare 's Globe theatre ) , supported by the Museum of London .
= = Neglect and rescue = =
The barn and the surrounding Manor Farm property were purchased in 1986 by the John Wiltshier Group , a builder / property developer which aimed to restore the barn to serve as a showcase for the company . The farm underwent major changes , with several of the more dilapidated buildings demolished and a new L @-@ shaped office building constructed facing the barn . Planning permission was granted on the basis that income from the new offices was supposed to pay for ongoing repairs to the barn , following an initial renovation carried out in 1989 . However , in 2006 , the company went into receivership . The other buildings were individually sold to new owners but the receiver 's attempts to sell the barn separately fell through .
The receiver offered the barn to Hillingdon Council and English Heritage for £ 1 , but both refused the offer . Instead , a Gibraltar @-@ based company calling itself Harmondsworth Barn Ltd bought the barn . The company had no other assets and it was reported that it was seeking to speculate on obtaining compensation from a proposed expansion of Heathrow Airport . Such compensation would be paid should the land be required and the property demolished , although the barn fell just slightly outside the area required for a new runway . The new owners made no effort to maintain the barn , which fell into disrepair and was closed to the public apart from an annual one @-@ day opening in conjunction with the Open House Weekend each September .
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings ( SPAB ) raised the alarm in a 2009 edition of its magazine , Cornerstone , in which the deteriorating condition of the barn was highlighted as the magazine 's cover story . The magazine reported that on a recent visit " more than a dozen gaps in the tiled roof were seen , some large . The site appeared to lack fire @-@ fighting equipment or alarms , and could be easily accessed . Plants have taken root in the stone @-@ and @-@ brick plinth , and have begun to damage the medieval blocks upon which the barn stands . " English Heritage issued a statement saying : " The absentee owner of the barn has declined to engage with English Heritage ( and the local authority ) for some years despite our offers of help , support , advice and grants . It should be noted that the Heathrow expansion area would surround the site of the barn on three sides but would not , according to plans we have seen , propose its demolition or removal . However , this still leaves question marks over the barn ’ s future and in particular , the issues of viability and setting . "
Following the publication of the Cornerstone article , English Heritage stepped in to begin legal proceedings that would lead to the compulsory purchase of the barn . It carried out emergency repairs of the barn in November 2009 , without the owners ' consent , under an Urgent Works Notice .
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Football League season ( Sunderland scored exactly 100 the previous season ) . If test match goals are counted , all five first @-@ choice forwards reached double figures for the second consecutive season . The leading scorer was Frank Mobley with 24 League goals , a total which also made him the top scorer in the Second Division , closely followed by Fred Wheldon with 22 . Ted Devey , Tommy Hands , Billy Ollis and Wheldon were ever @-@ present in the League , all but Devey for the second season running , and Caesar Jenkyns missed only the two games for which he was suspended .
Fred Speller attempted a comeback , appearing twice for the first team early in the season , but the injury received against Darwen proved the end of his professional football career . Bernard Pumfrey left for Midland League club Gainsborough Trinity , and went on to captain that club in the Football League . Walter Jackson , William Reynolds and Gilbert Smith were all released to join Birmingham & District League club Berwick Rangers , and Percy Watson returned to his native Yorkshire . Chris Charsley played no more League football , concentrating instead on his police career : he reached the rank of Chief Inspector in the Birmingham force , and in 1899 was appointed Chief Constable of Coventry . Small Heath signed the former Sunderland full back Jack Oliver , whom they had failed to recruit earlier in the season , but despite the misgivings of the local press , they were to negotiate their debut First Division season with no other major signings .
= = Match details = =
For consistency , attendances and goalscorers ' names in the League , Test Match and FA Cup match details tables are sourced from Matthews ' Complete Record . Information in contemporary newspaper reports could , and often did , differ . League positions are sourced from Statto .
= = = Football League Second Division = = =
= = = = Test Match = = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = United Counties League Southern Section = = =
= = = Birmingham Senior Cup = = =
= = = Mayor of Birmingham 's Charity Cup = = =
= = = Other matches = = =
= = Squad statistics = =
This table includes appearances and goals in nationally organised competitions – the Football League , including promotion test matches , and FA Cup – only . For a description of the playing positions , see Formation ( association football ) # 2 – 3 – 5 ( Pyramid ) .
= John Wilson Bengough =
John Wilson Bengough ( / ˈbɛnɡɔːf / , 7 April 1851 – 2 October 1923 ) was one of Canada 's first cartoonists , as well as an editor , publisher , writer , poet , entertainer , and politician . Bengough is best remembered for his political cartoons in Grip , a satirical magazine he published and edited , and which he modelled after the British humour magazine Punch . He published some cartoons under the pen name L. Côté .
Born in Toronto in the Province of Canada to Scottish and Irish immigrants , Bengough grew up in Whitby , where after graduating from high school he began a career in newspapers as a typesetter . The political cartoons of the American Thomas Nast inspired Bengough to direct his drawing talents towards cartooning ; a lack of outlets for his work drove him to found Grip in 1873 . The Pacific Scandal gave Bengough ample material to lampoon , and soon Bengough 's image of prime minister John A. Macdonald achieved fame across Canada . After Grip folded in 1894 , Bengough published books , contributed cartoons to Canadian and foreign newspapers , and toured giving chalk talks internationally .
Bengough was deeply religious and devoted himself to promoting social reforms . He supported free trade , prohibition of alcohol and tobacco , women 's suffrage , and other liberal beliefs , but was opposed to Canadian bilingualism . Bengough had ambitions to run for office , though Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier convinced him against running for Parliament ; he served as alderman on the Toronto City Council from 1907 to 1909 . The Canadian government listed Bengough as a Person of National Historic Significance in 1938 and he was inducted into the Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame in 2005 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life ( 1851 – 73 ) = = =
Bengough 's grandparents John ( d . 5 April 1867 ) , a ship 's carpenter , and Johanna ( née Jackson , d . 18 March 1859 ) were born in St Andrews in Scotland in the 1790s and immigrated with their children to Canada at an unknown date ; they are known to have been in Whitby on Lake Ontario in the Province of Canada by the 1850s . They brought with them at least three children , including Bengough 's father John ( 23 May 1819 in Scotland – 1899 ) who became a cabinetmaker . John Bengough was politically active : he advocated social reforms such as the Georgist single tax and had several Town Council appointments , though he never held political office . He used the title Captain , which suggests he may have sometime sailed ships out of Port Whitby .
Bengough 's father married Margaret Wilson , an Irish immigrant born in Bailieborough in County Cavan , and the couple had six children : five sons and a daughter . John Wilson Bengough was the second , born into the deeply Protestant family on 7 April 1851 in Toronto , where the elder Bengough had run a shop on Victoria Street in the 1840s . It is not known when they moved to Toronto , but it is known that by 1853 the family had moved back to Whitby .
Bengough attended Whitby Grammar School , where he was an average student ; he won a prize one year for general proficiency , for which he received a book titled Boyhood of Great Artists . He was an avid sketcher , a talent which caught the notice of his teacher , who presented Bengough with a set of paints one Christmas . Bengough credited this act with setting him on the path to a career as an artist . Whitby residents later reminisced of the young Bengough drawing chalk portraits of his neighbours on fences . He described himself as a " voracious reader " , particularly of the Whitby Gazette , a didactic weekly that stressed Christian values .
After graduation , Bengough tried his hand at a number of jobs , including photographer 's assistant , and he articled to a lawyer for some time before getting a typesetting job at the Whitby Gazette . The Gazette 's editor was George Ham , an extroverted journalist who later worked as public relations chief for the Canadian Pacific Railway . Bengough contributed short local @-@ interest articles . In mid @-@ 1870 , Ham issued a four @-@ page daily to capitalize on interest in the Franco @-@ Prussian War and commissioned Bengough to provide a serialized novel for it . The popular reception of The Murderer 's Scalp ( or The Shrieking Ghost of the Bloddy Den ) encouraged Bengough to devote himself to a journalism career . The serial went unfinished because Ham cancelled the daily when the war died down . The papers and magazines that came into the Gazette offices , in particular Harper 's Weekly , introduced Bengough to the growing field of cartooning . Bengough reminisced ,
I divided my time between mechanical duties for sordid wages and poetry for the good of humanity , and meanwhile I kept an eye on Thomas Nast the cartoonist .
Bengough considered the politically and socially aware Nast a " beau ideal " whose " moral crusade against abject wrong " — in particular his relentless Boss Tweed cartoons — inspired the young Bengough to " emulate Nast in the field of Canadian politics " . Bengough so admired the cartoonist that he sent a cartoon to Harper 's of Nast confronting the Tammany Hall political machine , rendered in Nast 's style , to which the editor returned a positive response and an acknowledgement from Nast .
At twenty , Bengough moved to Toronto and became a reporter on politician George Brown 's newspaper The Globe . The Liberal paper was the most influential in the country ; Bengough 's family had supported the Liberal Party since before Confederation , and these connections probably played a role in his getting the position at the paper . Editorial cartooning had no presence in Canadian newspapers at the time and was not to have one until Hugh Graham brought the practice to his Montreal Star in 1876 ; Bengough stated he did not consider the possibility of editorial cartooning at the time . The lack of cartooning opportunities disappointed him , and he enrolled briefly in the Ontario School of Art , which he found pedantic and stifling ; he quit after one term .
= = = Grip ( 1873 – 94 ) = = =
The legitimate forces of humor and caricature can and ought to serve the state in its highest interests , and that the comic journal which has no other aim than to amuse its readers for the moment , falls short of its highest mission .
Bengough told the following story of how he took up publishing : He had made a caricature of James Beaty , Sr. , editor of the conservative Toronto Leader , and Beaty 's nephew Sam found it so amusing that he made a lithographic copy for himself at the printer Rolph Bros. Impressed with his first exposure to lithography , and frustrated with the lack of opportunities to have his cartoons published , Bengough asked himself , " Why not start a weekly comic paper with lithographed cartoons ? " His brother Thomas remembered a somewhat different story in which Bengough first began distributing copies of his cartoons on the street . Of his printed cartoons , only one of Liberal member Edward Blake has survived .
In 1849 – 50 John Henry Walker 's short @-@ lived weekly Punch in Canada provided the first regular outlet for Canadian political cartooning ; others such as The Grumbler ( 1858 – 69 ) , Grinchuckle ( 1869 – 70 ) , and Diogenes ( 1868 – 70 ) did not last long , either . George @-@ Édouard Desbarats 's more conservative , Montreal @-@ based Canadian Illustrated News ( 1869 – 83 ) lasted much longer . Bengough was to found the first major humour magazine in English Canada .
A raven character in the Charles Dickens novel Barnaby Rudge inspired the name of the magazine Grip . Its pages carried political and social commentary along with satirical cartoons , and its debut issue of 24 May 1873 declared : " Grip will be entirely independent and impartial , always , and on all subjects . " Bengough set the editorial policy and was the lead cartoonist .
Grip 's initial financing came from Toronto publisher Andrew Scott Irving . Later in the year Bengough set up an office on 2 Toronto Street and with his four brothers formed the Bengough Brothers company . Bengough continued to work at the Globe until Grip established itself . He used pseudonyms until he left the newspaper later in the year . The editor 's name appeared as a " Charles P. Hall " until Thomas Phillips Thompson took over as editor on 26 July under the pseudonym " Jimuel Briggs " ; he lasted until the 6 September issue , when he printed a pro @-@ alcohol article despite Bengough 's prohibitionist views . The Toronto Globe 's R. H. Larminie then took on co @-@ editing duties as " Demos Mudge " with Bengough as " Barnaby Rudge " . Regular contributors other than Bengough included R. W. Phipps , who produced the greatest amount of Grip 's poetry ; Tom Boylan , who Bengough considered Grip 's best humourist ; Edward Edwards , who wrote sombre topical articles in contrast to the humour of the rest of the magazine ; and William Alexander Foster who wrote scathing editorials about Oliver Mowat 's Ontario Liberal Party , which contrasted with Bengough 's position and lent credibility to the magazine 's assertions of non @-@ partisanship . Writers such as Peter McArthur got their start with Grip .
Grip 's early issues attracted little notice . The Hamilton Spectator declared it " dull ... When Grip dies , which will be soon , Toronto will be much more cheerful . ... Grip is what Punch would be with all the spirit left out " . Events arising from the Canadian federal election of 1872 shortly gave Bengough sufficient popular material to lampoon : accusations of bribery and other improprieties involving prime minister John A. Macdonald and business magnate Hugh Allan inflated into the Pacific Scandal , the most closely followed scandal in the young nation 's history . Macdonald 's features lent themselves to caricature and gave Bengough the chance to proselytize . Circulation rose to about 2 @,@ 000 copies per issue at the time ; Bengough 's brother Thomas reported that each new issue was eagerly awaited at the House of Commons . A 23 August 1873 cartoon entitled " The Beauties of a Royal Commission : When shall we three meet again ? " drew praise from newspapers across Canada , as well as from Liberal MP Lucius Seth Huntington in a speech to the House of Commons .
Despite their Liberal leanings , in 1878 Bengough and Grip took the side of the proposed Conservative National Policy of high tariffs on trade with the US , against the governing Liberal stance of free trade . The issue contributed to the loss of Alexander Mackenzie 's incumbent Liberals to Macdonald 's Conservatives in the election of 1878 , despite Grip 's prediction that Mackenzie would win again . The magazine supported no party officially in its early years , but made its support for the Liberals explicit in the elections of 1887 and of 1891 , after Wilfrid Laurier had become party leader . In the mid @-@ 1880s the Grip Printing and Publishing Company took on printing duties for the Ontario Liberal government . This support , however , resulted in no federal election wins .
Grip had considerable influence on the public perception of politicians . That it was slanted in favour of Liberals and against Conservatives drove Conservative supporters to launch rival publications . The first was Jester , begun in 1878 , which featured cartoons by Henri Julien that painted Macdonald in a benevolent light . Jester failed to find an audience to match Bengough 's and folded the following year . In 1886 , Bengough reported a weekly circulation for Grip of 50 @,@ 000 .
In March 1874 , in the music hall of the Toronto Mechanics ' Institute , Bengough began giving comic chalk talk performances , which he later toured across the country . He impressed audiences with his ability to capture the likeness of members of the audience in a single penstroke . He continued his chalk talks throughout his life and travelled with them to the US , Australia , New Zealand , and Britain . He published an autobiography titled Chalk Talks in 1922 , the year before his death .
Early Canadian feminist writer Sarah Anne Curzon made regular contributions to Grip . At Bengough 's request in 1882 , she wrote the closet drama The Sweet Girl Graduate for the book The Grip Sack . The drama tells of a woman who disguises herself as a man to attend university at a time when women were barred in Canada from post @-@ secondary education .
In 1883 , Frank Wilson took over management of the printing of Grip . Thomas Phillips Thompson became associate editor . He shared with Bengough a radical political outlook and a taste for satire , though was less open to new ideas than Bengough , who was quick to attach himself to new causes . Thompson was anti @-@ imperialist , anti @-@ capitalist , and anti @-@ militarist . In 1892 , the managers of Grip passed the editorship from Bengough to Thompson and Bengough 's cartoons stopped appearing after the 6 August 1892 issue . Years later , Bengough 's brother Thomas blamed the board of directors at Grip , Inc . , for the falling out over " general mismanagement " , which may have involved losses incurred in relation to a government contract .
Grip 's tone became increasingly strident : anti @-@ French , anti @-@ Catholic , pro @-@ socialist . This , and an increased use of racial caricature , seem to have alienated readers . Under the new editorship readership fell until Grip ceased publication in July 1893 . Grip , Inc . , sold off assets , such as its printing machines , to repay debts .
Bengough revived Grip in 1894 under a new company called Phoenix Publishing with a partner named Bell who had newspaper publishing experience in Belleville . They softened Grip 's tone , but the content appeared rushed and it lasted only from 4 January to 29 December 1894 . Macdonald had died in 1891 , and Bengough blamed the publication 's ill fortunes on the loss of such a target .
= = = Later life ( 1895 – 1923 ) = = =
After Grip ceased publication , Bengough worked for the next quarter @-@ century as a cartoonist for a variety of newspapers , including the The Globe , The Toronto Evening Telegram , the Montreal Star , Canadian Geographic , the American The Public and The Single Tax Review , The Morning Chronicle and Daily Express in England , and the Sydney Herald in Australia .
Bengough continued to devote himself to political causes . He supported the Liberals ' successful campaign in the federal election of 1896 with cartoons in the Toronto Globe and with a song he composed titled " Ontario , Ontario " . He belonged to numerous political and social clubs . He was a founding member of the Royal Society of Canada in 1880 , to which the Governor General appointed him an Associate . He was professor of elocution at Knox College from 1899 to 1901 . He served as director of the Toronto Exhibition , auditor for the Canadian Peace and Arbitration Society , member for three years of the board of directors of the Victoria Industrial School , and president of the Toronto Single Tax Association , and took part in the People 's Forum social activist group .
In 1907 , Bengough campaigned to join the Toronto City Council as an alderman for Ward 3 . Major newspapers such as the Toronto Star promoted him , and the Toronto Daily World ran a photograph of him on its front page when he won . He won again in 1908 and 1909 . He counted future Toronto mayor Horatio Clarence Hocken amongst his reformist allies on the Council and promoted issues such as public ownership of hydroelectric power , but found little support for his ideas . His successes included legislation restricting the issuing of liquor licenses , which found support when he made it an election issue in his 1909 campaign .
In March 1909 , Bengough took a leave of absence from the Toronto City Council to tour Australia and New Zealand and gave up his post when he returned . When the First World War broke out , he devoted his energies to promoting patriotism and the war effort , and supported conscription , a cause that was popular in English Canada but unpopular in Quebec and which ran counter to the Liberal Party position . Bengough nevertheless continued to support the party and used his cartoons to promote party leader William Lyon Mackenzie King in the federal election of 1921 .
Following a chalk @-@ talk performance in Moncton , New Brunswick in 1922 , Bengough suffered an attack of angina pectoris , attributed to overwork during a previous tour of Western Canada . He died of it on 2 October 1923 at his drawing board at his home on 58 St Mary Street in Toronto while working on a cartoon in support of an anti @-@ smoking campaign . At his memorial service on 22 November , the editor of the Hamilton Herald , Albert E. S. Smythe , declared him the " Canadian Dickens " and one of Walt Whitman 's " great companions " .
= = Personal life = =
Bengough was of average height and had grey eyes and dark hair . He married twice ; neither marriage produced children . He married Helena " Nellie " Siddall in Toronto on 30 June 1880 ; she died in 1902 . He remarried to a friend from his school days , the widow Annie Robertson Matteson , in Chicago on 18 June 1908 . Neither appears to have written about Bengough .
= = Style = =
Bengough drew mainly political cartoons . His cartoons and writing tend towards the preachy and didactic ; he believed that humour should serve the interests of the state rather than merely to amuse . Bengough tended in his writing towards satirical humour and puns , which George Ramsay Cook called " sometimes sophomoric " . He read Dickens , Shakespeare , and Carlyle with particular devotion .
Bengough had little exposure to formal art education aside from one term at the Ontario School of Art . His sketchy cartoons derived from a mid @-@ 19th century engraving style ; while often drawn well , they were crowded in composition and sometimes borrowed from other sources . Bengough could draw in contrasting styles , as evidenced by cartoons he did under the pseudonym of L. Côté . As typical of political cartoonists of the time , Bengough aimed less at laughter than at social satire and depended more on readers ' understanding of densely packed allusions .
No other political figure came to life so vividly beneath Bengough 's pen ; no other cartoonists , even those who were far better draughtsmen were able to capture Macdonald 's style and mannerisms as effectively .
Bengough 's cartoons are best remembered for fixing his renditions of Macdonald in the public imagination . Bengough 's bulbous @-@ nosed politician often appeared baggy @-@ eyed with bottles of alcohol in his hands as a sombre symbol of corruption , in contrast to the work of John Henry Walker , another prolific caricaturist of Macdonald who depicted the prime minister 's drunkenness to make light of him . Bengough continued to hone his draftsmanship after Macdonald 's death , but the wit and inspiration of his Macdonald cartoons continue to draw the most attention .
Bengough 's chalk talks have left less of a mark on the public memory , though audience members have passed down Bengough 's renditions of them as heirlooms . Bengough delivered humorous anecdotes and made impressions as he caricatured audience members and well @-@ known locals in a flamboyant manner , adding the identifying details only at the end .
= = Politics = =
There was a premier named John A.
Who , wishing in office to stay ,
To one Allen did barter a great railway charter —
And dated his ruin from that day .
Bengough 's reputation was as a supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada and its pro @-@ democratic platform . His family had been supporters since before Confederation ; his father had supported Oliver Mowat and both his brother Thomas and sister Mary worked in Mowat 's provincial government . Members of his family were to play roles in the Liberal Party into the twentieth century ; Bengough and his brother Thomas had ties close enough with Wilfrid Laurier to ask for favours , and both were also close to William Lyon Mackenzie King . Bengough had ambitions to run for Parliament , but Liberal leader Laurier convinced him against it ; Laurier also turned down a request of Bengough 's for a Senate appointment as reward for a lifetime of Liberal support .
Grip 's political stance was one of disinterest , but a large portion of Bengough 's income came from Liberal publications , and Macdonald and his Conservatives were favourite targets of Bengough 's cartoon attacks , notably during the Pacific Scandal . His association with the Liberals was so strong that Charles Tupper quipped in Parliament that Grip should change its name to Grit — a popular nickname for Liberal Party members . His best @-@ remembered cartoons were those aimed at Macdonald and the Conservatives , but his criticisms targeted Liberals as well — Edward Blake had his subscription cancelled when he was the victim of a particular cartoon . Macdonald 's Conservative Daily Mail , launched in 1872 , provided a rivalry with the Liberal Globe that provided fuel for Bengough 's satire , as did infighting in the Liberal Party over The Globe , which allowed Bengough to distance himself to a degree from criticism of Liberal partisanship .
Bengough was a proponent of such issues as proportional representation , prohibition of alcohol and of tobacco , the single tax espoused by Henry George , and worldwide free trade . He held progressive views on women 's suffrage ; in 1889 supported the Dominion Women 's Enfranchisement Association efforts to have a bill proposed by Liberal MP John Waters that would have granted suffrage to Canadian women . He expressed anti @-@ imperialist ideals until the mid @-@ 1890s , after which he supported imperialism . He supported Canada 's involvement in the Second Boer War and First World War . Bengough contributed to the ongoing debates concerning the development of a Canadian identity during the nation 's early years . He showed a marked ethnic nationalism in that he promoted English as the nation 's sole official language , and the separation of church and state , a view that was directed particularly at the Catholic , French @-@ speaking Québécois . He depicted the Québécois as backward and Quebec politicians as always demanding money . Bengough declared he looked forward to :
when the monstrosity of a double official language and dual schools will be done away with throughout the whole country . Our real national life will date from that day .
Bengough had liberal views on race relations , and painted a picture of Canada as being more open to integration than the US during the Reconstruction Era ; according to David R. Spencer , his views on race were not likely widely shared in Canada at the time . While Bengough sympathized with the plight of Canada 's native peoples , he condemned the 1885 North @-@ West Rebellion and called for the execution of Métis rebel leader Louis Riel , and celebrated Major @-@ General Frederick Dobson Middleton 's victory at the Battle of Batoche in Saskatchewan with a poem . His racial caricatures could , according to Carman Cumming , lead a modern reader to see him as " a racist chauvinist bigot " : they distort facial features and behaviour in ways typical of cartoons of the era and employ such derogatory terms as " coon " for blacks and " sheeny " for Jews . Bengough called for restrictions on Chinese and Irish immigration and his work shows a bias against immigrants who did not conform to Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestant ideals .
Bengough intended his didactic cartoons to impart moral instruction . He expressed a deep devotion to religion . He had a Presbyterian upbringing , though as an adult he subscribed to no denomination . He promoted Christian ideals as solutions to social issues and thus , for example , opposed streetcars running on Sundays . He proclaimed a Protestant work ethic widely expressed by Canadian artists and intellectuals of the late 19th century . In his writing he frequently made statements about the role of Man in God 's world , and insisted that politics should conform to the will of God . The editor of Canadian Methodist Magazine William Henry Withrow declared Bengough " an Artist of Righteousness " who was " always on the right side of every moral question " .
= = Legacy = =
As Nast had in the US , Bengough succeeded in establishing editorial cartooning as a force in journalism in the late 19th century . The church minister and Queen 's College principal George Monro Grant called Bengough " the most honest interpreter of current events [ Canada happens ] to have " and declared he had " no malice in him " but had " a merry heart , and that doeth good like medicine " . The reformist English newspaper editor William Thomas Stead considered Bengough " one of the ablest cartoonists in the world " .
Outlets for political cartoons were mostly limited to illustrated magazines until they found a home in daily newspapers in the 20th century . Bengough 's busy , moralizing style began to fall out of favour by the 1890s in contrast to the cleaner style practised by such cartoonists as Henri Julien and Sam Hunter . His caricatures nevertheless left an impression on the public consciousness in Canada for generations to follow .
Bengough 's caricatures continue to illustrate Canadian texts — examples in which they are prominent include Creighton 's biography John A. Macdonald ( 1952 – 55 ) , Armstrong and Nelles ' The Revenge of the Methodist Bicycle Company : Sunday Streetcars and Municipal Reform in Toronto , 1888 – 1897 ( 1977 ) , and Waite 's Arduous Destiny : Canada 1874 – 1896 ( 1971 ) . Historians use the cartoons to demonstrate issues and attitudes of Bengough 's era , as well as for their artistic qualities , removed from their satirical contexts . Historian Peter Busby Waite considered Grip " one of the most interesting sources for the social history of Ontario in the latter nineteenth century " .
Bengough 's artistic legacy rests chiefly on his caricatures of Macdonald . To Peter Desbarats and Terry Mosher , Bengough 's bulbous @-@ nosed caricatures of Macdonald as " ungainly , boozy , and corrupt ... engraved itself on the public mind , particularly in the days before newspapers published photographs of politicians " . Macdonald nevertheless deflated much of the power his caricaturists might have had as he often made light of his own alcoholism . Bengough met the prime minister in person only once .
Though his cartoons have continued to thrive , Bengough 's life and career as a writer has drawn far less attention . Bengough biographer Stanley Paul Kutcher considered his poetry " undistiguished " . Historian George Ramsay Cook commended Bengough 's approach to have " nurtured the growth of social criticism in late Victorian Canada without much of that humourless self @-@ righteousness that so often characterizes reformers " . Historian Carman Cumming 's Sketches of a Young Country prvides an in @-@ depth analysis of Grip 's politics .
The town of Bengough , Saskatchewan , incorporated 15 March 1912 , was named after the cartoonist . On 19 May 1938 , the Canadian government listed Bengough as a Person of National Historic Significance and dedicated a plaque to him at 66 Charles Street East in Toronto . Bengough was inducted into the Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame in 2005 . The McMaster University Library in Hamilton , Ontario , holds the J. W. Bengough papers in its Division of Archives and Research Collection .
= = Published works = =
1875 – The Grip Cartoons . Rogers and Larminie
1876 – The Decline and Fall of Keewatin . Grip Publishing Co .
1882 – Bengough 's Popular Readings : Original and Select . Bengough , Moore and Bengough
1882 – The Grip @-@ Sack : A Receptacle of Light Literature , Fun and Fancy . The Grip Printing and Publishing Co .
1882 – Grip 's Comic Almanac for 1882 . Bengough , Moore and Bengough
1886 – A Caricature History of Canadian Politics ( two volumes ) . The Grip Publishing and Printing Co .
1895 – Motley : Verse Grave and Gay . William Briggs
1896 – The Up @-@ to @-@ date Primer . Funk & Wagnalls
1897 – The Prohibition Aesop . Royal Templar Book and Publishing House
1898 – The Gin Mill Primer . William Briggs
1902 – In Many Keys . William Briggs
1908 – On True Political Economy ( The Whole Hog Book ) . American Free Trade League
1922 – Chalk Talks . The Musson Book Co .
No copies remain of the comic opera Hecuba ; or Hamlet 's Father 's Deceased Wife 's Sister , a comic opera with score by G. Barton Brown . Publisher F. F. Siddall registered it for copyright in 1885 . The opera may have been an earlier version of Puffe and Co . , or Hamlet , Prince of Dry Goods , for which an undated and possibly unpublished script exists , and for which Clarence Lucas had written a score that Bengough appears to have rejected .
= Yugoslav coup d 'état =
The Yugoslav coup d 'état occurred on 27 March 1941 in Belgrade , Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The coup was planned and conducted by a group of pro @-@ Western Serb @-@ nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers formally led by Air Force General Dušan Simović , who had been associated with a number of coup plots from 1938 onwards . For practical purposes Brigadier General of Military Aviation Borivoje Mirković , Major Živan Knežević of the Yugoslav Royal Guards , and his brother Radoje Knežević all performed leadership roles in the conduct of the coup . In addition to Radoje Knežević , some other civilian leaders were probably aware of the coup before it was launched and moved to support it once it occurred , but they were not among the organisers .
The Communist Party of Yugoslavia played no part in the coup , although it made a significant contribution to the mass street protests in many cities that signalled popular support for the coup after it occurred . The coup was successful and overthrew the three @-@ member regency : Prince Paul , Dr. Radenko Stanković and Dr. Ivo Perović , as well as the government of Prime Minister Dragiša Cvetković . Two days before the coup , the Cvetković government had signed the Vienna Protocol on the Accession of Yugoslavia to the Tripartite Pact ( Axis ) . The coup had been planned for several months , but the signing of the Tripartite Pact spurred the organisers to carry it out , encouraged by the British Special Operations Executive .
The military conspirators brought to power the 17 @-@ year @-@ old King Peter II Karađorđević , whom they declared to be of age to assume the throne , and a government of national unity was formed with Simović as prime minister and Vladko Maček and Slobodan Jovanović as his vice @-@ premiers . The coup led directly to the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia .
= = Background = =
According to economics professor and historian Jozo Tomasevich , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was politically weak from the moment of its creation and remained so during the interwar period mainly due to a " rigid system of centralism " , the strong association between each national group and its dominant religion , and uneven economic development . In particular , the religious primacy of the Serbian Orthodox Church in national affairs and discrimination against Roman Catholics and Muslims compounded the dissatisfaction of the non @-@ Serb population with the Serb @-@ dominated ruling groups that treated non @-@ Serbs as second @-@ class citizens . This centralised system arose from Serbian military strength and Croat intransigence , was sustained by Croat disengagement , Serb overrepresentation , corruption and a lack of discipline within political parties . Until 1929 , this state of affairs was maintained by subverting the democratic system of government . The domination of the rest of Yugoslavia by Serb ruling elites meant that the country was never consolidated in the political sense , and was therefore never able to address the social and economic challenges it faced .
Political scientist Professor Sabrina P. Ramet sees the dysfunctionality and lack of legitimacy of the regime as the reasons why the kingdom 's internal politics became ethnically polarised , a phenomenon that has been referred to as the " national question " in Yugoslavia . Failures to establish the rule of law , to protect individual rights , to build tolerance and equality , and to guarantee the neutrality of the state in matters relating to religion , language and culture contributed to this illegitimacy and the resulting instability .
In 1929 , democracy was abandoned and a royal dictatorship was established by King Alexander , who attempted to break down the ethnic divisions in the country through a number of means , including creating administrative divisions ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : banovine ) based on rivers rather than traditional regions . There was significant opposition to this move , with Serb and Slovene opposition parties and figures advocating the division of Yugoslavia into six ethnically @-@ based administrative units . By 1933 , discontent in the largely Croat @-@ populated Sava Banovina had developed into full @-@ blown civil disorder , which the regime countered with a series of assassinations , attempted assassinations and arrests of key Croatian opposition figures including the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Hrvatska seljačka stranka , HSS ) Vladko Maček . When Alexander was assassinated in Marseilles in 1934 , his cousin Prince Paul headed a triumvirate regency whose other members were the senator Dr. Radenko Stanković and the governor of the Sava Banovina , Dr. Ivo Perović . The regency ruled on behalf of Alexander 's 11 @-@ year @-@ old son , Prince Peter , but the important member of the regency was Prince Paul . Although Prince Paul was more liberal than his cousin , the dictatorship continued uninterrupted . The dictatorship had allowed the country to follow a consistent foreign policy , but Yugoslavia needed peace at home in order to assure peace with its neighbours , all of whom had irredentist designs on its territory .
= = Yugoslav foreign policy during the interwar period = =
From 1921 , the country had negotiated the Little Entente with Romania and Czechoslovakia in the face of Hungarian designs on its territory , and after a decade of bilateral treaties , had formalised the arrangements in 1933 . This had been followed the following year by the Balkan Entente of Yugoslavia , Greece , Romania and Turkey , aimed at thwarting Bulgarian aspirations . Throughout this period , the Yugoslav government had sought to remain good friends with France , seeing her as a guarantor of European peace treaties . This was formalised through a treaty of friendship signed in 1927 . With these arrangements in place , Italy posed the biggest problem for Yugoslavia , funding the anti @-@ Yugoslav Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation which promoted Bulgarian irredentism . Attempts by King Alexander to negotiate with Benito Mussolini fell on deaf ears , and after Alexander 's assassination , nothing of note happened on that front until 1937 . In the aftermath of Alexander 's assassination , Yugoslavia was isolated both militarily and diplomatically , and reached out to France to assist its bilateral relationship with Italy .
= = = Cvetković – Maček Agreement = = =
Prince Paul recognised the lack of national solidarity and political weakness of his country , and after he assumed power he made repeated attempts to negotiate a political settlement with Maček , the leader of the dominant Croat political party in Yugoslavia , the HSS . In January 1937 , Prime Minister Milan Stojadinović met with Maček at Prince Paul 's request , but Stojadinović was unwilling or unable to grapple with the issue of Croat dissatisfaction with a Yugoslavia dominated by the Serb ruling class . In 1938 , the Anschluss brought the Third Reich to the borders of Yugoslavia , and early elections were held in December . In this background , Simović had been involved in two coup plots in early 1938 driven by Serb opposition to the Concordat with the Vatican , and another coup plot following the December election . In the December 1938 elections , the United Opposition led by Maček had attracted 44 @.@ 9 per cent of the vote , but due to the electoral rules by which the government parties received 40 per cent of the seats in the National Assembly before votes were counted , the opposition vote only translated into 67 seats out of a total of 373 . On 3 February 1939 , the Minister of Education , Bogoljub Kujundžić , made a nationalist speech in the Assembly in which he stated that " Serb policies will always be the policies of this house and this government . " Head of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization ( JMO ) Mehmed Spaho asked Stojadinović to disavow the statement , but he did not . At the behest of the Senate leader , the Slovene Anton Korošec , that evening five ministers resigned from the government , including Korošec . The others were Spaho , another JMO politician Džafer Kulenović , the Slovene Franc Snoj , and the Serb Dragiša Cvetković .
Stojadinović sought authority from Prince Paul to form a new cabinet , however Korošec as head of the Senate advised the prince to form a new government around Cvetković . Prince Paul dismissed Stojadinović and appointed Cvetković in his place , with a direction that he reach an agreement with Maček . While these negotiations were ongoing , Italy invaded Albania . In August 1939 , the Cvetković – Maček Agreement was concluded to create the Banovina of Croatia , which was to be a relatively autonomous political unit within Yugoslavia . Separatist Croats considered the Agreement did not go far enough , and many Serbs believed it went too far in giving power to Croats . The Cvetković @-@ led cabinet formed in the wake of the Agreement was resolutely anti @-@ Axis , and included five members of the HSS , with Maček as deputy Prime Minister . General Milan Nedić was Minister of the Army and Navy . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , German pressure on the government resulted in the resignation in mid @-@ 1940 of the Minister of the Interior , Dr. Stanoje Mihaldžić , who had been organising covert anti @-@ Axis activities . In October 1940 , Simović was again approached by plotters planning a coup but he was non @-@ committal . From the outbreak of war British diplomacy focused on keeping Yugoslavia neutral , which the Ambassador Ronald Campbell apparently still believed possible .
= = = Pressure builds = = =
By the time of the German invasion of Poland and subsequent outbreak of war in September 1939 , the Yugoslav Intelligence Service was cooperating with British intelligence agencies on a large scale across the country . This cooperation , which had existed to a lesser extent during the early 1930s , intensified after the Anschluss in 1938 . These combined intelligence operations were aimed at strengthening Yugoslavia and keeping her neutral while encouraging covert activities . In mid to late 1940 , British intelligence became aware of coup plotting , but managed to side @-@ track the plans , preferring to continue working through Prince Paul . The SOE office in Belgrade went to significant lengths to support the opposition to the anti @-@ Axis Cvetković government , which undermined the hard @-@ won balance in Yugoslav politics that government represented . SOE Belgrade was entangled with pro @-@ Serb policies and interests , and disregarded or underestimated warnings from SOE and British diplomats in Zagreb , who better understood the situation in Yugoslavia as a whole .
Yugoslavia 's situation worsened in October 1940 when Italy invaded Greece from Albania , and the initial failure of the Italians to make headway only increased Yugoslav apprehension that Germany would be forced to help Italy . In September and November 1940 respectively , Germany forced the Kingdom of Hungary and Kingdom of Romania to accede to the Tripartite Pact . In early November 1940 , General Nedić , who believed that Germany would win the war , proposed to the government that it abandon its neutral stance and join the Axis as soon as possible in the hope that Germany would protect Yugoslavia against its " greedy neighbors " . A few days later Prince Paul , having realised the impossibility of following Nedić 's advice , replaced him with the ageing and compliant General Petar Pešić . On 12 December 1940 , at the initiative of the Prime Minister of Hungary , Count Pál Teleki , Hungary concluded a friendship and non @-@ aggression treaty with Yugoslavia . Although the concept had received support from both Germany and Italy , the actual signing of the treaty did not . Germany 's planned invasion of Greece would be simplified if Yugoslavia could be neutralised . Over the next few months , Prince Paul and his ministers laboured under overwhelming diplomatic pressure , a threat of an attack by the Germans from Bulgarian territory , and the unwillingness of the British to promise practical military support . Six months prior to the coup , British policy towards the government of Yugoslavia had shifted from acceptance of Yugoslav neutrality to pressuring the country for support in the war against Germany .
On 23 January 1941 , William Donovan , a special emissary of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , visited Belgrade and issued an ultimatum , saying that if Yugoslavia permitted German troop passage then the US would not " interfere on her behalf " at peace talks . On 14 February , Adolf Hitler met with Cvetković and his foreign minister and requested Yugoslavia 's accession to the Tripartite Pact . He pushed for the demobilisation of the Royal Yugoslav Army — there had been a partial " reactivation " ( a euphemism for mobilisation ) in Macedonia and parts of Serbia , probably directed at the Italians — and the granting of permission to transport German supplies through Yugoslavia 's territory , along with greater economic cooperation . In exchange he offered a port near the Aegean Sea and territorial security . On 17 February , Bulgaria and Turkey signed an agreement of friendship and non @-@ aggression , which effectively destroyed attempts to create a neutral Balkan bloc . Prince Paul denounced the agreement and the Bulgarians , describing their actions as " perfidy " . On 18 and 23 February , Prince Paul told US Minister Arthur Lane that Yugoslavia would not engage the German military if they entered Bulgaria . He explained that to do so would be wrongful and that it would not be understood by the Slovenes and Croats . On 1 March , Yugoslavia was further isolated when Bulgaria signed the Pact and the German army arrived at the Bulgarian @-@ Yugoslav border .
On 4 March , Prince Paul secretly met with Hitler in Berchtesgaden and was again pressured to sign the Pact . Hitler did not request troop passage through Yugoslavia and offered the Greek city of Salonika . A time limit for Prince Paul , who was uncommitted and " wavering " , wasn 't set . Prince Paul , in the middle of a cabinet crisis , offered a nonaggression pact and a declaration of friendship , but Hitler insisted on his proposals . Prince Paul warned that " I fear that if I follow your advice and sign the Tripartite Pact I shall no longer be here in six months . " On 8 March , Franz Halder , the German Chief of the Army General Staff , expressed his expectation that the Yugoslavs would sign if German troops did not cross their border .
On 17 March , Prince Paul returned to Berchtesgaden and was told by Hitler that it was his last chance for Yugoslavia to join the Pact , renouncing this time the request for the use of Yugoslav railways in order to facilitate their accession . On 19 March , Prince Paul convened a Crown Council to discuss the terms of the Pact and whether Yugoslavia should sign it . The Council 's members were willing to agree , but only under the condition that Germany let its concessions be made public . Germany agreed and the Council approved the terms . Three cabinet ministers resigned on 20 March in protest of the impending signing of the Pact . The Germans reacted by imposing an ultimatum to accept by midnight 23 March or forfeit any further chances . Prince Paul and Cvetković obliged and accepted , despite believing German promises were " worthless " . On 23 March , Germany 's guarantee of Yugoslavia 's territorial security and its promise not to use its railroads were publicized . In the United Kingdom , Alexander Cadogan , the Permanent Under @-@ Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs , penned in his diary that the " Yugoslavs seem to have sold their souls to the Devil . All these Balkan peoples are trash . "
= = = Yugoslavia signs the Pact = = =
On 25 March , the pact was signed at the Belvedere palace in Vienna . An official banquet was held which Hitler complained felt like a funeral party . German radio later announced that " the Axis Powers would not demand the right of passage of troops or war materials , " while the official document mentioned only troops and omitted mention of war materials . Likewise the pledge to give Salonika to Yugoslavia does not appear on the document . On the following day , Serb demonstrators gathered on the streets of Belgrade shouting " Better the grave than a slave , better a war than the pact " ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Bolje grob nego rob , Bolje rat nego pakt ) .
= = Development of the coup = =
The coup was executed at 2 : 15 am on 27 March . It was planned by a group of Royal Yugoslav Air Force ( JKRM ) officers in Zemun , and Royal Guard officers in nearby Belgrade . The only senior officers involved were from the air force . Under the supervision of the JKRM deputy commander Borivoje Mirković , officers assumed control of critical buildings and locations in the early hours of 27 March , including :
the Zemun air force base ( Colonel Dragutin Savić )
the bridges over the Sava between Zemun and Belgrade ( Colonel Dragutin Dimić )
the City Administration , Police Directorate and the Belgrade radio station ( Colonel Stjepan Burazović )
the ministries and headquarters of the General Staff ( Major Živan Knežević )
the Royal Court ( Colonel Stojan Zdravković )
the main post office in Belgrade ( Lieutenant Colonel Miodrag Lozić )
the barracks of the Royal Guards and Automotive Command
Despite British support for the plotters , according to former British diplomat and Emeritus Professor of History , Classics and Archaeology of the University of Edinburgh David A. T. Stafford , the " [ i ] nitiative came from the Yugoslavs , and only by a stretch of the imagination can the British be said to have planned or directed the coup d 'etat . " Ivo Tasovac has criticised Stafford 's conclusion , pointing to evidence that the plotters were dependent on British intelligence , and that senior British officials met with both the JKRM commander , General Dušan Simović and Mirković immediately before the coup was carried out . The British air attaché Group Captain A.H.H. McDonald met with Simović on 26 March , and the British agent T.G. Mappleback met with his close friend Mirković on the same day and ordered him to carry out the coup within 48 hours . Individuals that were probably aware of the coup included Slobodan Jovanović , president of the Serbian Cultural Club , and Ilija Trifunović @-@ Birčanin , president of Narodna Odbrana ( National Defence ) .
There are contradictory claims as to who was the leader of the coup and had managed its execution , coming from Simović , Mirković , and Major Živan Knežević . Mirković claimed sole credit immediately after the coup and stated on its tenth anniversary that : " Only after I had informed General [ Simović ] about my idea and he had accepted it did I make the decision to undertake the planned revolt . I made the decision myself , and I also carried out the whole organization . I made the decision as to when the revolt would take place . " It is likely that he had been a planning a coup since 1937 when an Italo @-@ Yugoslav pact was signed . King Peter later credited simply the " younger and middle ranks [ of officers ] of the Yugoslav army " for the coup in a speech on 17 December 1941 . Simović 's response was published posthumously , he claimed that he " stood in the center of the whole undertaking " and " personally engaged his assistant Brigadier General Bora Mirković for the action " . Tomasevich considers Mirković 's account to be the most credible of the two , and points out it is corroborated from several sources , both Allied and Axis . The matter would play a role in the factionalism that would divide the soon @-@ to @-@ be Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile during the war .
At the time of the coup , Prince Paul was in Zagreb en route to a planned holiday in Brdo . On the morning of 27 March , Deputy Prime Minister Maček was informed of the coup and met Prince Paul at Zagreb 's railway station to discuss the situation . Maček suggested that Paul stay in Zagreb , with the possibility of mobilizing army units in the Banovina of Croatia in his support . Prince Paul declined this offer , at least partially because his wife Princess Olga and children remained in Belgrade . He reached the capital by train that evening and was immediately ordered to sign papers abolishing the regency . He was subsequently exiled to Greece .
On the morning of 27 March , the royal palace was surrounded and the coup 's advocates issued a radio message that impersonated the voice of Peter with a " proclamation to the people " , calling on them to support the new king . Pamphlets with the proclamation of the coup were subsequently dropped into cities from aircraft . Demonstrations followed in Belgrade and other large Serbian cities that continued for the next few days . Demonstrators frequently used the slogan that was used by demonstrators the day before the coup , " Better the war than the pact , better the grave than a slave " . Winston Churchill , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , commented that " Yugoslavia has found its soul ” .
For other nations in Yugoslavia , the prospect of war and the government 's close ties to the Serbian Orthodox Church was not at all appealing . Archbishop Aloysius Stepinac , president of the Roman Catholic Conference of Bishops of Yugoslavia , bitterly wrote in his diary that , " All in all , Croats and Serbs are of two worlds ... that will never move closer to one another without an act of God " . He also wrote , " The Schism [ Orthodoxy ] is the greatest curse in Europe , almost greater than Protestantism . There is no morality , no principle , there is no truth , no justice , no honesty [ in Orthodoxy ] . " On the same day , he publicly called on the Catholic clergy to pray for King Peter and that Croatia and Yugoslavia would be spared a war .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = The new government = = =
In the wake of the coup , Simović 's new government refused to ratify Yugoslavia 's signing of the Tripartite Pact , but did not openly rule it out . Hitler , angered by the coup and anti @-@ German incidents in Belgrade , gathered his senior officers and ordered that Yugoslavia be crushed without delay . On the same day as the coup he issued Führer Directive 25 which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state . Italy was to be included in the operations and the directive made specific mention that " [ e ] fforts will be made to induce Hungary and Bulgaria to take part in operations by offering them the prospect of regaining Banat and Macedonia " . Furthermore , the directive stated that " [ i ] nternal tensions in Yugoslavia will be encouraged by giving political assurances to the Croats " .
On 30 March , Foreign Minister Momčilo Ninčić summoned the German ambassador Viktor von Heeren and handed him a statement which declared that the new government would accept all its international obligations , including accession to the Tripartite Pact , as long as the national interests of the country were protected . Von Heeren returned to his office to discover a message from Berlin instructing that contact with Yugoslav officials was to be avoided , and he was recalled to Berlin . No reply was given to Ninčić . On 2 April orders were issued for the evacuation of the German embassy , and the German chargé d 'affaires advised the diplomats of friendly countries to leave the country .
On 3 April , Führer Directive 26 was issued , detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the invasion . Hungary and Bulgaria were promised the Banat and Yugoslav Macedonia respectively and the Romanian army was asked not to take part , holding its position at the countries ' border . Internal conflict in Hungary over the invasion plans between the army and Teleki led to the Prime Minister 's suicide that same evening . Also on 3 April , Edmund Veesenmayer , representing the Dienststelle Ribbentrop , arrived in Zagreb in preparation for a regime change . Croatian pilot Vladimir Kren , a captain in the Royal Yugoslav Air Force , defected to the Germans on 3 April taking with him valuable information about the country 's air defenses .
Simović named Maček as Deputy Prime Minister once again in the new government , but Maček was reluctant and remained in Zagreb while he decided what to do . While he considered the coup had been an entirely Serbian initiative aimed at both Prince Paul and the Cvetković – Maček Agreement , he decided that he needed to show HSS support for the new government and that joining it was necessary . On 4 April he travelled to Belgrade and accepted the post , on several conditions ; that the new government respect the Cvetković – Maček Agreement and expand the autonomy of the Banovina Croatia in some respects , that the new government respect the country 's accession to the Tripartite Pact , and that one Serb and one Croat temporarily assume the role of regents . That same day exiled Croatian politician and Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić called for Croats to start an uprising against the government over his Radio Velebit program based in Italy .
On 5 April the new cabinet met for the first time . While the first two conditions set by Maček were met , the appointment of regents was impracticable given Prince Peter had been declared to be of age . Involving representatives from across the political spectrum , Simović 's cabinet was " extremely disunited and weak " . It included members who fell into three groups ; those who were strongly opposed to the Axis and prepared to face war with Germany , those who advocated peace with Germany , and those that were uncommitted . These groups were as follows :
= = = Axis invasion = = =
The Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April . The bombing of Belgrade forced the government to seek shelter outside the city . From here , King Peter and General Simović planned to leave for exile . Maček , refusing to leave the country , resigned on 7 April and designated Juraj Krnjević as his successor . Maček returned to Zagreb . Three other ministers also refused to leave Yugoslavia : Ivan Andres and Bariša Smoljan of the HSS and Kulenović of the JMO . The government met on Yugoslav soil for the last time on 13 April near Pale . From here they travelled to Nikšić where they were flown out of the country to Athens .
Another result of the coup was that the work that had been done by British intelligence with the anti @-@ Axis government of Cvetković and Maček was lost . By supporting the coup plotters , the SOE undermined the balance in Yugoslav politics that had been achieved by the Cvetković – Maček Agreement . Serb nationalists supported and welcomed the coup because it ended Croatian autonomy under the Agreement and freed them to pursue a Greater Serbia agenda . The coup and its immediate aftermath also contributed to the paralysis within the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile during the rest of the war , due to ongoing disputes regarding the legitimacy of the Cvetković – Maček Agreement .
= = = Legacy = = =
Prince Paul was found guilty of war crimes in September 1945 for his role in the Yugoslav accession to the Tripartite Pact . In 2011 , a High Court in Serbia found the sentence to be politically and ideologically motivated and Prince Paul was officially rehabilitated . A similar decision had been made in 2009 to rehabilitate Cvetković for war crimes charges relating to the signing of the pact .
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= = = Websites = = =
= Eurasian bittern =
The Eurasian bittern or great bittern ( Botaurus stellaris ) is a wading bird in the bittern subfamily ( Botaurinae ) of the heron family Ardeidae . There are two subspecies , the northern race ( B. s. stellaris ) breeding in parts of Europe and Asia , as well as on the northern coast of Africa , while the southern race ( B. s. capensis ) is endemic to parts of southern Africa . It is a secretive bird , seldom seen in the open as it prefers to skulk in reed beds and thick vegetation near water bodies . Its presence is apparent in the spring , when the booming call of the male during the breeding season can be heard . It feeds on fish , small mammals , fledgling birds , amphibians , crustaceans and insects .
The nest is usually built among reeds at the edge of bodies of water . The female incubates the clutch of eggs and feeds the young chicks , which leave the nest when about two weeks old . She continues to care for them until they are fully fledged some six weeks later .
With its specific habitat requirements and the general reduction in wetlands across its range , the population is thought to be in decline globally . However the decline is slow , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its overall conservation status as being of " least concern " . Nevertheless , some local populations are at risk and the population of the southern race has declined more dramatically and is cause for concern . In the United Kingdom it is one of the most threatened of all bird species .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
This species was first described in 1758 as Ardea stellaris by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae . In 1819 , the English naturalist James Francis Stephens , coined the genus Botaurus for the bitterns to distinguish them from Ardea , the great herons . It is placed in the subfamily Botaurinae , and its closest relatives are the American bittern ( Botaurus lentiginosus ) , the pinnated bittern ( Botaurus pinnatus ) and the Australasian bittern ( Botaurus poiciloptilus ) . Two races of Eurasian bittern are recognised ; the nominate subspecies B. s. stellaris has a palearctic distribution and occurs across a broad swathe of Europe , North Africa and Asia , while the other subspecies , B. s. capensis , occurs only in southern Africa . The name capensis was used for species found in the Afrotropics for which no exact range was known .
The generic name Botaurus was given by the English naturalist James Francis Stephens , and is derived from Medieval Latin butaurus , " bittern " , itself constructed from the Middle English name for the bird , botor . Pliny gave a fanciful derivation from Bos ( ox ) and taurus ( bull ) , because the bittern 's call resembles the bellowing of a bull . The species name stellaris is Latin for " starred " , from stella , " star " , and refers to the speckled plumage .
Its folk names , often local , include many variations on the themes of " barrel @-@ maker " , " bog @-@ bull " , " bog hen " , " bog @-@ trotter " , " bog @-@ bumper " , " mire drum [ ble ] " , " butter bump " , " bitter bum " , " bog blutter " , " bog drum " , " boom bird " , " bottle @-@ bump " , " bull of the bog " , " bull of the mire " , " bumpy cors " , and " heather blutter " . Most of these were onomatopoeic colloquial names for the bird ; the call was described as " bumping " or " booming " . Mire and bog denote the bird 's habitat .
= = Description = =
Bitterns are thickset herons with bright , pale , buffy @-@ brown plumage covered with dark streaks and bars As its alternate name suggests , this species is the largest of the bitterns , with males being rather larger than females . The Eurasian or great bittern is 69 – 81 cm ( 27 – 32 in ) in length , with a 100 – 130 cm ( 39 – 51 in ) wingspan and a body mass of 0 @.@ 87 – 1 @.@ 94 kg ( 1 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 3 lb ) .
The crown and nape are black , with the individual feathers rather long and loosely arranged , tipped with buff narrowly barred with black . The sides of the head and neck are a more uniform tawny @-@ buff , irregularly barred with black . The mantle , scapulars and back are of a similar colour but are more heavily barred , the individual feathers having black centres and barring . The head has a yellowish @-@ buff superciliary stripe and a brownish @-@ black moustachial stripe . The sides of the neck are a rusty @-@ brown with faint barring . The chin and throat are buff , the central feathers on the throat having longitudinal stripes of rusty @-@ brown . The breast and belly are yellowish @-@ buff , with broad stripes of brown at the side and narrow stripes in the centre . The tail is rusty @-@ buff with black streaks in the centre and black mottling near the edge . The wings are pale rusty @-@ brown irregularly barred , streaked and mottled with black . The plumage has a loose texture , and elongated feathers on the crown , neck and breast can be erected . The powerful bill is greenish @-@ yellow with a darker tip to the upper mandible . The eye has a yellow iris and is surrounded by a ring of greenish or bluish bare skin . The legs and feet are greenish , with some yellow on the tarsal joint and yellow soles to the feet . Juveniles have similar plumage to adults but are somewhat paler with less distinct markings .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The breeding range of B. s. stellaris extends across temperate parts of Europe and Asia from the British Isles , Sweden and Finland eastwards to Sakhalin Island in eastern Siberia and Hokkaido Island in Japan . The bird 's northern extent of occurrence is around 57 ° N in the Ural Mountains and 64 ° N in eastern Siberia . Its southern limit is the Mediterranean Sea , the Black Sea , Iran , Afghanistan , Kazakhstan , Mongolia and Hebei Province in northern China . Small resident populations also breed in Morocco , Algeria and Tunisia . It typically inhabits reed beds ( Phragmites ) and swamps , as well as lakes , lagoons and sluggish rivers fringed by rank vegetation . It sometimes nests by ponds in agricultural areas , and even quite near habitations where suitable habitat exists , but for preference , chooses large reed beds of at least 20 hectares ( 49 acres ) in which to breed .
Some populations are sedentary and stay in the same areas throughout the year . More northerly populations usually migrate to warmer regions but some birds often remain ; birds in northern Europe tend to move south and west to southern Europe , northern and central Africa , and northern Asian birds migrate to parts of the Arabian peninsula , the Indian sub @-@ continent , and the provinces of Heilongjiang , Jilin and Inner Mongolia in eastern China . Outside the breeding season it has less restrictive habitat requirements , and as well as living in reed beds , it visits rice fields , watercress beds , fish farms , gravel pits , sewage works , ditches , flooded areas and marshes .
The subspecies B. s. capensis is endemic to southern Africa , where it is found sparingly in marshes near the east coast , the Okavango Delta and the upland foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains . This population is sedentary .
= = Behaviour = =
Usually solitary , the Eurasian bittern forages in reed beds , walking stealthily or remaining still above a body of water where prey may occur . It is a shy bird , and if disturbed , often points its bill directly upwards and freezes in that position , causing its cryptic plumage to blend into the surrounding reeds , an action known as bitterning . While in this position , the shield of elongated feathers on throat and breast droop downwards and hide the neck , so that the outline of the head and body is obscured . Sometimes it resorts to applying powder down produced by patches of specialist down feathers at the side of its breast . This white dusty material seems to help it to rid its head and neck of slime after feeding on eels . It then removes the excess powder by scratching vigorously before applying preen oil from the gland at the base of its tail .
The bird has a secretive nature , keeping largely hidden in the reeds and coarse vegetation . Occasionally , especially in hard winter weather , it stands in the open beside the water 's edge , although usually close to cover to facilitate a hasty retreat . In flight , its wings can be seen to be broad and rounded , and its legs trail behind it in typical heron fashion . Its neck is extended when it takes off , but is retracted when it has picked up speed . It seldom flies however , except when feeding young , preferring to move through the vegetation stealthily on foot . Its gait is slow and deliberate and it can clamber over reeds by gripping several at a time with its toes . It is most active at dawn and dusk , but also sometimes forages by day .
Eurasian bitterns feed on fish , small mammals , amphibians and invertebrates , hunting along the reed margins in shallow water . British records include eels up to 35 cm ( 14 in ) and other fish , mice and voles , small birds and fledglings , frogs , newts , crabs , shrimps , molluscs , spiders and insects . In continental Europe , members of over twenty families of beetle are eaten , as well as dragonflies , bees , grasshoppers and earwigs . Some vegetable matter such as aquatic plants is also consumed .
Males are polygamous , mating with up to five females . The nest is built in the previous year 's standing reeds and consists of an untidy platform some 30 cm ( 12 in ) across . It may be on a tussock surrounded by water or on matted roots close to water and is built by the female using bits of reed , sedges and grass stalks , with a lining of finer fragments . The eggs average 52 by 38 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 by 1 @.@ 5 in ) and are non @-@ glossy , olive @-@ brown , with some darker speckling at the broader end . Four to six eggs are laid in late March and April and incubated by the female for about twenty @-@ six days . After hatching , the chicks spend about two weeks in the nest before leaving to swim amongst the reeds . The female rears them without help from the male , regurgitating food into the nest from her crop , the young seizing her bill and pulling it down . They become fully fledged at about eight weeks .
= = = Voice = = =
The mating call or contact call of the male is a deep , sighing fog @-@ horn or bull @-@ like boom with a quick rise and an only slightly longer fall , easily audible from a distance of 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) on a calm night . The call is mainly given between January and April during the mating season . Surveys of Eurasian bitterns are carried out by noting the number of distinct male booms in a given area . Prior to modern science , it was unknown how such a small bird produced a call so low @-@ pitched : common explanations included that the bird made its call into a straw or that it blew directly into the water . It is now known that the sound is produced by expelling air from the oesophagus with the aid of powerful muscles surrounding it .
= = Status = =
The Eurasian bittern has a very wide range and a large total population , estimated to be 110 @,@ 000 to 340 @,@ 000 individuals . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its overall conservation status as being of " least concern because although the population trend is downward , the rate of decline is insufficient to justify rating it in a more threatened category . The chief threat the bird faces is destruction of reed beds and drainage and disturbance of its wetland habitats . It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies . The southern race has suffered catastrophic decline during the 20th century due to wetland degradation and , unlike the northern race , is of high conservation concern .
In the United Kingdom , the main areas in which the Eurasian bittern breeds have been Lancashire and East Anglia with an estimated 44 breeding pairs in total in 2007 . However , the Lancashire population at Leighton Moss RSPB reserve has declined in recent decades , while bitterns have been attracted to new reed beds in the West Country . In Ireland , it died out as a breeding species in the mid @-@ 19th century , but in 2011 a single bird was spotted in County Wexford and there have been a number of subsequent sightings . In the 21st century , bitterns are regular winter visitors to the London Wetland Centre , enabling city dwellers to view these scarce birds .
= = In literature = =
Thomas Bewick records that the bittern " was formerly held in much estimation at the tables of the great " .
= = = Booming = = =
The Eurasian bittern is proposed as a rational explanation behind the drekavac , a creature of the graveyard and darkness originating in south Slavic mythology . It is mentioned in the short story " Brave Mita and Drekavac from the Pond " by Branko Ćopić .
The 18th @-@ century Scottish poet James Thomson refers to the bittern 's " boom " in his poem " Spring " ( written 1728 ) , published as part of his The Seasons ( 1735 ) :
The Bittern knows the time , with bill ingulpht
To shake the sounding marsh
The species is mentioned in George Crabbe 's 1810 narrative poem The Borough , to emphasise the ostracised , solitary life of the poem 's villain , Peter Grimes :
And the loud Bittern from the bull @-@ rush home
Gave from the Salt @-@ ditch side the bellowing boom :
The Irish poet Thomas MacDonagh translated the Gaelic poem " The Yellow Bittern " ( " An Bonnán Buí " in the Irish ) by Cathal Buí Mac Giolla Ghunna . His friend the poet Francis Ledwidge wrote a " Lament for Thomas MacDonagh " with the opening line " He shall not hear the bittern cry " .
In the Sherlock Holmes novel The Hound of the Baskervilles by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , the villain Stapleton proposes the boom of a bittern as an explanation for the howl attributed to the mystical hound .
Because of its secretive and skulking nature , it was for long unclear exactly how the bittern produced its distinctive booming call . A Mediaeval theory held that the bittern thrust its beak into the boggy ground of the marsh in which it lived , making its vocalization which was amplified and deepened as it reverberated through the water . A reference to this theory appears in 1476 in Chaucer 's The Wife of Bath 's Tale , lines 972 @-@ 73 :
And , as a bitore bombleth in the myre ,
She leyde hir mouth un @-@ to the water doun
The English 17th century physician Sir Thomas Browne disputed this claim , stating in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica , Book III , Ch.27 : " That a Bittor maketh that mugient noise , or as we term it Bumping , by putting its bill into a reed as most believe , or as Bellonius and Aldrovandus conceive , by putting the same in water or mud , and after a while retaining the air by suddenly excluding it again , is not so easily made out . For my own part , though after diligent enquiry , I could never behold them in this motion " . Browne even kept a captive bittern to discover how its " boom " was produced .
= = = Invisibility = = =
The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer argued in his ill @-@ advised 1909 venture into zoology , Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , that animals were concealed by a combination of countershading and disruptive coloration , which together " obliterated " their self @-@ shadowing and their shape . On the disruptive effect of bittern plumage , he wrote :
I was watching a standing [ American ] Bittern at a distance of about ten feet . The light stripes on the bill were repeated and continued by the light stripes on the sides of the head and neck , and together they imitated very closely the look of separate , bright reed @-@ stems ; while the dark stripes pictured reeds in shadow , or the shadowed interstices between the stems .
On the Eurasian bittern 's markings , he wrote :
Reed @-@ like patterns occur also ... on the necks of some of the true herons ... The beautiful European Bittern has kindred markings with a strong admixture of richly brindled grass @-@ pattern — a pattern at once bold and subtile , whose obliterative effect is the bird 's normal environment must be consummate .
The zoologist Hugh Cott , in his classic 1940 study of camouflage , Adaptive Coloration in Animals , cites William Palmer 's account of seeing a bittern :
he once marked the place in a marsh where one of these birds had alighted : on reaching the spot he had the ' greatest difficulty in finding it clinging motionless , with bill almost erect , to a stem of wild oats ' .
= Rehab ( Rihanna song ) =
" Rehab " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her third studio album , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . Def Jam Recordings serviced the song to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 6 , 2008 , as the eighth and final single from the album . It was released in the United Kingdom as a CD single on December 8 , 2008 . Development of " Rehab " began while Rihanna was accompanying Timbaland on Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveShow tour in 2007 . Timberlake wrote the song in collaboration with his producers , Hannon Lane and Timbaland , and provided additional vocals . " Rehab " is a mid @-@ paced R & B song with an emotional , melancholy chorus ; the lyrics are about the protagonist 's painful memories of her former lover , who is portrayed metaphorically as a disease .
" Rehab " reached top @-@ ten positions on the singles charts in Austria , Germany , the Netherlands and Norway . It reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 18 on the US Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Anthony Mandler directed the accompanying music video , which was shot in Vasquez Rocks Park , near Los Angeles . It won the Urban Music Award for Best Music Video . Rihanna performed " Rehab " on the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) , and occasionally on the Last Girl on Earth ( 2010 – 11 ) .
= = Production and release = =
" Rehab " is one of the three songs composed and produced by Timbaland for Rihanna 's third studio album , Good Girl Gone Bad . Timbaland was on tour with Justin Timberlake to promote Timberlake 's 2006 album FutureSex / LoveSounds , which Timbaland had also produced . After completing a show in Chicago , they joined Rihanna in the studio , where Timberlake experimented with beats and melodies . Weeks later , the three got together in New York City , where Timberlake had already conceptualized a song for Rihanna . Timbaland , who wanted to compose a song called " Rehab " for Rihanna , was producing a beat , when Timberlake came in and improvised the song over it . Hannon Lane co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song , and Demacio Castellon recorded and mixed it in 2007 at Roc The Mic Studios in New York City . Rihanna 's stint with Timbaland also resulted in " Sell Me Candy " and " Lemme Get That " , produced for Good Girl Gone Bad .
Timberlake told Entertainment Weekly that he believed " Rehab " to be " the bridge for [ Rihanna ] to be accepted as an adult in the music industry " . Rihanna told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that she enjoyed working with Timberlake , and learned much from the sessions . She said , " Working with Justin in the studio is just great . He 's a fun guy and likes to make all the sessions enjoyable . He 's also such a genius when it comes to lyrics . "
" Rehab " was the eighth and final single to be released from Rihanna 's third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . According to American music magazine Rap @-@ Up , both " Breakin ' Dishes " and " Rehab " were potential single releases , but " Rehab " was chosen . Def Jam Recordings released the song for airplay on contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 6 , 2008 . On November 3 , 2008 , it was released to rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporary radio stations . The single was released in the UK by Mercury Records on December 8 , 2008 , as a CD single containing both the album version and an instrumental version of " Rehab " . On the same date , it was released as a digital download in Ireland . A live performance of the song , recorded in Manchester during Rihanna 's Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) , was released for download on the UK and Ireland iTunes Stores . The performance was featured on Rihanna 's DVD Good Girl Gone Bad Live .
On December 12 , 2008 , the song and its instrumental version were released on iTunes and 7digital in ten countries , including Australia , Italy , New Zealand , Spain and Switzerland . In January 2009 , it was released as a CD single in Germany , with the same material as in the UK release . In early 2009 , Timbaland signed a contract with Verizon Communications , under which he would create music exclusively for BlackBerry Storm mobile phone owners . He was contracted to work with various artists and remix their songs , which would be available for Verizon costumers to download at no extra cost . " Rehab " was the first song remixed for the project , and this version was released in Canada and the US on May 19 , 2009 , via iTunes .
= = Composition = =
" Rehab " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B ballad with a subtle backbeat . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , it is written in the key of G minor and set in common time , with a moderately slow groove . The vocal range spans nearly an octave and a half from F3 to B ♭ 4 . " Rehab " opens with a string section , played by Stevie Blacke , and a violin , cello , and tambourine instrumental groove with Hannon Lane 's keyboard melody . Rihanna then sings the opening lines , " Baby , baby , when we first met , I never felt something so strong " .
Critics noted similarities among the structures of " Rehab " and some of Timberlake 's songs , such as " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " and " Cry Me a River " . Spence D. of IGN wrote that the song has an " R & B swoon " , similar to Rihanna 's previous singles . In an interview with Margeaux Watson for Entertainment Weekly , Rihanna explained the meaning of the song 's lyrics : " ' Rehab ' is a metaphorical song . Rehab really just means we have to get over the guy . So we talk about checking ourselves into rehab , meaning we have to get over him . And we compare the guy to a disease or an addiction . " Watson further called the song a " lovesick ballad " .
= = Critical reception = =
Rodney Dugue of The Village Voice called it one of the standout songs on Good Girl Gone Bad , and Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe said it was essential to the album . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters called it a " little gem " and compared it to Babyface 's collaboration with Madonna on her 1994 single " Take a Bow " . Billboard magazine called the song a highlight of the album , with " slinky @-@ assisted Timberlake background vocals , tension @-@ filled production , and contrasting strings and guitars . " Vibe 's Shanel Odum , while reviewing Good Girl Gone Bad , noted that the album predominantly consists of up @-@ tempo songs , while the ballads are its weak part , eventually being " saved " by " Rehab " . Spence D. of IGN stated that Timberlake and Rihanna work well together , thanks to their similar vocal ranges . He wrote that the song " reverts to Rihanna 's old styled R & B swoon , the groove being built around tambourine shakes , acoustic guitar swirls , and a subtle backbeat . " Doug Rule of Metro Weekly wrote that " Rehab " " is its own distinctive song — and a fetching one at that — but the resemblance to one of Timberlake 's best is unmistakable . " Sylvia Patterson from The Guardian described the song as a " mournful tale of lost love feeling like a catastrophic rehab meltdown " .
Tom Breinan of Pitchfork Media wrote that Rihanna " comes closer than usual to depicting something resembling human emotion , but she still comes off sounding like a robot programmed to impersonate Alanis Morissette . " Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly wrote , " Rehab is a joyless overdose of mid @-@ tempo melodrama " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that " Rehab " proves that Timberlake " is better off penning lyrics about sexy backs or dicks in boxes " — a reference to Timberlake 's 2006 singles " SexyBack " and " Dick in a Box " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Rehab " entered the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 91 on November 22 , 2008 , and peaked at number 18 , making it Rihanna 's twelfth US top @-@ twenty single . It also peaked at number 17 on Billboard 's Pop Songs chart and at number 52 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The song rose to number 19 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , having started at number 56 on December 6 , 2008 . It entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 37 on November 17 , 2008 and eventually reached number 26 , thus becoming Rihanna 's twelfth consecutive top @-@ thirty single in Australia . In New Zealand , it first entered the singles chart at number 24 on October 27 , 2008 , and rose to number 12 . On January 11 , 2009 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , 12 weeks after it first charted .
" Rehab " first appeared in the UK Singles Chart at number 51 on November 22 , 2008 . After two weeks , it became the greatest gainer on the chart , climbing twenty @-@ seven places to number 24 , and in the week after that , it reached its peak of 16 . More than 160 @,@ 000 copies of the song have been sold in the UK . The single debuted at number 33 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 and peaked at number nine . In Germany it reached number 4 and became Rihanna 's sixth top @-@ five single . " Rehab " started at number 18 in the Dutch Top 40 on January 17 , 2009 , and peaked at number 3 in its fourth week on the chart . In Norway it entered the singles chart at number 19 and climbed to number 4 , becoming Rihanna 's seventh top @-@ five single in that country . It peaked at number 8 on the Slovakian singles chart , becoming Rihanna 's fifth international top @-@ ten single , and her sixth top @-@ ten single in Slovakia . It has also peaked at # 1 in Israel , the only country in which it did .
= = Music video = =
Rihanna filmed the music video for " Rehab " with Justin Timberlake at Vasquez Rocks Park , near Los Angeles , on October 22 , 2008 . It was directed by Anthony Mandler , who directed the videos for Rihanna 's 2008 singles " Take a Bow " and " Disturbia " . Photographs of the production were leaked on the same day . Tim Nixon of The Sun wrote that the " red hot chemistry " between Rihanna and Timberlake must have been difficult for their partners to watch . Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy said that Timberlake 's partner Jessica Biel was " said to be ' sick to her stomach ' after seeing Rihanna wearing a revealing outfit while filming with Timberlake . " Timberlake told Access Hollywood , " I ’ m the guy in the video , so I had to give them all insecurities about that . But yeah we had a great time , we goofed around at the shoot most of the time . " The video premiered November 17 , 2008 , on MTV .
The video begins as Rihanna , scantily dressed and wearing fishnet stockings , stands against a convertible car in a desert . Timberlake , wearing a leather jacket and black jeans , arrives on a motorcycle . He unbuttons his jacket to cool down and bathes in pink @-@ colored water before greeting Rihanna at her Airstream trailer . The pair then climb onto the hood of the vintage car . In the next scene , Timberlake plays a guitar while lying on a large rocket . Throughout the video , Timberlake and Rihanna vary their poses from sultry to defensive . David Balls of Digital Spy wrote , " The pop pair put in such a highly @-@ charged , effortlessly sexual display that it 's no surprise Justin 's lady was far from happy . " Tim Nixon of The Sun noted , " the sight of sexy Rihanna — clad in a series of tantalising costumes — writhing around with Justin is a real treat . " In his book Post Cinematic Affect ( 2010 ) , Steven Shaviro wrote that , in the videos of " Rehab " , " Love Sex Magic " and " 4 Minutes " , Timberlake " radiates a smothering sexual heat " , and that these videos " can be contrasted with the videos from Timberlake 's own Future Sex / Love Sounds album which Joshua Clover convincingly describes as a ' homosocial ' exchange between Timberlake and his producer Timbaland " . The " Rehab " video won the Best Music Video award at the 2009 Urban Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
On April 28 , 2008 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Center with Kanye West , N.E.R.D , and Lupe Fiasco . She sang " Rehab " and other songs from Good Girl Gone Bad . John Wenzel of The Denver Post wrote that " Rehab " and other songs " would have benefited from more backing vocals , or perhaps a more focused performance approach " . To promote the single , Rihanna performed " Rehab " live on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , where she won the awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the awards ceremony , she performed it wearing an
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alignment has been redesignated as CR 83 .
In April 2008 , the New York State Senate introduced and passed a bill to rename part of NY 174 as the " Father Joseph Champlin Memorial Highway " . This would include the portion of the highway from the Camillus town line to Route 5 . Also starting in 2008 , the New York State Department of Transportation began a rehabilitation project on NY 174 . The Marcellus Falls bridge over Nine Mile Creek , also known as NY 174X , is closed off for a complete rehabilitation and a detour has been placed around it . Construction is reduced to one lane between Main Street and Scotch Hill Road and will continue until June 24 , 2008 . On November 21 , 2008 , the bridge was re @-@ opened and the construction completed .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= Michel Roux =
Michel Roux , OBE ( born 19 April 1941 ) , also known as Michel Roux Snr . , is a French @-@ born chef and restaurateur working in Britain . Along with his brother Albert , he opened Le Gavroche , later to become the first three Michelin starred restaurant in Britain , and The Waterside Inn , which was the first restaurant outside France to hold three stars for a period of 25 years .
Michel followed his brother into becoming a pastry chef , and again to England in order to open their first restaurant . Together they have been described as the " godfathers of modern restaurant cuisine in the UK " , and Michel has been inducted into several French orders , and has received two lifetime achievement awards from different publications . He was decorated during a period of National Service for France during the 1960s .
He founded the Roux Brothers Scholarship along with Albert in 1984 , and has worked as a consultant for companies such as British Airways and Celebrity Cruises over the years . After he and his brother split the business in 1986 , Michel took the Waterside Inn , which he handed over to his son , Alain , in 2002 . He remains an active food writer and has appeared on television shows such as Saturday Kitchen , MasterChef , the Roux family centric series , The Roux Legacy , and on the Woman 's Hour programme on BBC Radio 4 .
= = Career = =
Michel Roux was born in Charolles , Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire , in a room above his grandfather 's charcuterie ( a delicatessen specializing in meat products ) . He moved to Paris with his family after the war , where his father Michel set up his own charcuterie , after not taking over the family business in Charolles . His father gambled away all of the family 's money , and the shop was closed to prevent it from going bankrupt . By the time Michel turned ten , his father had left the family and was not heard from again .
Michel 's older brother Albert had already become a patissier ( pastry chef ) , and Roux followed him into this field at the age of fourteen . He became an apprentice to Camille Loyal in Belleville , working seventy @-@ hour weeks . Michel 's tasks at the pâtisserie included making up to sixty Galette des Rois over the course of three days for Epiphany . Albert found Michel further employment as his apprenticeship ended . As Albert was working at the British Embassy in Paris as a sous chef , Michel joined him there as the pastry chef for the Embassy . He moved on from there to become a chef in Philippe de Rothschild 's service , while Albert moved to England to work there . Between 1960 and 1962 , Michel served his French National Service . He was first stationed at the Palace of Versailles , but was later posted overseas in Béchar , Algeria . He was awarded the Médaille commémorative des opérations de sécurité et de maintien de l 'ordre en Afrique du Nord .
Michel nearly decided to give up cooking to become an opera singer , but instead followed Albert to London , despite not being able to speak English . He would later recall that people thought he was mad for travelling to England in view of the fact that he considered the state of English cooking at the time was horrific , describing it as " the dark ages " . In 1967 they opened their first restaurant , Le Gavroche at Lower Sloane Street in London . The opening party was attended by celebrities such as Charlie Chaplin and Ava Gardner . For the following week , Chaplin was reportedly shuttled across London so he could eat there . In 1972 the Roux brothers opened a second restaurant , the Waterside Inn , in Bray , Berkshire , and launched a catering business . In 1974 , when Michelin stars were first awarded in the UK , Le Gavroche and the Waterside Inn were both amongst those restaurants to win a star , and when a number of restaurants won two Michelin stars for the first time in 1977 , both Roux restaurants were among them . Le Gavroche would move to a new location in Mayfair in 1982 , and in the same year became the first restaurant in the UK to be awarded three Michelin stars . The same rating for the Waterside Inn would follow in 1985 , but Le Gavroche would go back down to two stars in 1993 has not regained the three star level . In 2010 , the Waterside Inn became the first restaurant outside France to hold three Michelin stars for a period of 25 years .
The Roux Brothers Scholarship was founded by Albert and Michel in 1984 . It is an annual competition to select a single chef to send out as an apprentice . The first winner was Andrew Fairlie , and winners over the years have included Sat Bains ( 1999 ) and Simon Hulstone ( 2003 ) . In 1986 the brothers split their restaurant business between them following a disagreement over the direction that their joint business should take , Albert took Le Gavroche , while Michel took the Waterside Inn . Michel became a consultant to British Airways for twenty years between 1983 and 2003 , and for Celebrity Cruises since 1990 . The Roux brothers ' catering company was purchased by Compass Group in 1993 , with Albert retained as a consultant .
Michel Roux 's son , Alain Roux , currently runs the Waterside Inn in Bray , having taken over as chef patron in 2002 . In July 2008 , Roux announced that he would move permanently to Crans @-@ Montana , Switzerland , citing concerns about the state of public safety in Britain . He also owns a vineyard and house on the Cote d 'Azur in France .
= = = Television and radio work = = =
Michel has spoken out against entertainment @-@ type cooking shows such as the 1990s cooking gameshow Can 't Cook , Won 't Cook , saying that " The way these people handle food is a crime . They don 't even know the basics . Little attention is paid to detail . Instead , they are intent on having a giggle and a joke . They can do this without involving food . " The Roux brothers had a BBC television show in the early eighties , and Michel is a fan of celebrity chefs such as Jamie Oliver and Delia Smith , but isn 't fond of Nigella Lawson as he feels she became well known for the wrong reasons .
Together with his brother Albert , Michel appeared on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs on 26 October 1986 . The Good Food channel aired a five @-@ part series entitled The Roux Legacy in January 2012 , which featured both Albert and Michel , along with their sons Michel Jr. and Alain . Michel had also appeared as a guest judge on MasterChef : The Professionals , alongside his nephew Michel Jr , and on Saturday Kitchen alongside his son Alain .
= = = Legacy and awards = = =
Michel and his brother have been called the " godfathers of modern restaurant cuisine in the UK " by hospitality industry magazine Caterer and Hotelkeeper , while The Observer Food Monthly described him as " perhaps the finest pastry chef this country has ever had " when he was awarded their Lifetime Achievement award in 2011 . Michel had previously won the Lifetime Achievement award from Tatler magazine in 2008 . Heston Blumenthal compared Michel and Albert to The Beatles . In a poll of UK chefs carried out by Caterer and Hotelkeeper magazine in 2003 , Michel and his brother Albert were voted the most influential chefs in the country , and in 2004 he was voted the AA Chef ’ s Chef .
A great number of well known chefs have been trained by one or other of the Roux brothers , with Michel estimating in 2010 that " Half of the Michelin star @-@ holders in Britain come from either my brother 's kitchen or my kitchen " . These chefs have included Gordon Ramsay , Marco Pierre White , and Pierre Koffman .
Michel was awarded the Meilleur Ouvrier de France en Pâtissier in 1976 . He is a member of several orders in France . In 1987 , he was inducted into the National Order of Merit as a Chevalier ( knight ) , and into the Mérite agricole as an officer . In 1990 he was made a Chevalier in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , and in 2004 the Legion of Honour followed . Outside France he was made an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 2002 and was made an honorary Doctor of Culinary Arts by the University of Rhode Island in the same year .
= = = = Military awards = = = =
Médaille commémorative des opérations de sécurité et de maintien de l 'ordre en Afrique du Nord
= = Personal life = =
Michel Roux is the brother of Albert Roux . Michel has a son named Alain Roux , while Albert 's son is Michel Roux , Jr .. When Alain was ten years old , Michel and his wife divorced , with his wife taking British born Alain and his two sisters to France . Alain would visit during the school holidays and work with Michel in the kitchens and decided at the age of fourteen that he wanted to become a chef like his father . Michel met his second wife , Robyn Joyce , after being set up on a blind date with her by former apprentice Leigh Stone @-@ Herbert in Sydney , Australia . The relationship has been credited with opening the door to Australian chefs being trained by the Roux brothers .
= Casey Donovan ( actor ) =
Casey Donovan ( born John Calvin Culver ; November 2 , 1943 – August 10 , 1987 ) was an American male pornographic actor of the 1970s and 1980s , appearing primarily in adult films and videos catering to gay male audiences . Following a brief career as a teacher and a stint as a highly paid male model , Donovan appeared in the film that would cement his status as a gay icon , Boys in the Sand , in 1971 . Attempts to build on his notoriety to achieve mainstream crossover success failed , but Donovan continued to be a bankable star in the adult industry for the next 15 years .
= = Career = =
Culver attended S.U.N.Y. College at Geneseo where he was a member of Phi Sigma Epsilon Fraternity and the drama club . After graduation in 1965 he accepted a teaching position in Peekskill , New York . He went on to take a job at the private Ethical Culture Fieldston School on New York City 's Central Park West but was fired during his second year following an altercation in which he physically disciplined a female student ( reportedly the daughter of actor Eli Wallach ) . Following his dismissal he drifted into being an escort and relocated to New York City . He also began pursuing an acting career , appearing in summer stock theatre with the prestigious Peterborough Players .
Through one of his escorting clients , Culver landed a spot with the Wilhelmina Models modeling agency , commanding an hourly rate of US $ 60 . He continued to pursue stage work , landing an understudy job in 1969 in the Off @-@ Broadway gay @-@ themed play And Puppy Dog Tails , making his Broadway debut in 1970 in the Native American @-@ themed production Brave and a co @-@ starring role in the off @-@ Broadway Circle in the Water , also in 1970 .
In 1971 , Culver played a supporting role in a low budget sexploitation thriller film , Ginger . While the film was a commercial and critical failure , Variety noted his performance positively , saying " Only Calvin Culver ... shows any indication of better things to come . " This in turn led to an offer to appear in Casey , a gay pornographic film in which Culver played the title role , a gay man who is visited by his fairy godmother Wanda ( Culver playing a dual role in drag ) , and is granted a series of wishes which make him sexually irresistible to other men . Culver later took the character 's name , Casey , and that of the popular singer Donovan to create the pseudonym under which he would appear in all his other erotic roles .
Culver first appeared as Casey Donovan in Boys in the Sand , directed by Wakefield Poole , in 1971 . The film was an instant success and is considered one of the great classics of male erotic cinema . With the success and celebrity he garnered from the film , Donovan believed that he would be able to cross over into mainstream film . While there were meetings with directors like John Schlesinger and Raymond St. Jacques and talk of casting him in mainstream projects including adaptations of novels by Mary Renault and Patricia Nell Warren , the only film opportunities opened for him were as the star of more erotic films . These included the bisexual porn film Score , The Back Row with George Payne , L. A. Tool & Die with Bob Blount and Richard Locke , The Other Side of Aspen with Al Parker and Dick Fisk , Boys in the Sand II and Inevitable Love , with Jon King and Jamie Wingo . Shortly before his death he starred , heavily intoxicated , in the fisting movie Fucked Up , of Christopher Rage . He also appeared in a number of heterosexual porn films , most notably The Opening of Misty Beethoven where he had a scene with Constance Money .
Outside his adult film career , Donovan continued to pursue stage work . In 1972 he was cast in a short @-@ lived Broadway revival of Captain Brassbound 's Conversion . Star Ingrid Bergman described him as " having the same kind and as much charisma as Robert Redford . " He then landed a small role in the 1973 Lincoln Center production of The Merchant of Venice , which was praised as having " vivid appeal . " Donovan had a successful national tour in the play Tubstrip , written and directed by Jerry Douglas . While the play was critically deemed entertaining enough to its target gay audience ( having earned , in the words of one critic , a " nationwide gay housekeeping seal of approval " ) Donovan himself was judged as simply " no better nor worse [ an ] actor than most of the others [ in the cast ] . " In 1983 he turned his hand to producing , with an unsuccessful Broadway revival of Terrence McNally 's play The Ritz in which he also appeared .
Donovan 's iconic status allowed him to build a lucrative career as a high @-@ priced prostitute although it would cost him his legitimate modeling career as more and more clients made the connection between model Culver and porn star Donovan . He wrote an advice column , " Ask Casey , " for the gay @-@ oriented Stallion magazine beginning in 1982 .
= = Personal life = =
Casey Donovan was born John Calvin Culver in East Bloomfield , New York , growing up there with his parents and older brother , Duane .
In 1973 at the height of his popularity , Donovan met actor @-@ turned writer Tom Tryon and the two entered into a long @-@ term relationship the following year . Tryon was deeply closeted and grew increasingly disturbed by Donovan 's notoriety . Their relationship ended in 1977 .
In 1978 , Donovan purchased a house in Key West , Florida to run as a bed and breakfast dubbed " Casa Donovan . " Donovan struggled to keep the house running and ultimately it failed . More successful was Donovan 's time as a celebrity tour guide , conducting all @-@ gay trips in partnership with an outfit called Star Tours to Italy , China , Peru and other destinations .
By 1985 , Donovan 's health had begun to deteriorate , as he had contracted HIV . Although he had counseled his fans through his " Ask Casey " column as early as 1982 to reduce their number of sex partners and take steps to preserve their health and urged them to be tested for HIV once the test was developed , he himself made little or no effort to change his behavior . Donovan died in 1987 of an AIDS @-@ related pulmonary infection in Inverness , Florida , aged 43 .
= New Brunswick Route 95 =
Route 95 is a 14 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) provincial highway in New Brunswick , which serves a connector route between Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) at the Houlton – Woodstock Border Crossing near Houlton , Maine , United States to Route 2 , which is part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , in Woodstock , New Brunswick , Canada . Prior to the construction of Route 95 , the connection between the two cities was served by Route 5 . In 2007 the New Brunswick government completed a roadworks project to turn Route 95 into a full freeway for its entire length .
= = Route description = =
Route 95 begins at the Houlton – Woodstock Border Crossing on the Maine – New Brunswick border as an extension of I @-@ 95 and US 2 . The border between the two countries also marks the border between the Eastern Time Zone and the Atlantic Time Zone . The highway travels northeast through woodlands as it approaches its first interchange with Route 540 via a hybrid diamond interchange / partial cloverleaf interchange , providing access to the towns of Richmond Corner and Belleville . Continuing east , the highway crosses over Plymouth Road before intersecting an eastbound exit for Vivglenn Road , which connects to Route 555 . The final exit on the highway is a trumpet interchange with Route 2 , which is part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , in Woodstock .
= = History = =
A road linking Houlton to Woodstock has existed since at least 1927 , and was numbered Route 5 between 1938 and 1951 . The current Route 95 was constructed in the late 1970s and numbered Route 95 by 1981 . By 1989 , the intersection between Route 95 and Route 2 was converted into an interchange . In 2007 , the New Brunswick Department of Transportation completed a CA $ 33 million construction project , turning Route 95 from a two @-@ lane undivided highway to a grade @-@ separated four lane freeway . The Province has contracted with Brun @-@ Way Highway Operations to provide maintenance for the highway until 2023 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Carleton County .
= The Whistleblower =
The Whistleblower is a 2010 biographical crime drama film directed by Larysa Kondracki and starring Rachel Weisz . Kondracki and Eilis Kirwan wrote the screenplay , which was inspired by the story of Kathryn Bolkovac , a Nebraska police officer who was recruited as a United Nations peacekeeper for DynCorp International in post @-@ war Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1999 . While there , she discovered a sex trafficking ring serving ( and facilitated by ) DynCorp employees , with the UN 's SFOR peacekeeping force turning a blind eye . Bolkovac was fired and forced out of the country after attempting to shut down the ring . She took the story to BBC News in England and won a wrongful @-@ dismissal lawsuit against DynCorp .
Kondracki wanted her debut film to concern human trafficking , and she encountered Bolkovac 's story in college . She and Kirwan struggled to obtain financial support for the project . Eight years after Kondracki decided to produce the film , she secured funding and cast Weisz in the lead role . The Whistleblower — a co @-@ production of Canada , Germany , and the United States — was filmed in Romania from October to December 2009 .
The Whistleblower premiered on September 13 , 2010 , at the Toronto International Film Festival , and Samuel Goldwyn Films distributed the film in theaters in the United States . The film was advertised as a fictionalization of events occurring during the late 1990s . Kondracki said that the facts are broadly accurate but some details were omitted for the film ; for example , a three @-@ week " breaking @-@ in " period for trafficking victims was not shown . The film received mixed reviews . The performances by Weisz and her co @-@ stars were praised , but the intense violence depicted in several scenes was debated by critics , with some calling it exploitative . Kondracki and Weisz responded that what happened in Bosnia had been toned down for the film . The Whistleblower received several awards and nominations , including three nominations at the 2012 Genie Awards . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon hosted a screening of the film and promised action would be taken to prevent further instances of human trafficking . The Guardian reported that other UN officials attempted to downplay the events depicted and that initiatives against trafficking in Bosnia were aborted .
= = Plot = =
Kathryn Bolkovac is a police officer from Lincoln , Nebraska , who accepts an offer to work with the United Nations International Police in post @-@ war Bosnia and Herzegovina for a UK company , Democra Security ( a pseudonym for DynCorp International ) . After successfully advocating for a Muslim woman who experienced domestic abuse , Kathryn is appointed head of the department of gender affairs .
Raya , a young Ukrainian woman , and her friend Luba are sold to a Bosnian sex @-@ trafficking ring by a relative . Raya escapes with Irka , another girl forced into prostitution , and they are sent to a women 's shelter for victims of human trafficking . While investigating their case , Kathryn uncovers a large @-@ scale sexual slavery ring utilized by international personnel ( including Americans ) . She persuades Raya and Irka to testify against their traffickers in court , guaranteeing their safety ; however , an indifferent UN official drops Irka at the border between Bosnia and Serbia when she cannot produce a passport . A corrupt peacekeeper tips off the traffickers , and Raya is recaptured and tortured . Although Kathryn rescues Irka from the woods , the latter is too afraid to proceed with the trial .
When she brings the scandal to the attention of the UN , Kathryn discovers that it has been covered up to protect lucrative defense and security contracts . However , she finds allies in her investigation : Madeleine Rees , head of the Human Rights Commission , and internal @-@ affairs specialist Peter Ward . When one of the girls found dead , Kathryn sends an email to fifty senior mission personnel detailing her findings ; she is then fired from her job . She and Ward acquire evidence of an official admitting the scandal before she is forced to leave the country , and she brings it to the BBC News . The final credits note that after Kathryn 's departure , a number of peacekeepers were sent home ( although none faced criminal charges because of immunity laws ) , and the U.S. continues doing business with private contractors such as Democra Security ( including billion @-@ dollar contracts in Iraq and Afghanistan ) .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The Whistleblower is based on the experiences of Kathryn Bolkovac , an American police officer who in 1999 was assigned to serve as a peacekeeper with the United Nations in post @-@ war Bosnia . While there , she reportedly discovered a sex @-@ trafficking ring which served and was facilitated by other peacekeepers . Bolkovac was fired after trying to investigate the ring , but she later won a wrongful @-@ dismissal lawsuit .
Director Larysa Kondracki and co @-@ screenwriter Eilis Kirwan learned of Bolkovac 's story while attending Columbia University , eight years before the film 's production . Kondracki subsequently devoted significant time to research human trafficking and the sex trade . After Bolkovac sold her the film rights for $ 100 , she resolved to adapt the story for the screen . Financing for the project was initially difficult to secure , although the situation improved after Rachel Weisz was cast as Bolkovac . " I was young and naïve , " Kondracki said of her initial attempts to secure funding . " I thought : ' Of course they 're going to make my film . It 's brilliant ! ' "
The Whistleblower was described as a " fictionalized dramatic presentation " of a late @-@ 1990s scandal . The producers based it on Bolkovac 's experiences , rather than on her memoir . Vanessa Redgrave played Madeleine Rees , a UN human @-@ rights official ( " one of the film 's few heroic characters " ) who helps Bolkovac uncover the sex trade . Raya ( Roxana Condurache ) and Luba ( Paula Schramm ) , two Ukrainian young women who are trafficked into Bosnia , are the primary representations of the trafficking victims encountered by Bolkovac . Neither is based on a particular person ; they are composites of young women forced to work in Bosnian brothels . Kondracki 's younger sister , Rayisa , also played a trafficking victim . For legal reasons the pseudonym " Democra Security " was used for DynCorp International , the organization whose employees reportedly sexually enslaved the women .
Although the producers kept the film factual , they debated how much to include . Details on the bureaucracy were removed . Kondracki said , " It was too much information and , frankly , people were bored . " Another concern was how much violence against the sex @-@ trafficking victims should be depicted in the film . Kondracki chose to bluntly portray the inhumane treatment of the young women , which she described as accurate representations of what happened . This included a graphic scene , in which Raya is raped with a lead pipe after her escape and recapture . Weisz thought the reality had been toned down , " In real life there were girls doing this as young as 8 years old . " Kondracki agreed , saying that she had lightened the events depicted out of fear that viewers would " tune it out " :
We show what is just about permissible to show . We couldn 't possibly include the three @-@ week desensitisation period , when they burn the girls in particular places . We couldn 't really capture the hopelessness of life these women are subjected to .
Kondracki said that her goal for The Whistleblower was " information and exposure " on human trafficking . She said , " No one is putting pressure on governments to stop it , and there is no accountability . It 's laziness . "
= = = Filming = = =
The Whistleblower is a Canadian – German co @-@ production . Weisz received the script from producer Amy Kaufman in 2007 . Since she was pregnant with her son at the time , she initially turned down the offer . She said the story haunted her , and she later contacted Kaufman to ask if the project was still available . She signed on in August 2009 , and shooting began in October 2009 .
Bolkovac visited the set in Bucharest , Romania , where most of the movie was filmed . Weisz said that she made a point to spend " every waking moment " with her to accurately portray her . Weisz and Bolkovac are dissimilar in appearance : the former is dark @-@ haired and slight , and the latter is " blond and much more voluptuous " and " much taller " . As a result , the actress focused on emulating Bolkovac 's accent and determination . Bolkovac later said she commended the choice to portray her and appreciated Weisz 's efforts to be accurate .
Filming took around six weeks , relatively short for a thriller ; Weisz said most take about three months to complete . Producers used hand @-@ held cameras and had a lower budget than usual for the genre . Kondracki said filming in Eastern Europe was crucial , " In a story such as this , it 's more about what you don 't see , so you need to create that world . " The Carpathian Mountains in Romania served as the backdrop for the war @-@ ravaged Sarajevo of the late 1990s . Scenes set in UN buildings were filmed in Toronto . Most outdoor scenes are set at night ; daytime shots often appear bleak , gray and overcast . This , coupled with a grainy texture , helped create a documentary feel .
Weisz had to separate herself emotionally from the atrocities depicted in the film . " It 's something you learn , " she said . " It 's true between ' action ' and ' cut , ' and after ' cut ' it 's just not true anymore . " Bolkovac echoed Weisz 's sentiments , adding that distancing oneself emotionally is a necessity when working on a police force . However , the producers wanted the audience to be affected by scenes depicting brutal treatment of the women forced into prostitution , and the character of Raya was created to give a human face to the victims . Much of the rape scene was cut after its brutality caused a viewer to faint during the film 's first screening in Toronto . Weisz responded :
I completely understand . It would be just too harrowing for people to watch . What actually happened was so much worse . I mean the stories I could tell you from the first person who encountered these young women . That was the " light " version if you can believe that . But it isn 't a documentary , you don 't want to destroy people . You just want to illuminate something that actually happened that was a hundred times worse .
= = Themes = =
The Whistleblower focuses on sexual slavery , human trafficking , and corruption . Kondracki wanted her first project to concern sex trafficking but was unsure how to create a moving , original plot . Her mother was born in Ukraine , and she was aware of what she described as the country 's " epidemic " of trafficking . Victor Malarek 's book The Natashas inspired her to produce a film on the subject . She said of her initiative being a challenge , " No one wants to watch a film of an enslaved girl being raped for two hours . " Bolkovac 's experiences gave Kondracki a framework for the film and added the themes of corruption and wide @-@ scale cover @-@ ups . Film critic Rex Reed said that the abuse of power featured prominently in The Whistleblower ; a number of government officials participate in the sex trade or turn a blind eye to it ( including peacekeepers , UN members and mercenaries ) . Wallace Baine of the Santa Cruz Sentinel wrote that these aspects ' portrayal made the movie " slippery and true @-@ to @-@ life " . She said , " There are clear and vivid monsters in this film , but there are also those existing in the shades @-@ of @-@ gray middle , nice @-@ enough guys tolerating crimes of unspeakable barbarity . " Justice , another prominent theme , does not materialize by the end . The sex trafficking victim Raya is killed , and none of the peacekeepers who participated in the trafficking are prosecuted ( although several are sent home ) . According to Baine , viewers are left with the impression that " the worst violence in Bolkovac 's story was the violence done to justice " .
Bolkovac is portrayed as imperfect — a " noble but screwed up " individual . In the film ( which roughly mirrors her real life ) , her personal life is in disarray . She has lost custody of her children to her ex @-@ husband and goes to Bosnia to earn money to move closer to them . While there , she has an affair with a fellow peacekeeper . Kondracki wanted to promote the idea of an average protagonist who acted against injustice while her peers looked the other way . Her flaws are offset by her determination to fight the sex trade , and reviewers found these aspects instrumental in making her a three @-@ dimensional character .
Weisz compared Bolkovac 's story of " one lone woman fighting injustice " to that of David and Goliath , her favorite film genre . In the film , as in real life , Bolkovac begins by investigating a case of a kidnapped girl . As the story unfolds , she discovers a wide @-@ ranging web of corruption and faces growing obstacles . The sex trade is facilitated by a large , influential organization . When she tries to report her findings to the UN and local officials , she receives threats and is " shunned by coworkers and thwarted by higher @-@ ups " . Weisz explained that she liked the idea of an ordinary person doing something extraordinary . She said , " I love that kind of thriller , the ordinary person who , because of their character , it 's their character that leads them . "
= = Release = =
The Whistleblower premiered on September 13 , 2010 , at the 2010 Toronto Film Festival . Screenings were also held at film festivals in North America , including the 2011 Human Rights Watch Film Festival in New York .
A screening was held for The Whistleblower in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina for the first time in March 2014 . The film was shown in Sarajevo and Mostar , with Kathryn Bolkovac being invited to speak to the Bosnian audience .
= = = Box office = = =
Samuel Goldwyn Films purchased rights to distribute the film in the United States . The film had a limited release starting on August 5 , 2011 . It initially screened in seven theaters and expanded to a maximum of 70 theaters before drawing down . Its theatrical run lasted 12 weeks , during which it grossed $ 1 @.@ 1 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
At the time of its theatrical release , The Whistleblower received mixed reviews . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes said critics commended Weisz 's performance but thought that " the film suffers from a literal @-@ minded approach to the material " . The website surveyed 115 critics and , categorizing the reviews as positive or negative , assessed 85 as positive and 30 as negative . Of the 115 reviews , it determined a rating average of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Based on the reviews , the website gave the film a score of 74 % . Another aggregator Metacritic surveyed 30 critics and assessed 17 reviews as positive , 10 as mixed , and three as negative . Based on the reviews , it gave the film a score of 59 out of 100 , which it said indicated " mixed or average reviews " .
The Guardian 's Ed Vulliamy called The Whistleblower " the most searing drama @-@ documentary of recent years " , and The Huffington Post 's Marshall Fine said the story was " dark , grim , and harrowing " . Doris Toumarkine of Film Journal International called the movie a " well @-@ told but troubling story impressively wrapped for audiences who show up in theatres for do @-@ good cinema of a high order " . Leigh Paatsch of News.com.au said , " it is Bolkovac 's ferocious will to right so many wrongs ( expertly channelled by Weisz ) that keeps you glued to the screen " . Stephenie Foster of The Huffington Post gave the film a highly @-@ favorable review :
It 's a compelling and maddening story , and reflects the complexity of how international institutions function and interact and the difficulty of accountability in a situation where people have immunity for their actions . But , it 's also a story of gutsy people in tough and compromising situations making decisions that aren 't in their personal best interest .
An equally @-@ positive review appeared in The Balkan Chronicle :
Kondracki shows great promise with her direction . Pacing is tight for the most part , and the film feels well polished ... The film is unsatisfying only in its conclusion . This is not the fault of the filmmakers who choose to stay true to Bolkovac 's story . No one was ever brought to justice . A few of men were fired and sent home , but everyone had diplomatic immunity so no one ever faced criminal charges . Two million people worldwide are still being trafficked .
Allison Willmore of The A.V. Club gave The Whistleblower a negative review , criticizing the producers for making its antagonists one @-@ dimensional : " There 's no hint of the erosion of morality that led to this point . " Peter Rainer of The Christian Science Monitor called the film 's pace " frustratingly uneven " , but commended the actors ' performances : Condurache " makes Raya 's fears tremblingly palpable " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote that the film " tells a story so repellent that it is almost beyond belief . Its conclusion — that in the moral quagmire of war and its aftermath , human trafficking and corruption are collateral damage — is unutterably depressing . " He praised Weisz 's performance as " the strongest element " of the production .
The actors ' performances received overall praise from reviewers . Camerin Courtney of Christianity Today was dismayed that the main character engaged in a sexual relationship with a married man , but Weisz " is wonderful as Bolkovac , a no @-@ nonsense civil servant who is stunned at what she walks into " while " Vanessa Redgrave is a needed touch of strength and warmth as her mentor Madeleine , and David Strathairn is at his government thriller best as Peter Ward , an Internal Affairs agent . Raya is heart @-@ breaking as the young victim . " Steve Rea of The Post and Courier praised Redgrave 's acting in the supporting role of Madeleine Rees as " forceful , elegant , precise " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said , " Weisz gives a psychologically astute performance as a woman who can 't leave things alone . " Rex Reed of The Observer called her " superb " in the lead role .
Kondracki 's graphic depiction of violence was controversial . Bob Mondello of NPR called it " sobering " , but felt the scenes detracted from the film and should have been more subtle . Ryan Rojas of Tonight at the Movies described the film as " gritty and merciless " , and cautioned that certain scenes might offend some viewers : " While the scenes do work as reinforcing the horror of the events , it really just made it obvious that the way that the director was going to win over fans was to simply shock them into numbness , as scenes showing rape , mutilation , and murder are shown in very disturbing fashion . " Christian Hamaker of Crosswalk.com wrote :
The film is almost unremittingly grim , which may seem appropriate for such a horrifying subject , but the effect on the viewer is that of being struck repeatedly with a sledgehammer . Sex trafficking is bad . Really bad ! Did you get that , or do you need to watch a few more scenes of physical and sexual brutality ? Don 't worry : The Whistleblower has those aplenty . It takes brutality into the realm of gratuitousness , all in the name of showing the horrors of the issue it 's addressing .
A review in The Balkan Chronicle , an Internet @-@ based newspaper reporting from the Balkans , disagreed with the opinion that the violence was unnecessarily explicit or sensationalized : " Sugarcoating it would do no one any good . Grisly authenticity is one of the film 's greatest aspects . " Later , when Bolkovac spoke at a screening of the film in Bosnia , it was reported that her message was well @-@ received and discussion about the events that occurred in the late 1990s " did not fail to engage and provoke " .
= = = Home media = = =
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on DVD on January 15 , 2012 . The movie was reportedly more successful on Blu @-@ ray Disc than in theatres , and film critic Lynette Porter said that the subject 's serious nature made it better @-@ suited for television .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Consistent with Bolkovac 's account , The Whistleblower portrays DynCorp International employees as participants in the postwar Bosnian sex trade with the UN turning a blind eye . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon hosted a screening of the film and promised action would be taken to prevent further instances of human trafficking . Bolkovac responded , " Unfortunately , the widespread horror is already there . This is not going to be simple or a quick fix . " She said that in addition to Bosnia , peacekeepers had violated human rights in Nigeria , Kosovo , Burundi , Sierra Leone , the Congo , Liberia , Cambodia , Iraq , Afghanistan , Haiti , Colombia , Guinea and Sudan . Kondracki added that while she wanted to be optimistic and hoped that the screening would " lead to genuine discussion and thought about the UN 's involvement in sex trafficking and other crimes " , she worried that it might not have the desired lasting impact : " I know we are going to hear a lot about what has been done since the time depicted in this film , but rhetoric only goes so far . The situation has escalated . " Following the theatrical release of The Whistleblower , The Guardian reported that other UN officials attempted to downplay the events depicted and that initiatives against trafficking in Bosnia were aborted .
DynCorp International spokesperson Ashley Burke said :
I haven 't seen the movie so I can 't comment on its content , but I can tell you that , when we contacted the film 's distributor to learn more about the movie , we were informed that the film ' is a fictionalized dramatic presentation ' that while inspired by Ms. Bolkovac 's experiences , is not based on her book . There was no threatened legal action taken to ensure they did not use the company 's name in the film .
= Eurovision Song Contest 2012 =
The Eurovision Song Contest 2012 was the 57th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest . It took place in Baku , Azerbaijan , following Ell & Nikki 's win at the 2011 contest in Düsseldorf , Germany with the song " Running Scared " — marking the first time that the country had won the contest . The contest was held at the newly constructed Baku Crystal Hall , with semi @-@ finals held on 22 and 24 May 2012 , followed by the final held on 26 May 2012 . Forty @-@ two countries competed in the contest , with Montenegro returning for the first time since 2009 , and the withdrawal of Armenia due to security concerns in relation to the ongoing Nagorno @-@ Karabakh conflict with Azerbaijan , and Poland due to financial concerns .
The contest was won by singer Loreen from Sweden with the song " Euphoria " — written by Thomas G : son and Peter Boström , the song scored a total of 372 points . Russia finished in second place , with Serbia finishing in third . They were followed by the host country , Azerbaijan , which reached the 4th place . Albania finished 5th , achieving its first top 5 placing . Germany , Italy and Spain were the three members of the " Big Five " that managed to rank within the top 10 , finishing in 8th , 9th and 10th places respectively .
The lead @-@ up to the contest was met with political concerns and protests surrounding the host country , including its human rights record and allegations by advocacy groups that Baku was carrying out forced evictions in the construction of the contest 's venue , along with objections to the contest 's presence by Iranian officials — who felt that the event was anti @-@ Islamic because it was , according to them , a " gay parade " .
= = Location = =
Azerbaijan got the right to host the 2012 edition of the Eurovision Song Contest after winning the previous 2011 edition with the song " Running Scared " performed by Ell & Nikki . Baku , the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan , as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region , was named the host city for the contest , with the venue being the Baku Crystal Hall , built a few months prior to the contest on the city 's coastline .
Shortly after Azerbaijan 's victory at the 2011 edition , officials announced that a new 23 @,@ 000 seat concert venue was to be built near National Flag Square in Baku , as a potential venue for the event . Three days later , other venue options were revealed by organisers , such as the 37 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Tofiq Bahramov Stadium and the Heydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex . On 2 August 2011 , Alpine Bau Deutschland AG was awarded the contract to construct the Baku Crystal Hall . Preparations for construction began in the area shortly after the announcement . Even though the full cost of the contract was not named , the government allocated 6 million AZN for the construction of the venue .
On 8 September 2011 , Azad Azerbaijan TV ( ATV ) reported that Baku Crystal Hall would be the venue of the contest , but no formal confirmation was made at the time by the EBU . On 31 October 2011 , Ismayil Omarov , the director general of Azerbaijani national broadcaster İctimai Television announced that a decision on the venue choice would be taken by the steering committee in January 2012 . On 25 January 2012 , it was confirmed that the Baku Crystal Hall would be the venue of the contest . Even though the venue had an extended capacity of 23 @,@ 000 people , only 16 @,@ 000 people were able to attend each show . Tickets for the festival became available online for purchase on 28 February 2012 .
= = Format = =
In a meeting of the Eurovision Reference Group on 29 June 2011 , it was decided that the televoting system would revert the format used most recently in the 2009 Contest , in which the phone and SMS lines opened for a fifteen @-@ minute window after all songs had been performed , instead of opening before the show starts , which was the system used between 2010 and 2011 . The results format of each show remained the same with each country 's votes being decided on a 50 : 50 split between televoting and a national jury . Each participating country had their own national jury , which consisted of five professional members of the music industry .
Under the official rules released on 24 November 2011 , the number of participants in the final was raised to 26 , including the host nation , the " Big Five " , and the ten qualifiers from each semi @-@ final . This was the second time in the Eurovision Song Contest that 26 countries were in the final , the first being the 2003 Contest .
= = = Semi @-@ final allocation draw = = =
The draw that determined the semi @-@ final running order was held on 25 January 2012 at the Buta Palace . The participating countries , excluding the automatic finalists ( Azerbaijan , France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) , were split into six pots , based upon how those countries voted in past contests . From these pots , half ( or as close to half as possible ) competed in the first semi @-@ final on 22 May 2012 . The other half in that particular pot competed in the second semi @-@ final on 24 May 2012 . This draw also acted as an approximate running order , in order for the delegations from the countries to know when their rehearsals would commence and determine which semi @-@ final the automatic finalists would be allowed to vote in .
1 . ^ Armenia withdrew approximately a month and a half after the semi @-@ final allocation draw .
= = = Graphic design = = =
The design of the contest was built around the motto " Light your fire ! " , inspired by the nickname of Azerbaijan itself , " Land of Fire " .
Each introductory video postcard began with a shot of the artist and performers , followed with the flag and country name in a handwritten font with a background resembling the yellow , orange and red fire of the 2012 theme art . The postcards consisted of various shots of Azerbaijan , with a caption displaying ' Azerbaijan ' and underneath ' Land of ... ' ( e.g. Land of Abundance ; Land of Poetry etc . ) , which were then followed by the name of a town or geographic feature , showing the landscape and culture of the country . Some postcards focused on the host city of Baku with text changing to ' Baku ' and underneath ' City of ... ' ( e.g. City of Jazz ; City of Leisure etc . ) . The postcards finished with a shot of the Crystal Hall displayed in the colours of the performing country 's flag . These postcards acted as a tourism mechanism to present the country to a wider audience .
The artist , song and number graphics as well as tables and voting graphics were kept the same as those used in 2011 , with a slight modification to incorporate the 2012 theme art . The lower points ( 1 @-@ 7 ) were highlighted in red squares while the top points ( 8 , 10 , 12 ) were highlighted in orange squares with each square increasing in size in relation to the point value . Both sets of graphics were designed by London brand design agency Turquoise Branding .
= = = National host broadcaster = = =
İctimai Television ( İTV ) , which was the EBU member that broadcast the Eurovision Song Contest in Azerbaijan , is one of country 's public @-@ service broadcasters . Deputy Minister of Communication and Information Technology of Azerbaijan , Iltimas Mammadov , stated that telecom networks were ready to host the event . Azerbaijan 's largest telecommunications operator , Azercell , was chosen as the presenting partner for the contest . On 1 December 2011 , İTV named the German production company Brainpool as its official production partner for the contest , citing the quality of its work on the previous year 's contest .
= = Participating countries = =
On 17 January 2012 , the EBU announced that forty @-@ three countries would take part in the 2012 contest . The 57th edition saw the return of Montenegro , who was previously represented by Andrea Demirović in 2009 . Armenia , who had originally planned to participate , later withdraw their application due to security fears of the continuous Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War with Azerbaijan . Poland also withdrew from the competition , due to the financial burden of the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship ( which Poland co @-@ hosted with Ukraine ) and Summer Olympics .
= = = Returning artists = = =
Four artists returned in this year 's contest . Kaliopi for Macedonia who previously participated in the 1996 contest with the song " Samo ti " , which placed in 26th position in the pre @-@ qualifying round . Jónsi for Iceland and Željko Joksimović for Serbia both previously participated in 2004 .
Joksimović had represented Serbia and Montenegro in 2004 with the song " Lane moje " which placed second in that year , and co @-@ hosted the 2008 Contest with Jovana Janković . Jónsi performed " Heaven " in 2004 , which placed 19th . For a second consecutive year Jedward participated for Ireland , after their 8th @-@ place finish at the 2011 Contest with the song " Lipstick " .
= = = Languages = = =
The Finnish entry , " När jag blundar " , sung by Pernilla Karlsson , was only Finland 's second entry in Swedish and the first entry at all to be sung in Swedish since 1998 . Russia 's entry , " Party for Everybody " , sung by Buranovskiye Babushki , was the first entry ever to be performed in Udmurt . The Georgian entry , " I 'm a Joker " was the first Eurovision entry containing the Georgian language while the Bulgarian song " Love Unlimited " had a few words in the Azerbaijani language , both of whom never appeared at the contest before .
= = Results = =
= = = Semi @-@ finals = = =
= = = = Semi @-@ final 1 = = = =
Azerbaijan , Italy and Spain voted in the first semi @-@ final . The EBU allowed the Albanian broadcaster Radio Televizioni Shqiptar ( RTSH ) to defer transmission and only use jury votes due to a serious bus accident in the country .
Notes
2 . ^ Contained some phrases in Montenegrin and German .
3 . ^ Although the song was completely in Albanian , the title is in Latin .
4 . ^ Suus is a Latin third person reflexive possessive pronoun , and means " his " , " his own " .
5 . ^ Contained some phrases in Italian .
6 . ^ Specifically Mühlviertlerisch , a Central Bavarian dialect spoken in Upper Austria .
7 . ^ Although the song was completely in English , the title was in Romanian .
= = = = Semi @-@ final 2 = = = =
France , Germany and the United Kingdom voted in the second semi @-@ final . Germany requested that they vote in this semi @-@ final . Armenia was drawn to perform in the first half of this semi @-@ final , but later withdrew from the contest due to security reasons .
Notes
9 . ^ The song also contained phrases in Arabic , Azerbaijani , English , French , Greek , Italian , Romani , Serbo @-@ Croatian , Spanish and Turkish .
= = = Final = = =
= = Scoreboard = =
The EBU and PwC audit company checked and verified the individual jury and televoting results , which were combined to create the overall national vote for the contests . On 18 June 2012 , the EBU published these results , which were as follows .
= = = Semi @-@ final 1 = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the first semifinal :
= = = Semi @-@ final 2 = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the second semifinal :
= = = Final = = =
= = = = 12 points = = = =
Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded to another in the final :
No country took nul points ( receiving 0 points total ) when both scores were added together , but France received 0 points at the televoting stage .
= = Other countries = =
Andorra – On 19 October 2011 , Andorra announced that there are no plans for the country to participate in 2012 due to financial difficulties ; the country also had planned to withdraw from the EBU entirely .
Armenia – On 7 March 2012 , the EBU announced that Armenian Public Television ( ARMTV ) had decided to withdraw from participation despite originally being included in the list of participating countries . Its decision came after President Aliyev of Azerbaijan gave a speech on 28 February 2012 when he stated " Our main enemies are Armenians of the world and the hypocritical and corrupt politicians under their control . " The country was consequently fined by the EBU and were expected to face further penalties , such as exclusion from participation in future contests if it failed to comply with the EBU requirements . Armenia had been in a continuous state of war with Azerbaijan since 1994 because of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War .
Czech Republic – On 24 November 2011 , it was reported that the Czech Republic would not compete at the 2012 contest , following the release of a television schedule by Česká televize ( ČT ) .
Liechtenstein – On 26 November 2011 , it was announced that two official EBU documents , published in March and October 2011 , showed Liechtenstein 's only national broadcaster 1FLTV as being granted active EBU membership , sparking speculations of a début for the nation . However , on 29 November 2011 , these documents were later confirmed as editing mistakes , and thus a début had yet to be planned .
Luxembourg – On 31 December 2011 , RTL Luxembourg confirmed that Luxembourg would not participate at the Eurovision in Baku .
Monaco – It had been reported on 23 November 2011 , at an EBU meeting in Geneva , that Monaco were considering a return to the 2012 contest . However , on 3 December 2011 , Phil Bosco , a former head of delegation told a French @-@ speaking website that the Monegasque national broadcaster Télé Monte Carlo ( TMC ) did not intend to return to the Eurovision Song Contest any time in the near future , as there were no financial budget available .
Morocco – In an interview with the French delegation it had been revealed that Morocco were " likely to return " to the Eurovision Song Contest in 2012 with a new broadcaster 2M TV . Reports about the proposed return of Morocco to the contest , after an absence of more than 30 years , were further enhanced at an EBU meeting in Geneva .
Poland – On 16 December 2011 , it had been reported on the official Facebook page of Telewizja Polska ( TVP ) that Poland were withdrawing from the 2012 Contest . This was confirmed a few days later , stating that the broadcaster had decided to focus on the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship ( which Poland co @-@ hosted with Ukraine ) and Summer Olympics . TVP stated that a return in 2013 has not been ruled out .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Human rights concerns = = =
Azerbaijan 's large investment in hosting the Eurovision contest was widely discussed in Western media as an attempt to " mitigate misgivings about its poor democracy and human rights record " . Elnur Majidli , an activist imprisoned during the Arab Spring @-@ inspired 2011 Azerbaijani protests , was released in an apparent effort to soften Azerbaijan 's image ahead of the contest , but many political prisoners remained . Human Rights Watch reported a " violent crackdown on protesters " on the eve of the contest , and Amnesty International condemned the " stern crackdown of freedom of expression , dissent , non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) , critical journalists , in fact anyone who criticised the Aliyev regime too strongly " that continued up to the contest .
Human Rights Watch also criticised the Azerbaijani government and the Baku City Authority for carrying out forced evictions against local residents , in order to allow for the demolition of flats to make way for construction in the neighbourhood where the Baku Crystal Hall was built . The Public Association for Assistance to Free Economy , a transparency and economic rights campaign group , had described the evictions as a " violation of human rights " , and as having " no legal authority " . However , in a statement to the BBC , Eurovision said that on a recent visit to Baku they had observed " that the construction of the concert hall [ which ] media reports refer to was already well under way on a clean construction site and thus there are no demolitions needed " . The EBU cited the " apolitical " nature of the contest and the Azerbaijani government 's claim that the construction was not tied to the Eurovision Song Contest .
The festival 's winner Loreen met local human rights activists during the contest , the only entrant to do so . She later told reporters , " Human rights are violated in Azerbaijan every day . One should not be silent about such things . " An Azerbaijan government spokesman criticized her in response , saying that the contest should not " be politicised " and requested the EBU prevented further meetings of a similar nature . Swedish diplomats replied that the EBU , Swedish TV and Loreen had not acted against the competition 's rules .
On 26 May , a flash mob of anti @-@ government protesters were quickly dispersed by police . Activists expressed fears that they would face a crackdown when the international spotlight left Azerbaijan again at the end of the contest . Before submitting the results of the German vote , the presenter from Germany Anke Engelke gave a live statement that alluded to the human rights issues in Azerbaijan , saying : " Tonight nobody could vote for their own country . But it is good to be able to vote . And it is good to have a choice . Good luck on your journey , Azerbaijan . Europe is watching you . "
= = = Tensions with Iran = = =
Iranian officials objected to Azerbaijan hosting the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest . Iranian clerics Ayatollah Mohammad Mojtahed Shabestari and Ayatollah Ja 'far Sobhani condemned Azerbaijan for " anti @-@ Islamic behaviour " , claiming that Azerbaijan were going to host a gay parade . This led to protests in front of Iranian embassy in Baku , where protesters carried slogans mocking the Iranian leaders . Ali Hasanov , head of the public and political issues department in Azerbaijani President 's administration , said that gay parade claims were untrue , and advised Iran not to meddle in Azerbaijan 's internal affairs . In response , Iran recalled its ambassador from Baku , while Azerbaijan demanded a formal apology from Iran for its statements in connection with Baku 's hosting of the Eurovision Song Contest , and later also recalled its ambassador from Iran .
On 30 May , the Ministry of National Security of Azerbaijan announced that they had thwarted a series of planned terror attacks against the Eurovision Song Contest , among the targets being Baku Crystal Hall , as well as Marriott and Hilton hotels in Baku . On 22 August , The Daily Telegraph reported that according to Western intelligence services , Iran 's Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei personally gave orders to the elite Quds Force unit to launch terrorist attacks against the West and its allies , including Azerbaijan during the Eurovision Song Contest .
= = Other awards = =
= = = Marcel Bezençon Awards = = =
The Marcel Bezençon Awards were first handed out during the Eurovision Song Contest 2002 in Tallinn , Estonia honoring the best competing songs in the final . Founded by Christer Björkman ( Sweden 's representative in the 1992 Eurovision Song Contest and current Head of Delegation for Sweden ) and Richard Herrey ( member of the Herreys , Eurovision Song Contest 1984 winner from Sweden ) , the awards were named after the creator of the annual competition , Marcel Bezençon . The awards were divided into three categories ; Press Award ; Artistic Award ; and Composer Award .
= = = OGAE = = =
Organisation Générale des Amateurs de l 'Eurovision ( more commonly known as OGAE ) is an international organisation that was founded in 1984 in Savonlinna , Finland by Jari @-@ Pekka Koikkalainen . The organisation consisted of a network of 40 Eurovision Song Contest fan clubs across Europe and beyond , and is a non @-@ governmental , non @-@ political , and non @-@ profit company . In what had become an annual tradition for the OGAE fan clubs , a voting poll was opened allowing members from the respective clubs to vote for their favourite songs of the 2012 contest . Below are the top five overall results , after all the votes had been cast .
= = = Barbara Dex Award = = =
The Barbara Dex Award has been annually awarded by the fan website House of Eurovision since 1997 , and is a humorous award given to the worst dressed artist each year in the contest . It is named after the Belgian singer Barbara Dex , who came last in the 1993 contest wearing her own self @-@ designed and often @-@ mocked dress .
= = International broadcasts and voting = =
= = = Voting and spokespersons = = =
The order in which each country announced their vote was determined in a draw following the jury results from final dress rehearsal . Similar to the 2011 contest an algorithm was used to add as much excitement as possible . The spokespersons are shown alongside each country .
Notes10 . ^ Ireland was originally scheduled to announce its votes as the 32nd country , but instead voted 42nd ( last ) . The reason for this was technical difficulties in the minutes running up to the voting presentation .
= = = Commentators = = =
Most countries sent commentators to Baku or commentated from their own country , in order to add insight to the participants and , if necessary , the provision of voting information .
= = = = Participating countries = = = =
The commentators of the 42 participating countries are as follows :
= = = = Non @-@ participating countries = = = =
The commentators of the non @-@ participating countries are :
= = Official album = =
Eurovision Song Contest : Baku 2012 was a compilation album put together by the European Broadcasting Union , and released by Universal Music Group on 3 May 2012 . The album featured all the songs from the 2012 contest .
= Hurricane Emily ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Emily was a powerful , early season tropical cyclone that caused significant damage across the Caribbean Sea to Mexico . A Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane , the storm formed on July 10 , 2005 , in the central Atlantic Ocean before passing through the Windward Islands on July 14 . Tracking generally towards the west @-@ northwest , the storm gradually intensified as it traversed the Caribbean , peaking as a Category 5 hurricane on July 16 , marking the earliest date for a storm to do so during the course of a given year . The system subsequently made landfall in the Yucatán Peninsula as a Category 4 . Quickly crossing the peninsula , Emily emerged into the Gulf of Mexico and reorganized . On July 20 , the storm struck Tamaulipas as a major hurricane and rapidly dissipated within 24 hours .
When its central pressure fell to 929 mbar and its sustained winds reached 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) on July 16 , Emily became the strongest hurricane ever to form before August , breaking a record set by Hurricane Dennis just six days before . It was also the earliest Category 5 hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin ( beating Hurricane Allen 's old record by nearly three weeks ) and the only Category 5 hurricane ever recorded before August .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Depression Five formed in the central tropical Atlantic the evening of July 10 . Late on July 11 , it strengthened and was named Tropical Storm Emily . Initially forecast to strengthen rapidly and move west @-@ northwest through the Greater Antilles , Emily instead moved almost due west toward the Windward Islands , remaining a moderate tropical storm . The storm languished while moving quickly west , and struggled with maintaining its form . Contrary to the normal occurrence that hurricanes leave a cold wake behind , Hurricane Dennis had made portions of the Caribbean Sea warmer , and therefore more favorable for tropical cyclone development . Late on July 13 , Emily strengthened rapidly and reached hurricane strength while passing Tobago and entering the eastern Caribbean . On July 14 , Emily made landfall in northern Grenada with 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) winds .
The intensification trend picked up again the next day with a fairly rapid drop in the storm 's central pressure as it entered the southeastern Caribbean Sea , a region typically unfavorable for intensification . Hurricane Emily 's winds increased in reaction , briefly bringing the storm to Category 4 strength early on July 15 . During the day , the storm 's strength fluctuated greatly , dropping to a Category 2 storm and then rebuilding to Category 4 . On July 16 , Emily strengthened considerably , making it the strongest hurricane ever on record to form in the month of July with peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , the earliest known Category 5 in the Atlantic basin . Initially at this point Emily was thought to have peaked as a Category 4 storm , but the post @-@ storm analysis showed it was indeed a Category 5 hurricane . The storm weakened slightly as it continued westward , and remained a Category 4 while passing south of Jamaica and , on July 17 , the Cayman Islands . Hurricane Emily continued on its nearly straight track to the west @-@ northwest , weakening somewhat but remaining at Category 4 until striking Cozumel just before mainland landfall at Playa del Carmen at 06 : 30 UTC on July 18 . Sustained winds were 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , and the eyewall passed directly over Cozumel .
The center of circulation emerged over the Gulf of Mexico later that morning . Passage over land disrupted the hurricane 's center of circulation , and it had weakened to a minimal hurricane with wind speeds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . However , several hours over the warm waters of the western Gulf provided the energy needed for Emily to regenerate , and by midnight wind speeds were increasing . The increase in wind speed stalled , but the storm continued to become better organized . Emily started to show very symmetrical outflow , but the hurricane 's strongest winds were being found at three different distances from the center . However , the outer wind radii subsided in the end , and the inner core prevailed . The result was a rapid strengthening of the inner core on the evening of July 19 . The pressure dropped about 30 millibars and the winds went from 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) to more than 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , all within a few hours .
Further strengthening was expected by forecasters , but did not come . The storm 's motion slowed , and the center began wobbling erratically toward the coast . The storm made landfall around 11 : 00 UTC on July 20 near San Fernando in Tamaulipas . The storm had sustained winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) , Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . After heading inland over northeast Mexico , it dissipated over the Sierra Madre Oriental on July 21 .
= = Preparations = =
In Mexico , tens of thousands of tourists and residents were evacuated from the beach resorts in and around Cancún , the Riviera Maya , and Cozumel . Hotel guests were evacuated on Saturday afternoon , and staff on Sunday afternoon . Though some hotel guests in second floor rooms and above were given the option to be bussed into the center of Cancun to safe houses and shelters or to stay and wait out the storm in only the modern built hotels and resorts . Most of the remaining guests were restricted to their rooms and were not allowed out on the beach areas . No alcohol was sold in Cancun for 36 hours prior to the arrival of the storm , in an attempt to avoid drunken tourists being injured during the night . Two helicopter pilots were killed when their aircraft crashed while evacuating offshore oil platforms operated by Pemex . A German resident was electrocuted while on his roof in Playa del Carmen .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
On July 14 , Emily hit Grenada which was still recovering from the impact of Hurricane Ivan less than a year earlier . Emily resulted in one reported fatality and significant damage in the northern part of the country , including Carriacou which had been spared the worst effects of Ivan . 16 houses were destroyed and well over 200 more were damaged , and two of the main hospitals were flooded . Damages in Grenada amounted to $ 110 @.@ 4 million .
Landslides were reported in eastern Jamaica , triggered by heavy rain as the storm passed south of the island . Five people were killed due to an accident caused by flash flooding . Damages in Jamaica were estimated at $ 65 million . Damage was also reported in Trinidad and Tobago , where landslides and flooding damaged several homes . In Honduras , a man drowned in a river swollen by rains from Emily .
= = = Mexico = = =
= = = = Yucatán Peninsula = = = =
Striking the Yucatán Peninsula on July 18 as a Category 4 hurricane , widespread damage was expected from 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) winds ; however , these winds were confined to a small area around Emily 's center . Areas in Playa del Carmen , Tulum and Cozumel sustained the most severe impact . In a few instances , concrete utility poles were snapped in half by powerful wind gusts . Due to the relatively fast movement of Emily , rainfall was fairly light , peaking at 4 @.@ 9 in ( 120 mm ) . Few meteorological reports exist during Emily 's passage of the Yucatán , though an unofficial station recorded a storm surge of 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in San Miguel , Cozumel . Along the mainland , surge heights were generally less than 4 ft ( 1 m ) . Additionally , waves reached 13 ft ( 4 m ) , resulting in some beach erosion and damage to dunes and coral reefs . Additionally , 0 @.@ 7 mi ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) of retaining walls sustained damage , leaving areas vulnerable to flooding from future storms .
The high winds produced by Emily caused considerable impact in Quintana Roo , especially in the municipality of Solidaridad , leaving nearly 200 @,@ 000 residences without power . In terms of structural damage , 851 homes were impacted in varying degrees . Roughly 13 @,@ 345 acres ( 5 @,@ 400 hectares ) of forests and agricultural land was affected by the storm ; some swathes of trees experienced defoliation . The most substantial losses associated with the hurricane stemmed from the tourism industry , with hotels experiencing 947 million pesos ( $ 88 @.@ 7 million ) worth of damage . More than 12 @,@ 500 rooms , nearly one @-@ fifth of the state 's available hotel infrastructure , sustained damage . Overall , damage in the state reached 1 @.@ 11 billion pesos ( $ 104 @.@ 3 million ) .
= = = = Northeastern Mexico = = = =
Emily 's second landfall as a strong Category 3 hurricane brought significant damage to the northeast coast of Mexico . In the fishing community of Laguna Madre , over 80 % of the buildings were destroyed as a result of the storm surge . Several communities on the remote coast of Tamaulipas were isolated after the storm , and major coastal flooding was reported along with heavy wind damage , with numerous homes destroyed . Inland flooding was also reported in Monterrey .
Communication to the Riviera Maya area was difficult after the storm ; not all cellular phones were receiving coverage to the area , land lines were down , and electricity was out . About 18 @,@ 000 people in 20 low @-@ lying communities in the state of Tamaulipas , just south of the U.S.-Mexican border , were evacuated . Including losses sustained by the oil industry , damage in Mexico amounted to 8 @.@ 87 billion pesos ( $ 834 @.@ 3 million ) .
= = = Texas = = =
In southern Texas , damage was relatively minor despite the proximity of the storm . Portions of the state experienced tropical storm force winds and gusts as high as 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , resulting in scattered roof damage . Along the coast , a storm surge of 4 @.@ 26 ft ( 1 @.@ 30 m ) flooded portions of Texas State Highway 100 . No significant structural damage was reported , although some trees were down and over 30 @,@ 000 customers lost electricity . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 5 @.@ 2 inches in Mercedes , Texas . Additionally , eight tornadoes touched down in Texas as a result of Emily , damaging or destroying several homes . Some positive effects were noted ; the remains of Emily passed farther west into Texas and delivered some badly needed rainfall , helping relieve a drought . Agricultural losses in Texas amounted to $ 4 @.@ 7 million , while property losses reached $ 225 @,@ 000 .
= Hurricane Gordon ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Gordon was the first tropical cyclone since 1992 to affect the Azores while retaining tropical characteristics . The eighth tropical storm , third hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season , Gordon formed on September 10 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It gradually matured into a hurricane as it tracked northward , reaching its peak intensity with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) early on September 14 while located about 575 mi ( 925 km ) southeast of Bermuda . After becoming nearly stationary , Gordon weakened to minimal hurricane status , although it re @-@ intensified after accelerating to the east . It weakened again after moving over cooler waters , and passed through the Azores on September 20 . Shortly thereafter , it became an extratropical cyclone and subsequently affected Spain , Ireland , and the United Kingdom .
The only land area affected while Gordon was tropical – the Azores – sustained little damage , in spite of wind gusts reaching hurricane force on Santa Maria Island . Impact was much more significant from the storm in its extratropical phase . In Spain , wind gusts reached 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) along the northwest coast and left 100 @,@ 000 people without power . Five people in the country sustained storm @-@ related injuries . Further north , the storm brought a surge of tropical air to Ireland and the United Kingdom , contributing to record warm temperatures . In Northern Ireland , high winds left 120 @,@ 000 people without power and caused one injury .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 1 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and quickly showed signs of organization . It possessed a low pressure area and some convection as the system moved generally westward . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) first pinpointed the system as an area for potential development late on September 2 while it was about 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . However , an upper @-@ level trough associated with the developing Hurricane Florence to its west increased wind shear across the region , which prevented significant tropical cyclone development over the next week . However , on September 5 , the NHC noted the potential for the storm system to organize into a tropical depression within the next several days , but its close proximity to Florence continued to stall its strengthening . By September 9 , the trough moved far enough away from the system to allow wind shear to relent , signalling an increase in convective thunderstorm activity . At around 1800 UTC that day , the system developed into a tropical depression about 540 mi ( 870 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles .
Upon developing , the depression , small in physical size , moved slowly west @-@ northwestward . Initially , the NHC faced difficulties in forecasting the future of the system due to the potential for resumed strong wind shear , as well as uncertainty in its path of direction . It gradually organized and intensified , and based on observations from the Hurricane Hunters , the NHC assessed the depression as a tropical storm late on September 11 ; upon doing so , they gave it the name Gordon . As it strengthened , Gordon developed more substantial outflow and increasing banding features . On September 12 , the storm slowed and turned toward the north through a weakness in the subtropical ridge created by Florence . Wind shear decreased further , and the storm 's convection became more symmetric with an intermittent eye feature in the center . Based on the presence of the eye and estimates from satellite imagery , it is estimated that Gordon intensified into a hurricane early on September 13 .
After becoming a hurricane , Gordon underwent rapid deepening as the eye became better defined and more intense . In 24 hours , the winds increased by 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) to a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) early on September 14 , while located about 575 mi ( 925 km ) southeast of Bermuda . This made Gordon a major hurricane , as well as a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , the first of 2006 . As it curved to the northeast , the hurricane maintained its peak intensity for about 24 hours , during which the eye decreased in size and the eyewall convection weakened . Afterward , Gordon began weakening due to moving over an area of cooler water temperatures . On September 15 , the trough that was previously guiding the hurricane moved further away , allowing the ridge to build to the north and causing Gordon 's motion to become nearly stationary . Increased wind shear imparted further weakening , and the hurricane 's slow motion resulted in upwelling – the motion of cooler water to the ocean 's surface . On September 17 , a building ridge to the east caused Gordon to begin a steady northeast motion . By that time , the convection had diminished significantly and the winds weakened to minimal hurricane @-@ force . One NHC forecast predicted extratropical transition to occur within 48 hours .
On September 18 , Hurricane Gordon began accelerating to the northeast around a strengthening ridge , and later toward the east as guided by a trough . Wind shear decreased , which allowed for convection to redevelop near the eye . Unexpectedly , the hurricane began restrengthening , despite moving over slightly cooler waters ; instability from cooler upper @-@ level temperatures allowed for the reintensification . Despite continued forecasts of a weakening trend , Gordon 's resiliency presented a rare threat – the first since Hurricane Charley in 1992 – to the Azores , a Portuguese archipelago in the northeast Atlantic Ocean . At about 0600 UTC on September 19 , the hurricane attained its secondary peak intensity of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) about 485 mi ( 775 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Azores . By that time , the cyclone consisted of a solid ring of convection around a contracting eye . Shortly thereafter , Gordon began steadily weakening due to the combination of increasing wind shear and even cooler water temperatures . Its motion became just south of due east , causing the strongest winds to remain south of the islands . At around 0900 UTC on September 20 , Gordon passed through the Azores between the islands of Santa Maria and São Miguel , producing hurricane @-@ force wind gusts on the former island . At the time , its sustained winds were estimated around 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , which remained south of any landmasses . The cloud pattern had become less organized and more ragged .
After passing the Azores , Gordon began interacting with an approaching cold front . Early on September 21 , it completed the transition into an extratropical storm while simultaneously weakening below hurricane @-@ force , located about 275 mi ( 443 km ) west @-@ northwest of the west coast of Portugal . The cyclone maintained its identity as the system turned sharply northeastward and later northward , after passing about 100 mi ( 160 km ) northwest of the Spanish province of Galicia . Its forward motion accelerated to about 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , steered by another extratropical storm , while still maintaining sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . After moving along the west coast of Ireland , the extratropical remnants of Gordon turned to the northwest and intensified to hurricane @-@ force winds . It turned to the southwest and later to the southeast , completing a large cyclonic loop before dissipating on September 24 to the south of Ireland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Late on September 18 , while Gordon was beginning to accelerate to the northeast , a tropical storm watch was issued for all of the Azores . The hurricane was expected to weaken to tropical storm @-@ force before affecting the islands . When it became apparent that Gordon would continue intensifying , a hurricane warning replaced the watch about 27 hours before the strongest winds affected the region . The advance of the storm forced the closure of all schools in the region . Concurrently , officials increased the number of emergency workers on stand @-@ by . The two westernmost islands – Corvo and Flores – were placed under a red alert , the highest on a four @-@ level scale , which indicated the greatest threat for severe weather . The remainder of the archipelago was placed on low alert . Ultimately , the Azores escaped significant damage as the hurricane passed farther south than expected . Overall impact was limited to toppled trees and power lines , leaving portions of Santa Maria Island without electrical service . Santa Maria recorded sustained winds of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , with gusts to 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) .
In Portugal , coastal regions were put under a yellow alert , the second lowest level , since the extratropical remnants of Gordon were expected to produce rough seas and heavy rains . In Spain , the Galicia region was placed on red alert by authorities in anticipation of the storm . Classes on September 21 were also suspended by the regional education ministry . Eleven other regions of Spain , extending as far east as Madrid and as far south as Andalusia , received lower levels of warning . The storm 's threat also prompted the cancellation or delay of flights along the coast . While passing northwest of Spain , the remnants of Gordon produced strong wind gusts , reaching 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) at Punta Candieira in Galicia on the country 's northwest coast . The nearby city of A Coruña recorded sustained winds of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) , while further inland , a station near Madrid reported winds of 65 mph ( 107 km / h ) . Along the coast , waves reached 23 ft ( 7 m ) in height , while rainbands dropped heavy precipitation , including a total of 2 @.@ 58 in ( 65 @.@ 5 mm ) in Canfranc . Wind @-@ blown debris injured four people in the country , and a fifth storm @-@ related injury occurred as the result of a tree falling onto an occupied vehicle . The winds downed trees , traffic lights , and power lines , leaving about 100 @,@ 000 people without power . Throughout Galicia , total monetary losses reached € 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 8 million ; 2006 USD ) .
Stormy conditions threatened to affect the 2006 Ryder Cup in Straffan , County Kildare , Ireland at the K Club , and September 25 was set aside as an additional " reserve day " . The club 's media center was briefly evacuated , and one woman at the event was injured after being struck by a tree branch broken by the storm . The remnants of Gordon caused stormy conditions that left at least 5 @,@ 000 people without power in eastern and southern Ireland . One electric company had over 400 workers on duty to restore power in affected areas . High winds blowing down trees were responsible for power outages which affected 126 @,@ 000 people in Northern Ireland .
The remnants of Gordon affected the United Kingdom with strong winds , including gusts to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in the Isles of Scilly off the southwest coast and 81 mph ( 130 km / h ) on the mainland . The storm system produced heavy precipitation and thunderstorms that caused localized flooding . Wainfleet , Lincolnshire recorded 1 @.@ 66 in ( 42 @.@ 2 mm ) of rainfall , of which almost half fell within the span of an hour . High winds delayed rail service , and in Dawlish , the rail line was damaged by coastal flooding . More than 1 @,@ 000 homes were left without power in Truro , Cornwall . The storm brought moist air northward that contributed to record warm temperatures across portions of the UK .
= Nik Stauskas =
Nikolas Tomas " Nik " Stauskas ( born October 7 , 1993 ) is a Canadian professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . A native of Mississauga , Ontario , Stauskas played two seasons of National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition for the Michigan Wolverines ending with the 2013 – 14 team before declaring for the NBA draft . Stauskas was drafted eighth overall in the 2014 NBA draft by the Sacramento Kings for whom he began his NBA career . Towards the end of his rookie season , Stauskas was tagged with the nickname Sauce Castillo after a closed captioning error resulted in a social media meme . Stauskas , whose family is of Lithuanian heritage , is a member of the Canadian national basketball team .
Stauskas divided his high school years between Loyola Catholic Secondary School , South Kent School and St. Mark 's School , leading the latter to back @-@ to @-@ back New England Preparatory School Athletic Council ( NEPSAC ) Class AA Championship Games . The team won the NEPSAC championship in Stauskas 's 2012 senior season , and he was the championship game 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) . He was also selected to the NEPSAC All @-@ Class AA team .
As a freshman at for the 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines , he was named Sports Illustrated national Freshman of the week once , Big Ten Conference Freshman of the Week 3 times and to the Wayman Tisdale Award , United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) National Freshman of the Year , top 12 midseason list . During the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , he earned South All @-@ Regional Team recognition . As a sophomore for the 2013 – 14 team , Stauskas went on to be named a 2014 NCAA Men 's Basketball consensus All @-@ American and was named Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year for the 2013 – 14 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season .
= = Early life = =
Stauskas gravitated toward basketball during his childhood . Stauskas has never played ice hockey and barely has played street hockey . He tried soccer at age six , but a broken arm put an end to that . His first experience with basketball came as a member of the Ausra Sports Club , which is a Toronto @-@ based traveling team for children of Lithuanian descent . Stauskas grew up a Raptors fan with Vince Carter as his favorite player . At age eight or nine , he " played " Carter one @-@ on @-@ one at a Raptors open practice for fans held at Air Canada Centre , which boosted his enthusiasm for the sport . Ever since then shooting a basketball has been his favorite form of recreation . He became so devoted to basketball that his head coach at Michigan , John Beilein , said in 2013 @,@
" He doesn 't know anything about hockey , he doesn 't know anything about football . The other day we had him try to throw a baseball pass as a press breaker . And he had never thrown a baseball . "
In fifth grade , his parents gave him and his brother a choice on how to landscape their backyard : a swimming pool , a putting green or a basketball court , leading to the family backyard court . He and his older brother Peter would play at all hours and all conditions , including a 2006 ice storm that was so severe that , as he recalled in 2013 , " The ball couldn 't hit the backboard without slipping off , but we didn 't care . "
= = High school career = =
His brother claims that Stauskas scored about 50 points a game in middle school . For much of his youth , he and future Gonzaga point guard Kevin Pangos attended basketball camps together , regularly playing one @-@ on @-@ one while other campers took breaks from basketball for other activities . Until 2009 , Stauskas played for Loyola Catholic Secondary School . He averaged 15 points , 5 rebounds and 5 assists in 2007 – 08 and 32 points , 14 rebounds and 7 @.@ 5 assists in 2008 – 09 . Its basketball team nearly disbanded before Stauskas 's 10th @-@ grade season in 2008 – 09 , when Loyola was in danger of not fielding a team because school policy required the presence of a teacher . Although his father , a computer consultant , was willing to volunteer as a coach , no teacher was willing to serve . Stauskas 's father finally found a French teacher who sat in the gym and graded papers while his father coached . In the meantime , Stauskas joined the premier Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) team in Toronto , run by Ro Russell . Some of Russell 's prior players , such as Tristan Thompson and Cory Joseph had gone to the United States to complete their scholastic years . Stauskas , not wishing to risk not having a team to play on after the crisis of 2008 – 2009 , spent the 2009 – 10 academic year at South Kent School , but the forested rural campus made him homesick and he transferred to St. Mark 's School the following year . He missed the 2009 – 10 basketball season as a result of a hip injury . Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball head coach John Beilein became familiar with Stauskas during the Summer 2010 NBA camp prior to Stauskas 's junior year . Stauskas visited Michigan that summer and was also being recruited by Villanova , Iowa State , Georgetown , Notre Dame , Florida and Providence . By the time he arrived at St. Mark 's , he was expected to be an All @-@ State performer . In the 2011 NEPSAC Class AA Championship game , Stauskas led St. Mark 's in scoring with 17 points against Nerlens Noel and the Tilton School , but St. Marks lost 72 – 56 . On March 26 , 2011 , Stauskas made a verbal commitment to Michigan . This commitment made him the second member of Michigan 's recruiting class of 2012 . That summer he scored 27 points in an exhibition of Canadian high school all @-@ stars against the Baylor Bears men 's basketball team .
Prior to his senior year , ESPN named him as one of the top 25 three point shooters in the national class of 2012 . At the time of their November 2011 National Letter of Intent signings , Stauskas , Glenn Robinson III and Mitch McGary gave Michigan a consensus top 10 entering class for its 2012 class . Stauskas visited Michigan along with future teammate Robinson to see the 61 – 56 New Year 's Day 2012 victory by the 2011 – 12 Wolverines team over Minnesota . Then Stauskas led St. Mark 's to 67 – 57 victory in a 2012 Hoophall Classic contest with 16 points against Friends Central . As the season progressed , Stauskas ( and Robinson ) improved in the national player ratings to offset McGary 's slide and maintain a top @-@ rated class . He scored 19 to lead his school to a 59 – 53 2012 NEPSAC Class AA Championship game victory over Noel 's Tilton . Stauskas earned the NEPSAC championship game MVP . He was selected to the 2012 All @-@ NEPSAC Class AA first team ( along with teammate Kaleb Tarczewski ) . Following these honors , Stauskas 's stock and rankings continued to rise .
= = College career = =
The 2011 – 12 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team had been co @-@ champions of 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference , but lost both of its co @-@ captains , Zack Novak and Stu Douglass , to graduation and three players as transfers . The team was returning a nucleus of All @-@ Big Ten players Trey Burke and Tim Hardaway , Jr .
= = = Freshman = = =
Stauskas began his college career with the expectation that he would be a sharpshooter based on his performance in three @-@ point field goal drills in which he had raised the bar for the team . In the championship rounds of the 2012 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament at Madison Square Garden on November 21 and November 23 , Michigan defeated Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively , to win the tournament . On November 26 , Stauskas earned Big Ten Freshman of the Week honors for his NIT tournament performance in which he averaged 12 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 5 rebounds . On November 27 , Michigan defeated its first ranked opponent of the season , NC State ( # 18 AP Poll / # 18 Coaches ' Poll ) , in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge with a then @-@ career @-@ high 20 points from Stauskas in a 79 – 72 victory . After that game , ESPN analyst Dan Dakich described Stauskas as the most underrated freshman in the country . That week , Burke called Stauskas the best shooter he has ever played with . On December 1 against Bradley , Stauskas made his first career regular season start and posted a new career @-@ high 22 points . For his first two 20 point performances , he repeated as Big Ten Freshman of the Week on December 3 . Stauskas also earned recognition from Sports Illustrated 's Seth Davis as National Freshman of the Week on December 3 . On December 29 , against Central Michigan , Stauskas posted 19 points on 5 @-@ for @-@ 8 three point shooting . His 5 three pointers and 7 rebounds were career @-@ highs , earning him his third Big Ten Freshman of the Week on December 31 .
Entering the day of December 31 , Stauskas led the nation in three point field goal percentage . This is somewhat confusing because various sources have various eligibility thresholds . ESPN reports leaders based on a 2 three point attempts per game minimum , while BigTen.org only requires a minimum of 1 @.@ 5 attempts per game for eligibility . NCAA.org requires a minimum of 2 @.@ 5 made per game , and Stauskas had been the leader since the December 9 weekly report . On January 16 , Sporting News named Stauskas the surprise player of the first half of the year . As late as January 28 Stauskas was leading the Big Ten in free throw shooting percentage ( .833 ) as well as three pointers made and was second in 3 @-@ point shooting percentage ( .490 ) . On that day , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 . On January 31 , Stauskas and Robinson were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list , recognizing their performances as being among the 12 best freshman performances in the NCAA competition . Stauskas finished the 18 @-@ game 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season schedule with a 37 % three point @-@ percentage on 30 @-@ for @-@ 81 shooting during conference play .
Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan with Stauskas first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky who was relegated to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . Having made his last 20 consecutive free throws entering the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament Sweet Sixteen , Stauskas ended the season with an 85 @.@ 1 % ( 74 – 87 ) free throw shooting percentage , which was better than the Big Ten Conference free throw shooting percentage leader , Adreian Payne ( 84 @.@ 8 % ) . In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida , Stauskas made all 6 of his three @-@ point shot attempts , including all 5 in the first half as the team built a 41 – 17 lead before going into the half up 47 – 30 . Michigan advanced to the April 8 national championship game where the team lost to Louisville by an 82 – 76 margin . His 6 three @-@ point shots was a new career best and his 22 @-@ point performance tied his career high . All his three @-@ point shots came from the left corner . The 6 three point shots pushed Stauskas to a Michigan freshman @-@ season record total of 79 , surpassing Tim Hardaway , Jr . ' s 2 @-@ year @-@ old record of 76 . Stauskas joined McGary and Most Outstanding Player Trey Burke on the South All @-@ Regional team . For the season , his .9 fouls per 40 minutes was second in the country .
= = = Sophomore = = =
In the offseason , Stauskas added 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) to his frame and 6 inches ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) to his vertical jump . Lindy 's Sports selected Stauskas to the preseason All @-@ Big Ten second team , naming Stauskas as the nation 's number 10 shooting guard and Big Ten 's best shooter . On November 12 , Stauskas posted career highs of 23 points and 5 assists in the second game of the regular season against South Carolina State . In the first half of the game , Stauskas made all six of his field goals , including 5 three @-@ pointers . In the next game , Stauskas contributed a career @-@ high 6 assists as well as 20 points against Iowa State on November 17 . Stauskas scored a game @-@ high 24 points on November 21 against Long Beach State in the first round of the Puerto Rico Tip @-@ Off , surpassing his career high set two games before and giving him three consecutive 20 @-@ point performances for the first time in his career . Stauskas established another career high the next day against Florida State as he scored 26 points including 7 of the team 's 13 points in overtime , despite scoring only 3 points in the first half . In the game he set a career high with 9 made free throws and logged his fourth consecutive 20 point game . Following a Michigan timeout with 11 seconds in regulation , Stauskas made a layup to force overtime . In the championship game against Charlotte , Stauskas tallied 20 points and a career @-@ high 3 steals . Although Michigan lost in the championship game , Stauskas earned tournament MVP honors . In the second half Stauskas twisted his ankle , but continued to play the final 9 ½ minutes . Stauskas sat out the November 29 game against Coppin State to rest his ankle .
In the January 2 Big Ten Conference opener against Minnesota , Stauskas set a career high with 7 assists while scoring 14 points . On January 14 , he had a game @-@ high 21 points , team @-@ high 5 assists as well as 6 rebounds against Penn State . On January 18 , Stauskas scored 23 points including the final 11 for Michigan as the team defeated ( # 3 ) Wisconsin at the Kohl Center for the first time since the 1998 – 99 team did so , ending an 11 @-@ game losing streak at Wisconsin . Stauskas made all 6 of his free throw attempts in the final 25 seconds . The game marked the highest ranked team Michigan has ever beaten on the road . On January 21 , Stauskas earned his first Big Ten Conference Player of the Week recognition . At the time he was leading the conference in scoring and 20 @-@ point games . On January 22 , against ( # 10 ) Iowa Stauskas tied his career high with 26 points and contributed 5 rebounds and 5 assists , helping Michigan defeated consecutive top 10 opponents for the first time since the 1996 – 97 team . On January 25 in the Michigan – Michigan rivalry game against the 2013 – 14 Spartans , Stauskas contributed 19 points and 4 assists , including a 5 @-@ for @-@ 6 effort on three point shots . The 80 – 75 victory over ( # 3 ) Michigan State marked the first time in school history that the team defeated three consecutive AP Poll top ten opponents and marked the first time since the 1986 – 87 Iowa Hawkeyes that any team has won three consecutive games all of which were against top 10 opponents . It also gave Michigan a 7 – 0 Big Ten start , which is the best since the 1976 – 77 team won its first eight games . His effort for the week earned a second Big Ten Player of the Week recognition as well as a CBS Sports National Player of the Week honor on January 27 . Stauskas also earned Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week recognition from United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) on January 28 . He led the conference in scoring and three point shooting percentage through January , but he only scored six points when Michigan got upset by Indiana on February 2 , ending a 10 @-@ game winning streak and 8 – 0 Big Ten conference start . Stuaskas established another career high in assists with 8 against Nebraska on February 5 as the team posted its largest conference game margin of victory since defeating Indiana 112 @-@ 64 on February 22 , 1998 . On February 23 against ( # 13 / 14 ) Michigan State , Michigan rebounded from an early 22 – 11 deficit to win 79 – 70 . Stauskas led the way with 25 points on 9 @-@ for @-@ 13 shooting and with 21 coming in the second half , including 10 that took the score from a 48 – 43 deficit to a 53 – 51 lead . It marked his first game with 9 made field goals . He added 5 assists , 3 rebounds and no fouls on his way to earning his third Big Ten Player of the Week recognition on February 24 . On March 4 , Stauskas had 24 points , including a career @-@ high seven three point shots , as part of a 7 @-@ for @-@ 9 three point effort against Illinois to help Michigan clinch its 14th and 8th outright Big Ten Conference championship . On March 8 , Stauskas had a team @-@ high 21 points to help Michigan close out its season with a season @-@ ending 84 – 80 victory over Indiana . On March 10 Stauskas earned his fourth Big Ten Player of the week award ( this time Co @-@ POTW with Shavon Shields ) . Stauskas 's four Player of the Week awards led the Big Ten for the season . At the end of the regular season , he was the only player in the Big Ten to rank among the top 10 for field goal percentage ( 48 @.@ 9 ) , three @-@ point percentage ( 45 @.@ 8 ) and free throw percentage ( 81 @.@ 1 ) .
On March 22 against Texas in Michigan 's second game of the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Stauskas had a career @-@ high tying 8 assists as well as a team @-@ high 17 points . The 2013 – 14 team was eliminated in the elite eight round of the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament by Kentucky as Stauskas led all scorers with 24 points . Stauskas and teammate Caris LeVert , joined Julius Randle , Aaron Harrison and Marcus Lee on the All @-@ Midwest Regional team . The team reached the championship game .
= = = = Watchlists and awards = = = =
On February 13 , Stauskas was one of four Big Ten players ( along with Keith Appling , Gary Harris and Roy Devyn Marble ) who were named to the 30 @-@ man Naismith College Player of the Year midseason watchlist . On March 8 , Stauskas was one of two Big Ten players ( along with Harris ) listed among the 15 finalists for the John R. Wooden Award .
Stauskas was a 2014 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American second @-@ team selection by the Sporting News . Upon being named Sporting News All @-@ American , Stauskas was described as having made the biggest refinements to his game of his fellow honorees by Mike DeCourcy : " Every player on this list , save for the freshmen , made incremental improvements from season to season in order to wind up as an All @-@ American . More than anyone else , Stauskas redefined his game . As a freshman he primarily was a catch @-@ and @-@ shoot weapon for the Wolverines in their charge to the 2013 NCAA championship game . He became a ballhandler in his second season , attacking defenders with his newly unleashed ability to dribble the ball and penetrate the lane . " Stauskas earned third team All @-@ American recognition from USA Today . He was a first team All @-@ American selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) . He was also a second team selection by Sports Illustrated and Bleacher Report , as well as a third team selection by NBC Sports . When Stauskas was named second team All @-@ American by the Associated Press , he became a consensus All @-@ American . Stauskas also earned John R. Wooden Award All @-@ American Team recognition .
Stauskas was the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year and a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media , becoming Michigan 's fifth B1G player of the year and 2nd consecutive . On March 11 Stauskas was named District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Player of the Year by the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Stauskas was listed on the The National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 12 . Stauskas was named to the 2014 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Tournament All @-@ Tournament Team .
= = = Statistics = = =
Stauskas 's career free throw percentage of 83 @.@ 16 % is second in Michigan history , and his 44 @.@ 10 % three point shot percentage ranks fifth .
= = = Canadian flag = = =
University of Michigan junior economics and psychology major James Giardina ordered the first custom maize and blue Canadian flag and waves it at half court during home games . ESPN 's Chantel Jennings tweeted a picture of such a flag at Crisler Arena on December 4 , 2012 . One of her followers noted that the big version on the wall was a general fan flag and that a little version of the flag were added next to it for each three pointer he made in the game . By mid @-@ December of his freshman season , the student in the Maize Rage ( Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball student section at Crisler Arena ) had begun cheering Stauskas on with such a flag . The Michigan Public & Media Relations office started mentioning the flag before Christmas . The flag was mentioned widely in the press as he continued his hot shooting into January .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2014 NBA draft = = =
Discussion about him entering the 2014 NBA draft began when he got hot in January 2014 and his father told Sports Illustrated , " He knows all he has to do is keep his nose to the grindstone for another couple of months , and there ’ s a really good possibility he might be able to go Pro . " However , a few days later , Stauskas attempted to distance himself from his father 's statements and apologized to his fans . Following the season , Stauskas , who was regarded as a likely late first round selection , said he would need some time to process his decision and that he would make his decision after talking to his coaches and family . On April 6 , Stauskas said he would make his decision within the next week or so . On April 7 , David Aldridge rated Stauskas as the number one potential draft entrant among shooting guards ( ahead of Harris , James Young , and Andrew Harrison ) and a late lottery selection . Others agree that Stauskas is a likely late lottery selection . Stauskas and teammates McGary and Robinson all submitted evaluation requests to the NBA Undergraduate Advisory Committee which must respond by April 14 , giving the players until April 27 to make themselves eligible for the draft if they so choose . On April 10 , reports emerged that Stauskas had decided to go pro , but he denied he had made a decision . The reports were based on rumors that Stauskas had decided to hire Mark Bartelstein as his agent . Bartelstein is the father of former Michigan teammate Josh Bartelstein , and agent for former teammate Tim Hardaway , Jr . On April 15 , in a joint press conference with Robinson on the Big Ten Network , Stauskas declared for the 2014 NBA draft . During his two years with Michigan , the school enjoyed its winningest two @-@ year stretch in school history marked by a total of 59 wins . Of Michigan 's prior 14 early NBA draft entrants , 10 were selected in the first round and 3 in the second . Stauskas did sign with Bartelstein ( along with teammate McGary ) . On May 5 , Stauskas threw out the ceremonial first pitch for the Detroit Tigers at Comerica Park .
At the May NBA Draft Combine , Stauskas opted to sit out of the shooting drills , but did elect to participate in official anthropometric measurements , strength / agility drills and team meetings . Stauskas participated in strength and agility testing along with 13 shooting guards , finishing fifth in running vertical jump , sixth in standing vertical leap , seventh in the shuttle run , ninth in the three @-@ quarter court sprint and 11th in the lane agility drill . Stauskas was drafted 8th overall by the Sacramento Kings . He is the highest Michigan selection since Jamal Crawford went 8th in the 2000 NBA draft . With teammates McGary and Robinson also being drafted , it marked the first time Michigan had at least three draft picks since the 1990 NBA draft . With Burke and Hardaway having been drafted the year before , every player that started in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft .
Stauskas committed to represent the Sacramento Kings in 2014 NBA Summer League . Although Stauskas is expected to be an NBA shooting guard , he will be vying with 2013 NBA Draft number 8 overall selection Ben McLemore for playing time . Since the two may be on the court at the same time , Stauskas is expected to play some point guard in the Summer League as preparation for regular season possibilities . He posted a video of his preparation for the 2014 NBA Summer League .
= = = Sacramento Kings ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 8 , 2014 , Stauskas signed a rookie scale contract with the Sacramento Kings . During the 2014 NBA Summer League Stauskas was a starting member of the Summer League Champions . In the 2014 – 15 NBA.com Rookie Survey at the annual Rookie Photo Shoot on August 6 , Stauskas was named by his peers as the second best shooter in the Rookie class behind Doug McDermott . During his rookie pre @-@ season , he got a lot of publicity for the statement " I understand that I ’ m a rookie and I ’ m white , so people are going to attack me " because of stereotypes about race and his unproven and presumably weak defensive skills . Stauskas was surprised by the attention the statement received . In his first week in the league , he had a 3 @-@ block game against the Los Angeles Clippers . On December 8 in his first game against Utah and former teammate and fellow Big Ten Player of the Year Burke , Stauskas posted career highs of 15 points and 8 rebounds . Stauskas again posted 15 points against the New York Knicks and former Michigan teammate Hardaway on March 3 . On March 24 , he received the nickname " Sauce Castillo " via social media after a closed captioning error . Stauskas started in the Kings ' April 15 season finale against the Los Angeles Lakers and tallied 5 assists . It was his first and only start of the season .
= = = Philadelphia 76ers ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On July 10 , 2015 , Stauskas was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers along with Carl Landry , Jason Thompson , a future first round pick , and the rights to swap first round picks in 2016 and 2017 , in exchange for the rights to Artūras Gudaitis and Luka Mitrović . During the preseason , Stauskas was impaired by a right tibia stress reaction . Although he felt recovered from the stress reaction by the beginning of the season , he missed the October 28 season opener with back spasms . The 2015 – 16 76ers team played no players over the age of 24 or with more than 3 years of NBA experience on opening night . Stauskas joined the young team 's rotation in October 30 against the Utah Jazz with a 12 @-@ point debut performance . Stauskas moved into the starting lineup on November 2 against the Cleveland Cavaliers . He posted a career @-@ high tying 15 points against his idol LeBron James . On November 7 , Stauskas posted a career @-@ high 18 points and career @-@ high tying five assists against the Orlando Magic . He tallied at least 12 points in each of his first five games of action for Philadelphia . However , by mid November , Stauskas was deep in a shooting slump . He was scoreless in back @-@ to @-@ back starts , going 0 @-@ for @-@ 10 ( 0 – 5 3 point shots ) combined against the San Antonio Spurs and Dallas Mavericks on November 14 and November 16 . Fortunately for Stauskas , his backup , Isaiah Canaan , was in a simultaneous slump , going 3 @-@ for @-@ 20 in the same games . However , Stauskas had a left knee contusion on November 23 against the Minnesota Timberwolves and was sidelined for the second half and the subsequent three @-@ game road trip . He missed only one game and returned to the lineup on November 27 in limited minutes off the bench . On December 1 , Stauskas and the 76ers defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 103 – 91 . The win ended the longest losing streak in the history of major professional sports in the United States ( 28 games going back to the prior season ) and the worst start in NBA history ( tied with the 2009 – 10 New Jersey Nets at 0 – 18 ) . Stauskas went scoreless in 4 consecutive appearances between December 16 and December 22 . He then did not play on December 23 when the 76ers played against the Milwaukee Bucks . When the 76ers defeated the Phoenix Suns in new point guard Ish Smith 's first game with the team for their second win of the season ( snapping a 12 @-@ game losing streak and a 23 @-@ game road losing streak ) on December 26 , Stauskas was coming off the bench and contributed 17 points . As Stauskas endured an up and down season , he became Kendall Marshall 's father 's target of blame for Marshall 's lack of playing time on January 2 . That night against the Los Angeles Clippers , Stauskas posted 18 points on 6 – 8 three point shooting . Stauskas returned to the starting lineup for the 76ers on January 4 against the Minnesota Timberwolves for the 76ers 4th win of the season . However , he was injured in overtime of the January 15 contest against the Chicago Bulls and missed three games before returning to the lineup on January 25 against the Boston Celtics . Stauskas scored 18 points again on March 15 against the Brooklyn Nets . Stauskas established a new career high on March 18 against the Oklahoma City Thunder , scoring 23 points .
= = International career = =
Stauskas played for Canada in the 2009 FIBA Americas Under @-@ 16 Championship held in Argentina . He helped lead the Canadian junior national team to a bronze medal , which qualified them for the 2010 FIBA Under @-@ 17 World Championship . He averaged 9 @.@ 4 points per game in the tournament , including a game @-@ high 21 points in a 126 – 78 loss against the United States team led by Bradley Beal and James Michael McAdoo on June 20 , 2009 . First overall 2013 NBA draft pick Anthony Bennett was one of Stauskas ' teammates in the tournament . Stauskas was later invited to train with the Canadian senior national team .
He represented Canada at the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship , contributing 111 points in 9 games — including 18 @-@ for @-@ 36 three point shooting , but did not play in the team 's final game . Food poisoning had impaired him in the semifinal loss against Venezuela , and the illness caused him to miss the bronze medal game against Mexico , which Canada won 87 – 86 .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = Personal = =
Stauskas is the son of Paul and Ruta Stauskas . His brother 's name is Peter . Three of Stauskas 's four grandparents lived in Lithuania before World War II . Stauskas previously attended Lithuanian Saturday School in Toronto and is able to understand and speak some Lithuanian . Geographically , Michigan is closer to Stauskas 's parents home in Ontario than any other major Division I school , according to Stauskas .
After Michigan lost to Louisville in the 2013 NCAA championship game , Stauskas met with Greg Harden , a counselor in the athletic department who had worked with Michigan athletes from Tom Brady to Desmond Howard . Stauskas said of Harden : “ He ’ s helped me a lot . That ’ s the main reason why I would say I ’ m a different person and a different player . I have a different kind of confidence now and a different mentality . ”
When he tweeted a Christmas Eve 2012 video of himself making 45 of 50 three point shots , Dick Vitale replied 14 minutes later . On April 24 , 2013 , he posted a video of himself making 70 of 76 three pointers in five minutes , and 8
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fatalities or injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Barry can be traced to a tropical wave which moved off the western coast of Africa on August 13 , 1983 . Strong wind shear in the North Atlantic hurricane basin prevented significant development of the system as it traveled towards the west @-@ northwest . Little convection was associated with the disturbance as a result of the shear . While approaching the Bahamas on August 22 , an upper @-@ level trough moved away from the system , which led to a decrease in the wind shear . The disturbance then entered this environment and spawned an area of low pressure which intensified . On August 23 , the low had become sufficiently organized to be declared Tropical Depression Four . Later that day , the depression quickly strengthened into a tropical storm and was given the name Barry by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . About 12 hours after becoming a tropical storm , Barry reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) .
Barry then began a westerly course towards central Florida . However , wind shear began to increase , causing the system to weaken . The NHC downgraded the storm back to a tropical depression on August 25 . Barry made landfall near Melbourne , Florida the same morning with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . After crossing Florida , the depression traveled towards the west @-@ southwest due to a strong upper @-@ level flow . On August 27 , Barry became sufficiently organized to be reclassified as a tropical storm while located in the central Gulf of Mexico . The re @-@ strengthening was the result of decreased wind shear and more favorable conditions over the Gulf . The storm continued to become better organized as it traveled nearly due west towards Mexico . At 1200 UTC the next day , Barry was upgraded to a hurricane while located about 75 mi ( 120 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The hurricane continued to intensify until it made landfall about 35 mi ( 55 km ) south @-@ southeast of Brownsville at peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The storm quickly weakened after landfall and dissipated the next day over northern Mexico .
= = Preparations = =
= = = United States = = =
Several watches and warnings were issued along the Florida and Texas coastlines as a result of Barry . The first was a gale warning from Jupiter Inlet , Florida to Savannah , Georgia on August 24 at 1900 UTC . The warning was discontinued from St. Augustine to Savannah the next day . The next was a gale warning issued for Brownsville , Texas to Port O 'Connor , Texas on August 27 . This was upgraded into a hurricane warning as Barry strengthened a few hours later , and then extended to Mansfield . The warning was discontinued by late August 28 . Over 4 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from South Padre Island in preparation of Hurricane Barry . Several thousand people were evacuated from beaches in Port Aransas on August 27 as Barry approached . An estimated 700 people took refuge in shelters set up in Brownsville and 800 people fled to schools , which were being used as temporary shelters , in Harlingen . An additional 2 @,@ 000 residents evacuated from Harlingen . Shelters were also opened in San Benito , Santa Rosa , and Los Fresnos . Offshore , several oil platforms were evacuated in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = = Mexico = = =
In the Mexican city of Matamoros , located south of Brownsville , Texas , Captain Manuel Leon Lopez warned residents about the approaching hurricane through radio messages . Many people were seen leaving coastal villages and heading further inland . Mexican officials raised the alert level to stage three due to the threat of Barry .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = United States = = =
Rainfall around 1 in ( 25 mm ) were reported around Lake Okeechobee , 3 inches ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) around the Orlando area and 1 in ( 25 mm ) in the Miami area . The peak rainfall was 3 @.@ 01 in ( 76 mm ) in Wauchula , Florida . Roads with poor drainage in Key West , Florida were flooded after the area received 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 @.@ 1 mm ) of rain . Barry also affected the launch of the Space Shuttle Challenger , whose third mission was scheduled for August 30 . NASA ( National Aeronautics and Space Administration ) did not have time to return the shuttle to the hangar in time for the storm and had the shuttle ride out the storm on the launch pad . The only rainfall reported in Texas by Barry was 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) around San Antonio . Along the Texas coast , beach erosion was caused from waves that were 1 to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 61 m ) higher than normal . Winds were gusting in excess of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) off the South Padre Island coast . Near Brownsville , a possible tornado knocked down power lines , leaving an estimated 6 @,@ 000 people without power .
= = = Mexico = = =
No casualties were reported from Barry . However , 30 fishing boats were sunk in Mexico and several hundred homes were destroyed . The rainfall from the hurricane was considered to be relief from drought conditions in parts of northern Mexico . A storm surge of 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) was recorded in Mexican fishing villages . Over 400 people were made homeless and there was a major loss of shrimping nets . At least ten people were left homeless in the town of El Mezquital . Homes in Santa Teresa sustained some damage but none were destroyed . Only one person was injured by the storm after shards from a broken window hit the child . Following the storm , General Jesus Ponce de Leon Rodriguez went to survey the damage in Tamaulipas along with a medical team .
= Sword of Aragon =
Sword of Aragon is a turn @-@ based strategy and role @-@ playing game developed and published by Strategic Simulations , Inc. in 1989 . It is also considered to be of the 4X genre . Set in the fictional land of Aragon , the games casts its protagonist as the duke of a city named Aladda . After assuming rule over the city and avenging his father 's death , the protagonist embarks on a quest to unify the land through conquest . Accomplishing this goal entails developing cities , recruiting armies , and directing the troops on the fields of battle to victory . First published on the DOS platform during the emergence of electronic wargaming , the game was also ported to Amiga machines . Reception towards Sword of Aragon tended to be more positive than negative ; reviewers called it an exciting game , but criticized its method of copy protection and cited problems with its documentation . There were also opinions that the game was more of a niche product , catering to hardcore strategists .
= = Background = =
Sword of Aragon is a " strategic fantasy role @-@ playing adventure " video game published in 1989 . The game 's setting is the fictional land of Aragon . A powerful human empire once held sway over the land , but infighting and raids by monsters such as orcs , goblins , and titans have broken it apart . The protagonist is the son of the Duke of Aladda , ruler of a city that used to be glorious under the old empire . The duke died during a raid by orcs and tasked his son through his will to fulfill his dream of reunifying the land . To achieve this goal , the young duke builds up his cities and expands his army , conquering or allying with other cities and races . Furthermore , he recovers three artifacts required to claim the throne , slays a dragon , and destroys the strongholds of monsters that plague the land . Eventually , he deposes the ruthless Emperor of the Tetradan Empire , Lucinian IV , and assumes the Aragonian throne .
= = Gameplay = =
The player begins a game by choosing a character class for the protagonist . The choices are warrior , knight , mage , priest , and ranger . Each class has an affinity to a certain class of soldier — warriors are more apt in leading infantry , and knights , cavalry . During battles , mages , rangers , and priests can also cast spells that damage foes , alter terrain , and heal friendly forces . The player can hire commanders of these classes to accompany the protagonist in his quest . After winning a number of battles , the player 's character might receive offers of service from such commanders as well .
The game is principally split between city management and tactical combat . Gameplay is turn @-@ based , alternating between player and computer , and much of the game is played on the World Map , a representation of the land of Aragon . Each turn on this map represents a month in the game . The map shows cities and the player 's units ; unexplored areas are blanked out until they have been explored by the player 's units . By using the keyboard and mouse , the player moves a cursor to select units and cities , and issue orders via keystrokes . Cities under the player 's control provide monthly income , which is supplemented by tributes from vassals and loot from battles . Income from a city is improved by expending funds to develop the city 's economic sectors , such as agriculture and mining , or by increasing taxation . Tax rates , however , affect the loyalty of citizens ; high taxes in a city lead to a decreasing population .
Armies are recruited in the cities , and their maintenance contributes to the monthly expenditure . Troops consist of infantry , cavalry , and bowmen . The game enters the tactical battle phase when enemies attack one of the player 's cities that is garrisoned with troops , and when the player 's forces move onto a hostile city . Encounters might also take place as the player 's forces move on the World Map . On such occasions , the game switches the display to a large @-@ scale map of the encounter . The battle maps differ from the World Map in that each spot has a limit on its number of occupants — a stacking limit . The player and computer take turns to deploy and move their forces . Units move at their standard pace or at a forced march to cover greater distances per turn in battles . Certain terrain gives defensive bonuses to their occupants , reducing the damage they suffer when coming under attack . Offensives take the form of melee , charges , missiles , and magic . The player has the option of letting the computer take control of his or her army to fight the battle . The game switches back to the World Map after a battle has concluded . Units that survive a battle gain experience points , improving their combat abilities on attaining certain amounts of experience points . They , with the exception of commanders , can also train in cities to improve their experience . Video games designer Alan Emrich considered Sword of Aragon 's gameplay typical of the " eXplore , eXpand , eXploit and eXterminate " nature of the 4X genre .
= = Development = =
Sword of Aragon was developed and published by Strategic Simulations , Inc . , a video game company that dominated the 1980s market for digital wargames . Their products typically " copied the board game formula without adding revolutionary new elements . " Most strategy games at this time featured hexagon @-@ based maps and a sequence of turns among players . Sword of Aragon plainly exhibits the influence of traditional board games in its design . Its maps are laid out in hexes , and the concept of stacking limits plays a strong part in the game 's strategies . Written in Microsoft QuickBASIC and other languages , Sword of Aragon features a copy protection system that uses the game manual . On starting the game , the icon of an Aragonian city is displayed , along with a cue for a word in the manual 's description of that city ; a separate poster identifies the cities with their icons . The game proceeds only after the correct answer has been entered .
= = Reception = =
Sword of Aragon was released when fantasy @-@ themed wargames were gaining popularity and computer wargames were starting to flourish as the rules of the board games grew in complexity . The digital versions were simpler in terms of their gameplay , as parts of the complex mechanics were handled by computers instead . Freed of dice rolling , complex calculations , and coordination of the sequence of play , casual gamers were more amenable to playing these games . According to Advanced Computer Entertainment 's John Minson , Sword of Aragon complied with part of this trend ; its huge complicated set of rules would have made it an unplayable board game , but by hiding its mechanics from the player , the digital version could be played by anyone . However , as Minson further explained , the scope of the game was too large for casual gamers to handle , overwhelming them with " the number of factors under their control " , and hardcore gamers are more likely to appreciate the game 's complexity .
The Lessers of Dragon magazine believed that while the game was exciting , it suffered several design flaws that made the game too difficult for them . The computer @-@ controlled enemies constantly outpaced their economy and military might , and the game gave them no immediate opportunity to retreat their army when ambushed by superior forces , forcing them to suffer heavy losses . Conversely , Compute ! ' s Adam Starkweather found it too easy in later stages of the game , as his character 's well @-@ developed armies " steamroll " their way through the opposition . The Lessers and Amiga Joker 's Werner Hiersekorn felt the game ran slow on their computers , while Starkweather reflected that battles could take up to one and a half hours to complete . In 1990 and 1993 Computer Gaming World gave the game three @-@ plus stars out of five , stating that it had " high playability " .
Several video game observers doubted the classification of Sword of Aragon as a role @-@ playing game . Science fiction and fantasy novelist Orson Scott Card and Amiga Computing 's Lucinda Orr considered it more of a strategy than a role @-@ playing game . Minson was of like mind , and further elaborated that unlike the Dungeon and Dragon series of video games , Sword of Aragon failed to inspire players to identify themselves with the characters , giving a " coldly mechanical experience " instead . Datormagazin 's Hans Ekholm thought otherwise . He said the gameplay did not require any strategy , and considered Sword of Aragon " a fantasy role @-@ playing / adventure game and nothing else " .
Critics had minor criticisms with the game 's quality when comparing to its contemporaries . Minson called its interface " old @-@ fashioned " , and Computer Gaming World said it was " clunky " and " marginal " , a description it also gave the game 's graphics . Graphically , Orr and Zzap ! 64 's Phil King found the game " primitive " , though " adequate " . More troubling to several reviewers was the game 's copy protection system . Ekholm was not pleased that he had to unfold a flimsy poster to identify the requested city . His copy was falling apart after several identifications . The game further frustrated him when it failed to acknowledge the correct key . The provided hints were incorrect , a situation also experienced by the Lessers . The inaccuracies were not restricted to the copy protection . Starkweather pointed out discrepancies in the documentation — several features of the game were either not explained or wrongly documented .
Ekholm dismissed Sword of Aragon for its flawed copy protection and perceived lack of strategy . Hiersekorn was more condemning ; rating the game poorly for its graphics and sound , and confused by its presented lists of military and economic data , he called the game a " cheap clone " . Regardless , such issues did not deter other reviewers from praising the game . Pleased with the large amount of options to manage their cities and to order their armies in combat , they felt the game was deep and offered many exciting moments ; Kritzen judged the system " challenging and ultimately rewarding . " According to Retro Gamer magazine , " Sword of Aragon is considered by many to be the best fantasy wargame ever . " Starkweather was equally pronounced in his opinion . He called Sword of Aragon addictive and was willing to overlook issues with the game , finding pleasure in formulating strategies and tactics to overcome the enemy .
= Sam Fuld =
Samuel Babson " Sam " Fuld ( born November 20 , 1981 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder for the Oakland Athletics of Major League Baseball .
Despite being diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes at the age of 10 , Fuld began his baseball career by twice batting .600 in high school , during which time Baseball America ranked him 19th in the country . He played college baseball at Stanford . There , he was a two @-@ time All @-@ American , set the school record for career runs scored , and established the College World Series record for career hits .
Fuld was drafted by the Chicago Cubs in 2004 . He was an All Star two years later in the Florida State League . A year after that , he was voted the Most Valuable Player in the Arizona Fall League . In the minors , as a result of his fearless defense , he was referred to as " a crash test dummy with a death wish " , a " human wrecking ball act " , a " wall magnet " , and a " manager 's dream and a trainer 's worst nightmare . "
Fuld made his major league debut with the Cubs in 2007 . He became a fan favorite for his acrobatic defense , and his tendency to run into outfield walls while making sparkling catches . Despite his batting .299 in his longest stint with the Cubs , the team never gave him a consistent chance , and limited his play to only late @-@ season call @-@ ups over three years . After the 2010 season , he was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays . Fuld made the Rays ' 2011 opening day roster , and won the jobs of starting left fielder and leadoff hitter by mid @-@ April . Due to early @-@ season heroics , including a " Superman @-@ esque " catch , he was dubbed " Superman " , " Super Sam " , and " The Legendary Sam Fuld " . His catch was put to Superman @-@ theme music in a YouTube video , and tweets about him went viral . In late April , he led the American League in both batting average and steals . He played with the Rays through 2013 , and in 2014 he played for the Oakland Athletics ( for two stints ) and Minnesota Twins .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = High school = = =
Fuld attended Berwick Academy as an eighth grader , during which time he made the high school varsity , and the University of New Hampshire 's baseball coach opined that he had the best batting swing of any player in the State . He was the team 's MVP , and a league All Star . He then transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire , where he played baseball and soccer , and ran track . Because of the climate , the league played a short baseball season , and some of the games were played as it snowed . Fuld batted .613 as a freshman , and .489 as a sophomore with 11 steals . He led his club to a league title as a junior in 1999 , as he batted .600 with 9 steals . As a senior he hit .550 with 6 homers , 12 RBIs , and 13 stolen bases . He was a three @-@ time team captain and four @-@ time MVP of the varsity baseball team .
He was named a 2000 Pre @-@ season First Team All @-@ American by Baseball America , Collegiate Baseball , USA Today , and Fox Sports . Fuld was also listed 19th among the 100 Top High School Prospects of 2000 by Baseball America , and selected the New Hampshire 2000 Gatorade High School Player of the Year . He was also a four @-@ time Central New England Prep School Baseball League All @-@ Conference player .
Fuld also played from 1998 to 2000 with the Dover Post 8 American Legion team . With them , he earned 2000 New Hampshire State Tournament MVP honors . He also led his club to a state championship .
= = = College = = =
A total of 94 colleges approached Fuld after high school , and he chose to attend Stanford University . He was an economics major there , ultimately graduating in 2004 with a 3 @.@ 15 GPA . He was a star two @-@ time All @-@ American , record @-@ setting 4 @-@ year starter in center field for the Cardinal , playing alongside future major leaguers Carlos Quentin and Jed Lowrie .
In 2001 , as a freshman , he batted .357 as he established himself as the team 's leadoff hitter . Fuld was fifth in the Pacific @-@ 10 ( Pac @-@ 10 ) conference in runs scored ( 56 ) , sixth in walks ( 32 ) , and ninth in hits ( 81 ) . In the post @-@ season he hit .396 . He earned NCBWA Third Team All @-@ American honors , and was named a Baseball America Second Team Freshman All @-@ American , All @-@ College World Series , All @-@ NCAA Regional , All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 , and a Collegiate Baseball Honorable Mention Freshman All @-@ American .
As a sophomore in 2002 , he led the Pac @-@ 10 in hits ( 110 ) , breaking Stanford 's single @-@ season record , while batting .375 , third @-@ best in the conference . Fuld also led the conference in total bases ( 162 ) , was third in runs scored ( 67 ) and doubles ( 20 ) , and fifth in triples ( 4 ) . He was named a First @-@ Team ( ABCA , Baseball America , Baseball Weekly ) and Third @-@ Team ( Collegiate Baseball , NCBWA ) All @-@ American . He was also named a Jewish Sports Review College Baseball First Team All @-@ American , along with future major leaguers Craig Breslow and Adam Greenberg . In addition , Fuld earned the Stanford Jack Shepard Memorial Award and Come Through Award . He batted .421 with two homers in four CWS games , earning a spot on the All @-@ College World Series Team for the second straight year . Fuld also played with Team USA in the summers of 2001 and 2002 .
In 2003 , Fuld was named a First @-@ Team ( NCBWA ) and Third @-@ Team ( Baseball America ) Pre @-@ Season All @-@ American . As a junior , he had 83 regular season runs , tying the school record ( # 1 in the Pac @-@ 10 ) . He hit .321 with 35 RBIs and 10 steals in 10 attempts , leading the conference in triples ( 9 ) while coming in fifth in hits ( 97 ) , eighth in doubles ( 18 ) and total bases ( 145 ) , and ninth in walks ( 34 ) . In the post @-@ season his 24 career hits broke the College World Series record of 23 set by Keith Moreland in 1973 – 75 . And commenting on his defense , Stanford coach Mark Marquess said : " If it 's in the ballpark , he 's going to catch it . He 's the premier center fielder in college baseball . " He earned All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 honors for the third straight season . Reflecting on his college career , Fuld said : " I think one of the things you take away from playing under Coach Marquess is whatever you do , be it baseball or anything else , you do it well and you do it with passion . You do it with excitement because , really , that 's the way to go about things . Not only in sports , but beyond sports . "
Fuld was drafted in the 24th round ( 703rd overall ) of the 2003 draft by the Chicago Cubs , but did not sign . Marquess thought that Fuld was drafted relatively late because of his size . At 5 ft 10 in , he is not as tall as most major league outfielders . But Fuld said of the Cubs ' bid : " It was a generous offer . It was a tough choice . " He then batted .361 with 14 RBIs and 10 stolen bases in the summer of 2003 for the Hyannis Mets in the Cape Cod League , and was voted a Cape Cod League All Star .
Before the 2004 season , Fuld was named a First @-@ Team ( NCBWA ) , Second @-@ Team ( Louisville Slugger ) , and Third Team ( Baseball America , Collegiate Baseball ) Pre @-@ season All @-@ American , and an Honorable Mention Pac @-@ 10 All @-@ Academic . While playing the outfield at the end of his last college season , he broke his shoulder , tore his labrum , and partially tore his rotator cuff . For the season , he received Honorable Mention to the Pac @-@ 10 All @-@ Academic Team and All @-@ Conference Team
When he became Stanford 's and the Pac @-@ 10 's all @-@ time leader in runs scored ( 268 ) , Fuld said : " It means a lot to break the record . Obviously , a record like that is more of a tribute to the teammates I 've had over the last four years . " When he graduated Stanford , in addition he ranked among the school 's all @-@ time top 10 in hits ( 353 ; # 2 ) , triples ( 16 ; # 3T ) , and doubles ( 58 ; # 6T ) .
Fuld said : " I want to try my hand . It 's been a lifelong dream , really , to play professional baseball . I just love it too much not to give it a shot . " The Cubs drafted him for a second time , in the 10th round ( 306th overall ) of the 2004 draft , and this time Fuld signed , for a $ 25 @,@ 000 signing bonus . When he made it to the major leagues , he became the 78th former Stanford Cardinal to do so . During the baseball off @-@ season , Fuld returns to Stanford to pursue a master 's degree in statistics .
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The torn labrum injury he incurred in 2004 required surgery and a year of physiotherapy . During that time he read Michael Lewis 's book Moneyball and got an internship position with STATS , Inc. of Chicago . " I was one of their reporters , which meant that I looked at game video and plotted the ' TVL ' – type , velocity , and location – of every pitch " , Fuld said . " They have this grid where you click on exactly where the ball crosses the plate . Play the tape , pause , and repeat . " Fuld observed later : " The beauty of numbers is that our minds don 't necessarily capture the whole picture accurately . Our emotions remember certain things for whatever reason , and there are certain things you don 't remember .... that 's the beauty of numbers . It 's fact . There 's no way around it . " He also began seeking out stats that were not already kept . " There 's so many statistics out there that I thought ' There 's no stats on foul balls , ' so I picked a few players and started tracking them , thinking I 'd find something " , Fuld said . But his bag that contained the notebook with all his stats was stolen .
Fuld had an impressive minor league career that began in 2005 , when he hit .300 with a .377 OBP and 18 stolen bases in 443 at @-@ bats for the Single @-@ A Peoria Chiefs of the Midwest League . He also had a 17 @-@ game hit streak , and turned in 7 outfield assists from center field .
Fuld batted .300 with a .378 obp and 22 steals in 353 at @-@ bats for the High @-@ A Daytona Cubs of the Florida State League in 2006 , in spite of missing part of the season with a hip injury . He had surgery for a sports hernia in the off @-@ season . He was named to the league All @-@ Star team .
In 2007 , Fuld batted .291 with a .371 on @-@ base percentage , in 282 at @-@ bats , as he began the season with the Tennessee Smokies in the Double @-@ A Southern League . " He knows how to play the game , when to take a pitch , when to work the count , and when to go ahead and swing away and juice the ball " , said his Tennessee manager , Listach . " He 's strong enough that he can hit the ball out of the yard occasionally . He 's a gap , line drive type hitter . He knows what type of hitter he is , and he doesn ’ t hit a lot of fly balls . " He was an efficient leadoff batter for Tennessee , with more walks ( 41 ) than strikeouts ( 38 ) . He was touted by Baseball America as having the best strike zone judgment in the organization . " He 's a very intelligent player " , added Listach . He continued :
He plays the game the right way . He plays the game hard . He plays the game smart . He steals a base when you need a base stolen , not necessarily when it 's 5 – 0 or a lopsided score . He does it when the team needs it . He makes the plays . He throws to the right bases . He 's a left @-@ handed hitter . He can run . He 's a prototypical leadoff hitter in the big leagues ..... His work ethic is off the charts .
Fuld was also touted by Listach as having the best outfield skills on the team , as he led the Southern League with 13 assists from the outfield . In August , Fuld was promoted to the Iowa Cubs in the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League . There , he batted .269 , with a .397 on @-@ base percentage .
Fuld played for the Mesa Solar Sox in the Arizona Fall League in the Fall of 2007 . On October 30 , he was named AFL Player of the Week , after hitting .526 . In 29 games with the Solar Sox , Fuld led the league in batting average ( .402 ) , hits ( 43 ) , doubles ( 11 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 16 ) , total bases ( 67 ) , obp ( .492 ) , slugging percentage ( .626 ) , and OPS ( 1 @.@ 118 ) , and was 3rd in the league in runs ( 20 ) and walks ( 17 ) , 4th in stolen bases ( 10 ) , and 5th in triples ( 2 ) . He batted .462 with runners in scoring position , and .500 against lefties . Fuld was named the 2007 Most Valuable Player of the Arizona Fall League , after being the season 's dominant player . He also was named to the AFL Top Prospects Team .
Fuld also won the Dernell Stenson Award for Leadership for unselfishness , hard work , and leadership , becoming the first player to win both awards . He donated the money he raised in an auction to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation . " This kid plays the game like it 's supposed to be played " , said Mesa Solar Sox manager Dave Clark .
In 2008 , Fuld started the season with the Triple @-@ A Iowa Cubs . There , due to his fearless defense , he was referred to as " a crash test dummy with a death wish " , a " human wrecking ball act " , a " wall magnet " , and a " manager 's dream and a trainer 's worst nightmare . "
Fuld began the 2008 season at Triple @-@ A Iowa , but was demoted to the Double @-@ A Tennessee Smokies in May after struggling at the plate due to a right thumb injury . After hitting no higher than .245 in May , June , and July , he had a torrid August , batting .345 / .424 / .445 . Fuld averaged only 1 strikeout per 9 @.@ 9 at @-@ bats , good for fifth @-@ best in the Southern League .
Fuld had a " big winter " playing winter ball in Venezuela on the Tigres de Aragua , who he helped lead to a championship . He hit leadoff for Aragua , while batting .322 with 5 triples ( leading the league ) , 36 walks and 43 runs ( 2nd ) , 16 doubles ( 5th ) , a .425 on @-@ base percentage ( 7th ) , and a .938 OPS ( 8th ) . For his 2008 – 09 winter performance , including walking nearly twice as much as he struck out , he was elected to the Baseball America All Winter League Team .
Fuld began 2009 at Iowa , and hit .286 with 20 stolen bases and 8 triples in 73 games , including .326 versus lefties , primarily playing center field until he was called up on June 30 . He walked 32 times compared to just 22 strikeouts in 319 plate appearances , and had a .309 batting average with runners in scoring position .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Chicago Cubs = = = =
= = = = = 2007 = = = = =
In September 2007 , the Chicago Cubs called Fuld up to the major league team . He is one of 37 ballplayers from New Hampshire who have made it to the major leagues . He made his debut September 5 against the Los Angeles Dodgers , as a defensive replacement . " I have so much respect for players like ( Cubs first baseman ) Derrek Lee " , Fuld said . " They 're great players . But to meet them and actually play with them and contribute and help them win is kind of a surreal experience . It doesn 't seem too long ago that I was going to Fenway ( Park in Boston ) and idolizing these guys . I feel like a fan at times . I have to remind myself I 'm a player . "
That month he was " forced " to sing Stanford 's fight song on the team bus , as part of his rookie treatment . Later in the month , he was hazed after a game — made to walk from the park in Cincinnati to the team 's downtown hotel in a Batgirl getup , accompanied by Félix Pie in pink baby pajamas , Carmen Pignatiello ( as Supergirl ) , and Kevin Hart ( as Wonder Woman ) . After peeking at his outfit , before he had to don it , Fuld said : " I think it was Batgirl . I was actually looking forward to it , believe it or not . [ I didn 't try it on ] I 'm pretty sure I would 've looked good in it . Black 's my color . I never did the frat thing in college , so this would kind of be like that . " In mid @-@ September , as Manager Lou Piniella had still not given Fuld an at bat , someone on the team hung a " Moonlight Graham " sign in Fuld 's locker .
Against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 22 , 2007 , playing right field as a defensive replacement , Fuld raced back and made a " spectacular " , " daredevil " , jarring catch just left of the 368 @-@ foot @-@ marker in right @-@ center field at Wrigley Field , slamming at full speed into the ivy @-@ covered brick wall , and robbing the Pirates ' Nyjer Morgan of extra bases . In his next motion , Fuld then bounced off the bricks and wheeled , firing a one @-@ hop strike to double off a Pirates baserunner at first base ( see video of Fuld catch and throw to first ) . The home crowd of 47 @,@ 271 erupted , giving him a deafening standing ovation , and the Cubs who were on the field waited in front of his dugout to congratulate him . Thousands of fans chanted " Sam @-@ my ! Sam @-@ my ! " when he next came to bat . " That was amazing " , said Fuld . " They were going crazy . " General Manager Jim Hendry said : " That 's as good a play as I 've seen by a Cubs player at Wrigley Field since I 've been here . " The play later made ESPN on Baseball Tonight as the # 1 web gem of the day . After the season , Paul Sullivan of the Chicago Tribune cited it as the Cubs ' " Play of the Year . " Many Cub fans refer to it as : " The Catch . "
= = = = = 2008 = = = = =
In 2008 , Fuld pushed Pie for the center field spot during spring training . Piniella said that Pie was only " a head or nose in front " of Fuld , and commented :
[ Fuld ] ' s the type of kid who can catch your eye in one day . But the more you watch him , the more you look at his particular skills , he impresses you . He 's an athlete and has really good actions in the outfield , and then he plays a small man 's game with the bat , which is what he should do — hits the ball all over , puts it in play , keeps it on the ground .
Hendry observed : " [ Fuld ] can run . He 's a tremendous defensive player . " Hendry also indicated that Fuld was among the club 's untouchables , saying : " We 're not going to trade [ Fuld ] . It 's pretty simple . " In late March , however , Piniella chose Pie to open the season as the starting center fielder over Fuld , and sent Fuld down to the minor leagues .
= = = = = 2009 = = = = =
Fuld played for the Cubs in spring training in 2009 , but was sent down to their AAA team in late March to work on stealing bases . He was called back up on June 30 . Hendry said : " Sammy has been really hot . This will let Lou ( manager Piniella ) mix and match with outfield defense until Reed ( Johnson ) comes back . "
On July 1 , 2009 , Fuld recorded his first major league hit in his first major league start of the season , and second start of his career . Leading off the game Fuld hit a double against Virgil Vasquez of the Pittsburgh Pirates at PNC Park . " It felt great to get the first one out of the way in the first inning " , Fuld said . " It kind of took the edge off the rest of the night . I felt comfortable all night long — I really couldn 't have asked for a better night . " In the fourth inning Fuld made a sliding catch of a sinking liner ( see video of Fuld 's sliding catch robbing Vazquez of a hit ) , and in the fifth inning he fielded a single and threw out Jack Wilson at home ( see video ) . " It was huge " , said Cubs starter Randy Wells . " Sam Fuld , man , he gets to so many balls . He made a [ heck ] of a play throwing that guy out — the perfect throw . " The following month , he crashed into the left field wall while making a sliding catch in a game against the Dodgers ( see video of Fuld making wall @-@ crashing catch ) .
Asked which player he would most like to switch positions with , Geovany Soto said :
" I would like to change with Sam Fuld for a play in the outfield . He 's running in the outfield , and all of a sudden he makes that catch , two inches before he hits the ground . Oh , my God , he lays out and then hits the ground — that 's amazing . I 'd like to know what it 's like to dive and catch the ball like that . "
Fuld hit the first home run of his major league career in the final game of the Cubs ' 2009 season , on October 4 at Wrigley Field . He finished the season batting .299 , and with the highest on @-@ base percentage ( .409 ) of any Cubs player with 100 or more plate appearances .
= = = = = 2010 = = = = =
Carrie Muskat , the Cubs ' MLB.com beat reporter , wrote on March 1 , 2010 , that : " I can see Fuld making the Cubs ' Opening Day roster ... Fuld has shown he can handle the part @-@ time workload , can play all three positions , and can be used as a defensive sub or pinch @-@ runner . " On March 30 , however , the Cubs sent him down to AAA Iowa . Piniella remarked : " The decisions weren 't easy . " He was called up to Chicago for the first time in the 2010 season on August 19 , and ended the season with only a handful of at bats .
Baseball writer Rob Neyer , noting that this followed Fuld batting .299 with a .409 on @-@ base percentage for the Cubs , wrote :
don 't you think you could find a place for a fast guy who gets on base and plays great defense ? The Cubs did find a place for him . No , not Wrigley Field . Not Heaven , either . Iowa . Again . Where Fuld posted a .383 on @-@ base percentage .... I 'm telling you , there are worse fourth outfielders on half the teams in the majors right now .
A writer for the American Spectator later mused : " what were the Cubs thinking ... ? ... perhaps decision makers ... didn 't ... pencil him into lineup cards because they were prejudiced against players of Fuld 's stature . But those who don 't believe guys of Fuld 's size can be solid major league players should be sentenced to sit in the corner under the dunce hat , and read Joe Morgan 's statistics over and over . "
= = = = Tampa Bay Rays = = = =
= = = = = 2011 = = = = =
The Cubs had never given Fuld an extended chance . They instead limited his play to late @-@ season call @-@ ups over three years , including just 40 starts . After the 2010 season , they traded him to the Tampa Bay Rays , who had wanted him for a long time . He was traded with minor leaguers Hak @-@ Ju Lee , Brandon Guyer , Robinson Chirinos , and Chris Archer for starting pitcher Matt Garza , outfielder Fernando Perez , and Zac Rosscup .
Manager Joe Maddon noted Fuld 's outstanding walks @-@ to @-@ strikeouts ratio , which Maddon referred to as " freaky @-@ weird " : 325 walks vs. 272 strikeouts in his professional career . Maddon said : " He 's a major @-@ league baseball player right now .... He 's been needing opportunity ; he 's probably going to get the opportunity here right now . " He also observed that Fuld is a :
very , very good defender . He has really great instincts out there , and a fine arm . He works excellent at @-@ bats .... If somebody were to get hurt , this guy could fill in on a regular basis for a while . He 's not going to be overwhelmed by anything . Great makeup .... He 's a pretty tough kid .
Rays hitting coach Derek Shelton observed that : " [ Fuld 's ] contact ratio is off the charts . He has probably one of the shortest swings I 've ever seen . " General manager Andrew Friedman said : " He 's a guy with a very interesting profile . He 's a plus defender in all three ( outfield ) spots , with superior contact skills , and a really good ability to discern balls and strikes ... and an ability to hit line drives with ... high frequency . "
Fuld made the team 's Opening Day roster , his first in the majors , as its fourth outfielder , and a late @-@ inning weapon off the bench , speedster pinch runner , and defensive replacement . Tommy Rancel of ESPN described him as : " Tampa Bay 's version of Brett Gardner ; albeit in a reduced role " . However , with Manny Ramirez sudden retirement , left fielder Johnny Damon became the team 's DH expanding Fuld 's role . On April 7 , he stole a career @-@ high 3 bases in one game , and Maddon began penciling him into the lineup as the team 's everyday leadoff hitter .
On April 9 , playing right field against the Chicago White Sox who had the bases loaded with two out in a very close game , Fuld made a spectacular catch . The Tampa Tribune called it " one of the best catches in team history " , and the St. Petersburg Times called it " Superman @-@ esque " . Fuld ran full speed from shallow right @-@ center after a ball hit into the right field corner by Juan Pierre , left the ground at the last instant in a full @-@ out , full @-@ extension dive , made a back @-@ handed catch with his body parallel to the ground , and then slid chest @-@ down across the warning track , bloodying his arms and legs ( see video ) . Rays center fielder B.J. Upton said : " Oh my god , oh my . I thought he was going to dive into the [ wall ] .... I was screaming from center field when he caught it . ' Great catch ! ' Should be play of the year so far . " Pitcher Wade Davis said : " I 've never seen a catch that good in person . " White Sox catcher A. J. Pierzynski observed : " that catch ... is one of the best catches I 've ever seen . Honestly , he ran like 50 yards to get to that ball . It was an incredible catch ... an amazing play . " ESPN 's Baseball Tonight program featured it as a web gem , it was # 1 on ESPN 's top plays of the weekend , SportsCenter named it as the best of its top @-@ 10 plays , and MLB Network named it a Play of the Week . His superhero status spread on the internet by late April , with the Toronto Sun writing : " Fuld ranks in the Top 10 in batting average , runs , and triples , and also leads the AL in stolen bases and YouTube hits , especially video hits for a catch in Chicago diving towards the right field corner onto the warning track that has been set to a Superman theme . "
Maddon noted : " His defense has been spectacular — tremendous defense . He 's ... a clinician out there . He pretty much does everything right . " Later in the month Maddon compared Fuld 's play favorably to that of Gold Glove left fielder Carl Crawford , saying that Fuld had a better arm , and compared his style of play to that of former perennial Gold Glove center fielder Jim Edmonds .
On April 11 , as a reporter for major league baseball described it , Fuld " turned Fenway Park into his personal playground . " Fuld missed hitting for the cycle only because he opted to stretch a single into a double . He had already hit a double , triple , and home run in a game against the Boston Red Sox when he came up in the 9th inning , in a runaway game which the Rays won 16 – 5 . Had he stopped at first base , he would have been just the second player in Tampa Bay Rays history to hit for the cycle , joining B.J. Upton . Maddon observed that Fuld 's refusal to stay at first " speaks to Sam 's integrity , right there . He plays with such zeal and intelligence , he 's just fun to watch ... I know a lot of guys who would have stopped . Some guys in the dugout said they would have slid into first base . " He became the fifth player in Tampa Bay history to have four extra @-@ base hits in a game , and the first since Tomás Pérez in 2006 . His four extra @-@ base hits and 11 total bases were also records for a Fenway Park debut .
His " Superman " YouTube video was joked about on Twitter with tweets at the # LegendofSamFuld hash tag , such as " Sam Fuld was once intentionally walked while in the on deck circle " , " The Red Sox check under their bed for Sam Fuld " , and Maddon 's favorite : " Superman wears a Sam Fuld T @-@ shirt to bed . " Though not a Twitter user , Fuld caught on quickly : When reporters asked him the next day why he could not stop the rain that was causing a rainout , Fuld quipped : " This is me , washing my planet " . By mid @-@ April , he had won the starting left fielder position and leadoff hitter slot with the Rays .
On April 18 , a week after his 4 @-@ hit Fenway Park debut , Fuld had 4 hits in 4 at @-@ bats against the White Sox . That raised his batting average to an AL @-@ leading .396 , to go along with his league @-@ lead in stolen bases . His batting average was the second @-@ highest in team history through April 18 in a season , behind only Fred McGriff ( 1998 ) . He also became the first Tampa Bay player with two four @-@ hit games in a season while batting leadoff since Carl Crawford , who did it twice in 2005 , and the first major leaguer to have two four @-@ hit games in the 2011 season . He was fourth in the league in hits ( 21 ) , fifth in on @-@ base percentage ( .431 ) and OPS ( 1 @.@ 035 ) , tied for fifth in doubles ( 6 ) , sixth in slugging percentage ( .604 ) , and was third @-@ toughest player to strike out ( one strikeout per 14 @.@ 5 plate appearances ) . As of April 25 , he was leading the AL with 10 stolen bases . A reporter for major league baseball , in explaining his rise to fame , wrote : " you won 't find any other 5 @-@ foot @-@ 9 ... New Hampshire @-@ born , Jewish , diabetic outfielders in the Baseball Encyclopedia . His agent Jim Munsey , observing that given what Fuld has overcome and how he plays the game : " He 's hard not to like " , suddenly received a number of calls asking for Fuld for marketing opportunities .
He made another diving , face @-@ planting catch of a sinking line drive , leading Rays pitcher David Price to say : " I heard that the world is covered by 75 percent water , and the other 25 percent is covered by Sam Fuld . " As of April 20 , Fuld led Baseball Tonight 's Web Gem standings with 18 points , which included Web Gems at each outfield position . A writer for The American Spectator observed : " he owns the 11 o @-@ clock highlight reel . ( My sources inform me that ESPN executives are considering changing the name of " Baseball Tonight " to " The Sam Fuld Show . " ) " In late April , he was placed on the American League ballot for the 2011 All Star Game .
The press and the Rays began to refer to him by the nicknames " Superman " , " Super Sam " , and " The Legendary Sam Fuld " . The Rays gave away Super Sam Fuld Superhero Capes to children at the team 's May 29 game . The cape showed a diving Super Sam Fuld in mid @-@ flight , behind a shield bearing his nickname .
In a game against the Brewers on June 20 , 2011 , he reported to the pitcher 's mound in the 8th inning and warmed up in order to give a relief pitcher time to warm up in the bull pen . He did not throw a recorded pitch , or appear as a pitcher in the box score .
Fuld finished the season with a .240 batting average , and tied for second on the team in stolen bases , with 20 .
= = = = = 2012 = = = = =
Fuld initially injured ligaments in his right wrist in September 2011 , but re @-@ aggravated them on a swing in spring training on March 23 , 2012 . On April 3 , Dr. Thomas Graham performed surgery to repair his wrist ligaments . Fuld missed the first 96 games of the season , and made his 2012 debut on July 24 , playing in 44 games during the season .
= = = = = 2013 = = = = =
On September 2 , 2013 , against the Los Angeles Angels , Fuld pitched a third of an inning , not giving up any runs , and got J. B. Shuck to fly out to end a threat in the eighth inning . He pitched at speeds topping out at 88 MPH . He was the third position player to pitch in Rays history , joining Wade Boggs in 1999 and Josh Wilson in 2007 .
On September 30 , during the 163rd game of the season and tiebreaker to determine the last American League wildcard playoff spot against the Texas Rangers , Fuld scored the fifth run of the game , stealing third base and coming home on an error by Rangers pitcher Tanner Scheppers .
For the season , he played in 70 games as a substitute , which were the most by any AL player since Brian Anderson played in 70 with the White Sox in 2008 , and was one of six AL outfielders to start at least 10 games at all three outfield positions .
After the season , Fuld was non @-@ tendered by the Rays , making him a free agent . He was among the most popular players in recent Rays history .
= = = = Oakland Athletics ( 2014 ) = = = =
Fuld signed a minor league deal with the Oakland Athletics on January 4 , 2014 . On April 12 , after playing in seven games , Fuld was designated for assignment to make room on the active roster for Craig Gentry . Oakland was required to put him on waivers within 10 days , and could only retain him if he was not claimed on waivers by another team .
= = = = Minnesota Twins ( 2014 ) = = = =
Fuld was claimed on waivers by the Minnesota Twins on April 20 , 2014 . He played in 13 games with the Twins , hitting .250 before a concussion that occurred on May 2 after he crashed into a wall . He woke up with a headache on May 8 , and was placed on the 7 @-@ day disabled list that day . He had been starting in center @-@ field that past week as the replacement for Aaron Hicks , who had also suffered a concussion . After a setback in his recovery occurred on May 14 , He batted .274 with a team @-@ leading .370 OBP and 12 stolen bases for the Twins , in 53 games , before being traded .
= = = = Oakland Athletics ( second stint ; 2014 – present ) = = = =
On July 31 , 2014 , the Twins traded Fuld to the Oakland Athletics for pitcher Tommy Milone . On September 30 , in the Athletics ' wildcard game against the Kansas City Royals , Fuld reached base 3 times .
For the season , Fuld batted .239 in 113 games overall . He stole 21 bases in 25 attempts , with his 84 % percentage tying for the ninth @-@ best percentage in the American League . He stole third six times , tying for seventh in the AL . His five assists from center field , where he started 58 games , tied him for fifth among AL center fielders .
= = Personal life = =
Fuld is Jewish , his father is Jewish and his mother is Catholic , and has said that he was " kind of raised celebrating both " religions ' holidays .
He was ten pounds at birth , so big he was nicknamed " Sumo Sam " . He is the son of Kenneth Fuld , Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Professor of Psychology at the University of New Hampshire , and Amanda Merrill , a New Hampshire State Senator . He is also a second cousin , once removed , of former Lehman Brothers CEO Dick Fuld .
He got his start playing baseball hitting plastic wiffle balls pitched by his grandmother when he was three years old . As a young child , he carried around a copy of the The Complete Baseball Handbook instead of a security blanket . " He was only 5 or 6 and he was already computing batting averages and ERAs " , his father said . " He 'd sit in the bathtub , and I 'd say ' If a guy goes 17 @-@ for @-@ 37 , what 's his batting average ? ' What struck me is that he 'd perform these operations in very creative ways – not just that he got the right answer , but his methodology , adding in a factor and then dividing by 10 , etc . I 'd watch him and say ' wow , ' just like I said ' wow ' when he used to hit . "
Fuld admits his height is 5 ' 8 " to 5 ' 9 " , but " claims the right to round up " . Shorter than most major leaguers , he chokes up three inches on the bat , and says : " When I realized I was going to be limited physically , I looked for guys in the big leagues who were little . I 'd buy baseball cards and find anyone under 5 – 10 who played in the outfield , and say , ' That 's my guy ; there 's hope . ' " While he is listed at 180 pounds , a reporter observed : " if Fuld weighs 180 , it would have to be carrying all of his bats , plus the baseball donut . Despite his size , Fuld was playing in a 16 and under league by the time he was 12 years old .
In June 2009 , Fuld married Sarah ( Kolodner ) . The two met in high school . He had met her while they were fellow students at Phillips Exeter Academy . She is an athlete as well and , like Sam , she was voted the Outstanding Female Athlete of her graduating class at Exeter , having played varsity soccer , ice hockey and lacrosse during her four years there . She was recruited by Princeton University for their lacrosse team , became the starting goalie as a freshman and won two national lacrosse championships , was twice # 1 Goalie in NCAA Div . 1 Goals Against Average , runner up a third time , is # 4 in Career GAA and holds the all time winning record for a Princeton University lacrosse goalie ( men 's or women 's programs ) . They have four children , Charles , Jane , William and Spencer .
= = Diabetes = =
Fuld was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes when he was 10 years old . He recalled , " I was losing weight , I was thirsty all the time , just classic symptoms , so my parents knew something was wrong and the doctor diagnosed it right away . It was tough , but when I realized there was no other alternative , I just looked at it as a challenge . "
At the age of 12 , he met pitcher Bill Gullickson , who also had diabetes , and talked to him for 10 minutes . " That was enough to inspire me " , Fuld said . " Any time I can talk to young diabetic kids , I look forward to that opportunity " , said Gullickson .
Former Cub All Star third baseman and Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Ron Santo was also afflicted with Type 1 diabetes . Santo hid his ailment from others during his playing days , because he was afraid they would consider him weak . Santo later had both his legs amputated , because of complications caused by his diabetes .
Now , at least six times a day Fuld opens a small black case , withdraws a glucometer , pricks a finger ( " It 's pretty painless ; I 've got calloused fingers " ) , and checks his blood sugar ( a 30 @-@ second process ) . He does it whenever he feels he should check his blood sugar level , even if he is in the clubhouse or the dugout during a game . He gives himself shots of insulin in his stomach every time he eats , which can be as many as five times a day .
Fuld is also comfortable handling the kidding in the clubhouse regarding his treatments . " We dish it out pretty good about his insulin shots " , said his AA manager Pat Listach . " We always give him stuff about putting needles in the refrigerator , and shooting up in the clubhouse . He takes it all in stride . He 's a good guy . "
Asked whether he thinks about his blood sugar level when he is chasing fly balls , he answered : " For those brief moments , it 's out of my mind . I get back to the dugout , and it definitely crosses my mind . ' OK , my face is intact – what about my sugar ? ' "
= = Recognition and awards = =
= Prototype filter =
Prototype filters are electronic filter designs that are used as a template to produce a modified filter design for a particular application . They are an example of a nondimensionalised design from which the desired filter can be scaled or transformed . They are most often seen in regard to electronic filters and especially linear analogue passive filters . However , in principle , the method can be applied to any kind of linear filter or signal processing , including mechanical , acoustic and optical filters .
Filters are required to operate at many different frequencies , impedances and bandwidths . The utility of a prototype filter comes from the property that all these other filters can be derived from it by applying a scaling factor to the components of the prototype . The filter design need thus only be carried out once in full , with other filters being obtained by simply applying a scaling factor .
Especially useful is the ability to transform from one bandform to another . In this case , the transform is more than a simple scale factor . Bandform here is meant to indicate the category of passband that the filter possesses . The usual bandforms are lowpass , highpass , bandpass and bandstop , but others are possible . In particular , it is possible for a filter to have multiple passbands . In fact , in some treatments , the bandstop filter is considered to be a type of multiple passband filter having two passbands . Most commonly , the prototype filter is expressed as a lowpass filter , but other techniques are possible .
Parts of this article or section rely on the reader 's knowledge of the complex impedance representation of capacitors and inductors and on knowledge of the frequency domain representation of signals .
= = Low @-@ pass prototype = =
The prototype is most often a low @-@ pass filter with a 3 dB corner frequency of angular frequency ωc'
= 1 rad / s . Occasionally , frequency f ' ' =
1 Hz is used instead of ωc'
= 1 . Likewise , the nominal or characteristic impedance of the filter is set to R ' =
1 Ω .
In principle , any non @-@ zero frequency point on the filter response could be used as a reference for the prototype design . For example , for filters with ripple in the passband , the corner frequency is usually defined as the highest frequency at maximum ripple rather than 3 dB . Another case is in image parameter filters ( an older design method than the more modern network synthesis filters ) which use the cut @-@ off frequency rather than the 3 dB point since cut @-@ off is a well @-@ defined point in this type of filter .
The prototype filter can only be used to produce other filters of the same class and order . For instance , a fifth @-@ order Bessel filter prototype can be converted into any other fifth @-@ order Bessel filter , but it cannot be transformed into a third @-@ order Bessel filter or a fifth @-@ order Tchebyscheff filter .
= = Frequency scaling = =
The prototype filter is scaled to the frequency required with the following transformation :
<formula>
where ωc ' is the value of the frequency parameter ( e.g. cut @-@ off frequency ) for the prototype and ωc is the desired value . So if ωc ' = 1 then the transfer function of the filter is transformed as :
<formula>
It can readily be seen that to achieve this , the non @-@ resistive components of the filter must be transformed by :
<formula> and , <formula>
= = Impedance scaling = =
Impedance scaling is invariably a scaling to a fixed resistance . This is because the terminations of the filter , at least nominally , are taken to be a fixed resistance . To carry out this scaling to a nominal impedance R , each impedance element of the filter is transformed by :
<formula>
It may be more convenient on some elements to scale the admittance instead :
<formula>
It can readily be seen that to achieve this , the non @-@ resistive components of the filter must be scaled as :
<formula> and , <formula>
Impedance scaling by itself has no effect on the transfer function of the filter ( providing that the terminating impedances have the same scaling applied to them ) . However , it is usual to combine the frequency and impedance scaling into a single step :
<formula> and , <formula>
= = Bandform transformation = =
In general , the bandform of a filter is transformed by replacing iω where it occurs in the transfer function with a function of iω . This in turn leads to the transformation of the impedance components of the filter into some other component ( s ) . The frequency scaling above is a trivial case of bandform transformation corresponding to a lowpass to lowpass transformation .
= = = Lowpass to highpass = = =
The frequency transformation required in this case is :
<formula>
where ωc is the point on the highpass filter corresponding to ωc ' on the prototype . The transfer function then transforms as :
<formula>
Inductors are transformed into capacitors according to ,
<formula>
and capacitors are transformed into inductors ,
<formula>
the primed quantities being the component value in the prototype .
= = = Lowpass to bandpass = = =
In this case , the required frequency transformation is :
<formula>
where Q is the Q @-@ factor and is equal to the inverse of the fractional bandwidth :
<formula>
If ω1 and ω2 are the lower and upper frequency points ( respectively ) of the bandpass response corresponding to ωc ' of the prototype , then ,
<formula> and <formula>
Δω is the absolute bandwidth , and ω0 is the resonant frequency of the resonators in the filter . Note that frequency scaling the prototype prior to lowpass to bandpass transformation does not affect the resonant frequency , but instead affects the final bandwidth of the filter .
The transfer function of the filter is transformed according to :
<formula>
Inductors are transformed into series resonators ,
<formula>
and capacitors are transformed into parallel resonators ,
<formula>
= = = Lowpass to bandstop = = =
The required frequency transformation for lowpass to bandstop is :
<formula>
Inductors are transformed into parallel resonators ,
<formula>
and capacitors are transformed into series resonators ,
<formula>
= = = Lowpass to multi @-@ band = = =
Filters with multiple passbands may be obtained by applying the general transformation :
<formula>
The number of resonators in the expression corresponds to the number of passbands required . Lowpass and highpass filters can be viewed as special cases of the resonator expression with one or the other of the terms becoming zero as appropriate . Bandstop filters can be regarded as a combination of a lowpass and a highpass filter . Multiple bandstop filters can always be expressed in terms of a multiple bandpass filter . In this way it , can be seen that this transformation represents the general case for any bandform , and all the other transformations are to be viewed as special cases of it .
The same response can equivalently be obtained , sometimes with a more convenient component topology , by transforming to multiple stopbands instead of multiple passbands . The required transformation in those cases is :
<formula>
= = Alternative prototype = =
In his treatment of image filters , Zobel provided an alternative basis for constructing a prototype which is not based in the frequency domain . The Zobel prototypes do not , therefore , correspond to any particular bandform , but they can be transformed into any of them . Not giving special significance to any one bandform makes the method more mathematically pleasing ; however , it is not in common use .
The Zobel prototype considers filter sections , rather than components . That is , the transformation is carried out on a two @-@ port network rather than a two @-@ terminal inductor or capacitor . The transfer function is expressed in terms of the product of the series impedance , Z , and the shunt admittance Y of a filter half @-@ section . See the article Image impedance for a description of half @-@ sections . This quantity is nondimensional , adding to the prototype 's generality . Generally , ZY is a complex quantity ,
<formula> and as U and V are both , in general , functions of ω we should properly write ,
<formula>
With image filters , it is possible to obtain filters of different classes from the constant k filter prototype by means of a different kind of transformation ( see composite image filter ) , constant k being those filters for which Z / Y is a constant . For this reason , filters of all classes are given in terms of U ( ω ) for a constant k , which is notated as ,
<formula>
In the case of dissipationless networks , i.e. no resistors , the quantity V ( ω ) is zero and only U ( ω ) need be considered . Uk ( ω ) ranges from 0 at the centre of the passband to -1 at the cut @-@ off frequency and then continues to increase negatively into the stopband regardless of the bandform of the filter being designed . To obtain the required bandform , the following transforms are used :
For a lowpass constant k prototype that is scaled :
<formula>
the independent variable of the response plot is ,
<formula>
The bandform transformations from this prototype are ,
for lowpass , <formula>
for highpass , <formula>
and for bandpass , <formula>
= University of Virginia Greek life =
University of Virginia Greek life encompasses the collegiate Greek organizations on the grounds of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville , Virginia . Greek life at the university began in the 1850s with the establishment of a number of fraternities , and the system has since expanded to include sororities , professional organizations , service fraternities , honor fraternities , and cultural organizations . The Greek system has been significant to the history of the University of Virginia , and the history of the university 's Greek system includes the founding of Kappa Sigma and Pi Kappa Alpha , two national fraternities .
Roughly 30 % of the student body belongs to a social fraternity or sorority , with additional students involved in professional , service , and honor fraternities . Many of the university 's fraternities and sororities are residential , meaning they own or rent a house for their members to use ; many of these houses are located on Rugby Road and the surrounding streets , just north of the university . Additionally , three social fraternities hold reserved rooms on the Lawn and the Range : Kappa Sigma in Room 46 East Lawn , Trigon Engineering Society in Room 17 West Lawn , and Pi Kappa Alpha in Room 47 West Range . Reflecting UVA 's tradition of student self @-@ governance , the system is currently governed by four Greek Councils consisting of student leaders ; however , it is also overseen by the Department of Fraternity and Sorority Life in the university 's Office of the Dean of Students .
= = History = =
Greek life at UVA began a few decades after the school 's establishment in 1819 . Before this time social life at the university was fixed around debating societies ; the now @-@ defunct Patrick Henry Society , for instance , initially had a membership nearly equal to the size of the student body . In the 1850s the first fraternities began to appear and assumed a significant role in the student body 's social landscape . In the following decades , the university became the birthplace of two national fraternities and saw many more fraternity chapters chartered . The twentieth century saw the system expand even more to include professional fraternities , social sororities , local fraternities , and black fraternities and sororities . Moving into the 2000s , several new social Greek organizations were founded , and multicultural organizations began to rise to prominence .
= = = 1800s : Debating societies , secret societies , and the creation of fraternities = = =
For several decades following the founding of the university , the major student societies on grounds were the debating societies . Several of these societies , notably the Jefferson Literary and Debating Society and the Washington Literary Society and Debating Union , are still active today . These and other debating societies that are no longer in existence , such as the Philomathean Society and the Parthenon Society , served as the primary means of student societal activity in the early days of the University .
In the decade before the Civil War , eleven fraternities established chapters at the university . The first was Delta Kappa Epsilon , or DKE , which was founded in 1852 as a " secret " colony and remains active to this day . Faculty were originally against the creation of fraternities due to years of riotous behavior among the students and attacks upon faculty . According to University historian Philip Alexander Bruce , the faculty feared the " orderly spirit of the student body acting as a whole or in segments , whether organized into secret fraternities or into Calathumpian bands . " Despite these objections , however , a chapter of DKE was founded , and other Greek fraternities followed . It can be said generally about the early UVA fraternities that the only " secret " aspect of them was their operation and meeting location ; the membership was not kept secret . As is the case with most modern fraternities , the original fraternities on grounds were meant to provide social engagement and promote close ties between members .
Fraternity growth was interrupted by the Civil War , as men from many Southern colleges halted their studies to join the Confederate army . Many fraternity chapters ceased to exist during this time , but some students made efforts to preserve their fraternities as the war continued . Harry St. John Dixon , a member of Sigma Chi from the University of Virginia , joined with four other Sigma Chi brothers from other universities to form the Constantine Chapter of the fraternity . Created in 1864 , this chapter was meant to preserve the bonds of the fraternity during the war , promote ties between the North and South , and ensure the fraternity 's continued existence .
The expansion of fraternity life resumed after the war ; by 1892 there were eighteen fraternities on grounds . Fraternities began to share the social spotlight with ribbon societies at the university , which were founded in reaction to the fraternities ' social exclusivity . The ribbon societies , such as Eli Banana and T.I.L.K.A. , were originally meant to increase social involvement among students , but eventually took on a political role in the university as well . They became particularly prestigious , mainly pulling their membership from fraternities , and election to their societies was considered a high honor . Despite this social competition , fraternities continued to grow at the university .
= = = 1868 : Founding of Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity = = =
Pi Kappa Alpha was founded on Sunday evening March 1 , 1868 , at 47 West Range at the University of Virginia , by Robertson Howard , Julian Edward Wood , James Benjamin Sclater Jr . , Frederick Southgate Taylor , Littleton Waller Tazewell Bradford and William Alexander . On March 1 , 1869 , exactly one year after the Alpha Chapter at the University of Virginia was formed , the Beta Chapter of Pi Kappa Alpha was founded at Davidson College . Expanding the fraternity proved difficult because the Civil War disorganized many Southern colleges , and many colleges banned the formation of secret societies . After almost a decade of decline , Pi Kappa Alpha was " re @-@ founded " as part of the Hampden @-@ Sydney Convention , held in a dorm room at Hampden – Sydney College . Pi Kappa Alpha was not originally organized as a sectional fraternity ; however , by constitutional provision it became so in 1889 . It remained a Southern fraternity until the New Orleans Convention in 1909 when Pi Kappa Alpha officially declared itself a national organization . Originally , Pi Kappa Alpha 's membership was restricted to white men , but the race restriction was removed in 1964 .
= = = 1869 : Founding of Kappa Sigma fraternity = = =
On December 10 , 1869 , five students at the University of Virginia met in 46 East Lawn and founded the Kappa Sigma Fraternity . William Grigsby McCormick , George Miles Arnold , John Covert Boyd , Edmund Law Rogers , Jr . , and Frank Courtney Nicodemus established the fraternity based on the traditions of the Kirjath Sepher , an ancient order at the University of Bologna in the Middle Ages . These five founders became collectively known as the " Five Friends and Brothers . " In 1872 , Kappa Sigma initiated Stephen Alonzo Jackson , who would go on to transform the struggling local fraternity into a strong international Brotherhood . In 1873 , thanks to Jackson 's work , Kappa Sigma expanded to Trinity College ( now Duke University ) , the University of Maryland , and Washington and Lee University . Since then , Kappa Sigma has become a large international fraternity with over 300 active chapters and colonies in North America .
= = = Early 1900s : Residences , professional fraternities , and the first women 's fraternities = = =
In the beginning of the twentieth century the fraternity system continued to expand at such a rapid pace that university newspapers questioned if the increase in the number of fraternities would ever end . Many fraternity chapters were founded during this time that no longer exist at the university , such Alpha Chi Rho , Theta Nu Epsilon , and Delta Chi . Other chapters that are still active were founded at this time as well , such as Theta Chi and Phi Sigma Kappa .
Also during this time fraternities began to purchase and construct houses . During the late 1800s fraternities did not have dedicated houses ; instead , they inhabited residential areas scattered around grounds , such as Dawson 's Row near the Lawn and boarding houses north of the university . In 1908 , the university 's Board of Visitors first offered a land lease and a $ 12 @,@ 000 loan to Kappa Sigma to construct a fraternity house , and many other fraternities followed . Most of these were located just north of the Rotunda , on Rugby Road , Madison Lane , University Place , and the surrounding streets . Some of these houses cost up to $ 20 @,@ 000 to build , and many drew inspiration from historic UVA buildings or residences of the Old South , using elements of Jeffersonian architecture . Two houses were even styled to closely resemble famous buildings in the area , with Zeta Psi 's house modeled after Monticello and Farmington , and Phi Kappa Psi 's house modeled after Carr 's Hill . By 1916 most fraternities had built , purchased , or rented a house for their members .
Around the turn of the century , scholastic Greek organizations appeared on grounds . The university chapter of Phi Beta Kappa was founded in 1908 , promoting scholarship in all fields of study . Different schools had specific honor and professional societies as well : Phi Delta Phi for the law department , Phi Rho Sigma for medicine , Kappa Delta Mu for chemistry , and many others . A chapter of Theta Tau , an engineering society , was founded in 1923 , and Trigon Engineering Society was founded in 1924 as a local fraternity for engineering students . Trigon and Theta Tau dominated student government in the Engineering School during this time , often fielding competing candidates for student office . Likewise in the College , the University Party and the Cavalier Party were dominated by Lambda Pi and Skull & Keys , two Greek organizations .
It was during the first half of the twentieth century that the first women 's fraternities were established . The university first admitted women to graduate programs in 1920 , although undergraduate women were not allowed at the university until much later . With these graduate women came several female Greek organizations , referred to alternately as sororities or women 's fraternities . The first sorority to establish a chapter at the university was Chi Omega , whose chapter was founded in 1927 . A Kappa Delta chapter followed in 1932 , and a chapter of Zeta Tau Alpha was established twenty years later in 1952 .
In 1947 , with the inauguration of Colgate Darden as president of the university , first @-@ year students were prohibited from joining fraternities and sororities . This restriction was later eased to a one @-@ semester prohibition , which is still in place today . During this time only 20 percent of students were members of the 24 fraternities on grounds . Darden was critical of the fraternities ' behavior , arguing in a 1949 report to the Board of Visitors that the groups had failed to uphold the interests of the university community and to provide the leadership expected of them . Additionally , university leaders condemned the fraternities ' treatment of their houses , which were extremely run down . Members would often solicit tens of thousands of dollars of donations from alumni to refurbish houses , only to see the improvements disappear within a few years . Despite the administrators ' concerns , this problem was not addressed until 1983 , when the university created the Historic Renovation Corporation , or HRC . The HRC , which later became a subsidiary of the UVA Foundation , renovates and manages the properties of a number of fraternity and sorority houses .
= = = Late 1900s : Easters , African @-@ American fraternities , and sororities = = =
The 1970s saw great upheaval in the Greek system and the university as a whole . Fraternities , whose membership was waning earlier , began to increase in size . In 1973 nearly 45 percent of first @-@ years joined fraternities , the highest percentage in school history , and with this increased membership came more rowdy behavior . In the 1970s the annual Easters parties , which had originated in the 1800s as formal dances sponsored by the ribbon societies , began to be particularly wild . The annual affair had evolved into a weekend @-@ long celebration ; the fraternities would flood Mad Bowl and the surrounding areas , creating huge mud pits for the event . By 1976 , it was estimated that 15 @,@ 000 people had come from up and down the East Coast to pack Mad Bowl . Students washing mud off of themselves led to clogged drainage systems in the university , and entire dorms were flooded . Eventually the tradition became so belligerent and unmanageable that , in 1982 , the university terminated Easters .
African Americans were originally admitted to the university in the mid @-@ 1950s , but few attended until the 1970s ; fraternities at this time were generally racially and religiously segregated . Although a student fraternity committee emphasized the fraternities ' rejection of racial discrimination , in 1969 only 5 of 578 fraternity pledges were black . African @-@ American fraternities and sororities soon established chapters at the university , although they presented themselves as service organizations rather than traditional social organizations . In the mid @-@ 1970s , although some black students were invited to join the heavily white fraternities , many preferred to join their own organizations . By the fall of 1973 , four black fraternities and one black sorority had established chapters on grounds .
In 1970 the College of Arts and Sciences allowed the first women to enroll in its undergraduate programs , which effectively made the university coeducational . This led to the rapid establishment of many social sororities at the university , and by the end of 1970s there were eleven sorority chapters at the university , with still more chartered in the 1980s .
In 1975 the sororities established the Inter @-@ Sorority Council , or ISC , to govern the increasing number of sororities on grounds . The ISC was founded to continue the tradition of student self @-@ governance , and was similar to the university 's Inter @-@ Fraternity Council ( IFC ) in its function . The organization was named the Inter @-@ Sorority Council to mimic the name of the Inter @-@ Fraternity Council , which fraternities had established in 1934 ; this was meant to emphasize sorority women 's equality with fraternity men . Later , in 2005 , the ISC voted to formally associate with the National Panhellenic Conference , the national governing body of social sororities . Despite this change , the ISC at the university retained its name due to its historical heritage .
= = = 2000 onward : The rise of multicultural fraternities = = =
The first decade of the 2000s saw a quick rise in the number of multicultural organizations at UVA . In 1999 , the first Latina and Asian @-@ interest sorority chapters were founded at UVA , Omega Phi Beta and alpha Kappa Delta Phi , respectively . The university 's first Latino fraternity , a chapter of Lambda Upsilon Lambda , was founded later that same year . These three organizations founded the Fraternity @-@ Sorority Council , which was meant to organize the newly created multicultural organizations ; in 2000 , this group was renamed the Multicultural Greek Council , or MGC , and the council exists to this day . With the creation of additional cultural fraternities and sororities , the MGC has grown to a total of eight organizations .
In 2002 the IFC decided to admit local fraternities , fraternities that are not affiliated with a national organization , for the first time ( although local fraternities had existed at UVA prior to this time , they had not been permitted to join the IFC ) . Two years prior , when the Phi Delta Theta national organization decided to ban alcohol consumption in its chapter houses , the UVA chapter broke away from its national organization and created local organization Phi Delta Alpha , which was later renamed Phi Society . After debate within the IFC , Phi Society was admitted and recognized by the University as a local fraternity . Phi Society is viewed as the continuation of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity that existed prior to 2000 and maintains the same house . In 2001 , Phi Delta Theta established another chapter at the university that adheres to its directives concerning alcohol consumption . The Greek system 's expansion to new groups continued in 2015 , as local fraternity Sigma Omicron Rho became the first gender @-@ inclusive and LGBTQ fraternity to be recognized by the university .
= = Governance of Greek organizations = =
= = = University recognition = = =
University policy prevents national fraternities and sororities from directly establishing a chapter at the university ; instead , an interested group of students must establish an interest group , petition for establishment , and obtain sponsorship from one of the Greek councils . Once sponsorship is obtained , a group enters the provisional phase of the process ; at this point the interest group may contact a national fraternity or sorority to begin the process of establishing themselves as a colony or chapter . Upon successful completion of the provisional phase , the organization is granted full membership in its chosen Greek council .
In order to maintain a formal relationship with the university , each Greek organization must annually complete a Fraternal Organization Agreement ( FOA ) . The university does not " recognize " Greek organizations ; it permits fraternal organizations to exist without signing an FOA . However , signing an FOA grants additional benefits to organizations , including the ability to use certain university spaces and to join a Greek council .
= = = Greek councils = = =
There are several councils at UVA that oversee the functions of their member organizations . While most Greek organizations are members of a Greek council , there are several organizations that are independent of these councils , mainly coeducational organizations , professional fraternities , and honor societies . Traditionally , a student is not allowed to join more than one social fraternity or sorority ; however , students are normally allowed to join independent fraternities or sororities ( mainly professional or honor organizations ) in addition to a social fraternity or sorority . The four Greek councils at the University of Virginia are as follows :
The Inter @-@ Fraternity Council , or IFC , is the oldest of the Greek councils . Founded in 1934 , the IFC oversees 32 social fraternities and is led by a governing board that is elected by the brothers of the member fraternities . The IFC works with the Presidents ' Council , which consists of fraternity chapter presidents , to govern the fraternity community .
The Inter @-@ Sorority Council , or ISC , is the governing body of the majority of UVA 's social sororities . The ISC was founded in 1975 , is entirely student @-@ run , and consists of 16 member sororities .
The National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council , or NPHC , was formed to unite the traditionally black organizations on grounds . The NPHC was originally known as the Black Fraternal Council , which was established in 1973 by the charter of Omega Psi Phi fraternity . In 2005 , the BFC was renamed the National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council . These member organizations include 7 total all @-@ male fraternities and all @-@ female sororities . UVA 's NPHC is not to be confused with the National Panhellenic Conference , which is the national governing body of social sororities .
The Multicultural Greek Council , or MGC , is the youngest of the Greek councils and comprises the multicultural Greek organizations on grounds . Founded in 1999 , the MGC is composed of 9 total single @-@ sex and coeducational organizations . Each of these organizations emphasizes a particular race or culture , particularly Asian or Latino culture ; however , while these organizations may have a certain cultural emphasis , membership is generally open to students of any race .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Rolling Stone article = = =
In 2014 the University of Virginia fraternity and sorority system became the focus of significant national scrutiny due to the publication of an article in the December 2014 issue of Rolling Stone magazine , entitled " A Rape on Campus " and authored by Sabrina Erdely . The article alleged that in September 2012 , a group of male fraternity members at the university had attacked and raped a female student as part of an initiation rite at a party at the university 's chapter of Phi Kappa Psi . The article further asserted that the university 's sexual assault policies were severely lacking and that the university administration did not handle sexual assault cases appropriately . The article attracted significant media attention and made national headlines , leading to the suspension of the university 's Greek system and further investigation into the article 's claims ; these investigations quickly revealed numerous inconsistencies and raised serious questions about the article 's veracity . On January 12 , 2015 , Charlottesville Police Department officials told the University that " their investigation has not revealed any substantive basis to confirm that the allegations raised in the Rolling Stone article occurred at Phi Kappa Psi ... so there 's no reason to keep them suspended " . On January 30 , 2015 , UVA President Teresa Sullivan acknowledged that the Rolling Stone story was discredited . Charlottesville Police officially suspended their four @-@ month investigation on March 23 , 2015 , stating that they had no evidence of a gang rape taking place , and that " there is no substantive basis to support the account alleged in the Rolling Stone article . " On April 5 , 2015 , Columbia Journalism Review published a report calling the Rolling Stone article " a failure " and criticizing the magazine 's actions . That same day , Rolling Stone officially retracted the article and has since issued multiple apologies for the story .
= = Social fraternities = =
The University of Virginia has a large number of social fraternities . This list includes active all @-@ male fraternities and coeducational fraternities that identify themselves primarily as social organizations , as opposed to professional , service , or honor organizations . Several of these fraternities were originally founded much earlier in the university 's history , but went inactive and were reestablished later on . In these cases , the establishment date reflects the date that the fraternity 's original charter was granted .
= = Social sororities = =
In addition to social fraternities , the University of Virginia has a large number of social sororities . This list includes active all @-@ female sororities that identify themselves primarily as social organizations , as opposed to professional , service , or honor organizations . All @-@ female Greek organizations that refer to themselves as " women 's fraternities " are included in this list as well .
= = Service fraternities , professional fraternities and honor societies = =
The University of Virginia also has chapters of numerous Greek organizations whose primary focus is not social , although some offer social events in addition to service or academic events . While membership in professional fraternities is generally open to any student studying that profession , membership requirements for honor societies are often more demanding and require specific academic or extracurricular achievements .
= = = Service fraternities = = =
= = = Professional fraternities = = =
= = = Honor societies = = =
= = Defunct and inactive organizations = =
A number of organizations have historically existed at the university , but are not currently active . Some of these chapters still have extant national organizations , but the University of Virginia chapter is inactive ; others were local fraternities that are no longer in existence ; still others are no longer active because their entire national organization became extinct . They are listed below .
= = = Fraternities = = =
= = = Sororities = = =
Alpha Kappa Alpha ( ΑΚΑ )
Omega Phi Beta ( ΩΦΒ )
= Already Gone ( Kelly Clarkson song ) =
" Already Gone " is a song performed by American pop singer @-@ songwriter Kelly Clarkson from her fourth studio album , All I Ever Wanted . It is co @-@ written by Clarkson and Ryan Tedder , who also produced it . The song was released as the album 's third single in August 2009 . Lyrically , " Already Gone " is about the breakup of a relationship ; the music consists of an arrangement using a piano , drums , and string instruments .
The production and release of " Already Gone " have been surrounded in controversy . Clarkson claimed that Tedder re @-@ used the musical arrangement on the 2008 Beyoncé Knowles song " Halo " , and stated that the public would incorrectly assume that she had stolen it ; Tedder declared the accusations hurtful and false . After failing to prevent the song from being included on All I Ever Wanted because the track listing had already been finalized and the album was already being pressed , Clarkson then voiced her anger towards her record company bosses for subsequently deciding to release it as a single . The accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kahn , who complained that he was not allowed to fully realize his vision , and stated he was unhappy with the final result . It features scenes of Clarkson dressed in a gold gown and expensive jewelry while lying on a chaise longue in an apartment . Shots of floating objects intersperse a second scene in which Clarkson , wearing a black dress , sings in a rehearsal room while surrounded by the instruments of an invisible orchestra .
Despite her dissatisfaction with the song 's release as a single , Clarkson began promoting it in July 2009 , performing it live on the Late Show with David Letterman and other talk shows . In the fall , she performed the song on VH1 Divas and at the American Music Awards . She included " Already Gone " in the encore set of her 2009 All I Ever Wanted Tour . Clarkson has also performed the song in tours after . The song has received much praise from music critics , and is regarded as one of the highlights of All I Ever Wanted . Critics have praised the song for its expressions of vulnerability , its emotional impact , and its successful use of the ballad form . It peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was certified Platinum in Canada and Gold in Australia .
= = Writing and composition = =
" Already Gone " was co @-@ written by Clarkson and OneRepublic lead singer Ryan Tedder . Tedder describes it as " an emotional , heartbreaking breakup song . " Tedder and Clarkson wrote six songs together for inclusion on Clarkson 's fourth studio album All I Ever Wanted , and " Already Gone " is one of three of those that appear on the track list .
" Already Gone " is a ballad . The music is described by Sarah Liss of CBC News as having " a pounding heartbeat , twinkly piano and swooping strings " , and by James Montgomery of MTV as having " somber piano , crashing drums and hand @-@ claps " . Eric R. Danton from The Hartford Courant explains that the piano and string arrangements " roll mournfully " over the percussion . The sheet music indicates that the song is set in common time and has a moderately slow tempo with a metronome of 74 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A major arranged in the chord progression of A – Esus4 – E – F ♯ m – D – A – Esus4 @-@ E – F ♯ m – D – Bm – D in the verses , and A – Esus4 – E – F ♯ m – E – D – E in the chorus . The vocal range spans from B3 to E5 .
The song 's narrative is in first person , and depicts Clarkson telling her lover that although he has done nothing wrong in their relationship , it was never meant to be and is destined for failure . She tells her partner that he " couldn 't have loved [ her ] better " , but to avoid hurting him in the future , he should move on , as she " is already gone " . Clarkson sings with what Danton describes as " layered vocals " .
= = Beyoncé similarities and Ryan Tedder feud = =
Before teaming with Clarkson to write " Already Gone " , Ryan Tedder had co @-@ written Beyoncé 's song " Halo " for her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Clarkson later heard " Halo " and noticed distinct similarities between the two songs , most notably in the melancholy piano , loud drums , and handclaps in their backing tracks . She confronted Tedder about using the same arrangement , claiming that people would assume she had stolen it from Knowles . Clarkson tried to have the song removed from All I Ever Wanted , but it was too late to make any changes ; the album was already being pressed and it was not possible to make any changes to the track listing .
Tedder responded to the allegations with a statement posted on his MySpace account , arguing that the two songs are " entirely different " and that the criticism was " hurtful and absurd " . He told website Idolator that he was " absolutely livid " , and added , " If I was going around and selling the same track to the biggest artists in the world , how long would my career last ? It ’ s ludicrous . [ ... ] I ’ m not an idiot . I ’ m not the kinda guy who ’ s gonna bust my ass for ten years to try and pull a fast one on Beyoncé or Kelly . "
Clarkson fought with her bosses to prevent " Already Gone " from being released as a single , out of respect for Knowles . She wanted " Cry " to be released instead , but conceded that , " in the end , they ’ re releasing it without my consent . It sucks , but it 's one of those things I have no control over ... At this point , the record company can do whatever they want with it . " Tedder , however , was pleased that the song was released , saying that he likes it more than " Halo " . The song was sent to radio airplay on August 11 , 2009 . In September 2009 , Clarkson told MTV that it was unfortunate the two songs sound exactly the same , but noted that they have different vocal melodies .
Clarkson continued feuding with Tedder in 2010 . In December 2009 , Tedder said that he was no longer angry over the accusations Clarkson made , but warned , " fool me once , shame on you ; fool me twice , shame on me . [ ... ] I don 't wanna get some crazy @-@ ass backlash or get my head snapped off for writing a hit song . " He later told The Denver Post that he had gotten over the situation and is working on new material for Clarkson 's fifth album . Clarkson , however , told the Daily Star that she is writing and recording new songs with new , low @-@ profile producers . " I don ’ t like working with people who have worked with everyone . Sometimes I get blackmailed into doing so by my label , " she said , " but I prefer collaborating with people who aren 't on the grid . I don ’ t want to sound exactly like other people 's records . " In May , an unreleased electro @-@ pop song by Clarkson called " Wash , Rinse , Repeat " was leaked on the Internet . The song contains auto tuned lyrics that Idolator say are likely written about Tedder : " I can 't take the pressure of new . Give me old , rip it off . / Let 's see if it sticks to the wall again . / Does it sound familiar ? Does it linger in your ear ? / Like something you remember from just last year ? " and " Music from the past , from the present , well , just last week / We will change a note and get away with it , wait and see . " Tedder said that he thinks the song was written about him , too , but admitted he likes the song . " I think Kelly speaks her mind regardless of anything . She 's great with lyrics , and I love that she is her own person . She 's no puppet . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Already Gone " received universal critical acclaim and is regarded as one of the musical and lyrical highlights of All I Ever Wanted . Ryan Brockington from The New York Post called the song a " mixture of old school Stevie Nicks and some Julia Roberts romantic comedy theme song , delivered together in true Clarkson fashion . " He continues , " she spits emotion and heart into a song that makes me want to curl up in a blanket and long for someone " . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly said Clarkson " knows that the anguish she likes to sing about is enjoyed by millions of people as grandiose admissions of vulnerability . Yet the music that delivers that message is anything but vulnerable . There 's a reason they call them power ballads : a sad song blasted at full volume is a metaphor for finding strength in pain . " His point was echoed by Danton of The Hartford Courant , who stated that Clarkson " pours on the heartache " , and by Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune , who called the song an " extravagant ballad " .
Mike Ragogna added that it " already sounds timeless " in The Huffington Post . In the Houston Chronicle , Joey Guerra wrote that " ' Already Gone ' ... is a striking change of pace [ from the other songs on All I Ever Wanted ] . The tempo slows , and Tedder gives Clarkson ’ s vocals a gauzy quality that synchs perfectly with the mournful lyrics . It ’ s an emotive , emotional shot of electricity . " Billboard likened Clarkson 's " ghostly delivery " to that of Sinéad O 'Connor . Jonathan Keefe from Slant Magazine said that " Ryan Tedder 's production on ' Already Gone ' is identical to Beyoncé 's ' Halo ' to the point of distraction , but [ Already Gone ] has a far stronger melody and Clarkson turns in one of her most evocative performances " . On March 5 , 2013 , Billboard ranked the song # 19 in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time .
Not all reviews were positive , however . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel wrote that the lyrics are not unique or enlightening , and Tedder 's production on the track was disliked . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times thought that Tedder " drowns [ Clarkson ] under murky piano on ' Already Gone ' . "
= = Chart performance = =
In North America , digital sales of " Already Gone " resulted in it entering the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 charts on March 28 , 2009 , at Number 70 . It dropped out of both charts the following week , and re @-@ entered them in August 2009 . It peaked at Number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and Number 15 on the Canadian Hot 100 . The song peaked at Number 3 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart , and spent a total of 51 weeks in the chart ; it reached Number 5 on Billboard 's Pop Songs chart , and it spent eight consecutive weeks at Number 1 on the Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks chart . By March 2013 , 1 @,@ 845 @,@ 000 copies of the single had sold in the US , and it was certified Platinum in Canada . Internationally , " Already Gone " had moderate success . It entered the Australian Singles Chart at Number 70 on July 13 , 2009 , peaked at Number 12 on September 13 , 2009 , and was certified Gold . In New Zealand , it peaked at Number 23 and spent eight weeks on the chart . It charted on the UK Singles Chart on August 9 , 2009 , at Number 153 and peaked at Number 66 in September . Elsewhere in Europe , the song charted in Austria , Belgium , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Already Gone " was shot in Toronto , Canada , on June 20 , 2009 , at The Carlu , and was directed by Joseph Kahn , with whom Clarkson had previously worked on the videos for " Never Again " , " Walk Away " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " . The video is set primarily in an apartment and a rehearsal room and features Clarkson " lounging on chaises and lolling around while zazzed [ sic ] out in the sort of gowns and jewels we 've yet to spot this girl @-@ next @-@ door pop star wearing in real life " . Clarkson explains that the video is a departure from her previous videos in that she is " completely glammed out . It 's the opposite of my everyday life . " The video begins with Clarkson alone in an apartment wearing a gold gown , sequined elbow gloves , and a large pearl necklace , while lying on a chaise longue . This scene alternates with a second location , where Clarkson wears a black dress , singing in a rehearsal room , surrounded by invisible members of an orchestra playing their instruments . As the video alternates back and forth between the two locations , the scenes are interspersed with slow @-@ motion shots of falling champagne glasses , floating pearls , and flying violins . It uses a shortened version of the song , cutting out the final chorus .
The video was uploaded to Clarkson 's official website on July 27 . Following its release , Kahn posted statements to his Twitter account that his vision of the video was not realized , and complained , " I don ’ t think I won a single battle " . A review in Rolling Stone described the video as " boring stuff " , and Leah Collins of Dose said the video was uncontroversial , " unless there 's more meaning to those lingering shots on pearl necklaces than we thought " .
= = Live performances = =
Due to the controversy surrounding the album version 's similarity with " Halo " , and because Clarkson wanted to perform what she later called a " diva @-@ esque " version of " Already Gone " , she composed a new arrangement with her musical director Jason Halbert for performances during her 2009 All I Ever Wanted Tour . She sings it as part of the concert 's encore . Danton was impressed by the acoustic arrangement when she performed on the first night of her tour in Uncasville , Connecticut , and Keith O 'Connor wrote in The Republican that it was one of the night 's highlights . Lori Hoffman of Atlantic City Weekly described Clarkson 's performance of the song as an " emotional wallop " and a stand @-@ out moment at Trump Taj Mahal in Atlantic City , New Jersey . Jocelyn Vena from MTV reported that Clarkson 's performance of the song was one of the fans ' favorite moments , and Rolling Stone noted that during her performance at Hammerstein Ballroom , New York , the audience sang " Already Gone " , and Clarkson " was happy to play cheerful conductor , holding up her mic stand to the crowd . " On October 31 , in St. Charles , Missouri , Clarkson mashed " Already Gone " with " Halo " .
Clarkson began promoting " Already Gone " on television by debuting it on the Late Show with David Letterman on July 13 , in a live performance in which she " belted out " the lyrics to the reworked arrangement . The same arrangement was used when she sang on VH1 Divas later in the year . Her performance of the song at the 37th Annual American Music Awards was graded as " B + " in the Los Angeles Times , which noted that she was " solid " and " sound [ ed ] terrific " . Jeremy Blacklow from Access Hollywood described it as " pitch @-@ perfect " .
= = Track listing = =
= = = European version = = =
= = = Australian version = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Backing Vocals , Lead Vocals - Kelly Clarkson
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
| }
= = Release history = =
= Bionic Commando Rearmed =
Bionic Commando Rearmed ( バイオニック コマンドー マスターD復活計画 , Bionic Commando : Master D Resurrection Project in Japan ) is an enhanced remake of the 1988 Nintendo Entertainment System version of Bionic Commando . It was developed by Grin and published by Capcom for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation Network , and Xbox Live Arcade and was released on August 13 , 2008 . The remake serves as a prelude to the 2009 video game Bionic Commando . A sequel , Bionic Commando Rearmed 2 , was released in February 2011 .
Rearmed follows Nathan Spencer , a commando with a bionic left arm that can extend and be used as a weapon , or to swing from various objects . Spencer is sent to destroy a weapon known as the Albatros project under construction by the Badds . The game was developed using Grin 's Diesel engine and features in @-@ game art by Shinkiro . Music for the game was composed by Simon Viklund and consists largely of remixed versions of the original music . The soundtrack was released on May 27 , 2008 by Sumthing Else Music Works .
Rearmed was well received with scores in the 80 % range across all three platforms at aggregate website Metacritic . Reviewers praised the fact that the game was true to the original , and lauded the updated gameplay and graphics . It was described by Hilary Goldstein of IGN as " the best downloadable game to date on [ Xbox Live Arcade ] and [ PlayStation Network ] . " Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com stated Rearmed " should go down in history as one of gaming 's best deals . "
= = Synopsis = =
Bionic Commando Rearmed borrows its plot largely from the NES version of the game . In keeping with the North American release of that version , the references to the Nazi party found in the original Japanese title are not featured in Rearmed . However , as is the case in the original , the final boss of the game still clearly resembles Adolf Hitler , and is referred to as " The Leader " .
Rearmed centers around two warring factions : the Federation and the Empire . It begins with the Imperial forces discovering classified documents regarding the development of a secret weapon known as the Albatros project , originally started by an organization known as the Badds , but never completed . Killt , Generalissimo of the Empire 's forces , decides to complete the project himself . When the Federation learns of the Empire 's plot , they send in their national hero , Super Joe to infiltrate the Empire . During his mission , Joe is captured by Imperial forces . The Federation sends in a second operative named Nathan Spencer to rescue Super Joe and assist him in completing his mission .
Spencer traverses several areas , eliminating many Imperial leaders along his way . As he progresses , he finds new technology and travels deeper behind enemy lines . The plot culminates as Super Joe is rescued from the bionic Imperial soldier Gottfried Groeder , and both Spencer and Joe set out to destroy the Albatros project . During the mission , Spencer encounters " The Leader " , the resurrected head of the Imperial forces . Spencer defeats The Leader , and together with Super Joe destroys the Albatros . The game ends with both heroes hanging onto a helicopter , flying off as the Albatros explodes .
= = Gameplay = =
In Bionic Commando Rearmed , the player controls Nathan Spencer , a soldier who has been given a bionic arm . The arm is equipped with several features including a grappling hook which can be used to reach distant objects . The player uses Spencer 's bionic arm to swing across gaps or climb to higher ledges . Often , the player must make a series of grappling actions in a row to successfully traverse hazards such as a wide gap or an electrified floor .
Spencer earns a variety of weaponry and items by defeating level bosses . Some items and weapons must be acquired before certain areas can be entered : for example , the player must locate flares that can then be used to illuminate dark areas . Levels are presented to the player as an overworld @-@ style tactical map showing friendly and enemy areas . The player controls a helicopter to move between areas , and can then select to infiltrate that area on foot . While in the overworld view , enemy convoys will also move between areas . If the player 's helicopter encounters a convoy , the player must fight through it on foot before the helicopter can proceed . Such levels are presented from a top @-@ down perspective .
While Bionic Commando Rearmed remains mostly true to its NES counterpart , a number of gameplay enhancements were made . A health bar replaces the game 's original health system . Players collect health items from enemies to restore health , as opposed to the original system which involved earning more hit points . Defeating enemies with full health now awards players extra points , encouraging players to avoid being hit in order to obtain high scores . Players can extend Spencer 's bionic arm to grab oil barrels and throw them at enemies , or use them as temporary shields . Weapons can now be changed instantly during gameplay , as opposed to being limited to one weapon per mission . Boss battles have also been redesigned . Each battle now makes unique use of Spencer 's weaponry and bionic arm . In one example , the player must latch the arm to a screw on the boss character 's vehicle , then pull back to expose a weak point in the armor . Additionally , the final boss battle has been extended to a complete level as opposed to the ending sequence of one . Hacking into enemy communications now involves navigating a three @-@ dimensional puzzle as opposed to simply choosing to hack . New to the remake are Challenge rooms which involve using the bionic arm to traverse a course as quickly as possible . Force feedback has been implemented when using the bionic arm , firing weapons , and other events .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Rearmed 's campaign can be played locally with another player . Although the overall gameplay is identical , enemy AI adapts difficulty to accommodate the extra player . Character lives are shared between players , meaning that each player life lost hurts both players . Once all extra lives are depleted and a player dies , the AI reverts to its single player configuration for the remaining player until that player completes the level or an extra life is found . Additionally the cooperative campaign is saved separately from the solo campaign , meaning that weapons , equipment , and powerups do not carry over from one campaign into the other . During play , the game 's camera will zoom in and out to accommodate both players , and will split the screen dynamically should the camera not be able to zoom any further . Competitive multiplayer modes have also been added , and can be played locally or over a network . Game modes include the standard versus and last man standing modes , and Don 't Touch the Floor , in which characters attempt to knock other players to a hazard at the bottom of the level for points .
= = Development and marketing = =
Bionic Commando Rearmed developer Grin made it a priority to preserve as much of the original gameplay and visual stylings as possible . Screenshots were taken as a reference , with designers keeping the same color schemes when creating the 3D worlds . Programmers had to reverse engineer the original gameplay to accurately reproduce it . They had to " measure how fast the arm goes out , how fast you swing back and forth , how fast you run across the ground , at what speed you fall down and everything " said Simon Viklund , Creative Director for the game . The level editor was integrated in the engine , which allowed developers to view creations in real time . Lead Gameplay Programmer Håkan Rasmussen expanded on this concept , stating " Since BCR is built on the same engine as the next @-@ gen BC we can also reuse the editor [ which ] lowers the time before we can start using levels . "
Developers found that adjusting the original gameplay to a 3D engine required dismissal of conventional physics . For example , the player cannot walk past a barrel placed in their way , however they are able to swing through the object . " The swing mechanic [ is ] based on the original [ and so is ] totally physically incorrect " noted Gameplay Programmer Bertil Hörberg . Hörberg stated that the character always swings at the same speed and releases at the same angle regardless of player input . Weapons were also redesigned , with each weapon being rebalanced . " In the original [ players get ] the rocket launcher and [ use it ] for the rest of the game " stated Viklund . All of the weapons were redesigned to be useful in some form , and can now all be taken into combat , whereas previously only one weapon could be selected per area . Boss characters received not only a visual redesign , but the fights were redesigned as well to make use of Spencer 's bionic abilities and weaponry . Viklund noted players " need to use the arm to beat the boss " .
Challenge rooms were born of a desire to enhance the game 's neutral zones . " The neutral zones in the original game weren 't that interesting , so I starting thinking we could add an obstacle course in each one " , Viklund said . " The bionic arm is such an unconventional mechanic that we really wanted to explore everything that it could offer " , added Level Designer Victor Viklund . Victor Viklund cited inspiration from several NES games , including Solomon 's Key , Wrecking Crew , and Ice Climber , adding that the concept was " very basic , very short stages . " The game 's soundtrack consists of remix versions of the original NES tracks , arranged by Simon Viklund . He described the arrangements as " the same melodies and harmonies but with a more modern sound . "
In redesigning the game 's protagonist , Nathan Spencer , Grin cited the characters Iceman from the movie Top Gun and Marty McFly from the Back to the Future series as visual influences in the update . For the character Super Joe , designers looked to the cowboys of the American Old West , citing actor Sam Elliot as an additional source of inspiration . 3D artists noticed early in development that due to the far distance of the camera , certain details in textures would not be noticeable . " We had to think ' less detail and more color [ and ] bigger shapes ' " stated 3D Artists Wendy Young and Peter Stråhle . All of the 2D character art was designed by Shinkiro , an illustrator and conceptual artist , famous for his work with the Art of Fighting and The King of Fighters series .
Bionic Commando Rearmed - The Soundtrack is the soundtrack of video game music from Bionic Commando Rearmed . It was released on May 27 , 2008 by Sumthing Else Music Works . The music was composed by Simon Viklund , who later provided the arranged soundtrack for Final Fight : Double Impact . The music is largely remixed from the original game . Viklund took the original tracks written by Junko Tamiya and rearranged them in Buzz , a freeware virtual studio program . A Japanese trailer for the game was revealed at San Diego Comic @-@ con 2008 , done in the style of an anime opening with a theme song sung by Ichirou Mizuki , titled " Go Go Bionic " .
On February 19 , 2008 the official Bionic Commando website ran a poll asking gamers to decide between two possible prices for Rearmed — ten or fifteen dollars . Producer Ben Judd stated , " Personally , since the goal is to make this game for the fans and to get the world to see what makes Bionic Commando so special , I want to sell it for about US $ 10 . " However , more senior Capcom employees believed that the game has enough features and polish to sell well enough at US15 to warrant that price . Final pricing was settled on US10 for the Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network versions , and US15 for the Windows version . The PlayStation 3 version supports Remote Play on PlayStation Portable and trophies .
= = Reception = =
Bionic Commando Rearmed has been very well received by game critics . It averages 86 / 100 across all three release platforms at aggregate website Metacritic and average 87 % across platforms at GameRankings . Rearmed sold over 130 @,@ 000 copies across all three platforms during the first week of its release . As of year @-@ end 2010 , Bionic Commando Rearmed has sold over 113 @,@ 000 copies on Xbox Live alone . That number rose to over 119 @,@ 000 at year @-@ end 2011 . In a September 2010 ranking , IGN listed Bionic Commando Rearmed fourth in their top twenty @-@ five Xbox Live Arcade titles of all time . Overall impressions of the game gleaned comments of praise . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein called Rearmed " the best downloadable game to date on XBLA and PSN " and ranked it second on her top 10 list of Xbox Live Arcade games . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb called it " terrific in almost every way " and the reviewer from GameTrailers stated it was " one of those games that feels organic to play . " Reviewers praised the title 's ability to remain true to the NES version but provide enhancements to update the title .
The game 's graphics received high marks from reviews . Hilary Goldstien of IGN described as " gorgeous " and added that Rearmed is " one of the prettiest downloadable games ever made . " Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb also lauded the visuals and praised the color palette , backgrounds and lighting . He further noted the game 's ability to remain loyal to the original visual presentation . " [ It ] makes enough visual references to the old game to trigger that feeling of nostalgia , but it never uses the old stuff as a crutch " stated Gerstmann . Similar praise was given in respect to the game 's soundtrack , with 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish calling it " exceptional " and " a mix good enough to enjoy outside the context of the game " . The reviewer from GameZone also gave praise for the remixed music . They called it " simultaneously retro and hip . "
Reviewers were split on opinions of the game 's AI , with IGN 's Hilary Goldstien describing it as " the best seen in a side @-@ scrolling game " , but Tom McShea of GameSpot saying the enemies were " simply too limited to pose much of a threat " . Multiple reviewers were disappointed in the game controls , citing the lack of updating to analog features and remaining too true to the original . Rearmed 's multiplayer received generally high acclaim , with GameSpot 's Tom McShea calling it " an unexpected treat " . Both the game 's cooperative and competitive modes were lauded , however some critics cited a lack of online functionality . Reviewer Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com also praised the game 's challenge maps and in @-@ game database , stating " Rearmed is a game that could easily sell for full retail price and seem like a good deal . "
= = Sequel = =
Bionic Commando Rearmed 2 was revealed at Capcom 's Captivate 2010 event . It was developed by Fatshark and released on the PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network and the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade on February 1 , 2011 and February 2 , 2011 , respectively . The game adds new weapons and abilities , including the optional ability to jump , a maneuver absent in previous 2D titles . The sequel 's plot revolves around a dictator named General Sabio and a missing commander from Spencer 's organization , Colonel Brubaker . Spencer and a team of four other bionics are sent to locate Brubaker and his platoon and help them complete their mission of disarming Sabio 's missiles . Rearmed 2 was not as well received as the original game . Aggregate website GameRankings reports scores in the 60 % range for both platforms . The PlayStation 3 version of the game was criticized for its DRM requirement to be signed into the PlayStation Network in order to play the game .
= Tropical Storm Carrie ( 1972 ) =
Tropical Storm Carrie was a strong tropical storm that affected the East Coast of the United States in early September 1972 . The third tropical cyclone of the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season , Carrie formed on August 29 from a complex sequence of meteorological events starting with the emergence of a tropical wave into the Atlantic in the middle of August . Tracking generally northward throughout its life , Carrie reached an initial peak intensity as a moderate tropical storm before nearly weakening back into tropical depression status . The storm began to reintensify in a baroclinic environment after turning toward the northwest ; its winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) as it was transitioning into an extratropical system eclipsed the cyclone 's previous maximum strength . The extratropical remnants of Carrie skirted eastern New England before making landfall in Maine on September 4 and dissipating over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence during the next two days .
Carrie had a minimal impact on the East Coast south of New England , limited to increased swells , gusty winds , and light rainfall . The worst conditions occurred over southeastern New England , where wind gusts reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) and rainfall exceeded 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . Damage was most severe along and slightly inland from the coast . Thousands of people became stranded on offshore islands of Massachusetts after dangerous conditions created by the storm prompted the suspension of steamship service . Overall damage was generally light , with total monetary losses valued at $ 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 000 , and four deaths are blamed on the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Carrie are traced back to a tropical wave — an elongated area of low atmospheric air pressure — that emerged from the western coast of Africa on August 15 , 1972 . A relatively strong weather system , the wave progressed westward , but by the time it had reached the Leeward Islands ten days later , it had degenerated substantially . The influence of a nearby upper @-@ level low pressure system caused the disturbance to further deteriorate , and the resultant remnant circulation drifted toward the northwest ; by August 28 , it was situated at a position just offshore southeastern Florida . The low pressure system maintained a cold core and had not yet established itself at the surface . On August 29 , the low began moving northward in response to an approaching trough . For the first time , a low @-@ level circulation center had been identified in association with the system , and the storm became a tropical depression at 1200 UTC while located east of the central Florida peninsula . The depression tracked steadily northeastward as it gradually intensified .
On August 31 , reconnaissance aircraft flying into the cyclone reported maximum sustained winds of up to around 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . Post @-@ storm reanalysis estimated the depression had strengthened into a tropical storm at around 0000 UTC on August 31 . Operationally , however , it was not recognized as such until 2200 UTC that day , when it was assigned the name Carrie . At the time , the system was located approximately 350 miles ( 560 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . A small storm , Carrie slowed drastically in forward movement as it curved northward . By the time it was identified as a tropical storm in real @-@ time , Carrie had already reached its initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 002 millibars ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and strong wind shear inhibited immediate strengthening as it continue to slow to a drift . On September 1 , Carrie began to weaken , and by early on September 2 , it had dwindled to a minimal tropical storm with winds of only 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . Satellite imagery indicated that the storm 's center of circulation had become distorted with little or no associated convection . At its weakest , the storm 's highest winds were found far from the center , likely generated more by the increasing pressure gradient in relation to an anticyclone to the north than by the low pressure center itself .
A low pressure system moving through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states pulled Carrie northwest , back toward the United States East Coast , at an accelerated forward speed . Later on September 2 , the storm had begun to show signs of reorganization , including an improved appearance on satellite imagery and the development of some thunderstorm activity , although significant reintensification was considered unlikely . However , with the advance of a trough embedded in the westerlies , Carrie quickly deepened under the influence of baroclinic processes . While the storm 's maximum sustained winds increased , it also began to shed its tropical characteristics and resemble an extratropical cyclone . Moving once again toward the north @-@ northeast , Carrie was declared extratropical by the National Hurricane Center during the late afternoon on September 2 . In the official Atlantic Hurricane Database , however , Carrie is listed as a tropical cyclone until 1800 UTC on September 3 , at which point it possessed winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a central barometric pressure of 993 mb ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . As a result , these data are considered representative of the storm 's peak intensity . Regardless of its status , the storm was a large and intense system as it progressed north and neared New England , generating strong winds and rough surf along the coast . Having fully transitioned into an extratropical system , the storm made landfall near Eastport , Maine on September 4 and slowly weakened as it continued north up the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . The cyclone fully dissipated on September 6 in the Gulf .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The pressure gradient between Carrie and the high pressure area to its north produced gusty northeasterly winds , and by extension high seas . In response , the National Weather Service issued small craft warnings starting on September 1 and extending from Massachusetts to the Carolinas . Gale warnings were posted the next day from southern New Jersey to the coast of central New England , and the small craft warnings were brought north to Maine . Ongoing , as well as the threat of continued heavy rainfall necessitated the issuance of flash flood watches throughout eastern Massachusetts , southeastern New Hampshire , and southern and central Maine on September 3 . Due to rough surf , the beach at Virginia Beach , Virginia was closed to swimmers on August 31 .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
Carrie had minimal effects on the East Coast south of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , limited to moderate winds and generally light rainfall . Precipitation at Norfolk , Virginia reached 1 @.@ 12 inches ( 28 mm ) between September 1 and 3 , and pressure fell to a modest 1 @,@ 012 mb ( 29 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Sustained winds were recorded at 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) , with only slightly higher gusts , although the Chesapeake Light unofficially reported gusts to near 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Damage in the area was minimal with the exception of beach erosion , and tides 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) above normal triggered minor flooding . Moderate rainfall , approaching or reaching 5 in ( 130 mm ) , fell across the southern Delmarva Peninsula . Equally minor effects were felt in the Atlantic City , New Jersey , area , with comparable or even less significant reports of winds and rainfall and damages limited to coastal flooding and beach erosion . Since the adverse weather conditions fell on a portion of the Labor Day weekend , the local resort industry suffered economical losses .
= = = New England and Canada = = =
The brunt of the storm occurred in southeastern New England , particularly coastal Massachusetts , where strong gusts battered the shore . The distribution of winds resulting from the storm more closely resembled that of a nor 'easter than a cyclone of tropical origin , in which the wind field would typically be concentrated closer to its center . Instead , the strongest winds remained well removed from the center of circulation , but were nonetheless severe ; gusts reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Point Judith , Rhode Island , and 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) on Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Sustained winds throughout the region were generally below 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . In Boston , Massachusetts , winds gusted to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . The storm brought down trees and powerlines , blocking roads and damaging property . Structural damage was also evident , especially to buildings under construction , and an entire cottage in Rockland , Maine was blown off its foundation .
Rainfall in southeastern New England was heavy , locally exceeding 10 in ( 250 mm ) . On the island of Martha 's Vineyard , a storm total of 12 @.@ 5 in ( 320 mm ) was reported , the highest known precipitation sum resulting from Carrie . The most torrential rains were usually confined to within 70 mi ( 110 km ) of the coast . The deluge swelled streams , inundated cellars , and washed out a railroad near Eagle Lake , Maine , derailing a train . Along the coast , rough surf caused beach erosion and swamped hundreds of small craft . On September 3 , choppy conditions forced the suspension of steamship services to and from the mainland and the islands of Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket . Thousands of tourists and seasonal residents became stranded on the islands , creating what officials described as a " logistical problem " . During the height of the storm , around 20 @,@ 000 Narragansett Electric Company customers lost power , with scattered power outages reported elsewhere throughout New England .
In general , damage from Tropical Storm Carrie and its extratropical remnants was light . Total monetary damage was estimated at $ 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 000 in 1972 terms , of which $ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 in losses was inflicted on Massachusetts . Losses totaled $ 350 @,@ 000 in Rhode Island , $ 200 @,@ 000 in Maine , and $ 30 @,@ 000 in New Hampshire . Four fatalities were attributed to the storm : two in the aftermath of boating accidents in Massachusetts , and two due to rough surf along the coast of Maine . In the aftermath , a local disaster area was declared for the town of Plymouth . The weakening remnants of Carrie produced strong winds throughout New Brunswick on September 5 and 6 , peaking at 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) . In Saint John , where wind gusts reached 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) , there were reports of downed telephone wires and trees . Widespread power outages occurred throughout communities in the province . Only light rain fell in Saint John , and no flooding was evident . The storm damaged or destroyed numerous boats in Charlo , New Brunswick .
Oceanic currents produced by the storm washed cells of the harmful alga Alexandrium fundyense south and west into the coastal waters of New England . The alga releases toxins that cause shellfish poisoning and is native to the Bay of Fundy . Several weeks after the storm , a massive bloom of the alga occurred offshore the northeastern United States for the first time , and the species bloomed every year post @-@ Carrie .
= Washington Redskins name controversy =
The Washington Redskins name controversy involves the name and logo of the National Football League ( NFL ) franchise located in the Washington , D.C. , metropolitan area . Native American individuals , tribes and organizations have been questioning the use of the name and image for decades . Over 115 professional organizations representing civil rights , educational , athletic , and scientific experts have published resolutions or policies that state that the use of Native American names and / or symbols by non @-@ native sports teams is a harmful form of ethnic stereotyping that promotes misunderstanding and prejudice which contributes to other problems faced by Native Americans . The Washington , D.C. team is only one example of the larger controversy , but it receives the most public attention due to the name itself being defined as derogatory or insulting in modern dictionaries , and the prominence of the team representing the nation 's capital .
Native Americans officially demanding change include hundreds of tribal nations , national tribal organizations , civil rights organizations , school boards , sports teams , and individuals . The largest of these organizations , the National Congress of American Indians , count the total enrollment of its membership as 1 @.@ 2 million individuals . There is also a growing number of public officials , sports commentators and other journalists advocating a change . In addition to picketing and other forms of direct protest , opponents took legal action to cancel the trademarks held by the team . On June 18 , 2014 , the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ( TTAB ) of the United States Patent and Trademark Office ( USPTO ) again voted to cancel the Redskins federal trademark registrations , considering them " disparaging to Native Americans " . On July 8 , 2015 the U.S. District Court in Alexandria , Virginia upheld the TTAB decision
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ine was not antisemitic in his personal or chess relationships with Jews . In June 1919 , he was arrested by the Cheka , imprisoned in Odessa and sentenced to death . Yakov Vilner , a Jewish master , saved him by sending a telegram to the chairman of the Ukrainian Council of People 's Commissars , who knew of Alekhine and ordered his release . Alekhine accepted and apparently used chess analysis from Charles Jaffe in his World Championship match against Capablanca . Jaffe was a Jewish master who lived in New York , where Alekhine often visited , and upon his return to New York after defeating Capablanca , Alekhine played a short match as a favour to Jaffe , without financial remuneration . Alekhine 's second for the 1935 match with Max Euwe was the master Salo Landau , a Dutch Jew . The American Jewish grandmaster Arnold Denker wrote that he found Alekhine very friendly in chess settings , taking part in consultation games and productive analysis sessions . Denker also wrote that Alekhine treated the younger and ( at that time ) virtually unproven Denker to dinner on many occasions in New York during the 1930s , when the economy was very weak because of the Great Depression . Denker added that Alekhine , during the early 1930s , opined that the American Jewish grandmaster Isaac Kashdan might be his next challenger ( this did not in fact occur ) . He gave chess lessons to 14 @-@ year @-@ old prodigy Gerardo Budowski , a German Jew , in Paris in Spring 1940 . Alekhine also married an American woman who may have had Jewish ancestry , Grace Wishard , as his fourth wife . Mrs. Grace Alekhine was the women 's champion of Paris in 1944 .
= = Notable chess games = =
Alekhine vs Yates , London 1922 , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Orthodox Defense . Main Line ( D64 ) 1 – 0 Alekhine conjures up an attack in the endgame , and his King joins the fray .
Efim Bogolyubov vs Alexander Alekhine , Hastings 1922 , Dutch Defence , Classical Variation ( A91 ) , 0 – 1 This has been called one of the greatest games ever played , with some incredibly deep variations as Black prepares to queen a pawn .
Ernst Gruenfeld vs Alexander Alekhine , Karlsbad 1923 , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Orthodox Defense . Rubinstein Attack ( D64 ) , 0 – 1 Gruenfeld makes no obvious mistakes but his slow build @-@ up lets Alekhine take the initiative and start squeezing him off the board . Gruenfeld desperately tries to free his position and is crushed by a series of sacrifices that forces the win of a piece or checkmate .
Richard Reti vs Alexander Alekhine , Baden Baden 1925 , Hungarian Opening : Reversed Alekhine ( A00 ) , 0 – 1 A tactically complex game in which Alekhine unleashes a 12 @-@ move combination that wins a Knight .
Jose Raul Capablanca vs Alexander Alekhine , World Championship match , Buenos Aires 1927 , Queen 's Gambit Declined ( D52 ) , 0 – 1 The game ends in a position with four queens on the board .
Alexander Alekhine vs Aron Nimzowitsch , San Remo 1930 , French Defence , Winawer Variation ( C17 ) , 1 – 0 One of the shortest games ending in a zugzwang – by the 26th move , Black is already strategically lost and has no good moves . This game also spawned the term ' Alekhine 's gun ' for the formation where the queen lines up behind the two rooks .
Gideon Stahlberg vs Alexander Alekhine , Hamburg 1930 , 3rd Olympiad , Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , Spielmann Variation ( E23 ) , 0 – 1 1st best game prize .
Alexander Alekhine vs Emanuel Lasker , Zurich 1934 , Queen 's Gambit Declined , Orthodox Defense , Bd3 line ( D67 ) , 1 – 0 A short game ending with a queen sacrifice . After the tournament Lasker said : " Alekhine 's attacking genius has no equal in the history of the game " .
Max Euwe vs Alexander Alekhine , World Championship Match , game 4 , The Hague 1935 , Grunfeld Defence , Russian Variation ( D81 ) , 0 – 1 Alekhine sacrifices two rooks , but traps Euwe 's King in the centre , wins the queen , then finishes elegantly .
= = Writings = =
Alekine wrote over twenty books on chess . Some of the best @-@ known are :
Alekhine , Alexander ( 1985 ) . My Best Games of Chess 1908 – 1937 . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 24941 @-@ 7 . Originally published in two volumes as My Best Games of Chess 1908 – 1923 and My Best Games of Chess 1924 – 1937 .
Alekhine , Alexander ( 1968 ) . The Book of the Hastings International Masters ' Chess Tournament 1922 . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 21960 @-@ 7 .
Alekhine , Alexander ( 1961 ) . The Book of the New York International Chess Tournament 1924 . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 20752 @-@ 8 .
Alekhine , Alexander ( 1962 ) . The Book of the Nottingham International Chess Tournament . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 20189 @-@ 9 .
Alekhine , Alexander ( 1973 ) . The World 's Chess Championship , 1937 . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 20455 @-@ 3 .
Games analysis published after 1938 were edited by Edward Winter and published in 1980 in the book :
Alekhine , Alexander ; Edward Winter ( 1992 ) . 107 Great Chess Battles 1939 – 1945 . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 27104 @-@ 8 .
= = Summary of results in competitions = =
= = = Tournament results = = =
Here are Alekhine 's placings and scores in tournaments :
Under score , + games won , − games lost , = games drawn
= = = Match results = = =
Here are Alekhine 's results in matches :
Under score , + games won , − games lost , = games drawn
= = = Chess Olympiad results = = =
Here are Alekhine 's results in Chess Olympiads . He played top board for France in all these events .
Under score , + games won , − games lost , = games drawn
= = Other information = =
In the town of Cascais , Portugal , there is a street named after Alekhine : Rua Alexander Alekhine . Cascais is near Estoril , where Alekhine died .
His book My Best Games of Chess 1924 – 1937 featured in the classic 1946 film A Matter of Life and Death .
The asteroid 1909 Alekhin was named in honor of Alexander Alekhine .
= Luke McLuke =
Luke McLuke ( 1911 – c . 1929 ) was a bay Thoroughbred stallion born in the United States ; he won the 1914 Belmont Stakes , the Carlton Stakes , Kentucky Handicap , and Grainger Memorial Handicap among his four wins from six starts . After his racing career was over , he became a breeding stallion , where he sired 11 stakes winners . Two of his daughters were named as year @-@ end Champions in the United States .
= = Breeding and background = =
Luke McLuke 's sire was Ultimus , and his dam was an imported mare named Midge , a daughter of the English Thoroughbred Trenton . Midge 's dam was another imported mare named Sandfly by the English stallion Isonomy . Ultimus was inbred to Commando , as both his sire and dam were sired by Domino . Ultimus never raced , however .
Luke McLuke was bred by James R. Keene at Castleton Stud , but was sold , along with the entire stock of the 1911 foal crop , in 1912 as yearlings . He was originally bought as part of a group lot of all 16 of the colts , bought by William A. Prime for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( about $ 613 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , who promptly turned around sold the horses to Edward R. Bradley . Bradley then auctioned them off for a total of $ 57 @,@ 650 ( around $ 1 @,@ 414 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) shortly after purchasing them . John Schorr of Memphis , Tennessee bought Luke McLuke for $ 1 @,@ 700 ( approximately $ 42 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Although unraced as a two @-@ year @-@ old , Luke McLuke raced as a three @-@ year @-@ old for Schorr . In Schorr 's ownership , the stallion won the Belmont Stakes .
Luke McLuke was expected to be a sprinter , as his breeding , especially on his sire 's side , was mostly raced at shorter distances .
= = Racing career = =
Luke McLuke won the Belmont on June 20 , 1914 , carrying 126 lb ( 57 kg ) and with M. Bruxton as his jockey . He earned a total of $ 3025 for the win . The time for the 1 3 ⁄ 8 mi ( 2 @.@ 2 km ) race was 2 minutes and 20 seconds , beating Gainer and Charlestonian . On June 30 , 1914 , he ran in the Carleton Stakes , which was a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) -long race for three @-@ year @-@ olds . He earned $ 5 @,@ 125 ( around $ 121 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) for the win , which was made in 1 minute 38 and 4 ⁄ 5 seconds . Luke McLuke carried 126 lb ( 57 kg ) in the race and his jockey was M. Buxton . He beat Charlestonian again , as well as Stromboli and Figinny . He also won the Kentucky Handicap and Grainger Memorial Handicap that year . The Grainger was a race for three @-@ year @-@ olds and up , at a distance of 1 1 ⁄ 4 mi ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) and was run at Churchill Downs in Louisville , Kentucky . Luke McLuke carried 100 lb ( 45 kg ) in the race , and was ridden by A. Neyton for the win . Second place was Rudolfo and third went to Solar Star . The win earned him $ 11 @,@ 500 ( $ 272 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , and the winning time was 2 minutes and 2 and 4 ⁄ 5 seconds .
Luke McLuke was trained by Schorr 's son , J. F. Schorr . Luke McLuke 's race wins in 1914 helped make the elder Schorr the leading owner for 1914 , the second time he had earned that title . The younger Schorr was the leading trainer in 1914 , the first time he topped that list . The stallion 's overall racing record was four wins in six starts with one second and one third . His total earnings on the racetrack were $ 22 @,@ 050 ( $ 541 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) .
= = Breeding career and legacy = =
In 1925 , Luke McLuke was owned by J. O. Keene and stood at stud at Keeneland Stud in Lexington , Kentucky . He sired 11 stakes winners , including Nellie Morse , Anita Peabody , and Mr. Sponge . Nellie Morse won the 1924 Preakness Stakes and was named the 1924 Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old @-@ Filly . Anita Peabody won the Futurity Stakes and the Debutante Stakes and was named 1927 Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . In all , Luke McLuke sired 85 foals in 13 foal crops ; 55 of his foals started races , with 40 of those starters winning races for a total of $ 449 @,@ 783 . His daughter Nellie Morse was the dam of Nellie Flagg , the 1934 Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Filly . After her racing career was over , Nellie Flagg went on to become one of the foundation broodmares at Calumet Farm in Kentucky . A grandson was Three Bars , out of a Luke McLuke daughter named Myrtle Dee . Three Bars went on to become an influential sire of Quarter Horses , and was named to the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 1989 . Another daughter , Nursemaid , produced the 1966 Kentucky Broodmare of the Year , Juliets Nurse . Luke McLuke 's granddaughter Nellie Flagg was in turn the dam of Mar @-@ Kell , the 1943 Champion Handicap Mare .
The Chicago Tribune reported the death of Luke McLuke in February 1929 , but noted the horse had died suddenly in his exercise paddock at the farm of John Hertz many weeks before the press release . He was recorded as dead in the 1932 edition of the American Racing Manual .
= = Pedigree = =
= Eurasian treecreeper =
The Eurasian treecreeper or common treecreeper ( Certhia familiaris ) is a small passerine bird also known in the British Isles , where it is the only living member of its genus , simply as treecreeper . It is similar to other treecreepers , and has a curved bill , patterned brown upperparts , whitish underparts , and long stiff tail feathers which help it creep up tree trunks . It can be most easily distinguished from the similar short @-@ toed treecreeper , which shares much of its European range , by its different song .
The Eurasian treecreeper has nine or more subspecies which breed in different parts of its range in temperate Eurasia . This species is found in woodlands of all kinds , but where it overlaps with the short @-@ toed treecreeper in western Europe it is more likely to be found in coniferous forests or at higher altitudes . It nests in tree crevices or behind bark flakes , and favours introduced giant sequoia as nest sites where they are available . The female typically lays five or six pink @-@ speckled white eggs in the lined nest , but eggs and chicks are vulnerable to attack by woodpeckers and mammals , including squirrels .
The Eurasian treecreeper is insectivorous and climbs up tree trunks like a mouse , to search for insects which it picks from crevices in the bark with its fine curved bill . It then flies to the base of another tree with a distinctive erratic flight . This bird is solitary in winter , but may form communal roosts in cold weather .
= = Description = =
Similar in appearance , all treecreepers are small birds with streaked and spotted brown upperparts , rufous rumps and whitish underparts . They have long decurved bills , and long rigid tail feathers that provide support as they creep up tree trunks looking for insects .
The Eurasian treecreeper is 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) long and weighs 7 @.@ 0 – 12 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 46 oz ) . It has warm brown upperparts intricately patterned with black , buff and white , and a plain brown tail . Its belly , flanks and vent area are tinged with buff . The sexes are similar , but the juvenile has duller upperparts than the adult , and its underparts are dull white with dark fine spotting on the flanks .
The contact call is a very quiet , thin and high @-@ pitched sit , but the most distinctive call is a penetrating tsree , with a vibrato quality , sometimes repeated as a series of notes . The male 's song begins with srrih , srrih followed in turn by a few twittering notes , a longer descending ripple , and a whistle that falls and then rises .
The range of the Eurasian treecreeper overlaps with that of several other treecreepers , which can present local identification problems . In Europe , the Eurasian treecreeper shares much of its range with the short @-@ toed treecreeper . Compared to that species , it is whiter below , warmer and more spotted above , and has a whiter supercilium and slightly shorter bill . Visual identification , even in the hand , may be impossible for poorly marked birds . A singing treecreeper is usually identifiable , since short @-@ toed treecreeper has a distinctive series of evenly spaced notes sounding quite different from the song of Eurasian treecreeper ; however , both species have been known to sing the other 's song .
Three Himalayan subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper are now sometimes given full species status as Hodgson 's treecreeper , for example by BirdLife International , but if they are retained as subspecies of Eurasian , they have to be distinguished from three other South Asian treecreepers . The plain tail of Eurasian treecreeper differentiates it from bar @-@ tailed treecreeper , which has a distinctive barred tail pattern , and its white throat is an obvious difference from brown @-@ throated treecreeper . Rusty @-@ flanked treecreeper is more difficult to separate from Eurasian , but has more contrasting cinnamon , rather than buff , flanks .
The North American brown creeper has never been recorded in Europe , but an autumn vagrant would be difficult to identify , since it would not be singing , and the American species ' call is much like that of Eurasian treecreeper . In appearance , brown creeper is more like short @-@ toed than Eurasian , but a vagrant might still not be possible to identify with certainty given the similarities between the three species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Eurasian treecreeper was first described under its current scientific name by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 . The binomial name is derived from Greek kerthios , a small tree @-@ dwelling bird described by Aristotle and others , and Latin familiaris , familiar or common .
This species is one of a group of very similar typical treecreeper species , all placed in the single genus Certhia . Eight species are currently recognised , in two evolutionary lineages : a Holarctic radiation , and a southern Asian group . The Holarctic group has a more warbling song , always ( except in C. familiaris from China ) starting or ending with a shrill sreeh . Species in the southern group , in contrast , have a faster @-@ paced trill without the sreeh sound . All the species have distinctive vocalizations and some subspecies have been elevated to species on the basis of their calls .
The Eurasian treecreeper belongs to the northern group , along with the North American brown creeper , C. americana , the short @-@ toed treecreeper , C. brachydactyla , of western Eurasia , and , if it is considered a separate species , Hodgson 's treecreeper , C. hodgsoni , from the southern rim of the Himalayas .
The brown creeper has sometimes been considered to be a subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper , but has closer affinities to short @-@ toed treecreeper , and is normally now treated as a full species . Hodgson 's treecreeper is a more recent proposed split following studies of its cytochrome b mtDNA sequence and song structure that indicate that it may well be a distinct species from C. familiaris .
There are nine to twelve subspecies of Eurasian treecreeper , depending on the taxonomic view taken , which are all very similar and often interbreed in areas where their ranges overlap . There is a general cline in appearance from west to east across Eurasia , with subspecies becoming greyer above and whiter below , but this trend reverses east of the Amur River . The currently recognised subspecies are as follows :
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Eurasian treecreeper is the most widespread member of its genus , breeding in temperate woodlands across Eurasia from Ireland to Japan . It prefers mature trees , and in most of Europe , where it shares its range with short @-@ toed treecreeper , it tends to be found mainly in coniferous forest , especially spruce and fir . However , where it is the only treecreeper , as in European Russia , or the British Isles , it frequents broadleaved or mixed woodland in preference to conifers .
The Eurasian treecreeper breeds down to sea level in the north of its range , but tends to be a highland species further south . In the Pyrenees it breeds above 1 @,@ 370 metres ( 4 @,@ 490 feet ) , in China from 400 – 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 – 6 @,@ 900 ft ) and in southern Japan from 1 @,@ 065 – 2 @,@ 135 metres ( 3 @,@ 494 – 7 @,@ 005 ft ) . The breeding areas have July isotherms between 14 – 16 ° C and 23 – 24 ° C ( 73 – 75 ° F ) and 72 – 73 ° F ) .
The Eurasian treecreeper is non @-@ migratory in the milder west and south of its breeding range , but some northern birds move south in winter , and individuals breeding on mountains may descend to a lower altitude in winter . Winter movements and post @-@ breeding dispersal may lead to vagrancy outside the normal range . Wintering migrants of the Asian subspecies have been recorded in South Korea and China , and the nominate form has been recorded west of its breeding range as far as Orkney , Scotland . The Eurasian treecreeper has also occurred as a vagrant to the Channel Islands ( where the short @-@ toed is the resident species ) , Majorca and the Faroe Islands .
= = = Status = = =
This species has an extensive range of about 10 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) . It has a large population , including an estimated 11 – 20 million individuals in Europe alone . Population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . For these reasons , the species is evaluated as Least Concern .
It is common through much of its range , but in the northernmost areas it is rare , since it is vulnerable to hard winters , especially if its feeding is disrupted by an ice glaze on the trees or freezing rain . It is also uncommon in Turkey and the Caucasus . In the west of its range it has spread to the Outer Hebrides in Scotland , pushed further north in Norway , and first bred in the Netherlands in 1993 .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Eurasian treecreeper breeds from the age of one year , nesting in tree crevices or behind bark flakes . Where present , the introduced North American giant sequoia is a favourite nesting tree , since a nest cavity can be easily hollowed out in its soft bark . Crevices in buildings or walls are sometimes used , and artificial nest boxes or flaps may be preferred in coniferous woodland . The nest has a base of twigs , pine needles , grass or bark , and a lining of finer material such as feathers , wool , moss , lichen or spider web .
In Europe , the typical clutch of five – six eggs is laid between March and June , but in Japan three – five eggs are laid from May to July . The eggs are white with very fine pinkish speckles mainly at the broad end , measure 16 mm × 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in × 0 @.@ 47 in ) and weigh 1 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 042 oz ) of which 6 % is shell . The eggs are incubated by the female alone for 13 – 17 days until the altricial downy chicks hatch ; they are then fed by both parents , but brooded by the female alone , for a further 15 – 17 days to fledging . Juveniles return to the nest for a few nights after fledging . About 20 % of pairs , mainly in the south and west , raise a second brood .
Predators of treecreeper nests and young include the great spotted woodpecker , red squirrel , and small mustelids , and predation is about three times higher in fragmented landscapes than in solid blocks of woodland ( 32 @.@ 4 % against 12 @.@ 0 % in less fragmented woodlands ) . The predation rate increases with the amount of forest edge close to a nest site , and also the presence of nearby agricultural land , in both cases probably because of a higher degree of mustelid predation . This species is parasitised in the nest by the moorhen flea , Dasypsyllus gallinulae . The juvenile survival rate of this species is unknown , but 47 @.@ 7 % of adults survive each year . The typical lifespan is two years , but the maximum recorded age is eight years and ten months .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Eurasian treecreeper typically seeks invertebrate food on tree trunks , starting near the tree base and working its way up using its stiff tail feathers for support . Unlike a nuthatch , it does not come down trees head first , but flies to the base of another nearby tree . It uses its long thin bill to extract insects and spiders from crevices in the bark . Although normally found on trees , it will occasionally hunt prey items on walls , bare ground , or amongst fallen pine needles , and may add some conifer seeds to its diet in the colder months .
The female Eurasian treecreeper forages primarily on the upper parts of the tree trunks , while the male uses the lower parts . A study in Finland found that if a male disappears , the unpaired female will forage at lower heights , spend less time on each tree and have shorter foraging bouts than a paired female .
This bird may sometimes join mixed @-@ species feeding flocks in winter , but it does not appear to share the resources found by accompanying tits and goldcrests , and may just be benefiting from the extra vigilance of a flock . Wood ants share the same habitat as the treecreeper , and also feed on invertebrates on tree trunks . The Finnish researchers found that where the ants have been foraging , there are fewer arthropods , and male treecreepers spent a shorter time on spruce trunks visited by ants .
= = = Habits = = =
As a small woodland bird with cryptic plumage and a quiet call , the Eurasian treecreeper is easily overlooked as it hops mouse @-@ like up a vertical trunk , progressing in short hops , using its stiff tail and widely splayed feet as support . Nevertheless , it is not wary , and is largely indifferent to the presence of humans . It has a distinctive erratic and undulating flight , alternating fluttering butterfly @-@ like wing beats with side @-@ slips and tumbles . Migrating birds may fly by day or night , but the extent of movements is usually masked by resident populations . It is solitary in winter , but in cold weather up to a dozen or more birds will roost together in a suitable sheltered crevice .
= Dragon Ball Z : Attack of the Saiyans =
Dragon Ball Z : Attack of the Saiyans , known in Japan as Dragon Ball Kai : Saiyan Invasion ( ドラゴンボール改 サイヤ人来襲 , Doragon Bōru Kai Saiyajin Raishū ) , is a video game based on the manga and anime series Dragon Ball for the Nintendo DS . The game is developed by Monolith Soft and distributed by Namco Bandai in North America and everywhere else under the Bandai label . It was released in Japan on April 29 , 2009 . The game was released in Europe and North America in November 2009 . The game was originally planned to use the Z moniker , despite starting with events that occur in Dragon Ball , but was changed to Kai to associate it with the Dragon Ball Kai revision .
The game is a turn @-@ based RPG that allows players to take on the role of six characters from the series , starting from the 23rd Tenkaichi Budokai through the Saiyan story arc . The game is one of the first games in the Dragon Ball franchise to be published by Namco Bandai in North America , as the company would acquire the gaming license from previous license holder Atari in July of that same year .
Attack of the Saiyans was generally well received by gaming critics , complimenting the battle system , its visuals , and its ability to stay true to the series . It would go on to be the third @-@ best selling video game during the month of May 2009 in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Presented in traditional 2 @-@ D animation sprites , the game consists of three modes to help navigate , the map of the Dragon World , the area maps , and the battle mode . The world map will be available from the start , and will allow players easy access to each of the areas throughout the game . On area maps the player will navigate through various places such fields , forests , caves , and towns on the top screen . The touch screen will display available equipment that can be used while in fields . These items are available courtesy of Capsule Corporation Dyno @-@ Caps which can be bought , given , or found in various spots and or treasure chests . Many of these areas have obstacles such as rocks and brush which the player will have overcome with ki blasts . However , some of these obstacles require stronger levels of ki blasts . The battle screen will take place at the screen with the party facing off with a monster or a boss , their stats and the command select icon presented via the touch screen . The game makes little to no use of the stylus , forcing players to rely on the control pad .
In combat , the player 's active party members will consist of only first three members of their party or less . Players can swap available members at any time throughout the game . Each character will have a few set attacks and techniques at the player 's disposal while the rest are locked . When the player wins a battle , each member of their party will earn Ability Points or AP . Ability Points can be used to buy or upgrade skills in a character 's skill menu . When certain skills are unlocked or upgraded new skills will become available . Each character will have a " Rage Gage " . This meter will gradually fill throughout the course of combat . When a character 's gauge is full , they can perform an ultimate attack . If two or more characters gauges are full , the player can execute a Sparking Combo . By which the chose characters will perform a tag team attack . When an ultimate attack or a Sparking Combo is performed the gauge returns to zero . Players also have the ability to block enemy attacks with the Active Guard or A Guard . This allows a chosen character to only take minimal damage when their corresponding button is pressed at the moment before an attack .
= = Development = =
The game was first announced in the December 22 , 2008 issue of Weekly Shonen Jump magazine with the title Dragon Ball Z Story : Saiyan Invasion ( ドラゴンボールZストーリー サイヤ人来襲 , Doragon Bōru Zetto Sutōrī Saiyajin Raishū ) . The article stated that the game would be an RPG in development by Monolith Soft exclusively for the DS , it would take start at the 23rd Tenkaichi Budokai and extend into the Saiyan saga , and it would be released sometime in 2009 . Several screenshots were shown in the article . One of which depicted different looking graphics command icons . It was also revealed that only six of the main characters Goku , Gohan , Piccolo , Krillin , Tien , and Yamcha , would be playable . In the February issue of V Jump , it was announced that the title had been changed to tie @-@ in with the revised series , Dragon Ball Kai .
On May 25 , Namco Bandai 's European branch released a press statement announcing that they would be releasing the game throughout Europe and the PAL regions under the new name Dragon Ball Z : Attack of the Saiyans . On June 2 , Namco Bandai 's American branch issued a press release stating that they would release the game as Attack of the Saiyans throughout North America . The announcement also mention that the game would include numerous alternate storylines for a better understanding of the Dragon Ball universe , a three character party and combo attack system , that certain ki attacks would be needed to solve puzzles or unlock secrets , and that their release date would be sometime in the Fall of 2009 . Following that statement , the company issued another press release stating that they had acquired the North American license from previous license holder Atari , and would publish future Dragon Ball games for , at least , the next five years starting with Attack of the Saiyans , Raging Blast , and Revenge of King Piccolo . In November , Namco Bandai issued a press release stating that the game was available throughout all North American markets .
= = Reception = =
Dragon Ball Z : Attack of the Saiyans was released in Japan on April 29 , 2009 , in Australia on November 19 , 2009 , in Europe on November 6 , 2009 , and in North America on November 10 , 2009 . Following its release , the game would go on to become the third best @-@ selling video game in Japan during the month of May 2009 , falling behind two other DS games Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days and Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth .
The game received " average " reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic . In Japan , Famitsu gave it a score of one six , one seven , and two eights , for a total of 29 out of 40 .
Charles Onyett of IGN found the gameplay enjoyable and enough to be appreciated by any genre fan . Yet he stated that if players were not Dragon Ball fans , then they will not want to play the game . Robert Thompson of Nintendojo felt that the game would satisfy fans of both the series and the genre , but he would complain about the ki and Sparking Combo attacks being repetitive , and the story shifting control of the characters , stating it could make unfamiliar gamers disoriented . Ryan Olsen of Kombo.com praised the battle system , calling it more engaging than the ones found in the average RPG . Still he would call the game a cut and dry RPG , calling the Active Guard system the only exotic aspect of the game . Neal Ronaghan of Nintendo World Report called the game vanilla with an interesting twists , stating that the fans should be the ones playing the game . He also drew comparisons of the Active Guard system to the Timed Hit system from Super Mario RPG , and Rage Gage to the Limit Break from Final Fantasy . Brittany Vincent of RPGFan would call side quests like Krillin 's return home an added treat to the long story . She pointed out the game 's difficulty being frustrating , stating that the game will cause players to revert to the start screen many times , yet is still beatable .
Joe Law of GameFocus criticized the Rage Gage system , stating that it had been done better in other games . However he cited the game 's overall length a good thing as he felt the game had no replay value . Nick Valentino of GameZone praised the game , calling it the best RPG to make use of the Dragon Ball label , and the game was the perfect introduction into the franchise . Mike Moehnke of RPGamer cited the games as not being perfect , but was superior to the Super Famicom game Legend of the Super Saiyan . Kat Bailey of 1UP.com felt the game was made with children in mind , stating that the vibrant colors and the fast @-@ paced gameplay would keep kids interested in the game .
= Buso Renkin =
Buso Renkin ( Japanese : 武装錬金 , Hepburn : Busō Renkin , lit . " Arms Alchemy " ) is a manga series written and drawn by Nobuhiro Watsuki . It follows Kazuki Muto , who becomes an alchemical warrior in the battle against alchemical monsters known as homunculi . Watsuki envisioned the manga as his last shōnen manga , and then he tried to do as much as he could with that genre . It was serialized in Shueisha 's magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from June 2003 to April 2005 . The individual chapters were republished by Shueisha in ten tankōbon volumes . The series has been licensed by Viz Media for North American release .
The manga has been adapted into an anime television series , which was produced by Xebec and was broadcast on Japanese television network TV Tokyo from 2006 to 2007 . In December 2007 , the anime was announced for North American DVD release by Viz Media . In 2009 , the series made its American television debut on the Funimation Channel , with American broadcast rights acquired by Funimation from Viz Media . The series has also spawned two drama CDs , two light novels , a PlayStation 2 video game , and many types of Buso Renkin @-@ themed merchandise .
In Japan , the Buso Renkin manga has sold over 3 million volumes and was nominated for a Seiun Award . It received a mixed reception from manga and anime publications . Watsuki 's art received the most positive comments from reviewers , while other aspects of the manga , such as its action and characters , have divided critics ' opinions . The anime , which critics described as a generic shōnen fighting series , received a mostly negative reception .
= = Plot = =
The narrative of Buso Renkin follows Kazuki Muto , who saves Tokiko Tsumura and is killed by an alchemical monster known as a homunculus . Tokiko , an alchemist warrior , feels responsible and revives him by replacing his destroyed heart with a kakugane ( 核鉄 ) . The kakugane is an alchemical device which , when activated , takes a weapon form based on its user 's personality , forming a buso renkin — the only thing that can destroy a homunculus . Kazuki creates his own buso renkin and joins Tokiko in the fight against the homunculi and their master , Koushaku Chouno . Chouno , who has renamed himself " Papillon " , is killed by Kazuki , but is later resurrected by the L.X.E. , a humanoid homunculi group led by Chouno 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Bakushaku Chouno , now calling himself Dr. Butterfly . In various battles , Kazuki , Tokiko and Captain Bravo ( their team leader ) destroy most of the L.X.E. ' s members . After learning that Dr. Butterfly believes him to be weak and useless , Papillon rebels against the L.X.E. and kills Dr. Butterfly .
Before his death , Dr. Butterfly drains the energy of the students at Kazuki 's school to heal and revive Victor , a being superior to humans and homunculi . Victor is confronted by Kazuki , but Victor is not interested in fighting and leaves . During the battle , however , Kazuki 's kakugane is revealed to be the same type as the Victor 's — a black kakugane created by the Alchemist Army as a prototype to the philosopher 's stone . The black kakugane absorbs human life forces ; to prevent this from happening , Kazuki 's death is ordered by the Alchemist Army . Captain Bravo tries to kill Kazuki , but Tokiko finds him alive . A team is commissioned to confirm Kazuki 's death , but Kazuki , Tokiko and Gouta Nakamura ( an Alchemist Warrior and former protégé of Tokiko 's ) fight their way past the members of the Re @-@ Extermination Squad . Later , Kazuki 's death is postponed because , as the Alchemists ' leader explains , their top priority is to defeat Victor .
Kazuki and Tokiko find the white kakugane , which can negate the effects of the black kakugane and is guarded by Victor 's daughter Victoria , who is herself a humanoid homunculus . During the Alchemist Army 's final battle against Victor , Kazuki applies the white kakugane to Victor , but it only weakens him . To protect humankind from both of them , Kazuki propels himself and Victor to the moon . Later , Papillion creates a white kakugane to heal Kazuki . The Alchemist Army rescues Kazuki , creates another white kakugane and restores Victor 's humanity . Reunited with his daughter , Victor asks the Alchemist Army to turn him into a homunculus and tells them that he and his daughter will lead all the homunculi to the moon . The Alchemist Army dedicates itself to research a way to revert homunculi back into humans , ending their war activities . All Warriors abdicate their kakugane . Kazuki and Tokiko return to their daily lives together while Papillon becomes an urban legend throughout Japan .
= = Production = =
Nobuhiro Watsuki started writing Buso Renkin thinking it would be his last shōnen manga ; he tried to do " everything [ he ] ever wanted " with that genre . He unexpectedly experienced problems drawing the manga 's fight scenes and said he " struggled with the comedic elements " . Watsuki drew references from several sources in Buso Renkin ; from his past works Rurouni Kenshin and Gun Blaze West to American comics , and from films to other anime and manga . Despite dealing with alchemy , Watsuki initially avoided mentioning the philosopher 's stone because he thought he could be accused of plagiarizing another series . He could not omit mentioning it , but he said that it is " general knowledge " . During the series ' publication , Watsuki had four severe colds ; the fourth cold made him so weak that he could not finish the chapter he was due to send to Weekly Shōnen Jump .
= = Manga = =
The chapters of Buso Renkin were written and illustrated by Nobuhiro Watsuki and were serialized in Shueisha 's shōnen magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from June 23 , 2003 , to April 25 , 2005 . Only the first 79 chapters were serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump ; the final chapter was published in another magazine from Shueisha in two installments . Shueisha published the individual chapters in a series of ten tankōbon ( collected volumes ) , which were released between January 5 , 2004 , and April 4 , 2006 . In North America , Viz Media released the manga 's ten tankōbon volumes between August 1 , 2006 , and February 5 , 2008 . The manga has been licensed in Brazil by Editora JBC , France by Glénat , in Germany by Tokyopop Germany , in Italy by Panini Comics , and in Spain by Planeta DeLibros .
= = Anime adaptation = =
In Japan , the Buso Renkin manga was adapted into an anime series which ran on TV Tokyo ; it was directed by Takao Kato and produced by Xebec . Buso Renkin aired between October 4 , 2006 , and March 28 , 2007 . The episodes were later released by Geneon Universal Entertainment in nine DVD compilations between January 25 , 2007 , and September 21 , 2007 . DVD box sets containing all twenty @-@ six episodes were released on November 26 , 2009 , and on February 27 , 2013 . Geneon Universal Entertainment released an animation soundtrack CD for Buso Renkin on January 25 , 2007 .
On December 8 , 2007 , Viz Media announced the release of the English dub , which would be released in two DVD sets of thirteen episodes each . The first set containing episodes one to thirteen was released on April 29 , 2008 . The second set containing episodes fourteen to twenty @-@ six was released on October 7 , 2008 . Funimation launched Buso Renkin on their Funimation Channel on April 27 , 2009 , marking the series ' American television debut . On December 20 , 2009 , the first three episodes from the series were officially uploaded to Hulu and Viz Media 's portal . Two episodes were uploaded weekly thereafter ; the final episode was uploaded on March 8 , 2010 . Beginning on October 2 , 2012 , Buso Renkin was streamed on Neon Alley .
= = Related media = =
Shueisha released two drama CDs for Buso Renkin . The first CD was released on May 26 , 2005 , and the second CD was released on October 6 , 2006 . It also released two " Expert CDs " , which features the radio drama , opening and ending themes and unreleased soundtrack songs . The first CD , Expert CD 1 , was released on March 28 , 2007 . The second CD , Expert CD 2 , was released on June 8 , 2007 .
Two light novels were written by Kaoru Kurosaki , illustrated by Watsuki , and published under the Jump J Books line by Shueisha . The first one , Buso Renkin Double Slash ( 武装錬金 / / ) , was published in October 31 , 2006 , and Buso Renkin Slash Zeta ( 武装錬金 / Z ) was released on May 25 , 2007 . A guidebook titled Buso Renkin Infinity was published by Shueisha on May 2 , 2007 .
Two Nintendo DS fighting games , Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars , have featured characters from the series . A PlayStation 2 video game developed and published by Marvelous Entertainment was released on June 28 , 2007 , under the title Buso Renkin Youkoso Papillon Park e ( 武装錬金 ようこそパピヨンパークへ ) . In Japan , action figures , T @-@ shirts , a trading card game series , key chains , straps , and a variety of other products were sold as merchandise for the series .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , Buso Renkin has sold over three million volumes . In North America , the first volume has featured in the best @-@ selling graphic novel ranking of Nielsen BookScan , and the fourth volume of the series was the seventh best @-@ selling comic book of March 2007 , according to Publishers Weekly . In the same year , it was nominated for the Seiun Award for best science fiction comic title of the year .
The manga 's critical reaction has been mixed . Most critics reached a consensus regarding the high quality of its art , describing it as " crisp " , " solid " , and " clean and well done " . Other aspects of the series have divided critics ' opinions . Manga Life 's Michael Aronson praised the enemy designs , while Carlo Santos of Anime News Network ( ANN ) criticized them , adding the series " is not much fun to read , and certainly no fun to look at " . Writing for Active Anime , Sandra Scholes found points of interest in the series ' story , and praised its action . Santos said the action " got all the drive and excitement of shounen action " , and Comic Book Bin 's Leroy Douresseaux called the series " a mixture of Dragonball Z and Naruto , but filled with even more weirdness " .
Aronson said the storytelling and action needed " clarity " . Leigh Dragoon from Sequential Tart described Buso Renkin as " derivative " and " hackneyed " , and called the characters " completely forgettable " . Conversely , Patti Martinson writing for the same site said that they " are distinctive and interesting " . Martinson noted " the complexity of the plot " , though she said it is not difficult to follow . She added there was " a lot of strong material " that can be developed throughout the series . Holly Ellingwood praised the final volume , stating that Watsuki did " a fabulous job of covering all fronts and the various characters , juggling them effectively " and that it ends " in an amazing way " .
The anime was met with mostly negative critical reception . ANN critic Zac Bertschy said Buso Renkin " isn 't anything special " , criticizing the " threadbare plot exposition " and its clichés , but praised the way it " get [ s ] right to the action " . Writing for ANN , Luke Carroll stated the series is generic and that it became " [ a ] bit more tolerable ... during its light @-@ hearted moments " . ANN 's Carl Kimlinger said the anime follows " shounen fighting formula " ; he praised Tokiko 's characterization , saying it is one characteristic that distinguish the series . Kimlinger also praised the way it " improves considerably " because of its twists in the plot . UK Anime Network 's Andy Hanley also called it " generic " at the start , but said it " has a fairly decent stab " in the second half . Chris Beveridge of Mania praised the balance between the humor and the " lighter side " , and stated that Buso Renkin " took the clichés and obviousness of ideas and ran with it in an engaging and fun manner " .
= Silverchair =
Silverchair were an Australian rock band , which formed in 1992 as Innocent Criminals in Merewether , Newcastle with the line @-@ up of Ben Gillies on drums , Daniel Johns on vocals and guitars , and Chris Joannou on bass guitar . The group got their big break in mid @-@ 1994 when they won a national demo competition conducted by SBS TV show Nomad and ABC radio station , Triple J. The band were signed by Murmur , and were successful on the Australian and international rock stages .
As of 2011 , Silverchair have won a record number of 21 ARIA Music Awards from 49 nominations . The band have also received six APRA Awards with Johns winning three songwriting awards at the 2008 ceremony . All five of their studio albums have peaked at number @-@ one on the ARIA Albums Chart : Frogstomp ( 1995 ) , Freak Show ( 1997 ) , Neon Ballroom ( 1999 ) , Diorama ( 2002 ) and Young Modern ( 2007 ) . Three of the group 's singles have reached number @-@ one on the related ARIA Singles Chart : " Tomorrow " ( 1994 ) , " Freak " ( 1997 ) and " Straight Lines " ( 2007 ) .
Silverchair 's alternative rock sound had evolved throughout their career , differing styles on specific albums steadily growing more ambitious over the years , from grunge on their debut to more recent work displaying orchestral and art rock influences . The songwriting and singing of Johns had evolved steadily while the band had developed an increased element of complexity . In 2003 , following the release of Diorama , the band announced a hiatus , during which time members recorded with side projects The Dissociatives , The Mess Hall , and Tambalane . Silverchair were reunited at the 2005 Wave Aid concerts . In 2007 , they released their fifth album , Young Modern , and played the Across the Great Divide tour with contemporaries Powderfinger . In May 2011 , Silverchair announced an indefinite hiatus . Prior to that month , the group had sold close to 8 million albums worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early releases ( 1992 – 1996 ) = = =
Silverchair 's founders , Ben Gillies and Daniel Johns , attended the same primary school in the Newcastle suburb of Merewether . As teenagers , singer @-@ guitarist Johns and drummer Gillies , started playing music together – in one class they built a stage out of desks and played rap songs for their schoolmates . When they moved on to Newcastle High School , a fellow student , Chris Joannou , joined the pair on bass guitar . In 1992 , they formed Death Rides a Sandwich with Tobin Finane as a second guitarist – but he soon left . They played numerous shows around the Hunter Region in their early teens , their repertoire was cover versions of Led Zeppelin , Deep Purple and Black Sabbath . In 1994 Innocent Criminals entered YouthRock , a national competition for school @-@ based bands and placed first ahead of older competition . Early in the year they recorded demos of " Acid Rain " , " Cicada " , " Pure Massacre " and " Tomorrow " at Platinum Sound Studios .
In April , the band 's mainstream breakthrough came when they won a national competition called Pick Me , using their demo of " Tomorrow " . The competition was conducted by the SBS TV show Nomad and Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) alternative radio station Triple J. As part of the prize , Triple J recorded the song and ABC filmed a video , which was aired on 16 June . For the video 's broadcast , they had changed their name to Silverchair ( styled as silverchair until 2002 ) . In a 1994 interview with Melbourne magazine Buzz , the band claimed the name derived from a radio request for " Sliver " by Nirvana and " Berlin Chair " by You Am I being mixed up as Silver Chair . It was later revealed they were named for the C. S. Lewis @-@ penned novel The Silver Chair from The Chronicles of Narnia series .
Following a bidding war between rival labels , Silverchair signed a three @-@ album recording contract with Sony Music subsidiary Murmur Records . Initially the group were managed by their parents . Sony A & R manager John Watson , who was jointly responsible for signing the group , subsequently left the label to become their band manager . In September , their Triple J recording of " Tomorrow " was released as a four @-@ track extended play . From late October , it spent six weeks at number @-@ one on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 1995 , a re @-@ recorded version of " Tomorrow " ( and a new video ) was made for the United States market , becoming the most played song on US modern rock radio that year .
Silverchair 's debut album , Frogstomp , was recorded in nine days with production by Kevin Shirley ( Lime Spiders , Peter Wells ) and was released in March 1995 . At the time of recording , the band members were 15 years old , and still attending high school . Frogstomp 's lyrical concepts were fiction @-@ based , drawing inspiration from television , hometown tragedies , and perceptions of the pain of friends . The album was well received : Allmusic and Rolling Stone rated it in four and four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars respectively , praising the intensity of the album , especially " Tomorrow " . Aside from Innocent Criminals , the band has used The George Costanza Trio and Short Elvis as aliases .
Frogstomp was a number @-@ one album in Australia and New Zealand . It reached the Billboard 200 Top 10 , making Silverchair the first Australian band to do so since INXS . It was certified as a US double @-@ platinum album by the RIAA , triple @-@ platinum in Canada by the CRIA and multi @-@ platinum in Australia . The album sold more than 2 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . As Frogstomp and " Tomorrow " continued to gain popularity through 1995 , the group toured the US where they supported Red Hot Chili Peppers in June , The Ramones in September , and played on the roof of Radio City Music Hall at the MTV Music Awards – in between touring they continued their secondary education in Newcastle . At the ARIA Music Awards of 1995 , the band won five awards out of nine nominations . To collect their awards on the night they sent Josh Shirley , the young son of the album 's producer .
In a January 1996 murder case , the defendant counsel for Brian Bassett , 16 , and Nicholaus McDonald , 18 , claimed that the pair listened to " Israel 's Son " , from Frogstomp , which contributed to the murder of Bassett 's parents and a younger brother . McDonald 's lawyer cited the lyrics " ' Hate is what I feel for you / I want you to know that I want you dead ' " which were " almost a script . They 're relevant to everything that happened " . The band 's manager , Watson , issued a statement that they did not condone nor intend any such acts of violence . Prosecutors rejected the defence case and convinced the jury that the murder was committed to " steal money and belongings and run off to California . "
= = = Critical and commercial success ( 1997 – 2001 ) = = =
Silverchair began recording their second studio album , Freak Show , in May 1996 while experiencing the success of Frogstomp in Australia and the US . It was produced by Nick Launay ( Birthday Party , Models , Midnight Oil ) and was released in February 1997 . The album reached number @-@ one in Australia and yielded three Top 10 singles – " Freak " , " Abuse Me " , and " Cemetery " . Its fourth single , " The Door " , reached No. 25 . The songs focused on the anger and backlash that the expectations of Frogstomp brought upon the band . Freak Show was certified gold in the US , 4 × platinum in Australia and global sales eventually exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million copies .
By late 1997 , the trio had completed their secondary education and , from May 1998 , they worked on their third album , Neon Ballroom which had Launay producing again . It was released in March 1999 and peaked at number @-@ one in Australia . McFarlane said , " As well as being the band 's best album to date , it was universally acknowledged as one of the best albums of the year . " The band originally intended to take a 12 @-@ month @-@ break , but in the end decided to devote their time to making music . Neon Ballroom provided three Australian top 20 singles : " Anthem for the Year 2000 " , " Ana 's Song ( Open Fire ) " and " Miss You Love " ; a fourth single , " Paint Pastel Princess " , did not reach the top 50 . The albums charted well internationally : Freak Show reached No. 2 in Canada , and Neon Ballroom reached No. 5 . Both reached the top 40 on the United Kingdom Albums Chart . " Abuse Me " reached No. 4 on Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts . " Ana 's Song ( Open Fire ) " peaked at No. 12 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks .
In 1999 , Johns announced that he had developed the eating disorder , anorexia nervosa , due to anxiety . Johns noted that the lyrics to " Ana 's Song ( Open Fire ) " dealt with his disorder , where he would " eat what he needed … to stay awake . " He revealed that his eating problems developed from the time of Freak Show and when Neon Ballroom was written he " hated music , really everything about it " , but felt that he " couldn 't stop doing it ; I felt like a slave to it . " Johns sought therapy and medication but felt " It 's easier for me to express it through music and lyrics " .
Silverchair added an auxiliary keyboardist , Sam Holloway ( ex @-@ Cordrazine ) , for the Neon Ballroom Tour . The US leg had the group playing with The Offspring and Red Hot Chili Peppers , while Silverchair 's tour of UK and European had The Living End as the support act . Rolling Stone 's Neva Chonin attributed their chart success to the album 's more " mature " sound . In Europe and South America it became the group 's most successful album to date . The group appeared at festivals in Reading and Edgefest , amongst others . Following the tour , the band announced that they would be taking a 12 @-@ month @-@ break . Their only live performance in 2000 was at the Falls Festival on New Year 's Eve . On 21 January 2001 , the band played to 250 @,@ 000 people at Rock in Rio , a show they described as the highlight of their career .
After the release of Neon Ballroom , Silverchair 's three album contract with Sony Music had ended . The group eventually signed with Atlantic Records for North and South America , and formed their own label with Watson , Eleven : A Music Company ( distributed by EMI ) , for Australia and Asia . In November 2000 , after the group had left the label , Sony issued The Best of Volume 1 without the band 's involvement . Johns disavowed the compilation , " We thought about putting out ads in the street press to make people aware that we weren 't endorsing it , but that would have blown the whole thing out of proportion ... If people want to buy it , they can buy it but I wouldn 't buy it if I was a silverchair fan . "
= = = Diorama ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
In June 2001 , Silverchair entered a studio in Sydney with producer David Bottrill ( Tool , Peter Gabriel , King Crimson ) to start work on their fourth album , Diorama . Johns formally assumed the role of a co @-@ producer . The album name means " a world within a world " . Most tracks came from Johns ' new @-@ found method of writing material on a piano , a technique he developed during the band 's break after Neon Ballroom .
In order to complete the vision for Diorama , several other musicians contributed to the album , including Van Dyke Parks , who provided orchestral arrangements to " Tuna in the Brine " , " Luv Your Life " , and " Across the Night " . Paul Mac ( from Itch @-@ E and Scratch @-@ E ) and Jim Moginie ( from Midnight Oil ) both on piano also collaborated with the band . While recording Diorama , Johns referred to himself as an artist , rather than simply being in a " rock band " . Upon its release , critics commented that the album was more artistic than previous works .
Early in December , the first single , " The Greatest View " , was released to Australian radio networks . Its physical release in January 2002 coincided with the band 's appearance on the Big Day Out tour . Early in 2002 , Johns was diagnosed with reactive arthritis which made it difficult for him to play the guitar and subsequent performances supporting the album 's release were cancelled . In March , Diorama was issued and topped the ARIA Albums Chart – it became their fourth number @-@ one album and spent 50 weeks in the top 50 .
Five singles were released from the album : " The Greatest View " , " Without You " , " Luv Your Life " , " Across the Night " , and " After All These Years " – " The Greatest View " charted highest , reaching No. 3 . In October , Silverchair were successful at the ARIA Music Awards of 2002 , winning five awards including ' Best Rock Album ' and ' Best Group ' , and ' Producer of the Year ' for Johns . The band played " The Greatest View " at the ceremony : the song was also nominated for ' Best Video ' . Two singles ( and a related video ) were nominated for further ARIA Awards in 2003 . Following the 2002 ARIA Awards , the band announced an indefinite hiatus . Johns said it was necessary " given the fact the band were together for over a decade and yet were only , on average , 23 years old " . From March to June 2003 , Silverchair undertook the Across the Night Tour to perform Diorama . Their hometown performance on 19 April was recorded as Live from Faraway Stables for a 2 × CD and 2xDVD released in November . After the tour finished in June the group announced an indefinite hiatus .
= = = Extended break and side projects ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
In 2000 , while also working with Silverchair , Johns and Mac released an internet @-@ only EP , I Can 't Believe It 's Not Rock . In mid @-@ 2003 , during Silverchair 's hiatus , the pair re @-@ united and formed The Dissociatives , releasing a self @-@ titled album in April 2004 . The duo provided the theme music for the popular ABC @-@ TV music quiz show Spicks and Specks – as a reworking of the Bee Gees ' 1966 hit of the same name . Johns also collaborated with then @-@ wife Natalie Imbruglia on her Counting Down the Days album , released in April 2005 .
Joannou worked with blues @-@ rock group The Mess Hall , he co @-@ produced – with Matt Lovell – their six @-@ track extended play Feeling Sideways which was released in May 2003 . The album was nominated for the ARIA Award for ' Best Independent Release ' in 2003 . Joannou and Lovell co @-@ produced The Mess Hall 's studio album , Notes from a Ceiling which was issued in June 2005 . Joannou and Lovell received a nomination at the ARIA Music Awards of 2005 for ' Producer of the Year ' . In 2003 , Gillies formed Tambalane with Wes Carr , initially as a song @-@ writing project , they released a self @-@ titled album in 2005 and toured Australia .
The 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami resulted in the WaveAid fund @-@ raising concert held in January 2005 : Silverchair performed to help raise funds for aid organisations working in disaster affected areas . As a result of WaveAid the band decided to resume working together . Gillies explained the band 's reunion as due to a special " chemistry " between band members , telling The Sydney Morning Herald , " It only took us 15 years , but recently we 've realised , ' We 've really got something special and we should just go for it . ' "
= = = Return from hiatus ( 2006 – 2010 ) = = =
After performing at Wave Aid , Silverchair reunited and by late 2005 began preparations for their next studio album , Young Modern . Johns had written about 50 songs during the hiatus for a possible solo album or other project but decided to use them for Silverchair . In 2006 , after five weeks practice the group demoed tracks in the Hunter Region , and then recorded at Los Angeles ' Seedy Underbelly Studios with Launay as producer . Parks again arranged orchestral tracks for the band – they travelled to Prague to record with the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra . The group also used Mac , Luke Steele ( The Sleepy Jackson ) and Julian Hamilton ( The Presets , The Dissociatives ) – Hamilton also co @-@ wrote songs with Johns . Silverchair self @-@ funded the album 's production to ease the pressures faced previously when working with a record label .
The band toured extensively before releasing the album , performing at Homebake and numerous other shows . Both Mac and Hamilton joined the tour as auxiliary members providing keyboards . In October , they performed a cover of Midnight Oil 's 1981 single , " Don 't Wanna Be the One " , at the ARIA Music Awards of 2006 as part of that band 's induction into the ARIA Hall of Fame . During the performance Johns spray @-@ painted " PG 4 PM " ( Peter Garrett for Prime Minister ) on a stage wall , paying tribute to that band 's front @-@ man , then a Federal Member of Parliament and Minister for the Environment , Heritage and the Arts .
Young Modern was released in March 2007 , as was the first single , " Straight Lines " . Three more singles , " Reflections of a Sound " , " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , and " Mind Reader " , were subsequently released . Young Modern became the fifth Silverchair album to top the ARIA Albums chart – they became the first artists to have five number @-@ one albums . " Straight Lines " also became the band 's third No. 1 single in Australia . In June , Silverchair and fellow rock group Powderfinger announced the Across the Great Divide Tour . The tour promoted the efforts of Reconciliation Australia in mending the 17 @-@ year gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non @-@ Indigenous children . Support acts on the tour were John Butler , Missy Higgins , Kev Carmody , Troy Cassar @-@ Daley , Clare Bowditch and Deborah Conway .
Young Modern and " Straight Lines " each won three awards at the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 , taking Silverchair 's total to 20 . The group also won three APRA Awards for their song " Straight Lines " , including Songwriter of the Year , which Johns was awarded for a record third time . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2008 both Silverchair and Powderfinger won ' Best Music DVD ' for Across the Great Divide , for Silverchair this was their 21st win from 49 nominations .
According to Silverchair 's website , as of June 2009 , the group had begun work on the follow @-@ up to Young Modern , they had spent three weeks recording in Australia with future sessions earmarked for later that year . No release date was set , but the band uploaded in @-@ studio videos of them working on several tracks to their official website . In December , Johns called in to Triple J 's breakfast show , Robbie , Marieke and The Doctor , and discussed the band 's new album which they were working on in Newcastle . He told them " the main difference is there 's a lot of experimentation with instruments and synths ... I think there 's only guitar on four songs out of fifty so far , " but added the new material is " surprisingly rocky given there 's no guitar . " In April 2010 , via the band 's website , Joannou announced that they would perform two new songs called " 16 " and " Machina Collecta " at May 's Groovin the Moo festival . He said work was progressing well and confirmed there was , as yet , no title for the proposed album and that they were simply referring to it as Album No. 6 . The final concert of the festival was at Bunbury on 15 May . By year 's end , work on the album had stopped as each member pursued other interests .
= = = " Indefinite hibernation " ( 2011 – present ) = = =
On 25 May 2011 , Silverchair announced an indefinite hiatus :
We formed Silverchair nearly 20 years ago when we were just 12 years old . Today we stand by the same rules now as we did back then ... if the band stops being fun and if it 's no longer fulfilling creatively , then we need to stop . [ ... ] Despite our best efforts over the last year or so , it 's become increasingly clear that the spark simply isn 't there between the three of us at the moment . Therefore after much soul searching we wanted to let you know that we 're putting Silverchair into " indefinite hibernation " and we 've decided to each do our own thing for the foreseeable future .
Sydney Morning Herald 's music writer , Bernard Zuel , said the band 's use of " indefinite hibernation " was a way to soften the blow of the group 's break @-@ up for fans , he expected future reunions and performances for worthy causes . By June , Gillies was in the final stages of about 12 months of working on his solo album and he said that it was not a continuation of his earlier work with Tambalane . In October , Johns was working on the soundtrack for My Mind 's Own Melody – a short film . In May 2012 Johns recorded the new anthem for Qantas titled ' Atlas . ' It is the first piece of commercial music Johns has composed .
The members of Silverchair have stated that they have not ruled out a reunion . Gillies has said that there are plans to release a new Silverchair album , which was almost finished before the hiatus .
= = Musical style = =
Silverchair are generally classified as an alternative rock and post @-@ grunge band , although their loyalty to specific genres has changed as they have matured . Much of the band 's early grunge and post @-@ grunge work was inspired by Nirvana , Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains and Black Sabbath . According to Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane , " frogstomp captured the tempo of the times with its mix of Soundgarden / Pearl Jam / Bush post @-@ grunge noise and teenage lyrical angst . "
In their early years the perceived stylistic similarities led to Silverchair being derisively dubbed as ' silverhighchair ' , ' not Soundgarden but Kindergarden ' or ' Nirvana in Pyjamas ' by the Australian media . The latter is a sarcastic conflated reference to the band 's youth and the popular Australian children 's TV series Bananas in Pyjamas . McFarlane stated " Freak Show and tracks like ' Freak ' were firmly in Nirvana territory with a hint of Led Zeppelin 's Eastern mysticism " . Gillies noted that the band were inspired by the Seattle Sound , as well as The Beatles and The Doors , and were highly impressionable in their youth . Johns admitted that " We were always influenced a lot by Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin it just so happened that we weren 't very good at playing that style of music . So we were put in the whole grunge category because it was such a garage @-@ y , heavy music term . "
Australian rock music journalist Ed Nimmervoll felt that Johns " had never intended to use his problems for inspiration , but in the end the music was the best way to unburden himself . ' Neon Ballroom ' took six months to record . The album 's passion and musical sophistication proved to the world that silverchair were a force to be reckoned with " . According to 100 Best Australian Albums , by three fellow journalists , John O 'Donnell , Toby Creswell and Craig Mathieson , Neon Ballroom 's lead @-@ in track , " Emotion Sickness " , described Johns ' life in the 1990s and " addressed [ his ] desire to move beyond the imitative sounds of Silverchair 's first two albums ... and create something new and original " . " Ana 's Song ( Open Fire ) " directly focussed on his eating disorder ; " [ it ] became a hit all over the world and opened up for discussion the fact that males could also be affected by anorexia . "
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine felt Diorama " was a shockingly creative and impressive step forward that showed the band shedding its grunge past and adding horns , strings , and mature lyrics to its arsenal . " Fellow Allmusic reviewer Bradley Torreano noted that " they somehow kept going and kept improving ... Silverchair has grown up and put together a fine mix of orchestral pop and rock on Diorama . " Bernard Zuel described how the Diorama concert tour marked a move from hard rock towards art rock : " they stepped out of the arenas and barns and ' got classy ' ... finally having admitted to harbouring artistic ambition ( a very un @-@ Australian band thing to do ) , they 've proved they have the ability " .
In writing Young Modern , Johns tried to make the music sound very simple , despite a complex musical structure . The lyrics were written after the music was created , sometimes as late as the day of recording . As Johns dreads writing lyrics , he suggested that the band could produce an instrumental album at some stage in the future . Johns is the band 's primary songwriter , and notes that while Joannou and Gillies do not have significant influence on what he writes , they are key to the band 's overall sound . For that album , Hamilton co @-@ wrote four songs with Johns including the APRA Award winning " Straight Lines " . Joannou believed that Young Modern was simpler than Diorama but " still as complex underneath with simple pop song elements " . He said that much of the band 's success resulted from trying to push themselves harder in recording and writing . Self @-@ producing has allowed the band to do so without the pressures of a record label .
Gillies notes that Silverchair will often " run the risk of losing fans " with their work , and this was evident in the changes in musical direction in Diorama and Young Modern . However , he described this as a good thing , describing the fact " that we haven 't been pigeonholed , and people really don 't know what to expect " as one of the attractive elements of the band . Despite the ups and downs of success at a young age , Gillies says the band " appreciate what we 've achieved and what we 've got " in their careers . The band have received six APRA Awards with Johns winning three songwriting awards at the 2008 ceremony .
= = = Reception = = =
Frogstomp was described as similar to Nirvana and Pearl Jam ; Erlewine noted that it followed in " the alternative rock tradition " of those bands . Erlewine also stated that " their songwriting abilities aren 't as strong " as those of their peers . However , Rolling Stone claimed that the band had risen above their peers , applauding Johns ' " ragged vocals " . Herald Sun journalist Nue Te Koha praised Frogstomp for " breaking the drought of Australian music making an impact overseas " . However he felt " It is highly debatable whether the three teens have gone to the world with a new sound or something identifiably Australian ... Silverchair 's image and sound are blatantly ... Nirvana meets Pearl Jam " . Nimmervoll disputed Te Koha 's view , " It 's not original , it 's not Australian . Bah , humbug ... It 's just as well Britain didn 't say the same thing when The Beatles reinvented American R & B " .
Freak Show saw the band show more of their own musical style , rather than copying others , and thus received more praise for its songwriting than its predecessor . Yahoo ! Music 's Sandy Masuo described the lyrics as " moving " and " emotional " . Johns ' vocal delivery was complemented : his " bittersweet , crackly voice tops the ample power chordage ... [ he ] hits shivery , emotional notes that convey both sweet idealism and disappointment " . Zuel felt that with this album , the band " have outgrown the jokes , predictions and their own understated teenage ambitions to find they have become ( gasp ! ) career musicians . "
In 100 Best Australian Albums ( 2010 ) their third album , Neon Ballroom , was placed at No. 25 according to its authors . Entertainment Weekly approved of the further advancement in Neon Ballroom , commenting on " plush strings on these adult arrangements " . There were once again significant advancements in songwriting ; Johns was described as " furious , motivated , and all grown up " . However , Rolling Stone said the album seemed confused , commenting that Silverchair " can 't decide what they want to do " with their music . Meanwhile , Diorama was seen as an extension of the band 's originality , with its " [ h ] eavy orchestration , unpredictable melodic shifts and a whimsical pop sensibility " . According to PopMatters ' Nikki Tranter , the album stood out in an otherwise dull Australian music market .
Allmusic 's Clayton Bolger described Young Modern as an improvement by the band , praising " catchy melodic hooks , inspired lyrical themes , and stunning string arrangements " . He claimed the album was the pinnacle of the band 's development . PopMatters ' Nick Pearson saw the opposite , claiming that " [ o ] nce you reach the level of intellectual maturity where you can tell the difference between cryptic but poetic lyrics and nonsensical crap , you have outgrown Silverchair " . Pearson called the album an attempt to secure a safer territory and assure sales , after the success of past works , calling it more boring than its predecessors . Other reviewers noted influences from cult British band XTC .
In July 2009 " Tomorrow " was voted number 33 by the Australian public in Triple J 's Hottest 100 of all time . As of May 2011 , the group have sold in excess of six million albums . At the annual ARIA Music Awards , Silverchair holds the record for the most nominated artist , with 49 , and the most number of awards won , with 21 . Their breakthrough year was in 1995 , when they won five out of nine nominations , including ' Best New Talent ' , and ' Breakthrough Artist ' for both album and single categories . Their most successful year was at the 2007 ceremony when they won six of eight nominations .
= = Members = =
Ben Gillies – drums , percussion ( 1992 – 2011 )
Chris Joannou – bass guitar ( 1992 – 2011 )
Daniel Johns – lead vocals , lead guitar , piano , harpsichord , orchestral arrangements ( 1992 – 2011 )
Auxiliary members
Tobin Finane – rhythm guitar ( 1992 , only in Innocent Criminals )
Sam Holloway – keyboards , samples ( 1999 )
Paul Mac – keyboards , piano , remixing , programming ( 2001 – 2003 , 2006 – 2007 )
Julian Hamilton – keyboards , backing vocals ( 2001 – 2003 , 2007 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Frogstomp ( 1995 )
Freak Show ( 1997 )
Neon Ballroom ( 1999 )
Diorama ( 2002 )
Young Modern ( 2007 )
= Battle of Lechaeum =
The Battle of Lechaeum ( 391 BC ) was an Athenian victory in the Corinthian War . In the battle , the Athenian general Iphicrates took advantage of the fact that a Spartan hoplite regiment operating near Corinth was moving in the open without the protection of any missile throwing troops . He decided to ambush it with his force of javelin throwers , or peltasts . By launching repeated hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against the Spartan formation , Iphicrates and his men were able to wear the Spartans down , eventually routing them and killing just under half . This marked one of the first occasions in Greek military history on which a force of peltasts had defeated a force of hoplites ( heavy infantry ) .
= = Prelude = =
In 392 BC , a civil war had taken place at Corinth , in which a group of pro @-@ Spartan oligarchs was defeated and exiled by anti @-@ Spartan democrats . Those exiles cooperated with Spartan forces in the region to gain control of Corinth 's port on the Corinthian Gulf , Lechaeum . They then repulsed several attacks on the port by the democrats at Corinth and their Theban and Argive allies and secured their hold over the port .
The Athenians then sent out a force to assist in garrisoning Corinth , with Iphicrates commanding the peltasts . The Spartans and the exiles , meanwhile , raided Corinthian territory from Lechaeum , and in 391 BC King Agesilaus led a large Spartan army to the area and attacked a number of strongpoints , winning a number of successes . The Athenians and their allies were largely bottled up in Corinth , but eventually found an opportunity to take advantage of Spartan negligence .
= = Battle = =
While Agesilaus moved about Corinthian territory with the bulk of his army , he left a sizable force at Lechaeum to guard the port . Part of this force at Lechaeum was composed of men from the city of Amyclae , who traditionally returned home for a certain religious festival when on campaign . With this festival approaching , the Spartan commander at Lechaeum marched out with a force of hoplites and cavalry to escort the Amyclaeans past Corinth on their way home . After successfully leading his force well past the city , the commander ordered his hoplites to turn and return to Lechaeum , while the cavalry continued on with the Amyclaeans . Although he would be marching near the walls of the city of Corinth with his force , he expected no trouble , believing that the men in the city were thoroughly cowed and unwilling to march out .
The Athenian commanders in Corinth , Iphicrates , who commanded the peltasts , and Callias , who commanded the hoplites , saw that an entire Spartan mora , or regiment , of 600 men was marching past the city unprotected by either peltasts or cavalry , and decided to take advantage of this fact . Accordingly , the Athenian hoplites drew up a little outside Corinth , while the peltasts went after the Spartan force in pursuit , flinging javelins at the Spartan hoplites .
To stop this , the Spartan commander ordered some of his men to charge the Athenians , but the peltasts fell back , easily outrunning the hoplites , and then , when the Spartans turned to return to the regiment , the peltasts fell upon them , flinging spears at them as they fled , and inflicted casualties . This process was repeated several times , with similar results . Even when a group of Spartan cavalrymen arrived , the Spartan commander made the curious decision that they should keep pace with the hoplites in pursuit , instead of racing ahead to ride down the fleeing peltasts . Unable to drive off the peltasts , and suffering losses all the while , the Spartans were driven back to a hilltop overlooking Lechaeum . The men in Lechaeum , seeing their predicament , sailed out in small boats to as close as to the hill as they could reach , about a half mile away . The Athenians , meanwhile , began to bring up their hoplites , and the Spartans , seeing these two developments , broke and ran for the boats , pursued by the peltasts all the way . All in all , in the fighting and pursuit , 250 of the 600 men in the regiment were killed .
= = Aftermath = =
News of the Spartan defeat , accordingly , was a profound shock to Agesilaus , who soon returned home to Sparta . In the months following Agesilaus ' departure , Iphicrates reversed many of the gains that the Spartans had made near Corinth , recapturing three of the forts that the Spartans had previously seized and garrisoned . He also launched several successful raids against Spartan allies in the region . Although the Spartans and their oligarchic allies continued to hold Lechaeum for the duration of the war , they curtailed their operations around Corinth , and no further major fighting occurred in the region .
= No. 34 Squadron RAAF =
No. 34 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) VIP transport squadron . It operates Boeing 737 Business Jets and Bombardier Challenger 604s from Defence Establishment Fairbairn in Canberra . The squadron was formed in February 1942 for standard transport duties during World War II , initially flying de Havilland DH.84 Dragons in Northern Australia . In 1943 it re @-@ equipped with Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas , which it operated in New Guinea and the Dutch East Indies prior to disbanding in June 1946 .
The unit was re @-@ established in March 1948 as No. 34 ( Communications ) Squadron at RAAF Station Mallala , South Australia , where it supported activities at the Woomera Rocket Range before disbanding in October 1955 . It was re @-@ raised as No. 34 ( VIP ) Flight in March 1956 at RAAF Base Canberra ( later Fairbairn ) . No. 34 Flight was redesignated No. 34 ( Special Transport ) Squadron in July 1959 , and No. 34 Squadron in June 1963 . During the 1960s it operated Dakotas , Convair Metropolitans , Vickers Viscounts , Dassault Falcon @-@ Mysteres , Hawker Siddeley HS 748s , and BAC 1 @-@ 11s , the last three types continuing in service until the late 1980s . The squadron 's fleet consisted solely of Dassault Falcon 900s from 1989 until 2002 , when it began operating the 737 and Challenger .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 34 Squadron is the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) unit responsible for the transport of VIPs , including members of the Australian government , the Governor @-@ General , and visiting dignitaries . It is based at Defence Establishment Fairbairn in Canberra , and administered by No. 84 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . The squadron has a secondary role providing emergency transport during humanitarian operations . Its motto is Eo et redeo ( " I Go and I Return " ) .
As of 2011 , No. 34 Squadron 's strength included around thirty pilots and thirty flight attendants . Captains are generally senior pilots who have previously flown the RAAF 's Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster , Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules , or Lockheed AP @-@ 3C Orion . Their co @-@ pilots are new RAAF personnel who have recently graduated from No. 2 Flying Training School , and the crew attendants are posted to the squadron after completing training and a period of service with No. 33 Squadron . The squadron 's VIP Operations Cell ( VIPOPS ) is responsible for managing requests for VIP air transport as well as dedicated security staff . Most logistical support , including meal preparation , is provided under commercial arrangements rather than by RAAF personnel .
No. 34 Squadron operates two Boeing 737 Business Jets and three Bombardier Challenger 604s . The aircraft are leased from , and maintained by , the Special Purpose Aircraft Business Unit of Qantas Defence Services in Fairbairn . The lease commenced in 2002 and is due to expire in 2014 . The twin @-@ engined Boeing Business Jet ( BBJ ) is crewed by two pilots and up to four flight attendants , and can carry thirty passengers . The twinjet Challenger has a crew of two pilots and one flight attendant , and carries up to nine passengers . The BBJ , which has a range of over 11 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) , is generally used for long @-@ range transport , and the Challenger on shorter routes . The jets are classified as " Special Purpose Aircraft " , meaning that their tasking is governed by Federal guidelines for carrying " entitled persons " on official business . To minimise government outlay , the jets may not be employed when available commercial flights satisfy the timing , location and security requirements of a given task . No. 34 Squadron conducts between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 800 flights each year . A Schedule of Special Purpose Flights is tabled twice annually in Federal Parliament . VIPOPS usually assigns one of No. 34 Squadron 's aircraft to approved tasks , but other Australian Defence Force aircraft are occasionally used for tasks not suited to the BBJ or Challenger ; for instance , Prime Minister Julia Gillard travelled to China on board a No. 33 Squadron Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transport in April 2013 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II and aftermath = = =
During February and March 1942 , the RAAF formed four transport units : Nos. 33 , 34 , 35 and 36 Squadrons . No. 34 ( Transport ) Squadron was established on 23 February at RAAF Station Darwin , Northern Territory , four days after the city was bombed for the first time . Coming under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command , the squadron 's initial strength was six personnel and two de Havilland DH.84 Dragons . They were immediately tasked with transport duties in northern Australia . As well as carrying freight , this involved collecting the first Japanese prisoner of war to be captured in Australia , a navy fighter pilot who had crashlanded during the raid on Darwin . One of the squadron 's two officers , Flight Lieutenant J.W. Warwick , became the first ( acting ) commanding officer on 2 March . The following day , one of the Dragons was destroyed on the ground at Wyndham , Western Australia , by enemy air attack . With its other aircraft unserviceable , and accommodation at Darwin 's civil airfield inadequate , squadron headquarters relocated to Daly Waters Airfield on 5 March . On 14 March another Dragon was allocated ; this was joined by two Avro Ansons and two de Havilland Tiger Moths in mid @-@ May , by which time the squadron had moved to Batchelor Airfield . By the end of the month , the squadron had thirty @-@ four personnel , including six officers . It lost one of the Tiger Moths to a bushfire on 1 July , a few days after the plane crashlanded south of Katherine . The squadron relocated again on 15 July , this time to Hughes Airfield . It remained at Hughes until 27 August , when it transferred to Manbulloo Airfield ; it operated from Manbulloo until it was temporarily disbanded on 13 December and its aircraft transferred to No. 6 Communications Flight .
No. 34 Squadron was re @-@ formed on 3 January 1943 at Parafield Airport , South Australia , from elements of No. 36 Squadron formerly based at Essendon , Victoria . Initially comprising ninety @-@ six personnel and eight aircraft , by the end of the month the squadron 's strength had been reduced to seventy personnel and three Dragons operating in South Australia and the Northern Territory . On 11 March one of the Dragons was destroyed on takeoff at Parafield , causing two deaths — No. 34 Squadron 's first fatalities . Another Dragon was lost in a fire after it crashlanded near Tennant Creek in April . Beginning in May 1943 , the Dragons were augmented by Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas , giving the squadron a total strength of three Dakotas and two Dragons by the following month . By July , No. 34 Squadron was operating five Dakotas , which had fully replaced the Dragons , and in August its strength stood at seven Dakotas and 153 personnel , including forty @-@ seven officers . It subsequently received an Airspeed Oxford and a Douglas DC @-@ 2 , and began making supply drops and medical evacuations as far north as Port Moresby , New Guinea . The squadron had its busiest month in May 1944 , transporting almost 1 @,@ 900 passengers and over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo . On 1 June it became the first operational RAAF squadron to have personnel of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) in its ranks , a contingent made up of an officer and twenty airwomen . The WAAAF had been formed in 1941 and eventually made up thirty @-@ one per cent of RAAF ground staff ; its members were primarily employed in technical trades and were not permitted to serve in combat theatres .
October 1944 saw a detachment of the squadron operating from Cape York in Far North Queensland to bases in the Dutch East Indies . Additional detachments were located at Townsville , Queensland , and Coomalie Creek , Northern Territory . In February 1945 , No. 34 Squadron commenced a relocation to Morotai in the Dutch East Indies , under the control of the Australian First Tactical Air Force , and was fully established at its new base by mid @-@ April . The squadron supported the invasion of Borneo , and its Dakotas were the first Allied aircraft to land at Labuan and Tarakan after the islands were captured . It remained at Morotai until the end of the war , at which time it became involved in repatriating Australian former prisoners of war from Singapore , and then in courier flights supporting the formation of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . No. 34 Squadron returned to Australia between January and March 1946 and disbanded at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , on 6 June .
The squadron was re @-@ established at RAAF Station Mallala , South Australia , on 1 March 1948 , when No. 2 ( Communications ) Squadron was renamed No. 34 ( Communications ) Squadron . It operated as a VIP transport , courier and reconnaissance unit , primarily in support of the Woomera rocket range , focal point of the Anglo @-@ Australian Long Range Weapons Project during the Cold War . No. 34 ( Communications ) Squadron flew the only Vickers Viking to be taken on strength by the RAAF , and was also the only RAAF squadron to operate the Bristol Freighter . Three Freighters were taken on strength in April and May 1949 , and a fourth in September 1951 ; one was lost with all three crew members in a crash near Mallala on 25 November 1953 after its wing failed in flight . The squadron also operated Percival Prince , Auster , Dakota and Anson aircraft , undertaking regular transport duties and disaster relief along with its Woomera support work before disbanding at Mallala on 28 October 1955 .
= = = VIP operations = = =
No. 34 ( VIP ) Flight was established at RAAF Base Canberra on 12 March 1956 , and charged with the safe carriage of the Governor @-@ General , senior Australian politicians and military officers , and visiting foreign dignitaries . It was formed from the VIP Flight of No. 36 Squadron , under No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing . The VIP Flight had absorbed the RAAF 's Governor @-@ General 's Flight in October 1950 . In its first year of operation , No. 34 Flight carried the Duke of Edinburgh on his tour of Australia . It was equipped with two Convair 440 Metropolitans , as well as Dakotas . The flight remained in Canberra when No. 86 Wing relocated to Richmond in 1958 . On 1 July 1959 , it was re @-@ formed as No. 34 ( Special Transport ) Squadron , leaving the control of No. 86 Wing to become an independent unit directly administered by Home Command and tasked by RAAF Base Canberra . " Possibly because of the rank of its clients " , contended the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , the squadron maintained higher standards than other transport units , adopting some procedures from the civil aviation world . It also benefitted from the personal interest of senior officials when it came to upgrading its equipment , though this had some negative aspects . The acquisition of the Metropolitans , the first pressurised aircraft in the VIP fleet , was organised by Minister for Air Athol Townley without any advance discussion with the RAAF . Although the Air Force raised performance and safety concerns , the type 's entry into service was a fait accompli , and it remained on strength for twelve years . Until the early 1960s , the VIP unit also operated two de Havilland Vampire jets and two CAC Winjeel trainers to allow staff officers at Canberra 's Department of Air to maintain their flying proficiency .
No. 34 ( Special Transport ) Squadron 's home in Canberra was renamed RAAF Base Fairbairn in March 1962 , and the unit was redesignated No. 34 Squadron on 13 June 1963 . That year , the squadron carried Queen Elizabeth II for the first time . In October 1964 , two second @-@ hand Vickers Viscount turboprop transports were obtained to supplement the Dakotas and Convairs ; the two piston @-@ engine types were withdrawn after the delivery of two Hawker Siddeley HS 748s beginning in April 1967 and three Dassault Falcon 20 jets ( known as Mystere in RAAF service ) in June . Two BAC 1 @-@ 11 jets joined the squadron on 19 January 1968 , and the two Viscounts were retired in March the following year . The wholesale re @-@ equipment of the VIP fleet in the late 1960s was controversial , and questions were raised in Parliament regarding its cost and operations . The so @-@ called " VIP affair " led to more stringent guidelines governing No. 34 Squadron 's tasking , requiring approval for flights to be made by the British Royal Family , the Governor @-@ General , the Prime Minister , or the Minister for Air . Eligibility criteria were also codified , and potential passengers included Federal ministers , opposition leaders , " individuals of similar status and importance visiting Australia " , two @-@ star officers and above , and other dignitaries of similar status . During the 1970s one of No. 34 Squadron 's BAC 1 @-@ 11s experienced an engine failure over the Tasman Sea while carrying Prime Minister Gough Whitlam to New Zealand . The aircraft made a safe landing in Australia , but the incident led the RAAF to investigate using three- or four @-@ engined aircraft for future VIP flights involving long over @-@ water legs . The government eventually purchased two Boeing 707s from Qantas to perform long @-@ range VIP flights and to improve the RAAF 's strategic transport capabilities . Entering service in 1979 , they joined the newly established No. 33 Flight ( later No. 33 Squadron ) in 1981 . More 707s were acquired between 1983 and 1988 , and four were converted for air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling in the early 1990s .
In 1984 , No. 34 Squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for its proficiency . It again became part of No. 86 Wing in June 1988 , though its tasking continued to be controlled by the Governor @-@ General , the Prime Minister , and the Minister for Defence . Commencing in September 1989 , the twinjet Mysteres and BAC 1 @-@ 11s were replaced by five trijet Dassault Falcon 900s leased from Hawker Pacific , the first time the RAAF had leased aircraft from a commercial company . The two HS 748s were transferred to the newly formed No. 32 Squadron at RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria . Responsibility for servicing the Falcon 900s was shared by No. 34 Squadron and Hawker Pacific , the latter performing heavy maintenance . In an unusual operation for the squadron , one of the Falcons was dispatched to Jordan in September 1990 to evacuate thirteen Australian citizens who had been held hostage in Iraq . On 21 December 1992 , a Falcon 900 became the first RAAF aircraft to take part in United Nations peacekeeping efforts in Somalia , when it departed RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , with a team of Australian Army personnel to reconnoitre the theatre of operations . The squadron received a commendation from the Chief of the Defence Force , General Peter Gration , shortly before his retirement in 1993 . In January 1998 , No. 84 Wing was organised as a special transport wing under Air Lift Group ( renamed Air Mobility Group in April 2014 ) . The term " special transport " referred to activities not directly related to army support , such as carrying VIPs . Headquartered at Richmond , No. 84 Wing took control of Nos. 32 , 33 and 34 Squadrons . A flight by one of No. 34 Squadron 's Falcons preceded INTERFET operations in East Timor in 1999 , carrying senior Australian military and diplomatic staff into Dili on a goodwill mission .
The Falcon 900s were replaced by two Boeing 737 Business Jets and three Bombardier Challenger 604s in July 2002 . The new aircraft also replaced the two Boeing 707s operated by No. 33 Squadron in the VIP transport role . The 707s had permitted journalists to travel with the Prime Minister on international flights , and in replacing the bigger jets with 737s the Liberal government of the time determined that media contingents covering VIP trips should travel on civil aircraft . This decision led to controversy in 2007 , after the crash of a Garuda airliner killed four Australian government officials and a journalist travelling in connection with a visit to Indonesia by Foreign Minister Alexander Downer , who had flown on a Challenger . No. 34 Squadron and Qantas Defence Services marked 20 @,@ 000 incident @-@ free flying hours with the 737s and Challengers on 21 October 2008 . The following year saw further controversy when Prime Minister Kevin Rudd had to apologise for remarks to a cabin attendant over the meal he was served on one of the jets . In 2011 , the squadron provided VIP transport during tours of Australia by Queen Elizabeth , Prince William , and Frederik and Mary of Denmark , as well as support for US President Barack Obama 's visit to Canberra . It also flew senior government and military personnel in support of relief efforts during the Queensland floods , and was again awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency . No. 34 Squadron celebrated its 70th anniversary at Parliament House , Canberra , on 18 February 2012 ; the following day , a memorial to its first fatalities in March 1942 was unveiled at Fairbairn . The lease on its aircraft is due to expire in 2014 , and they may be replaced with new types .
= SR U class =
The SR U class were 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ( mogul ) steam locomotives designed by Richard Maunsell for passenger duties on the Southern Railway ( SR ) . The class represented the penultimate stage in the development of the Southern Railway ’ s mogul " family " , which improved upon the basic principles established by GWR Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward for Great Western Railway ( GWR ) locomotives . The U class design drew from experience with the GWR 4300 and N classes , improved by applying Midland Railway ideas to the design , enabling the SECR to influence development of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 in Britain .
The U class was designed in the mid @-@ 1920s for production at a time when more obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives were withdrawn , and derived from Maunsell ’ s earlier SECR K ( “ River ” ) class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives . The first 20 members of the U class were rebuilds of the K class locomotives , one of which was involved in the Sevenoaks railway accident . A further 20 U class locomotives were built in 1928 to fill the gap in cross @-@ country and semi @-@ fast express passenger services after the withdrawal of the K class . The design also continued the standardisation of the Southern Railway locomotive fleet by using parts designed to be interchangeable with other Maunsell @-@ designed classes .
A total of 50 locomotives were built over three batches between 1928 and 1931 , and the design formed the basis for the 3 @-@ cylinder U1 class of 1928 . They were able to operate over most of the Southern Railway network , gaining the nickname " U @-@ Boats " after the submarine warfare of the First World War , and continued to operate with British Railways ( BR ) . The class saw continuous use until 1966 , when all members of the U class were withdrawn from service . Four U class locomotives have been preserved on two heritage railways in the south of England .
= = Background = =
The history of the U class is complex as it is linked to the fate of the 2 @-@ cylinder K ( " River " ) class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives . The design work had for a new passenger 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 with 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) driving wheels was complete by 1927 , when the involvement of a K class locomotive in the Sevenoaks rail crash presented an opportunity to bring forward construction of the class . The K class tank engines were the passenger counterpart to the N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 mixed @-@ traffic design , and were noted for rough @-@ riding over the cheaply laid track of the former SECR . The class was withdrawn from service , and the inquiry that followed determined that the rough @-@ riding contributed to the crash . Its recommendation was that the K class should be rebuilt to 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotives , using tried and tested features used by Maunsell and his assistant , the former GWR engineer Harold Holcroft on the N class .
The N class principles applied to the U class design aided mass production , and incorporated several features found on the GWR 4300 Class locomotives designed by Churchward . An order made in 1926 for a second batch of 20 K class locomotives was delayed until 1928 , when the specification was revised to construct U class locomotives . It was intended to replace several elderly 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 classes within the former SECR 's running fleet , and attempted to standardise and ease maintenance of locomotives by sharing parts with other Maunsell designs . The style of the new locomotive reflected the Midland Railway influence of another of Maunsell ’ s assistants , the ex @-@ Midland Railway engineer James Clayton . The addition of a tender increased the operating range of the U class over its K class predecessors , and the wheel arrangement applied to the former K class locomotives improved the locomotive ’ s stability when operational .
= = Construction details = =
= = = K class rebuilds = = =
The rebuilding programme that followed the derailment of K class No . A800 " River Cray " at Sevenoaks began at Ashford works in June 1928 . The work involved in converting a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank engine to a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotive included the removal of the side water tanks , rear coal bunker and trailing axles , although the 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) driving wheels , right @-@ hand drive and N class – type boiler were retained . The aesthetic aspects inherited from the K class were the former Midland Railway engineer James Clayton ’ s contributions to the design , creating a simple , functional locomotive similar to the N class .
The rebuilt locomotives were given a tender and a re @-@ designed cab that bore a strong resemblance to those featured on designs by Henry Fowler . Two designs of Maunsell tender were used , the straight @-@ sided 3 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 15 @,@ 911 l ) variety , and the larger 4 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 18 @,@ 184 l ) design used on later batches of the N class with inward @-@ sloping raves to prevent coal spillage . The first rebuild was No . A805 River Camel , which also became the first U class locomotive into service in March 1928 , three months before the first production locomotive under construction at Brighton . The rapid turnaround was achieved as design work was already in place , and the rebuilding of existing locomotives was cheaper than building from scratch .
No . A805 was put on performance trials prior to work commencing on rebuilding of the rest of the class at Brighton and Eastleigh works . The rebuilds lost their names because of the bad publicity attached to the " River " class after the 1927 crash , and the heavily damaged No . A800 was the last member of the K class to be rebuilt to U class configuration in December 1928 . The unique 3 @-@ cylinder " River " tank , K1 class No . A890 River Frome was also rebuilt to the general U class specification , becoming the prototype of Maunsell 's 3 @-@ cylinder U1 class derivative in June 1928 .
= = = First production batch and differences with rebuilt locomotives = = =
Construction of the delayed 1926 order for 20 K class locomotives began in 1928 after alteration to the U class specification . As a result of Harold Holcroft ’ s position as one of Maunsell ’ s assistants , the new @-@ builds also displayed the Churchward GWR 4300 Class influence . The ideas applied to this class were already used on the N , N1 and K class rebuilds , including long @-@ travel valves for fast running , Belpaire firebox and conical boilers , constructed at the North British Locomotive Works in Glasgow . The first of the production batch emerged from Brighton works in August 1928 and featured a tapered chimney and smokebox snifting valves , both of which were used on the K and N class locomotives .
The 20 locomotives of the first production batch were split equally between Brighton and Ashford works , and all were completed by December 1929 . The production locomotives had a slightly different profile to the K class rebuilds and featured left @-@ hand drive to improve the visibility of signals from the driver 's side of the footplate . They also had higher running plates along the sides of the boiler than the rebuilds , which required smaller wheel splashers to cover the tops of the driving wheels . Another variation was the flatter top to the dome covers , as the rebuilds retained the high N class type used on the K class .
In common with the N , N1 and K class locomotives , the Midland Railway influence of Clayton showed in the placement of locomotive fittings on the production batch , as the water top @-@ feed into the boiler was located inside a dome , whilst the cab area was a modified version of those on the 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s of Henry Fowler and the K class rebuilds . The rebuilds had Midland Railway @-@ style double spectacle plates ( the small windows on the front face of the cab ) left over from the K class cabs , whereas the production versions had one each side of the boiler . Such modifications were becoming typical of the Southern Railway ’ s attempt to produce a fleet of standardised locomotives . However , all members of the U class were to vary from GWR practice , as the superheating surface area was increased , and all were equipped with outside Walschaerts valve gear .
= = = Second production batch and modifications = = =
The second batch of ten new @-@ build U class locomotives was constructed between February and May 1931 when more obsolete locomotives were withdrawn from service . This brought the total of new @-@ build locomotives to 30 , and the total number of operational U class engines to 50 . The new batch also featured detail differences from the rest of the class , such as the arrangement of the footsteps at the front of the locomotive , though continued to use the standard left @-@ hand drive cab layout to improve the driver ’ s forward vision from the cab . Smoke deflectors were fitted to the whole class from 1933 to prevent drifting smoke from obscuring forward vision . The smokebox snifting valves applied to the class by Maunsell were removed by his successor Oliver Bulleid , who also fitted U1 class chimneys to improve the draughting .
= = Operational details = =
The U class was a reliable and economical design more than capable of attaining speeds in excess of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) as a result of being fitted with long @-@ travel valves . They had high capacity , tapered boilers which promoted free steaming , and 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) driving wheels which allowed fast running over long distances . They were distributed more widely than their N class counterparts , although one drawback in operating the class was the size of the cylinders and cab , which meant the U class was out of gauge for the Tonbridge @-@ Hastings line due to inadequate clearances in tunnels along the route . Otherwise , their " go anywhere " nature earned them the nickname of " U @-@ Boats " , and crews praised their abilities to achieve what they were designed to do .
The Southern Railway operating department undertook trials to improve fleet efficiency . When built , Eastbourne @-@ based No . A629 was fitted with an experimental pulverised fuel burner of German design ; the experiment was terminated when a minor explosion was caused by the powdered coal coming into contact with sparks thrown from the blastpipe . The experiment also proved that pulverised coal was a false economy , as much of the fine dust was sucked through the chimney without combustion taking place . The locomotive was returned to normal coal burning in 1935 . In 1947 the class became a test @-@ bed for a government @-@ backed scheme regarding fuelling arrangements in anticipation of a coal shortage . Two of the class , Nos. 1625 and 1797 , were converted to oil burning , with more set to follow suit ; but the project was abandoned and the two oil burners were reverted to coal @-@ firing before this could take place .
All members of the class entered British Railways service in 1948 , and from 1955 23 of the U class received chimneys of the British Railways Standard Class 4 variety and replacement cylinders , which had become worn through intensive use . A few members of the class were given replacement frames at overhaul with a shallower curve between the front buffer beam and smokebox . During the early 1960s , the withdrawal of the ageing T9 class designed by Dugald Drummond saw the U class replacing them on services west of Exeter , though their large wheels offered little advantage on the steeper gradients that characterised this part of the railway network . The favoured form of 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 motive power west of Exeter was the smaller @-@ wheeled N class , while heavier passenger work was allocated to Bulleid ’ s Unrebuilt Light Pacifics , which were within the weight restrictions imposed in this area . The U class represented one of the less glamorous classes of passenger locomotive due to the fact that they were used mainly on mixed @-@ traffic and secondary passenger duties .
= = Withdrawal = =
The class were withdrawn between 1962 and 1966
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 25 May 1933 , a passenger train was derailed at Raynes Park , London , coming to rest foul of an adjacent line . Locomotive No. 1618 , hauling a passenger train , was in a side @-@ long collision with it . Five people were killed and 35 were injured . The cause of the accident was the failure to implement a speed restriction on a section of track that was under maintenance .
On 14 November 1949 , a rake of carriages was left foul of an adjacent line at Bournemouth Central station , Hampshire . Locomotive No. 31624 collided with them and was derailed . One person was injured .
On 18 November 1962 , locomotive No. 31816 was derailed at Tipton Yard , Eastleigh , Hampshire .
= = Preservation = =
Unusually , all four surviving U Classes have steamed at some point in preservation and of the 4 survivors , 31625 has worked on the mainline .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = Southern Railway = = =
From 1928 , the entire class was painted in Maunsell ’ s lined Southern Railway Olive green with yellow markings and " Southern " on the tender . During the Second World War , the U class was painted in wartime black livery with Oliver Bulleid 's Sunshine yellow lettering , and some were later painted in lined Malachite green livery . The class was initially numbered in the Southern Railway 's post @-@ grouping system from A790 – A809 for the K class rebuilds , and A610 – A639 with the production batches . The " A " in the numbering system denotes Ashford , where the locomotive design had originated . Southern numbering policy was eventually rationalised , and final batch of 15 locomotives , built between 1932 and 1934 , were numbered 1400 – 1414 without the " A " prefix . The other U class locomotives were subsequently renumbered to 1790 – 1809 , and 1610 – 1639 at the same time .
= = = British Railways = = =
The entire class was absorbed by British Railways in 1948 , and was given the Power classification 4P3F , denoting a mixed traffic locomotive . Livery was initially similar to the Southern Railway , though with " British Railways " on the tender , and an " S " prefix to the Southern number . This was succeeded by the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . The British Railways standard numbering system was used to replace the Southern Railway system , and the class was allocated the series 31790 – 31809 for the K class rebuilds , and 31610 – 31639 for the rest .
= Nothing to My Name =
" Nothing to My Name " ( also known as " I Have Nothing " ) is a 1986 Mandarin @-@ language rock song by Cui Jian . It is widely considered Cui 's most famous and most important work , and one of the most influential songs in the history of the People 's Republic of China , both as a seminal point in the development of Chinese rock and roll and as a political sensation . The song was an unofficial anthem for Chinese youth and activists during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 .
Both in its lyrics and instruments , the song mixes traditional Chinese styles with modern rock elements . In the lyrics , the speaker addresses a girl who is scorning him because he has nothing . However , the song has also been interpreted as being about the dispossessed youth of the time , because it evokes a sense of disillusionment and lack of individual freedom that was common among the young generation during the 1980s .
= = Historical context = =
By the late 1970s , Western rock music was gaining popularity in mainland China . After the Cultural Revolution ended in the mid @-@ 1970s and the government began a period of economic reform called gaige kaifang , many students and businessmen went abroad and brought back Western music . Chinese singers began performing covers of popular Western rock songs .
At the same time , Chinese society and the Chinese government were quickly abandoning Maoism , and promoting economic policies that had a more capitalist orientation . Many Chinese teens and students were becoming disillusioned with their government , which they felt had abandoned its ideals . Because of the rapid economic changes , many of them felt that they had no opportunities and no individual freedom . These developments formed the background against which " Nothing to My Name " appeared in 1986 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Cui Jian was heavily influenced by Western artists such as Bob Dylan , The Beatles , The Rolling Stones , and Talking Heads ; in the late 1980s he even performed with a hair style modeled on that of John Lennon . In " Nothing to My Name " and other songs , he intentionally altered the sounds of traditional Chinese musical instruments by mixing them with elements of rock music , such as electric guitar . He also purposely divorced his musical style from that of the revolutionary songs and proletarian operas that were common under Chairman Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution — for example , he performed his music very loud , as high as 150 decibels , just because Mao had considered loud music disruptive to the social order .
In genre , the song is often called the first work of Xibeifeng , a 1980s music style originating from Northwest China . Cui himself , however , considers the song " pure " rock and roll .
= = = Lyrics and meaning = = =
Throughout the song , the narrator addresses an unidentified girl , asking " When will you come with me " , and lamenting the fact that she laughs at him for having nothing to his name . He tells her he wants to give her his hopes and bring her freedom , that " the earth is turning under your feet " and " the waters of life are flowing free " , yet she persists in scorning him . He asks why she laughs at the pack he carries on his back , and he wonders why he keeps on going , with nothing to his name . At last , he tells her that he has waited for a long time , and that this is his final plea : he wants to grab her by the hands , to " take you away with me " . As he sees her hands tremble , and her eyes " overflow with tears " , he asks her , " Do you really mean to tell me , you love me as I am ? "
Interpretations of the song 's meaning vary from one listener to the next ; some people view it as a song about love and desire , while others understand it as a political metaphor , the lyrics being addressed as much to the Chinese nation as to a girlfriend . University of Florida scholar Jonathan Matusitz describes the song 's lyrics as a means of expressing politically sensitive ideas that could not be stated through any other medium . In this interpretation , the lyrics near the beginning , " I 've asked you without end / When will you go with me / But you always laughed at me / for having nothing to my name " ( " 我曾经问个不休 / 你何时跟我走 / 可你却总是笑我 / 一无所有 " ) are taken to express the " humiliation and lack of individuality , possession , and personal freedom " , the " sense of loss and disorientation " among China 's youth in the 1980s . Ethnomusicologist Timothy Brace has described this common analysis of the song lyrics as " recast [ ing ] the setting of this piece from that of a boy talking to his girlfriend to that of a youthful generation talking to the nation as a whole . " The ambiguity is heightened by the structure of the phrase yī wú suŏ yŏu , an idiomatic chengyu . It literally means " to have nothing " and has no grammatical subject . Therefore , it can be interpreted as meaning " I have nothing " ( implying that it is a song about two people ) , or " we have nothing " ( understanding it as social commentary ) .
The narrator of the song worries that the girl he is addressing will ignore him because he has nothing to give her ; likewise , the song 's audience in the 1980s — young students and workers — were also suffering from not having resources to marry , to be with their girlfriends and boyfriends , or to attract members of the opposite sex . The lyrics also express Western concepts of individualism , and were some of the first popular song lyrics in China to promote self @-@ expression and self @-@ empowerment . This put the song in stark contrast with older music , which had emphasized conformity and obedience . As the narrator , later on in the song , confidently proclaims to the girl that he will " grab her hands " ( " 我要抓起你的双手 " ) and then she will go with him ( " 你这就跟我走 " ) , he suggests in the end that she can love the fact that he has nothing ( " 莫非你是正在告诉我 / 你爱我一无所有 " ) . On one level , this suggests that the song is about " love conquering all " , but the line has also been interpreted as threatening , and suggestive of an unorthodox and " Dionysian " mix of love and aggression .
Just as Cui adapts traditional Chinese sounds and instruments to a new format , in " Nothing to My Name " he also reappropriates traditional Chinese lyrical tropes . The lines " The earth under your feet is moving / The water around your body is flowing " ( " 脚下的地在走 / 身边的水在流 " ) are reminiscent of the use of natural imagery in classical Chinese poetry and music , but here are intended to evoke the events going on around the song 's listeners , and to provoke them to rebel against the established order .
= = Release and impact = =
Cui wrote " Nothing to My Name " himself and first performed it on a televised music competition in May 1986 , with his band ADO . The song was an instant success , creating a " sensation " and turning Cui into a cult figure among urban youth . It was one of the first examples of Chinese , as opposed to imported , rock and roll music to gain popularity in China . The government @-@ controlled People 's Daily gave the song a positive review , despite its politically sensitive message . The song was included on Cui 's 1989 album Rock ' n ' Roll on the New Long March , released by the China Tourism Sound and Video Publishing Company . ( The version of the album released overseas was called Nothing to My Name . ) By 1989 , it had become a " battle song " or " anthem " among the youth movement .
Cui performed the song live at the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . The performances by Cui and other rock artists during the protests have been described as " a revolutionary few days that rocked a nation , " and many protesters sang " Nothing to My Name " to give voice to their rebellion against the government , and their desire for personal freedom and self @-@ expression . Brace describes how , during Cui 's Tiananmen performance , students " jumped to their feet and began to sing , " a practice that had rarely happened at music performances in China before then . Not long after Tiananmen , Cui was restricted to playing in small venues ; he did not play before a large audience in Beijing again until 2005 .
Cui has become known as the " Father of Chinese Rock " , and " Nothing to My Name " has become his most famous song . It has been described as " the biggest hit in Chinese history " and the beginning of Chinese rock .
= = SaiSreenivas = =
= Adrian Monk =
Adrian Monk is a title character and the protagonist of the USA Network television series Monk , portrayed by Tony Shalhoub . He is a renowned former homicide detective for the San Francisco Police Department . Monk has obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) and multiple phobias , all of which intensified after the murder of his wife Trudy , resulting in his suspension from the department . He works as a private police homicide consultant and undergoes therapy with the ultimate goal of overcoming his grief , taking control of his phobias and disorder , and being reinstated as a police detective .
Series co @-@ creator David Hoberman says that he based Monk partly on himself , and also on other fictional detectives , such as Lt. Columbo , Hercule Poirot and Sherlock Holmes . Other actors considered for the role included Dave Foley , John Ritter , Henry Winkler , Stanley Tucci , Alfred Molina and Michael Richards . The network eventually chose Shalhoub because they felt he could " bring the humor and passion of Monk to life . " Stanley Tucci and Alfred Molina had guest appearances on Monk , with Tucci appearing in season 5 episode " Mr. Monk and the Actor " , and Molina appearing in season 6 episode " Mr. Monk and the Naked Man " .
Both Monk and Shalhoub have garnered many accolades . Monk was included in Bravo 's list of The 100 Greatest Television Characters of All Time , and Shalhoub has won various awards for his portrayal , including a Golden Globe Award , three Primetime Emmy Awards and two Screen Actors Guild Awards .
On The Best Show on August 18 , 2015 , former Monk executive producer Tom Scharpling confirmed that the character has died of " natural causes " since the ending of the show .
= = Character development = =
= = = Creation = = =
Monk was originally envisioned as a " more goofy and physical " Inspector Clouseau type of character . However , co @-@ creator David Hoberman came up with the idea of a detective with obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder . This was inspired by his own bout with self @-@ diagnosed obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ; in a Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette interview , he stated that , " Like Monk , I couldn 't walk on cracks and had to touch poles . I have no idea why – but if I didn 't do these things , something terrible would happen . "
Other fictional inspirations include Columbo and Sherlock Holmes , and his obsession with neatness and order may be an homage to Hercule Poirot . Like Holmes , and occasionally Poirot , Monk is accompanied by an earnest assistant with little or no detective ability , similar to Doctor Watson and Captain Hastings , respectively ; Monk 's two major allies from the police department , Captain Stottlemeyer and Lieutenant Disher ( credited as " Deacon " in the pilot episode ) , are reminiscent of Inspector Lestrade and Chief Inspector Japp , Holmes 's and Poirot 's well @-@ meaning but ineffectual respective police counterparts . In addition , Monk has a brother whose abilities of deduction are even more amazing than his , yet much more geographically limited due to his own personal problems , somewhat in the style of Mycroft Holmes ( who is more adept than Sherlock but also notoriously lazy ) .
When trying to think of a possible name for the character , co @-@ creator Andy Breckman decided to look for a " simple monosyllabic last name . "
= = = Casting = = =
Co @-@ creator David Hoberman revealed that the casting sessions were " depressing " . USA Network 's executive vice president Jeff Wachtel stated that looking for the right actor to portray Monk was " casting hell " . After two years of developing , the producers still had not found an actor to play the part . Although Michael Richards was considered , distributors of the show ABC and Touchstone worried that the audience would typecast him for more comedic roles after his previous work as Cosmo Kramer on the sitcom series Seinfeld . After Richards dropped out of the project , he went on to star in another series about a private detective , The Michael Richards Show , which was canceled after six episodes .
= = Personality = =
= = = Phobias = = =
In the script for the pilot , " Mr. Monk and the Candidate , " Monk is described as being " a modern day Sherlock Holmes " , only " nuts . " In the introductory scene of the episode , he is examining the scene of Nicole Vasques ' murder , and picks up several important clues , but frequently interrupts himself to wonder aloud whether he left his stove on when he left the house that morning . In the season 6 episode " Mr. Monk and the Daredevil " , Monk mentions that he has 312 phobias . The strongest of these phobias are : germs , dentists , sharp or pointed objects , milk , vomiting , death and dead things , snakes , crowds , heights , fear , mushrooms , and small spaces , as Monk also mentions in the season 2 episode " Mr. Monk and the Very Very Old Man " . In addition , new phobias develop at seemingly random intervals , such as a temporary fear of blankets at the end of the season 5 episode " Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " . Though it is impossible to determine his strongest phobia , there does appear to be some form of hierarchy between them : in the series finale " Mr. Monk and the End " , it is made clear that his fear of vomiting is greater than his fear of death . He has also stated , " Snakes trump heights ! " .
Due to his overpowering fear of germs , Monk refuses to touch door handles and other common objects with his bare hands , avoids contact with anything dirty , and always uses sanitary wipes after human contact , including basic handshakes . He is also unable to eat food that other people have touched , as shown in the season 7 episode " Mr. Monk Falls in Love " when he and Leyla Zlatavich go out to a Zemenian restaurant .
= = = Assistants = = =
Monk 's phobias and anxiety disorders make him depend on personal assistants , who drive him around , do his shopping , and always carry a supply of wipes for his use , as shown in episodes like " Mr. Monk Meets the Playboy " , " Mr. Monk Goes to the Carnival " , etc . They also take an active role in organizing his consultancy work , and sometimes investigate cases themselves . His first assistant , Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) , is a single mother and practical nurse by profession , hired by the police department to help Monk recover from the three @-@ year catatonic state he lapsed into after Trudy 's death . After several years of loyal service , Sharona leaves the show in season 3 to return to New Jersey and remarry her ex @-@ husband Trevor . After her abrupt departure , Monk has a chance meeting with Natalie Teeger ( Traylor Howard ) , whom he hires as his new assistant starting in " Mr. Monk and the Red Herring " .
= = = Fixations = = =
Monk carries out futile and endless attempts to make the world " balanced . " Monk is fixated with symmetry , going so far as to always cut his pancakes into squares . He strongly prefers familiarity and rigorous structure in his activities . Monk only drinks Sierra Springs water throughout seasons 1 – 5 and a fictional brand ( Summit Creek ) throughout seasons 6 – 8 , to the point that in the season 2 episode " Mr. Monk Goes to Mexico " , Monk goes without drinking for several days because he cannot find any Sierra Springs . Monk also has great difficulty in standard social situations , so much so that he must write down common small talk phrases on note cards in an attempt to successfully socialize . While his obsessive attention to minute detail cripples him socially , it makes him a gifted detective and profiler . He has a photographic memory , and can reconstruct entire crime scenes based on little more than scraps of detail that seem unimportant to his colleagues . His trademark method of examining a crime scene , which Sharona used to call his " Zen Sherlock Holmes thing , " is to wander seemingly aimlessly around a crime scene , occasionally holding up his hands , as though framing a shot for a photograph . Shalhoub explained in an interview that Monk does this because it " isolates and cuts the crime scene into slices " and causes Monk to look at parts of the crime scene instead of the whole .
Monk 's delicate mental condition means that his ability to function can be severely impaired by a variety of factors . One example is shown during the season 5 episode " Mr. Monk and the Garbage Strike " , in which the smell of garbage prevents Monk from being able to easily identify the murderer of sanitation union boss Jimmy Cusack . Another example : when entering a chaotic murder scene in the episode " Mr. Monk Meets Dale the Whale " , his first impulse is to straighten the lamps , though he is frequently able to hold off his fixations when examining bodies or collecting evidence . Even though Monk 's mental state in the series is said to be a result of his wife 's death , he shows signs of OCD in flashbacks dating back to childhood . To deal with his OCD and phobias , Monk visits a psychiatrist – Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) in the first six seasons and Dr. Neven Bell ( Héctor Elizondo ) in the last two seasons – weekly , and at several points , daily .
Over the course of the show ( roughly 8 years ) , Monk overcomes many of his phobias and some aspects of his OCD . Though he hasn 't been cured of many of them , if any at all , he has been able to put them in the back of his mind when involved in case work . His most notable breakthrough is shown in the season 8 episode " Mr. Monk Goes to Group Therapy " , when Adrian is locked in a car trunk with his fellow OCD patient and personal rival , Harold Krenshaw . During the terrifying trip , both men overcome their longstanding case of claustrophobia ( fear of small spaces ) , as well as their own differences , resulting in them becoming friends . Possibly due to this , as well as the many cases Monk has solved over the years , he is reinstated as detective first class by Stottlemeyer in the season 8 episode " Mr. Monk and the Badge " . Though he is very excited about his reinstatement initially , Monk realizes that becoming a detective again didn 't mean that he would be happier . In a session with Dr. Bell , Monk realizes he was always happy as a private detective and consultant to the SFPD as his own boss . After overcoming his fear of heights and singlehandedly capturing a killer window @-@ washer , Monk turns in his badge . In the series finale , he learns that his late wife , Trudy
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week later on 17 June 1128 in Le Mans by the bishops of Le Mans and Séez . Fulk finally left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129 , declaring Geoffrey the Count of Anjou and Maine .
= = = Disputes = = =
The marriage proved difficult , as the couple did not particularly like each other . There was a further dispute over Matilda 's dowry ; she was granted various castles in Normandy by Henry , but it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them . It is also unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy , and he was probably keeping Geoffrey 's status deliberately uncertain . Soon after the marriage , Matilda left Geoffrey and returned to Normandy . Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation , but the couple were finally reconciled in 1131 . Henry summoned Matilda from Normandy , and she arrived in England that August . It was decided that Matilda would return to Geoffrey at a meeting of the King 's great council in September . The council also gave another collective oath of allegiance to recognise her as Henry 's heir .
Matilda gave birth to her first son in March 1133 at Le Mans , the future Henry II . Henry was delighted by the news and came to see her at Rouen . At Pentecost 1134 , son Geoffrey was born in Rouen , but the childbirth was extremely difficult and Matilda appeared close to death . She made arrangements for her will and argued with her father about where she should be buried . Matilda preferred Bec Abbey , but Henry wanted her to be interred at Rouen Cathedral . Matilda recovered , and Henry was overjoyed by the birth of his second grandson , possibly insisting on another round of oaths from his nobility .
From then on , relations became increasingly strained between Matilda and Henry . The couple suspected that they lacked genuine support in England for their claim to the throne , and proposed in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda and should insist that the Norman nobility immediately swear allegiance to her . This would have given the couple a much more powerful position after Henry 's death , but the King angrily refused , probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy while he was still alive . A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy , and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels .
In the middle of this confrontation , Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons @-@ la @-@ Forêt . It is uncertain what , if anything , Henry said about the succession before his death . Contemporary chronicler accounts were coloured by subsequent events . Sources favourable to Matilda suggested that Henry had reaffirmed his intent to grant all his lands to his daughter , while hostile chroniclers argued that Henry had renounced his former plans and had apologised for having forced the barons to swear an oath of allegiance to her .
= = = Road to war = = =
When news began to spread of Henry I 's death , Matilda and Geoffrey were in Anjou , supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army , which included a number of Matilda 's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester . Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried , which prevented them from returning to England . Nonetheless , Geoffrey and Matilda took the opportunity to march into southern Normandy and seize a number of key castles around Argentan that had formed Matilda 's disputed dowry . They then stopped , unable to advance further , pillaging the countryside and facing increased resistance from the Norman nobility and a rebellion in Anjou itself . Matilda was by now also pregnant with her third son , William ; opinions vary among historians as to what extent this affected her military plans .
Meanwhile , news of Henry 's death had reached Stephen of Blois , conveniently placed in Boulogne , and he left for England , accompanied by his military household . Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived . Nonetheless Stephen reached the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England . The crowds in London proclaimed Stephen the new monarch , believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return , and his brother , Henry of Blois , the Bishop of Winchester , delivered the support of the Church to Stephen . Stephen had sworn to support Matilda in 1127 , but Henry convincingly argued that the late King had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath , and suggested that the King had changed his mind on his deathbed . Stephen 's coronation was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 26 December .
Following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England , the Norman nobility had gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring his elder brother Theobald king . The Normans argued that the count , as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror , had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the Duchy , and was certainly preferable to Matilda . Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen 's coronation was to occur the next day . Theobald 's support immediately ebbed away , as the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen .
Matilda gave birth to her third son William on 22 July 1136 at Argentan , and she then operated out of the border region for the next three years , establishing her household knights on estates around the area . Matilda may have asked Ulger , the Bishop of Angers , to garner support for her claim with the Pope in Rome , but if she did , Ulger was unsuccessful . Geoffrey invaded Normandy in early 1136 and , after a temporary truce , invaded again later the same year , raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory . Stephen returned to the Duchy in 1137 , where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal alliance against Geoffrey and Matilda , to counter the growing Angevin power in the region . Stephen formed an army to retake Matilda 's Argentan castles , but frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army . The Norman forces then deserted the King , forcing Stephen to give up his campaign . Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey , promising to pay him 2 @,@ 000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders .
In England , Stephen 's reign started off well , with lavish gatherings of the royal court that saw the King give out grants of land and favours to his supporters . Stephen received the support of Pope Innocent II , thanks in part to the testimony of Louis VI and Theobald . Troubles rapidly began to emerge . Matilda 's uncle , David I of Scotland , invaded the north of England on the news of Henry 's death , taking Carlisle , Newcastle and other key strongholds . Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham , where a temporary compromise was agreed . South Wales rose in rebellion , and by 1137 Stephen was forced to abandon attempts to suppress the revolt . Stephen put down two revolts in the south @-@ west led by Baldwin de Redvers and Robert of Bampton ; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy , where he became a vocal critic of the King .
= = = Revolt = = =
Matilda 's half @-@ brother , Robert of Gloucester , was one of the most powerful Anglo @-@ Norman barons , controlling estates in Normandy as well as the Earldom of Gloucester . In 1138 , he rebelled against Stephen , starting the descent into civil war in England . Robert renounced his fealty to the King and declared his support for Matilda , which triggered a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south @-@ west of England , although he himself remained in Normandy . Matilda had not been particularly active in asserting her claims to the throne since 1135 and in many ways it was Robert who took the initiative in declaring war in 1138 . In France , Geoffrey took advantage of the situation by re @-@ invading Normandy . David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again , announcing that he was supporting the claim of Matilda to the throne , pushing south into Yorkshire .
Stephen responded quickly to the revolts and invasions , paying most attention to England rather than Normandy . His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne , with the task of retaking the key port of Dover , under Robert 's control . A small number of Stephen 's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots , where David 's forces were defeated later that year at the Battle of the Standard . Despite this victory , however , David still occupied most of the north . Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire , first striking north into the Welsh Marches , taking Hereford and Shrewsbury , before heading south to Bath . The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him , and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area . The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support , but he remained in Normandy throughout the year , trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself . Dover finally surrendered to the Queen 's forces later in the year .
By 1139 , an invasion of England by Robert and Matilda appeared imminent . Geoffrey and Matilda had secured much of Normandy and , together with Robert , spent the beginning of the year mobilising forces for a cross @-@ Channel expedition . Matilda also appealed to the papacy at the start of the year ; her representative , Bishop Ulger , put forward her legal claim to the English throne on the grounds of her hereditary right and the oaths sworn by the barons . Arnulf of Lisieux led Stephen 's case , arguing that because Matilda 's mother had really been a nun , her claim to the throne was illegitimate . The Pope declined to reverse his earlier support for Stephen , but from Matilda 's perspective the case usefully established that Stephen 's claim was disputed .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Initial moves = = =
Empress Matilda 's invasion finally began at the end of the summer . Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive Matilda 's invading army , but Stephen 's forces forced him to retreat into the south @-@ west . The following month , the Empress was invited by her stepmother , Queen Adeliza , to land at Arundel instead , and on 30 September Robert of Gloucester and Matilda arrived in England with a force of 140 knights . Matilda stayed at Arundel Castle , while Robert marched north @-@ west to Wallingford and Bristol , hoping to raise support for the rebellion and to link up with Miles of Gloucester , who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King and declare for Matilda .
Stephen responded by promptly moving south , besieging Arundel and trapping Matilda inside the castle . Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother , Henry of Blois ; the full details of the agreement are not known , but the results were that Matilda and her household of knights were released from the siege and escorted to the south @-@ west of England , where they were reunited with Robert of Gloucester . The reasons for Matilda 's release remain unclear . Stephen may have thought it was in his own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert , seeing Robert , rather than Matilda , as his main opponent at this point in the conflict . Arundel Castle was also considered almost impregnable , and Stephen may have been worried that he risked tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west . Another theory is that Stephen released Matilda out of a sense of chivalry ; Stephen had a generous , courteous personality and women were not normally expected to be targeted in Anglo @-@ Norman warfare .
After staying for a period in Robert 's stronghold of Bristol , Matilda established her court in nearby Gloucester , still safely in the south @-@ west but far enough away for her to remain independent of her half @-@ brother . Although there had been only a few new defections to her cause , Matilda still controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south into Wiltshire , west into the Welsh Marches and east through the Thames Valley as far as Oxford and Wallingford , threatening London . Her influence extended down into Devon and Cornwall , and north through Herefordshire , but her authority in these areas remained limited .
She faced a counterattack from Stephen , who started by attacking Wallingford Castle which controlled the Thames corridor ; it was held by Brian Fitz Count and Stephen found it too well defended . Stephen continued into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge , taking the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route . In response , Miles marched east , attacking Stephen 's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London . Stephen was forced to give up his western campaign , returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital .
At the start of 1140 , Nigel , the Bishop of Ely , joined Matilda 's faction . Hoping to seize East Anglia , he established his base of operations in the Isle of Ely , then surrounded by protective fenland . Nigel faced a rapid response from Stephen , who made a surprise attack on the isle , forcing the Bishop to flee to Gloucester . Robert of Gloucester 's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken in his 1139 campaign . In an effort to negotiate a truce , Henry of Blois held a peace conference at Bath , at which Matilda was represented by Robert . The conference collapsed after Henry and the clergy insisted that they should set the terms of any peace deal , which Stephen 's representatives found unacceptable .
= = = Battle of Lincoln = = =
Matilda 's fortunes changed dramatically for the better at the start of 1141 . Ranulf of Chester , a powerful northern magnate , had fallen out with the King over the winter and Stephen had placed his castle in Lincoln under siege . In response , Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf advanced on Stephen 's position with a larger force , resulting in the Battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141 . The King commanded the centre of his army , with Alan of Brittany on his right and William of Aumale on his left . Robert and Ranulf 's forces had a superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form a solid infantry block . After an initial success in which William 's forces destroyed the Angevins ' Welsh infantry , the battle went well for Matilda 's forces . Robert and Ranulf 's cavalry encircled Stephen 's centre , and the King found himself surrounded by the Angevin army . After much fighting , Robert 's soldiers finally overwhelmed Stephen and he was taken away from the field in custody .
Matilda received Stephen in person at her court in Gloucester , before having him moved to Bristol Castle , traditionally used for holding high @-@ status prisoners . Matilda now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place , which would require the agreement of the Church and her coronation at Westminster . Stephen 's brother Henry summoned a council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy 's view . Matilda had made a private deal with Henry that he would deliver the support of the Church in exchange for being granted control over Church affairs . Henry handed over the royal treasury to her , which proved to be rather depleted except for Stephen 's crown , and he excommunicated many of her enemies who refused to switch sides . Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare Matilda queen so rapidly , however , and a delegation of clergy and nobles , headed by Theobald , travelled to Bristol to see Stephen , who agreed that , given the situation , he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him .
The clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter and declared Matilda the " Lady of England and Normandy " as a precursor to her coronation . Although Matilda 's own followers attended the event , few other major nobles seem to have attended and the delegation from London procrastinated . Stephen 's wife , Queen Matilda , wrote to complain and demand her husband 's release . Nonetheless , Matilda then advanced to London to arrange her coronation in June , where her position became precarious . Despite securing the support of Geoffrey de Mandeville , who controlled the Tower of London , forces loyal to Stephen and Queen Matilda remained close to the city and the citizens were fearful about welcoming the Empress . On 24 June , shortly before the planned coronation , the city rose up against the Empress and Geoffrey de Mandeville ; Matilda and her followers fled just in time , making a chaotic retreat back to Oxford .
Meanwhile , Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and , in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont , who was still fighting in England , Geoffrey took all the Duchy south of the River Seine and east of the Risle . No help was forthcoming from Stephen 's brother Theobald this time either , who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France — the new French king , Louis VII , had rejected his father 's regional alliance , improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald , which would result in war the following year . Geoffrey 's success in Normandy and Stephen 's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo @-@ Norman barons , who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress , and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey . Many started to leave Stephen 's faction . His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid @-@ 1141 , crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with the Angevins , and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress 's camp . Waleran 's twin brother , Robert of Leicester , effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time . Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds , such as Bishop Nigel of Ely , and still others received new earldoms in the west of England . The royal control over the minting of coins broke down , leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across the country .
= = = Rout of Winchester and the Siege of Oxford = = =
Matilda 's position was transformed by her defeat at the Rout of Winchester . Her alliance with Henry of Blois proved short @-@ lived and they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy ; the Bishop transferred his support back to Stephen 's cause . In response , in July Matilda and Robert of Gloucester besieged Henry of Blois in his episcopal castle at Winchester , using the royal castle in the city as the base for their operations . Stephen 's wife , Queen Matilda , had kept his cause alive in the south @-@ east of England , and the Queen , backed by her lieutenant William of Ypres and reinforced with fresh troops from London , took the opportunity to advance on Winchester . Their forces encircled Matilda 's army . Matilda decided to escape from the city with Fitz Count and Reginald of Cornwall , while the rest of her army delayed the royal forces . In the subsequent battle the Empress 's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner during the retreat , although Matilda herself escaped , exhausted , to her fortress at Devizes .
With both Stephen and Robert held prisoner , negotiations were held to try to come to agreement on a long @-@ term peace settlement , but Queen Matilda was unwilling to offer any compromise to the Empress , and Robert refused to accept any offer to encourage him to change sides to Stephen . Instead , in November the two sides simply exchanged the two leaders , Stephen returning to his queen , and Robert to the Empress in Oxford . Henry held another church council , which reversed its previous decision and reaffirmed Stephen 's legitimacy to rule , and a fresh coronation of Stephen and Matilda occurred at Christmas 1141 . Stephen travelled north to raise new forces and to successfully persuade Ranulf of Chester to change sides once again . Stephen then spent the summer attacking some of the new Angevin castles built the previous year , including Cirencester , Bampton and Wareham .
During the summer of 1142 Robert returned to Normandy to assist Geoffrey with operations against some of Stephen 's remaining followers there , before returning in the autumn . Matilda came under increased pressure from Stephen 's forces and was surrounded at Oxford . Oxford was a secure town , protected by walls and the River Isis , but Stephen led a sudden attack across the river , leading the charge and swimming part of the way . Once on the other side , the King and his men stormed into the town , trapping Matilda in the castle . Oxford Castle was a powerful fortress and , rather than storming it , Stephen decided to settle down for a long siege . Just before Christmas , Matilda sneaked out of the castle with a handful of knights ( probably via a postern gate ) , crossed the icy river on foot and made her escape past the royal army to safety at Wallingford , leaving the castle garrison free to surrender the next day .
= = = Stalemate = = =
In the aftermath of the retreat from Winchester , Matilda rebuilt her court at Devizes Castle , a former property of the Bishop of Salisbury that had been confiscated by Stephen . She established her household knights on the surrounding estates , supported by Flemish mercenaries , ruling through the network of local sheriffs and other officials . Many of those that had lost lands in the regions held by the King travelled west to take up patronage from Matilda . Backed by the pragmatic Robert of Gloucester , Matilda was content to engage in a drawn @-@ out struggle , and the war soon entered a stalemate .
At first , the balance of power appeared to move slightly in Matilda 's favour . Robert of Gloucester besieged Stephen in 1143 at Wilton Castle , an assembly point for royal forces in Herefordshire . Stephen attempted to break out and escape , resulting in the Battle of Wilton . Once again , the Angevin cavalry proved too strong , and for a moment it appeared that Stephen might be captured for a second time , before finally managing to escape . Later in the year Geoffrey de Mandeville , the Earl of Essex , rose up in rebellion against Stephen in East Anglia . Geoffrey based himself from the Isle of Ely and began a military campaign against Cambridge , with the intention of progressing south towards London . Ranulf of Chester revolted once again in the summer of 1144 . Meanwhile , Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing his hold on southern Normandy , and in January 1144 he advanced into Rouen , the capital of the Duchy , concluding his campaign . Louis VII recognised him as Duke of Normandy shortly after .
Despite these successes , Matilda was unable to consolidate her position . Miles of Gloucester , one of the most talented of her military commanders , had died while hunting over the previous Christmas . Geoffrey de Mandeville 's rebellion against Stephen in the east ended with his death in September 1144 during an attack on Burwell Castle . As a result , Stephen made progress against Matilda 's forces in the west in 1145 , recapturing Faringdon Castle in Oxfordshire . Matilda authorised Reginald , the Earl of Cornwall , to attempt fresh peace negotiations , but neither side was prepared to compromise .
= = = Conclusion of the war = = =
The character of the conflict in England gradually began to shift ; by the late 1140s , the major fighting in the war was over , giving way to an intractable stalemate , with only the occasional outbreak of fresh fighting . Several of Matilda 's key supporters died : in 1147 Robert of Gloucester died peacefully , and Brian Fitz Count gradually withdrew from public life , probably eventually joining a monastery ; by 1151 he was dead . Many of Matilda 's other followers joined the Second Crusade when it was announced in 1145 , leaving the region for several years . Some of the Anglo @-@ Norman barons made individual peace agreements with each other to secure their lands and war gains , and many were not keen to pursue any further conflict .
Matilda 's eldest son Henry slowly began to assume a leading role in the conflict . He had remained in France when the Empress first left for England . He crossed over to England in 1142 , before returning to Anjou in 1144 . Geoffrey of Anjou expected Henry to become the King of England and began to involve him in the government of the family lands . In 1147 , Henry intervened in England with a small mercenary army but the expedition failed , not least because Henry lacked the funds to pay his men . Henry asked his mother for money , but she refused , stating that she had none available . In the end Stephen himself ended up paying off Henry 's mercenaries , allowing him to return home safely ; his reasons for doing so remain unclear .
Matilda decided to return to Normandy in 1148 , partially due to her difficulties with the Church . The Empress had occupied the strategically essential Devizes Castle in 1142 , maintaining her court there , but legally it still belonged to Josceline de Bohon , the Bishop of Salisbury , and in late 1146 Pope Eugene III intervened to support his claims , threatening Matilda with excommunication if she did not return it . Matilda first played for time , then left for Normandy in early 1148 , leaving the castle to Henry , who then procrastinated over its return for many years . Matilda re @-@ established her court in Rouen , where she met with her sons and husband and probably made arrangements for her future life in Normandy , and for Henry 's next expedition to England . Matilda chose to live in the priory of Notre Dame du Pré , situated just south of Rouen , where she lived in personal quarters attached to the priory and in a nearby palace built by Henry .
Matilda increasingly devoted her efforts to the administration of Normandy , rather than the war in England . Geoffrey sent the Bishop of Thérouanne to Rome in 1148 to campaign for Henry 's right to the English throne , and opinion within the English Church gradually shifted in Henry 's favour . Matilda and Geoffrey made peace with Louis VII , who in return supported Henry 's rights to Normandy . Geoffrey died unexpectedly in 1151 , and Henry claimed the family lands . Henry returned to England once again at the start of 1153 with a small army , winning the support of some of the major regional barons . Neither side 's army was keen to fight , however , and the Church brokered a truce ; a permanent peace followed , under which Henry recognised Stephen as king , but became Stephen 's adopted son and successor . Meanwhile , Normandy faced considerable disorder and the threat of baronial revolt , which Matilda was unable to totally suppress . Stephen died the next year , and Henry assumed the throne ; his coronation used the grander of the two imperial crowns that Matilda had brought back from Germany in 1125 . Once Henry had been crowned , the troubles facing Matilda in Normandy died away .
= = Later life = =
Matilda spent the rest of her life in Normandy , often acting as Henry 's representative and presiding over the government of the Duchy . Early on , Matilda and her son issued charters in England and Normandy in their joint names , dealing with the various land claims that had arisen during the wars . Particularly in the initial years of his reign , the King drew on her for advice on policy matters . Matilda was involved in attempts to mediate between Henry and his Chancellor Thomas Becket when the two men fell out in the 1160s . Matilda had originally cautioned against the appointment , but when the Prior of Mont St Jacques asked her for a private interview on Becket 's behalf to seek her views , she provided a moderate perspective on the problem . Matilda explained that she disagreed with Henry 's attempts to codify English customs , which Becket was opposed to , but also condemned poor administration in the English Church and Becket 's own headstrong behaviour .
Matilda helped to deal with several diplomatic crises . The first of these involved the Hand of St James , the relic which Matilda had brought back with her from Germany many years before . Frederick I , the Holy Roman Emperor , considered the hand to be part of the imperial regalia and requested that Henry return it to Germany . Matilda and Henry were equally insistent that it should remain at Reading Abbey , where it had become a popular attraction for visiting pilgrims . Frederick was bought off with an alternative set of expensive gifts from England , including a huge , luxurious tent , probably chosen by Matilda , which Frederick used for court events in Italy . She was also approached by Louis VII of France , in 1164 , and helped to defuse a growing diplomatic row over the handling of Crusading funds .
In her old age Matilda paid increasing attention to Church affairs and her personal faith , although she remained involved in governing Normandy throughout her life . Matilda appears to have had particular fondness for her youngest son William . She opposed Henry 's proposal in 1155 to invade Ireland and give the lands to William , however , possibly on the grounds that the project was impractical , and instead William received large grants of land in England . Matilda was more easy @-@ going in her later life than in her youth , but the chronicler of Mont St Jacques , who met her during this period , still felt that she appeared to be " of the stock of tyrants " .
= = Death = =
Matilda died on 10 September 1167 , and her remaining wealth was given to the Church . She was buried under the high altar at the abbey of Bec @-@ Hellouin in a service led by Rotrou , the Archbishop of Rouen . Her tomb 's epitaph included the lines " Great by birth , greater by marriage , greatest in her offspring : here lies Matilda , the daughter , wife , and mother of Henry " , which became a famous phrase among her contemporaries . This tomb was damaged in a fire in 1263 and later restored in 1282 , before finally being destroyed by an English army in 1421 . In 1684 the Congregation of St. Maur identified some of her remaining bones and reburied them at Bec @-@ Hellouin in a new coffin . Her remains were lost again after the destruction of Bec @-@ Hellouin 's church by Napoleon , but were found once more in 1846 and this time reburied at Rouen Cathedral , where they remain .
= = Matilda as ruler = =
= = = Government , law and court = = =
In the Holy Roman Empire , the young Matilda 's court included knights , chaplains and ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , although , unlike some queens of the period , she did not have her own personal chancellor to run her household , instead using the imperial chancellor . When acting as regent in Italy , she found the local rulers were prepared to accept a female ruler . Her Italian administration included the Italian chancellor , backed by experienced administrators . She was not called upon to make any major decisions , instead dealing with smaller matters and acting as the symbolic representative of her absent husband , meeting with and helping to negotiate with magnates and clergy .
On her return from Germany to Normandy and Anjou , she styled herself as empress and the daughter of King Henry . During the civil war for England , her status was uncertain . The Anglo @-@ Saxon queens of England had exercised considerable formal power , but this tradition had diminished under the Normans : at most their queens ruled temporarily as regents on their husbands ' behalf when they were away travelling , rather than in their own right . Initially between 1139 and 1141 Matilda referred to herself as acting as a feme sole , " a woman acting alone " , highlighting her autonomy and independence from her husband Geoffrey . She had an imperial great seal created , which was round like the seal of a king – queens used an oval seal – but which showed Matilda enthroned as an empress and titled as the Queen of the Romans . The seal did not show her on horseback , however , as a male ruler would have been depicted . Since she was never crowned at Westminster , during the rest of the war she appears to have used her title of Lady of the English , rather than that of the Queen of England , although some contemporaries referred to her by the royal title .
Matilda presented herself as continuing the English tradition of centralised royal government , and attempted to maintain a government in England parallel to Stephen 's , including a royal household and a chancellor . Matilda gathered revenues from the royal estates in the counties under her control , particularly in her core territories where the sheriffs were loyal to her cause . She appointed earls to rival those created by Stephen . She was unable to operate a system of royal law courts , however , and her administrative resources were extremely limited , although some of her clerks went on to become bishops in Normandy . Matilda issued two types of coins in her name during her time in England , which were used in the west of England and Wales . The first were initially minted in Oxford during her stay there , and the design was then adopted by her mints at Bristol , Cardiff and Wareham after her victory at the Battle of Lincoln . A second design was minted at Bristol and Cardiff during the 1140s .
On returning to Normandy for the last time in 1148 , Matilda ceased to use the title Lady of the English , simply styling herself as empress again ; she never adopted the title of Countess of Anjou . Matilda 's household became smaller , and often merged with Henry 's own court when the two were co @-@ located in Rouen . She continued to play a special role in the government of the area around Argentan , where she held feudal rights from the grants made at the time of her second marriage .
= = = Relations with the Church = = =
It is unclear how strong Matilda 's personal piety was , although contemporaries praised her lifelong preference to be buried at the monastic site of Bec rather than the grander but more worldly Rouen , and believed her to have substantial , underlying religious beliefs . Like other members of the Anglo @-@ Norman nobility , she bestowed considerable patronage on the Church . Early on in her life , she preferred the well @-@ established Benedictine monastery of Cluny alongside some of the newer Augustinian orders , such as the Victorines and Premonstratensians . As part of this patronage , she re @-@ founded the abbey of Notre @-@ Dame @-@ du @-@ Vœu near Cherbourg .
As time went by , Matilda directed more of her attention to the Cistercian order , This order was very fashionable in England and Normandy during the period , and was dedicated to the Virgin Mary , a figure of particular importance to Matilda . She had close links to the Cistercian Mortemer Abbey in Normandy , and drew on the house for a supply of monks when she supported the foundation of nearby La Valasse . She encouraged the Cistercians to build at Mortemer on a grand scale , with guest houses to accommodate a range of visitors of all ranks , and may have played a part in selecting the paintings for the monastic chapels .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Contemporary chroniclers in England , France , Germany and Italy documented many aspects of Matilda 's life , although the only biography of her , apparently written by Arnulf of Lisieux , has been lost . The chroniclers took a range of perspectives on her . In Germany , the chroniclers praised Matilda extensively and her reputation as the " good Matilda " remained positive . During the years of the Anarchy , works such as the Gesta Stephani took a much more negative tone , praising Stephen and condemning Matilda . Once Henry II assumed the throne , the tone of the chroniclers towards Matilda became more positive . Legends spread in the years after Matilda 's death , including the suggestion that her first husband , Henry , had not died but had in fact secretly become a hermit – making Matilda 's second marriage illegitimate – and a tale that Matilda had an affair with Stephen , resulting in the conception of Henry II .
Tudor scholars were interested in Matilda 's right of succession . According to 16th century standards , Matilda had a clear right to the English throne , and academics therefore struggled to explain why Matilda had acquiesced to her son Henry 's kingship at the end of the war , rather than ruling directly herself . By the 18th century , historians such as David Hume had a much better understanding of the irregular nature of 12th century law and custom and this question became less relevant . By the 19th century , the archival sources on Matilda 's life , including charters , foundation histories , and letters , were being uncovered and analysed . Historians Kate Norgate , Sir James Ramsay and J. H. Round used these to produce new , richer accounts of Matilda and the civil war ; Ramsay 's account , using the Gesta Stephani , was not complimentary , while Norgate , drawing on French sources , was more neutral in tone . The German academic Oskar Rössler 's 1897 biography drew heavily on German charters , not extensively used by Anglophone historians .
Matilda has attracted relatively little attention from modern English academics , being treated as a marginal figure in comparison to other contemporaries , particularly her rival Stephen , in contrast to the work carried out by German scholars on her time in the Empire . Popular , but not always accurate , biographies were written by the Earl of Onslow in 1939 and Nesta Pain in 1978 , but the only major academic biography in English remains Majorie Chibnall 's 1991 work . Interpretations of Matilda 's character have shifted over time , but there is , as Chibnall describes , a " general agreement that she was either proud or at least keenly conscious of the high status of an empress " . Like both Henry I and Henry II , Matilda had a certain autocratic grandeur , which was combined with a firm moral belief in her cause ; ultimately however she was limited by the political conventions of the 12th century . The treatment of Matilda by modern historians has been challenged by feminist scholars , including Fiona Tolhurst , who believe some traditional assumptions about her role and personality show gender bias . In this interpretation , Matilda has been unfairly criticised for showing qualities that have been considered praiseworthy when seen in her male contemporaries .
= = = Popular culture = = =
The civil war years of Matilda 's life have been the subject of historical fiction . Matilda , Stephen and their supporters feature in Ellis Peters 's historical detective series about Brother Cadfael , set between 1137 and 1145 . Peters paints the Empress as proud and aloof , in contrast to Stephen , a tolerant man and a reasonable ruler . Matilda 's martial reputation may also have contributed to Alfred , Lord Tennyson 's decision to entitle his 1855 battle poem Maud .
= = Family tree = =
Matilda 's family tree :
= Mycena flavoalba =
Mycena flavoalba , commonly known as the ivory bonnet , is a species of inedible mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . The cap is initially conical in shape , before becoming convex and then flattening out ; it may reach dimensions of up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) across . The cap color is ivory @-@ white to yellowish white , sometimes more yellowish at the center . The tubular stems are up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , and have long , coarse white hairs at their bases . The mushroom is found in Europe , the Middle East , and North America , where it grows scattered or in dense groups under conifers and on humus in oak woods .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
First described as Agaricus flavoalbus by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838 , it was assigned its current name in 1872 by Lucien Quélet . American mycologist Rolf Singer transferred the species to the genera Hemimycena and Marasmiellus in 1938 and 1951 , respectively . Singer later changed his mind about these placements , and his 1986 Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , he considered the species a Mycena . The binomials resulting from these transfers are considered synonyms ; another synonym is Mycena luteoalba ( Bolton ) Gray .
Mycena flavoalba is placed in the section Adonideae of the genus Mycena , alongside species such as M. adonis and M. floridula .
The specific epithet flavoalba ( " yellow @-@ white " ) is a compound of the Latin adjectives flavus ( " yellow ) and alba ( " white " ) . The mushroom 's common name is the " ivory bonnet " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. flavoalba is 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , conical when young , becoming somewhat bell @-@ shaped , broadly conic or at times nearly convex . It may develop a papilla ( a nipple @-@ like structure ) in its center . The cap margin is initially pressed against the stem , but in maturity either flares out or curves inward slightly . The cap surface is smooth , moist , and partially translucent , so that the outline of the gills underneath the cap may be seen . The mushroom is hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or gains moisture ) , being cream @-@ buff to yellowish initially , with a paler ( almost white ) margin , and fading to buff in the center and yellowish @-@ white along the margin when dry . The flesh is yellowish to white , thick under the disc but otherwise thin , moderately fragile , and without any distinctive odor and taste .
The gills are ascending and somewhat hooked or toothed , narrow at first but becoming rather broad ( 2 @.@ 5 mm and becoming 3 – 4 mm ) . They are nearly equal in width throughout or slightly ventricose in age , with a spacing that is close to subdistant . About 18 – 24 gills reach the stem , with two tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem ) that may develop veins running between them . The gills are white to creamy @-@ white with edges that are even and whitish , and waxy in appearance and consistency . The stem is 3 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , 1 – 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , equal , tubular , somewhat elastic , cartilaginous , and not particularly fragile . The base of the stem is either strigose ( covered with sharp , straight , stiff white hairs ) or surrounded with a matted white mycelium . Above the base , the stem is smooth , and pruinose toward the apex . When moist it is translucent with slight ripples running transversely , and white to pale yellow in color . Mycena flavoalba is considered inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are 7 – 9 by 3 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , ellipsoid , and nonamyloid . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the face and edge of a gill , respectively ) are similar in structure and abundant , ventricose with long , rather narrow necks , and measure 46 – 62 by 9 – 14 μm . The neck is often encrusted with a mucilaginous substance , but it is otherwise smooth and hyaline . The flesh of the gill is homogenous , and stains pale yellow in iodine . The flesh of the cap has a thin , poorly differentiated pellicle ( a thin membrane ) , a somewhat differentiated hypoderm ( that is most pronounced in old caps ) and the remainder is made up of somewhat enlarged cells that stain pale yellow in iodine .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena flavoalba bears resemblance to some members of the genus Hemimycena , such as H. lactea and H. delectabilis . It can be distinguished from these species by its white to yellowish cap , and differences in the shape of both its spores and caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) . H. conidiogena , a Spanish species newly described from in 2005 , is also similar in appearance , but differs in the distribution of pigment in the cap , and the differential staining in response to the dye cresyl blue — M. flavoalba is positive , while H. conidiogena is negative .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena flavoalba grow scattered to densely gregarious on needle beds under conifers , and on humus in oak woods during the autumns months . Although generally rare , the species sometimes occurs in large quantities in certain localities . In the United States , it has been collected from Colorado , Idaho , Michigan , North Carolina , Oregon , Washington , Wyoming , Florida , and Kansas . It is also found in Europe , and Israel . The species is listed as " Least Concern " in the Danish Red Data Book .
= Charles Henry Smyth , Jr . =
Charles Henry Smyth , Jr . ( / smaɪθ / ; March 31 , 1866 – April 4 , 1937 ) was an American geologist . Born to a prominent family in Upstate New York , he studied geology at Columbia University before becoming a professor of geology at Hamilton College and Princeton University . At Princeton he strengthened the Department of Geology 's graduate program .
Smyth specialized in petrology , chemical geology , and economic geology . He showed the sedimentary origin of iron ore deposits near his native Clinton , New York , mapped the geology of the western Adirondack Mountains , and published a well known monograph on the origins of alkaline igneous rocks . He was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , a member of the American Philosophical Society , and a fellow of the Geological Society of America .
= = Family = =
Smyth was born March 31 , 1866 , in Oswego , New York , the second son of Alice DeWolf Smyth and Charles Henry Smyth , Sr. In 1873 , he moved with his family to nearby Clinton , New York . His mother belonged to a well known Oswego banking and manufacturing family . His father was a prominent local businessman , holding executive positions at the Franklin Iron Works , Clinton Bank , and the company that managed the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge . He also served on the vestry of the local Episcopal church and was a brigadier general in the New York Guard . The family was considered among the local elite in Clinton . Katharine Blunt was a first cousin .
On July 30 , 1891 , the younger Charles Smyth married Ruth Anne Phelps , originally of Shreveport , Louisiana . They had two children , Charles Phelps Smyth ( 1895 – 1990 ) and Henry DeWolf Smyth ( 1898 – 1986 ) . Both became professors of science at Princeton University .
= = Education = =
Smyth studied at Clinton Grammar School in his youth . He became interested in geology at a young age : his native region of Upstate New York had many fossils , and his family 's business involved extracting the local iron ore . In 1884 , he entered Hamilton College in Clinton , where he studied science . After a year he transferred to the School of Mines at Columbia University . At Columbia he was president of the Glee Club . He graduated in 1888 as one of the top three students in his class .
Smyth continued his studies at Cornell University under James Furman Kemp and Harvard University under Nathaniel Shaler . He also worked as an analytical chemist at the Franklin Iron Works , his father 's company . He earned his Ph.D. in geology from Columbia in 1890 , writing a dissertation titled " The Origin of the Clinton Type of Iron Ore " . He then spent an additional year studying petrology at Heidelberg University under Harry Rosenbusch , the world expert in the field .
= = Career = =
In 1891 Smyth returned to Hamilton College to become the Stone Professor of Natural History . In addition to his teaching duties at Hamilton , Smyth spent each summer from 1892 to 1903 doing field work for the New York State Museum in the western Adirondack Mountains , which had been studied very little in the fifty years prior . He collaborated with his old advisor Kemp , who specialized in the eastern Adirondacks , and Henry Platt Cushing , who claimed the northern and northeastern sections . He returned to field work a final time in 1908 ; ill health prevented further expeditions .
In 1905 Woodrow Wilson , then President of Princeton University , convinced Smyth to join the Princeton faculty , where Smyth remained until retiring in 1934 . He strengthened the graduate program in the Department of Geology , which awarded only two advanced degrees before 1912 ; during his 29 years , another 31 degrees were awarded . Among his students were Arthur Francis Buddington and Albert Orion Hayes . His courses in petrology and chemical geology introduced students to subjects that were relatively new in the United States .
Smyth was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , a member of the American Philosophical Society , and a fellow of the Geological Society of America . He was also a member of the Society of Economic Geologists , the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers , the Washington Academy of Sciences , Phi Beta Kappa , and Sigma Xi .
= = Research = =
Smyth 's research was in the subfields of petrology , chemical geology , and economic geology . When he began his research most American geologists who used chemistry were mineralogists , volcanologists , or specialists in ore . Smyth was a pioneer in chemical petrology , applying chemistry to ordinary rocks , in the United States .
In his dissertation he argued that the iron ore near Clinton was a primary sediment ; at the time the deposits were believed to be secondary nodules formed by replacement of primary limestone . His Princeton graduate student Hayes proved a similar result about the iron ores of his native Wabana , Newfoundland and Labrador . In 1919 , Smyth showed that a green mineral in the Clinton ores was chamosite and also a primary sediment .
Smyth , Kemp , and Cushing 's field work in the Adirondacks yielded detailed geologic maps of the challenging region . Smyth described the nature and origins of the area 's rocks and mineral deposits . His conclusions were still largely accepted at the time of his death in 1937 .
His two best known contributions were his work on the Clinton iron ore and a 1927 monograph about the origins of alkaline igneous rocks .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In his later years Smyth suffered from poor health , which an obituary in Princeton Alumni Weekly blamed on " overwork in certain rugged inaccessible wilderness portions of the Adirondacks . " He contracted tonsilitis during his 1898 expedition to the Adirondacks and suffered heart and digestive troubles thereafter . He died April 4 , 1937 , at Princeton Hospital . The cause was pneumonia and complications from a recent hip fracture .
The mineral smythite is named after him . Its properties resemble those of pyrrhotite samples Smyth studied in Upstate New York .
= Buster Smith =
Henry " Buster " Smith ( August 24 , 1904 – August 10 , 1991 ) , also known as Professor Smith , was an American jazz alto saxophonist and mentor to Charlie Parker . Smith was instrumental in instituting the Texas Sax Sound with Count Basie and Lester Young in the 1930s . Smith played saxophone for a range of musicians including Duke Ellington , Ella Fitzgerald and Earl Hines , though in his career only recorded one solo album in 1959 . Despite intending to release a follow @-@ up in the 1960s , Smith was injured in an accident leading to a follow @-@ up never eventuating .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Smith was born and raised in Alsdorf , Texas , a small township near Telico in the outskirts of Dallas , where he attended school as a child . Smith earned the name " Buster " from his parents as a baby , as he was born as an overweight child . Buster was the third of five boys and had no sisters , though both of his older brothers died in childhood of measles .
Smith 's early musical influences were his mother , and his father , who played guitar . At the age of four years , Buster was playing the organ with his brother , pianist Boston Smith ; Buster played the keys and Boston stepped on the pedals . Soon thereafter , his grandfather gave away the family organ because he believed it would only direct Buster to a life of sin .
= = = Early career = = =
In 1919 , Smith picked cotton for a week to earn himself the money to buy a $ 3 @.@ 50 clarinet . Smith learned to play several instruments by the time he was eighteen years old . In 1922 , Smith and his family moved to Dallas . He joined the Voodie White Trio , playing Alto saxophone and clarinet . In 1923 , he began his professional music career playing alto saxophone with the medicine shows , though he had to play very loudly to draw in more customers . This experience led to Smith defining his own musical style , known for being loud . The time with the medicine shows also led to Oran " Hot Lips " Page inviting Smith to join his group , the Oklahoma City Blue Devils , in 1925 . Over the next few years , Smith wrote much of the group 's music , learning from banjo player Johnny Clark , writing lyrics with co @-@ workers from the bank that he worked in .
= = = Peak success = = =
When Smith joined the Blue Devils , the line @-@ up consisted of Walter Page , Oran Page , Lester Young , Count Basie , Jimmy Rushing , and Emir " Bucket " Coleman . They toured the Kansas City area and the Midwest , playing jazz for a year , bringing all of its members into prominence . Basie and Page both left the group ; however Smith decided to stay on , though this was very short lived and soon after he left also . After leaving the group , he and Basie formed the Buster Smith @-@ Count Basie Band of Rhythm , where the two innovated a louder style of Jazz . Buster 's contribution to the unique sound was by using a tenor saxophone reed in his alto saxophone to achieve a louder , " fatter " sound . Lester Young also joined the band and , to complement Smith 's louder sound , he also opted for a heavier reed , using a baritone saxophone reed on his tenor saxophone . This sound was later labelled the Texas Sax Sound . Smith gained a great amount of influence in the Texan music community and industry . Smith mentored legendary saxophonist Charlie Parker during the 1930s , developing a " father @-@ son relationship " through mentoring Parker .
In 1941 , Smith decided to return to Dallas and to cease touring , though he remained active in the local music scene . In the following years , he wrote for jazz and blues bands , played often , and taught many young Texan musicians , including Aaron " T @-@ Bone " Walker and Red Garland among others . He also performed session work with artists such as Pete Johnson 's Boogie @-@ Woogie Boys , Eddie Durham , Leo " Snub " Mosley , Bon and His Buddies , and the Don Redman Orchestra .
= = = Solo career = = =
In 1959 , Buster led his first solo recording session in Fort Worth , as prompted by Atlantic Records . From these sessions , released by Atlantic with the title The Legendary Buster Smith , Smith 's notable songs included " Kansas City Riffs , " " Buster 's Tune , " " E Flat Boogie , " and Kurt Weill 's " September Song . " For the sessions , Buster enlisted his brother Boston Smith to play piano , along with musicians spanning his career to date .
= = = Later life = = =
In the 1960s , Smith was involved in auto accident , in which he was injured and no longer able to play the saxophone . In order to continue playing music , he started to play the bass guitar throughout Dallas and continued to participate in the Dallas musical community . Buster led a dance music band until 1980 , and played in the Legendary Revelations in the mid @-@ 1980s . Smith died in Dallas on August 10 , 1991 of a heart attack .
= = Discography = =
The Legendary Buster Smith , Atlantic Records , 1959 ( Reissued by Koch Records , 1999 )
= Wirgman Building =
The Wirgman Building was an early 19th century Federal @-@ style commercial and residential building located on East Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) in Romney , West Virginia . Following its completion around 1825 to serve as the Romney branch office for the Bank of the Valley of Virginia , the Wirgman Building at various times served as a location for every subsequent bank established in Romney , to include the Bank of Romney and the First National Bank of Romney . During the American Civil War , the building was used as a military prison . For a time , the Wirgman Building 's second floor housed the offices and printing plant of the Hampshire Review newspaper . By 1937 , the ground floor of the Wirgman Building housed office and mercantile space , and the second floor was divided into apartments . After the Wirgman Building sustained damage in a fire in 1964 , it was demolished in 1965 to make way for the construction of the new Bank of Romney headquarters building . Prior to its demolition , the Wirgman Building was photographed and documented by the National Park Service 's Historic American Buildings Survey in 1937 .
= = History = =
In 1790 , the trustees of the Town of Romney commissioned John Mitchel to draft a cadastral survey map of Romney . Prior to this survey , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron had commissioned a similar cadastral survey of Romney sometime before the town 's incorporation on December 23 , 1762 . On June 30 , 1790 , Mitchel submitted to the trustees a " Plan of the Town of Romney , " which divided the town into 100 land lots of equal size , with four lots adjacent to the courthouse comprising the " publick " square . The Wirgman Building was later built upon the " publick " land lot numbered " Lot 76 " . Romney 's first cemetery was present on the lot when it was a part of the courthouse square . The cemetery 's interments were located on the actual site , and to the rear , of the future Wirgman Building .
= = = Bank of the Valley of Virginia = = =
The Wirgman Building was erected around 1825 by William Vance to house the office of the newly established Romney branch of the Bank of the Valley of Virginia , which was headquartered in Winchester , Virginia . In an act of the Virginia General Assembly on February 5 , 1817 , the Bank of the Valley of Virginia was authorized to open branches in Berkeley , Hampshire , Hardy , and Jefferson counties if citizens in each of the aforementioned areas could raise 100 @,@ 000 USD in stock to establish a branch . This provision was met when the necessary stock was raised , and the Bank of the Valley of Virginia branch in Romney was opened around 1825 in the Wirgman Building . In 1845 , historian Henry Howe traveled through Romney and described the town as " one of considerable business , and has a branch of the Bank of the Valley , several stores , and about 350 inhabitants . " The bank branch continued to operate from the Wirgman Building until the Bank of the Valley of Virginia in Winchester suspended its operations and those of its branches following the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 .
= = = American Civil War = = =
Throughout the American Civil War , the Wirgman Building was frequently used as a military prison by both Confederate States Army and Union Army forces during their occupations of Romney . In the Spring of 1862 , a spy for the command of Stonewall Jackson , Lieutenant John Blue , was captured by Union Army soldiers while he was conducting a reconnaissance mission to determine the size and strength of the Union Army forces occupying Romney . Pending his transfer to a military prison in Wheeling where he was to be tried as a suspected spy , Blue was imprisoned in a room on the second floor of the Wirgman Building . During the early morning on Easter Day , Blue disabled the only guard on duty , disguised himself in a Union Army coat and headgear and proceeded to barricade the remainder of the prison garrison within the Wirgman Building . Blue walked to the periphery of the town of Romney unnoticed by the occupying Union Army forces , and successfully made it to safety .
= = = Hampshire Review = = =
The Hampshire Review newspaper occupied the building 's second floor with its offices and printing plant from 1884 to 1895 . John J. Cornwell , who later became West Virginia 's governor , and his brother William B. Cornwell purchased the newspaper in 1890 . The newspaper continued to operate from the second floor of the Wirgman Building until 1895 , when the Cornwell brothers relocated the Hampshire Review office and printing plant to the first floor of their new brick building on West Main Street . In the newspaper 's printing plant on the second floor of the Wirgman Building , the Hampshire Review was printed by a hand @-@ operated Benjamin Franklin printing press .
= = = Bank of Romney = = =
Banking operations in Hampshire County ceased throughout the duration of the American Civil War , and a new banking institution was not established in Romney until 1888 . By September of that year , a coordinated effort by Romney 's leading citizens amassed subscriptions for the entirety of the initial offering of 300 shares of stock for the establishment of the Bank of Romney . The shareholders of the Bank of Romney petitioned the Secretary of State of West Virginia for a charter with capital stock totaling 30 @,@ 000 USD . Following the state 's approval of its charter , the Bank of Romney commenced its operations in the Wirgman Building on December 20 , 1888 . The bank occupied two rented rooms on the Wirgman Building 's first floor , which it shared with a pharmacy . The bank initially used a safe as its bank vault and security for the bank was provided by a nightwatchman who slept in one of the bank office 's two rooms . The Wirgman Building 's security was further enhanced with the installation of wire mesh glass and bars in the windows . During the bank 's residency at the Wirgman Building , Henry Bell Gilkeson served as the bank 's president . The Bank of Romney began to outgrow its spaces on the first floor of the Wirgman Building almost immediately after its incorporation , and in 1906 it moved across Main Street to a new bank building .
= = = First National Bank of Romney = = =
The Wirgman Building again housed a banking institution four years later when the First National Bank of Romney opened on June 11 , 1910 , utilizing the former first floor office space of the Bank of Romney . The First National Bank of Romney vacated the Wirgman Building in 1911 , when it moved to its new three @-@ story building , known as " The National Building , " at the corner of Main and High Streets across from Literary Hall . At various times from its construction around 1825 until 1911 , the Wirgman Building served as the location for every subsequent bank established in Romney since the Bank of the Valley of Virginia .
= = = Later years = = =
In its final years , the Wirgman Building housed office and mercantile spaces on its first floor , and its second floor was divided into apartments . In 1937 , the National Park Service Historic American Buildings Survey ( HABS ) photographed and documented the architectural details of the Wirgman Building . At the time of its documentation by HABS , the building was under the ownership of Mrs. W. F. Wirgman , whose family 's surname likely gave the structure its local toponym . HABS referred to the Wirgman Building as the " Valley Bank Building " in its supplemental documentation , which was completed by Archie A. Biggs . In September 1937 , the West Virginia State Road Commission released a road map highlighting the history of the Potomac Highlands through photographs , which included a feature on the Wirgman Building and Lieutenant John Blue 's escape during its tenure as a military prison during the American Civil War .
After the Wirgman Building sustained damage from a fire in 1964 , it was purchased by the Bank of Romney and demolished along with the neighboring Brady House in 1965 to make way for the construction of the bank 's new headquarters building . Having outgrown its 1906 location , the Bank of Romney returned across Main Street to the former site of the Wirgman building following completion of the new , larger headquarters facility there in 1966 .
Two historical markers in front of the Bank of Romney are the only reminders of the Wirgman Building at its original site : the first was erected by the Stonewall Jackson Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy commemorating the escape of Lieutenant John Blue from the Wirgman Building during its use as a Union Army military prison , and the second marker reads " Original Site of the Wirgman Building . Built 1825 . Razed 1965 . "
In his Buildings of West Virginia ( 2004 ) , architectural historian S. Allen Chambers asserts that of the " most significant early buildings " demolished in Romney , the Wirgman Building is one of the town 's " major losses . "
= = Architecture = =
Existing information on the architectural details of the Wirgman Building are known through the HABS supplementary documentation written by Archie A. Biggs in 1937 .
= = = Exterior = = =
The Wirgman Building was exemplary of the Federal style of architecture . It was a thick @-@ walled edifice rising two stories and constructed of brick . The building 's brickwork was built in the Flemish bond style on the building 's façade and in the American bond style on the building 's sides and on its rear face . The building 's façade along East Main Street measured 51 feet ( 16 m ) , and its sides measured 41 feet ( 12 m ) , with a rear extension measuring 34 feet ( 10 m ) in length . The building featured a brick cornice along its roofline and parapet end walls on its sides . According to HABS documentation , the building 's bricks measured 2 ¼ x 4 ¼ x 8 ½ in size .
= = = Interior = = =
A circular wall , with a six @-@ panel wooden door rounded to mimic the wall 's curvature , was located between the building 's entrance hall and its stair hall . The stairway 's balustrade in the stair hall featured turned baluster shafts and a newel crafted from maple . The stairs themselves featured scrolled step ends . HABS supplementary documentation described " Coffee grinder " style locks and paneled door jambs as features of the building 's six @-@ panel wooden doors . Its doorways were reported to have maintained their original decorative molding trim , and the fireplace mantelpieces as being " delicately done . "
= Palmetto Leaves =
Palmetto Leaves is a memoir and travel guide written by Harriet Beecher Stowe about her winters in the town of Mandarin , Florida , published in 1873 . Already famous for having written Uncle Tom 's Cabin ( 1852 ) , Stowe came to Florida after the U.S. Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) . She purchased a plantation near Jacksonville as a place for her son to recover from the injuries he had received as a Union soldier and to make a new start in life . After visiting him , she became so enamored with the region she purchased a cottage and orange grove for herself and wintered there until 1884 , even though the plantation failed within its first year . Parts of Palmetto Leaves appeared in a newspaper published by Stowe 's brother , as a series of letters and essays about life in northeast Florida .
Scion of New England clergy , Stowe keenly felt a sense of Christian responsibility that was expressed in her letters . She considered it her duty to help improve the lives of newly emancipated blacks and detailed her efforts to establish a school and church in Mandarin toward these ends . Parts of the book relate the lives of local African @-@ Americans and the customs of their society . Stowe described the charm of the region and its generally moderate climate but warned readers of " excessive " heat in the summer months and occasional cold snaps in winter . Her audience comprises relatives , friends , and strangers in New England who ask her advice about whether or not to move to Florida , which at the time was still mostly wilderness . Although it is a minor work in Stowe 's oeuvre , Palmetto Leaves was one of the first travel guides written about Florida and stimulated Florida 's first boom of tourism and residential development in the 1880s .
= = Background = =
= = = Stowe buys an estate = = =
By the time Harriet Beecher Stowe ( 1811 – 1896 ) moved to Florida in 1867 , she was already internationally famous for authoring Uncle Tom 's Cabin , published as a serial between 1851 and 1852 . The novel expounded upon her abolitionist views and was extraordinarily influential in condemning slavery in the United States . Stowe 's opposition to slavery sprang from a moral passion based on her Christian faith . She had grown up the daughter of a Presbyterian minister , Lyman Beecher ; seven of her brothers became ministers in Calvinist or Congregational denominations , and she married a minister .
In 1860 , Stowe 's son Frederick " Fred " William Stowe enlisted in the First Massachusetts Infantry Regiment when Abraham Lincoln called for volunteers in anticipation of the Civil War . Much beloved , yet troubled , Fred Stowe had developed a problem with alcohol as early as sixteen . He took to army life , however , and was promoted to lieutenant . After receiving a head wound at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 , he endured severe headaches and was forced to resign his commission . His alcoholism worsened , and he may have compounded it with a liberal use of opiates and narcotics , which were widely available .
In 1866 , Fred encountered two young farmers in Connecticut who had spent time on duty as Union soldiers in Florida during the war . He learned from them that land there was plentiful and cheap , and many recently emancipated blacks were available at low wages to work it . When he shared this information with his mother , Stowe and her husband Calvin Ellis Stowe considered it a prime opportunity to hasten their son 's rehabilitation . For $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 153 @,@ 500 in 2009 ) she purchased a cotton plantation near Orange Park , south of Jacksonville , named Laurel Grove , that was originally established by slave trader Zephaniah Kingsley in 1803 and managed in part by his African wife , Anna Madgigine Jai , until 1811 .
Stowe intended that Fred would manage the estate as he recovered from his wounds and addictions . As an extension of her abolitionist ideals , she wrote to her brother Charles Beecher , however , about her potential role in the endeavor :
My plan ... is not in any sense a mere worldly enterprise . I have for many years had a longing to be more immediately doing Christ 's work on earth . My heart is with that poor people whose cause in words I have tried to plead , and who now , ignorant and docile , are just in that formative state in which whoever seizes has them .
Corrupt politicians are already beginning to speculate on them as possible capital for their schemes and to fill their poor heads with all sorts of vagaries . Florida is the State into which they have , more than anywhere else , been pouring . Emigration is positively and decidedly setting that way ; but as yet it is mere worldly emigration , with the hope of making money , nothing more .
Charles Stowe , her son , later wrote that his mother searched for higher purpose in everything she did , from growing potatoes to writing . She wrote that the prospect of setting up a series of churches along the St. Johns River would be the best way to train former slaves , remarking " I long to be at this work and cannot think of it without my heart burning within me " . Florida was little populated and developed : it had just a fraction of the population of Georgia and Alabama . South of Ocala , approximately two people lived per square mile .
Florida 's school system was in disarray at the end of the Civil War ; in 1866 a Northerner named A. E. Kinne noted there were fewer schools for white children than freedmen 's schools for black children . In 1860 , there were no official schools for black children and slaves were prohibited from any education . At the same time , there were 97 public schools for white children and 40 private academies for them , some of which appeared to get public funding . In May 1865 , the total Florida population was 154 @,@ 000 , and an estimated 47 % of it was black , almost all of whom were former slaves . A difference in attitudes about education between the races was apparent as freed blacks saw education as the key to increasing their opportunities , or at least escaping conditions they had endured during servitude .
= = = Transformation and failure = = =
In the late winter of 1867 , Stowe followed her son to Florida , finding that the warmer weather allowed her to spend more time on two novels she was writing . Her first weeks in Orange Park utterly transformed her and she became enchanted with Florida at once , writing that she felt she had sprouted wings and become " young & frisky " . She accompanied her son one day to collect the mail , which was deposited in Mandarin , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) across the St. Johns River . They rowed to the eastern shore and Stowe fell in love with a cottage in Mandarin , attached to an orange grove . Stowe 's transformation in Florida was rooted in her identification and familiarity with Puritan New England : industry and thrift in a climate where cold sharpened one 's senses and values . The laid @-@ back attitude of the people and warmth of the Southern climate were seductive . She at first attempted to persuade her brother Charles to purchase the land in Mandarin , writing to him and asking " How do you think New England theology would have fared had been landed here instead of Plymouth Rock ? " She wrote about the land and climate intoxicating her and pondered the effect it might have had on literature when she posed an idea to her publisher : " I hate to leave my calm isle of Patmos — where the world is not and I have such quiet long hours for writing . [ Ralph Waldo ] Emerson could insulate himself here and keep his electricity . [ Nathaniel ] Hawthorne ought to have lived in an orange grove in Florida . "
Within a year , Laurel Grove failed . Fred was inexperienced and made poor bargains with local merchants . Before the war , plantations had been largely self @-@ sufficient , but Fred paid high prices for goods shipped in from Savannah and Charleston . He took days off at a time to visit saloons in Jacksonville . An unanticipated infestation of cotton @-@ worm larvae ( Helicoverpa zea ) destroyed much of the cotton crop . Only two bales were produced by Laurel Grove ; Stowe realized the venture was a failure . Fred committed himself to a rehabilitation asylum in New York , and at some point in 1867 , Stowe purchased the cottage and the attached grove in Mandarin .
Citrus was distributed primarily in a regional market and was a luxury in northern cities ; oranges in New York sold for about 50 cents per fruit . The acreage attached to the house Stowe purchased could produce an income of $ 2 @,@ 000 a month ( $ 30 @,@ 700 in 2009 ) . Stowe wrote to author George Eliot to update her on the progress of improvements to the house in Mandarin , putting up wallpaper , improving plaster , and building a veranda that wrapped around the structure . She took pains not to disturb a giant oak and instead built the veranda around the tree . The house could accommodate as many as 17 family members and friends .
From 1868 to 1884 , Stowe split her time between her residence in Hartford , Connecticut , a mansion named Oakholm , and her house in Mandarin . A few weeks before Christmas each year , she would oversee arrangements to close Oakholm for the season , which involved preparing the house for the winter , packing all their clothes , living necessities , her writing materials , and the carpets in the house and shipping everything to Florida . Various family members would accompany her , living in the comfortable two @-@ story house she modestly called a " cottage " or " hut " . In Hartford she was barraged with requests and at the center of a whirl of activity . Mandarin was not connected to a telegraph line until the 1880s and mail was received only once a week by boat . Stowe was able to relax somewhat in Mandarin and write for at least three hours a day .
= = Description of text and publication = =
Stowe remained active , attending speaking engagements , writing , traveling frequently and publishing several novels while she was wintering in Mandarin . Though she promised her publishers , J. R. Osgood , another novel , she instead compiled a series of articles about Florida and letters to relatives in New England about her daily life . Some of them were first published in Christian Union , a local New England newspaper established by her brother Henry Ward Beecher . In all , twenty chapters make up Palmetto Leaves that vary in tone depending upon Stowe 's audience . " Buying land in Florida " , " Florida for Invalids " , and " Our Experience in Crops " are addressed more to general readers who may be considering moving to the region . Some essays are directed to describing the best sights in the area , such as " Flowery January in Florida " , " Picnicking up Julington " , " The Grand Tour up River " , and " St. Augustine " . A more personal touch is included in chapters entitled " A Letter to the Girls " , " Letter @-@ Writing " , and " Our Neighbor Over the Way " as Stowe includes intimate details about her daily life in Mandarin . Her observations of the state and characteristics of emancipated slaves are mentioned intermittently in letters and essays , but the final two chapters , " Old Cudjo and The Angel " and " Laborers of The South " , are dedicated solely to this topic .
Palmetto Leaves was not Stowe 's first travel memoir . In 1854 she published Sunny Memoirs of Foreign Lands about her first trip to Europe , a book unique as an American woman 's view of Europe . She followed this with Agnes of Sorrento that appeared as a serial in The Atlantic Monthly from 1861 to 1862 . Source material for Agnes of Sorrento was culled from her observations of and experiences in Italy , collected during her third trip to Europe , which she took with her family . Olav Thulesius , author of Harriet Beecher Stowe in Florida , recognizes Stowe 's tendency to spin everything she saw into something selectively positive . Stowe addressed this in the foreword to Sunny Memoirs of Foreign Lands , writing :
If the criticism be made that every thing is given couleur de rose , the answer is , Why not ? If there be characters and scenes that seem drawn with too bright a pencil , the reader will consider that , after all , there are many worse sins than disposition to think and speak well of one 's neighbors .
The object of publishing these letters is , therefore , to give to those who are true @-@ hearted and honest the same agreeable picture of life and manners which met the writer 's own eyes .
Because little was known about the region , the elements of its climate , citrus , water , and general ideas about illness and health , Stowe was possibly first among several authors and advertising schemes that portrayed Florida as an exotic place of natural wonders and powers that could rejuvenate frail health . What travel writers published on Florida were exaggerated claims , readily accepted by audiences hungry for escapist literature . Biographer Forrest Wilson considers the finished product , Palmetto Leaves — published in 1873 — to be the first promotional writing about Florida ever . Occasionally letters about the state were printed in local newspapers in the North , but because Florida was still very much a rugged wilderness , Northerners really had no concept of what the region was like . Rather besotted with the marvelous properties she saw in the orange , Stowe intended to call the book Orange Blossoms , but changed the title to better express the plant that proliferated the region the most .
= = Subject and themes = =
= = = Duty and calling = = =
In the first chapter of Palmetto Leaves , Stowe tells how she takes a steamer to Savannah , Georgia . On board is a stray dog who begs scraps of food and affection from the passengers . It finally becomes attached to a woman on board and follows her around . At Savannah , the dog is thrown into the street by the porters and waiters at the hotel , and is eventually left behind . Stowe compares the dog and the people who care for such stray animals to Christian ideals to take care of the poor and suffering .
The impressive orange tree served as a metaphor for Stowe in Palmetto Leaves . She calls it " the fairest , the noblest , the most generous , it is the most surprising and abundant of all trees which the Lord God caused to grow eastward in Eden " , and compares it to her task of educating emancipated slaves . When she first arrived in Mandarin , from 1868 to 1870 , religious services were held in the Stowes ' home , with Calvin presiding and Stowe teaching Sunday School to both black and white children and sometimes serving as an acolyte during services . Stowe purchased a lot in 1869 to build a church for her neighbors that would double as a school to educate children , freed slaves , and anyone eager to learn . Though she encountered considerable frustration in dealing with the bureaucracy of the Freedmen 's Bureau , construction was finished within a year and a teacher was in place , procured from Brooklyn , New York . Stowe had an organ that was rolled from her home to the church , but after it became too difficult to roll back and forth , they locked it in a closet in the school . The building burned down to Stowe 's deep dismay , probably because of some drifters who spent the night in it and caught the southern pine wood on fire from carelessness , although Olav Thulesius suggests it was arson committed by Stowe 's neighbors who did not appreciate her efforts to educate black children . After a frost in 1835 , the orange trees in north Florida were killed , even underground , but they sprouted back only to be assaulted by insects , yet they recovered . While her neighbors helped to raise funds to rebuild the church , Stowe and the small community handed spellers to local blacks who were eager to learn . She decried the delay in the children 's education : " To see people who are willing and anxious to be taught growing up in ignorance is the sorest sight that can afflict one " .
= = = Florida and daily life in Mandarin = = =
From her first sight of Florida , Stowe was greatly impressed . In Palmetto Leaves , she sings the praises of Florida in January as a beautiful land capable of producing superior citrus and flowers . In several letters Stowe describes the abundant plant life in the area , dedicating a chapter to yellow jessmines ( Gelsemium sempervirens ) and another to magnolia ( Magnolia grandiflora ) flowers . She details watching sugarcane pressed into sugar crystals , going visiting with her elderly and obstinate mule named Fly , and discovering the myriad things to find in the woods and what can be made of them . She also keeps a cardinal ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) in a cage and four cats , but sadly reports later in the year that all four cats have died , to the relief and joy of Phœbus the cardinal .
In an honest description of the disadvantages of Florida , Stowe attempts to disabuse readers of the notion that the region is perfect . She writes , " In New England Nature is an up @-@ and @-@ down smart , decisive , housemother that has her times and seasons and brings up her ends of life with a positive jerk " and contrasts that characterization with Nature in Florida , an " indulgent old grandmother , who has no particular time for any thing and does every thing when she happens to feel like it " . Those who wish to live in Florida , Stowe warns , must also get to know its deficiencies : occasional freezing weather in winter , unsculptable lawns , insects and snakes , and people who disagree as they do everywhere else . Were Florida a woman , Stowe writes , she would be a dark brunette , full of jolly untidiness . Malaria is a fact of life , and Stowe cautions Northerners who may be lured to the region by tales of the mild climate to understand that temperature extremes are common , taking particular effort to address consumptives , or those afflicted with tuberculosis . Those who consider moving to the region should weigh all these issues before making their decisions . In The Journal of Southern History , Susan Eacker attests that Stowe 's assignment of female characteristics to Florida coincided with her own gradual admission that she may be turning into a " woman 's rights woman " .
Stowe recounts several sailing trips she takes on the St. Johns and Julington Creek and the animals she sees during her excursion , appreciating the alligators , " water @-@ turkeys " ( Anhinga anhinga ) , and " fish @-@ hawks " , or ospreys ( Pandion haliaetus ) . Long an animal lover , she took her dogs , cats , and birds with her as part of the " earthquake " of the annual relocation from Hartford to Mandarin . She extended this care to other animals as well . In Naples , Italy , she once got out of a carriage to walk as it was being pulled up a steep hill by two beleaguered horses that were being whipped by the driver , and asked her companions and guide to do the same . Not only did she write the first travel guide to Florida , but Stowe also became the first defender of wild animals . She pays particular attention in Palmetto Leaves to hunters who shoot at anything they see . Not taking offense at hunting for the sake of eating , Stowe laments killing for its own sake : " it must be something that enjoys and can suffer ; something that loves life , and must lose it " . In 1877 she followed her book with a pamphlet that urged the cessation of the slaughter of Florida 's wading birds , whose feathers were selling at the price of gold and used in women 's hats .
= = = Emancipated slaves = = =
The final two letters in Palmetto Leaves address the newly freed slaves in Florida . Two strong women who are less docile than Stowe is accustomed are included . One , a field hand turned domestic named Minnah , whom Stowe has tried in vain to teach how to do household chores , is so forthright in her speech that Stowe writes , " Democracy never assumes a more rampant form than in some of these old negresses , who would say their screed to the king on his throne if they died for it the next minute . Accordingly , Minnah 's back was marked and scored with the tyrant 's answers to free speech . " Minnah eventually returns happily to the fields . Another , Judy , is complacent and enjoys taking mornings and afternoons off to see to her husband . Stowe attributes their work ethic to poor training and " the negligent habits inducted by slavery " ; the truly talented and hard @-@ working black laborers had moved on from homesteads to industry , able to demand their own price for their labors .
Although Stowe describes Minnah and Judy with some tempered exasperation , she praises a riverboat stewardess named Commodore Rose . Once a slave owned by the captain , Rose had since been freed for saving his life during a boating accident and continues to work for him following emancipation . She is as forthright as Minnah and Judy , but Rose knows every portion of the river as well as the houses and sites along the banks , and their histories . Her knowledge of the ship and its guests is unparalleled , and all the crew and guests revere her opinion in all matters .
In another story , Stowe and Calvin meet a man on a Mandarin dock who has been cheated out of much the land he was given by the government . Named Old Cudjo , he worked the small homestead on which he grew cotton for years . Where at first the neighbors surrounding the colony of former slaves from South Carolina were hesitant and suspicious , Old Cudjo and his colony were so industrious and honest that they won their white neighbors over . One who was a justice of the peace intervened on his behalf and Old Cudjo 's land was returned to him . Stowe 's final chapter is dedicated to defending the notion that blacks should be employed to help build the state of Florida to transform it from a wilderness into a civilization . They are better suited for work in the hot sun , more resistant to malaria , and are trustworthy and extremely eager to learn . She also dedicates a few pages to her interested observations on their culture as she details overhearing their festivities at night and sitting outside an informal church service .
= = Reception and criticism = =
Palmetto Leaves became a best @-@ seller for Stowe and was released in several editions . It was published again in 1968 as part of Bicentennial Floridiana , a series of original facsimile texts about the history of the state . It was so popular that through publishing it , Stowe virtually ruined the peace and quiet she sought in Mandarin to be able to work . The year following the publication of Palmetto Leaves , Stowe reported that 14 @,@ 000 tourists had visited North Florida . Two years after its initial publication , a writer working for Harper 's magazine noted that Stowe was " besieged by hundreds of visitors , who do not seem to understand that she is not an exhibition " .
Stowe 's house , which was located on the bank of the St. Johns River , became a tourist attraction , as riverboats shuffling tourists from Jacksonville to Palatka or Green Cove Springs passed close by and slowed , so the captains could point out her home to their clients . Eventually a dock was built so that visitors could come ashore and peek into the windows of the home . One , who dared to pull down a tree branch covered with orange blossoms in full bloom over the Stowe 's veranda , was chased off the property by Calvin . Local residents who held Stowe in less than high regard insinuated that she worked with the enterprising riverboat captains to pose for tourists .
Stowe was among several authors who wrote about Florida following the Civil War . By far , the majority were men who concentrated on hunting prospects , but the women who wrote about the region often used an adolescent narrator who was usually male as a device to describe their encounters with the novelty of what they saw . Stowe wrote simply as herself , something that may have been allowed because of her celebrity . Gene Burnett , author of Florida 's Past : People and Events That Shaped the State writes :
Harriet was probably never fully aware of how great had been her influence in advertising Florida to the country , turning it from an obscure down under tip on the map into a beckoning , lush , tropical paradise , to which tens of thousands would flock to help build a state over the following decades . She herself would doubtless have viewed it as a fitting Christian act to help restore a prostrate , defeated brotherland to its feet ; Florida 's first promoter was merely a Good Samaritan .
Uncle Tom 's Cabin was clearly Stowe 's magnum opus ( although she considered Old Town Folks , which was written while she was in Mandarin , to have that designation ) , as Stowe family history recalls that Abraham Lincoln entertained the author during a visit to the White House , and greeted her by saying " So this is the little lady who made this big war ? " Compared to it , Palmetto Leaves is considered a minor work and is rarely included in the canon of criticism about Stowe 's writings . The Cambridge Introduction to Literature series on Stowe addresses it briefly , however , noting that the mixed essay and letter format make it " uneven in quality and unstable in stance " . More assertive criticism was directed toward Stowe 's portrayals of the local Mandarin blacks . Cambridge Introduction to Literature author Sarah Robbins called it " downright offensive " and declared that Stowe negated her own attempts to persuade her readers that emancipated slaves were industrious and could assist in rebuilding the South of their own volition by including unflattering descriptions of their physical features — comparing Old Cudjo to a baboon , for example — and writing that supervising and taking care of them was necessary . Susan Eacker agrees , writing that Stowe 's views were representative of the majority of white Americans ' ideas of where blacks should be in the social scheme of the New South .
= = Post @-@ publication = =
The effects of Stowe 's writings about Florida were duly noted by authorities . Her brother Charles purchased his own land upon her recommendation , not in Mandarin but in Newport near Tallahassee . During a visit to his home in 1874 , she and a few Northern investors had an audience with Governor Marcellus Stearns . They were met by his cabinet and staff on the steps of the state capitol building — which was festooned with greenery and a large welcome sign for the occasion — and they gave Stowe a round of loud and exuberant cheers .
In 1882 Stowe purchased a plot of land in Mandarin on the St. Johns to build the Mandarin Church of Our Saviour , the dedication of which she attended . The windows of the church were installed by its benefactors . Calvin 's health began to fade and in 1884 the Stowe family left Mandarin forever to spend the rest of their years in Hartford . He died two years later and Stowe asked to add a window in the Mandarin church in his memory , but it remained plain glass for 30 years . The church 's parishioners remained so loyal to Stowe that they neglected to suggest an alternate plan for the window . Stowe declined into a childlike state after 1894 , losing much of her memory but keeping her fascination with plants and flowers as she would wander Hartford exclaiming over those she came across . She died in 1896 .
A frost in 1886 killed much of the orange industry in Mandarin and the town saw an economic decline . In 1916 , an ornate stained glass window constructed by Louis Comfort Tiffany was installed in the Church of Our Saviour , depicting a large oak tree overlooking the river . The church and Mandarin residents offered no more than $ 500 for the window ; for three years ten cent subscriptions were raised around Mandarin , and notices were placed in New York magazines to solicit finances for it . Although scholars have stated that Stowe 's efforts to educate local blacks were ultimately unsuccessful , the woman who spearheaded the fundraising effort for the memorial window noted that the project was enthusiastically supported by local black churches and residents , who gave what they could out of affection for Stowe , remembering that she taught some of them to read . The window probably cost Tiffany $ 850 ( $ 18 @,@ 206 in 2009 ) , and though there is no record of exactly how much Tiffany was paid , he took the project on because he liked the design : the tree , the moss , the Southern motif , and because it was to memorialize the Stowes . He probably made no profit from it .
Beneath it read " In that hour , fairer than daylight dawning / Remains the glorious thought , I am with Thee " , part of a hymn penned by Stowe . The school Stowe sponsored closed in 1929 . Following Stowe 's departure , the next owners of the house turned it into a lodge named after her . It closed in the 1940s and was subsequently replaced by a spacious home ; what survives is the 500 @-@ year @-@ old oak tree , which the Stowes built around instead of removing . The oak had continued to grow and upset the foundation of the new home .
The stained glass window became a tourist attraction and the last memorial to Stowe in Florida ; in later decades some of the parishioners and clergy had doubts about its " churchliness " as it was a rare depiction in an Anglican church not referencing a Biblical theme . In 1964 Hurricane Dora destroyed the Church of Our Saviour , including the stained glass window . Across the street , is the Mandarin Community Club , the former school sponsored by Stowe ; the structure was given to Mandarin in 1936 . It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Mandarin has since grown into a suburb of the expansive city of Jacksonville .
Artist Christopher Still created an oil on linen painting named The Okeehumkee on the Oklawaha River that hangs in the Florida House of Representatives . It is one of a series of images that encompass symbols of cultural and historical significance to Florida that were commissioned by the State of Florida in 1999 and completed in 2002 . Palmetto Leaves is shown lying next to a large alligator and hollowed tree trunk in front of a riverboat passing through a swamp .
= Yantaromyrmex =
Yantaromyrmex is an extinct genus of ants first described in 2013 . Members of this genus are in the subfamily Dolichoderinae of the family Formicidae , known from Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene fossils found in Europe . The genus currently contains five described species , Y. constrictus , Y. geinitzi , Y. intermedius , Y. mayrianum and Y. samlandicus . The first specimens were collected in 1868 and studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr , who originally placed the fossils in other ant genera until the fossils were reviewed and subsequently placed into their own genus . These ants are small , measuring from 4 to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) in length and can be characterized by their trapazoidal shaped head @-@ capsules and oval compound eyes that are located slightly to the rear of the capsules midpoint , with no known ocelli present .
= = Distribution = =
Individuals of Yantaromyrmex species have been found as inclusions in four different Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene amber deposits in Europe . Baltic amber is approximately 46 million years old , having been deposited during the Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene . There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by , with evidence supporting them being relatives of either Agathis or Pseudolarix . Rovno amber , recovered from deposits in the Rivne region of Ukraine , is slightly younger in age , being dated to the Bartonian to Priabonian of the Late Eocene . Bitterfeld amber is recovered from coal deposits in the Saxony area of Germany and the dating of the deposits is uncertain . Bitterfeld represents a section of the Eocene Paratethys Sea , and the amber that is recovered from the region is thought to be redeposited from older sediments . The fossil record of Bitterfeld and Baltic amber insects is very similar with a number of shared species , and that similarity is noted in the suggestions of a single source for the paleoforest that produced the amber . The amber deposits on the Danish coast , often referred to as Scandinavian amber , is of similar age to the other three European ambers , however a study of the ant fauna publushed in 2009 indicates Scandinavian amber has a fairly distinct ant assemblage . Y. constricta and Y. geinitzi are both identified from all four European ambers , while Y. samlandicus has been described from Baltic , Bitterfeld and Rovno fossils . Y. intermedius and Y. mayrianum , are each known from only a few fossils , Y. intermedius from only a single Bitterfeld amber fossil while Y. mayrianum is known from a Baltic amber and a Rovno amber fossil .
= = History and classification = =
The type specimens of Y. geinitzi and Y. constrictus were collected in 1868 , and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg 's amber collection . The fossils were initially studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the two species in the genus Hypoclinea , now considered a junior synonym of the living genus Dolichoderus . Mayr 's 1868 type descriptions of the new species were published in the journal Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens . All the Y. samlandicus syntypes were collected by 1915 , and the first 73 described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection . These fossils were first studied by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler , whose type description of " Iridomyrmex " samlandica was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch @-@ Ökonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg . Both Y. geinitzi and Y. constrictus were both moved from Hypoclinea to the small related genus Bothriomyrmex in 1873 by Dalla Torre . In his 1915 paper The ants of Baltic Amber Wheeler suggested both species and the newly named " I. " samlandica would be better placed in the genus Iridomyrmex and noted Y. geinitzi to be one of the most abundant ant species in the Baltic amber he had studied .
Wheeler based the placement on the structuring of the labial and maxillary palpi . This placement was unchallenged until the genus was reviewed , redefined and split up in 1992 by Steven Shattuck . In his review , Iridomyrmex was split into a more restricted genus group while the other species which did not match the definition of that genus were moved to other genera . At that time Shattuck provisionally kept Y. geinitzi in Iridomyrmex citing a lack of specimens for him to study , while both Y. constrictus and Y. samlandicus were transferred to the genus Anonychomyrma . The placements of Y. geinitzi was retained until 2011 when Shattuck and Brian Heterick again reviewed Iridomyrmex . With more fossils to study and based on a number of characters , Y. geinitzi was also moved to Anonychomyrma . The three species were reviewed again , this time in 2013 . The species were examined by Russian entomologists G.M. Dlussky and D.A. Dubovikoff , who they came to the conclusion that the three species , along with two unnamed species , were distinct from Anonychomyrma and Iridomyrmex . Based on the differences they noted , Dlussky and Dubovikoff erected the new genus Yantaromyrmex in 2013 for these ants and described two new species , Y. intermedius and Y. mayrinaum . The name is a combination of the Russian word янтарь , translated as yantar , meaning " amber " and the Greek μυρμήγκα which means " ant " . They noted the new species name intermedius was derived from the Latin word of that same spelling , meaning " intermediate " . They chose the name mayrianum to honor Gustav Mayr for his work as a myrmecologist .
= = Description = =
The genus is characterized by workers which have head @-@ capsules that are trapazoidal in shape , narrowing at the front and widening towards the rear of the capsule . The oval compound eyes are generally placed slightly to the rear of the capsules midpoint , and lacking ocelli completely . The mandibles have a number of teeth along the masticatory margin ( the middle area of the mandibles ) and an overall triangular shape . The gaster has a flat first tergite that does not cover the petiole , a flat fourth abdominal sternite .
= = = Y. constrictus = = =
Overall Y. constrictus can be distinguished from the congeneric Y. geinitzi in several ways . Y. geinitzi individuals are overall more gracile in form with a less constricted mesonotum and the mesosoma has a less convex appearance . Y. constrictus specimens have maxillary palps ( sensory organs ) which are six @-@ jointed , labial palps which are four jointed , and an abundantly hairy body . The antennae have a scape ( the first segment of the antenna ) which just passes the back @-@ edge of the head capsule on both female and ergatomorphic ( male ) workers . The ergatomorphs have larger and more rounded compound eyes than the workers , and the antennae are overall longer than in the workers . Both males and workers have a five segmented gaster and the males are distinguished by the slightly protruding stipites ( the second segment of the maxilla ) at the tip of segment five .
= = = Y. geinitzi = = =
Overall Y. geinitzi can be distinguished from the related Baltic amber species Y. constricta in several ways . Y. geinitzi individuals are overall more gracile in form with a less constricted mesonotum and the mesosoma has a less convex appearance . Y. geinitzi specimens have maxillary palps which are six @-@ jointed , labial palps which are four jointed , and the clypeal border is sinuately indented in the middle . The pupae which Wheeler referred to the species are noted to not have any cocoon unlike the modern larvae of some ant subfamilies which will spin a cocoon to pupate in . The eyes of Y. geinitzi are placed more to the front and sides of the head capsule than seen in Iridomyrmex species . Due to the shape of Y. geinitzi , the species may have been a herpetobiont ( an inhabitant of the soils surface ) , but scientists suggest that these ants inhabited trees , dwelling inside epiphytes and dead plant material ( such as branches ) .
= = = Y. intermedius = = =
The only specimen of Y. intermedius is 4 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) that has several cracks surrounding it , and areas of white " mold " coatings . The indent behind the propodeum ( the first abdominal segment ) is deep , the connection between the segment and the thorax is wide and covered in wrinkles of the exoskeleton . The propodeum has an angular appearance with a rounded corner when viewed from the side . This separates the species from both Y. geinitzi and Y. mayrianum . The legs of Y. intermedius are generally free of hairs while the mesosoma and head have only a few sparse hairs on the upper surface . This is different then the much hairier Y. constrictus which always has numerous erect hairs on the body and legs . The high conical propodeum and scape which does not extend to the edge ofhte head capsule isolate Y. intermedius from Y. samlandicus . The right antennae of the type specimen is preserved with the head of a Ctenobethylus goepperti worker ant clamped near the tip , and it seems the two had just fought prior to entombment .
= = = Y. mayrianum = = =
Workers of Y. mayrianum range in length from approximately 4 to 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) and look very similar to workers of Y. geinitzi . In both species the indent behind the first abdominal segment is broader and shallower then seen in Y. constrictus , Y. samlandicus and Y. intermedius . Also unlike the other three species the first abdominal segments surface is smooth and unsculptured . Y. mayrianum can be distinguished from Y. geinitzi by the amount of hairs found on the workers body . In Y. mayrianum there is abundant erect hair covering the entire body , on the underside head capsule and along the eye margins and leg undersides . In contrast Y. geinitzi workers have smooth eye margins and legs , and a sparse scattering of hairs on the mseosoma , last segments of the abdomen and along the upper side of the head .
= = = Y. samlandicus = = =
Y. samlandicus specimens have maxillary palps which are six jointed , labial palps which are four jointed , and a total body length between 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 22 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) . The antennae each possess twelve segments and a scape that curves at the base . The thorax is narrower in profile than the head capsule , reaching its widest in the broad flattened pronotum . The petiole is notably broad and short , having a high node that has a rounded point on the upper side . Y. samlandicus specimens have fine to coarse punctuation ( small spots ) across the head and thorax and an overall coloration that is black , though some specimens have a reddish tone to the legs or antennae .
= Queen Elizabeth Way =
The Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario linking Toronto with the Niagara Peninsula and Buffalo , New York . The freeway begins at the Peace Bridge in Fort Erie and travels 139 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 86 @.@ 4 mi ) around the western shore of Lake Ontario , ending at Highway 427 . The physical highway , however , continues as the Gardiner Expressway into downtown Toronto . The QEW is one of Ontario 's busiest highways , with an average of close to 200 @,@ 000 vehicles per day on some sections . Major highway junctions are located at Highway 420 in Niagara Falls , Highway 405 in Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake and Highway 406 in St. Catharines , the Red Hill Valley Parkway in Hamilton , Highway 403 and Highway 407 in Burlington , Highway 403 at the Oakville – Mississauga boundary and Highway 427 in Etobicoke . Within the Regional Municipality of Halton , the QEW is signed concurrently with Highway 403 .
The history of the QEW dates back to 1931 , when work began to widen the Middle Road in a similar fashion to the nearby Dundas Highway and Lakeshore Road as a relief project during the Great Depression . Following the 1934 provincial election , Ontario Minister of Highways Thomas McQuesten and his deputy minister Robert Melville Smith changed the design to be similar to the autobahns of Germany , dividing the opposite directions of travel and using grade @-@ separated interchanges at major crossroads . When it was initially opened to traffic in 1937 , it was the first intercity divided highway in North America and featured the longest stretch of consistent illumination in the world . While not a true freeway at the time , it was gradually upgraded , widened and modernized beginning in the 1950s , more or less taking on its current form by 1975 . Since then , various projects have continued to widen the route . In 1997 , the provincial government turned over the responsibility for the section of the QEW between Highway 427 and the Humber River to the City of Toronto . This section was subsequently redesignated as part of the Gardiner Expressway .
= = Name and signage = =
The Queen Elizabeth Way was named for the wife of King George VI who would later become known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother . It is sometimes referred to as the Queen E. In 1939 , the royal couple toured Canada and the United States in part to bolster support for the United Kingdom in anticipation of war with Nazi Germany , and also to mark George VI 's coronation . The highway received its name to commemorate the visit ; it was unveiled on June 7 as the King and Queen drove across the Henley Creek bridge in St. Catharines . Originally , the entire length of the highway featured stylized light standards with the letters " ER " , the Royal Cypher for Elizabeth Regina , the Latin equivalent to " Queen Elizabeth " . While mostly removed , they remain in place on three bridges along the route of the highway : in Mississauga over the Credit River , in Oakville over Bronte Creek , and in St. Catharines over Twelve Mile Creek . A short section of Highway 420 and its extension Falls Avenue in Niagara Falls had replicas of these light standards installed in 2002 .
The markers identifying the QEW have always used blue lettering on a yellow background instead of the black @-@ on @-@ white scheme used on other provincial highway markers . They originally showed the highway 's full name only in small letters , with the large script letters " ER " placed where the highway number is on other signs . In 1955 , these were changed to the current design , with the lettering " QEW " . Although the QEW has no posted highway number , it is considered to be part of the Province of Ontario 's 400 @-@ series highway network . The Ministry of Transportation of Ontario designates the QEW as Highway 451 for internal , administrative purposes .
A monument was originally located in the highway median at the Toronto terminus of the highway , dedicated to the 1939 visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and known as the Lucky Lion . Carved on @-@ site under the direction of Frances Loring for C $ 12 @,@ 000 ( in 1940 , $ 190 @,@ 000 adjusted for inflation ) , it consisted of a column with a crown at the top and a lion at the base . The monument was removed in 1972 in order to accommodate widening of the original QEW , and relocated in August 1975 to the nearby Sir Casimir Gzowski Park along Lake Ontario , on the east side of the Humber River .
= = Route description = =
The QEW is a 139 km ( 86 mi ) route that travels from the Peace Bridge – which connects Fort Erie with Buffalo , New York – to Toronto , the economic hub of the province . The freeway circles the western lakehead of Lake Ontario , cutting through Niagara Falls , St. Catharines , Hamilton , Burlington , Oakville and Mississauga en route . A 22 km ( 14 mi ) portion of the freeway is signed concurrently with Highway 403 . Unlike other provincial highways in Ontario , the QEW is directionally signed using locations along the route as opposed to cardinal directions . Driving towards Toronto , the route is signed as " QEW Toronto " throughout its length . In the opposing direction , it is signed as " QEW Hamilton " , " QEW Niagara " and " QEW Fort Erie " depending on the location .
= = = Fort Erie – St. Catharines = = =
The Queen Elizabeth Way begins at the foot of the Peace Bridge , which crosses the border with the United States and connects the QEW with I @-@ 190 in Buffalo , New York . A customs booth is located between the bridge and the freeway , beyond which a toll is charged to Canada @-@ bound drivers . West of there , access is provided to nearby Highway 3 and the Niagara Parkway . Through customs , the freeway proper begins , immediately curving northwest . Within the town of Fort Erie , interchanges provide access to and from the freeway at Central Avenue , Concession Road , Thompson Road , Gilmore Road and Bowen Road . While there is some urban development at the beginning of the freeway , the majority of the first 25 km ( 16 mi ) are located within lowland forests . Numerous creeks flow through these forests , often flooding them . The Willoughby Marsh Conservation Area lies southwest of the freeway approximately 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Niagara Falls . After an interchange with Lyons Creek Road , the freeway curves northward .
After crossing the Welland River , the original route of the Welland Canal , the freeway exits the forests and enters agricultural land surrounding the suburbs of Niagara Falls , which the highway enters north of the McLeod Road interchange . Within the city , Highway 420 meets the QEW at a large stack interchange , which replaced the former Lundy 's Lane / Highway 20 interchange . Exiting the northern fringe of the city , the freeway curves northwest and begins to descend through the Niagara Escarpment , a World Biosphere Reserve . Highway 405 , also known as the General Brock Parkway , merges with the QEW along the short rural stretch between Niagara Falls and St. Catharines . While there is no Toronto @-@ bound access , Niagara @-@ bound drivers can follow Highway 405 to Lewiston , New York . The QEW continues west into St. Catharines .
= = = St. Catharines – Burlington = = =
As the Queen Elizabeth Way enters St. Catharines , it ascends onto the Garden City Skyway to cross the Welland Canal . The 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) structure replaced the lift bridge located south of it , one of two major bottlenecks prior to the early 1960s , and is one of two high @-@ level skyways along the length of the route . As the QEW was the first long distance freeway in North America , several modern engineering concepts were not considered and further expansion of the highway is inhibited by the proximity of properties throughout most of its length . Consequently , most of the route beyond the Welland Canal is sandwiched between service roads which provide access to and from the QEW as well as to local businesses and residences . After passing the Ontario Street ( Regional Road 42 ) interchange , the freeway crosses Martindale Pond , which forms the mouth of Twelve Mile Creek . West of the crossing is an interchange with Highway 406 , which travels south to Welland , after which the QEW crosses out of St. Catharines and into the town of Lincoln at Fifteen Mile Creek .
Throughout Lincoln , the QEW travels along the Lake Ontario shoreline through the Niagara Fruit Belt ; numerous wineries line the south side of the freeway . Interchanges at Victoria Road ( Regional Road 24 ) and Ontario Street ( Regional Road 18 ) provide access to the communities of Vineland and Beamsville , respectively . The latter encroaches upon the south side of the QEW , interrupting the otherwise agricultural surroundings of the highway in Lincoln . Immediately east of the Bartlett Avenue interchange , the freeway enters Grimsby , where it becomes sandwiched between the Niagara Escarpment and Lake Ontario . The route passes under three overpasses that have remained unchanged since the highway was built : Maple Avenue , Ontario Street and Christie Street , all served by a single diamond interchange . South of the 50 Point Conservation Area , the freeway exits Niagara Region and enters the city of Hamilton .
Within Hamilton , the highway passes almost entirely within an industrial park , with interchanges at 50 Road , Fruitland Road and Centennial Parkway ( formerly Highway 20 ) . The third is intertwined with the Red Hill Valley Parkway interchange , completed in 2009 . From here , the freeway curves northwest onto Burlington Beach and begins to ascend the Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway Bridge , the second high @-@ level bridge along the route . As it crosses over the entrance to Hamilton Harbour , the freeway enters the Regional Municipality of Halton and descends into the city of Burlington .
= = = Burlington – Toronto = = =
After descending into Burlington , the QEW crosses former Highway 2 before it encounters the Freeman Interchange , opened in 1958 to allow construction of Highway 403 and expanded in 1999 to accommodate Highway 407 . The freeway curves to the east , becoming concurrent with Highway 403 through Burlington and Oakville within Halton Region . The two routes travel east straight though a commercial office area . Service roads reappear through this stretch to serve businesses fronting the highway . The segment includes high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes , opened in 2011 , which required the construction of a second structure over Sixteen Mile Creek . In the eastern end of Oakville , the route curves northeast , passing the Ford Motor Assembly Plant . Highway 403 diverges and travels north as the QEW curves back to the east and enters Mississauga and Peel Region .
Within Mississauga , the freeway encounters its narrowest right @-@ of @-@ way , sandwiched between residential subdivisions on either side that prevent further expansion of the busy route . It crosses the Credit River Valley , where a second bridge is currently under construction . The segment east of the Credit River is being examined for expansion possibilities , but like the previous section there is little room for more lanes without property acquisition . After crossing Etobicoke Creek , which forms the boundary between Mississauga / Peel Region and Toronto , the route curves eastward to meet Highway 427 at a large sprawling interchange . The QEW formerly continued beyond this interchange to the old Toronto city limits at the Humber River ; this section was downloaded from provincial to municipal ownership on April 1 , 1997 , and became part of the Gardiner Expressway .
= = History = =
= = = The Middle Road = = =
As automobile use in southern Ontario grew in the early 20th century , road design and construction advanced significantly . A major issue faced by planners was the improvement of the routes connecting Toronto and Hamilton , which were consistently overburdened by the growing traffic levels . Following frequent erosion of the former macadamized Lakeshore Road , a cement road known as the Toronto – Hamilton Highway was proposed in January 1914 . The highway was designed to run along the lake shore , instead of Dundas Street to the north , because the numerous hills encountered along Dundas would have increased costs without improving accessibility . Middle Road , a dirt lane named because of its position between the two , was not considered since Lakeshore and Dundas were both overcrowded and in need of serious repairs . Construction began on November 8 , 1914 , but dragged on throughout the ongoing war . It was formally opened on November 24 , 1917 , 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) wide and nearly 64 km ( 40 mi ) long . It was the first concrete road in Ontario , as well as one of the longest stretches of concrete road between two cities in the world .
Over the next decade , vehicle usage increased substantially , and by 1920 Lakeshore Road was again highly congested on weekends . In response , the Department of Highways examined improving another road between Toronto and Hamilton . The road was to be more than twice the width of Lakeshore Road at 12 m ( 39 ft ) and would carry two lanes of traffic in either direction . Construction on what was then known as the Queen Street Extension west of Toronto began in early 1931 as a depression @-@ relief project .
Before the highway could be completed , Thomas McQuesten was appointed the new minister of the Department of Highways , with Robert Melville Smith as deputy minister , following the 1934 provincial elections . Smith , inspired by the German autobahns — new " dual @-@ lane divided highways " — modified the design for Ontario roads , and McQuesten ordered that the Middle Road be converted into this new form of highway . A 40 m ( 130 ft ) right @-@ of @-@ way was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the existing sections to a divided highway . Work also began on Canada 's first interchange at Highway 10 .
By the end of 1937 , the Middle Road was open between Toronto and Burlington , and would soon connect with what was first known as the Hamilton – Niagara Falls Highway . When it opened , it was the first intercity divided highway in North America and boasted the longest continuous stretch of illumination in the world until World War II . It soon came time to name the new highway , and an upcoming visit by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth proved to be the focal point for a dedication ceremony . On June 7 , 1939 , the two royal family members drove along the highway ( which now connected to Niagara Falls ) and passed through a light beam at the Henley Bridge in St. Catharines . This caused two Union Jacks to swing out , revealing a sign which read The Queen Elizabeth Way .
However , the ceremony only designated the highway between St. Catharines and Niagara Falls . The remainder of the road was known by various names , including the Toronto – Burlington / Hamilton Highway and The New Middle Road Highway .
= = = The New Niagara Falls Highway = = =
McQuesten also foresaw the financial opportunities that came with cross @-@ border tourism and opening the " Ontario frontier " to Americans . In 1937 , construction began on a new dual highway along the bottom of the Niagara Escarpment . This route was originally known as the New Niagara Falls Highway , but it was intended to connect with the Middle Road on the opposing shore of Lake Ontario . Work began at the end of March to grade the route between Stoney Creek and Jordan .
The prospect of removing hundreds of acres of farmland did not sit well with many , especially farmers in the path of the new highway . Rumours spread that the prices paid for land were to be well below market value , and local protests erupted throughout the summer . However , the purpose of the new highway was to replace the congested , winding and hilly route of Highway 8 along the escarpment ; several groups of collisions that summer gradually persuaded the public in support of the new highway . By the autumn , 340 acres ( 140 ha ) of fruitland were cleared to make way for the route .
Over the next two years , numerous bridges and cloverleaf interchanges along the new highway were constructed . In addition , a large traffic circle was built in Stoney Creek to connect with Highway 20 . The majority of this structural work was completed before the royal visit in 1939 . However , despite being opened to traffic between Stoney Creek and Jordan , the majority of the new route was gravelled . Over a ten @-@ week period in the late spring and early summer of 1940 , 58 km ( 36 mi ) were paved , completing the four lane highway between Hamilton and Niagara . On August 23 , 1940 , McQuesten cut a ribbon at the Henley Bridge in St. Catharines and officially declared the Queen Elizabeth Way open between Toronto and Niagara Falls . Construction towards Fort Erie continued , but the ongoing war would delay its completion for some time . As an interim measure , the unpaved highway was opened during the summer of 1941 . Two lanes of pavement were laid in 1946 , but the four @-@ lane highway was not fully paved until 1956 . The completed QEW was officially opened on October 14 of that year , completing the envisioned highway 25 years after work had begun .
= = = Conversion to freeway = = =
= = = = 1950s – Control of access = = = =
Despite some modern infrastructure , including traffic circles , interchanges , and some grade @-@ separations , the majority of the new superhighway was not controlled @-@ access . This meant that existing farmers and homeowners along several segments that were once concession roads were permitted to build driveways and entrances onto the road . In addition , the majority of the crossroads encountered along the route were at @-@ grade intersections . This combined with the ever @-@ increasing number of automobiles , traffic jams , accidents and deteriorating pavement led the Department of Highways to report that it had begun " salvaging " the QEW in their 1953 annual report .
The first new interchange opened at Dixie Road in 1953 , beginning a seven @-@ year program to make the Hamilton – Toronto section into a full @-@ fledged freeway . Over the next three years , the route was improved west to Highway 10 ( Hurontario Street ) . This work was completed in early 1956 . Service roads were installed and 13 intersections eliminated , resulting in a 50 % reduction of the accident rate along that section . In Toronto , work began in 1955 to construct the Gardiner Expressway , which would tie in with the end of the QEW . The first section of the Gardiner , connecting the QEW to Jameson Avenue , was officially opened by mayor Fred Gardiner and Premier Leslie Frost on August 8 , 1958 Work was also underway on the Toronto Bypass , involving the upgrade of Highway 27 to a freeway between the QEW and the new Highway 401 . Construction began in 1953 , and included an upgrade of the cloverleaf interchange with the QEW with larger loop ramps . This interchange would become one of the worst bottlenecks in the province a decade after its completion , according to Highways Minister Charles MacNaughton .
On September 11 , 1957 , construction began to widen the QEW to six lanes between Highway 27 and the Humber River . It was completed by December 1958 , as were interchanges with Mississauga Road and Kerr Street . Service roads allowed engineers to separate local access from the highway and avoid space @-@ consuming interchanges in many places . As such , interchanges were only opened at Bronte Road ( then Highway 25 ) , Kerr Street , Royal Windsor Drive ( then Highway 122 ) , Erin Mills Parkway , Mississauga Road , Hurontario Street ( then Highway 10 ) , Cawthra Road , Dixie Road , and Highway 27 .
= = = = The Skyways = = = =
Two major projects were ongoing near Burlington at this point . On April 29 , 1952 , the W.E. Fitzgerald struck the two lane lift @-@ bridge at the entrance to Hamilton Harbour . Damage to the crossing resulted in the closure of the QEW until a temporary bridge was erected . To remedy what was becoming a major delay and hazard , the Department of Highways began planning a high @-@ level bridge to cross the shipping channel . To provide better access to the new structure as well as the proposed Chedoke Expressway , construction began on the Freeman Diversion , bypassing the old trumpet interchange and creating a new three @-@ level
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she claimed had been arranged for her by the premier .
Immediately after her arrival in Edmonton , she said , Brownlee had telephoned her — commenting that " a little birdie " had told him that she was in town — and invited her to his home to meet his family ; she soon became a regular visitor there . She alleged that in October 1930 , while Brownlee was driving her home after one such visit , the premier took her hand and asked her what she knew " about life " . On her response that she knew probably as much as any girl of eighteen , he invited her out the next evening for what she presumed would be some advice . Instead , he drove her 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of town on Highway 16 and parked on a side road before asking her to have sex with him . He said that he had been madly in love with her from the start , that he was lonely , that he and his wife had not lived together as man and wife in a long time , that his wife ( an invalid ) would be endangered by a pregnancy , and that he could not be premier any longer unless MacMillan agreed to have sex with him . He told her that if she refused him , he would be forced to resume his sexual relationship with his wife , and that this would likely kill her . MacMillan reacted fearfully , and asked if there was anything else she could do to help Brownlee and his wife ; he replied that there was not .
The next week on another ride home , a similar conversation ensued , this one culminating in Brownlee forcing a resisting MacMillan into the car 's back seat where he partially penetrated her against her will . Two weeks later , she alleged , they had complete consensual intercourse . After , when she expressed concern about becoming pregnant , he told her that " he knew of some pills that he would give me and if I took them at the end of each month before I menstruated that they would be very safe and there would not be any danger of me becoming pregnant . " MacMillan recounted that their relationship continued in this way , with sex occurring an average of three times per week . In September 1931 , she stayed in the Brownlee house for three days while Mrs. Brownlee was in Vancouver ; she alleged that during that time , Brownlee had his son , who usually slept in Brownlee 's room , transferred to a different room so that Brownlee and MacMillan could have sex .
Some of MacMillan 's most sensational allegations concerned a six @-@ week period in the spring of 1932 when she was filling in at the Brownlee household for an absent maid . She said that she slept in the maid 's room , one of three bedrooms on the second floor of Brownlee 's house ; a second room was occupied by Brownlee and his son Jack , and the third by Florence Brownlee and her son Alan . During this six @-@ week period , she claimed , she and Brownlee had had sex every night ; Brownlee would signal her to leave her room by turning on the tap in the second floor bathroom , and then flush the toilet and walk in lockstep with her to mask the sound of her movement . Once in the premier 's room , they would have sex next to his sleeping son , taking care to be quiet . She recounted how on one occasion Jack had seemed to stir , and Brownlee had turned on the light in the middle of intercourse to make sure that his son was all right .
MacMillan said that during the summer of 1932 she experienced a nervous breakdown ( for which Florence Brownlee paid the hospital bills ) , and that she met and fell in love with Caldwell soon after . She resolved to end her affair with Brownlee but he reacted angrily , telling her that it would mean his wife 's death and MacMillan 's inability to find a job anywhere in Alberta . That evening , she confided the affair to her landlady . On October 31 , 1932 , she had dinner with Brownlee 's sons and visited Brownlee , who was sick in bed . Despite her protestations that she was on her way to a Halloween party with Caldwell , he insisted that they have sex , which they did . Thereafter , the affair resumed . On another occasion , he called her away from her visiting mother to have sex with him at the legislature building .
In late January 1933 , Caldwell proposed to her . She broke down and told him of the affair . She described his reaction as sympathetic , though he rescinded the marriage proposal . In May , at Caldwell 's urging , she consulted a lawyer , but continued the affair until July 5 , the night of the fateful drive .
MacMillan testified that for the duration of the affair she continued to have sex with Brownlee " from terror and because he told me it was my duty to do it and he seemed to have an influence over me which I could not break . " She claimed that there had been no love accompanying the sex , and that it had been physically painful for her on each occasion .
= = John Brownlee 's story = =
Brownlee denied absolutely MacMillan 's claims . He said that there had been no sexual activity between him and MacMillan , likening their relationship instead to that of an uncle and his favourite niece . To claims that he had induced MacMillan to move to Edmonton and arranged a position for her in the Attorney General 's office , he asserted " in the thirteen years I have been in public life I have never promised any person in this Province a position . " He denied having convinced MacMillan to move to Edmonton and stated that he had not even known that she had done so until Christopher Pattinson , Member of the Legislative Assembly ( MLA ) for Edson , told him . He further claimed that his sex life with Mrs. Brownlee was what he would consider normal for a husband and wife ( which was corroborated by his wife ) .
He acknowledged that he had been driving MacMillan around the evening of July 5 , 1933 , when he was followed by Caldwell and MacLean , but gave a dramatically different account of his reasons for doing so . According to him , there had been talk of MacMillan joining his family at their rental cottage at Sylvan Lake that weekend provided that she could get the necessary time off work , and that evening he called her to see whether or not she had been able to . During the ensuing phone conversation , MacMillan told him that she had other problems bothering her , and asked if Brownlee would take her for a drive to discuss them . He agreed to do so , and it was during this drive that he noticed that he was being followed .
In support of this story , Brownlee pointed to investigational work by Harry Brace , a private detective in the employ of Attorney General John Lymburn . According to Brace , Caldwell had told at least three witnesses that he expected to soon receive a large amount of money from someone " high up in political life " . He also specifically told one of Brace 's agents that he had deliberately set out to frame Brownlee , that in selecting Neil MacLean as his lawyer he had deliberately chosen a Liberal ( the Liberals were considered the major opposition to Brownlee 's government at the time ) , and that if the Liberals won the next election there would be " nothing I want I won 't be able to get " . Disappointingly for Brownlee , Brace did not uncover evidence that MacMillan was lying about the affair itself : Caldwell , based on his comments to Brace 's men , seemed very much under the impression that the affair had occurred exactly as claimed . Moreover , Brace found that Carl Snell , MacMillan 's one @-@ time suitor , claimed to have been told in 1932 that MacMillan was having a consensual affair with the premier .
Brownlee 's defenders called into doubt MacLean 's motivation for involvement in the case : according to rumour , MacLean had been involved in a drunk driving incident several years previous in which he had driven his car into a ditch . When another motorist had pulled him out , MacLean had attempted unsuccessfully to drive away with the chains still attached to his vehicle , for which he was charged . He had reputedly asked Brownlee , then the Attorney General , to have the charges dropped . Upon Brownlee 's refusal , he had allegedly vowed to " get " him . Finally , Brownlee made a point of noting that , as a medical student , Caldwell would have been well @-@ positioned to coach MacMillan on her claims about the pills she was taking to avoid pregnancy . According to Brownlee , the events alleged were a complete fabrication , the result of scheming by an opportunistic young medical student and his impressionable girlfriend , encouraged by a vindictive lawyer and unscrupulous political opponents .
= = Legal processes = =
= = = Trial = = =
The trial began in June 1934 before Justice William Ives with three days of testimony from MacMillan . Brownlee 's lawyer , Arthur LeRoy Smith , used his cross examination to call into question almost everything MacMillan said . To refute her claim that Brownlee had convinced her to move to Edmonton , he entered into evidence a letter she had written to Alberta College seeking information on its programs , dated before she had even met Brownlee . He further demonstrated that on the evening of the seduction , which had allegedly taken place in a car on a side road west of Edmonton , the city had been engulfed in a blizzard . Moreover , the government car in which the seduction was supposed to have taken place had not been purchased until more than a year after that date . In response to her testimony that she had always slept in the maid 's room while staying with the Brownlees , Smith produced letters showing that she had actually slept in Mrs. Brownlee 's room . After MacMillan conceded her mistake , Smith noted that Mrs. Brownlee 's room had a large deadbolt on the door : if she had feared Brownlee , why had she not used it ? " Because I just did as Mr. Brownlee said , " was the plaintiff 's response . MacMillan , when questioned , admitted that the period during which she had been staying in the Brownlee home in the spring of 1932 , which she had initially placed at six weeks , was actually only four . When she identified these four weeks as the last two weeks of April and the first two of May , Smith showed that Brownlee had been out of town for all but ten nights of that period .
Other witnesses for the plaintiffs included a former maid of Brownlee 's , who testified that she had seen the premier pick MacMillan up in his car late one night , and MacMillan 's landlady 's daughter , who testified that she found MacMillan sobbing in her room one night . Allan MacMillan was also called : though he testified that Brownlee had encouraged his daughter to move to Edmonton and promised to forward information about Alberta College , he acknowledged that the premier had not followed through and not contacted her again until she was in Edmonton .
The defence called Brownlee , who recounted his version of events . He testified that he had been otherwise occupied on many of the days that he and MacMillan had supposedly had sex ; in one case , he produced newspaper stories showing that he had been making a speech in Stettler at a time that MacMillan had claimed he was forcing himself upon her in Edmonton . In another , he testified that he was meeting with O. H. Snow , the mayor of Raymond . MacLean on cross @-@ examination tried to paint Brownlee as a man of tremendous persuasive powers , recalling his time as a lawyer in Calgary , only to have Brownlee retort that he had only ever tried two cases , spending most of his time drafting commercial documents . MacLean also emphasized the $ 1 @,@ 400 that Lymburn as Attorney General had spent investigating the case , suggesting that this amounted to government funds being spent to vindicate Brownlee personally ; outside of the courtroom , Lymburn responded that his office had received a complaint that an " Edmonton lawyer " — taken by all involved to be MacLean — had approached a young woman offering money to place Brownlee in a compromising position , and that , as a criminal allegation , it had been the obligation of his office to investigate . He further emphasized that , against his protestations , Brownlee had insisted on reimbursing the government for the full cost of the investigation .
After the premier 's testimony was completed , Smith called his wife , Florence Brownlee . She supported her husband 's account of MacMillan 's relationship with the Brownlee family and reported that , when the premier drove MacMillan home at night , he was very seldom late returning . On cross @-@ examination , she denied that she would have defended her husband if she believed him to be guilty . Additional witnesses for the defence included Brownlee 's personal secretary , Civil Service Commissioner Frederick Smailes , and four legislature janitors . Smailes acknowledged knowing at the time of MacMillan 's hiring that she was acquainted with Brownlee , but denied involvement on Brownlee 's part in the decision to hire her , while the janitors denied ever seeing a young woman enter the premier 's office in the evenings . Jessie Ellergert , who had worked for the Brownlees as a maid , said that she had no reason to believe that there was a sexual relationship between the premier and MacMillan ; moreover , she specifically recalled the Halloween night MacMillan had referred to in her testimony , and testified that the household was far too bustling for the alleged sex to have occurred .
The trial concluded with a field trip , as the jury went to view both Brownlee 's house and two stretches of road where MacMillan had claimed key encounters took place . Rainy weather meant that on more than one occasion the jurors and lawyers had to push cars out of the mud . Though one road essentially matched MacMillan 's description , it was located next to a populated settlement rather than deserted as she had claimed . The other , in contrast to her description of it as a side road , was a busy highway . Upon the jury 's return , Smith surprised them by announcing that Brownlee 's counter @-@ claim was being dropped ; he said that there was no need to complicate the clear cut issue of " seduction or no seduction " with evidence about a conspiracy on the part of MacMillan and Caldwell . Legal historian Patrick Brode criticized this decision , suggesting that the jury was expecting proof of a conspiracy and that , when this proof was not forthcoming , Brownlee 's credibility was hurt .
Besides the factual issues that the jury was called on to adjudicate , there was a legal issue of what constituted " seduction " under the law . The basis of the claim was a two @-@ hundred @-@ year @-@ old tort which allowed a man to sue anybody who impregnated his female servant . The basis for damages under such a claim was the servant 's inability to perform her duties to the detriment of the employer . The tort was later broadened to allow the seductee 's father to sue ; only in statute in 1903 was the law amended to give standing to the woman herself . At issue was what damage , if any , she needed to show in order to have a cause of action . The defence argued that in all precedents there had been a pregnancy resulting , and that without one the plaintiffs could not claim damages . In response , MacLean emphasized the not entirely consensual nature of the alleged relationship . Brownlee himself responded that if the alleged relationship had been non @-@ consensual , he should have been charged under the criminal law for rape , not sued for seduction ; that the plaintiffs had not attempted to press criminal charges was evidence , he believed , of their bad faith and financial motivation .
After six days of testimony , closing arguments were given : Smith 's lasted two hours and fifteen minutes and emphasized the discrepancies in MacMillan 's story . MacLean 's was a relatively brief forty minutes , in which he argued that the improbable and fantastic nature of his client 's tale was evidence that she could not possibly have invented it . Ives then instructed the jurors , and defined " seduction " as " inducing a woman to part with her virtue ... [ which ] may be by any artful device that brings about her consent . " After four hours and forty minutes the jury returned and announced its finding that Brownlee had seduced MacMillan in October 1930 when he had partially penetrated her , and that both she and her father had suffered damages in the amounts claimed . Ives immediately announced that he strongly disagreed with the jury 's findings , and that " the evidence does not warrant them " . On July 2 , he issued his written ruling , overturning the jury 's verdict and dismissing the action ; his reason for doing so was what he viewed as the lack of damage being demonstrated by the plaintiffs . According to Ives , even if the facts had been exactly as MacMillan had described , as a matter of law the plaintiffs could not claim damages without a pregnancy or an illness .
= = = Media and public reception = = =
The trial was covered in lurid detail , especially by the Edmonton Bulletin , which called it " the greatest drama ever to be heard in an Alberta court " . The Bulletin was a Liberal paper , and MacLean had given it an advance copy of his statement of claim , which allowed MacMillan 's allegations to be published and disseminated before the statement of claim was filed . The Bulletin was emphatically sympathetic to MacMillan in its coverage , and printed her detailed testimony ( which included the dates and times of specific encounters ) almost verbatim . Under the headline " Vivian Testifies to Harrowing Ordeal " , it praised the young plaintiff as " bearing up with wonderful fortitude " and facing the ordeal " with courageous mien " . Brownlee , in contrast , was a " love @-@ torn , sex crazed victim of passion and jealousy , forcing his will upon her in parked autos and on country highways " . The jury was not sequestered and was free to read these accounts . Edmontonians were no less enthralled than their newspaper , and many showed up to the courthouse early on the days of trial , hoping to get a seat . Towards the end of the trial , Ives revoked the Bulletin 's press privileges at the trial and fined its publisher $ 300 and a reporter $ 100 for publishing writing " likely to inflame public opinion and interfere with the even @-@ handed course of justice . "
Media attention on the trial spread beyond the provincial and national borders : Time magazine published at least two articles on the trial in the United States , and the Daily Mail and Paris Midi covered it from across the Atlantic .
Reaction to the trial 's outcome was mixed . The Bulletin was outraged , as was the Canadian Civil Liberties Protective Association , which called Ives ' decision to overturn the jury 's finding one that " set the clock back 300 years " . Both organized subscriptions to finance an expected appeal . The Winnipeg Free Press called for an investigation of Ives for apparent favouritism towards Brownlee . The Vancouver Sun , on the other hand , sympathized with the premier , arguing that his " personal difficulties should not have been aired publicly " . Brownlee 's political allies , including Irene Parlby and Henry Wise Wood , remained loyal , with Wood keeping a large picture of Brownlee on the wall of his guest bedroom .
= = = Appeals = = =
The plaintiffs appealed and the case went before the Alberta Supreme Court appeals division in January 1935 . On February 2 , by a 3 – 2 decision , the court upheld Ives ' ruling . The majority ruling by Chief Justice Horace Harvey cast serious doubts on MacMillan 's credibility , calling her story " quite unsupported by other evidence " and noting that she " showed a readiness to admit that she may have been mistaken as regards very positive statements previously made when by the questions it appeared there may be independent evidence she was wrong " . In addition to agreeing with Ives on the points of law , he felt that the jury had not based its finding of fact on the evidence in the case . Justices Mitchell and Ford concurred . Justice Clarke , in dissent , agreed that MacMillan 's story was unlikely , but expressed a willingness to defer to the jury on questions of fact . On the legal questions , he cited a precedent written by Justice Harvey himself in which the chief justice had argued that the inclusion of seduced women as potential plaintiffs under the Seduction Act proved that its framers intended a broader definition of damage than financial damage . Justice Lunney concurred . The court was unanimous in upholding Ives ' dismissal of Allan MacMillan 's action , and he did not appeal further .
Not satisfied with the verdict , the Bulletin again organized a campaign to fund an appeal , which was submitted to the Supreme Court of Canada ; on March 1 , 1937 , Ives ' decision was overturned . Chief Justice Lyman Duff , writing for the majority , accepted the jury 's finding of fact and , echoing Justice Clarke , concluded that the framers of the Alberta Seduction Act had not intended that damage to a seductee be required to be the same as those to her father or employer ( i.e. financial ) in order to be actionable . The court ordered Brownlee to pay $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages to MacMillan , plus trial costs . Henry Hague Davis in dissent focussed less on the questions of law and more on the evidence in the case , and argued that the jury 's finding of fact was perverse and that the appeal should be dismissed .
After the Supreme Court ruling , Brownlee settled with MacMillan , but still desired to clear his name . On July 1 , 1937 , the federal government by Order in Council gave him leave to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council , at the time Canada 's highest court of appeal . On March 11 and 12 , 1940 , the committee heard Brownlee 's appeal . It was denied , as the committee endorsed the Supreme Court of Canada 's focus on statutory interpretation .
= = Legacy = =
For John Brownlee 's political career , Ives ' ruling and the subsequent appeals were irrelevant : once the jury 's finding came down , he immediately announced that he would resign as soon as a replacement could be found . On July 10 , 1934 , he was succeeded as Premier by Richard Gavin Reid , his government 's Treasurer and Minister of Health and Municipal Affairs . Brownlee stayed on as MLA and sought to retain his Ponoka seat in the 1935 provincial election , but was trounced by Edith Rogers of William Aberhart 's Alberta Social Credit League . Not a single UFA member won re @-@ election as Aberhart 's movement and its promises of innovative solutions to the western world 's economic problems rode to a decisive victory . In evaluating Social Credit 's victory , historians unanimously cite the province 's dire economic straits as the main factor , though University of Alberta historian David Elliott has acknowledged that " Aberhart and his cause were also helped " by the seduction scandal . This view has been endorsed by University of Western Ontario sociologist Edward Bell . John Barr , in his history of the Alberta Social Credit Party , is more dismissive , calling it " unlikely " that the scandal was a major factor in the UFA 's defeat .
Brode acknowledges that the question of whether Brownlee seduced MacMillan " defies any definitive answer " but says that the evidence presented in the trial did not justify a finding that he did , and speculates that if MacMillan had brought her suit in a later generation she would have been " laughed out of court " . Lakeland College historian and Brownlee biographer Franklin Foster does not take a position on whether or not Brownlee was guilty of seduction , but hints that a likely truth might lie " between the two extremes " of the parties ' claims : that Brownlee and MacMillan did have a consensual affair which was then highjacked and exploited by the premier 's more opportunistic and vengeful opponents . He leaves little doubt that he considers the behaviour of the Edmonton Bulletin and of the Liberal Party , especially its leader , William R. Howson , to have been profoundly unethical . Athabasca University historian Alvin Finkel has criticized Foster for being too friendly towards Brownlee , saying that he does not consider the scandal sufficiently from MacMillan 's perspective .
A play at the 2008 Edmonton International Fringe Festival , Respecting the Action for Seduction : The Brownlee Affair , was based on the scandal , and received average to above average reviews .
After leaving office , John Brownlee returned to the practice of law . He died in 1961 . Vivian MacMillan stayed out of the limelight . She did not marry Caldwell , and returned to Edson , where on August 7 , 1935 , she wed confectioner Henry Sorenson . Following her husband 's death , she became the bookkeeper for a Calgary construction company . After an affair , she married her boss , Frank Howie , in 1955 . Vivian Howie died in 1980 .
= Brandenburg @-@ class battleship =
The four Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were Germany 's first ocean @-@ going battleships . They were also the first German warship , of any type , to be fitted with wireless communications . The class comprised Brandenburg , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , Weissenburg , and Wörth . All were laid down in 1890 and completed by 1893 , except for Weissenburg , which was completed in 1894 . The lead ship , Brandenburg , was built at the cost of 9 @.@ 3 million Marks and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm cost 11 @.@ 23 million Marks . The British Royal Navy derisively referred to the ships as the " whalers . "
Brandenburg and her three sisters served in a wide range of roles . In 1900 , the four ships were deployed to China during the Boxer Rebellion , after which they were substantially modernized . In 1910 , two of the ships , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , were sold to the Ottoman Navy . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was sunk in 1915 by a British submarine while Weissenburg survived the war , only to be broken up in 1938 . Brandenburg and Wörth saw limited service during World War I as coastal defense ships before they were withdrawn for auxiliary duties . Both ships were sold for scrapping in May 1919 .
= = Design = =
The Brandenburg @-@ class ships were the first ocean @-@ going battleships built by the German Navy . They followed a number of coastal defense ships , including the Siegfried and Odin classes that were only intended for local defense of the German coastline . Design work on the ships began in late 1888 , under the leadership of Vice Admiral Alexander von Monts , who also secured funding for the new ships from the Reichstag . Admiral von Monts was the first naval officer appointed by the recently crowned Kaiser Wilhelm II .
The Brandenburg @-@ class ships were the foundation of what eventually became the High Seas Fleet . As they represented a shift in the strategic outlook of the German navy , the traditional method of ship construction , which relied heavily on foreign models , was abandoned . Some experimentation was implemented in the design process , particularly in the armor types that were installed on the ships . Brandenburg and Wörth were equipped with compound armor that consisted of several layers of different materials , while the latter two ships received Harvey nickel @-@ steel alloy armor plating . The addition of a third main battery turret was also a significant innovation . While a novel concept , the midships turret caused prohibitive blast damage to the surrounding superstructure when fired , which led to the idea being abandoned . This arrangement has led some authors to characterize the ships as proto @-@ dreadnoughts . This is incorrect , as the guns were not the same caliber , and the ships were designed to fight at close range , unlike the later dreadnought battleships .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Brandenburg @-@ class were 113 @.@ 9 m ( 373 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline and 115 @.@ 7 m ( 379 ft 7 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft ) which was increased to 19 @.@ 74 m ( 64 ft 9 in ) with the addition of torpedo nets , and had a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) aft . The Brandenburgs displaced 10 @,@ 013 t ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) at their designed weight , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full combat load .
As was the standard for German warships of the period , the hulls of the Brandenburg @-@ class ships were constructed from both transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the steel side plates were riveted . The vessels had 13 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 48 percent of the length of the hull . The German navy regarded the ships as excellent sea @-@ boats ; the Brandenburgs had easy motion . They were also responsive to commands from the bridge and had a moderate turning circle . Speed loss at hard rudder was reduced to 30 percent , and the metacentric height was 1 @.@ 05 m ( 3 ft 5 in ) . However , the ships were " wet " at high speeds and suffered from severe pitching . The ships ' crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men , though while serving as the squadron flagship the standard crew was augmented by an additional 9 officers and 54 men .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships were equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines ; each set drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 5 m ( 16 ft ) in diameter . Both sets had their own engine room . Twelve transverse cylindrical boilers , with three fireboxes each , supplied steam to the engines at up to 12 atmospheres of pressure . The boilers were also divided into two boiler rooms . The engines were rated at 10 @,@ 000 ihp ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) , though in practice maximum power ranged from 9 @,@ 686 ihp ( 7 @,@ 223 kW ) for Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm to 10 @,@ 228 ihp ( 7 @,@ 627 kW ) in Wörth . The ships had a designed speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) ; Brandenburg was the slowest , at 16 @.@ 3 knots ( 30 @.@ 2 km / h ; 18 @.@ 8 mph ) , while Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Wörth both achieved 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) on trials . The ships were designed to carry 650 t ( 640 long tons ) of coal for the boilers , though additional spaces in the hull allowed for up to 1 @,@ 050 t ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ) . This enabled a maximum range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Electrical power was provided by three generators . The equipment varied from ship to ship ; power output ranged from 72 @.@ 6 to 96 @.@ 5 kilowatts at 67 volts . The ships each had a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
The vessels were unusual for their time in possessing a broadside of six heavy guns in three twin gun turrets , rather than the four guns typical of contemporary battleships . The forward and after turret carried 28 cm ( 11 inch ) K L / 40 guns , while the center turret carried a shorter L / 35 barrel . The shorter barrels were required to allow the turret to train from side to side . The L / 40 guns were mounted in Drh.L. C / 92 type turrets , which provided depression to − 5 degrees and elevation to 25 degrees . Both types of guns could fire armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) and high explosive ( HE ) shells . These shells weighed 240 kg ( 529 lb ) , and used the 73 kg ( 161 lb ) RPC 12 propellant charge . Muzzle velocity for the L / 40 gun was 820 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 690 fps ) . At maximum elevation , these guns could hit targets out to 15 @,@ 900 m ( 17 @,@ 400 yards ) . Because the barrels of the L / 35 guns were shorter , they had a correspondingly lower muzzle velocity , which was approximately 685 mps ( 2 @,@ 247 fps ) . As a result , the range of the guns was somewhat shorter , at about 14 @,@ 400 m ( 15 @,@ 700 yd ) . At a range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) , the AP shell could penetrate up to 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of belt armor . Ammunition magazines stored a total of 352 shells .
The Brandenburg class 's secondary armament initially consisted of seven 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing guns in casemates arranged around the forward superstructure . During the modernization between 1902 and 1904 , the Brandenburgs received an additional 10 @.@ 5 cm gun . These guns were supplied with a total of 600 rounds , although after the modernization , the 10 @.@ 5 cm magazines were increased to provide storage for a total of 1 @,@ 184 shells .
The ships also carried eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns , also mounted in casemates . Four were placed in pairs in sponsons towards the bow , while the remaining four were emplaced around the rear superstructure . These guns were supplied with a total of 2 @,@ 000 shells , though as with the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , ammunition storage was increased during the modernization , to 2 @,@ 384 rounds . These guns fired 13 @.@ 8 kg ( 30 @.@ 4 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of 590 mps ( 1 @,@ 936 fps ) . Their rate of fire was approximately 15 shells per minute ; the guns could engage targets out to 10 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 500 yd ) . The gun mounts were manually operated .
The ships were also armed with six 45 cm torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Four tubes were mounted on the sides of the ship , another in the bow , and the last in the stern . The tubes were supplied with a total of 16 torpedoes . These weapons were 5 @.@ 1 m ( 201 in ) long and carried an 87 @.@ 5 kg ( 193 lb ) TNT warhead . They could be set at two speeds for different ranges . At 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , the torpedoes had a range of 800 m ( 870 yd ) . At an increased speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , the range was reduced to 500 m ( 550 yd ) . One of the tubes was removed during the modernization .
= = = Armor = = =
Weissenburg and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm were armored with nickel steel Krupp armor , but due to delivery problems , Brandenburg and Wörth were armored with a composite armor . The composite armor was constructed by layering steel @-@ clad wrought iron plates and wood planks , which was backed by two more layers of sheet iron . Krupp 's nickel steel armor was based on the Harvey process , which enriched the upper layers of the steel with carbon . This type of armor produced greater strength with thinner armor belts , which enabled ships equipped with it to carry more complete protection . Some portions of Brandenburg did receive the new Krupp armor , including the barbettes that held the fore and center main battery turrets . All four ships retained teak backing to their armor belts .
The Brandenburgs had a 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick armored deck . The forward conning tower had 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick sides and a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof . Above the waterline , the armored belt was 400 mm ( 16 in ) in the central portion of the ship and tapered slightly to 300 mm fore and aft . Including the teak backing , the total thickness of the belt in the strongest area was 600 mm ( 24 in ) . Below the waterline , the armored belt was significantly thinner ; the thickest section of the belt was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick , and tapered down to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the belt . The ships ' cupolas had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roofs and sides that consisted of three 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick layers , for a total of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The barbettes were 300 mm thick and backed with 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) of wood .
= = Construction = =
Ordered as battleship A , Brandenburg was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1890 . She was launched on 21 September 1891 . Fitting out work , which included the installation of the ship 's armament , lasted until 19 November 1893 when she was commissioned into the German navy . Wörth was ordered as battleship B , and was laid down at Germaniawerft in Kiel also in 1890 . Initial work on the ship proceeded the slowest of all four vessels of the class ; she was launched on 6 August 1892 . Fitting out work proceeded quickly , and she was commissioned on 31 October 1893 , the first ship of the class to enter active duty . Weissenburg , ordered as battleship " C " , was also laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1890 and launched on 14 December 1891 . She was the last ship of the class to enter active service , when she was commissioned on 5 June 1894 . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was the fourth and final ship of the class . She was ordered as battleship D , and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven in 1890 . She was the first ship of the class to be launched , on 30 June 1891 . She was commissioned into the fleet the same day as her sister Brandenburg .
Shortly after the turn of the century , the ships were all taken into the drydocks at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven for a major reconstruction . Wörth was the first to do so , starting in 1901 . Weissenburg followed in 1902 , Brandenburg in 1903 , and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm entered the shipyard in 1904 . During the modernization , a second conning tower was added in the aft superstructure , along with a gangway . The ships had their boilers replaced with newer models , and also had the hamper amidships reduced . The modifications resulted in a weight decrease of between 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) and 700 t ( 690 long tons ; 770 short tons ) depending on the ship .
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Brandenburg @-@ class were assigned to the I Division of the I Battle Squadron upon their commissioning , along with the four older Sachsen @-@ class armored frigates , though by 1901 – 2 , the Sachsens were replaced by the new Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships . They saw their first major operation in 1900 , when they were deployed to China during the Boxer Rebellion . The expeditionary force consisted of the four Brandenburgs , six cruisers , 10 freighters , three torpedo boats , and six regiments of marines , under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan , which he saw as unnecessary and costly . The force arrived in China after the siege of Peking had already been lifted . As a result , the task force suppressed local uprisings around Kiaochow . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks .
After the Brandenburg @-@ class ships emerged from their refit in 1905 , they rejoined the active fleet . However , they were rapidly made obsolete by the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 . As a result , their service careers were limited . On 12 September 1910 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , the more advanced ships of the class , were sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis respectively . At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Brandenburg and Wörth were assigned to coastal defense duties , though this lasted only until 1915 , when they were withdrawn from active service . That year , both ships were transferred to the role of barracks ships ; Brandenburg was stationed in Libau while Wörth was in Danzig . It was intended to rebuild Brandenburg as a target ship , though this plan was eventually abandoned . Both Brandenburg and Wörth were struck from the naval register on 13 May 1919 and sold for scrapping . The two ships were purchased by Norddeutsche Tiefbauges , a shipbreaking firm headquartered in Berlin ; the firm had Brandenburg towed to Danzig where she and her sister ship were broken up for scrap .
On 8 August 1915 , Barbaros Hayreddin was en route to support the Turkish defenses at the Dardanelles when she was sunk by the British submarine HMS E11 , with the loss of 253 men . On 19 January 1918 , the battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau left the Dardanelles to attack British ships . At 11 : 30 , Goeben ran aground and was subjected to air attacks , which impeded salvage attempts . On 25 January , Turgut Reis arrived on the scene and towed the battlecruiser back to port . Turgut Reis survived the war and was used as a training ship in 1924 . She was later used as a hulk in the Bosporus , and eventually scrapped in 1938 .
= Illinois @-@ class battleship =
The Illinois @-@ class was a group of three pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the United States Navy commissioned at the beginning of the 20th century . The three ships , Illinois , Alabama , and Wisconsin , were built between 1896 and 1901 . They were transitional ships ; they incorporated advances over preceding designs , including the first modern gun turrets for the main battery , and new rapid @-@ firing secondary guns , but they were also the last American battleships to feature dated technologies like fire @-@ tube boilers and Harvey armor . They were armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns in two twin turrets , supported by a secondary battery of fourteen 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns . The ships had a designed speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , though they exceeded that speed by a significant margin .
The three ships served in a variety of roles and locations throughout their career . Illinois served with the North Atlantic Squadron and the European Squadron early in her career , while Wisconsin served as the flagship of the Pacific Fleet and then in the Asiatic Fleet . Illinois and Alabama started the cruise of the Great White Fleet in December 1907 from the east coast of the United States , though by the time they had rounded South America and stopped in California , Alabama was forced to leave the fleet due to machinery problems . Wisconsin joined the fleet there and continued on with it to the conclusion of its tour in February 1909 . All three ships were modernized in 1909 and served in the Atlantic Fleet for a short time .
By 1912 , all three ships had been reduced to the reserve fleet and were primarily employed as training ships . They continued in this role during World War I , training men to operate the machinery of warships and transports for the war effort . They were all decommissioned by 1920 . Illinois was loaned to the New York Naval Militia and was converted into a floating arsenal . Renamed Prairie State in 1941 , she was eventually sold for scrapping in 1956 . Wisconsin was broken up for scrap in 1922 , while Alabama was expended as a target ship in September 1921 in bombing tests with the US Army Air Service .
= = Design = =
Design work on what became the Illinois class began on 25 March 1896 , when Rear Admiral J. G. Walker convened a board to consider future battleship designs . At this time , the only modern battleship in service was the low @-@ freeboard Indiana ; the high @-@ freeboard battleship Iowa and the low @-@ freeboard Kearsarge class were under construction . As the Navy had little experience with modern battleships , the question settled on whether to repeat one of the low @-@ freeboard designs , which were suitable for coast defense , to build another Iowa , or to request a new design altogether . The Walker Board determined that another coastal battleship design would be imprudent , since the United States had long coastlines and therefore the new ships would need to have better seakeeping qualities than the Indiana or Kearsarge designs .
War games conducted by the fleet led the board to specify a draft of no more than 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) to allow the ships to enter the comparatively shallow ports of the Gulf Coast . This limitation had a significant effect on the design ; to meet it , weight would have to be kept to a minimum , which prevented copying the Iowa design outright , unless the main armament was reduced from 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) to 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns . The board was unwilling to make that concession , and so a new design would be required . In addition , the board had determined that the 8 in ( 200 mm ) secondary gun was unnecessary , since though it could penetrate the thinner casemate armor on enemy battleships , it could not deliver a high @-@ explosive shell through the armor . Instead , the board decided that a new 6 in ( 150 mm ) rapid @-@ firing gun would be superior . It would also simplify the ammunition supply , since there would be only one secondary caliber .
The board determined that the armor layout of the Kearsarge design was sufficient and adopted it without change for the new ships . They did discard the superposed turrets of the Kearsarges , though , by mounting most of the secondary guns in a battery amidships . A new turret design for the main battery was adopted ; instead of the old , round Monitor @-@ style turrets of earlier ships , the Illinois design featured a balanced turret with sloped armor on the face . Since it was balanced , it would prevent the ship from listing when the battery was trained to either broadside , as was the case with the Indianas . The US Congress authorized three new battleships on 10 June 1896 ; the Bureau of Construction and Repair issued its requests for tenders from the various American shipbuilding companies twelve days later . Contracts for the new ships , to be named Illinois , Alabama , and Wisconsin , were awarded on 28 August .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Illinois class were 368 feet ( 112 m ) long at the waterline and 374 ft ( 114 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) . They displaced 11 @,@ 565 long tons ( 11 @,@ 751 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . As built , they were fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . They had a crew of 40 officers and 496 enlisted men . The crew increased to 690 – 713 later in her career . Steering was controlled with a single rudder , and the ships had a turning radius of 362 yards ( 331 m ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ships ' transverse metacentric height was 2 @.@ 7 feet ( 0 @.@ 82 m ) .
The ships were powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into a pair of funnels that were arranged side @-@ by @-@ side . They were the last ships of the US Navy to use fire @-@ tube boilers ; subsequent designs changed to more efficient and lighter water @-@ tube boilers . The engines generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , though they exceeded their rated performance on trials , with Illinois reaching 17 @.@ 45 knots ( 32 @.@ 32 km / h ; 20 @.@ 08 mph ) on 12 @,@ 757 ihp ( 9 @,@ 513 kW ) . The ships could store up to 1 @,@ 270 long tons ( 1 @,@ 290 t ) of coal , which allowed them to steam for 4 @,@ 190 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 760 km ; 4 @,@ 820 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships were armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . These guns fired a 1 @,@ 130 @-@ pound ( 510 kg ) shell with a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) brown powder charge , though this was replaced with a 180 lb ( 82 kg ) smokeless powder charge , which produced a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 610 m / s ) . The gun had a range of 12 @,@ 500 yards ( 11 @,@ 400 m ) , though Navy regulations prescribed opening fire at 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) ; even this was beyond the range at which gunners at the time could reliably hit . At a range of 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , the shells could penetrate 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of steel . The gun was slow @-@ firing , requiring 320 seconds between shots . The guns were mounted in Mark IV turrets , which had a range of elevation of 15 degrees to -5 degrees . The turrets required the guns to return to 2 degrees for loading . Ammunition storage was 60 shells per gun .
The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . They fired a 105 lb ( 48 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , they carried sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . These guns fired 6 @.@ 03 lb ( 2 @.@ 74 kg ) and 1 @.@ 088 lb ( 0 @.@ 494 kg ) shells , respectively . As was standard for capital ships of the period , the Illinois class carried four 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water , hull mounted torpedo launchers . They were initially equipped with the Mark II whitehead design , which carried a 140 pounds ( 64 kg ) warhead and had a range of 800 yards ( 730 m ) at a speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
All three ships were protected with Harvey armor ; they were the last ships of the US Navy to rely entirely on Harvey steel . The ships ' main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and reduced to 9 @.@ 5 in ( 240 mm ) on the lower edge . It gradually reduced to 4 in ( 102 mm ) toward the bow . Transverse bulkheads that were 12 in ( 300 mm ) thick connected both ends of the central belt and the main battery barbettes . The ships ' armored deck was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick on the flat portion , with 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick sloped sides forward ; the sloped sides aft were 5 in ( 130 mm ) thick . The conning tower had 10 in thick sides with a 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick roof .
The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) thick faces and 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick roofs , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 380 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . The portion of the barbettes that were behind the belt armor were reduced to 10 in ( 250 mm ) . Armor that was 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick protected the secondary battery , and the lower half of the casemate armor was backed by coal bunkers , which increased the level of protection . Anti @-@ splinter bulkheads that were 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick were placed between each of the secondary guns to reduce the possibility of one shell from disabling multiple guns .
= = Ships in class = =
= = Service history = =
From their commissioning , Alabama and Illinois served with the North Atlantic Squadron . Both ships made visits to Europe during their early careers , and Illinois served as the flagship of the European Squadron for a short time in 1902 . She accidentally ran aground outside Oslo , Norway , in 1902 and returned to the North Atlantic Squadron in January 1903 . Wisconsin , having been built on the west coast of the United States , instead served in the Pacific Fleet as its flagship . In 1903 , she was transferred to the Asiatic Fleet , and remained there until late 1906 when she returned to California .
Illinois and Alabama steamed with the Great White Fleet on its world cruise that started in December 1907 . Wisconsin joined the fleet after it had rounded South America in July 1908 ; Alabama had to leave the fleet owing to engine damage that required repairs . Alabama was detached along with the battleship Maine ; the two ships continued the journey independently and on a greatly shortened itinerary . The rest of the ships then crossed the Pacific and stopped in Australia , the Philippines , and Japan before continuing on through the Indian Ocean . They transited the Suez Canal and toured the Mediterranean before crossing the Atlantic , arriving bank in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 for a naval review with President Theodore Roosevelt .
The three ships were modernized after their return in 1909 ; from 1912 , they were placed in reserve commission and employed as training ships for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy and naval militia units . They continued in this role through World War I , which the United States entered on 6 April 1917 . The ships trained engine room personnel , armed guards for merchant ships , and other specialties . Following the German surrender in November 1918 , most of the battleships of the Atlantic Fleet were used as transports to ferry American soldiers back from France . The Illinois @-@ class ships were not so employed , however , owing to their short range and small size , which would not permit sufficient additional accommodations .
The Illinois @-@ class ships served with the fleet only briefly after the war , still as training ships . By 1920 , they had all been decommissioned . Wisconsin was sold for scrapping in January 1922 and broken up for scrap . Illinois was instead converted into a floating armory for the New York Naval Militia ; renamed Prairie State in 1941 , she served in this role until 1956 , when she too was sold for scrap . Alabama met a more spectacular end as a target ship for bombing experiments conducted with the US Army Air Service in September 1921 . She was hit with several bombs , including white phosphorus weapons and 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , before eventually foundering .
= Live from Paris ( Shakira album ) =
Live from Paris ( Spanish : En Vivo Desde París ) is the fourth live album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was filmed at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy concert hall in Paris , France , where Shakira performed on 13 and 14 June 2011 , as part of the European leg of The Sun Comes Out World Tour . Live from Paris was released in a DVD and live audio CD format , a standard DVD format , and as a Blu @-@ ray Disc edition . It was released in most countries on 2 December 2011 , while in the United States it was released on 5 December . Prior to its release , Live from Paris was screened in various cinemas across the world and was also promoted through Shakira 's official website , which posted numerous trailers and previews of the album . Shakira 's rendition of French singer @-@ songwriter Francis Cabrel 's song " Je L 'Aime à Mourir " , which she specifically performed during the concert shows at Paris , was released as a single on 29 November 2011 .
Upon its release , Live from Paris received generally favourable reviews from critics , who praised it as a showcase of Shakira 's versatility . One reviewer , however , criticised the singer for putting less emphasis on vocals and more on the dance routines . Commercially , the album performed well on the charts of France and Mexico , where it was later certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) and Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) , respectively . In the United States , En Vivo Desde Paris peaked at number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , and at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart .
= = Background and release = =
After the tickets of the European leg of The Sun Comes Out World Tour , which was launched to promote Shakira 's eighth studio album She Wolf ( 2009 ) and ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) , were sold @-@ out , she extended the tour into 2011 and announced a show to be held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , on 14 June . Later , Shakira decided to add another date to the Paris show of the tour and chose 13 June to perform at the same venue . The performances held on these two dates were filmed for inclusion in a live album . It was made available in three formats : an exclusive edition which includes a DVD and live audio CD , a standard DVD edition , and a Blu @-@ ray Disc edition . The formats included the full performances of 22 songs , along with behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary footage of the shows . The recording was also screened in select cinemas in countries like Belgium , Brazil , Holland , Italy , Mexico , Portugal and Spain , in Dolby Surround sound . Shakira 's official website also posted various trailers of the DVD and previews of some performances , such as that of " Whenever , Wherever " , for additional promotion . The live album , consisting of the DVD and live audio CD , was released as Live from Paris and En Vivo Desde París on 2 December 2011 , in most countries worldwide . In the United States , it was released on 5 December 2011 . It was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc formats the following day .
" Je L 'Aime à Mourir " , Shakira 's rendition of the original song by French singer @-@ songwriter Francis Cabrel , was specifically added to the setlist of the tour for the concerts held in Paris . A studio recording of Shakira 's version of the song was released as a single on 29 November 2011 . The song peaked at number one on the singles chart of the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium and France , where it was later certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) and Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Live from Paris received generally favourable reviews from critics . Carlos Quintana from About.com gave the DVD a very positive review and praised the selection of songs , saying they were reflective of Shakira 's " evolution as an artist " , and also commended her talent and performance , writing , " Besides her sensual dancing , unique voice and great energy , you can tell from the images on the DVD she is a very professional artist who takes her job very seriously " . He concluded by calling the audio CD of Live from Paris a " compilation [ that ] covers in a good way her musical spectrum " and the DVD " fantastic " due to " the high quality of the sound and the video " ; he also commented that the live album " offers a good overview of Shakira 's musical career " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic complimented the energy of the audio CD and Shakira 's versatility , commenting she " leans heavily on glitzy electro @-@ dance crossovers but finds room for quieter moments , whether it ’ s a stripped @-@ down cover of Metallica 's " Nothing Else Matters " or her own " Gypsy " , keeping the momentum running throughout a lengthy set , then bringing down the house with " Waka Waka " . He , however , found the video versions much more impressive , opining that they " give a greater indication of the size of the spectacle " and " emphasize Shakira 's intense charisma " . Adam Markovitz from Entertainment Weekly gave the live album a mixed review ; he praised the visual show Shakira put up , but was critical of her vocals , saying " she writhes and dry @-@ humps through her catalog like the world 's highest @-@ paid strip @-@ aerobics instructor , showing off plenty of skin — but sadly , not much musicianship " . He also felt that Shakira 's performance was too sexual , commenting that she " sometimes comes off more stripper than superstar " . The album was nominated " Best Live DVD " at the 2012 Premios Shock awards ceremony ,
= = = Commercial performance = = =
On the chart date of 10 December 2011 , Live from Paris entered the French Albums Chart at number 32 , and later peaked at number eight for two weeks . It spent a total of 35 weeks on the chart . It became Shakira 's first live album to chart in the country . In 2011 , the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique certified the DVD platinum for sales of 15 @,@ 000 units , and in 2012 , the live album was certified platinum for sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . Live from Paris entered the Mexican Albums Chart at number 13 and peaked at number four . It was a commercial success in the region and was later certified platinum and gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , En Vivo Desde Paris performed well on the Latin record charts . It peaked at number two on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and stayed on the chart for a total of 17 weeks . It peaked at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart , and stayed on the chart for a total of 16 weeks . It became Shakira 's first live album to peak atop the chart since MTV Unplugged ( 2000 ) .
= = Track listing = =
On the Spanish version of the album , the album title and bonus features are listed in Spanish . The titles of the songs stay the same in all of the releases .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Mackinac Island =
Mackinac Island ( / ˈmækᵻnɔː / MAK @-@ in @-@ aw ) is an island and resort area , covering 3 @.@ 8 square miles ( 9 @.@ 8 km2 ) in land area , in the U.S. state of Michigan . It is located in Lake Huron , at the eastern end of the Straits of Mackinac , between the state 's Upper and Lower Peninsulas . The island was home to an Odawa settlement before European exploration began in the 17th century . It served a strategic position as a center on the commerce of the Great Lakes fur trade . This led to the establishment of Fort Mackinac on the island by the British during the American Revolutionary War . It was the site of two battles during the War of 1812 .
In the late 19th century , Mackinac Island became a popular tourist attraction and summer colony . Much of the island has undergone extensive historical preservation and restoration ; as a result , the entire island is listed as a National Historic Landmark . It is well known for its numerous cultural events ; its wide variety of architectural styles , including the famous Victorian Grand Hotel ; its fudge ; and its ban on almost all motor vehicles . More than 80 percent of the island is preserved as Mackinac Island State Park .
= = Etymology = =
Like many historic places in the Great Lakes region , Mackinac Island 's name derives from a Native American language . Native Americans in the Straits of Mackinac region likened the shape of the island to that of a turtle . Therefore , they named it " Mitchimakinak " ( Ojibwe mishi @-@ mikinaak ) meaning " big turtle " . Andrew Blackbird , an Odawa historian , said it was named after a tribe that had lived there . The French spelled it with their version of the original pronunciation : Michilimackinac . The British shortened it to the present name : " Mackinac . " Michillimackinac is also spelled as Mishinimakinago , Mǐshǐma ‛ kǐnung , Mi @-@ shi @-@ ne @-@ macki naw @-@ go , Missilimakinak , Teiodondoraghie .
The Menominee traditionally lived in a large territory of 10 million acres extending from Wisconsin to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . Historic references include one by Father Frederic Baraga , a Slovenian missionary priest in Michigan , who in his 1878 dictionary wrote :
Mishinimakinago ; pl.-g. — This name is given to some strange Indians ( according to the sayings of the Otchipwes [ Ojibwe ] ) , who are rowing through the woods , and who are sometimes heard shooting , but never seen . And from this word , the name of the village of Mackinac , or Michillimackinac , is derived .
Maehkaenah is the Menominee word for turtle . In his 1952 The Indian Tribes of North America , John Reed Swanton recorded under the " Wisconsin " section : " Menominee , " a band named " Misi 'nimäk Kimiko Wini 'niwuk , ' Michilimackinac People , ' near the old fort at Mackinac , Mich . "
In an early written history of Mackinac Island ( 1887 ) by Andrew Blackbird , an official interpreter for the U.S. government and an Ottawa chief 's son , he describes that a small independent tribe called " Mi @-@ shi @-@ ne @-@ macki naw @-@ go " once occupied Mackinac Island . They became confederated with the Ottawa from Ottawa Island ( now Manitoulin Island ) situated north of Lake Huron . One winter the Mi @-@ shi @-@ ne @-@ macki naw @-@ go on Mackinac Island were almost entirely annihilated by the Seneca people from New York , who were part of the Iroquois Confederacy . Only two of the local natives escaped by hiding in one of the natural caves at the island . To commemorate the losses of this allied tribe , the Ottawa named what is now Mackinac Island , as " Mi @-@ shi @-@ ne @-@ macki @-@ nong . " In 1895 Fort Mackinac 's John R. Bailey , M. D. published his history , entitled Mackinac formerly Michilimackinac , describing some of the first recorded presence on Mackinac of French traders . They arrived in 1654 with a large party of Huron and Ottawa heading to Three Rivers ; another visitor was an adventurer making a canoe voyage in 1665 .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric = = =
Archaeologists have excavated prehistoric fishing camps on Mackinac Island and in the surrounding areas . Fishhooks , pottery , and other artifacts establish a Native American presence at least 700 years before European exploration , around AD 900 . The island is a sacred place in the tradition of some of its earliest known inhabitants , the Anishinaabe ( Ojibwa ) tribes , who consider it to be home to the Gitche Manitou , or the " Great Spirit " . According to legend , Mackinac Island was created by the Great Hare , Michabou and was the first land to appear after the recession of the Great Flood . The island was a gathering place for the local tribes where their offerings were made to Gitche Manitou , and it was the burial place of tribal chiefs .
= = = 17th through 18th centuries = = =
The first European likely to have seen Mackinac Island is Jean Nicolet , a French @-@ Canadian coureur de bois , during his 1634 explorations . The Jesuit priest Claude Dablon founded a mission for the Native Americans on Mackinac Island in 1670 , and stayed over the winter of 1670 – 71 . Dablon 's fall 1671 successor , the missionary and explorer Jacques Marquette , moved the mission to St. Ignace soon after his arrival . With the mission as a focus , the Straits of Mackinac quickly became an important French fur trading location . The British took control of the Straits of Mackinac after the French and Indian War and Major Patrick Sinclair chose the bluffs of the island for Fort Mackinac in 1780 .
The Jesuit Relations ( 1671 ) contains a long description of Mackinac Island :
its fisheries , its phenomena of wind and tide , and the tribes who , now and in the past , have made it their abode . A favorite resort for all the Algonkin tribes , many are returning to it since the peace with the Iroquois . On this account , the Jesuits have begun a new mission , opposite Mackinac , called St. Ignace . Thither have fled the Hurons , driven from Chequamegon Bay by fear of the Sioux , “ the Iroquois of the West . "
The Relations also indicate the tremendous strategic importance of Michillimackinac / Mackinac Island as " the central point for all travel on the upper Great Lakes , and for a vast extent of wilderness and half @-@ settled country beyond " to First Nations and Europeans ( prior to the arrival of railroads ) . The tribes who had inhabited Mackinac Island had been driven away by the Iroquois , leaving the island practically deserted until 1670 . The Huron people from Lake Superior , in fear of the Sioux , retreated to the shore north of Mackinac Island . Here Marquette continued his missionary labors with them , at the site of the present St. Ignace . Denonville ’ s memoir of 1688 claimed that the French had inhabited the area since 1648 . A small French garrison was sent there some time between 1679 and 1683 .
The name of Michillimackinac ( later abbreviated to Mackinac ) was applied generally to the entire vicinity , as well as specifically to the post at St. Ignace . Later it was applied to the fort and mission established on the south side of the Strait of Mackinac .
Although the British built Fort Mackinac to protect their settlement from attack by French @-@ Canadians and native tribes , the fort was never attacked during the American Revolutionary War . The entire Straits area was officially acquired by the United States through the Treaty of Paris in 1783 . However , much of the British forces did not leave the Great Lakes area until after 1794 , when Jay 's Treaty established U.S. sovereignty over the Northwest Territory .
= = = 19th century to present = = =
During the War of 1812 , the British captured the fort in the first battle of the conflict because the Americans had not yet heard that war had been declared . The victorious British attempted to protect their prize by building Fort George on the high ground behind Fort Mackinac . In 1814 , the Americans and British fought a second battle on the north side of the island . The American second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Andrew Hunter Holmes , was killed and the Americans failed to recapture the island .
Despite this outcome , the Treaty of Ghent of 1815 forced the British to return the island and surrounding mainland to the U.S. The United States reoccupied Fort Mackinac , and renamed Fort George as Fort Holmes , after Major Holmes . Fort Mackinac remained under the control of the United States government until 1895 and provided volunteers to defend the Union during the American Civil War . The fort was used as a prison for three Confederate sympathizers .
John Jacob Astor 's American Fur Company was centered on Mackinac Island after the War of 1812 and exported beaver pelts for thirty years . By the middle of the 19th century , commercial fishing for whitefish and lake trout began to replace the fur trade as the island 's primary industry . As sport fishing became more popular in the 1880s , hotels and restaurants accommodated tourists coming by train or lake boat from Detroit .
Following the Civil War , the island became a popular tourist destination for residents of cities on the Great Lakes . Much of the federal land on Mackinac Island was designated as the second national park , Mackinac National Park , in 1875 , just three years after Yellowstone was named as the first national park . To accommodate an influx of tourists in the 1880s , the boat and railroad companies built hotels , including the Grand Hotel . Souvenir shops began to spring up as a way for island residents to profit from the tourists . Many wealthy industrialists built summer " cottages " along the island 's bluffs for extended stays . When the federal government left the island in 1895 , all of the federal land , including Fort Mackinac , was given to the state of Michigan and became Michigan 's first state park . The Mackinac Island State Park Commission appointed to oversee the island has limited private development in the park and requires leaseholders to maintain the island 's distinctive Victorian architecture .
Motor vehicles were restricted at the end of the 19th century because of concerns for the health and safety of the island 's residents and horses after local carriage drivers complained that automobiles startled their horses . This ban continues to the present with exceptions only for emergency and construction vehicles .
= = Geography = =
Mackinac Island is about 8 miles ( 13 km ) in circumference and 3 @.@ 8 square miles ( 9 @.@ 8 km2 ) in total area . The highest point of the island is the historic Fort Holmes ( originally called Fort George by the British before 1815 ) , which is 320 feet ( 98 m ) above lake level and 890 feet ( 271 m ) above sea level . According to the 2010 United States Census , the island has a year @-@ round population of 492 . The population grows considerably during the summer as hotels , restaurants , bars and retail shops , open only during the summer season , hire short @-@ term employees to accommodate as many as 15 @,@ 000 visitors per day .
= = = Geology = = =
Mackinac Island was formed as the glaciers of the last ice age began to melt around 13 @,@ 000 BC . The bedrock strata that underlie the island are much older , dating to Late Silurian and Early Devonian time , about 400 to 420 million years ago . Subsurface deposits of halite ( rock salt ) dissolved , allowing the collapse of overlying limestones ; these once @-@ broken but now solidified rocks comprise the Mackinac Breccia . The melting glaciers formed the Great Lakes , and the receding lakewaters eroded the limestone bedrock , forming the island 's steep cliffs and rock formations . At least three previous lake levels are known , two of them higher than the present shore : Algonquin level lakeshores date to about 13 @,@ 000 years ago , and the Nipissing level shorelines formed 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 years ago . During an intermediate period of low water between these two high @-@ water stages , the Straits of Mackinac shrank to a narrow gorge which discharged its water over Mackinac Falls , located just east of the island ( beyond Arch Rock ) , into Lake Huron .
As the Great Lakes assumed their present levels , the waterfall was inundated and Mackinac Island took on its current size . The steep cliffs were one of the primary reasons for the British army 's choice of the island for a fortification ; their decision differed from that of the French army , which had built Fort Michilimackinac about 1715 near present @-@ day Mackinaw City . The limestone formations are still part of the island 's appeal . However , tourists are attracted by the natural beauty rather than the strategic value . One of the most popular geologic formations is Arch Rock , a natural limestone arch , 146 feet ( 45 m ) above the ground . Other popular geologic formations include Devil 's Kitchen , Skull Cave , and Sugar Loaf .
= = = Nature = = =
Mackinac Island contains a wide variety of terrain , including fields , marshes , bogs , coastline , boreal forest , and limestone formations . The environment is legally preserved on the island by the State Historic Park designation . About half of the shoreline and adjacent waters off Mackinac Island , including the harbor ( Haldimand Bay ) and the southern and western shore from Mission Point to Pointe aux Pins , is protected as part of the Straits of Mackinac Shipwreck Preserve , a state marine park . As it is separated from the mainland by 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of water , few large mammals inhabit the island , except those that traverse the ice during the winter months . Rabbits , fox , raccoons , otters , mink , gray and red squirrels , and chipmunks are all common as is the occasional beaver and coyote . Bats are the most abundant migratory mammals as crossing the water is no obstacle for them . There are many limestone caves serving as homes for the bats and many insects on the island for the bat to prey on . The island is frequented by migratory birds on their trips between their summer and winter habitats . Eagles and hawks are abundant in April and May , while smaller birds such as yellow warblers , American redstart , and indigo bunting are more common in early summer . Near the shoreline , gulls , herons , geese , and loons are common . Owls , including snowy owls and great grey owls , come to the island from the Arctic to hunt in the warmer climate . Other birds , such as chickadees , cardinals , blue jays , and woodpeckers , live on the island year @-@ round . Toads have
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all over western Europe including all major West German stations ( Eurovision connectivity in 1956 ) The political ramifications were not the only impact television had these Olympics . The Cortina Games did not generate revenue from television – the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley were the first to do so @-@ but were an experiment in the feasibility of televising a large multi @-@ sport event . For the first time at an Olympic Games , the venues were built with television in mind . For example , the grand stand at the cross @-@ country ski venue ( Lo Stadio della neve ) was built facing south so that the television cameras would not be adversely affected by the rising or setting sun .
= = Events = =
Medals were awarded in 24 events contested in 4 sports ( 8 disciplines ) . The programme for the 1956 Winter Games saw two new events added to the four sports and twenty @-@ two events from the 1952 Olympics , namely the men 's 30 kilometre cross @-@ country ski race and the women 's 3x5 kilometre cross @-@ country relay race . The Soviet Union requested the inclusion of a women 's speed skating event , but this was rejected by the IOC at the 49th Session in Athens in 1954 .
Bobsleigh ( 2 ) ( )
Ice hockey ( 1 ) ( )
Skating
Figure skating ( 3 ) ( )
Speed skating ( 4 ) ( )
Skiing
Alpine skiing ( 6 ) ( )
Nordic skiing ( )
Cross @-@ country skiing ( 6 ) ( )
Nordic combined ( 1 ) ( )
Ski jumping ( 1 ) ( )
= = = Opening ceremonies = = =
The opening ceremonies took place on Thursday , 26 January 1956 in the Olympic Ice Stadium . Temporary seating was added to boost the stadium 's capacity to 14 @,@ 000 people . Athletes representing 32 nations marched in the ceremony and Mr Giovanni Gronchi , President of the Italian Republic , declared the Games open . At this point , speed skater Guido Caroli skated into the stadium with the Olympic flame . While he was on a circuit of the Ice Stadium he tripped and fell over a television cable ; he regained his feet and lit the cauldron . The Olympic oath was delivered by Giuliana Chenal @-@ Minuzzo ; this was the first time a female athlete gave the oath at an Olympic Games . The Olympic Hymn , officially recognised as such at the IOC congress in Paris on 13 June 1955 , was played for the first time at the Cortina Games .
= = = Bobsleigh = = =
There were two bobsleigh events , the two @-@ man and four @-@ man competitions . Every participating nation was limited to two sleighs in each event . The sleighs made four runs , with the total time summed . The Italians won gold and silver in the two @-@ man event . Switzerland took third place when they passed Spain on the fourth run . In the four @-@ man event held a week later , the Swiss won the gold medal , Italy picked up the silver , and the United States won the bronze . Italy had participated in all six previous Olympic bobsleigh competitions but had never reached the podium . Italians Renzo Alverà and Eugenio Monti won the silver in the two @-@ man competition and were also on the silver @-@ winning four @-@ man sleigh . Monti 's silver medals at the 1956 Games were the first of six Olympic medals he would win in his bobsleigh career . The bobsleigh run at Cortina was eventually renamed the Eugenio Monti track to honour his bobsleigh career . The medals won in bobsleigh would be the host nation 's only medals at these Games . One complaint of the bobsleigh events was that the track surface suffered extensive damage due to overuse . This hampered the performance of teams drawn late in the competition .
= = = Ice hockey = = =
The eighth Olympic ice hockey tournament also served as both the European and World Championships . Split into three pools before the tournament , the ten participating nations began by playing each team in their pool in a round robin format . The top two teams from each pool advanced to the final rounds , with the remaining teams playing in a consolation group for 7th through 10th places . Canada , Czechoslovakia , and the Soviet Union finished their preliminary pools with undefeated records . Germany , the United States , and Sweden took second place in their pools .
An important early matchup of the final rounds was the game between Canada ( winners of six gold medals and one silver in the previous seven tournaments ) and the United States ( which had finished one place behind Canada each of the five times the Americans played ) . The United States beat Canada 4 – 1 . The US then faced the USSR in a game that would eventually make the difference in the gold medal . The Soviets went on to win the match 4 – 0 . The Soviets claimed the gold by beating Canada , while the United States took the silver and Canada , with their two losses , earned the bronze . The victory of the Soviet team was particularly noteworthy given the fact that they only began competing internationally in 1954 .
= = = Figure skating = = =
The Cortina Games were the last Olympics to feature figure skating outdoors . Skaters from the United States won five medals , sweeping the men 's event and taking the top two spots in the ladies ' event . Tenley Albright was the women 's Olympic champion despite sustaining a serious injury in practice . Less than two weeks before the Olympics she was practicing her skating routine when she hit a rut in the ice and fell . Her skate cut through several layers of clothing , and sliced her right leg at the ankle . Her teammate Carol Heiss won the silver , and Austrian Ingrid Wendl earned the bronze medal . Americans Hayes Jenkins , Ronald Robertson , and Jenkins ' brother David Jenkins were the men 's medallists . The Austrian pair of Sissy Schwarz and Kurt Oppelt took the gold medal in the pairs event . Canadians Frances Dafoe and Norris Bowden won the silver and the Hungarian siblings Marianna Nagy and László Nagy defended their bronze medal from the 1952 Games .
= = = Speed skating = = =
The Soviet Union dominated the speed skating events by winning seven of the twelve medals , including four golds . Soviet skaters set two world records , an Olympic record , and had at least one medallist in each of the four events . Yevgeny Grishin was the top individual performer , with two gold medals and two world records . Grishin and Soviet teammate Yuri Mikhaylov tied in the 1 @,@ 500 metre race . It was decided to award both of the athletes gold medals and leave the silver medal position vacant . Sigvard Ericsson of Sweden earned gold and silver medals and set an Olympic record in the 10 @,@ 000 metre event .
= = = Alpine skiing = = =
Six alpine skiing events were held , three for men and three for women . The races were the downhill , slalom and giant slalom . Toni Sailer of Austria swept the men 's gold medals , becoming the first person to win three alpine skiing golds in a single Olympics . Led by Sailer , the Austrians dominated the alpine skiing events for both men and women , winning nine out of a possible eighteen medals . The Austrians were particularly successful in the giant slalom ; the men swept the medals and the women took silver and bronze . Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan when he placed second in the slalom . Swiss teammates , Madeleine Berthod and Renée Colliard won the women 's downhill and slalom races . Germany earned its only gold medal of the Games when Ossi Reichert took first in the giant slalom .
= = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = =
Two women 's events were added to the cross @-@ country skiing programme for the first time . The Soviet women took the top two spots in the individual 10 kilometre race but lost to Finland in the new 3x5 kilometre relay . The men had a new event as well , the 30 kilometre race , which was won by Veikko Hakulinen from Finland . The other three men 's events were won by three different nations : Norway took the 15 kilometre race , Sweden the 50 kilometre event , and the Soviet Union won the relay . Overall the Soviet Union won seven out of a possible eighteen medals in cross @-@ country skiing . Sweden , behind the strong skiing of Sixten Jernberg , won six medals . Jernberg won a gold , two silvers , and a bronze , which were the first of nine Olympic medals he would earn in his cross @-@ country career .
= = = Nordic combined = = =
There were significant changes to the Nordic combined event at the 1956 Games . The event had always been a cross @-@ country race followed by a ski jump . Originally the competitors in the Nordic combined were entered into the open 18 kilometre cross @-@ country race , which meant that they competed alongside athletes who were dedicated cross @-@ country skiers . Their times were combined with their score from two ski jumps to determine the winner . At the Cortina Games , the format was altered to allow the Nordic combined athletes to compete in a dedicated 15 kilometre cross @-@ country race . Two days later they had three jumps on the ski jump hill . Their best two scores were combined with their cross @-@ country time to determine a winner . This format would become the standard for Nordic combined competitions going forward . Norway continued its dominance of Nordic combined when Sverre Stenersen won the gold medal . Since its inception at the 1924 Games , the country had only lost the Nordic combined event once . Stenersen was followed by Bengt Eriksson of Sweden and Poland 's Franciszek Gąsienica Groń .
= = = Ski jumping = = =
In the ski jumping event , the Swiss jumper , Andreas Däscher introduced a new style of jumping , which would soon come to be known as the Däscher technique . Before these Games , the athletes would hold their arms forward over their heads . Däscher reasoned that if the athlete held his arms at his side he would fly farther . Adherents to this new style dominated the competition . Finnish jumpers Antti Hyvärinen and Aulis Källakorpi took first and second place ; Harry Glass of Germany won the bronze medal . This competition marked the end of Norwegian dominance in the sport . Since the first winter Games in 1924 , the Norwegians had won the gold medal at each Olympics until 1956 . The poor performance of the Norwegian jumpers was attributed to their refusal to use the new jumping technique .
= = = Closing ceremonies = = =
The closing ceremonies took place on Sunday , 5 February in the Olympic Ice Stadium . They were preceded by a figure skating exhibition performed by the men 's , women 's , and pairs figure skating champions . The flag bearers of each nation then entered the stadium followed by the flags of Greece and the United States . These two flags were raised to honor the nation that founded the Olympics and the next country to host the Winter Games . Avery Brundage , chairman of the International Olympic Committee , declared the Olympics closed , and a fireworks display concluded the Games .
= = Calendar = =
All dates are in Central European Time ( UTC + 1 )
The opening ceremony was held on 26 January , along with the first games of the hockey tournament . From 27 January until 5 February , the day of the closing ceremony , at least one event final was held each day .
† The numeral indicates the number of event finals for each sport held that day .
= = Venues = =
A unique feature of the Cortina Olympics was the proximity of many event locations which were in walking distance of each other within the town of Cortina . The speed skating events were held at Lake Misurina , roughly 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from Cortina . The venues featured grandstands heated by silica coils built into the seats . Silica coil heating was a technology that had only recently become economical . The competitions were held without incident except for the skiing events , which suffered from a lack of snow .
A notable venue not found at the 1956 Games was an Olympic Village , where the athletes would be housed . The town of Cortina d 'Ampezzo had a population of less than 7 @,@ 000 people in 1956 . Local hotels were concerned that after the Olympics an Olympic Village would so significantly increase the hotel capacity it would put many of them out of business . Athletes were billeted by local families or stayed in hotels during the Games .
The Olympic Ice Stadium ( Stadio Olimpico Del Ghiaccio ) was intended to be the focal point of the Games . It was built on the banks of the Boite river just north of Cortina . After new roads and a bridge had been constructed , the stadium was an eight @-@ minute walk from the center of town . The stadium was built to accommodate 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 people . Due to space limitations the grandstands were constructed vertically , with tiers built directly on top of each other . There were two artificial ice rinks of 30 by 60 m ( 98 by 197 ft ) , with a total ice surface of 4 @,@ 320 m2 ( 46 @,@ 500 sq ft ) . A special cooling plant was built under the stadium , which froze the ice through the evaporation of ammonia . The construction cost totaled ITL 1 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 1 million in 1956 ) , making it the most expensive venue of these Games . The stadium was used for the opening and closing ceremonies , all of the figure skating competitions and select ice hockey events . After the Games , the organising committee made the Ice Stadium a gift to the city of Cortina . It was used as an ice skating rink in the winter and an outdoor gymnasium for judo and gymnastics in the summer .
The Apollonio Stadium was used for select games of the ice hockey tournament . Considerable work had to be done to bring the stadium up to date . A second rink was added to allow for two games to be held simultaneously . The stadium was outfitted with electric lights and the seating capacity was enlarged to accommodate 2 @,@ 000 people .
The bobsleigh run ( Pista Olimpica di Bob – Eugenio Monti ) , was originally constructed in 1928 . The track was rebuilt and expanded several times during the years leading up to the Olympics . A state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art signal board was installed displaying a diagram of the run with the position of each sleigh on the run shown with lights .
Situated around 2 @.@ 5 km ( 2 mi ) from Cortina , near Zuel , the " Italia " Jump ( Trampolino Olimpico Italia ) was originally built in 1923 as the " Franchetti " Jump . After modifications in 1926 , the first structure was demolished in 1939 and rebuilt in 1940 . With the 1956 Games coming to Cortina , the jump had to be updated again to comply with the technical demands of the Olympics . On April 15 , 1955 , the " Franchetti " Jump was finally demolished and the new " Italia Jump " was completed in the same year at a cost of nearly ITL 310 million ( $ 500 @,@ 000 ) . The reinforced concrete platform was 54 m ( 177 ft ) high , and possessed a 87 @.@ 5 m ( 287 ft ) long , 35 ° steep in @-@ run . Two grandstands , each with a capacity for 3 @,@ 000 people , were placed on either side of the landing slope ; a natural amphiteatre at the bottom of the hill could hold up to 40 @,@ 000 standing spectators . A special road was built between Cortina and the venue for the transport of athletes , officials and authorities .
The Snow Stadium ( Stadio della neve ) was constructed 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from Cortina , and hosted all of the cross @-@ country events . Two grandstands were constructed to accommodate 6 @,@ 000 people . Three types of cross @-@ country courses were constructed : one of 15 km ( 9 mi ) , three of 5 km ( 3 mi ) , and four of 10 km ( 6 mi ) . Some of these courses went through the bobsleigh run . As a result , a bridge had to be constructed so events occurring in the two venues would not interfere with each other .
The alpine runs ( Le piste alpine ) were built on the slopes of Monte Tofana and Monte Faloria in the nearby Dolomite alps . The men 's and women 's downhill and slalom races were held on Tofana . Faloria was the site of the two giant slalom events . It took nearly two years to complete construction of the runs . In previous years , lack of snow was never an issue , but in the winter of 1956 there was insufficient snowfall for skiers to safely navigate the runs . As a consequence , snow had to be transported from other parts of the mountains by the Italian army .
The Misurina rink ( La pista di Misurina ) was the location of the speed skating events . This was the last time that speed skating at the Olympics was held on natural ice . It was 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from Cortina . The rink was established at the northern end of the lake with a mountain backdrop . Stands were constructed to accommodate 8 @,@ 500 people . Despite the event being held outdoors on lake ice , two world records and two Olympic records were broken during the competition .
Three of the venues for these games ( the bobsleigh run , indoor arena , and ski jump ) would serve as film location for the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only .
= = Participating nations = =
A total of 32 nations sent athletes to Cortina d 'Ampezzo . Along with the Soviet Union , Bolivia and Iran competed at the Winter Games for the first time . Korea , Liechtenstein , and Turkey returned after having missed the 1952 Winter Olympics , while Argentina , Denmark , New Zealand , and Portugal did not compete at these Games , after having participated in the previous edition . Athletes from West Germany ( FRG ) and East Germany ( GDR ) competed together as the United Team of Germany , an arrangement that would continue for the following two Olympiads .
Below is the list of participating nations , with the number of competitors indicated in brackets :
= = Medal count = =
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1956 Winter Olympics :
* Two gold medals were awarded when Soviet skaters tied in the 1 @,@ 500 metre speed skating competition .
= Astonishing Stories =
Astonishing Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine , published by Popular Publications between 1940 and 1943 . It was founded under Popular 's " Fictioneers " imprint , which paid lower rates than Popular 's other magazines . The magazine 's first editor was Frederik Pohl , who also edited a companion publication , Super Science Stories . After nine issues Pohl was replaced by Alden H. Norton , who subsequently rehired Pohl as an assistant . The budget for Astonishing was very low , which made it difficult to acquire good fiction , but through his membership in the Futurians , a group of young science fiction fans and aspiring writers , Pohl was able to find material to fill the early issues . The magazine was successful , and Pohl was able to increase his pay rates slightly within a year . He managed to obtain stories by writers who subsequently became very well known , such as Isaac Asimov and Robert Heinlein . After Pohl entered the army in early 1943 , wartime paper shortages led Popular to cease publication of Astonishing . The final issue was dated April of that year .
The magazine was never regarded as one of the leading titles of the genre , but despite the low budget it published some well @-@ received material . Science fiction critic Peter Nicholls comments that " its stories were surprisingly good considering how little was paid for them " , and this view has been echoed by other historians of the field .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming , and several new sf magazines were launched in 1939 . Frederik Pohl , a young science fiction reader , was looking for a job that year . He visited Robert Erisman , who was the editor of two pulps , Marvel Science Stories and Dynamic Science Stories , to ask for a job as an assistant . Erisman turned him down , but suggested that Pohl contact Rogers Terrill at Popular Publications , a leading pulp publisher . Erisman had heard that Popular was starting a new line of magazines , and thought that they might be interested in adding a science fiction title . On October 25 , 1939 , Pohl visited Terrill and persuaded him to give the idea a try , and left Terrill 's office having been hired , at the age of nineteen , to edit two new magazines , on a salary of ten dollars per week . One was Super Science Stories ; the other was at one point intended to be titled Incredible Stories , but ultimately appeared as Astonishing Stories .
Popular was uncertain of the sales potential for the two new titles and decided to publish them under its Fictioneers imprint , which was used for lower @-@ paying magazines . Astonishing 's first issue was dated February 1940 ; it was bimonthly , alternating monthly with Super Science Stories . Pohl 's budget for an issue was $ 405 : in Pohl 's memoirs he recalls Harry Steeger , one of the company owners , breaking down the budget for him : " Two hundred seventy @-@ five dollars for stories . A hundred dollars for black and white art . Thirty dollars for a cover . " Pohl could only offer half a cent per word for fiction , well below the rates offered by the leading magazines . At ten cents , the magazine was cheaper than any of the other sf magazines of the day , and it sold well , despite Pohl 's limited resources . It was certainly assisted by Popular 's wide and effective distribution network , and the publisher soon increased Pohl 's budget , to pay bonuses for popular stories . Pohl later commented that he was uncertain whether the additional funds really helped to bring in higher quality submissions , although at the time he assured Steeger it would improve the magazine . Some of the additional money went to long @-@ time writer Ray Cummings , who was sufficiently well known that the young Pohl felt unable to reject his stories , even though he disliked his work . Cummings came to see Pohl in person to submit his work , and refused to sell for less than one cent a word ; since the first visit came on a day when Pohl had some extra money available , Pohl was never able to bring himself to tell Cummings that he could not really afford to pay that rate . Pohl comments in his memoirs that " for months he would turn up regularly as clockwork and sell me a new story ; I hated them all , and bought them all . "
Pohl stretched his budget by reducing the space he needed to fill with fiction . For example , a long letter column took up several pages but required no payment ; similarly , running advertisements for Popular 's other magazines did not use up the fiction budget . Some authors sent inaccurate word counts with the stories they submitted , and Popular saved money by paying them on the basis of whichever word count was less — the author 's or one done by Popular 's staff . The result was a saving of forty to fifty dollars per issue . More money was saved by reusing snipped elements of black and white illustrations to fill space , as multiple uses of the same artwork did not require additional payments to the artist .
Towards the end of 1940 Popular doubled Pohl 's salary to twenty dollars per week . In June 1941 Pohl went to see Steeger to ask for a further raise ; he was planning to resign and work as a free @-@ lance writer if he did not get more pay . Steeger , in Pohl 's words , " had complaints of his own " , and was not receptive ; by the end of the meeting Pohl had lost his job as editor . Pohl later commented " I have never been sure whether I quit or got fired . " Instead of replacing Pohl , Popular assigned editor @-@ in @-@ chief Alden H. Norton to add the magazines to his responsibilities . The arrangement lasted for seven months , after which Norton asked Pohl to return as his assistant . Norton offered Pohl a higher salary as an associate editor than he had received as the editor , and Pohl quickly accepted .
Pohl was not eligible to be drafted for military service as he was married , but by the end of 1942 his marriage was over and he decided to enlist . As voluntary enlistment was suspended he was unable to immediately join the army , but eventually was inducted on April 1 , 1943 . Paper was difficult to obtain because of the war , and Popular decided to close the magazine down ; the final issue , dated April 1943 , was assembled with the assistance of Ejler Jakobsson .
= = Contents and reception = =
Because of the low rates of pay , the stories submitted to Astonishing in its first year had generally already been rejected elsewhere . However , Pohl was a member of the Futurians , a group of science fiction fans that included Isaac Asimov , C.M. Kornbluth , Richard Wilson and Donald Wollheim ; the Futurians were eager to become professional writers and were glad to submit stories to Pohl . Asimov recalls in his memoirs that on October 27 , 1939 , two days after Pohl was hired to edit the magazines , Pohl turned up at Asimov 's apartment and asked to buy " Half @-@ Breed " , a story Pohl had been trying to sell on Asimov 's behalf since June of that year . Pohl needed stories quickly for the first issue of Astonishing ( though the name had not yet been selected ) , and as the story had been rejected by Amazing Stories and Astounding Stories , Asimov was willing to sell it for half a cent per word . A couple of weeks later Pohl also acquired " The Callistan Menace " from Asimov . The other Futurians were prolific as well ; in Pohl 's first year as an editor he bought a total of fifteen stories from them for the two magazines . Damon Knight , another of the Futurians , recalled in his memoirs that Pohl once asked the group for a story to fill out an issue , with $ 35 available to pay for it . Kornbluth and Wilson wrote a first draft , alternating turns at the typewriter ; the result was edited by Harry Dockweiler , another Futurian , and then again by Pohl before it appeared in the April 1940 Astonishing under the title " Stepsons of Mars " , with a byline of " Ivar Towers " . Pohl contributed material himself , using the pseudonyms " James McCreigh " and " Dirk Wylie " ( the latter pseudonym was also used by Dockweiler ) ; he used his own stories when he needed to fill an issue , and to supplement his salary of ten dollars a week . Particularly after his marriage to Doris Baumgardt in August 1940 , Pohl realized that his salary covered their apartment rent with almost no money left over , and began to augment his income by selling to himself as well as to other magazines . When Pohl lost his job as editor in late 1941 , he had bought from himself ( and paid for ) a couple of stories that he had not actually written , and hence had to write them very quickly and turn them in .
The first issue of Astonishing Stories was dated February 1940 ; the lead story was " Chameleon Planet " by John Russell Fearn , and it also included Asimov 's " Half @-@ Breed " and fiction by Henry Kuttner and Manly Wade Wellman . Despite the difficulties caused by the low budget , Pohl was able to pay his authors promptly , unlike some of his competitors , and he thus began to receive stories of higher quality . Sf historian Mike Ashley identifies " The Last Drop " , by L. Ron Hubbard and L. Sprague de Camp as one of the better stories in Astonishing ; historians Milton Wolf and Raymond H. Thompson consider the story to be unimpressive , and point instead to Alfred Bester 's " The Pet Nebula " in the February 1941 issue . Kuttner 's " Soldiers of Space " and Robert Bloch 's " It Happened Tomorrow " , both of which appeared in the February 1943 issue , are also praised . Pohl was also able to print the first three of Ross Rocklynne 's well @-@ liked " Into the Darkness " series . Other well @-@ known writers who appeared in the pages of Astonishing include Leigh Brackett , Clifford Simak , and E. E. Smith .
Pohl told his readers in Astonishing 's first issue that he would listen to their feedback and respond to their requests . In addition to paying attention to their comments on stories , he included departments in the magazine that encouraged interaction with the fans , such as a letter column , a section that listed fanzines with names and addresses , and a review column . The reviews , primarily by Wollheim , but also including contributions from Richard Wilson , Forrest Ackerman , and John Michel , were of a higher standard than elsewhere in the field , and historian Paul Carter regards Astonishing and Super Science Stories as the place where " book reviewing for the first time began to merit the term ' literary criticism ' " , and adds that " it was in those magazines that the custom began of paying attention to science fiction on the stage and screen also . "
The artwork in Astonishing was initially quite poor , which was unsurprising given the minuscule budget Pohl had to work with . Much of the art was supplied by fans and artists early in their careers , including Doris Baumgardt ( under the pseudonym Leslie Perri ) and Dorothy Les Tina , who later became Pohl 's first and second wives , respectively . One fan artist who stood out from the rest was Hannes Bok , who went on to become a well @-@ respected artist with a very distinctive style . Ray Bradbury commented positively on Bok 's work in a letter in the August 1940 Astonishing , and Bok subsequently illustrated a story of Bradbury 's in the April 1943 issue . Aleck Portegal , Popular 's art director , had initially told Pohl that the regular artists would be unwilling to work for the low rates he could offer , but in the event some of them were willing to take less pay to get the extra work . More professional art began to appear in the magazine , including work by Virgil Finlay , Alexander Leydenfrost , Leo Morey , Hans Wessolowski , and Frank R. Paul , all well known in the field . Some art appeared under the name Stephen Lawrence , which was known to be a pseudonym of Lawrence Stevens , but it was subsequently discovered that some of this work was actually by Lawrence Stevens ' son Peter .
Astonishing Stories is not remembered as being among the best science fiction magazines : both critic Peter Nicholls and sf writer Jack Williamson have described it as a " training ground " for writers who would go on to do their best work elsewhere . However , Nicholls adds that " its stories were surprisingly good considering how little was paid for them " , and Wolf and Thompson agree , claiming that " there was much that was memorable in Astonishing , both by way of immediate appeal and of more lasting quality " . Pohl himself , who later became a very successful magazine editor , felt he made many mistakes . He quotes as an example his serialization of Malcolm Jameson 's story " Quicksands of Youthwardness " in three parts ; the story was only 27 @,@ 000 words long , and readers complained ( justifiably , in Pohl 's view ) that serializing it in a bimonthly magazine meant they had to wait for five months to read the whole story , in relatively small 9 @,@ 000 @-@ word pieces . Overall , Pohl assessed his performance by saying " I wasn 't really a very good editor " ; adding " With what I know now I could have made those magazines sing , but as it was they just lay there " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Astonishing Stories was edited by Frederik Pohl from February 1940 through September 1941 ( nine issues ) , and then by Alden H. Norton from November 1941 through April 1943 ( seven issues ) . It was published by Fictioneers , Inc . , a subsidiary of Popular Publications . It was pulp @-@ sized throughout its run , with 112 pages and a cover price of 10 cents . The volume numbering was regular , with four volumes of four numbers . It was bimonthly for the first eight issues ; the next four were on an irregular schedule , and the last four , from October 1942 , were bimonthly again .
A Canadian edition appeared for three issues , dated January , March , and May 1942 , published by Popular Publications ' Toronto branch . It was priced at 10 cents and ran to 96 pages ; it was also in pulp format , but fractionally larger than the US version . The first and third issues reprinted the November 1941 and March 1942 US issues of Astonishing , but the March 1942 Canadian issue was a reprint of the November 1941 Super Science Stories , omitting one story . The covers in all three issues were replaced by new paintings , and the interior artwork was also different . The artists responsible for the new illustrations and covers were not credited . In August 1942 a Canadian edition of Super Science Stories began which also alternated between reprinting the US editions of Astonishing and Super Science Stories ; this could be regarded as a continuation of the Canadian edition of Astonishing , although the volume numbering was restarted at volume 1 number 1 when the name was changed .
= 1985 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1985 Pacific hurricane season is the third most active Pacific hurricane season on record . It officially started on May 15 , 1985 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1985 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1985 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . At the time , the 1985 season was the most active on record in the eastern north Pacific , with 28 tropical cyclones forming . Of those , 24 were named , 13 reached hurricane intensity , and 8 became major hurricanes by attaining Category 3 status or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . At that time , the 24 named storms was a record ; however , this record was broken seven years later in 1992 , and was therefore recognized as the second busiest season within the basin , until it was surpassed exactly thirty years later by the 2015 season .
Despite the activity , only one system made landfall in 1985 . Hurricane Waldo caused moderate damage in Northwestern Mexico and one death in Kansas . Surf from Hurricanes Pauline and Rick caused minor damage in Hawaii . Hurricane Nele resulted in disruption in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , while Hurricane Ignacio threatened Hawaii , but only ended up producing light rainfall and minimal damage .
= = Seasonal summary = =
This year , 25 tropical cyclones formed in the eastern north Pacific ( 140 ° W to North America ) . Of those systems , three never strengthened beyond the depression stage , while 22 were named . This total was six storms above the 1966 @-@ 1985 average seven above the 1971 @-@ 2006 average and nine above the 1949 @-@ 2006 average of 13 . With a total 26 tropical cyclones and 24 named storms , this season was the most active on record , breaking the short @-@ lived record held by the 1983 Pacific hurricane season , though the 1992 Pacific hurricane season then broke and surpassed this record . This season is now the third @-@ most active , being recently also surpassed by the 2015 Pacific hurricane season , which is now the second @-@ most active overall .
Of the named systems , 10 peaked as tropical storms , 12 as hurricanes , and 8 reached the intensity of major hurricanes by attaining Category 3 strength or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . The season lasted 170 days , three days longer than the 1984 Pacific hurricane season , but still then days longer than normal . The Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) issued 620 bulletins during the season , 35 more than the previous season . In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( 140 ° W to the International dateline ) , three tropical cyclones formed . One of those stayed as a tropical depression through its life . One strengthened into a hurricane , and another crossed into the northwestern Pacific before eventually returning to the central Pacific .
Although meteorologists expected a below @-@ normal season , the season got on to a fast start though no storms formed in May . The activity picked up significantly thereafter , with 5 storms forming in June , including one major hurricane . By the middle of July , a total of 10 storms had formed with another tropical storm forming off the coast of Central America roughly every 10 days .
Within two more weeks , 13 tropical storms or hurricanes had formed , including 4 major hurricanes . By August 23 , 2 more storms had been named . By early September , a total of 17 named storms had developed , 6 of which became hurricanes . Roughly two weeks later , two additional named storms were classified . After a lull in late September and early October , a total of 22 storms had formed by mid @-@ October 21 of which developed in the EPHC 's area of responsibility and the list of names was exhausted , forcing the agency to request emergency names .
The cause of the high activity in 1985 is unknown ; however , this year continued a trend of above average season that began in 1981 . The hurricane season took place during a La Nina event , which tends to inhibit Pacific hurricane activity . However , 1985 was during a warm phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and in the middle of an era where all but one pacific hurricane season was near or above average .
Several storms were investigated by Hurricane Hunter aircraft in 1985 ; the first was on July 24 during Hurricane Ignacio . On September 10 , a flight was made into Hurricane Rick , where the storms lowest pressure was recorded . Hurricane Sandra was investigated on September 12 on the way from Hawaii , where the hunters were on standby . The final two flights of the season were made on September 21 and 22 into Hurricane Terry while the storm was located off the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula . In addition to Hurricane Hunter aircraft , the National Weather Service satellite station provided the basin with adequate satellite converge . The earlier loss of a GOES @-@ East satellite and the move of a GOES @-@ west satellite further west had little effect on EPHC operations . Enhanced infrared imagery was especially useful in determining cold @-@ core centers .
Even though the early season storms were no threat to land , there were several notable storms during the season , with one writer describing the season as the " worst year ever " . The first storm of series of storms to affect Hawaii , Hurricane Ignacio produced 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) waves along south @-@ facing beaches . However , rainfall from Ignacio was light . The second storm to affect the state , Tropical Storm Linda dropped heavy rainfall along the windward slopes of the island chain . In early September , Hurricane Pauline came close enough to require a hurricane watch , but the watch was discontinued when Pauline veered north . However , the storm did produced high waves , with amplitudes of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) on the eastern side of Puna and Kau . Days later , Hurricane Rick generated high waves ; however , the waves were not nearly as high as they were during Pauline . The final storm to affect Hawaii was Hurricane Nele . Due to fears of a repeat from Hurricane Iwa , which struck during the 1982 Pacific hurricane season , a hurricane watch was issued . Although the watch was discontinued when Nele veered west , it later re @-@ curved and struck the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , giving boats a rough night .
The only storm to make landfall during the year was Hurricane Waldo . Waldo destroyed hundreds of homes in Sinaloa and later produced significant rainfall across the Southwestern United States and Great Plains . One person was killed in Kansas . In addition , two storms affected California . The first , Tropical Storm Guillermo , helped firefighters put out fires during mid @-@ July . The second , Tropical Storm Nora , brought light rainfall to the northern portion of the state in late August .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Andres = = =
On June 1 , an area of thunderstorms south of Acapulco developed . It increased in size and , by June 5 , was organized enough to be considered a tropical depression . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm shortly after thereafter . While the Monthly Weather Review reported that Tropical Storm Andres operationally started out as a tropical depression. the HURDAT database does not give Andres an initial depression stage . Andres headed west , and two days after formation , it reached its maximum intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while located south of the Baja California Peninsula . It then slowly weakened as it moved around a weak upper @-@ level high . It weakened to a depression on June 8 . The low stayed a depression as it continued west until it dissipated on June 12 as the cyclone gradually increased in speed .
= = = Hurricane Blanca = = =
Blanca originated from a tropical disturbance south of Nicaragua . A tropical depression formed on June 6 south of the Mexican coast . Shortly thereafter , it strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Blanca . By June 8 , the EPHC reported that Blanca had intensified into a hurricane . Blanca fluctuated in intensity for several days , but Blanca did not intensify into a major hurricane , Category 3 or higher , until June 13 . After reaching its peak intensity that day with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) later that day , Hurricane Blanca began to weaken . It held on to hurricane strengthen until June 14 , when the agency reported that Hurricane Blanca had fell to tropical storm intensity . Steadily weakening , Blanca deteriorated into a tropical depression , before dissipating on June 16 .
= = = Tropical Storm Carlos = = =
Carlos originated from a tropical disturbance moving that was moving westward along the northern edge of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . The wave developed into the third tropical cyclone of the season at 1800 UTC on June 7 . Due to weak steering currents , the depression moved north and then south , which subsequently resulted in a very small cyclonic loop . By 0000 UTC on June 10 , the depression was upgraded to a Tropical Storm Carlos ; at the time , the storm also attained its maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . However , six hours later , Carlos weakened back to a tropical depression . Thereafter , the storm accelerated somewhat , and quickly merging with the remnants of Tropical Storm Andres at 1800 UTC on June 10 .
= = = Hurricane Dolores = = =
A disturbance located south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec moved westward along 10 ° N between June 24 and June 25 . After interacting with an upper trough , the disturbance strengthened , and by the following day , it developed into the fourth tropical depression of the season at 0600 UTC . The depression steadily intensified and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dolores late on June 27 . Dolores strengthened further while tracking west @-@ northwestward around the southern end of a deep layer ridge . By 1800 UTC on June 28 , the storm had reached hurricane intensity . Thereafter , Dolores continued to steadily deepen , and by 0600 UTC on July 1 , the storm peaked as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane . However , due to colder sea surface temperatures and increasing vertical wind shear , Dolores quickly weakened , and by early on July 2 , it was downgraded to a tropical storm . Later that day , the storm further weakened to a tropical depression . At around 1800 UTC on July 5 , Dolores dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Enrique = = =
Enrique began as a tropical disturbance in the ITCZ west of the larger and very intense Hurricane Dolores . Moving west over 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) water , the system was designated as a tropical depression on June 27 . Shortly thereafter , it intensified Tropical Storm Enrique . Turning west @-@ northwest , the storm moved over slightly warmer water . Despite this , Enrique never strengthened beyond 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , and entered the CPHC 's warming responsibility on July 1 . Turning west beneath a ridge , Enrique rapidly weakened to tropical depression status . On July 4 , the shallow and weak system turned slightly south of west . Enrique had dissipated by July 5 . Despite its weak intensity , moisture carried by the system caused a few localized heavy showers on the windward side of the Big Island of Hawaii on July 5 and over the Kona slopes throughout the night hours of July 5 and 6 .
= = = Tropical Storm Fefa = = =
A tropical disturbance moved westward across the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July 1 . At 1200 UTC on the following day , the disturbance was classified as Tropical Depression Six , while centered about 215 miles ( 346 km ) south of Acapulco . Early on July 3 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fefa , while moving parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico . Fefa approached hurricane status and peaked as a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 4 . However , thereafter , the storm began weakening as a short @-@ wave trough in the westerlies moved into northern Mexico , which caused increased wind shear on Tropical Storm Fefa . Additionally , colder sea surface temperatures over the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula further weakened Fefa . By 1800 UTC on July 6 , Fefa dissipated . At the time of dissipation , the low while located about 170 miles ( 270 km ) east of La Paz .
= = = Tropical Storm Guillermo = = =
The origins of Guillermo were from a tropical disturbance that formed within 300 mi ( 485 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Moving rapidly west @-@ northwest over moderately warm water , the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression . At this time , the depression was centered 270 mi ( 435 km ) south of Acapulco on July 7 . Roughly 24 hours later , the storm intensified slightly , enough to warrant an upgraded into Tropical Storm Guillermo . Tropical Storm Guillermo moved northwest at almost 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) around the southwest side of a high pressure area over Central Mexico . Passing 50 mi ( 80 km ) north of Socorro Island , Guillermo attained its maximum intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) during the evening of July 9 .
Shortly after its peak , Guillermo began to weaken rapidly due to a combination of strong wind shear and 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) waters . By 1800 UTC , most of the thunderstorm activity had dissipated and only a weak low @-@ pressure area remained . Based on this , Guillermo was downgraded into a tropical depression . Finally , Guillermo turned west and ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone on July 12 . The remnants of the storm brought light rainfall to the mountains and valleys of California , helping re @-@ fill dry reservoirs and put out large fires .
= = = Tropical Storm Hilda = = =
Tropical Depression Nine developed at 0000 UTC on July 18 . Initially , the depression tracked northward due to weak southerly flow associated with an upper @-@ level high centered near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . By 0000 UTC on July 19 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hilda ; the storm reached its maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) at this time . Thereafter , Hilda turned westward . Due to sea surface temperatures of only 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) , Hilda began to weaken and it dissipated on 1200 UTC July 20 .
= = = Hurricane Jimena = = =
Jimena originated from a tropical wave that moved across Central America and southern Mexico on July 18 and 19 . Located along the northern edge of the ITCZ , a tropical depression formed by July 20 . Initially moving west , the depression turned west @-@ northwest and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Jimena early on July 21 . Jimena attained hurricane intensity two days later . Hurricane Jimena remained a Category 1 hurricane for roughly another day , only to undergo a burst of intensification despite being above marginally warm ocean temperatures . The storm attained peak wind speed of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) while located roughly 600 mi ( 965 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas .
After maintaining peak intensity for 12 hours , Jimena turned northwest , and respectively began a slow decline . Jimena fell below hurricane status on 1800 UTC July 26 . Tropical Storm Jimena was downgraded into a tropical depression late on July 27 . Jimena was no longer considered a tropical cyclone by July 29 , as its center had dissipated over fairly cold water .
= = = Hurricane Ignacio = = =
A tropical depression was spotted early on July 21 while located 1 @,@ 623 mi ( 2 @,@ 612 km ) southwest of San Diego . Situated over warm waters , the depression attained tropical storm intensity a couple hours later . Ignacio reached winds of 70 mph ( 140 km / h ) on July 22 , roughly 24 hours after formation , and subsequently entered the CPHC 's warning zone . A Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Ignacio at daybreak on July 22 , and thus upgraded Ignacio into hurricane status . Continuing to rapidly intensify , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft discovered that Hurricane Ignacio had reached its peak wind speed of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and an estimated central pressure of 960 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . Operationally , Ignacio was believed to have peaked as a Category 5 hurricane . Shortly after its peak , the environment was rapidly becoming less conductive . By the evening on July 24 , Ignacio was no longer a major hurricane . The hurricane resumed its westerly course , and Ignacio was re @-@ assessed as a tropical storm on July 26 . Passing south of the island chain , Ignacio dissipated on July 27 .
On July 24 , a high surf advisory was issued for east @-@ facing shores of Hawaii ; subsequently , a hurricane watch was issued the next day for the Big Island . Roughly 24 hours after the watch was issued , it was cancelled though a small craft advisory remained in effect for the Hawaiian Islands . Ignacio resulted in 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) surf , peaking midday on July 25 . Rainfall from the storm was generally light though many secondary roads that lead to the beaches were closed .
= = = Tropical Storm Kevin = = =
A tropical wave crossed the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July 27 and developed into a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 29 . While tracking west @-@ northwestward between 7 and 11 mph ( 11 and 18 km / h ) , the depression slowly intensified , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Kevin at 1800 UTC on July 31 . Crossing marginally warm sea surface temperatures , Kevin maintained tropical storm intensity while tracking westward . However , by August 5 , vertical wind shear began increasing , which was generated by an upper @-@ level trough . As a result , Kevin weakened to a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on August 6 and dissipated 12 hours later .
= = = Tropical Storm Linda = = =
A tropical wave formed on July 28 over fairly warm water . Moving west @-@ northwest , the system was declared a tropical depression far from land the next day . It became Tropical Storm Linda later on July 29 . A relatively weak cyclone , Linda peaked as a moderate tropical storm at 1200 UTC on July 31 . Shortly after its peak , Tropical Storm Linda began to weaken over cooler waters and increased wind shear . Linda began to weaken and was downgraded into a tropical depression on August 2 . Two days later , it passed into the CPHC 's area of responsibility .
Upon entering the warning zone , the tropical depression was moving slowly toward the northwest and within six hours , Tropical Depression Linda began to re @-@ intensify . On August 4 , the storm had regained tropical storm status . Subsequently , Linda reaches its secondary peak with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Linda remained a tropical storm for about 24 hours before it started to weaken again on August 5 . It was downgraded to a tropical depression early the next day . Meanwhile , Linda turned west under the influence of northerly trade winds . The depression came within 150 mi ( 240 km ) of South Point , Hawaii before dissipating early on August 9 . Some heavy showers associated with the outer rainband 's of the low fell on the windward slopes of the Big Island of Hawaii and Maui , where rainfall totals of 5 – 10 in ( 130 – 250 mm ) were recorded .
= = = Hurricane Marty = = =
A tropical disturbance crossed the coast of El Salvador and entered the Pacific Ocean on August 3 . After moving westward over sea surface temperatures of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) , the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen at 1800 UTC on August 6 , while centered about 460 mi ( 740 km ) southwest of Acapulco . While tracking west @-@ northwestward at about 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Marty at 1200 UTC August 7 . Further strengthening occurred and Marty became a hurricane on 0000 UTC August 9 . However , after 18 hours as a hurricane , Marty weakened back to a tropical storm as it began tracking across colder sea surface temperatures . Early on August 31 , Marty weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated later that day at 1800 UTC .
= = = Tropical Storm Nora = = =
A tropical disturbance detached from the ITCZ on August 18 . While tracking across an area of sea surface temperatures of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , the disturbance slowly intensified and the EPHC reported that the system had developed tropical depression at 1800 UTC on August 19 . Initially , the depression remained weak , though by 1200 UTC on August 21 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Nora . Thereafter , Nora turned northwestward toward a deep @-@ layer low pressure area offshore of California . During this time , the storm began to weaken due to a decrease in sea surface temperatures . Nora weakened back to a tropical depression on August 22 . Nora began to dissipate at 1200 UTC August 23 over 73 ° F ( 23 ° C ) waters . Meanwhile , low @-@ level clouds began to enter the storm 's circulation . The high @-@ level outflow associated with the storm moved northward and then eastward , resulting in light rainfall in Northern California on August 22 and 23 .
= = = Hurricane Olaf = = =
Olaf originated from a disturbed south of Acapulco on August 21 over extremely warm waters . Moving slowly west , the EPHC reported that a tropical depression formed on August 22 . The depression attained tropical storm status the next day , and subsequently began to rapidly intensify . While turning northwest , Olaf became a hurricane 460 mi ( 740 km ) south @-@ southwest of La Paz . It headed west @-@ northwest , and reached its peak intensity as a moderate Category 1 hurricane late on August 26 , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
Hurricane Olaf then moved slowing towards the west beneath a ridge and into progressively cooler waters . Olaf weakened into a tropical storm on August 28 , and then degenerated into a tropical depression the next afternoon . Tropical Depression Olaf suddenly turned north towards an upper @-@ level through off the U.S. West Coast . However , hostile conditions caused the system to cease to exist as a tropical cyclone early on August 31 several hundred miles west @-@ southwest of San Diego , California .
= = = Hurricane Pauline = = =
A small , westward moving area of thunderstorm activity become the 17th cyclone of the season . Turning southwest between an upper @-@ level high over Baja California and a low near the southern coast of Mexico , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Pauline . Over the next couple of day , the cyclone turned west , and then west @-@ northwest . Slowly strengthening despite underneath warm waters , Pauline attained hurricane intensity on September 7 . Subsequently , Pauline turned towards the south . After peaking in intensity as a moderate Category 1 hurricane , the system crossed into the CPHC 's area of responsibility .
It remained at hurricane intensity for three days . Shortly thereafter , Pauline began to weaken and turn northwest away from Hawaii . Due to interaction with trough , the hurricane veered north into an environment of strong wind shear . The result was rapid weakening ; Hurricane Pauline was downgraded to a tropical storm late on September 8 and a tropical depression well north of the islands the next day . Pauline ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone by the evening hours of September 9 . However , the remnants of Pauline moved northwest into an area of low pressure of the Gulf of Alaska . A recognizable circulation in the low level flow was visible for several days as it drifted westward far to the north of the Hawaiian Islands .
Hurricane Pauline threatened the islands enough to prompt the issuance of a hurricane watch on September 6 . Around this time , officials drew plans to evacuate coastal residents and 100 @,@ 000 people were asked to make emergency preparations . Instead , Pauline turned away from the islands and the watch was cancelled . However , Pauline did cause high surf along the east facing shores of all the Islands. up to 10 – 15 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 6 m ) surf was measured along the Big Island , Puna , and Kau coastlines . As a result , some roads were temporarily closed due to washed debris .
= = = Tropical Storm Skip = = =
The origins of Skip were from a disturbance that passed well south of Hawaii in late August . The CPHC monitored the disturbance for several days and was classified as Tropical Depression Two @-@ C on August 30 . Two @-@ C crossed the International dateline the next day and into the western pacific typhoon . Initially moving west , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Skip at 0900 UTC September 9 . A Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough then steered tip to the north and later towards the northeast . It underwent two strengthened phases . Skip reached typhoon intensity on two occasions , the first on September 1 and the second on September 7 . The system subsequently recrossed the dateline as Skip was rapidly weakening and gaining extratropical features . Shortly thereafter , Skip was declared extratropical despite still producing hurricane @-@ force winds . The typhoon briefly threatened Wake Island .
= = = Hurricane Rick = = =
A tropical wave that moved slowly westward over the warm waters south of Salina Cruz . Moving westward , the EPHC upgraded the low into Tropical Depression Eighteen on 0000 UTC September 1 . The depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Rick midday on September 2 . Initially , further intensification was slow ; the storm did not attain hurricane status until the low was located 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) away from land . After becoming a hurricane , Rick began to intensify more rapidly . Early the next day , the EPHC re @-@ assessed the intensity of Rick to Category 4 status . Shortly thereafter , Rick reached its peak intensity of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Operationally , it was believed to be much stronger , with winds of 170 mph ( 275 km / h ) , equivalent to Category 5 strength .
Following a path similar to the one Pauline made a few days earlier , the powerful hurricane moved northwest . A weakening trend commenced on September 10 ; Hurricane Rick began to rapidly deteriorate . On September 11 , Tropical Storm Rick merged with the same trough though weak low @-@ level circulation persisted for several more days . Early forecasts noted uncertainty in the storm 's path and meteorologists noted the potential to be more of a threat to Hawaii than Pauline . The hurricane approached the islands , coming close enough to require a high surf advisory . Even though Hurricane Rick turned north sooner than Pauline , the surf did rise somewhat .
= = = Hurricane Sandra = = =
During the late evening of September 4 , a large intense area of thunderstorm activity formed near the Guatemala @-@ El Salvador coast . The thunderstorm developed a circulation about 24 hours later , and was thus upgraded into a tropical depression a few hundred miles south of the Mexican coast . Turning west @-@ northwest over 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) waters , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Sandra early on September 7 . By 0600 UTC September 8 , winds had increased to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and Sandra was upgraded into a hurricane . Sandra turned west , and quickly intensified , reaching Category 3 status later that day after bypassing the Category 2 stage . On 0000 UTC September 9 , Sandra peaked in intensity with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) .
After moving towards the west for an additional 18 hours , it subsequently began a sharp turn northwest and later west @-@ northwest due to an intensifying trough off the west coast of Baja California . Meanwhile , Sandra slowly weakened . At 1746 UTC September 12 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft intersected Hurricane Sandra after being on standby in Hawaii . The aircraft penetrated Sandra twice , reaching the 700 mbar ( 700 @.@ 00 hPa ; 20 @.@ 67 inHg ) level . It also measured surface winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a surface pressure of 972 mbar ( 972 @.@ 00 hPa ; 28 @.@ 70 inHg ) . The eye was reportedly open to the west with low @-@ level banding , and the eye was 37 mi ( 60 km ) in diameter .
Shortly after the flight , the cyclone then began to turn to the west and weaken further over 78 ° F ( 26 ° C ) waters . Sandra was downgraded into a tropical storm the next day ; however , the storm briefly regained minimal hurricane status . On 1800 UTC September 14 , Sandra weakened back into a tropical storm roughly 600 mi ( 970 km ) west of the Baja California Peninsula . Now over 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , Sandra weakened into a tropical depression on September 15 and dissipated two days later .
= = = Hurricane Terry = = =
A tropical wave moved through Nicaragua on September 14 . Moving rapidly west over 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) warms , a circulation became evident and tropical depression developed at 1800 UTC September 15 , the twentieth of the season . The system turned northwest ; subsequently , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Terry 24 hours after formation approximately 300 mi ( 480 km ) south of Acapulco . Early on September 25 , Terry attained hurricane status . Terry quickly reached Category 2 status and briefly reached Category 3 intensity , peaking with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on September 21 over 300 mi ( 485 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas .
Shortly after its peak , a cold trough moved southward into Baja California Norte . This steered Hurricane Terry northward into cooler waters . A U.S Air Force weather reconnaissance aircraft investigated the weakening Terry on 1800 UTC September 21 and 22 while the storm was west @-@ southwest of the peninsula . Two penetrations were made in both flights . The second flight suggested that the hurricane had a poorly defined eye . A combination of cooler water and increased wind shear took its toll on Terry . The system weakened into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC September 23 due west of the Baja California Peninsula , and a tropical depression early the following day . By 1800 UTC , Terry dissipated while its center dissipated 500 mi ( 800 km ) west @-@ southwest of San Diego . The hurricane at one point in time was predicted to make landfall in central Baja California and threaten San Diego ; however , this did not occur .
= = = Tropical Storm Vivian = = =
A disturbance emerged from the northern ITCZ on September 17 . By 0600 UTC on the following day , it developed into a tropical depression . Initially , the depression tracked northwestward in response to a strong upper @-@ level trough centered over northern Baja California . After crossing an area of sea surface temperatures in excess of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , the depression was able to strengthen into Tropical Storm Vivian at 0000 UTC on September 20 . Under the influence of Hurricane Terry and an upper @-@ level high pressure , Vivian turned west , southwest , and eventually southward . While tracking to the south , the storm re @-@ entered the ITCZ , which caused Vivian to weaken and become indistinguishable . Vivian was downgraded to a tropical depression on September 21 , shortly before dissipating on 1800 UTC on that same day .
= = = Hurricane Waldo = = =
Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three formed from a disturbance on October 7 . In a favorable environment over warm waters , It rapidly intensified , reaching tropical storm intensity the same day it formed . Tropical Storm Waldo then began to turn to the north and while located 130 miles ( 210 km ) south of Baja California Sur , Waldo was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane . A trough started re @-@ curving Waldo towards the Mexican coast . Shortly after peaking as a Category 2 hurricane , Waldo made landfall southwest of Culiacán . Waldo rapidly dissipated over land and eventually merged with a cold front .
Prior to the arrival of Waldo , the Mexican Army was put on standby in the event the Fuerte River flooded . While no deaths or injuries were reported , much farmland and 600 houses were destroyed . The Juarez River bursts its banks , flooding at least eight neighborhoods in Culiacán . Telephone service in Los Mochis , Guarmuchil , and Guasave was cut when a communications tower was blown over . A total of 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless across the state .
In combination with a cold front , Waldo contributed to major flooding in Kansas that forced many rivers and creeks to overflow their banks . One indirect death was reported and roughly 15 people were evacuated from their homes in one town . In Kansas City , Waldo produced 1 ft ( 30 cm ) of water on roads , but none of the nearby homes received extensive damage . The Sedgwick County , the county fire department freed 35 trapped people from rising flood waters . Flash floods affected the southern one – third of New Mexico from rainfall associated from Waldo . Damage was estimated between $ 100 @,@ 000 – $ 1 million ( 1985 USD ) , mostly to crops , roads , and buildings . In all , Waldo 's rain was comparable to Atlantic Hurricane Gloria .
= = = Hurricane Nele = = =
The origins of Nele were from a tropical disturbance to the south @-@ southeast of Hawaii on October 20 . The tropical disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ C while located south @-@ southeast of Hawaii on October 23 . Although difficult to observe on satellite imagery , the CPHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Nele early on October 24 . Continuing to intensify , the storm tracked northwestward , following a similar path to Hurricane Iwa in 1982 and Hurricane Nina in 1957 . On October 25 , Nele attained hurricane strength as it turned to the north . On October 26 it attained peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . It entered an area of weaker steering currents due to a nearby trough . This caused concern for the CPHC , who noted that a continued path would result in the hurricane moving through the island chain . Instead , Nele turned to the northwest at a steady pace and instead moved through the Hawaiian Leeward Islands , passing about 100 mi ( 160 km ) west of French Frigate Shoals and very near Tern Island . Around that time , reconnaissance aircraft measured winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a pressure of 982 mbar ( 982 @.@ 00 hPa ; 29 @.@ 00 inHg ) . After passing through the island chain , the storm finally weakened and accelerated towards the north . Nele re @-@ curved to the northeast , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on October 30 .
Due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa , a hurricane watch was issued for Hawaii . Officials moved beach equipment away from the beach in preparation . About 24 hours after the hurricane watch was issued , it was dropped as Nele moved away from the islands , alongside the cancellation of a high surf advisory . The hurricane produced 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) waves along south @-@ facing beaches . Upon passing through the Leeward Islands , a weather station on Tern Island recorded winds of 34 mph ( 55 km / h ) with gusts of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , along with a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . Many fishing boats spent a tough night at French Frigate Shoals due to high waves and seas . One vessel was partially disabled due to a broken rudder and required assistance from the U.S. Coast Guard . Another vessel reported winds of hurricane @-@ force and 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) to 40 ft ( 12 m ) . Other fishing vessels near Maro Reef and Laysan Island had an easier time as they were in the weaker left of the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Xina = = =
Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Four developed at 0600 UTC on October 25 , in the southwest quadrant of a quasi @-@ stationary deep @-@ layer mean anticyclone . The depression moved generally westward and slowly strengthened , becoming Tropical Storm Xina about 72 hours after becoming a tropical cyclone . Thereafter , the storm curved northwestward and gradually intensified , and by late on October 28 , it was upgraded to a hurricane . Xina then rapidly deepened , peaking as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane at 1800 UTC on October 29 . However , due to decreasing sea surface temperatures , Xina almost immediately began to weaken .
Shortly thereafter , the storm curved eastward , later followed by a south @-@ southwestward turned early on October 31 . Later that day , Xina was downgraded to a tropical storm . At around 0600 UTC on November 1 , the storm had further weakened to a tropical depression . Xina briefly re @-@ strengthened to a tropical storm at 0600 UTC on November 2 , though it quickly weakened back to a tropical depression about six hours later . After weakening back to a tropical depression , the circulation of Xina became very disorganized and difficult to locate . Early on November 4 , the depression curved southwestward , and by 0600 UTC on November 5 , Xina had dissipated .
= = = Tropical depressions = = =
Of the four tropical cyclones that did not reach tropical storm strength , the first was a weak disturbance that began to develop in the northern Intertropical Convergence Zone on July 10 . After convection increased and a circulation formed , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Eight at 1800 UTC on July 11 . However , deep convection quickly began to diminish , and by early on the following day , the depression dissipated .
The only tropical depression to develop in the CPHC 's area of responsibility developed from a disturbance embedded in the trade wind flow south of the Hawaiian Islands that was about 35 mi ( 56 km ) south of the Hawaiian Islands . A tropical depression was declared on August 20 as the system appeared to be intensifying while moving rapidly west @-@ northwest . However , increased wind shear from a trough , an elongated area of low pressure , took toll on the storm and it weakened on August 21 near the Johnston Atoll . Due to the lack of a well @-@ defined atmospheric circulation , the storm ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone two days after formation .
An area of convection within the ITCZ developed into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two at 0000 UTC on October 1 . However , the depression never separated from the ITCZ . Despite sea surface temperatures in excess of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , the depression did not strengthen , and on the following day , the center became ill @-@ defined and difficult to locate on satellite imagery . Convection began decreasing , and as a result , the depression is estimated to have dissipated at 1800 UTC on October 2 . Over a month later , a weak disturbance located about 345 mi ( 555 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur developed a circulation ; the system was promptly classified as Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Five at 0600 UTC on November 21 . The depression drifted slowly southward at 3 mph ( 5 km / h ) , shortly before curving west @-@ southwestward . Thereafter , the depression turned north @-@ northwestward and dissipated later on November 21 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1985 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1991 season , although the name Dolores was misspelled as Delores in 1991 . This is the same list used for the 1979 season , except for the added names . Storms were named Kevin , Linda , Marty , Nora , Olaf , Rick , Sandra , Terry , Vivian , Waldo , and Xina for the first time in 1985 . The name Pauline was previously used in the 1961 and 1968 seasons respectively .
Because of the level of activity , these names were added during the season :
One name from the Central Pacific list was used - Nele . It was the first usage for this name . One storm , Typhoon Skip , formed in the central Pacific but did not receive a name until it reached the west Pacific .
Later during the 80 's , the added names were made a permanent part of the Eastern Pacific lists , and other names were added for even @-@ numbered years .
= Bixby 's Back =
" Bixby 's Back " is the 14th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series , Modern Family and the 38th episode overall . It originally aired February 9 , 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Danny Zuker , and directed by Chris Koch .
In the episode , Claire and Phil decide to reprise their role @-@ playing adventure from the previous Valentine 's Day episode , " My Funky Valentine " . Jay 's elaborate Valentine 's surprise for Gloria keeps getting held up . An admirer comes between Cameron and Mitchell .
" Bixby 's Back " received generally mixed reviews from critics with many saying it was an inadequate sequel to " My Funky Valentine " . Despite the mixed reviews , the episode was viewed by 13 @.@ 16 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , and received a 5 @.@ 1 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , tying the spot for highest @-@ rated episode of the series at that time with " The Old Wagon " and " Halloween " . It later became the most viewed scripted program of the week among 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old adults .
= = Plot = =
At the Dunphy house , Phil ( Ty Burrell ) and Claire ( Julie Bowen ) decide to have a small dinner for Valentine 's Day in order to avoid the disastrous results of the events of last year . Since they only could get a very early dinner reservation , Claire realizes that all the couples are elderly so she decides to bring back their characters from last year , Clive Bixby and Julianna . Julianna has Clive ditch his wife and meet her at their hotel . At the bar , Claire gives Phil the key to her room . While watching Claire walk way , Phil takes the wrong room key belonging to an older woman who was arranging her purse . He enters the wrong room , sprinkles rose petals on the bed , undresses , and waits on the bed with a bottle of champagne . The older woman then walks in after coming back from the bar . Back at the house , Phil and Claire decide to just act like themselves .
Haley 's ( Sarah Hyland ) boyfriend David blows her off to study for a big exam . Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) expects to profit from Haley being free from both David and Dylan ( Reid Ewing ) and manages to convince Haley to send David a break @-@ up email . She feels liberated for a brief moment but then her ex @-@ boyfriend Dylan shows up with his band on a flatbed of a truck and he sings a love song to her . Haley rushes into Dylan 's arms and thus Manny 's hopes of wooing Haley are dashed .
Meanwhile , Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) suspects Mitchell 's new assistant , Broderick ( Jeremy Rowley ) , has a crush on Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) , which he denies but secretly affirms . His suspicion is soon proven wrong when Broderick hugs Cameron in an elevator revealing that he is the real object of his desire . While eating dinner together , Cameron reveals this to Mitchell , who still believes Broderick has a crush on him . To see which one is right , the two go to Broderick 's house , but after getting a text from Broderick which says he is quitting , the two decide it would be best if they never knew which one of them Broderick liked .
Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) plans out a perfect Valentine 's surprise for Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) . He hires a chef to prepare her a luxurious meal at their house , but must keep Gloria away while the chef is setting up . Jay takes Gloria to a great restaurant that she loves , with the intent to leave after pretending to find that his secretary had forgotten to make a reservation . Unfortunately his plan goes awry ; at the restaurant there really is a reservation for two under the name Pritchett , so they have to stay much to Gloria 's delight and Jay 's flabbergasted anguish . Later , the reservation turns out to have been for Cameron and Mitchell , so that relieved and elated Jay and furious Gloria have to leave again .
Back at their house , the two have a fight and Gloria refuses to go inside . She is so angry she wants to get in her car and take a drive to cool down . Jay has no choice but to carry the screaming Gloria into the house for her surprise dinner . When the two finally go into the house , however , Jay is stunned to find the house empty . Gloria goes to the garage to take her car out for her drive with Jay following . As the garage door opens we see the romantic surprise dinner is , for some reason , taking place in the garage . Gloria reveals that she had figured out Jay 's secret plan , moved it to the garage , and bought him a new motorcycle which sits beside the dinner table .
= = Production = =
" Bixby 's Back " was written by Danny Zuker , his sixth writing credit for the series . The episode was directed by Chris Koch , his third credit for the series . The episode is considered a sequel to the first season episode , " My Funky Valentine " .
Many plots of the episode were revealed before the episode 's airdate by TV Guide writers Adam Bryant and Natalie Abrams . It originally aired on February 9 , 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company . " Bixby 's Back " was filmed between January 5 , and January 17 , 2011 .
The episode also featured the return of Reid Ewing 's character , Dylan , after he broke up with Haley . Julie Bowen said in an interview with TV Guide at the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards that , " This year 's Valentine 's Day episode is pretty insane , It 's different than last year 's . Clive and Julianna are back , but Clive is in the more compromising position this time instead of Julianna . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bixby 's Back " was viewed by an estimated 13 @.@ 16 million viewers according to the Nielsen Media Research , and received a 5 @.@ 1 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 13 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode of Modern Family saw an increase of 9 percent from the previous episode
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) to anyone who vandalized any structure along the turnpike . If the company did not construct their highway in six years , the state would then take over and make it a public highway . On November 1 , 1898 , the 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) long turnpike , made mostly of stone , was taken over by the state at a cost of $ 31 @,@ 661 @.@ 87 ( 1898 USD ) . Repairs were slated to be completed on the road by October 31 , 1899 . Also on March 17 , 1854 , the state legislature made the charter official for the Hopewell and Ewing Turnpike , which used the portion of Route 31 from Pennington to the current @-@ day intersection with CR 654 . The turnpike was taken over by the state in 1897 and the privately maintained company was dissolved .
The formation of current @-@ day Route 31 began around 1916 , when a portion of the highway , along the community of Hampton was taken over by the state and was repaired to state standards for $ 300 ( 1916 USD ) . In 1923 , the state of New Jersey passed the Good Roads Act , which greatly expanded the state highway system in New Jersey . This act took over pre @-@ existing highways and rebuilt them to a standard mandated by the state . Construction began on Route 31 in 1926 , when the State Highway Department began work at the southern terminus in Trenton . A total of 11 bridges were constructed along the highway during this time , signifying the route 's construction northward . The oldest ones , dating back to 1926 , were located in Ewing Township and Oxford Township . The one in Ewing Township was along the first portion of the highway to be constructed . By 1929 , the construction had reached Lawrence Township , where another long stretch of highway was built . During 1930 , the construction had reached Clinton , Glen Gardener , and Washington . Construction of the highway progressed northbound , with sections of the Mercer @-@ Hunterdon @-@ Warren route reaching Hunterdon County in 1931 . The Hunterdon County portion up to the Musconetcong River was constructed for six months , with completion in October 1931 . Construction of the highway northward from the Musconetcong River started in October of the same year . The mainline construction reached the northern terminus in Buttzville in 1932 . The route , although the construction had reached its northern end , was not complete due to bypasses around Clinton and Pennington were proposed to be built . These bypasses were never constructed , and during 1934 , more portions of the highway in Hunterdon County were finished . The route was completed in 1935 , providing an uninterrupted route from the capital city of Trenton to northern Warren County .
= = = Designation = = =
What is today Route 31 was defined in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering as Route 30 , a highway that began in Trenton and ended in Buttzville . In the 1953 renumbering , Route 30 was renumbered as Route 69 , as the number conflicted with US 30 in southern New Jersey . The bypass of Ringoes , shared with US 202 , opened in the 1960s . Due to the sexual meaning of the number and resulting sign theft , Route 69 was changed in 1967 to Route 31 once all the signs were removed . The justification for the removal was that people were stealing signs as a trophy for dorm rooms because of their interest in the number 69 .
A limited @-@ access freeway was once planned to serve traffic along the Route 31 ( then Route 69 ) corridor . Plans came forth in the 1960s for a highway to run along Route 69 from the in @-@ construction US 1 freeway ( then designated Route 174 ) to the U.S. Route 202 freeway in Ringoes . The estimated cost to build the highway according to the proposal estimated to $ 18 million , with construction completing in 1975 .
There were plans to extend the freeway further in both directions , including northward to I @-@ 80 in Hope Township and southward to I @-@ 195 . Each of these two extensions were brought forth in the 1960s , and were later shelved due to lack of support . In the early 1970s , a 36 @-@ mile ( 58 km ) long extension of Route 31 was proposed from Oxford , connecting the highway with the proposed Route 23 freeway to I @-@ 84 near Port Jervis , New York . This northern freeway extension of Route 31 was to be known as Route F @-@ 31 and the Foothills Freeway , and was to run through the Kittatinny Mountains , passing through Stokes State Forest and High Point State Park . The proposal gave an estimated price tag of about $ 105 million ( 1970s USD ) . The northern freeway faced high opposition from residents living in Warren and Sussex counties , who feared environmental damage . A group called Opponents of the Foothills Freeway formed to prevent the road from being built . Along with the growing opposition , environmental and financial issues arose , causing the New Jersey Department of Transportation to cancel the Route 31 from being built mid @-@ 1970s .
Following the completion of I @-@ 287 's New Jersey portion in 1993 , more out @-@ of @-@ state tractor trailer drivers began to use the alignment of Route 31 as a toll @-@ free alternative to the New Jersey Turnpike . On July 16 , 1999 , oversize trucks were banned from using Route 31 as part of a larger statewide ban imposed on New Jersey roads not a part of the National Highway System by then @-@ governor Christine Todd Whitman . The legislation had a significant effect on trucks that followed Route 31 as it forced them to use I @-@ 287 and the New Jersey Turnpike instead . In the mid @-@ 2000s , the portion of Route 31 was widened during extensive construction between Flemington and Clinton that widened the road to four lanes .
= = = The South Branch Parkway = = =
In 2005 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation introduced a case study for Route 31 for its New Jersey : Future in Transportation project . Over time , the residents and business owners of Raritan Township and Flemington had growing concerns over the congestion along the highway and US 202 . After trying to use vacant land to the east of the current alignment , the Department of Transportation put forth the Flemington Bypass , trying to relieve congestion on Route 31 along the commercial district and to provide access to the industrial land between the two highways and the South Branch River . The project was never completed and the proposed site remains undeveloped . The Department of Transportation is now looking at a scaled @-@ down bypass , proposed as the South Branch Parkway , to connect Route 31 to US 202 in Flemington .
The parkway was to be built as a two @-@ lane alternative to Route 31 defining the border of the suburban and rural portions of Flemington Borough and Raritan Township . Along with the new parkway , a brand @-@ new local street network was proposed to help support the new alignment . These would minimize the pressure of traffic on Route 31 and include better roads for bicycles and pedestrians . More direct routes to different portions of the community would be provided to maintain the community 's character . The proposed parkway was to also help upgrade the sensitive history along the South Branch River . According to the 2008 highway plans , the South Branch Parkway would cost the state more than $ 2 @.@ 2 million ( 2008 USD ) in funds to put together the survey of lands in the proposed alignment . Some of these funds for the survey were originally intended to go towards the removal of the Flemington Circle .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hurricane Florence ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane Florence was a strong , late season hurricane that remained out over the open waters of the Central Atlantic for nearly a week , before being absorbed into a large extratropical cyclone . With peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) , Florence was the strongest storm of the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season . Florence developed out of an area of low pressure associated with a stalled frontal system located 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda in late October . The system gradually became better organized and was classified a subtropical depression on November 2 . The storm intensified into a subtropical storm shortly thereafter before weakening to a depression the next day .
After gaining tropical characteristics throughout most of the day on November 3 , the storm was designated Tropical Depression Eleven . The depression quickly strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence , the sixth named storm of the season . The storm briefly underwent rapid intensification , strengthening into a hurricane , before leveling out as a Category 1 hurricane . Florence was subsequently upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane on November 7 . However , a large extratropical cyclone located to the north caused the hurricane to rapidly accelerate , with forward speeds reaching 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . By the next day , Florence lost its identity , while still producing hurricane @-@ force winds , as it was absorbed by the extratropical cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Florence can be traced back to an area of low pressure which developed in late October along a stationary front located 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . The low gradually detached from the front and began developing convective banding features . The system was not fully tropical as the strongest winds were recorded a couple hundred miles from the center , leading to the system being classified a subtropical cyclone on the morning of November 2 . Minor intensification followed shortly after and the subtropical depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm . This was based on ship reports of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) sustained winds associated with the system . By November 3 , the storm became slightly disorganized and was downgraded to a subtropical depression . By the afternoon , the subtropical system began to undergo a transition from a subtropical system to tropical system . Later that day , the storm was classified Tropical Depression Eleven while located 875 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . The depression was moving towards the northwest at 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) and the same general motion was expected as a large upper @-@ level low situated over the system was forecast to move towards the northeast , leading to Eleven moving around the periphery of the low .
The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Florence the next morning . However , outflow from the storm remained poor as the upper @-@ level low was still interacting with the center of Florence and the storm was still not completely tropical but there was slight improvement . By the afternoon of November 4 , Florence completed its transition into a tropical cyclone and deep convection developed , causing the storm to quickly intensity ; with winds increasing by 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) in a 6 hour time period . The trend in intensification was forecast to continue and Florence was forecast to become the second hurricane of the season within 12 hours . Late on November 4 , Florence was upgraded to a hurricane as a solid area of deep convection developed around the center of circulation . An eye feature also appeared on infrared satellite but was not associated with significant strengthening . Florence slowly intensified as the eye persisted and the structure slightly improved . By the morning of November 6 , the eye became less defined and the cloud tops around it warmed . The storm also shifted its foreword motion northward as the trough located to the southeast began to move towards the east , moving the steering currents with it . As the low moved further to the east , steering currents in the area of Florence weakened , leading to the storm stalling late on November 6 .
By the morning of November 7 , the eye began to reappear and the storm turned towards the northwest and the foreword motion began to rapidly increase . Later that morning , Florence had developed a large , 35 to 40 mi ( 55 to 65 km / h ) wide eye and the foreword motion continued to increase . The intensification continued and by the afternoon hours , Florence was upgraded to a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . A strong extratropical cyclone located to the north of Florence was causing the storm to move towards the northwest at a rapid pace of 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) . Operationally , Florence was reported to have peaked at that intensity , but post season analysis determined that the storm reached its peak intensity just short of major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher — status late on November 7 . By the morning of November 8 , Florence weakened slightly to Category 1 status . The large system to the north continued to cause Florence to move at 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . Since the storm was very close to a cold front , Florence was expected to rapidly transition into an extratropical cyclone . Later that morning , Florence was absorbed into the extratropical cyclone while still maintaining hurricane @-@ force winds .
= = Impact and naming = =
As Florence remained out over the open waters of the central Atlantic , no effects , damages , or fatalities were reported . No tropical storm watches or warnings were issued , and the storm was never forecast to strike land .
= Asama @-@ class cruiser =
The Asama @-@ class cruisers ( 浅間型装甲巡洋艦 , Asama @-@ gata sōkōjun 'yōkan ) were a pair of armored cruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ships were built in Britain . They were part of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " expansion program that began after the defeat of China during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 . Between them , the sister ships participated in all four main naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 — the Battle of Port Arthur , the Battle off Ulsan , the Battle of the Yellow Sea , and the Battle of Tsushima — but played a much more minor role in World War I. Asama ran aground while searching for German commerce raiders in early 1915 and was under repair for the next two years . Tokiwa participated in the Battle of Tsingtao and also searched for commerce raiders . Both ships made training cruises during the war and continued to do so after the war .
Asama continued to make training cruises until she ran aground again in 1935 , after which she became a stationary training ship for the rest of her career . Tokiwa was converted into a minelayer in 1922 – 24 . She was placed in reserve in 1927 after she was damaged by an accidental explosion of several mines . The ship became a training minelayer in 1940 . During the Pacific War , Tokiwa participated in the occupation of the Gilbert Islands and Rabaul and Kavieng in New Guinea . Damaged by American aircraft shortly afterwards , the ship was forced to return to Japan for repairs . Tokiwa laid minefields during 1944 – 45 until she was twice damaged by mines in 1945 . Shortly before the end of the war , the ship was badly damaged by American aircraft and her crew was forced to beach her . Tokiwa was salvaged in 1947 and subsequently broken up for scrap . Asama survived the war intact and was scrapped in 1946 – 47 .
= = Background and design = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from foreign shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . These ships were purchased using the £ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 indemnity paid by China after losing the First Sino @-@ Japanese War . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , these cruisers was intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
In June 1896 , Sir Andrew Noble , then in Japan , telegraphed Armstrong Whitworth to lay down two stock cruisers . Work then began on a preliminary design based on an improved version of the earlier Chilean cruiser O 'Higgins . Several iterations of the design were made before the IJN approved the final design on 21 August . This was over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) larger , more heavily armed , and slightly faster the Chilean armored cruiser . The first ship of the class was laid down in October although the Japanese did not order the ships until 6 July 1897 .
= = Description = =
The ships were 442 feet 0 inches ( 134 @.@ 72 m ) long overall and 408 feet 0 inches ( 124 @.@ 36 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a beam of 20 @.@ 48 meters ( 67 ft 2 in ) and had an average draft of 24 feet 3 inches – 24 feet 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 40 – 7 @.@ 43 m ) . The sisters displaced 9 @,@ 514 – 9 @,@ 557 long tons ( 9 @,@ 667 – 9 @,@ 710 t ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 311 – 10 @,@ 353 long tons ( 10 @,@ 476 – 10 @,@ 519 t ) at deep load . The ships had metacentric heights of 2 feet 9 inches – 2 feet 11 inches ( 0 @.@ 85 – 0 @.@ 88 m ) . Their crew consisted of 676 officers and enlisted men .
The Asama @-@ class ships had two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , built by Humphrys , Tennant , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by a dozen cylindrical boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ships had a designed speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) and exceeded that speed during their sea trials , reaching 22 @.@ 07 – 23 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 87 – 42 @.@ 78 km / h ; 25 @.@ 40 – 26 @.@ 58 mph ) from 19 @,@ 000 – 19 @,@ 040 ihp ( 14 @,@ 170 – 14 @,@ 200 kW ) . They carried up to 1 @,@ 390 long tons ( 1 @,@ 410 t ) of coal and could steam for 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four Armstrong Whitworth @-@ built 45 @-@ caliber eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The electrically operated turrets were capable of 130 ° rotation left and right , and the guns could be elevated to + 30 ° and depressed to − 5 ° . The turret accommodated 65 shells , but could only be reloaded through doors in the turret floor and the ship 's deck that allowed the electric winch in the turret to hoist shells up from the shell room deep in the hull . A total of 120 shells were carried for each gun . The guns were manually loaded and had a rate of fire about 1 @.@ 2 rounds per minute . The 203 @-@ millimeter gun fired 250 @-@ pound ( 113 @.@ 5 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 760 m / s ) to a range of 13 @,@ 200 yards ( 12 @,@ 100 m ) .
The secondary armament consisted of fourteen Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 40 @-@ caliber , six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . All but four of these guns were mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks , and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) AP shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 feet per second ( 700 m / s ) . Each gun was provided with total of 150 shells per gun . The ships were also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The former gun fired three @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 feet per second ( 719 m / s ) .
The Asama @-@ class ships were equipped with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside , and one above water in the bow . The Type 30 torpedo had a 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) warhead and three range / speed settings : 870 yards ( 800 m ) at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , 1 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) at 23 @.@ 6 knots ( 43 @.@ 7 km / h ; 27 @.@ 2 mph ) or 3 @,@ 300 yards ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) at 14 @.@ 2 knots ( 26 @.@ 3 km / h ; 16 @.@ 3 mph ) .
= = = Protection = = =
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences , with the Asama class using Harvey armor . The waterline belt ran the full length of the ships and its thickness varied from 7 @.@ 0 inches ( 178 mm ) amidships to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) at the bow and stern . The thickest part of the belt covered the middle of the ship for a length of 284 feet 2 inches ( 86 @.@ 62 m ) . It had a height of 7 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) , of which 4 feet 11 inches to 5 feet 0 inches ( 1 @.@ 51 to 1 @.@ 52 m ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 5 @.@ 0 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 214 feet 8 inches ( 65 @.@ 42 m ) from the forward to the rear barbette . The Asama @-@ class ships had a single transverse 5 @-@ inch armored bulkhead that closed off the forward end of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 6 inches thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The above @-@ water torpedo tube in the bow was enclosed by a 23 @-@ by @-@ 9 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 0 by 2 @.@ 7 m ) patch of 6 @-@ inch armor . The armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness . In addition to the Harvey armor , the Asama @-@ class ships were unique among the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " cruisers in that their armored deck was 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The ships had 32 watertight compartments in their double bottom and an additional 131 between the bottom and the upper deck .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 , Tokiwa supported Japanese forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China while Asama participated in the Coronation Review for King Edward VII in 1902 .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the beginning of the Russo @-@ Japanese War the sisters were assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet , although Asama was attached to the 4th Division of Rear Admiral Uryū Sotokichi for operations near Seoul , Korea . Just before the war began , the ship escorted Japanese troop convoys to Chemulpo , Seoul 's port on the west coast , and helped to sink the two Russian warships stationed there on the first day of the war . Tokiwa participated in the Battle of Port Arthur that same day , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the earlier surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack .
In early March Tokiwa was reassigned to the 3rd Division and Asama joined her shortly afterwards . They participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Russian Pacific Squadron . During this action , the sisters engaged the Russian cruisers that preceded the battleships before falling back on Tōgō 's battleships . When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded .
Tokiwa rejoined the 2nd Division a few days later and the division was tasked to contain the Russian armored cruisers based at Vladivostok . It failed to do so until 13 August when the latter tried to rendezvous with the ships that attempted to breakout from Port Arthur . Unbeknownst to the Russians , Tōgō had defeated the ships from Port Arthur during the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August and the Russian squadron from Vladivostok was intercepted off Ulsan , Korea by the 2nd Division . The steering of the Russian cruiser Rurik was damaged early in the battle and the Russians made several attempts to prevent the Japanese from concentrating fire on her , but were ultimately forced to abandon her to her fate . Kamimura left Rurik to the tender ministrations of his reinforcements and pursued the two remaining Russian ships for a time before breaking off pursuit prematurely based on an incorrect report that his flagship had expended most of her ammunition . Tokiwa only suffered three men wounded during the battle .
In the meantime , Asama remained on blockade duty off Port Arthur and participated in a minor way in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . She was coaling when the Pacific Squadron sortied and took some time to intercept the Russian ships . The battle was almost over by then and the ship only engaged them for the last hour or so of the battle . After the battle , the sisters were refitted and assigned to different units , escorting troop convoys to northern Korea and blockading the Tsugaru Strait until the Russian ships from the Baltic Fleet approached Japan in mid @-@ 1905 .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
The Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons were spotted on the morning on 27 May 1905 and Tōgō ordered his ships to put to sea . Asama and Tokiwa were assigned to the 2nd Division in anticipation of this battle and Kamimura 's ships confirmed the initial spotting later that morning before joining Tōgō 's battleships . Together with most of the Japanese battleships , the division opened fire at 14 : 10 on the Russian battleship Oslyabya . Shortly afterwards , Asama was damaged by a shell that knocked out her steering that forced her to fall out of formation . Around 15 : 35 , the Russian battleship Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at short range . Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes before she disappeared back into the mists . Asama rejoined the division at 15 : 50 , but further hits caused serious flooding that again caused her to fall out of formation about 20 minutes later . She finally caught up to the division at 17 : 05 . Shortly afterwards , Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers around 17 : 30 . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and encountered the Russian battleline about a half @-@ hour later . He stayed at long range and his ships fired when practicable before ceasing fire at 19 : 30 .
The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire and stayed beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range . During the battle , Asama was struck by about a dozen shells that killed 11 men and wounded 13 more . In contrast , Tokiwa was struck by eight shells that caused only minor damage , but killed 1 crewman and wounded 14 . After the battle , the division covered amphibious landings in northeastern Korea in July and August before the war ended .
= = = Subsequent service = = =
In 1910 – 11 and 1914 , Asama served as a training ship , making cruises with naval cadets to North and Central American and Hawaii , among other destinations . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , she was assigned to search for Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee 's German East Asia Squadron in the South Sea Islands . In late October , the ship was ordered to blockade a German gunboat in Honolulu , Hawaii before she was assigned to the American Expeditionary Squadron , the Japanese component of a joint Anglo @-@ Japanese command to protect shipping of the western coast of the Americas , off the Mexican coast after the gunboat was interned in early November . The squadron then spent the next several months for German commerce raiders .
While entering Puerto San Bartolomé in Baja California in early 1915 , Asama struck an uncharted rock and was badly damaged . It took months to refloat her and to make her partially seaworthy . The ship was given temporary repairs at the British naval base at Esquimalt , British Columbia before arriving back in Japan in December where permanent repairs were not completed until March 1917 . Asama was assigned to the Training Squadron later that year and made another cadet training cruise in 1918 .
Tokiwa supported Japanese forces during the Battle of Tsingtao before returning to Sasebo in October 1914 . She was assigned to the Training Squadron in 1916 in preparation for a training cruise that she made the following year . After arriving home , the ship was deployed to Hawaii in October 1917 to protect shipping from German commerce raiders and to allow the US Navy to redeploy its forces to the Atlantic . Tokiwa made two more cruises in 1919 – 20 before she began conversion into a minelayer in 1922 – 24 . To accommodate her 200 – 300 mines , her rear 8 @-@ inch gun turret removed , as were the six 6 @-@ inch guns on the main deck . In addition , the number of light guns was reduced to two 12 @-@ pounders , although two 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added . The gun had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 3 @-@ inch , 12 @.@ 5 lb ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ( 680 m / s ) to a maximum height of 23 @,@ 600 feet ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) .
Asama made a training cruise in 1921 before her armament was modified in 1922 . All of her main deck guns , six 6 @-@ inch and four 12 @-@ pounder guns , were removed and their casemates plated over . In addition all of her QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder guns were removed and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type AA gun was added . After the refit , she resumed her training cruises , generally at two @-@ year intervals , until she ran aground in 1935 . The damage to her bottom was severe enough that the IJN decided make her a stationary training ship in 1938 .
Tokiwa 's stern was badly damaged in an accidental explosion 1927 when fuzed mines were being disarmed . One mine detonated and then several others followed , killing 35 crewmen and wounding 65 . The ship was assigned to the reserve fleet after repairs . She patrolled Chinese waters after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 . In 1937 – 38 , Tokiwa was retrofitted with eight Kampon water @-@ tube boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) and her remaining torpedo tubes were removed . The space made available by these changes increased her capacity to 500 mines . In 1940 , the ship was refitted as a training minelayer which reduced her capacity to 200 @-@ 300 mines . As part of the refit , her forward 8 @-@ inch gun turret and the four amidships 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , as was one of the 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type AA guns . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was heavily reinforced with the addition of two single 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns and twenty license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts . The 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) weapon was the standard Japanese light anti @-@ aircraft gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . The twin and triple mounts lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast . The weapon had a maximum range of 24 @,@ 600 feet ( 7 @,@ 500 m ) , but effective range was only about 4 @,@ 900 – 9 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 m ) .
= = = The Pacific War = = =
A few days after the attack on Pearl Harbor , Tokiwa and the other minelayers of the 19th Division of the 4th Fleet escorted two troop transports that carried the occupation forces for the Gilbert Islands . In January 1942 , the ship participated in Operation R ( the invasion of Rabaul and Kavieng ) and returned to Kwajalein Atoll afterwards . She was damaged by American carrier aircraft in February 1942 and forced to return home for repairs . Tokiwa returned to Truk on 14 July , and reoccupied Makin Atoll the following month after the Makin Raid .
The ship returned home in 1943 and began to lay defensive minefields in 1944 . She was moderately damaged by a mine in April 1945 and struck an American mine two months later . By this time , her armament had been augmented with approximately ten 25 mm Type 96 AA guns in single mounts and 80 depth charges . In addition Tokiwa was fitted with Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 and Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars . While in northern Japan a few days before the end of the war , Tokiwa was severely damaged by American carrier aircraft and had to be beached by her crew lest she sink .
Asama was reclassified as a training ship in 1942 and became a gunnery training ship later that year . She was disarmed at some point during the war , only retaining several 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft guns , . The ship survived the war intact and she and Tokiwa were stricken from the navy list in November 1945 . Asama was scrapped in 1946 – 47 while Tokiwa was refloated in 1947 and scrapped that same year .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Sybil Plumlee =
Sybil Virginia Plumlee ( née Burgess ; April 29 , 1911 – January 6 , 2012 ) was an American teacher , caseworker , and police officer who served in Portland , Oregon 's Women 's Protective Division , a special unit of the Portland Police Bureau , from 1947 to 1967 . She is recognized as a pioneer in the law enforcement field , which has historically been dominated by men .
Born in Seattle in 1911 , Plumlee attended high school in Portland and then graduated from Oregon Normal School , now known as Western Oregon University . She became a school teacher in Clarno , Oregon , but later returned to Portland , where she married and had a son . Following a divorce in 1943 , she worked as an educator with the Ellis Mining Company in Bourne , Oregon . In 1945 , she married Virgil " Paul " Plumlee , who died in 2010 .
Plumlee wrote an unpublished memoir of her experiences on the police force , called Badge 357 . At age 96 , she published Stories of Hester Ann Bolin Harvey and Her Family , a collection of family stories and history . Plumlee was the oldest living former member of the city 's police force prior to her death in 2012 .
= = Early life , education , and teaching career = =
Sybil Virginia Burgess was born on April 29 , 1911 , in Seattle , Washington . She was the daughter of Charles and Stella Burgess . The family moved to Portland , where she attended both Lincoln High School and Jefferson High School , graduating from Jefferson in 1930 . After graduating from Oregon Normal School ( now known as Western Oregon University ) in 1932 , she spent some time working as a teacher in a single @-@ room school located in Clarno , Oregon . She returned to Portland , married Lloyd Barker ( who was also an instructor ) , and had a son , Louis Barker . The couple divorced in 1943 .
After the divorce , Sybil worked during World War II as a teacher for the Ellis Mining Company in Bourne , Oregon , and buying a $ 150 house in nearby Sumpter for herself and her son . Plumlee also occasionally worked as a soda fountain clerk at a drugstore in northeast Portland , and as a cab driver . In 1945 , she married Virgil P. " Paul " Plumlee . She survived the 1948 flood that destroyed Vanport , Oregon .
= = Police career = =
While Plumlee was working as a caseworker for the welfare department of Clackamas County , a woman police officer encouraged her to take a civil service test . She passed the test , and was selected from a pool of 300 applicants to fill the Portland Police Bureau 's only open position . According to Louis Barker , his mother became a police officer " for the money " rather than to " make the world safe " . The family needed her income : Paul , a World War II veteran , suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder and had difficulty holding steady jobs , and Plumlee was also contributing to the support of her aging mother . She served in the unit known as the known as the Women 's Protective Division from 1947 to 1967 . Policewomen in that division did not work with male officers other than those assigned to the Juvenile Division , and did not wear uniforms . Their work focused on crimes like child abuse , domestic violence , and rape .
Plumlee often responded to cases involving child abuse or abandonment . Records show that she also participated in undercover investigations , including an anti @-@ homosexual campaign organized by Mayor of Portland Dorothy McCullough Lee . In 1949 , the Women 's Protective Division sent Plumlee and Edna Trout to Music Hall , which was known at the time for catering to gay men and lesbians , with the intention to " apprehend lesbians who might approach them and solicit attentions " . Plumlee also helped educate women on how to avoid victimization . In a 1955 article by The Oregonian called " Pickpockets Beware " , she was photographed illustrating how a woman might be susceptible to pickpocketing by opening her billfold in public . In 1957 , the paper published a photograph of Plumlee and five other women at a shooting range , with the caption : " Feminine pistol team makes good showing in contest with all @-@ male team from North precinct as interdivisional tournament gets under way " . In 1959 , two brothers were charged with disorderly conduct and destroying city property after tearing the speaker system from a police car occupied by Plumlee and another female officer . Plumlee also participated in civic events such as luncheons . At a 1964 Portland Yacht Club luncheon called " Women with the Badge " , she told female attendees how they should protect themselves and their children . In 1967 , she presented slides depicting dangers to women on urban streets to the Women 's Council of the Portland Board of Realtors at the Hoyt Hotel .
Plumlee later said of the unit : " In some ways , the old Women 's Protective Division was archaic , but on balance we did a lot of good . " She is recognized as a pioneer in the largely male @-@ dominated law enforcement field . As of 2006 , women doing police work in the United States were about 14 percent of the total number of police .
= = Later life , writing , and other interests = =
Plumlee purchased her first computer when she was in her eighties , and continued driving until age 98 . Plumlee wrote an unpublished memoir of her experiences on the police force , which was called Badge 357 . At age 96 , she published the book Stories of Hester Ann Bolin Harvey and Her Family . The collection of stories , including one of her grandmother 's journey across the Oregon Trail in 1850 , included photographs and more than a century of her family history . Plumlee also enjoyed camping , fishing , genealogy , and traveling .
Her husband Paul died in 2010 . In 2011 , she celebrated her centennial birthday at her residence in Lake Oswego , Oregon . Guests included Multnomah County Sheriff Daniel Staton , her great @-@ niece Lieutenant Mary Lindstrand , also from the Multnomah County Sheriff 's Office , and Frank Springer , then age 99 and the oldest living male retiree of the Portland Police Bureau . Birthday wishes and certificates of appreciation were also presented to her from President Barack Obama and Mayor of Portland Sam Adams .
Plumlee died in 2012 , and was survived by her son , three grandchildren , and four great @-@ grandchildren . Before her death , Plumlee was the oldest surviving former member of the Portland Police Bureau .
= Géza II of Hungary =
Géza II ( Hungarian : II . Géza ; Croatian : Gejza II ; Slovak : Gejza II ; 1130 – 31 May 1162 ) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1141 to 1162 . He was the oldest son of Béla the Blind and his wife , Helena of Rascia . When his father died , Géza was still a child and he started ruling under the guardianship of his mother and her brother , Beloš . A pretender to the throne , Boris Kalamanos , who had already claimed Hungary during Béla the Blind 's reign , temporarily captured Pressburg ( now Bratislava in Slovakia ) with the assistance of German mercenaries in early 1146 . In retaliation , Géza , who came of age in the same year , invaded Austria and routed Henry Jasomirgott , Margrave of Austria , in the Battle of the Fischa .
Although the German – Hungarian relations remained tense , no major confrontations occurred when the German crusaders marched through Hungary in June 1147 . Two months later , Louis VII of France and his crusaders arrived , along with Boris Kalamanos who attempted to take advantage of the crusade to return to Hungary . Louis VII refused to extradite Boris to Géza , but prevented the pretender from coming into contacts with his supporters in Hungary and took him to Constantinople . Géza joined the coalition that Louis VII and Roger II of Sicily formed against Conrad III of Germany and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos . The ancestors of the Transylvanian Saxons came to Hungary during Géza 's reign . Western European knights and Muslim warriors from the Pontic steppes also settled in Hungary in this period . Géza even allowed his Muslim soldiers to take concubines .
Géza intervened at least six times in the fights for Kiev on behalf of Iziaslav II of Kiev either by sending reinforcements or by personally leading his troops to the Kievan Rus ' between 1148 and 1155 . He also waged wars against the Byzantine Empire on behalf of his allies , including the Serbs of Rascia , but could not prevent the Byzantines from restoring their suzerainty over them . Conflicts emerged between Géza and his brothers , Stephen and Ladislaus , who fled from Hungary and settled in Emperor Manuel 's court in Constantinople . Géza supported Frederick I , Holy Roman Emperor , against the Lombard League with auxiliary troops between 1158 and 1160 . After the cardinals who supported Emperor Frederick I elected Victor IV pope , Géza acknowledged his legitimacy in 1160 , but in a year , he changed sides and concluded a concordat with Victor IV 's opponent , Pope Alexander III . Before his death , Géza organized a separate appanage duchy for his younger son , Béla .
= = Early years = =
Géza was born the eldest son of Béla the Blind , a cousin of King Stephen II of Hungary , and Helena of Raška in 1130 . Géza 's father had been blinded , together with his rebellious father , Álmos , in the 1110s on the order of Stephen II 's father , Coloman , King of Hungary , who wanted to ensure Stephen 's succession . When Géza was born , his parents lived on an estate that King Stephen had granted them in Tolna . Géza 's father succeeded King Stephen in the spring of 1131 . In the same year , Queen Helena took Géza and his younger brother , Ladislaus , to an assembly held at Arad , where she ordered the massacre of sixty @-@ eight noblemen " by whose counsel the King had been blinded " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle .
= = Reign = =
= = = Minor king ( 1141 – 1146 ) = = =
King Béla died on 13 February 1141 and Géza succeeded him without opposition . The eleven @-@ year @-@ old Géza was crowned king on 16 February . During his regency , his mother and her brother , Beloš , ruled the kingdom in the first years of his reign .
One of Géza 's first charters , issued in 1141 , confirmed the privileges of the citizens of Split in Dalmatia . In the charter , Géza is titled as " By the Grace of God , King of Hungary , Dalmatia , Croatia and Rama " . According to historian Paul Stephenson , the towns of central Dalmatia — including Šibenik and Trogir — accepted Géza 's suzerainty after a Hungarian invasion around 1142 . Hungarian troops assisted Prince Volodimerko of Halych — who had been the ally of Géza 's father against the pretender Boris — when Great Prince Vsevolod II of Kiev invaded Halych in 1144 . Although the Hungarian auxiliaries " were of no use whatsoever " , according to the Hypatian Codex , the grand prince could not occupy Volodimerko 's principality .
Boris was the son of Eufemia of Kiev , King Coloman of Hungary 's second wife , whom the king expelled on the charge of adultery before Boris 's birth . According to the chronicler Bishop Otto of Freising , Boris approached Conrad III of Germany to seek his assistance against Géza at the end of 1145 . Upon the recommendation of Vladislav II of Bohemia , the German monarch authorized Boris to muster an army of mercenaries in Bavaria and Austria . Boris stormed Hungary and took the fortress of Pressburg ( present @-@ day Bratislava in Slovakia ) . The royal forces soon imposed a blockade on the fortress and convinced Boris 's mercenaries to surrender without resistance in exchange for compensation .
The Hungarians blamed Conrad III for Boris 's attack and decided to invade the Holy Roman Empire . Before crossing the river Lajta ( now Leitha in Austria ) , which marked the western border of Hungary , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Géza was girded with a sword in token of his coming of age . In the Battle of the Fischa on 11 September , the Hungarian army under the command of Géza and Beloš routed the German troops led by Henry Jasomirgott , Margrave of Austria .
= = = Crusaders ' march across Hungary ( 1146 – 1147 ) = = =
Géza married Euphrosyne , sister of Grand Prince Iziaslav II of Kiev , in the second half of 1146 . German – Hungarian relations remained tense as Boris attempted to take advantage of Conrad III 's decision to lead a crusade to the Holy Land through Hungary . However Géza , who knew that " he could conquer more easily by gold than by force , poured out much money among the Germans and thus escaped an attack from them , " according to the chronicler Odo of Deuil . The German crusaders marched across Hungary without major incident in June 1147 .
The Illuminated Chronicle relates that some Hungarian noblemen promised Boris " if he could make his way into the kingdom , many would take him for their lord and , deserting the King , would cleave to him . " Boris convinced two French noblemen to assist by hiding him among the French crusaders who followed the Germans towards the Holy Land . King Louis VII of France and his crusaders arrived in Hungary in August . Géza learnt that his opponent was with the French and demanded his extradition . Although Louis VII rejected this demand , he held Boris in custody and " took him out of Hungary , " according to Odo of Deuil . Having left Hungary , Boris settled in the Byzantine Empire .
= = = Active foreign policy ( 1147 – 1155 ) = = =
Disputes among European powers led to the formation of two coalitions in the late 1140s . One alliance was formed by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and Conrad III against Roger II of Sicily who had invaded Byzantine territories . Géza sided with Roger II and his allies , including the rebellious German prince , Welf VI and Uroš II of Rascia . Géza sent reinforcements to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Grand Prince Iziaslav II , against Prince Vladimir of Chernigov in the spring of 1148 . The Serbs of Rascia rebelled in 1149 , forcing Emperor Manuel I to interrupt his preparations for an invasion of Southern Italy and invade Rascia in 1149 . According to the emperor 's panegyrist Theodore Prodromus , Hungarian forces supported the Serbs during the emperor 's campaign . The Hypatian Codex says that Géza referred to his war against Emperor Manuel when excusing himself for refusing to send reinforcements to Iziaslav II whom Yuri Dolgorukiy , Prince of Suzdal , expelled from Kiev in August 1149 . Hungarian auxiliaries supported Iziaslav II to reoccupy Kiev in the early spring of 1150 , but before long Yuri Dolgorukiy expelled Iziaslav from the town . In autumn , Géza led his army against Volodimirko of Halych , who was Yuri Dolgorukiy 's close ally . He captured Sanok , but Volodimirko bribed the Hungarian commanders , who persuaded Géza to leave Halych before November .
A " countless allied force of Hungarian cavalry as well as of the heterodox Chalisoi " had supported the Serbs in the same year , according to the contemporaneous John Kinnamos , but the Byzantine army routed their united troops on the river Tara in September . The Byzantine victory forced Uroš II of Rascia to acknowledge the emperor 's suzerainty . Emperor Manuel launched a retaliatory campaign against Hungary and ravaged the lands between the rivers Sava and Danube . Assisted by Byzantine troops , the pretender Boris also broke into Hungary and devastated the valley of the river Temes . Géza , who had just returned from Halych , did not want to " involve the remaining Hungarian force in destruction " and sued for peace . The peace treaty was signed in late 1150 or early 1151 .
Géza met Henry Jasomirgott which contributed to the normalization of their strained relations in 1151 . He sent reinforcements to Iziaslav II who again reoccupied Kiev before April 1151 . Three months later , Volodimirko of Halych routed a Hungarian army that was marching towards Kiev . Frederick Barbarossa , the newly elected King of Germany , demanded the German princes ' consent to wage war against Hungary at the Imperial Diet of June 1152 , but the princes refused him " for certain obscure reasons " , according to Otto of Freising . Géza invaded Halych in the summer of 1152 . The united armies of Géza and Iziaslav defeated Volodimirko 's troops at the San River , forcing Volodimirko to sign a peace treaty with Iziaslav . Pope Eugenius III sent his envoys to Hungary to strengthen the " faith and discipline " of the Hungarian church . Géza forbade the papal envoys to enter Hungary , which shows that his relationship with the Holy See had deteriorated .
Géza planned to invade Paristrion — the Byzantine province along the Lower Danube — in the spring of 1153 . According to John Kinnamos , Géza sought vengeance for Manuel 's invasion of 1150 ; on the other hand , Michael of Thessalonica wrote that Géza prevented Emperor Manuel from invading Southern Italy . However , the emperor , who had been informed of Géza 's plan , marched to the Danube . Géza sent his envoys to the emperor and a new peace treaty was signed in Sardica ( now Sofia in Bulgaria ) . In accordance with the peace treaty , the Byzantines released their Hungarian prisoners of wars , according to Abū Hāmid al @-@ Gharnātī , a Muslim traveler from Granada who lived in Hungary between 1150 and 1153 .
Abū Hāmid stated that every country feared Géza 's attack , " because of the many armies he has at his disposal and his great courage " . The Muslim traveler observed that Géza employed Muslim soldiers who had been recruited from among the peoples of the Eurasian steppes . Abū Hāmid even urged the soldiers to make " every effort to go on jihad " with Géza " for thus God [ would ] set down the merit of Holy War to [ their ] account " . Géza allowed his Muslim subjects to take concubines , which stirred up the Hungarian clergy . He also invited Western European ( primarily German ) knights to settle in Hungary . For instance , he made a land grant to two knights , named Gottfried and Albert , who had " abandoned their homeland " upon his invitation in the 1150s . Some years earlier , one Hezelo of Merkstein sold his patrimony in the region of Aachen before departing to Hungary from where he never returned to his homeland . According to the Diploma Andreanum of 1224 , which spelled out the privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons , their ancestors were invited by Géza to settle in southern Transylvania .
Pope Anastasius IV declared Géza 's rule in Dalmatia unlawful in October 1154 . Emperor Manuel 's cousin , Andronikos Komnenos , who administered Belgrade , Braničevo and Niš sent a letter to Géza in 1154 , offering to hand over those towns to Géza in exchange for Géza 's support against the emperor . Géza sent his envoys to Sicily to sign a new alliance with William I of Sicily around the end of the year , but William I was fighting with his rebellious subjects . Although Andronius Komnenus 's plot was discovered and he was captured , Géza invaded the Byzantine Empire and laid siege to Braničevo in late 1154 . After hearing of the imprisonment of Andronikus Komnenos , Géza abandoned the siege and returned to Hungary . A Byzantine general , Basil Tzintziluces , launched an attack on the Hungarian army , but Géza annihilated the Byzantine forces before returning to Hungary . In early 1155 , the Byzantine and Hungarian envoys signed a new peace treaty . In the same year , a Byzantine army expelled Géza 's ally , Desa , from Rascia and restored Uroš II , who had promised that he would not enter into an alliance with Hungary .
= = = Last years ( 1155 – 1162 ) = = =
Frederick Barbarossa , who had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor , received the envoys of Manuel I in Nuremberg in July 1156 . The Byzantine envoys proposed a joint invasion of Hungary , but Barbarossa refused their offer . On 16 September , Barbarossa stipulated that the dukes of Austria were to support the Holy Roman emperors during a war against Hungary in his charter by which he elevated Austria to a duchy , showing that the relationship between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire was still tense . Barbarossa 's close advisor , Daniel , Bishop of Prague , visited Hungary in the summer of 1157 . On this occasion , Géza promised that he would support Barbarossa with auxiliary troops if the emperor invaded Italy .
Géza 's youngest brother , Stephen , started conspiring with their uncle , Beloš , and other lords against Géza , according to the nearly contemporaneous Rahewin . To avoid a civil war , Géza first ordered the persecution of Stephen 's partisans , then had his rebellious brother expelled from the kingdom and even sentenced to death . Niketas Choniates also recorded that Stephen had been " forced to flee from the murderous clutches " of Géza . Géza 's uncle , Beloš , was not mentioned in royal charters issued after March 1157 , which suggest that he left Hungary after that date . During the summer of that year , Stephen fled to the Holy Roman Empire , seeking Emperor Frederick 's protection against Géza . Upon the emperor 's demand , Géza accepted Frederick Barbarossa as arbitrator in his conflict with Stephen and sent his envoys to Regensburg in January 1158 . However , Barbarossa " decided to defer to a more suitable time the settlement " of the quarrel between Géza and Stephen and departed for his campaign against the Lombard League . In accordance with his former promise , Géza sent a troop of 5 – 600 archers to accompany the emperor to Italy . Before long , Géza 's brother , Stephen , left for the Byzantine Empire and settled in Constantinople where he married Emperor Manuel 's niece Maria Komnene . Within two years , he was joined by his brother , Ladislaus , who fled from Hungary around 1160 .
Frederick Barbarossa forced the Italian towns to surrender in September 1158 . However , Milan and Crema again rose up in open rebellion against the emperor 's rule after the Diet of Roncaglia ordered the restoration of imperial rights , including the emperor 's rights to levy taxes in the Northern Italian towns . Géza sent his envoys to Barbarossa 's camp and promised to dispatch further reinforcements against the rebellious towns .
The death of Pope Adrian IV on 1 September 1159 caused a schism , because the college of the cardinals was divided : the majority of the cardinals was opposed to Barbarossa 's policy , but a minority supported him . The first group elected Alexander III pope , but Barbarossa 's supporters chose Victor IV . Emperor Frederick summoned a synod to Pavia to put an end to the schism . Géza sent his envoys to the church council where Victor IV was declared the lawful pope in February 1160 . However , Lucas , Archbishop of Esztergom , remained loyal to Alexander III and persuaded Géza to start negotiations with the representatives of Alexander III . Géza only decided to change sides after most European monarchs , including the kings of Sicily , England and France , joined Alexander III . Géza 's envoys announced his decision to Alexander III in early 1161 , but Géza only informed the emperor of his recognition of Alexander III in the autumn of the same year .
Géza 's and Alexander III 's envoys signed a concordat in the summer of 1161 . According to that treaty , Géza promised that he would not depose or transfer prelates without the consent of the Holy See ; on the other hand , the pope acknowledged that no papal legates could be sent to Hungary without the king 's permission and the Hungarian prelates were only allowed to appeal to the Holy See with the king 's consent . He also signed a truce for five years with the Byzantine Empire . Shortly before his death , Géza granted Dalmatia , Croatia and other territories to his younger son , Béla , as an appanage duchy . Géza died on 31 May 1162 and was buried in Székesfehérvár .
= = Family = =
Géza 's wife , Euphrosyne of Kiev , was a daughter of Grand Prince Mstislav I of Kiev . She survived Géza and died around 1193 . Their first child , Stephen , was born in the summer of 1147 ; he succeeded Géza in 1162 . His younger brother , Béla , was born in about 1148 ; he inherited Hungary after the death of Stephen in 1172 . Géza 's third son and namesake , Géza , was born in the 1150s . The youngest son of Géza and Euphrosyne , Árpád , did not survive childhood . Géza 's and Euphrosyne 's oldest daughter , Elizabeth , was given in marriage to Frederick of Bohemia , who was the heir to Vladislaus II , Duke of Bohemia , in 1157 . The second daughter , Odola , married Vladislaus II of Bohemia 's younger son , Sviatopluk , in 1164 . The third daughter of Géza and Euphrosyne , Helena , became the wife of Leopold V of Austria in 1174 .
= System 6 =
System 6 ( also referred to as System Software 6 ) is a graphical user interface @-@ based operating system for Macintosh computers . It was released in 1988 by Apple Computer and was part of the Mac OS line of operating systems . System 6 was shipped with various Macintosh computers until it was succeeded by System 7 in 1991 . The boxed version of System 6 cost $ 49 when introduced . System 6 is classed as a monolithic operating system . It featured an improved MultiFinder , which allowed for co @-@ operative multitasking .
= = Main features = =
= = = MacroMaker = = =
A new feature called MacroMaker was included with System 6 . When enabled , it allowed users to record mouse and keyboard input as " macros . " MacroMaker had a unique user interface , which aimed to look and act like a tape recorder . MacroMaker was criticized for its lack of features when compared to Microsoft 's AutoMac III , which was already available commercially . As MacroMaker only recorded the locations of mouse @-@ clicks inside windows and not what was being clicked or exactly when , users soon found that it could not be used to automate more sophisticated programs . The pre @-@ recorded clicks would miss buttons if they had moved or failed to appear upon playback . MacroMaker was not compatible with System 7 , which marked the introduction of AppleScript as an alternative .
= = = Multitasking = = =
Cooperative multitasking made its Macintosh debut in March 1985 with a program called Switcher by Andy Hertzfeld , which allowed the user to launch multiple applications and switch between them . Many programs and features did not function correctly with Switcher . Also , Switcher did not display windows of other applications beside the selected one . It was not included with the operating system , but was available from Apple for purchase separately . Both System 5 and System 6 had a feature called MultiFinder instead , which was much more mature and widely used in System 6 . MultiFinder could be enabled or disabled , with a reboot . If disabled , the Finder would quit when the user launched another application , thus freeing RAM for it . If enabled , the system behaved as in the nowadays familiar multitasking tradition , with the desktop and windows of other applications in the screen 's background .
= = = Hardware support = = =
System 6 included support for the Apple ImageWriter LQ and other PostScript laser printers . New software drivers allowed the ImageWriter LQ to be used on AppleTalk local area networks and supports use of tabloid , or B , size paper ( 11 in × 17 in ( 280 mm × 430 mm ) ) . System 6 also included Color QuickDraw , a piece of system software used to accelerate the drawing of color screen images on the Macintosh II . It was licensed to Apple and Radius Inc by its programmer , Andy Hertzfeld .
= = Limitations = =
System 6 's Apple menu cannot be used to launch applications . The current application icon in the upper right @-@ hand corner of the menu bar cycles between open applications ; it is not a menu . System 6 supports 24 bits of addressable random access memory ( RAM ) , which allowed a maximum of 8 megabytes of RAM with no provision for virtual memory . These limitations were fixed in System 7 . The version of the HFS used by System 6 also has a hard drive capacity limit ; it supports up to 2 gigabytes ( GBs ) and 65 @,@ 536 files on a drive . This limitation was not increased until System 7 @.@ 5 which first increased the limit to 4 GB .
The Trash ( or " Wastebasket " in the British version ) empties when the Finder terminates . If MultiFinder is not running , this occurs as soon as an application launches . Icons on the desktop in System 6 are not organized into a single folder , as in later operating systems . Instead , the system records whether each file is on the desktop or not . This is inefficient and confusing , as the user cannot browse to the desktop in applications besides the Finder , even within the standard Open and Save As dialog boxes . Furthermore , these dialogs are primitive , mostly unchanged since 1984 . The lack of aliases , shortcuts to files , was another limitation of file management on System 6 . Custom file and folder icons are also not supported . These problems were all remedied in System 7 .
A maximum of 15 Desk Accessories may be installed at one time , including the Chooser , Scrapbook , and Control Panel . System 6 uses the Control Panel desk accessory to access all the installed control panels , which imposes severe user interface limitations . Desk Accessories cannot be installed or removed within the Finder ; this requires the Font / DA Mover utility . System 7 also fixed this . Control panels , however , are contained in separate files .
Few methods exist for interface personalization . The Finder allows each icon to be assigned a color , but the desktop background is limited to an 8x8 pixel color tiled pattern ( color patterns were introduced in System 5 ) , and standard window frames are all black and white . However , many " INIT " extension files existed to add color and customization . System 7 later allowed the user to change the color and various other aspects of the user interface . By 1989 , the System 6 user interface was in need of a change . In comparison to the NeXTSTEP operating system of the time , System 6 did not make use of sound , and its user interface presented several limitations in terms of file management and the way windows were displayed .
= = Reception = =
The initial releases of System 6 were unstable ; many third party software developers did not receive copies before its release , resulting in widespread compatibility problems . At first , many common software programs such as Microsoft Excel , Microsoft Works and 4th Dimension were not fully compatible with System 6 . There were also software bugs in the Color Manager , Script Manager , and Sound Manager extension files . Apple announced that 66 bugs were fixed when the 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 update was released in September 1988 . However , a major bug involving text spacing of screen fonts was found in 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 after distribution began . This led to the quick release of 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 , which solved this problem . Some customers waited longer until moving to System 6 because of the poor reputation already gained .
= = Compatibility = =
System 6 was officially supported by Apple for many different machines , some of which were shipped with System 6 . It may be that some Apple computers for which System 6 was not officially supported may nevertheless be able to run it , perhaps with limitations .
= = Version history = =
= Archie MacLaren =
Archibald Campbell " Archie " MacLaren ( 1 December 1871 – 17 November 1944 ) was an English cricketer who captained the England cricket team at various times between 1898 and 1909 . A right @-@ handed batsman , he played 35 Test matches for England , as captain in 22 of those games , and led the team to defeat in four Ashes series against Australia . An amateur , MacLaren played first @-@ class cricket for Lancashire , captaining that county for most of his career . As a batsman , MacLaren was one of the leading cricketers of his time and had a reputation as a fast @-@ scoring stylist . In 1895 , he scored 424 runs in an innings against Somerset which was the highest individual score in first @-@ class cricket until 1923 and remained a record in English cricket until 1994 . Opinions were divided over his captaincy . He was a deep thinker on the game and critics believed him to be tactically advanced , but his pessimism , clashes with the selectors and inability to get the best out of his players led most commentators to rate him a poor leader .
After attending public school , MacLaren played intermittently for Lancashire until 1899 as he tried to establish a career outside the sport . Even so , he was appointed county captain in 1894 and was chosen frequently to play for England . An appointment as Lancashire 's assistant secretary allowed him to play more regularly from 1900 . He first captained England in 1898 as a stand @-@ in , but became captain in his own right in 1899 . Under his leadership , England lost to Australia in three consecutive series — 1899 , 1901 – 02 and 1902 . MacLaren was involved in controversies throughout all three defeats , and was replaced as captain in 1905 , although he remained in the team . Business interests kept him out of the game for the following years , but he was invited to lead England once more in 1909 . Defeat in that series ended his Test career , and the following year he ceased playing regular first @-@ class cricket . He played occasionally until 1922 – 23 , and had some late successes : in 1921 , a team selected and captained by MacLaren defeated a previously unbeaten Australian team , and on his final first @-@ class appearance during a 1922 – 23 Marylebone Cricket Club tour of New Zealand , he scored 200 runs .
MacLaren had many jobs as he attempted to find ways to support his cricket , family and lifestyle . At various time , he worked as a teacher , a journalist and a cricket coach . For many years , he was employed as Lancashire 's assistant secretary but such were his financial worries that he often had to ask for cash advances from the committee , with which he had a stormy relationship . He worked for several years as private secretary to K. S. Ranjitsinhji and he became involved in his employer 's financial scandals . Many of MacLaren 's later business ventures were failures , and only when his wife came into an inheritance did he and his family live in comfort . Throughout his life , MacLaren was involved in many disagreements and was never popular with team @-@ mates . However , he was a hero to the cricket writer Neville Cardus , who wrote prolifically on him . MacLaren died in 1944 , aged 72 .
= = Early life = =
MacLaren was born on 1 December 1871 in Whalley Range , a fairly prosperous district of Manchester , the second of seven sons to James MacLaren and Emily Carver . His father , a cotton merchant and cricket enthusiast , served as honorary treasurer to the Lancashire team from 1881 until his death in 1900 . MacLaren senior encouraged his sons to play cricket . With the aim of improving their ability in the game , MacLaren senior sent Archie and his older brother James to Elstree , a school well @-@ regarded for its coaching .
MacLaren 's cricket instruction was supplemented during the holidays at Old Trafford Cricket Ground , where his father paid professional cricketers to bowl at him . He was soon selected for the school 's cricket team , scored his first century , and was the captain by his final year . From Elstree , MacLaren went to Harrow School in 1886 where he joined James ; Geoffrey , their younger brother , followed them but financial difficulties prevented any other family members attending the school . MacLaren had little success in intra @-@ school cricket during his first year there but in 1887 , success in trial games resulted in his promotion to the school first eleven . A century in an early match ensured his selection for the important fixture against Eton College at Lord 's Cricket Ground . Although an inexperienced Harrow team was easily defeated , MacLaren top @-@ scored in both innings with scores of 55 and 67 , and in praising his batting , critics suggested he had a bright future . He came top of the school batting averages for the 1887 season .
Wet weather in the following two years affected playing conditions , making the cricket pitches slow @-@ paced and difficult to bat on . With little experience of such conditions , MacLaren had a succession of failures . His technique , based at the time on playing forward at the ball , was unsuited to wet pitches and it was only late in 1889 that he made the required technical adjustments and learned to play off the back foot ( i.e. stepping backwards to play a shot ) . During 1890 , his final year at Harrow , he captained the team and had his most successful season , scoring over 500 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 54 . In the match against Eton at Lord 's , MacLaren once more succeeded when others struggled , and he scored 76 on a difficult pitch . In his four years at Harrow , MacLaren was twice awarded the prize for the school 's best batsman , and received awards for his fielding . MacLaren also played football successfully : he captained his House team and played in the school first eleven in 1888 and 1889 before a knee injury forced him to miss the 1890 season . Unlike many of his fellow amateur cricketers in this period , MacLaren did not attend Oxford or Cambridge Universities , where he would have played a high level of cricket ; his father could not afford to send him or his brothers there . On leaving Harrow , MacLaren found employment with the Manchester and Liverpool District Bank .
= = Lancashire cricketer = =
Lancashire monitored MacLaren 's progress during his time at Harrow . When his season there ended in 1890 , he was selected to play for Lancashire in the County Championship . Making his first @-@ class debut on 14 August 1890 in a match against Sussex , he scored 108 runs on a difficult pitch in a relatively fast time of two hours . Although less successful in the remaining games of the season , he finished fourth in the Lancashire averages with 140 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 33 . MacLaren 's financial circumstances forced him to keep working at the District Bank , limiting the amount of cricket he played in 1891 and 1892 .
When he did play for Lancashire , MacLaren was moderately successful . He led the county 's batting averages in 1892 and in total scored 548 runs at 27 @.@ 40 . Of his two centuries , the second came when he opened the batting . During the winter of 1892 – 93 , MacLaren studied cotton manufacture in New Orleans ; when he returned home , he played more regularly for Lancashire . He scored consistently in 1893 , totalling 831 runs at 25 @.@ 18 , had success in the high profile match against Yorkshire , and led the team in the absence of the regular captain . As a result of his successes , he was selected to play for the North of England in a representative match against the Australian team who were touring England that year . He scored 66 , sharing an opening partnership of 121 in 80 minutes with his county colleague Albert Ward . Later in the season , he was chosen to play for the amateur " Gentlemen " team in the prestigious Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's .
Before the 1894 season , MacLaren resigned from the bank to play a whole season of cricket . Lancashire at the time were undergoing a period of transition , and the captaincy was unsettled : three men captained the county in the first part of the season . In the absence of other amateurs with county experience who could play regularly , MacLaren was appointed captain . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack observed that MacLaren was young for the position , and largely unproven in cricket , but it supported the decision . After losing his first match in charge , the team improved in the latter part of the season to finish fourth in the Championship . MacLaren finished sixth in the Lancashire averages , and in total scored 1 @,@ 105 runs at 25 @.@ 69 , but his batting had made little progress since his debut . However , his successful leadership of Lancashire led some press critics to suggest him as a future England captain . At the end of the season , he was a last @-@ minute selection to tour Australia with a team led by Andrew Stoddart .
= = Test cricketer = =
= = = Test debut = = =
Approached to organise a touring team by the Australian cricket authorities , Stoddart had been unable to persuade several leading batsmen to join his squad . Stoddart only took 13 men , of whom two were wicket @-@ keepers ( only one of whom could realistically play in each match ) and one was a lob bowler who did not play any Test matches ; this guaranteed MacLaren 's selection for all the matches against Australia . Consequently , he retained his place even when his form was poor . In his first game , against South Australia , he scored 228 , and hit another half @-@ century in the build @-@ up to the first Test . He made his international debut on 14 December 1894 , scoring 4 and 20 as England won despite being asked to follow on . England also won the next game , although MacLaren was caught from the opening delivery of the match , the first time anyone had been dismissed by the first ball of a Test . Australia took the third and fourth Tests to level the series . MacLaren had little personal success , and averaged only 12 @.@ 50 in the series after four games .
By then , MacLaren was in financial difficulties . As an amateur , his expenses were covered by the tour organisers but he received no money for playing . To support him financially , the Lancashire committee had given him £ 100 before the tour . By the latter stages of the tour , his money was running out ; most of it was probably spent betting on horse races , and he sent Lancashire a request for further money . Just before the final Test , he received a £ 60 advance on his expenses for the upcoming English season . For the fifth Test , he dropped down from opening the batting , which he had done throughout the series , to batting at number five , and responded with his first Test century . Batting with greater caution than usual , he scored 120 before accidentally standing on his own wicket . England won the match to take the series 3 – 2 , amid great public interest in England and Australia . MacLaren scored 240 runs at 26 @.@ 67 in the Test series , finishing fourth in the English averages . He performed more effectively in the lesser matches , and following some final tour fixtures , he totalled 803 runs at 47 @.@ 23 in all first @-@ class games . On the six @-@ week outward journey MacLaren met ( Kathleen ) Maud Power , an Australian socialite and the daughter of a horse racing official . They were married in 1898 .
= = = World record holder = = =
MacLaren returned home via Japan , missing the start of the 1895 cricket season . In his absence , he was named as a " Young Batsman of the Year " in Wisden for his performances in 1894 . After playing two games for Lancashire , MacLaren accepted the offer of a teaching job in a preparatory school in Harrow ; although still Lancashire 's captain , he missed several matches , to the disquiet of its supporters . The team 's results were mixed in his absence , and he returned to play Somerset at Taunton . On the first day of the three @-@ day game , MacLaren scored 289 not out in 330 minutes . On the second day , he took his score to 424 before he was dismissed , surpassing the previous highest individual innings in first @-@ class cricket , W. G. Grace 's score of 344 , made in 1876 . MacLaren batted for 470 minutes in total and hit 62 fours and a six . This remained the highest score in first @-@ class cricket until 1923 when Bill Ponsford scored 429 in Australia , and was the largest first @-@ class innings in England until Brian Lara scored 501 in 1994 . In total , Lancashire scored 801 runs and won the game by an innings . After a spell of lower scores , MacLaren played several big innings , including three consecutive centuries in the last three games of the season . He ended 1895 top of the national batting averages with 1 @,@ 229 runs at 51 @.@ 20 . MacLaren was elected a life member of Lancashire in recognition of his achievements .
Teaching commitments left MacLaren unavailable for the start of the 1896 season , and his first appearance came in July . Although he had only batted once in the season , he was chosen to play in the second Test match of the summer between England and Australia , a selection made controversial by his lack of cricket . As the Test was played at Old Trafford , the England team was chosen by the Lancashire committee , who recognised that MacLaren would attract spectators as a local player . He was dismissed by the first ball he faced in the first innings , and scored 15 runs in the second as England were defeated . Shortly after the Test , he scored 226 against Kent to take Lancashire to a draw in a match they seemed likely to lose . This was enough for him to retain his place in the team for the final Test match , where he scored 20 and 6 . He batted effectively for the rest of the season , finishing with 713 runs for Lancashire at 54 @.@ 85 . Critics praised his batting , but his absences may have prevented the team from winning the Championship ; they finished second . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 922 runs at 36 @.@ 88 .
= = = Second tour of Australia = = =
MacLaren 's teaching duties meant that in 1897 he again missed the start of the cricket season , and he felt it necessary to resign as Lancashire 's captain . When he began playing , he scored heavily , including another double century against Kent , and his runs helped Lancashire to win the County Championship : concentrating on aggressive batting , he scored faster than in previous years , and hit 974 runs at 51 @.@ 26 . At the end of the season , MacLaren was included in Stoddart 's second Australian touring team . Despite high expectations of success , the Test series was lost 4 – 1 . Although nominally captain , Stoddart played in only two Tests ; he was grief @-@ stricken after the death of his mother and disillusioned by the failures of his team . MacLaren , after an unproductive start to the tour , scored 142 and 100 against New South Wales to become the first batsman to score two centuries in the same Australian first @-@ class match . In the absence of Stoddart , he captained the England team in the first Test . He scored 109 in the first innings , batting more cautiously than usual , and 50 not out in the second as England won by nine wickets . His captaincy proved controversial when he refused to recall the Australian batsman Charlie McLeod to the wickets after he was dismissed ; McLeod was out to a no ball but , being deaf , did not hear the umpire 's call and was run out when he left his crease . With Stoddart still absent , MacLaren was captain in the second Test . Australia won by an innings , and MacLaren was criticised in the Australian press for complaining about the pitch . Commentators also suggested that he underused the bowling of Ted Wainwright . Stoddart returned for the third and fourth Tests , both of which England lost by an innings . MacLaren scored 124 in the third game , but was mocked in the press after the fourth when he claimed that a fly in his eye caused him to be dismissed . When Stoddart withdrew from the final match , MacLaren once more assumed the leadership . He scored 65 in the first innings but could not prevent Australia winning again .
In all first @-@ class matches , MacLaren scored 1 @,@ 037 runs at 54 @.@ 57 ; in the Test matches , he aggregated 488 runs at an average of 54 @.@ 22 . Wisden noted that MacLaren batted " magnificently " and commented : " Of all the English players the one who had the best cause to look back upon the trip with satisfaction was MacLaren . " At the conclusion of the tour , on 17 March 1898 , he married Power . The wedding attracted media attention and was well attended . The couple later had two sons .
= = England captain = =
= = = Appointment and start of captaincy = = =
MacLaren played little cricket in 1898 , initially owing to his teaching commitments and the need to establish himself and his wife in a new home . After making his first appearance in July , he did not play again until August . He played nine first @-@ class games , scoring 478 runs at 29 @.@ 87 , before his season was ended by neuralgia . Despite his frequent absences — again he missed the first part of the season — Lancashire re @-@ appointed MacLaren as joint captain for 1899 . That summer , the Australians toured England and the first Test took place before MacLaren had played any cricket . For the second game , MacLaren replaced W. G. Grace as England captain ; the other candidate for the leadership was Stanley Jackson , who was senior to MacLaren at Harrow and had preceded him into the England side , but MacLaren was favoured owing to his previous experience in the role with Lancashire and England .
Australia comfortably won the second Test , and on his first appearance of the season , MacLaren scored 4 runs opening the innings on the first day . In the second innings , he moved down the order to number six , but he came in to bat when England trailed heavily and had lost four wickets . He batted for around 150 minutes to score 88 not out . The Wisden match report stated : " There was ... some risk in playing MacLaren , who had not so far taken part in any first @-@ class cricket during the season . In this case however , the [ selection ] committee had reason to congratulate themselves , MacLaren playing a magnificent second innings and making a great , though fruitless , effort to save the game ... Never has MacLaren played a greater innings . " Afterwards , MacLaren scored a century in difficult batting conditions against Yorkshire . Jackson did not play in this game , and initially refused to play for England in the third Test ; the press attributed this to jealousy of MacLaren and anger at being passed over for the captaincy . The third Test was drawn owing to poor weather , but England 's revival continued in the next game , which was drawn with England in a dominant position . The final match was also drawn , but while England lost the series 1 – 0 , critics believed the team had recovered from a poor start to the summer and held the ascendancy in the final three games . MacLaren 's only score over fifty was that in the second Test , and he finished the series with 164 runs at 32 @.@ 80 . In all first @-@ class cricket , he made 814 runs at 32 @.@ 56 , including two centuries against Yorkshire .
= = = Full @-@ time cricketer = = =
In late 1899 , MacLaren joined a private cricket tour of America and Canada organised by the cricket @-@ playing Indian prince Ranjitsinhji . The following March , he was appointed as an assistant secretary at Lancashire . The position was a sinecure ; his main role was to coach the first eleven which effectively meant that he was paid to play cricket , despite his amateur status . Surviving records do not indicate his salary , but some sources suggest he was paid comfortably more than Lancashire 's leading professionals . In addition , MacLaren worked as a journalist for the Daily Express , reporting on matches in which he played , a common practice at the time for amateurs . Resuming sole control over the Lancashire side , and freed from his teaching responsibilities , MacLaren played from the beginning of the 1900 season , planning meticulously in a bid to lead Lancashire to the County Championship . His batting form suffered initially , but the team dominated the start of the season . Commentators gave much of the credit to MacLaren 's captaincy . However , he was severely criticised for conservative tactics in one game , when he was reluctant to attempt to force a win . In the latter stages of the season , MacLaren scored prolifically , making a succession of high scores at rapid pace . He ended the 1900 season with 1 @,@ 554 runs at 36 @.@ 13 . During that season , the leading Lancashire bowler Arthur Mold had been no @-@ balled for throwing , but MacLaren defended him in the press . At a meeting of county captains in December , MacLaren was the only representative to defend the legality of Mold 's bowling action , and in 1901 , Mold was again no @-@ balled and his career was effectively over . MacLaren struggled with injury in 1901 , and his batting form suffered . He frequently dropped low in the batting order , and it was late in the season before he began to score runs regularly . His captaincy was criticised after some tactical decisions which were either unconventional or unsuccessful , and he clashed with the Lancashire committee over the poor state of Old Trafford 's pitch . In total , he scored 1 @,@ 069 first @-@ class runs at 31 @.@ 44 .
MacLaren was invited by the Melbourne Cricket Club to bring a team to Australia during the English winter of 1901 – 02 . This was the last privately organised team to represent England at Test level in Australia , with subsequent ones playing under the colours of the MCC . Many leading players were unavailable — Yorkshire 's Wilfred Rhodes and George Hirst were not permitted to tour by their captain Lord Hawke . The team was judged to be weak , but contained several players at the beginning of their careers who went on to success at Test level . Sydney Barnes was chosen by MacLaren after playing only a handful of county matches . Barnes ' success on his single appearance for Lancashire in 1901 convinced MacLaren of his worth , to the surprise and disparagement of commentators , most of whom had never seen him . Barnes began the tour well , but did not get on with his captain . During a storm on part of the sea journey , MacLaren , speculating on their chances of survival , commented to a team member : " If we go down , at least that bugger Barnes will go down with us . " The team lost their first match and continued to struggle . MacLaren clashed with authorities in Melbourne over his right to choose an umpire , but he began to bat well at Sydney , where he scored 145 and 73 in a tour match .
In the first Test , MacLaren shared a century opening partnership with Tom Hayward and scored 116 to become the first man to score four Test centuries . This was the last Test century by an England captain in Australia for 57 years . Barnes bowled with great success ; Colin Blythe and Len Braund , like Barnes chosen by MacLaren and making their Test debuts , performed effectively and England won by an innings . The remaining four Tests were lost as the team suffered from a lack of effective bowlers . MacLaren severely overbowled Barnes , who took 13 wickets , in the second Test ; the bowler was injured in the next game and took no further part on the tour . MacLaren was successful with the bat . He scored 92 in the fourth Test , made centuries in the two first @-@ class games played in between the Test matches , and finished top of the batting averages . Critics judged that his team had performed well despite the heavy defeat , and his captaincy attracted praise . In addition , the team were considered to be the best fielding side to visit Australia . In the Test series , MacLaren scored 412 runs at 45 @.@ 77 , while in all first @-@ class matches he hit 929 runs at 58 @.@ 06 .
Before the tour began , MacLaren resigned as Lancashire 's captain and assistant secretary , owing to his concern for the health of his wife . Journalists speculated that MacLaren would join the Hampshire team as assistant secretary , as he lived in that county , or even move to Australia . Lancashire selected a replacement captain , but when MacLaren returned to England , he re @-@ committed to the club , stating the visit to Australia had improved the health of his wife , and he was reappointed .
= = = Ashes series of 1902 = = =
MacLaren began the 1902 season well and , facing an Ashes series against Australia , began planning for the Tests ; he arranged to receive reports on prospective players from both sides . England dominated the first Test , scoring 376 and bowling Australia out for 36 ; rain prevented a result and also heavily curtailed the drawn second Test . The team for the third Test , played in Sheffield , was to be chosen from 12 players picked by the selectors , with the final place contested between Bill Lockwood and Schofield Haigh . However , on the morning of the match , MacLaren , with the approval of the selector Lord Hawke , summoned Barnes from Manchester to play instead of either . The move was unpopular with spectators — their favoured choice , Haigh , was a Yorkshire player — but Barnes took six wickets in the first innings , although injury reduced his effectiveness in the second innings . England were bowled out in poor light — MacLaren 's biographer Michael Down suggests that part of the blame lies with him for not appealing against the light — and needed an unlikely 339 runs to win in their second innings . MacLaren changed the batting order , asking Gilbert Jessop to open the batting . Jessop scored fifty , and MacLaren scored 63 , but England lost by 143 runs .
Following the defeat , the England selectors made several changes for the fourth Test ; both Barnes and Jessop were left out . MacLaren favoured Jessop 's inclusion but the selectors considered him unreliable . Although Barnes was not fully fit , later commentators suggested the selectors omitted him because of MacLaren 's actions at Sheffield . A further player was added to the squad in case the pitch was affected by rain before the match , but rather than choosing Haigh , the leading wet @-@ pitch bowler in the country , Hawke insisted that Sussex 's Fred Tate was included — critics have suggested that Hawke wanted to prevent Haigh 's absence from the Yorkshire team , of which Hawke was captain , given the unlikeliness of the extra bowler being needed . According to the cricket writer Neville Cardus , when MacLaren saw the list of players in the team , he responded : " My God , look what they 've sent me " . MacLaren was angry with Hawke , and when it rained before the match , included Tate in the final eleven at the expense of George Hirst , a leading all @-@ rounder . Gibson suggests that Tate was only included by the selectors " because they thought MacLaren could not possibly pick him " and so he could not make any further late changes to the team ; MacLaren , according to Gibson , in turn included Tate out of spite . Other writers have suggested that MacLaren , as a Lancastrian , preferred a Sussex player to a Yorkshire one .
Australia won the toss . The match began in damp conditions , and before the pitch began to dry , at which point it would become extremely difficult for batting , the Australian opening batsmen scored 135 in 90 minutes ; Australia 's total reached 173 for one wicket at lunch , and Victor Trumper scored a century in that time . MacLaren was subsequently criticised for allowing Australia to score so quickly , but claimed that his carefully planned strategy was rendered obsolete when Trumper began to strike the ball out of the ground . MacLaren commented : " I couldn 't very well have had a man fielding in the bloody practice ground , now could I ? " The bowlers recovered the situation to some extent , and following a century from Jackson , England trailed by 37 runs after the first innings . In the second innings , Australia collapsed to the England bowlers , but Tate dropped a crucial catch while stationed by MacLaren at the edge of the field . MacLaren also received criticism for this , as Tate was unaccustomed to fielding on the boundary . Gibson notes that MacLaren " later spent much breath defending himself on this point " ; although it is not clear how Tate came to be moved — a later interpretation is that MacLaren moved Tate there rather than ask an amateur player to cross the field for a few deliveries — most commentators agree that this was the turning point of the match . England were left needing 124 runs to win . MacLaren opened the batting , having batted at number four in the first innings , and tried to score quickly , but was caught from a big hit . According to Gibson , he returned to the dressing room in fury , throwing his bat across the room and saying that he had " thrown away the match and the bloody rubber [ series ] " . Gibson suggests that the implication that only MacLaren could have guided England to victory must have had a demoralising effect on the remaining batsmen , and speculates that he felt guilty over the composition of a team that looked likely to lose . Gibson comments : " This does not say much for MacLaren as a captain . Indeed , it has always seemed to me a shocking performance , from the choice of the team to the chuck of the bat . " Wickets continued to fall and Tate , the last batsman , was bowled when England needed four runs to win .
England won the final match by one wicket , but lost the series 2 – 1 . While contemporary critics did not blame MacLaren , the cricket authorities were less happy . MacLaren believed that the choices of the selectors had made it impossible to win , and continued to write about the series for many years . He finished the series with 198 runs at 28 @.@ 28 , and ended the season with 1 @,@ 254 first @-@ class runs at 32 @.@ 15 .
= = Cricketing decline = =
= = = Replacement as England captain = = =
MacLaren took a new job with a wine merchant which allowed him to complete a full season in 1903 . Wet weather caused many difficult pitches for batting , and MacLaren was often the only Lancashire batsman able to cope with the conditions . His highest @-@ profile success came when he captained the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's . When his team faced defeat on the final day on a difficult pitch , he scored 168 not out and shared a partnership of 309 with C. B. Fry in less than three hours . This innings was later praised as one of his finest . He ended the season with 1 @,@ 886 runs at 42 @.@ 86 , and Lancashire finished fourth . However , his success with the bat was overshadowed by controversy over the England captaincy . MacLaren originally planned to tour Australia with another private team in the winter of 1903 – 04 , but withdrew over his concerns that there was not enough strong bowling available . Frustrated with MacLaren , the cricket authorities in Melbourne asked the MCC , via Pelham Warner , to organise their own team . MacLaren was not offered the captaincy — Warner was chosen in June 1903 when Jackson proved unavailable . Newspaper rumours suggested that Lord Hawke played a part in this decision , and that MacLaren 's recent paid role for Lancashire counted against him . The press favoured MacLaren , and Warner was widely criticised ; one journal noted that he was " condemned as an interloper and a nonentity " . The cricket establishment was less sympathetic to MacLaren . After publicly vacillating over the summer , he eventually decided not to tour under Warner , whom he perceived to be his junior . The tour proved a great success for Warner , and his team won the Test series .
In 1904 , MacLaren led Lancashire to victory in the County Championship , their only such success under his captaincy . Unusually for a Championship @-@ winning team , the club relied heavily on batting rather than bowling . MacLaren played several big innings , scoring at a rapid pace , as his team began the season with a string of victories . Their form faded later in the season , but they remained unbeaten . In all first @-@ class cricket , MacLaren scored 1 @,@ 191 runs at 31 @.@ 34 . At some point during the season , he was asked by Ranjitsinhji , a close friend , to become his private secretary , and both men travelled to India during the winter of 1904 – 05 . Ranjitsinhji at the time was pursuing his claim to the throne of Nawanagar , and he remained in India when MacLaren returned to England for the 1905 cricket season .
The Australians toured England in 1905 , but MacLaren was again passed over for the England captaincy ; the team was captained by Jackson and won the series 2 – 0 . MacLaren began the season well and played in the first Test . Australia led by 25 runs after the first innings , as England struggled to play the pace of Albert Cotter . According to a story later told by Neville Cardus , before the second innings he saw MacLaren muttering : " Cotter ! I 'll bloody Cotter him ! " . MacLaren attacked Cotter 's bowling , and overcame the defensive bowling tactics used by Australia to slow down the game . He scored 140 , his highest Test innings and only Test century in England . When Australia batted , Bernard Bosanquet took eight wickets to bowl England to a win ; it was MacLaren 's suggestion that Jackson persist with Bosanquet 's bowling when it was initially unsuccessful . MacLaren scored 56 and 79 in the drawn second Test , but did not play in the third owing to injury . He played in the final two Tests but accomplished little . In the series , he scored 303 runs at 43 @.@ 28 . Jackson later wrote that MacLaren was an invaluable tactical aid during the series . Lancashire ended the season second in the Championship , and opened a testimonial fund for MacLaren which raised over £ 800 by the end of the season . He later clashed with committee members who were unhappy with his decision to use the money to buy a motor car . At the end of the season , MacLaren resigned the captaincy of Lancashire , but was persuaded to continue by the committee . In total during 1905 , he scored 1 @,@ 522 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 39 in all first @-@ class cricket .
= = = Private secretary to Ranjitsinhji = = =
A combination of injuries and work reduced the amount of cricket MacLaren played after 1905 . He missed most of Lancashire 's matches in June and July 1906 . He returned against Middlesex at Lord 's in August , but was involved in mild controversy when he declined to put Middlesex 's batsmen under pressure when chasing a small but challenging total to win the game ; this may have arisen from his dislike of Lord 's and the figures in authority there . MacLaren ended the 1906 season with 599 runs at 20 @.@ 65 . In the winter of 1906 – 07 , MacLaren returned to India to work for Ranjitsinhji . In January 1907 , he wrote to Lancashire to inform them of his reduced availability for 1907 ; even so , the committee retained him as captain . In February , Ranjitsinhji was named as the new ruler of Nawanagar . MacLaren attended his installation on 11 March — MacLaren and the politician Arthur Priestley were the only English attendees — and did not return to England until mid @-@ June , although he informed Lancashire that his absence in India was to recover from an illness . He resumed the captaincy of Lancashire , and made a good start with scores of 47 and 92 in his second match , but his form faded . One match provoked a public row between MacLaren and Lord 's . MacLaren captained Lancashire against Middlesex at Lord 's in July ; rain restricted play on the first day of the three @-@ day game , and at the start of the second day , the umpires ruled that the waterlogged pitch remained unfit to play on . Some spectators came on to the pitch to look for themselves , then protested outside the pavilion . The incident was defused by the ground authorities , but the following day MacLaren told the press : " Owing to the pitch having been deliberately torn up by the public , I , as captain of the Lancashire eleven , cannot see my way to continue the game , the groundsman bearing me out that the wicket [ pitch ] could not be again put right . " Lancashire would not play — although all decisions about fitness for play should have been made by the umpires , not MacLaren — and the match was drawn . The incident provoked discussion in the press , but most critics agreed that MacLaren was in the wrong . MacLaren subsequently scored his first century for two years , but he did little in the remainder of the season , at the end of which he again resigned the captaincy of Lancashire , conscious of his failing form and fitness . In all first @-@ class cricket in 1907 , he scored 829 runs at 26 @.@ 74 .
Much of MacLaren 's time was now taken up working for Ranjitsinhji , who visited England between October 1907 and December 1908 . MacLaren played just nine matches in 1908 ; Lancashire were eager for him to play , but he had little impact . His greatest success came for the Gentlemen against the Players at the Oval , when he shared a partnership of 141 with C. B. Fry . In total , he scored 428 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 53 . Meanwhile , Ranjitsinhji lived extravagantly in Sussex , running up huge bills and ignoring most attempts to make him pay . MacLaren was involved in several cases which resulted in either legal action or complaint to the India Office . When an artist had to go to court to make Ranjitsinhji pay for work she had done , MacLaren 's attempts to delay and obstruct her caused the India Office , in its adjudication , to describe him as Ranjitsinhji 's " ridiculous private secretary " . In October , MacLaren was taken to court himself over non @-@ payment of rent . He had a house close to Ranjitsinhji 's residence , and claimed in court that Ranjitsinhji rented the house on his behalf , and , as a ruling prince , could not be prosecuted . The magistrates disagreed , ruled MacLaren liable , and forced him to pay — although Ranjitsinhji probably paid for him .
In his biography of Ranjitsinhji , Simon Wilde suggests that MacLaren had to work very hard for his employer in this period , and found little time for cricket . In addition , his batting form was poor throughout , and he seemed to be in bad physical condition when he occasionally found time to play . Before Ranjitsinhji returned to India , MacLaren resigned as his secretary — although he went with him to India for a holiday . According to Wilde , the resignation was to allow MacLaren to play more regularly , but " he never really recovered his form " . In summarising Ranjitsinhji 's life at this time , Wilde suggests that his unreliability with money was quite calculated , and writes : " Many of his off @-@ the @-@ field exploits with A. C. MacLaren ... will probably never be known , but it seems clear that sometimes they were not averse to conducting themselves in the fashion of E. W. Hornung 's fictional character Raffles , the cricketing burglar . "
= = = Return as England captain = = =
For the 1909 season , MacLaren worked to improve his fitness prior to that summer 's Test series against Australia . Jackson was first choice to lead the England team , but when he was unavailable , MacLaren was appointed captain , to the approval of critics and the public . MacLaren began the season well for Lancashire , and as Australia struggled in their early tour matches , England began the Tests as favourites to win . England won the low @-@ scoring first match ; the press praised MacLaren 's deployment of fielders . In England 's second innings Jack Hobbs , batting with Fry — whom MacLaren promoted to open the batting having done so himself in the first innings — scored the required runs to complete a ten @-@ wicket win . Hobbs was making his first Test appearance in England , despite MacLaren 's reluctance to include him in the team .
The England selectors made several changes to the team for the second Test . Colin Blythe , a crucial bowler to the team , withdrew before the game . Other players were left out whom most commentators believed should have played , and the bowling attack was packed with medium @-@ paced bowlers of a similar style . The report in Wisden suggested : " Never in the history of Test Matches in England has there been such blundering in the selection of an England eleven " . The selectors later implied the controversial choices were at the behest of MacLaren , although other evidence suggests that MacLaren did not get the team he requested . England lost the game ; MacLaren 's reputation suffered and commentators began to blame him for the defeat . He offered his resignation , but the selectors retained him as captain and restored some of the players omitted from the second Test . When England lost the third Test after the batsmen failed , not helped by MacLaren 's poor form , critics questioned his place in the team . MacLaren tried to excuse his position , suggesting in the press that he knew the team would struggle and played " in spite of my personal wishes " . He also implied that the team 's selection was out of his hands . When the fourth Test was rained off , England could not win the series and so Australia retained the Ashes .
The final match of the series was drawn , mainly because the pitch heavily favoured batting . MacLaren was involved in another selection controversy when the fast bowler Claude Buckenham was left out of the England team at his instigation . The Wisden match report described this decision as " so grave a blunder that it is difficult to find words in which to speak of it . " The Wisden editor , Sydney Pardon , commented : " A fatal blunder was committed in leaving out Buckenham — a blunder for which it was generally understood that MacLaren was responsible . Experts occasionally do strange things and this was one of the strangest . The idea of letting England go into the field in fine weather , on a typical Oval wicket , with no fast bowler except Sharp touched the confines of lunacy . " Further issues arose over MacLaren 's handling of his bowlers , and Wisden suggested " MacLaren was sadly at fault in his management of the England bowling " . Douglas Carr , a 37 @-@ year @-@ old , was called into the team after some success in preceding games and on the premise that the Australians would be unable to play his googly . After Carr had initial success , MacLaren kept him bowling for a long period until the player tired and was easily punished by the batsmen . In his only innings , MacLaren scored 12 , and when the match ended , much of the blame for England 's failures was apportioned to him . In the series , he scored 85 runs at 12 @.@ 14 . The Oval match was his final Test match ; in 35 games he had scored 1 @,@ 931 runs at 33 @.@ 87 . He ended the season with 613 runs at 19 @.@ 77 .
= = = Retirement from regular cricket = = =
MacLaren played regularly for Lancashire at the start of 1910 , but his poor form continued until mid @-@ way through the season , when he scored centuries in successive matches . He played once more for Lancashire and once for the " Gentlemen of England " before withdrawing from first @-@ class cricket for the season , in which he scored 345 runs at 26 @.@ 53 . This was effectively the end of his Lancashire career and he played only sporadically for the team afterwards . He continued to play cricket , including a tour of Argentina with the MCC in 1910 – 11 . He also played for the team of the businessman Lionel Robinson , including some first @-@ class games , over the following seasons . During the 1914 season , MacLaren attempted to return to the Lancashire team , possibly to boost the circulation of a magazine for which he was writing . He appeared in one county match , without success , although he continued to play in other first @-@ class games for the MCC and other teams .
= = Later career = =
= = = Final cricket matches = = =
After MacLaren stopped playing regularly for Lancashire , he formed a business partnership with J. N. Pent
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260 @,@ 326 in 2015 , Fort Wayne is the 77th most populous city in the United States and the second largest in Indiana , after Indianapolis . It is the principal city of the Fort Wayne metropolitan area , consisting of Allen , Wells , and Whitley counties , a combined population of 419 @,@ 453 as of 2011 . In addition to the three core counties , the combined statistical area ( CSA ) includes Adams , DeKalb , Huntington , Noble , and Steuben counties , with an estimated population of 615 @,@ 077 .
Under the direction of American Revolutionary War statesman Anthony Wayne , the United States Army built Fort Wayne last in a series of forts near the Miami tribe village of Kekionga in 1794 . Named in Wayne 's honor , the European @-@ American settlement developed at the confluence of the St. Joseph , St. Marys , and Maumee rivers as a trading post for pioneers . The village was platted in 1823 and underwent tremendous growth after completion of the Wabash and Erie Canal and advent of the railroad . Once a booming manufacturing town located in what became known as the Rust Belt , Fort Wayne 's economy in the 21st century is based upon distribution , transportation and logistics , healthcare , professional and business services , leisure and hospitality , and financial services . The city is a center for the defense industry which employs thousands .
Fort Wayne was an All @-@ America City Award recipient in 1982 , 1998 , and 2009 . The city also received an Outstanding Achievement City Livability Award by the U.S. Conference of Mayors in 1999 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
= = = = Native Americans and New France = = = =
This area at the confluence of rivers was long occupied by successive cultures of indigenous peoples . The Miami tribe established its settlement of Kekionga at the confluence of the Maumee , St. Joseph , and St. Marys rivers . It was the capital of the Miami nation and related Algonquian tribes .
In 1696 , Comte de Frontenac appointed Jean Baptiste Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes as commander of the outpost . The French built Fort Miami in 1697 as part of a group of forts and trading posts built between Quebec and St. Louis . In 1721 , a few years after Bissot 's death , Fort Miami was replaced by Fort St. Philippe des Miamis . The first census in 1744 recorded a population of approximately 40 Frenchmen and 1 @,@ 000 Miami .
= = = = British Control = = = =
Increasing tension between France and the United Kingdom developed over the territory . In 1760 , the area was ceded to the British Empire after French forces surrendered during the French and Indian War . In 1763 , various Native American nations rebelled against British rule and retook the fort as part of Pontiac 's Rebellion . The Miami regained control of Kekionga , a rule that lasted for more than 30 years .
= = = = US Territory occupied by Native Americans = = = =
In 1790 , George Washington ordered the United States Army to secure Indiana Territory . Three battles were fought at Kekionga against Little Turtle and the Miami Confederacy . Miami warriors defeated U.S. forces in the first two battles . Anthony Wayne led a third expedition resulting in the destruction of Kekionga and the start of peace negotiations between Little Turtle and the U.S. After General Wayne refused to negotiate , the tribe advanced to Fallen Timbers where they were defeated on August 20 , 1794 . On October 22 , 1794 , U.S. forces captured the Wabash – Erie portage from the Miami Confederacy and built Fort Wayne , named in honor of the general .
= = = = White settlement permitted by Treaty of St. Mary 's = = = =
The military garrison was discontinued and a federal land office opened to sell land ceded by local Native Americans by the Treaty of St. Mary 's in 1819 . Platted in 1823 , the village became an important frontier outpost , and was incorporated as the Town of Fort Wayne in 1829 , with a population of 300 . The Wabash and Erie Canal 's opening eased travel to the Great Lakes and Mississippi River , exposing Fort Wayne to expanded economic opportunities . The population topped 2 @,@ 000 when the town was incorporated as the City of Fort Wayne on February 22 , 1840 . Pioneer newspaperman George W. Wood was elected the city 's first mayor . Fort Wayne 's " Summit City " nickname dates from this period , referring to the city 's position at the highest elevation along the canal 's route . As influential as the canal was to the city 's earliest development , it quickly became obsolete after briefly competing with the city 's first railroad , the Pittsburgh , Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway , completed in 1854 .
= = = Modern history = = =
At the turn of the 20th century , the city 's population reached nearly 50 @,@ 000 , attributed to a large influx of German and Irish immigrants . Fort Wayne 's " urban working class " thrived in industrial and railroad @-@ related jobs . The city 's economy was substantially based on manufacturing , ushering in an era of innovation with several notable inventions and developments coming out of the city over the years , such as gasoline pumps ( 1885 ) , the refrigerator ( 1913 ) , and in 1972 , the first home video game console . A 1913 flood caused seven deaths , left 15 @,@ 000 homeless , and damaged over 5 @,@ 500 buildings in the worst natural disaster in the city 's history .
As the automobile 's prevalence grew , Fort Wayne became a fixture on the Lincoln Highway . Aviation arrived in 1919 with the opening of the city 's first airport , Smith Field . The airport served as Fort Wayne 's primary commercial airfield until Baer Field ( now Fort Wayne International Airport ) was transferred to the city in 1947 after serving as a military base during World War II .
Fort Wayne was hit by the Great Depression beginning in 1929 , with most factories cutting their workforce . The stock market crash did not discourage plans to build the city 's first skyscraper and Indiana 's tallest building at the time , the Lincoln Bank Tower . By 1935 , the New Deal 's WPA put over 7 @,@ 000 residents back to work through local infrastructure improvements , including the construction of new parks , bridges , viaducts , and a $ 5 @.@ 2 million sewage treatment facility .
The post @-@ World War II economic boom helped the city prosper once again . Between 1950 and 1955 , more than 5 @,@ 000 homes were built , many in large subdivisions in rural Allen County . In 1950 , Fort Wayne 's first bypass , Coliseum Boulevard , opened on the north side of the city , followed by the city 's first arena , War Memorial Coliseum , bringing new opportunities for suburban expansion . The Coliseum was home to the NBA 's Fort Wayne Pistons from 1952 to 1957 . The opening of enclosed shopping malls and the construction of Interstate 69 through rural areas north and west of the city proper further drove the exodus of retail from downtown through the 1960s . According to the Fort Wayne Home Builders Association estimates , more than 80 percent of new home construction occurred outside the city proper in the 1970s .
Like many cities in the Rust Belt , deindustrialization in the 1980s brought urban blight , increased crime , and a decrease in blue @-@ collar manufacturing jobs . Downtown and surrounding neighborhoods continued declining as residents and businesses sprawled further into rural Allen County . A 1982 flood forced an evacuation of 9 @,@ 000 residents , damaging 2 @,@ 000 buildings , and costing $ 56 @.@ 1 million ( 1982 USD , $ 137 million 2015 USD ) .
The 1990s marked a turnaround for the city , as local leaders focused on crime reduction , economic diversification , and downtown redevelopment . By 1999 , Fort Wayne 's crime rate decreased to levels not seen since 1974 , and the city 's economy recovered , with the unemployment rate hovering at 2 @.@ 4 percent in 1998 . Clearing blighted buildings downtown resulted in new public greenspaces , including Headwaters Park , which has become the premier community gathering space and centerpiece in the city 's $ 50 million flood control project . Fort Wayne celebrated its bicentennial in 1994 .
The city continued to concentrate on downtown redevelopment and investment in the 2000s . The decade saw the beginnings of its transformation , with renovations and expansions of the Allen County Public Library , Grand Wayne Convention Center , and Fort Wayne Museum of Art . In 2007 , the $ 130 million Harrison Square development was launched , creating Parkview Field . Suburban growth continued , with the opening of Fort Wayne 's first lifestyle center , Jefferson Pointe , and the half @-@ billion dollar Parkview Regional Medical Center in 2012 .
= = Geography = =
Fort Wayne is in the East North Central region of the Midwestern United States , in northeastern Indiana , 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of Ohio and 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Michigan . According to the 2010 census , Fort Wayne has a total area of 110 @.@ 834 square miles ( 287 @.@ 06 km2 ) , of which 110 @.@ 62 square miles ( 286 @.@ 50 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 81 % ) is land and 0 @.@ 214 square miles ( 0 @.@ 55 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 19 % ) is water .
For a regional summit , the city is situated on flat land characterized by little topographical relief , a result of the Wisconsin glaciation episode . Receding glaciers eroded the land , depositing an evenly distributed layer of sediment during the last glacial period . The most distinguishable topographical feature is Cedar Creek Canyon , just north of the city proper near Huntertown . The Fort Wayne Moraine follows two of the city 's three rivers : the St. Marys and St. Joseph . The two rivers converge to form the Maumee , which eventually empties into Lake Erie . Land east of the moraine includes the former Great Black Swamp , a lacustrine plain formed by Glacial Lake Maumee . The Little River flows southwest of Fort Wayne , a tributary of the Wabash River , and remnant of the Maumee Torrent . The city lies along the St. Lawrence Continental Divide which separates the Great Lakes Basin from the Gulf of Mexico watershed .
Fort Wayne 's urban tree canopy is 29 percent , double the state average of 14 @.@ 5 percent and above the national average of 27 @.@ 1 percent . The canopy is decreasing , notably from development and the emerald ash borer infestation . Fort Wayne has been designated a Tree City USA since 1990 .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Historically , Fort Wayne has been divided into four unofficial quadrants : northeast , northwest , southeast , and southwest . Calhoun Street divides the southwest and southeast , while the St. Joseph River divides the northwest and northeast quadrants . The Maumee River separates the northeast and southeast , while portions of the St. Marys River and Chicago , Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad separate the northwest and southwest quadrants .
Fort Wayne 's early @-@ 20th century development was influenced by the City Beautiful movement and centered on a " park and boulevard plan " conceived by urban planner Charles Mulford Robinson in 1909 and finalized by landscape architect George Kessler in 1912 . The master plan proposed a network of parkways and boulevards connecting the city 's three rivers and Spy Run Creek to dozens of neighborhoods and parks . Several parks were designed by noted landscape architect Arthur Asahel Shurcliff . Much of the original plan was implemented by 1955 . In 2010 , the Fort Wayne Park and Boulevard System was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , consisting of 11 public parks , four parkways , and ten boulevards , covering 1 @,@ 883 acres ( 762 ha ) .
= = = = Architecture = = = =
During the 19th century , Fort Wayne was dominated by Greek Revival , Gothic Revival , and Italianate architecture . Examples of Greek Revival architecture remain in the city , with one being the Richardville House ( 1827 ) , a National Historic Landmark . Gothic and Gothic Revival architecture can be found in some of the city 's most prominent churches , including Trinity English Lutheran Church ( 1846 ) , Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( 1860 ) , Trinity Episcopal Church ( 1865 ) , and Saint Paul 's Evangelical Lutheran Church ( 1889 ) .
Popular early @-@ 20th century architectural styles found in the city include Queen Anne , Richardsonian Romanesque , Neoclassical , Colonial Revival , Dutch Colonial Revival , Tudor Revival , Prairie , American Craftsman , American Foursquare , and Art Deco . Richardsonian Romanesque buildings include Fort Wayne City Hall ( 1893 ) and John H. Bass Mansion ( 1902 ) , each designed by Wing & Mahurin . Notable examples of Neoclassical architecture include the Masonic Temple ( 1926 ) and North Side High School ( 1927 ) . Beaux @-@ Arts , an architectural style closely related to Neoclassical , gained popularity during the City Beautiful movement of the 1890s and early 1900s , which is reflected in the Allen County Courthouse ( 1902 ) . The Allen County Courthouse is one of two National Historic Landmarks in the city . The Pennsylvania Railroad Station , also known as Baker Street Station ( 1914 ) , was designed in American Craftsman style . At 312 feet ( 95 m ) , the Art Deco @-@ style Lincoln Bank Tower was Fort Wayne 's first high @-@ rise and Indiana 's tallest building from 1930 to 1962 . The E. Ross Adair Federal Building and United States Courthouse ( 1932 ) is another example of Art Deco architecture . Williams @-@ Woodland Park Historic District includes examples of Queen Anne and Colonial Revival residential homes , while the Forest Park Boulevard Historic District includes Tudor Revival homes .
Modern and Postmodern architecture can be found in buildings constructed during the second half of the 20th century in Fort Wayne . The John D. Haynes House ( 1952 ) was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright , while the campus of Concordia Theological Seminary ( 1953 ) was designed by Eero Saarinen . Postmodern architect Michael Graves ' first commissions were built in the city , including Hanselmann House ( 1967 ) and Snyderman House ( 1972 , now demolished ) . Louis Kahn 's design for the Arts United Center ( 1973 ) was inspired by a violin and its case . Other notable buildings include Indiana Michigan Power Center ( 1982 ) , the tallest building in the city and tallest building in Indiana outside of Indianapolis , at 442 feet ( 135 m ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Fort Wayne lies in the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen : Dfa ) , experiencing four distinct seasons . The city is located in USDA hardiness zones 5b and 6a . Typically , summers are hot , humid , and wet . Winters are generally cold with moderate snowfall . The average annual precipitation is 37 @.@ 34 in ( 948 mm ) , recorded at Fort Wayne International Airport . During the winter season , snowfall accumulation averages 33 @.@ 5 in ( 85 cm ) per year . Lake @-@ effect snow is not uncommon to the region , but usually appears in the form of light snow flurries .
The National Weather Service reports the highest recorded temperature in the city at 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) , most recently on June 28 , 2012 , and the lowest recorded temperature at − 24 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) on January 12 , 1918 . The wettest month on record was June 2015 , with 11 @.@ 98 in ( 304 mm ) of precipitation . The greatest 24 @-@ hour rainfall was 4 @.@ 93 in ( 125 mm ) on August 1 , 1926 . The snowiest month on record was January 2014 , with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of snowfall . The greatest 24 @-@ hour snowfall was 13 @.@ 6 in ( 35 cm ) on March 10 , 1964 .
Severe weather is not uncommon , particularly in the spring and summer months ; the city experiences an average of 39 thunderstorm days and about 10 severe weather days annually . An EF2 tornado struck northern Fort Wayne on May 26 , 2001 , injuring three and causing damage along the Coliseum Boulevard corridor and a subdivision . Fort Wayne experienced 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) wind gusts in the June 2012 North American derecho , knocking out power to 78 @,@ 000 , uprooting approximately 500 trees , and costing $ 2 @.@ 5 million .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2010 Census , there were 253 @,@ 691 people and 113 @,@ 541 households . The racial makeup of the city is 73 @.@ 62 % White , 15 @.@ 41 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 37 % Native American , 3 @.@ 3 % Asian ( 1 @.@ 4 % Burmese , 0 @.@ 4 % Indian , 0 @.@ 3 % Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 2 % Chinese , 0 @.@ 2 % Filipino , 0 @.@ 1 % Korean , 0 @.@ 1 % Laotian , 0 @.@ 1 % Thai ) , 0 @.@ 06 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 72 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 52 % from two or more races . 7 @.@ 96 % of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race . Among the Hispanic population , 6 @.@ 1 % are Mexican , 0 @.@ 4 % Puerto Rican , and 0 @.@ 3 % Guatemalan . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 70 @.@ 3 % of the population in 2010 , down from 87 @.@ 7 % in 1970 .
There were 101 @,@ 585 households of which 30 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 42 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 14 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 9 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 38 @.@ 0 % were non @-@ families . 31 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 44 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 09 .
The median age in the city was 34 @.@ 5 years . 26 @.@ 4 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 10 @.@ 2 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 26 @.@ 5 % were from 25 to 44 ; 24 @.@ 9 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 12 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 4 % male and 51 @.@ 6 % female .
Fort Wayne has the largest Burmese American population in the U.S. , estimated at 6 @,@ 000 . Burmese refugee settlement and " secondary migrants " doubled the city 's Asian population between 2000 and 2010 .
= = = Religion = = =
Fort Wayne is sometimes referred to as the " City of Churches , " an unofficial moniker dating to the late @-@ 19th century when the city was the regional hub of Catholic , Lutheran , and Episcopal faiths . Today , there are 360 churches in the city . 54 percent of Fort Wayne residents identify as religious , where 16 percent are Catholic , 9 percent are Lutheran , 6 @.@ 5 percent are Baptist , 5 percent are Methodist , and 0 @.@ 14 percent are Jewish , with 16 @.@ 5 percent adhering to other Christian faiths . An increasing religious minority is found among the city 's immigrant communities , including Buddhism , Hinduism , and Islam .
Major churches include the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception , Saint Paul 's Evangelical Lutheran Church and Trinity Episcopal Church . Fort Wayne 's Reform Judaism population is served by Congregation Achduth Vesholom , the oldest Jewish congregation in Indiana , founded in 1848 . In 2013 , construction began on the first Burmese Muslim mosque to be built worldwide since the mid @-@ 1970s .
As of December 2012 , four national Christian denominations were headquartered in the city , including the American Association of Lutheran Churches , Fundamental Baptist Fellowship Association , Missionary Church , and Fellowship of Evangelical Churches . Fort Wayne is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne – South Bend , covering 14 counties in Northern Indiana , and the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod Indiana District , encompassing all of Indiana and north central Kentucky .
= = Economy = =
Manufacturing is deeply rooted in Fort Wayne 's economic history , dating to the earliest days of the city 's growth as an important trade stop along the Wabash and Erie Canal . Railroads , introduced shortly after the canal 's arrival , eased travel from Fort Wayne to other booming industrial centers along the Great Lakes , such as Chicago , Detroit , Toledo , and Cleveland . Throughout the early and mid @-@ 20th century , manufacturing dominated the city 's economic landscape . From 1900 to 1930 , Fort Wayne 's industrial output expanded by 747 percent , with total production valued at $ 95 million in 1929 , up from $ 11 million in 1899 . The total workforce also increased from 18 @,@ 000 in 1900 to nearly 50 @,@ 000 in 1930 .
Companies that had a significant presence in the city include Dana Holding Corporation , Falstaff Brewing Corporation , Fruehauf Corporation , General Electric , International Harvester , Magnavox , Old Crown Brewing Corporation , and Tokheim , among several others , producing goods such as refrigerators , washing machines , automatic phonographs , meat packing products , televisions , garbage disposals , automotive parts and motors , trailers , gasoline pumps , trucks , beer , tents and awnings . Magnet wire production became an especially vital component to the city 's economy . In 1960 , Fort Wayne was at the center of the United States magnet wire industry , home to New Haven Wire and Cable Company , Phelps Dodge , Rea Magnet Wire , Superior Essex , and an operation at General Electric , producing nearly 90 percent of North America 's magnet wire .
The 1970s and 1980s were times of economic depression in Fort Wayne , when much of the city 's manufacturing foundation eroded and the blue @-@ collar workforce shrank . Fort Wayne joined several other cities reeling economically within the Rust Belt . At the same time , General Electric also downsized much of its more than 10 @,@ 000 @-@ person workforce . Amid other area plant closures and downsizing , coupled with the early 1980s recession , the city lost 30 @,@ 000 jobs and reached a 12 @.@ 1 percent unemployment rate . The arrival of General Motors in 1987 helped fill the void from shuttered manufacturers and aided in the area 's recovery , employing 3 @,@ 000 at its Fort Wayne Assembly .
Through the 1990s and into the 2000s , the city diversified its economy ; manufacturing now employs 16 @.@ 9 percent of Allen County 's workforce . Other sectors include distribution , transportation , and logistics ( 23 @.@ 1 percent ) , health care ( 17 @.@ 9 percent ) , professional and business services ( 12 @.@ 1 percent ) , leisure and hospitality ( 11 @.@ 1 percent ) , and financial services ( 6 @.@ 3 percent ) . The leisure and hospitality sector has especially grown , with 5 @.@ 8 million visitors spending $ 545 million in 2013 , a 4 @.@ 3 percent increase over the previous year . The city is a center for the defense industry , employing thousands at such companies as BAE Systems ( 1 @,@ 150 ) , Harris Corporation ( 888 ) , Raytheon Systems ( 950 ) , and the Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station ( 423 ) . Despite economic diversification , the city was significantly impacted by the Great Recession . According to a report from Pew Research Center , the city lost nearly a quarter of its manufacturing jobs and 11 % of its economic status between 2000 and 2014 . In 2014 , Allen County 's workforce was 175 @,@ 530 with an unemployment rate of 7 @.@ 8 percent .
Companies based in Fort Wayne include Do it Best , Franklin Electric , Frontier Communications – Central Region , Genteq , Indiana Michigan Power , K & K Insurance , MedPro Group , North American Van Lines , Rea Magnet Wire , Steel Dynamics , Sweetwater Sound , and Vera Bradley . Steel Dynamics is the only Fortune 500 company headquartered in the city , ranking 354th . Founded in 1905 , Lincoln Financial Group was based in Fort Wayne until its move to suburban Philadelphia in 1999 . The company maintains a large presence in the city , employing nearly 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Performing arts = = =
The Embassy Theatre is a 2 @,@ 471 @-@ seat performing arts theater which hosts over 200 @,@ 000 patrons annually . Since its founding in 1944 , the Fort Wayne Philharmonic Orchestra has often been hosted at the Embassy . The University of Saint Francis Robert Goldstine Performing Arts Center , located on its Downtown Campus , contains a 2 @,@ 086 @-@ seat auditorium .
Since its establishment in 2010 , the Cultural District has been home to several of the city 's cultural institutions , including the Fort Wayne Museum of Art , Auer Center for Arts and Culture , Arts United Center , and Hall Community Arts Center . Arts United Center houses the Fort Wayne Civic Theater , Fort Wayne Dance Collective , and Fort Wayne Youtheatre . Auer Center for Arts and Culture houses Fort Wayne Ballet . Hall Community Arts Center houses Cinema Center , an independent film venue .
Though used mainly for exhibitions and conventions , the Grand Wayne Convention Center hosts dance and choir productions , such as the annual Foundation for Art and Music in Education ( FAME ) Northeast Festival . Foellinger Theatre , a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ seat amphitheater in Franke Park , hosts seasonal acts and outdoor concerts during warmer months . Located west of downtown , Arena Dinner Theatre is a nonprofit community arts corporation with a focus on live theater production , annually hosting seven full @-@ length theatrical productions .
= = = Museums and attractions = = =
The Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo has been lauded as one of the nation 's foremost zoos . Covering 40 acres ( 16 ha ) and containing 1 @,@ 000 animals of 200 different species , the zoo is the largest regional attraction , regularly drawing over 500 @,@ 000 visitors annually . The Foellinger @-@ Freimann Botanical Conservatory gardens cover 24 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 280 m2 ) , displaying over 1 @,@ 200 plants of 502 different species and 72 types of cacti . Science Central , an interactive science center , contains permanent displays and temporary exhibits , drawing 130 @,@ 000 visitors annually .
Established in 1921 , the Fort Wayne Museum of Art ( FWMoA ) is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums , specializing in the collection and exhibition of American art . The FWMoA annually receives 100 @,@ 000 visitors .
The History Center , located in Fort Wayne 's Old City Hall , manages a collection of more than 23 @,@ 000 artifacts recalling the region 's history . The center is overseen by the Allen County – Fort Wayne Historical Society , which maintains the Richardville House , one of two National Historic Landmarks in the city . Historic Fort Wayne , a replica of the 1815 fortification , hosts scheduled tours and historical reenactments throughout the year . Other cultural museums include the African / African – American Historical Museum , Fort Wayne Firefighters Museum , Greater Fort Wayne Aviation Museum , and Baer Field Heritage Air Park .
The Allen County Public Library 's Fred J. Reynolds Historical Genealogy Department is the second @-@ largest genealogy collection in North America . The collection contains 350 @,@ 000 printed volumes and 513 @,@ 000 items of microfilm and microfiche .
= = = Festivals and events = = =
The city hosts a variety of cultural festivals and events annually . Festivals commemorating ethnic food , dance , music , and art include Germanfest , Greek Festival , and Japanese Cherry Blossom Festival . Initiated in 1997 , Fort Wayne Pride celebrates northeast Indiana 's LGBTQ community . BBQ RibFest showcases barbecue rib cooks and live entertainment , attracting 40 @,@ 000 visitors annually .
Fort4Fitness is a certified half marathon , 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) run / walk , and health fair . Over 9 @,@ 000 participated in the 2011 half marathon . In 2012 , Fort4Fitness debuted a spring cycle , Bike @-@ the @-@ Fort , which included three bicycling tours with over 1 @,@ 000 participants . HolidayFest begins with the Night of Lights on Thanksgiving eve , with the lighting of the PNC Santa and Reindeer , Wells Fargo Holiday Display , and Indiana Michigan Power Christmas Wreath , ending with a fireworks finale at Parkview Field .
The largest annual events in the city are the Johnny Appleseed Festival and the Three Rivers Festival . The Johnny Appleseed Festival draws 300 @,@ 000 visitors . The festival is held at Johnny Appleseed Park , where American folklore legend John Chapman is believed to be buried . Apple @-@ themed cuisine , crafts , and historical demonstrations recalling 19th century American pioneering are among some of the festival 's events . Three Rivers Festival , a celebration of Fort Wayne , spans nine days each July , attracting 400 @,@ 000 visitors . Three Rivers features over 200 events , including a parade , midway , hot dog eating contest , bed race , raft race , arts fair , and fireworks spectacular . Other annual events include the Allen County Fair , BAALS Music Festival , National Soccer Festival , and the Vera Bradley Outlet Sale .
= = Sports = =
Fort Wayne is home to one professional sports franchise , the ECHL 's Fort Wayne Komets , and two semi @-@ professional teams : the NBA Development League 's Fort Wayne Mad Ants , and Fort Wayne Derby Girls of the Women 's Flat Track Derby Association Division 2 . These teams compete at the Allen County War Memorial Coliseum . Parkview Field is home to the Midwest League 's Fort Wayne TinCaps . Intercollegiate sports in the city include IPFW in the NCAA 's Division I Summit League and NAIA schools Indiana Tech ( Wolverine – Hoosier Athletic Conference ) and University of Saint Francis ( Crossroads League and Mid @-@ States Football Association ) .
The city has been home to other professional sports franchises , including the National Basketball Association 's Fort Wayne Pistons ( which moved to Detroit , Michigan in 1957 ) , the Fort Wayne Daisies of the All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League , and the Fort Wayne Kekiongas of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players ( precursor to Major League Baseball ) .
Some notable events in sports history occurred in Fort Wayne . On June 2 , 1883 , Fort Wayne hosted the Quincy Professionals for one of the first lighted evening baseball games ever recorded . Fort Wayne is also credited as the birthplace of the NBA , as Pistons ' coach Carl Bennett brokered the merger of the BAA and the NBL in 1948 from his Alexander Street home . On March 10 , 1961 , Wilt Chamberlain became the first player in the NBA to reach 3 @,@ 000 points in a single season while competing at the War Memorial Coliseum .
Fort Wayne was ranked as the " Best Place in the Country for Minor League Sports " in a 2007 issue of Street & Smith 's Sports Business Journal , dropping to second place in 2009 .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Fort Wayne Parks and Recreation maintains 86 public parks totaling 2 @,@ 805 acres ( 1 @,@ 135 ha ) . Three public and 20 private golf courses are located in Allen County . Franke Park is the most extensive city park , covering 339 @.@ 24 acres ( 137 @.@ 3 ha ) . Franke is home to the Foellinger Theatre , Shoaff Lake , and the Fort Wayne Children 's Zoo . Other notable parks include Johnny Appleseed Park ( home to a campground and John Chapman 's grave ) and McCulloch Park ( home to Samuel Bigger 's grave ) . Foellinger @-@ Freimann Botanical Conservatory , Headwaters Park , Lawton Skatepark , and Historic Fort Wayne are located downtown . Hurshtown Reservoir , near Grabill , is the largest body of water in Allen County and is popular with watersports enthusiasts for sailing and fishing . Some 300 lakes are located within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the city . Located downtown along the St. Marys River , Fort Wayne Outfitters offers canoe , kayak , stand @-@ up paddle board , and pontoon boat rentals for recreation along the three rivers .
Starting in the 1970s , the city developed a system of recreational trails along the riverbanks , known as the Rivergreenway , with the aim of beautifying the riverfronts and promoting active lifestyles for residents . The Rivergreenway was designated a National Recreation Trail in 2009 . As of 2016 , the Rivergreenway had expanded with additional trails to encompass 90 miles ( 140 km ) throughout the city and county . With the expansion of trails in recent years , cycling has become an emerging mode of transportation for residents . In 2009 , the city 's first bicycle lanes were established with the installation of 250 bike parking places . In 2012 , the League of American Bicyclists rated Fort Wayne at the Bronze Level for " providing safe accommodation and facilities for bicyclists and encouraging residents to bike for transportation and recreation . "
The Fort Wayne Trail Network was used by 480 @,@ 000 people in 2012 , an increase of 30 percent over the previous year .
= = Government = =
Fort Wayne has a mayor – council government . The mayor , city clerk , and city council members serve four @-@ year terms .
Fort Wayne 's mayor is Tom Henry , a Democrat , who was elected in 2007 . Henry succeeded Democrat Graham Richard who chose not to run for re @-@ election after two terms as mayor . Henry was re @-@ elected to a third term in 2015 . Karl Bandemer was appointed deputy mayor in 2013 . Lana Keesling was elected city clerk in 2015 . Fort Wayne City Council has nine elected members , one representative from each of the city 's six council districts and three at @-@ large members , serving four @-@ year terms .
The city is represented in the Indiana General Assembly by three Senate Districts and seven House Districts . Fort Wayne 's state senators include Dennis Kruse ( 14th District ) , Liz Brown ( 15th ) , and David Long ( 16th ) . Representatives include Dan Leonard ( 50th District ) , Ben Smaltz ( 52nd ) , Phil GiaQuinta ( 80th ) , Martin Carbaugh ( 81st ) , Christopher Judy ( 83rd ) , Bob Morris ( 84th ) , and Casey Cox ( 85th ) . Federally , Fort Wayne is part of Indiana 's 3rd congressional district , represented by Republican Marlin Stutzman , a position he has held since 2010 .
Under the Unigov provision of Indiana Law , city @-@ county consolidation would have been automatic when Fort Wayne 's population exceeded 250 @,@ 000 and became a first class city in Indiana . Fort Wayne nearly met the state requirements for first class city designation on January 1 , 2006 when 12 @.@ 8 square miles ( 33 km2 ) of neighboring Aboite Township ( and a small section of Wayne Township ) including 25 @,@ 094 people were annexed . However , a 2004 legislative change raised the population requirements from 250 @,@ 000 to 600 @,@ 000 , which ensured Indianapolis ' status as the only first class city in Indiana .
Fort Wayne 's E. Ross Adair Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse houses the United States District Court for the Northern District of Indiana , which was authorized by Congress in 1928 .
Municipal and state laws are enforced by the Fort Wayne Police Department , an organization of 460 officers . In 2006 , Fort Wayne 's crime rate was 5104 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 people , slightly above the national average of 4479 @.@ 3 . There were 18 murders , 404 robberies , and 2 @,@ 128 burglaries in 2006 . Garry Hamilton was appointed to the position of police chief in 2014 . Also in 2014 , Rusty York was appointed to the position of director of public safety . York previously served as police chief from 2000 to 2014 . As of 2010 , the Fort Wayne Fire Department includes 375 uniformed firefighters and 18 fire stations . Eric Lahey was appointed fire chief in 2014 .
= = = Politics = = =
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
Fort Wayne Community Schools ( FWCS ) is the largest public school district in Indiana , enrolling 30 @,@ 981 students as of the 2013 – 2014 academic year . FWCS operate 51 facilities , including 31 elementary schools , ten middle schools , and five high schools . The student body is diverse , with 75 spoken languages in the district . East Allen County Schools ( EACS ) operate 20 schools , with a total enrollment of 9 @,@ 114 . Northwest Allen County Schools ( NACS ) operate seven elementary schools , two middle schools , and one high school , with a total enrollment of 6 @,@ 853 . Southwest Allen County Schools ( SACS ) operate six elementary schools , two middle schools , and one high school , with a total enrollment of 6 @,@ 995 . Private primary and secondary education is offered largely through Lutheran Schools of Indiana and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne – South Bend . Amish Parochial Schools of Indiana has schools through eighth grade in rural eastern Allen County .
= = = Higher education = = =
Fort Wayne is home to Indiana 's fifth @-@ largest public university , Indiana University – Purdue University Fort Wayne ( IPFW ) , enrolling 13 @,@ 459 students . IPFW is home to the Fort Wayne Center for Medical Education , a branch of the Indiana University School of Medicine . Three private universities are located in the city , including Concordia Theological Seminary , Indiana Institute of Technology , and the University of Saint Francis . Private universities with regional branches in Fort Wayne include Crossroads Bible College , Grace College and Theological Seminary , Huntington University , Indiana Wesleyan University , Manchester University College of Pharmacy , and Trine University . Other colleges include Brown Mackie College , Ivy Tech Community College , Harrison College , International Business College , ITT Technical Institute , Medtech College , National College , and Ross Medical Education Center .
= = = Libraries = = =
Composed of 14 branches , the Allen County Public Library is among the 20 largest public libraries in the U.S. , and ranks 89th factoring in academic libraries , with 3 @.@ 4 million volumes . The library 's foundation is also among the nation 's largest , with $ 14 million in assets . The entire library system underwent an $ 84 @.@ 1 million overhaul from 2002 to 2007 . In 2009 , over 7 @.@ 4 million materials were borrowed by patrons , with over 3 million visits made throughout the library system .
= = Media = =
Major broadcasting network affiliates include WANE @-@ TV ( CBS ) , WPTA @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WISE @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WFFT @-@ TV ( Fox ) , and WFWA @-@ TV , Northeast Indiana 's PBS member station . Religious broadcasters include WINM and W07CL . Access Fort Wayne maintains Fort Wayne and Allen County 's Public Access capabilities serving from the Allen County Public Library . Two National Public Radio stations are based in the city , WBNI and WBOI with the new WELT Community Radio Station soon coming online .
Fort Wayne is served by two primary newspapers , the Journal Gazette and Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning News @-@ Sentinel . The two dailies have separate editorial departments , but under a joint operating agreement , printing , advertising , and circulation are handled by Fort Wayne Newspapers , Inc .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Fort Wayne includes two municipal airports , both managed by the Fort Wayne – Allen County Airport Authority . Fort Wayne International Airport ( FWA ) is the city 's primary commercial airport , with five airlines offering direct service to 13 domestic connections . The airport is Indiana 's third @-@ busiest airport , serving almost 650 @,@ 000 passengers in 2010 . Fort Wayne International is also home to the 122d Fighter Wing 's Fort Wayne Air National Guard Station . Smith Field , in northern Fort Wayne , is used primarily for general aviation .
Fort Wayne is served by a single interstate ( Interstate 69 ) along with an auxiliary beltway ( Interstate 469 ) . I @-@ 69 runs south to Indianapolis and north to the Canada – United States border at Port Huron , Michigan . Four U.S. Routes bisect the city , including US 24 , US 27 , US 30 , and US 33 . Five Indiana State Roads also meet in the city , including State Road 1 , State Road 3 , State Road 14 , State Road 37 , and State Road 930 . Airport Expressway , a four @-@ lane divided highway , links Fort Wayne International Airport directly to I @-@ 69 . About 85 percent of residents commute alone by personal vehicle , while another eight percent carpool .
Unlike most cities comparable to its size , Fort Wayne does not have an urban freeway system . In 1946 , planners proposed a $ 27 million federally funded freeway , crossing east @-@ west and north @-@ south through downtown . Opponents successfully campaigned against the proposal , objecting to the demolition of nearly 1 @,@ 500 homes at the time of the post @-@ World War II housing shortage , while playing on fears that the project would force displaced minorities into white neighborhoods . In 1947 , Fort Wayne residents voted down the referendum that would have allowed for its construction , dubbed the Anthony Wayne Parkway . Beginning in 1962 , construction commenced for I @-@ 69 in suburban Fort Wayne .
The I @-@ 469 beltway around the southern and eastern fringes of Fort Wayne and New Haven was constructed between 1988 and 1995 as the largest public works project in Allen County history , at $ 207 million .
Amtrak 's Capitol Limited ( Chicago — Washington , D.C. ) is the closest passenger rail service to Fort Wayne , located 25 miles ( 40 km ) north at Waterloo Station . There has been a movement to bring direct passenger rail service back in the form of Amtrak or high @-@ speed rail service . In 2013 , a feasibility study was published outlining the impacts of a proposed Columbus — Fort Wayne — Chicago high @-@ speed rail corridor . At 300 miles ( 480 km ) , the route would cost $ 1 @.@ 29 billion and generate some $ 7 @.@ 1 billion in economic benefits to the region . Freight service is provided by a class I railroad ( Norfolk Southern ) and two class III railroads ( CSX Transportation ) . Fort Wayne is headquarters and main operations hub of Norfolk Southern 's Triple Crown Services subsidiary , the largest truckload shipper in the U.S.
Fort Wayne 's mass transit system is managed by the Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation ( Citilink ) , providing 12 bus routes through the cities of Fort Wayne and New Haven via downtown 's Central Station . CampusLink debuted in 2009 as a free shuttle service for students , faculty , and general public traveling between Ivy Tech 's Coliseum and North campuses , IPFW and its student housing on the Waterfield Campus , and shopping and residential areas . MedLink debuted in 2013 connecting Parkview Regional Medical Center with Parkview Health 's Randallia campus . Despite annual ridership of 2 @.@ 2 million , less than one percent of residents commute by public transportation . Fort Wayne is served by two intercity bus providers : Greyhound Lines ( Indianapolis — Toledo — Detroit ) and Lakefront Lines ( Chicago — Columbus — Akron ) .
In 2016 , the city introduced its first bike @-@ sharing program , including five stations and 25 bicycles .
= = = Health care = = =
Fort Wayne is served by six hospitals ; Dupont Hospital , Lutheran Hospital of Indiana , Parkview Regional Medical Center , Parkview Hospital Randallia , Rehabilitation Hospital of Fort Wayne , and St. Joseph Hospital , encompassing over 1 @,@ 463 patient beds . These six hospitals belong to either of the two health networks serving the region : Parkview Health System or Lutheran Health Network . As of 2014 , both healthcare systems were the city 's first and second largest employers , respectively , with a total of 9 @,@ 011 employees . VA Northern Indiana Health Care System 's Fort Wayne Campus provides medical services through the Department of Veterans Affairs .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water and sewage treatment are municipal services . The City of Fort Wayne supplies residents with 72 million US gallons ( 270 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water per day via the Three Rivers Water Filtration Plant and St. Joseph River . Private utility providers serving residents include Indiana Michigan Power ( electricity ) ; Northern Indiana Public Service Company ( natural gas ) ; Republic Services ( curbside recycling and solid waste collection ) ; and Frontier Communications and Comcast ( telecommunications and television ) .
Hurshtown Reservoir , in northeast Allen County , contains 1 @.@ 8 billion US gallons ( 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water to be rationed in the event of a drought or disaster at the three rivers .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Fort Wayne has four sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International :
Takaoka , Japan ( 1977 )
Płock , Poland ( 1990 )
Gera , Germany ( 1992 )
Taizhou , China ( 2012 )
Friendship city
Mawlamyine , Burma ( Myanmar ) ( 2015 )
= John de Gray =
John de Gray or de Grey ( died 18 October 1214 ) was a medieval English Bishop of Norwich , and the elected but unconfirmed Archbishop of Canterbury . He was employed in the service of John of England even before John 's coronation as king , for which he was rewarded with a number of ecclesiastical offices , culminating in his pro forma election to Norwich in 1200 . De Gray continued in royal service after his elevation to the episcopate , lending the King money and undertaking diplomatic missions on his behalf . In 1205 King John attempted to further reward de Gray with a translation to the archbishopric of Canterbury , but a disputed election process led to de Gray 's selection being quashed by Pope Innocent III in 1206 .
Innocent consecrated Stephen Langton as archbishop against John 's wishes , triggering a long dispute between the papacy and the King . The pope imposed various sanctions on England and John ; at one point de Gray was one of only two bishops still legitimately holding office in England . In 1209 he became governor of Ireland for John , and spent until 1213 attempting to impose royal government on the Anglo @-@ Norman barons and the native Irish in that country . Recalled to England to help defend against a threatened invasion by the French , de Gray then travelled to Rome to secure a papal pardon after the final settlement of John and Innocent 's dispute over the bishop 's abortive elevation to Canterbury . After securing his pardon de Gray was appointed Bishop of Durham , but he died on his way back to England .
De Gray built a palace in his diocese and several castles in Ireland . Although reviled by one contemporary writer as an " evil counsellor " to the King , modern historians have been more forgiving ; one praised his intelligence and others stated that de Gray was one of the few men King John trusted throughout his life . De Gray 's nephew , Walter de Gray , secured the office of Lord Chancellor with his uncle 's help in 1205 .
= = Early life = =
Some describe de Gray as a native of Norfolk ; he was likely descended from the Norman knight , Anchetil de Greye . De Gray was the uncle of Walter de Gray , later Archbishop of York . The elder de Gray was instrumental in securing the selection of his nephew as Lord Chancellor , as he was a surety for Walter 's payment of a fine of 5000 marks to acquire the position .
By 1196 de Gray was in the service of Prince John ( later King John ) , and was keeper of John 's seal by 1198 . After John 's accession to the throne of England in 1199 de Gray became Archdeacon of Cleveland in March 1200 , and Archdeacon of Gloucester before April that year . He also served as John 's secretary , and frequently as a deputy for the Lord Chancellor , Hubert Walter . Shortly after John became king , de Gray began travelling between England and the continent on royal business , and for the first two years of John 's reign was active in the royal chancery , sealing royal charters .
De Gray was elected Bishop of Norwich on about 7 September 1200 , although the election was purely pro forma , as acknowledged by a contemporary writer Roger of Howden , who stated that the new bishop " succeeded to the bishopric of Norwich by the gift of King John " . De Gray was consecrated on 24 September . His consecration took place together with that of the new Bishop of Hereford Giles de Braose at Westminster , at the conclusion of a provincial church council held by Archbishop Walter , which de Gray had been attending . Walter performed the ceremony in a chapel of Westminster Abbey .
= = Bishop of Norwich = =
While bishop , de Gray often lent the king money , and on one occasion held the royal regalia as security for the repayment of a loan ; he also served as a royal justice . In 1203 de Gray accompanied Archbishop Hubert Walter and several papal legates on an unsuccessful diplomatic mission to King Philip II of France . Philip had demanded that John 's niece Eleanor of Brittany or his nephew Arthur of Brittany be surrendered to him together with all of John 's lands on the continent , none of which John was prepared to concede . Philip invaded Normandy after the bishops returned to England .
In 1203 some of de Gray 's knights were part of the garrison at the castle of Vaudreuil in Normandy , serving under the command of Robert FitzWalter . Although they had provisions and John was moving in support of the troops , in the summer of 1203 the garrison surrendered to Philip , shortly after a siege had begun . When John abandoned Normandy in late 1203 , effectively relinquishing control of the duchy to Philip , de Gray was one of his companions on the journey to the port of Barfleur , and went on to England with the king .
= = Archbishop @-@ elect = =
John 's attempt to impose de Gray 's election as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1205 was the beginning of the king 's long quarrel with Pope Innocent III . After Hubert Walter 's death in July 1205 , the selection of a successor was hindered by doubts about what the proper procedure should be , something that commonly happened with elections to Canterbury . John postponed a decision while delegations from the bishops of England and the monks of the cathedral chapter went to Rome to seek guidance from the pope . The bishops of the province of Canterbury claimed the right to a say in who was elected , as whoever was chosen would be their superior , but according to canon law the monks of the cathedral chapter had the right to elect the new archbishop . The king also had a say in the election , as the archbishop was a major tenant @-@ in @-@ chief and was traditionally one of the principal royal advisors .
While the delegations from the various parties were in Rome , the monks of Canterbury secretly elected one of their own , Reginald , as archbishop , and subsequently sent him to Rome to join the delegation . When John discovered that Reginald had been elected without any royal input he forced the monks to elect de Gray as archbishop . Some stories have Reginald 's election taking place before the despatch of the first delegation to the papal curia . Another source , Gervase of Canterbury , has the king telling the chapter they could choose their own nominee after six months , while the king secretly sent envoys to Rome to secure de Gray 's election . A further story , from Roger of Wendover , states that the monks elected Reginald before Walter was even buried , and that only a few members of the cathedral chapter – the younger ones – participated in the election . Wendover wrote in the 1230s and was not a monk of Canterbury , therefore it is unlikely he has recorded a true account .
De Gray was postulated , or nominated , to Canterbury on 11 December 1205 , which presented Innocent with two candidates for the office . In an effort to reach a compromise , the pope quashed both nominations on about 30 March 1206 ; Innocent 's reason for invalidating de Gray 's candidacy was that any election was invalid if an earlier one was still under appeal to the papacy . The monks then elected Stephen Langton , with Innocent 's approval . John did not accept Langton 's candidacy however , and Innocent 's consecration of Langton in 1207 led to an eight @-@ year struggle between John and the pope over the rights of the king to secure the election of his choice as archbishop . John refused to allow Langton to enter England and exiled the Canterbury monks . Innocent placed an interdict on England in 1207 , which John countered by confiscating the income and estates of any clergy who enforced it . Innocent went on to excommunicate John in 1209 , in a dispute that led to the exile of many of the English clergy and John 's imposition of heavy financial demands on the church in England ; by 1209 de Gray and Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , were the only English bishops not in exile or dead . But it was not until 1213 , when Innocent began to support John 's deposition , that the king became concerned and reached a settlement with the papacy .
= = In Ireland = =
By 1209 de Gray was in Ireland serving as the king 's governor , an office sometimes referred to as justiciar for Ireland . One possible reason for his appointment was to save him from being accused of ignoring the interdict on England . As a bishop , it was de Gray 's ecclesiastical duty to enforce the interdict , but by going to Ireland , which was not under interdict , he could continue to serve the king without provoking the papacy . De Gray 's chief policy in Ireland was to extend English rule , to which end he was involved in battles on the River Shannon and in Fermanagh . He also replaced the Irish coinage with English , and attempted unsuccessfully to make English laws applicable in Ireland . De Gray 's term of office in Ireland coincided with a time of change in Irish governmental practices .
During John 's persecution of William de Braose in 1209 , William Marshal gave de Braose shelter on his Irish lands . De Gray demanded that Marshal surrender de Braose to him as a traitor , but Marshal refused , claiming that since he held some lands from de Braose , it would be an act of treason to surrender his lord to an outside authority . Marshal 's refusal does not seem to have embittered de Gray however , as three years later the bishop was praising him in a letter to John .
John led an expedition to Ireland in 1210 in an effort to bring the Anglo @-@ Norman barons under control . He opened talks with the native Irish kings , and some accounts state that his negotiations were so successful that the native Irish submitted to him . In contrast , the historian Seán Duffy has argued that the native Irish nobility were just as resistant to John as the Anglo @-@ Norman barons . After John 's return to England he ordered de Gray to build three new castles in Connacht , one of them at Athlone . Associated with the castle building were two military invasions of Connacht by the royal government – one from Meath and Leinster and the other from Munster . De Gray left Ireland in 1211 to lead a military campaign against the Welsh , leaving his deputy Richard de Tuit in charge of the country .
De Gray also faced resistance from the northern Irish . In 1212 he led a campaign against Áed Méith , in the promotion of which he constructed castles at Cáer Uisce , Belleek , and Clones , bases for raids against the Ua Néill territory in the north . A naval campaign was also launched , but to no avail . De Gray suffered a defeat at the hands of Cormac O 'Melaghlin in 1212 at Fircal , Offaly , and left Ireland the following year . He continued to hold the office of governor for a time , but by July 1213 he had been replaced by Henry de Loundres , the Archbishop of Dublin . One of de Gray 's final acts as justiciar was to take a force of Irish knights to England to help repel a threatened invasion by the French king Philip II .
= = Episcopal affairs and later career = =
As bishop , de Gray settled a long @-@ running dispute between the monks of his cathedral chapter and his predecessors as bishop . He also allowed the monks of his cathedral chapter the right to appoint and replace the clergy of the dependent churches of the cathedral . De Gray received a 1203 missive from Innocent III decrying the marriages of some secular clergy , in contravention of canon law . In more secular matters , he granted the town of Bishop 's Lynn ( now King 's Lynn ) the right to hold a weekly market and two fairs per year . He also built a palace at Gaywood .
De Gray 's ability to raise money made him useful to John . In 1213 de Gray mustered 500 knights during a period when Philip II was threatening to invade England , bringing this force over from Ireland along with mounted men @-@ at @-@ arms to support the king in England . In May 1213 , John and Innocent finally resolved the dispute over Langton 's election to Canterbury , and part of the settlement was that John gave Ireland and England to Innocent and received them back from the pope , making John a papal vassal . The settlement was sealed with a treaty , to which de Gray was one of the witnesses . After John settled with the papacy , de Gray was not included in the general pardon , and had to go to Rome to be pardoned . While in that city the bishop was named as one of the guarantors of a new financial arrangement between the king and the pope dealing with feudal payments from England , which lowered the lump sum that had to be paid before Innocent would lift the interdict . After Innocent pardoned de Gray , the pope recommended his election as Bishop of Durham in 1213 ; but de Gray died during his journey back to England on 18 October 1214 , at Saint @-@ Jean @-@ d 'Angély in Poitou . He was buried in Norwich Cathedral , but his tomb has not survived .
As well as encouraging his nephew 's career , de Gray took into his household two of Hubert Walter 's household clerks : David , and Robert of Ruddeby . Another clerk employed by de Gray , Robert de Bingham , was in the bishop 's household during the papal interdict on England ; he went on to become a tutor in theology at Oxford , and Bishop of Salisbury in 1228 .
De Gray remained close to John for most of the bishop 's life , and one of the King 's chief fundraisers . Sidney Painter , a historian and biographer of John , said of de Gray that he was " probably the only man whom John trusted absolutely and without reservation for the whole period of their association " . The medievalist Ralph Turner called de Gray " one of John 's greatest favourites " , and another of John 's biographers , W. L. Warren , described de Gray as " one of the best brains of the royal administration " . Matthew Paris , a medieval writer , called him an " evil counsellor " , and blamed many of the difficulties of John 's later reign on de Gray 's failed election to Canterbury .
= Pilot ( Hawaii Five @-@ 0 ) =
The pilot episode of the reimagined crime series Hawaii Five @-@ 0 premiered on CBS in the United States on September 20 , 2010 . The pilot 's teleplay was written by Peter M. Lenkov , based on a story developed by Lenkov , Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci , and was directed by Len Wiseman . The episode introduces the four main characters : Alex O 'Loughlin as series protagonist and Navy SEAL , Lt. Commander Steve McGarrett , Scott Caan as Steve 's partner Danny Williams , a former Detective from New Jersey who moved to Hawaii to be close to his daughter , Grace , Daniel Dae Kim as Chin Ho Kelly , a disgraced HPD cop and Grace Park as Kono Kalakaua , a former surfer @-@ turned @-@ HPD Academy graduate who is also Chin 's cousin . In the pilot , McGarrett returns to Hawaii to find Victor Hesse ( James Marsters ) , a terrorist who murdered his father , John McGarrett . The Governor of Hawaii , Pat Jameson ( Jean Smart ) offers McGarrett to head a new task force to fight serious crimes by any means .
Since the end of the original Hawaii Five @-@ O series , there had been a number of attempts to create a remake , but ultimately none went beyond the pilot stage . CBS later hired Lenkov to pitch a pilot story . Kurtzman and Orci were approached ; while originally hesitant to participate in the project , they were impressed with Lenkov 's pitch . The episode was filmed in March 2010 and took over two weeks to shoot . When the episode became too long certain sequences were cut from the final product , including the funeral scene with Taryn Manning as McGarrett 's sister ; the character would be introduced in a later episode . Almost 14 @.@ 2 million Americans viewed the pilot , increasing to 17 @.@ 59 million when Live + 7 @-@ day digital video recordings ( DVR ) are taken into account , and was also considered a ratings success in other countries . Critical reactions were generally positive .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins in Pohang , South Korea , where Navy SEAL commander Steve McGarrett ( Alex O 'Loughlin ) is transporting prisoner Anton Hesse ( Norman Reedus ) . Anton 's brother , Victor ( James Marsters ) calls McGarrett to announce he is holding his father , John McGarrett ( William Sadler ) , in Honolulu , and wants to make an exchange . However , Victor is in fact tracking McGarrett 's convoy ; two helicopters arrive and ambush it . In the midst of the skirmish , McGarrett is forced to kill Anton when he brandishes a weapon . In response , Victor executes John .
McGarrett returns to Hawaii to attend his father 's funeral , where he meets state governor Patricia Jameson ( Jean Smart ) . Jameson offers McGarrett to lead a new task force to apprehend Hesse and clean up the criminal underworld in the state by any means . However , McGarrett initially refuses and goes to his father 's home to investigate the crime scene . While searching the house he finds that Hesse has an accomplice , and also notices a tool box marked " Champ " ( in the beginning of the episode , John referred to his son as " champ " despite never calling him that before ) . As he takes the box , which has evidence on a case John must have wanted his son to solve , he is confronted by the lead detective in the case , Danny Williams ( Scott Caan ) , a divorcee from New Jersey who moved to Hawaii to be close to his daughter Grace ( Teilor Grubbs ) after she moved with her mother and her new husband . Despite initial friction between the two , McGarrett decides to accept Jameson 's offer , and appoints a reluctant Danny as his partner . They find a lead in suspected gun runner Fred Doran ( Jonathan Clarke Sypert ) ; ballistics evidence suggests it came from a gun once owned by Doran . When they arrive at his quonset hut , he attempts to flee , but is killed by Danny following a standoff .
Initially dismayed that Danny shot the only lead to Hesse , McGarrett finds Chen Chi ( Allison Chu ) , a smuggled immigrant from China who was sold to Doran , leading McGarrett to believe human traffickers smuggled Hesse to Hawaii . In order to find out who , McGarrett and Danny turn to Chin Ho Kelly ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , one of John 's proteges . He left the Honolulu Police Department disgraced after he was accused of corruption . After Chin Ho asserts his innocence , McGarrett offers him to join his task force . The trio meet with Chin Ho 's friend , former police informant and current owner of a shave ice business Kamekona ( Teila Tuli ) . Kamekona believes the snakehead leader is Sang Min ( Will Yun Lee ) . In order to apprehend Sang Min , Chin Ho decides to appoint his cousin , Kono Kalakaua ( Grace Park ) as a plant . Kono was a former professional surfer turned police academy graduate . She goes undercover as a Chinese immigrant to meet with Sang Min . The conversation is monitored by the rest of the team through up @-@ to @-@ date laser audio surveillance , eliminating the need for a wire . However , it has emerged that Sang Min has a mole in HPD , who identifies Kono as a cop . The team storm the warehouse , and McGarrett apprehends Sang Min .
In the interrogation , McGarrett informs Sang Min that if he goes to prison , his Rwandan wife and son will be deported , leaving his son at the mercy of the Hutu militias . If he cooperates , McGarrett will ensure they stay in America . Sang Min reveals that Hesse is going to leave the island on a Chinese freighter . Danny and McGarrett hastily drive to the docks . They then proceed to assault the freighter , where they dispatch several of Hesse 's guards . McGarrett confronts Hesse , and shoots him off the boat . At the end of the episode , the new team settle into their new office space , and cannot settle on a name for their new unit .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
The idea for a remake of Hawaii Five @-@ O first came about in 1996 , when CBS commissioned a sequel starring Gary Busey and Russell Wong , along with a cameo appearance by James MacArthur , who portrayed the original Danny Williams , as Danny who was promoted to the state governor . Though the pilot was produced , it was never released . Twelve years later , on August 12 , 2008 , CBS commissioned another sequel to Five @-@ O , with Criminal Minds executive producer Edward Allen Bernero appointed to write the pilot . The sequel would center on Steve McGarrett 's son . However the sequel was never produced .
Later , CBS approached CSI : NY writer Peter M. Lenkov to pitch a reimagined pilot of the show , as Lenkov himself was a fan of the original . When executive producers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman known about the remake , the two were originally hesitant to participate , but were impressed by Lenkov 's pitch , since the story had " such a great kind of paradigm for the show and how to really get into the characters that he really talked us into it . " All three developed the story of the pilot , though Lenkov was the one who wrote the script . On February 19 , 2010 , CBS ordered the production of the pilot , with Len Wiseman chosen to direct . It was the first time Wiseman worked on a television program , and it was also the first time he used digital cinematography rather than film .
The producers discussed changing Kono to a female character . Lenkov noted that the producers did not have reservations as he initially though , but instead embraced the idea , as it would empower women in the remake by including them as main characters and not just victims or other minor characters . The pilot episode of the original series already established the Five @-@ O task force , and when writing the pilot Lenkov wanted to give a proper introduction to the characters so that the audience can get to know them . Another difference in both the original and reimagined shows was the genre ; the original was more police procedural , whereas the remake would be more action orientated , as well as some comedy mixed in , particularly from the banter between McGarrett and Danny . In the original script , there was no fighting between the two main characters , but the producers felt this would launch their partnership . Lenkov also included the return of an iconic catch phrase from the original series , " Book ' em , Danno " . A table read @-@ through of the pilot took place on February 19 , 2010 .
= = = Casting = = =
The first principal actor to be cast was Daniel Dae Kim for the role of Chin Ho Kelly . Before he was cast , Dae Kim worked on the final season of Lost , in which he portrayed regular character Jin @-@ Soo Kwon . The actor wanted to find more work after he finished , and was offered a chance to appear on Five @-@ 0 . Dae Kim spent some time with HPD officers , as well as viewing some episodes of the original series as " homework " for the character . Alex O 'Loughlin was next to be cast as the main protagonist Steve McGarrett . Despite playing two series on CBS , Moonlight and Three Rivers , that were cancelled in their first year , CBS was still interested in having O 'Loughlin headline another series . However , the producers initially had reservations casting the actor , until they realized his dedication towards the role . Grace Park was later cast as Kono Kalakaua . It is the second time she starred in a re @-@ imagined television series in which her role was previously portrayed by a male in its original incarnation , the first being Battlestar Galactica in which she portrayed Sharon " Boomer " Valerii , a part that was played by Herbert Jefferson , Jr. in the original series . The producers had Park in mind because of her previous role on Battlestar . The producers also felt that another male Kono would be boring for the show . Scott Caan was the last principal cast member to be cast on the show , as Danny Williams . Being cast at " the eleventh hour " , the first time Caan and O 'Loughlin met was during rehearsal .
In addition to the regular cast , a number of recurring characters were introduced in the pilot . Teila Tuli ( credited as Taylor Wily ) was introduced as confidential informant and shave ice entrepreneur Kamekona . Lenkov , who initially designed the character from Huggy Bear on Starsky and Hutch , took a liking to the actor following his audition , and was given the role . In March 2010 it was announced that Jean Smart would play state governor Pat Jameson . In the same month it was announced that James Marsters would appear in the pilot as the nemesis to McGarrett . After some speculation , in July Lenkov announced that Marsters would " most likely " return later in the season . In one of the deleted scenes of the pilot from the first season DVD boxset , an alternate ending featured Hesse swimming ashore after McGarrett shot him . Will Yun Lee was cast as Sang Min . The character was originally a one @-@ off , but because the producers were impressed by Yun Lee 's performance , he would appear in a further three episodes in the first season . In February 2010 , Taryn Manning was cast as McGarrett 's sister , Mary Ann , who was originally intended to appear at her father 's funeral . However , her scenes were cut . Mary Ann would later be formally introduced in the fourth episode , " Lanakila " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began two weeks after the readthrough , on March 5 , 2010 , and took over two weeks to shoot . Wiseman 's direction was to film the episode like a " postcard of Hawaii , " but at the same time show its darker side when the team fight the antagonists . Dae Kim 's schedule overlapped between the Five @-@ 0 pilot and Lost , although at the time his character in the latter show was in the process of being killed off . The first few days of filming was affected due to bad weather conditions , particularly strong winds and sudden sporadic rain showers . The first day was spent in Pearl Harbor , near the USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) . Line producer Pat Crowley made an appearance as a helicopter pilot . The second day of filming took place at the North Shore , shooting scenes for Kono 's introduction . Before filming began , Park , who had never surfed before , was taught the basics , though the scenes in which Kono surfs were mostly done by a body double . Filming was severely hindered by bad weather , forcing the production team to reschedule . Day three was spent on Kamekona 's scenes .
March 10 and 11 were dedicated to the scenes in Sang Min 's warehouse . The team 's assault of the warehouse was filmed by three separate units . Kono 's fight sequence was included to assert to the audience that she would be a valuable asset to the team . In the scene where McGarrett shoots Sang Min 's Mercedes @-@ Benz before it crashes into a shipping container was done with two separate takes , the first of which involved O 'Loughlin shooting blanks into a car . The car would swerve away . The second take saw the car crash into the container with O 'Loughlin away from the shot as McGarrett was in close proximity to the car . The eighth day of filming was spent in a village of quonset huts where McGarrett and Danny chase Doran . In one part of the sequence , McGarrett jumps over the trunk of one car as it was hit from behind by another car . To make the scene a reality , the film crew made a three @-@ part composite shot to ensure no harm came to O 'Loughlin .
The tenth and eleventh filming days were spent shooting the scenes of McGarrett and Danny assaulting Hesse 's freighter . The fight scene between McGarrett and Hesse were shot with the portraying actors . Stunt doubles were on hand , but the production staff found they were not needed in the fight scenes until both characters fell into a boat below or the sea . The first " Book ' em , Danno " line was filmed several times as the staff wanted to pick out the right version . Some of the last scenes to be shot were the cold open scenes . Three days were spent on those scenes , and were filmed at Kualoa Ranch . In one scene of the episode , McGarrett goes to the garage of his father 's house and unravels a Mercury Marquis . The car was in fact used on the original show and was on loan to the production staff by its owner , who was the stand @-@ in for Jack Lord , who played the original McGarrett .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Some scenes of the episode contained backgrounds that were added with digital effects . One such scene was on Danny 's ex @-@ wife 's house , which did not have mountains in the background ; the mountains were digitally added in post @-@ production . The same technique was used again on the village of quonset huts , and again on the freighter assault scenes , only with the background of the sea when Hesse and McGarrett fight . After the episode was filmed , the producers discovered that it was too long and spent two weeks deciding what to cut out . One of the scenes involved the team deciding on a name of their task force , but that scene was cut in favor of another episode . Manning 's scenes were also cut due from the final broadcast to the length , though viewers could still make out the top of her head in the finished episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot aired on CBS on September 20 , 2010 , during the 10 to 11 pm ( ET ) timeslot . It was on the 42nd anniversary of the airing of the original Hawaii Five @-@ O pilot in 1968 . The pilot episode was seen by 14 @.@ 199 million viewers , with a total household rating / share of 8 @.@ 9 / 15 , and a 3 @.@ 9 / 11 ratings / share among those aged 18 through 49 . The pilot came first in its timeslot , beating the third season premiere of ABC crime comedy @-@ drama Castle , and the series premiere of the NBC crime series Chase . However , the 18 to 49 ratings for the pilot fell ten per cent against the eighth season premiere of CSI : Miami , which occupied the timeslot in the previous year . Regardless , the pilot became the eleventh most viewed show on American television the week it aired . Ratings for the pilot was also given a significant boost in Live + 7 @-@ day digital video recording ( DVR ) ; the 18 to 49 ratings / share went up to 5 @.@ 0 , whereas total viewership increased to 17 @.@ 587 million viewers , the largest increase of the week .
In Canada , the pilot aired on the Global Television Network on the same day and timeslot , and was watched by 2 @.@ 136 million viewers , placing eleventh for the week . In Australia it was seen by 1 @.@ 25 million viewers across the five major cities . It helped achieve a strong night for Network Ten . In the United Kingdom , the pilot aired alongside the following episode " ʻOhana " on February 6 , 2011 on digital channel Sky1 . The pilot was watched by 1 @.@ 024 million viewers , placing it as the second most seen show for the channel , and sixth on all digital channels .
= = = Reviews = = =
Critical reaction towards the pilot were generally positive . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the pilot eight out of ten . Goldman admitted that while he " never had any interest in the many stories of forensics investigators and the various bodily fluids they can use to solve crimes , " he found " new series engaging and fun . " Goldman particularly praised Caan 's performance in the episode , stating he " is very good , bringing a lot of humor to the part and finding an easy chemistry with O 'Loughlin . Per usual for this type of story , McGarrett and Danny don 't get along initially and Caan is able to add a lot of charm to small moments like Danny saying to himself , " I hate him . I hate him so much . " However , the reviewer also enjoyed the main cast in general , stating they were a " very well cast and likable bunch and make this an easily accessible series . They 're a group you want to spend more time with . " Adam Sweeting of The Arts Desk stated " The refreshing thing about Five @-@ 0 ( revisited ) is that while it has been given a brisk 21st @-@ century spring clean , with international terrorism , people @-@ smuggling and a blast of ultra @-@ modern spook technology , its uncomplicated heart still belongs to the 1970s . " Sweeting added that " the good guys ( and girl ) are clearly identified , " and " the baddies are unambiguously despicable . "
A reviewer from The Honolulu Advertiser called it " A smart script , " with " slick production values and maybe a splash of nostalgia got the remake of Hawaii Five @-@ O placed on the CBS prime @-@ time lineup this fall , but it will take more than beefcake and a remixed theme song to keep the show on the air . " The piece also pointed out that times have changed since the original series left the air , citing other shows that were set in Hawaii which have come and gone . It expressed a hope that the producers will succeed in bringing a new life to the title with this remake . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode B + , calling it an " unexpected pleasure , " and praised Caan for being " terrific as the moody but excellent " Danno . Tucker also believed that Kim and Park " play off each other nicely . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times felt that the script was " neatly balanced between action , clever banter and serious issues , " adding that it " seems poised to hold its own in the modern age . " McNamara also liked O 'Loughlin 's performance , stating that his " limpid @-@ eye woodenness " worked well for the role . Hanh Nguyen of Zap2it stated that it was " damn entertaining " and " visually stimulating , " and enjoyed the chemistry between McGarrett and Danny .
Not all reviews were positive . David Hinkley of The New York Daily News rated the pilot three out of five stars , stating " The story and the chemistry work , but periodically the action feels rushed , as if we all know the drill and we might as well get it over with . Future episodes may correct that , because they 'll need less setup work . " Brian Lowry of Variety stated " On paper , " Hawaii Five @-@ 0 " appears destined for can 't @-@ miss success , offering a pre @-@ sold name , an attractive cast and a stunning location , " but felt the millions spent on the pilot " doesn 't necessarily indicate smooth sailing , relying as it does on playful banter ( more like frat @-@ boy hazing ) between the leads that grows tiresome even before the hour 's over . " Ellen Gray of the Philadelphia Daily News felt it was " a huge let down , " and was critical of the cast 's performance , in particular O 'Loughlin and Caan .
= = Home video release = =
The pilot , along with the other 23 episodes from the first season , was released on a six @-@ disc DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The box @-@ set had a series of deleted scenes from most episodes , including the pilot . The deleted scenes shown included Mary Ann during John 's funeral , Chin Ho interrogating an underaged shoplifter , and Hesse waking up on shore . The episode also contained an audio commentary track by Peter M. Lenkov , Len Wiseman and Roberto Orci , along with its own featurette entitled Picture Perfect – The Making of the Pilot .
= Entoloma austroprunicolor =
Entoloma austroprunicolor is a species of agaric fungus in the family Entolomataceae . Described as new to science in 2007 , it is found in Tasmania , where it fruits on the ground of wet sclerophyll forests in late spring to early winter ( usually between January and March ) . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have reddish @-@ purple caps measuring up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter supported by whitish stipes measuring 3 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick . On the cap underside , the crowded gills are initially white before turning pink as the spores mature .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first formally described in 2007 by Australian mycologist Genevieve Gates and Dutch mycologist Machiel Noordeloos , from collections made in Tasmania , Australia . The specific epithet austroprunicolor is derived from the Latin prefix austro- , meaning " southern " , and the Latin word prunicolor , meaning " plum @-@ coloured " . The type collection was made in January 2002 at Kermandie Falls , near Geeveston in southern Tasmania . The species was discovered as a result of intensive field research , conducted by Gates and David Ratkowsky , which began in 1998 . Realizing that many Tasmanian Entolomataceae species were undescribed , they and their collaborators published a series of papers documenting the new fungi .
Within the genus Entoloma , the fungus is classified in the subgenus Leptonia , section Cyanula because of its overall habit , clampless hyphae , and abundant granules of pigment . Noordeloos and Gates place it in the stirps ( a grouping of related species within a genus ) Austroprunicolor , characterized by mushrooms with a violaceous pink or blue cap that contrasts with a pallid , whitish , polished stipe .
= = Description = =
The cap measures 1 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 in ) in diameter , and is convex or umbonate ( having a central rounded elevation resembling a nipple ) . It is bluish @-@ purple when young before reddening to a reddish @-@ purple and eventually fading to a more purplish @-@ grey colour . The cap surface texture is initially fibrillose ( made of loose fibers ) to velutinous ( made of short , fine " hairs " that form a velvety surface ) , and then breaks up into small radially arranged fibrillose squamules ( small scales ) as it matures . The cap margin curves downward . Gills are closely crowded together , up to 6 mm broad , and have an adnate attachment to the stipe . They are white initially before becoming tinged with pink from the developing spores . The thin cylindrical stipe measures 3 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) wide with a slightly thicker base . It is dry and brittle , hollow , and white or nearly white . The flesh is purple in the cap , and white in the stipe . The smell and taste are indistinct , although the latter has been described as peppery or radish @-@ like . Its edibility is unknown .
The spore print is pink , and the spores measure 10 – 13 by 6 – 9 μm . They are heterodiametric ( with different diameters in different directions ) , possessing between 6 and 8 pronounced angles . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , lack clamps , and measure 33 – 40 by 9 – 14 μm . Located on the gill edge , the thin @-@ walled , inconspicuous cheilocystidia measure 20 – 30 by 5 – 9 μm and have shapes ranging from irregular cylinders to narrow clubs to flasks . The cap cuticle is arranged in the form of a cutis ( with bent @-@ over hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface ) to a trichoderm ( where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , perpendicular to the cap surface ) , comprising cylindrical to inflated hyphae that are up to 20 μm wide . The cap tissue is made of narrow cylindrical hyphae that are 4 @.@ 5 – 9 μm in diameter . They contain granules that have a purple @-@ brown pigment . The stipe cuticle is made of loosely arranged , cylindrical hyphae measuring 2 – 7 μm . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Entoloma austroprunicolor resembles the European species E. queletii , but the cap of the latter species fades to an ochre colour , and it has a white fibrillose stipe . Microscopically , its gill edges have well @-@ differentiated cheilocystidia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Entoloma austroprunicolor is a commonly occurring mushroom of wet sclerophyll forests in Tasmania . Fruiting occurs from late spring to early winter , with most fruit bodies recorded between the months of January to March . In a study of the distribution of mushroom species in this area , it was found to occur only in mature or uncut forests .
= Daily fantasy sports =
Daily fantasy sports ( DFS ) are a subset of fantasy sport games . As with traditional fantasy sports games , players compete against others by building a team of professional athletes from a particular league or competition while remaining under a salary cap , and earn points based on the actual statistical performance of the players in real @-@ world competitions . Daily fantasy sports are an accelerated variant of traditional fantasy sports that are conducted over short @-@ term periods , such as a week or single day of competition , as opposed to those that are played across an entire season . Daily fantasy sports are typically structured in the form of paid competitions typically referred to as a " contest " ; winners receive a share of a pre @-@ determined pot funded by their entry fees . A portion of entry fee payments go to the provider as rake revenue .
In the United States , the daily fantasy sports industry is dominated by two competing services : the New York @-@ based FanDuel , and the Boston @-@ based DraftKings . Both companies were established as venture capital @-@ backed startup companies , received funding from investment firms , sports broadcasters , leagues , and team owners , and became known for the aggressive marketing of their services . As of September 2015 , both companies have an estimated value of at least $ 1 billion , and control 95 % of the U.S. DFS market . The two primarily compete against smaller DFS services , such as Fantasy Aces and Yahoo ! Sports . The popularity of the daily fantasy format has been credited to its convenience in comparison to season @-@ length games , as well as the focus on major cash prizes in the promotion of these services . Daily fantasy has also been credited with helping to improve television viewership and engagement with sports .
Daily fantasy sports have faced notable legal challenges , including disputes over whether DFS constitutes gambling . Politicians and other critics have argued that due to their format , players are essentially making proposition wagers on the varying performance of individual athletes in specific games , and not managing the performance of their selections on a week @-@ to @-@ week basis . Proponents have defended DFS as being a game of skill , as the required familiarity with the players and teams , as well as salary cap management , rewards skilled players . Local laws have varying definitions of gambling games , such as whether a game 's elements of chance are predominant over those or skill , or how much control the player has over the outcome of the game .
In the United States , the legality of DFS has been determined on a state @-@ by @-@ state basis based on local gambling laws and other rulings . The federal Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act ( UIEGA ) contains language dictating that fantasy sports are not considered an unlawful wager under the act ; however , the act only prohibits the electronic transfer of funds from unlawful gambling as defined under state laws . A number of state attorneys general have issued opinions concluding that DFS is a form of illegal gambling , while the state of Nevada declared that DFS games must be licensed as a sports pool . The New York State ruling , which resulted from an investigation of DFS services after it was alleged that employees working for DraftKings and FanDuel had used inside information to win cash prizes from each other , spawned retaliatory lawsuits from the companies which alleged that the rulings were the result of a misinterpretation of the nature of their services . The state has since joined other states , such as Massachusetts and Virginia , in choosing to legalize and regulate DFS rather than prohibit it .
= = Gameplay = =
There are several main disciplines of daily fantasy sports competitions , divided into two categories : cash games , and guaranteed prize pool ( GPP ) . DFS contests typically utilize a salary cap format , in which players are allotted a maximum budget to spend on athletes for their team , represented as either play money or points . Each athlete has their own cost , with elite athletes having the highest costs .
In " Double @-@ up " or " 50 / 50 " cash game competitions , players win a prize equal to double their entry fee if they finish with a score within the top 50 % of all participants . Head @-@ to @-@ head competitions are similar , except that the player must win against another user of their choice . Guaranteed prize pool contests have higher stakes , using tiered payouts based on finishing in different percentiles or positions of the field of contestants . Further variations of double @-@ up games , including Triple @-@ up , Quadruple @-@ up , and Quintuple @-@ up , may also be offered .
Daily fantasy games exist in a variety of major and minor sports , depending on service , including but not limited to American football ( college and the NFL ) , association football ( soccer ) , auto racing , baseball , basketball , cricket , golf , ice hockey , rugby , horse racing and sumo wrestling . Daily fantasy contests have also been held in professional @-@ level e @-@ sports events .
= = History = =
= = = Early examples = = =
Among the first sites to specialize in the format of daily fantasy was Instant Fantasy Sports , established in 2007 ; the service 's co @-@ founder Chris Fargis explained that the service was inspired by the format of online poker , and that his goal was to " take the time frame of season @-@ long fantasy sports leagues and shrink it " . The site was later acquired by NBC Universal and re @-@ branded as SnapDraft . NBC has also acquired the fantasy sports @-@ focused website Rotoworld in 2006 . SnapDraft was later shut down .
= = = Growth = = =
On July 21 , 2009 , the Edinburgh , Scotland @-@ based prediction market game Hubdub launched a spin @-@ off known as FanDuel ; the service attempted to market itself as a modern alternative to the fantasy sports services provided by other media properties , such as Yahoo ! Sports and CBSSports.com , with the daily fantasy format and integration with popular social networks . Its founder , Nigel Eccles , was inspired to create the site when he realizied that the carve @-@ out for fantasy sports in the U.S. Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 did not state that a legal , paid fantasy sports competition had to last for an entire season . In February 2012 , the Boston @-@ based DraftKings was established by former VistaPrint executives Jason Robins , Matthew Kalish , and Paul Liberman . DraftKings gained a local , Somerville @-@ based competitor in StarStreet , when it introduced a daily fantasy game of its own .
DraftKings and FanDuel in particular became the subjects of venture capital investments by various parties ; in April 2013 , Major League Baseball invested an undisclosed amount in DraftKings , becoming the first U.S. professional sports organization to invest in daily fantasy sports . In 2014 , DraftKings acquired DraftStreet , as well as StarStreet , and raised another $ 41 million in investment led by the Raine Group , bringing the company to a total of $ 75 million in outside funding . FanDuel pursued investments as well , with an $ 11 million Series C funding round that included Comcast Ventures , a $ 70 million Series D round in September 2014 led by Shamrock Capital Advisors with participation from NBC Sports Ventures and KKR among others , and a Series E funding round of $ 275 million in July 2015 , valuing the company at over $ 1 billion . In October 2014 , NBC Sports entered into a content sharing partnership with the DFS information website Rotogrinders , in which it would provide daily fantasy @-@ oriented content for Rotoworld .
DraftKings and FanDuel began to peruse advertising and endorsement deals with sports franchises and leagues ; in November 2014 , DraftKings entered into a multi @-@ year sponsorship deal with the National Hockey League , complimenting team @-@ level sponsorship deals it had reached with seven NHL franchises . Also in November , the National Basketball Association acquired an equity stake in FanDuel and entered into a four @-@ year sponsorship deal with the company . In April 2015 , after the National Football League began to allow daily fantasy providers to sign multi @-@ year team sponsorship deals , with caveats , FanDuel reached deals with sixteen NFL teams for placements on team @-@ oriented digital properties , radio , and in @-@ stadium . DraftKings had also received an investment by Robert Kraft — a local businessman whose holdings include the New England Patriots .
= = = Mainstream popularity = = =
By 2015 , the daily fantasy sports industry had experienced a major growth in mainstream popularity . The rise was credited to several factors , including the convenience of the format , the ability to access the services on mobile devices , and aggressive marketing campaigns which promoted the prospective cash prizes of their largest contests . The structure and payouts of daily fantasy games have been described as providing a feeling of " instant gratification " to its players , similar to that of online gambling .
Writing for The New York Times Magazine , Jay Caspian Kang noted that despite its similarities to gambling , DFS appealed to mainstream sports fans because it evoked the feelings of community commonly associated with traditional fantasy sports , rather than the " shady underground games " of poker . The popularity of daily fantasy has also influenced fan engagement with sports ; Fox Sports president Erik Shanks felt that daily fantasy sports help improve television viewership of sporting events , while FanDuel stated that players became more engaged with sports content after joining the service .
In July 2015 , Yahoo ! , a historic provider of season @-@ length fantasy sports , announced that it would begin to offer paid daily and weekly fantasy games as part of its Yahoo ! Sports website . Moneyball , one of the first Australian DFS services , was also established by former Fairfax Media employees James Fitzgerald and Rax Huq ; the company secured $ 1 @.@ 8 million in series A funding . Fitzgerald noted that the sports betting industry in Australia had brought in $ 900 million in yearly revenue and that DFS was " a more ethically and morally preferred means of partnership with a bookmaker . "
In September 2015 , DraftKings and FanDuel expanded their offerings into competitive video gaming ; FanDuel acquired the e @-@ sports focused DFS service AlphaDraft ( which FanDuel planned to operate as an independent brand ) , while DraftKings added contests for the 2015 League of Legends World Championship .
= = = Increased scrutiny = = =
In 2015 , daily fantasy sports began to face increased legal scrutiny . In August 2015 , a class action lawsuit was filed against DraftKings , alleging that it engaged in false advertising in regards to a promotion in which the service claimed it would double a new user 's first deposit . The suit alleged that DraftKings would only credit the deposit bonus to a player 's account if they fulfill certain monetary and participation requirements within four months , causing them to " incur additional and substantial monetary obligations " , rather than instantly receive the bonus as implied by advertising .
On October 6 , 2015 , following reports that a DraftKings employee had used inside information to win $ 350 @,@ 000 on FanDuel , New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman announced that he had opened an investigation into the two services and the allegations that employees from the two services were using this information to win prizes from each other . Both sites have since barred their employees from participating in daily fantasy games . On October 14 , 2015 , the FBI launched an investigation of its own into the two services regarding the inside information scandal .
In the wake of the scandal , multiple class @-@ action lawsuits were filed against both DraftKings and FanDuel , with suits alleging charges such as fraud , racketeering , negligence , and false advertising , arguing that the employees ' use of inside information had made the games unfair . One of the lawsuits were filed by a resident of New Orleans , despite paid fantasy games being illegal in the state . On October 30 , 2015 , Washington NFL player Pierre Garçon also filed a class @-@ action lawsuit against FanDuel , arguing that the service had exploited his name and likeness without permission as part of its services and marketing . FanDuel objected to the lawsuit , arguing that its use of his likeness fell within existing case law surrounding the use of player names and statistics in fantasy sports games . Garçon 's lawsuit was settled out of court .
In December 2015 , Canadian media company TheScore launched QuickDraft , a daily fantasy game targeted at both Canada and the United States , based on the intellectual property of its 2014 acquisition of Swoopt . In contrast to other DFS services and in an effort to work around the increased scrutiny and uncertain legality of paid games , the service is being positioned as a free @-@ to @-@ play service with smaller cash prizes , a more " casual " atmosphere with fewer " sharks " , and the possibility of being advertising @-@ funded in the future .
= = Marketing = =
The aggressive marketing tactics used bydaily fantasy services have also had an impact on the growth of the industry . In June 2015 , DraftKings entered into a three @-@ year sponsorship deal with ESPN valued at $ 250 million ; the deal gave DraftKings exclusivity in advertising daily fantasy services on ESPN networks beginning in January 2016 , and included " integration " of the service into ESPN 's television and digital content . DraftKings also entered into an advertising deal with Fox Sports ; in exchange for Fox acquiring an $ 150 million equity stake in the company , DraftKings agreed to buy $ 250 million in advertising over the next three years . DraftKings ' sponsorship exclusivity deal with ESPN was also to include the acquisition of an equity stake in the company , but this aspect of the deal was reportedly called off due to objections by ESPN 's parent , The Walt Disney Company , over financially associating itself with activities that could be classified as gambling .
DraftKings and FanDuel also became known for their use of direct response advertising on television , especially during sports telecasts . Capitalizing on the start of football season , iSpot.tv estimated that DraftKings and FanDuel collectively spent over $ 107 million on television advertising in September 2015 alone — with nearly half being spent on advertising during National Football League telecasts ( $ 23 @.@ 6 million by DraftKings , and $ 26 @.@ 7 million spent by FanDuel ) . Of the total , $ 60 @.@ 1 million was spent by DraftKings , with $ 7 @.@ 95 million spent during college football games , $ 2 @.@ 05 million during ESPN 's sports news program SportsCenter , and $ 1 @.@ 36 million during South Park episodes . The marketing push was met with a negative reaction from viewers on social networks such as Twitter , who considered the repetitive airplay of DFS commercials during football games to be an annoyance .
On February 10 , 2016 , it was reported that ESPN had backed out of its advertising deal with DraftKings , and that Fox had marked down its investment in DraftKings by 60 % — a loss of $ 95 million .
= = Classification as gambling = =
There are conflicting arguments over whether paid daily fantasy sports games constitute gambling , due to its mixture of chance @-@ based and skill @-@ based elements . Critics of DFS have argued that because athlete performance can vary on a week @-@ to @-@ week basis , players are essentially wagering on the performance of individual athletes during a given game , rather than managing their team on a week @-@ to @-@ week basis across a season . On the other hand , proponents have argued that the act of preparing a daily fantasy team is an activity of skill , as it requires knowledge of the sport , its individual players and their respective performance at a particular moment in time , and the ability to select suitable players within the limitation of a salary cap .
In an " IAmA " thread on Reddit , DraftKings CEO Jason Robins described the service as being " almost identical to a casino " , described the concept of DFS as a cross between fantasy sports and online poker , and repeatedly referred to the service using gambling @-@ oriented terms such as " wager " and " betting " . DraftKings and FanDuel have also entered into affiliation and sponsorship agreements with gambling @-@ oriented entities ; DraftKings sponsored the 2015 Belmont Stakes and the World Series of Poker , while FanDuel has affiliated with websites related to sports betting . At the same time , both companies have insisted that their daily fantasy games represent a game of skill . In the 2007 federal lawsuit Humphrey v. Viacom , Inc . , Judge Dennis M. Cavanaugh of the U.S. District Court of New Jersey distinguished an " entry fee " in a paid fantasy sports competition as being a fee required to participate rather than a " wager " , because they are " paid unconditionally " , and because the prizes in such games were " guaranteed " and determined in advance .
= = = Skill of players = = =
Bloomberg Businessweek acknowledged that daily fantasy contests are often won by a minority of skilled professional players ( e.g. Justin B MacMahan ) , or " sharks " , who employ " elaborate statistical modeling and automated tools that can manage hundreds of entries at once and identify the weakest opponents " . A DFS player interviewed by Bloomberg argued that " no matter how much somebody knows about sports , if you put an established player up against a new player , that established player 's probably going to have a 75 percent chance of winning — at least . " A study by McKinsey & Company over the first half of the 2015 MLB season estimated that 91 % of winnings were won by only 1 @.@ 3 % of players . FanDuel CEO Nigel Eccles disputed the accuracy of the study , arguing that its daily fantasy baseball contests do not have as many participants as those it runs for football .
Writing for The New York Times Magazine , Jay Caspian Kang outlined his position on the fairness and skill @-@ based aspects of DFS , explaining that " D.F.S. , the game itself , is not inherently crooked . Most of the benefits praised by its enthusiasts — the ease of play , the camaraderie among fans , the challenge of solving what amounts to a math puzzle — are real . It does take skill to parse game film , diligently follow the news and interpret the thousands of bits of sports information that are generated each night . If a problem gambler at the poker rooms I frequent in New York City were to hire a programmer and flood the D.F.S. market with his lineups , he would almost certainly hemorrhage money . "
In response to these concerns , DFS services implemented changes to improve the fairness and transparency of their contests , including entry limits , banning off @-@ site scripts , identifying veteran @-@ level players , allowing users to block players they do not wish to compete against , and adding beginner @-@ level contests intended for new users .
= = = Legal definitions of gambling = = =
In U.S. federal law , criminal gambling statutes include the Federal Wire Act — which prohibits interstate sports wagering , the Illegal Gambling Business Act ( 18 U.S.C. § 1955 ) — which prohibits the interstate conduct of wagering activity prohibited under state law , and the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act ( UIGEA ) — which prohibits the transfer of funds in connection to online gambling that is prohibited under state law .
Each state applies varying standards in regards to determining whether a game is one of skill , or of chance ; in most states , this determination is based on whether the skill @-@ based elements of the game are predominant over those of chance , and whether these chance @-@ based elements have more than an incidental effect on the outcome of the game ( dominant factor test , material degree ) . Some states use stricter criteria , under which games whose outcomes are influenced by any element of chance , or appeal to a " gambling instinct " , are considered games of chance , regardless of the presence of skill @-@ based elements . In the state of Illinois , any game played for cash where the players are not the " actual contestants " in a " bona fide contest for the determination of skill , speed , strength , or endurance " , constitutes gambling .
In 2015 , the Canadian Gaming Association commissioned an opinion on the legality of DFS in Canada from former Alcohol and Gaming Commission of Ontario general counsel Don Bourgeois . He determined that DFS would likely be classified as a game of chance under Canadian law , going on to say in an interview that under the Criminal Code of Canada , games that mix chance- and skill @-@ based elements are considered games of chance . However , Canadian authorities have not yet targeted DFS services ; historically , the government has only targeted illegal gambling operations that have a presence within the country . There is a form of legal sports betting in Canada conducted through the lottery system , often known as Sport Select , but it is subject to a legal prohibition on wagering on individual sporting events .
= = = = UIGEA carve @-@ out = = = =
The UIGEA has frequently been cited as having exempted daily fantasy games from being considered gambling , as the law does not consider an online contest with pre @-@ determined prizes , and an outcome based on skill that is " determined predominantly by accumulated statistical results of sporting events , including any non @-@ participant 's individual performances in such sporting events " , to be unlawful wagering . The carve @-@ out was based on the language of an amendment proposed by Senator Richard Bryan to the failed Internet Gambling Prohibition Act .
The act itself does not define unlawful internet wagering , and expressly refrains from altering the legality of any underlying conduct other than funds transfers , meaning that state law remains binding . It also depends on banks to act as enforcers of the prohibitions . Congressman Jim Leach , who authored the UIEGA , explained that the fantasy sports carve @-@ out was meant to relieve the burden of enforcement of the act by banks , nor cover the present @-@ day daily fantasy industry , and that " it is sheer chutzpah for a fantasy sports company to cite the law as a legal basis for existing " .
= = = Self @-@ imposed restrictions = = =
Daily fantasy services have historically blocked residents of Arizona , Iowa , Louisiana , Montana and Washington from participating in paid games , under a presumption that DFS is illegal in these states due to the strictness of their gambling laws . However , a November 2015 investigation by The New York Times found that these geoblock restrictions could easily be circumvented using anonymous proxies , and it was estimated that in 2014 , DraftKings had still collected $ 484 @,@ 897 in entry fees from players in the five states where it had voluntarily asserted that DFS was illegal . These reports led to regulatory probes by investigators in the aforementioned states . Both websites have since implemented measures to block proxy users .
= = = Legal opinions and challenges = = =
Louisiana attempted to pass a law that would exempt fantasy sports from its anti @-@ online gambling laws , but the bill was defeated as the result of lobbying by both the Louisiana Family Forum ( which showed concerns that players could develop an addiction to daily fantasy games ) , and the Louisiana Video Gaming Association ( which felt that DFS would cannibalize the legal video poker industry , and needed to be highly regulated ) .
On October 15 , 2015 , the Nevada Gaming Control Board published a memorandum ruling that daily fantasy sports games were a form of sports wagering , and that DFS services must cease serving customers in the state of Nevada until they obtain a sports pool license . The Board felt that DFS fell under the state 's definitions of a " gambling game " and a " sports pool " , as they " [ accept ] wagers on sporting events or other events by any system or method of wagering " , including wagers on events occurring during a sporting event ( props ) , combinations of multiple events occurring within an event ( parlays ) , and against the performance of other players , with " rake @-@ offs " taken by the operator on each wager ( defined as a " percentage game " under Nevada law ) . In further support of its argument , the memorandum cited Jason Robins ' comments on Reddit that described DraftKings using gambling @-@ oriented terminology ; the board stated that its classification was " consistent with how operators of certain daily fantasy sports describe themselves " .
On December 23 , 2015 , Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan ruled that daily fantasy sports were a form of unlawful gambling under state law . Madigan determined that in DFS , the players are not the " actual contestants " in a contest of skill , but the athletes themselves , meaning that " persons whose wagers depend upon how particular , selected athletes perform in actual sporting events stand in no different stead than persons who wager on the outcome of any sporting event in which they are not participants . " DraftKings and FanDuel filed lawsuits against the Attorney General the following day , seeking a court opinion on the matter . The DraftKings lawsuit argued that the order " has set off a chain of events that — if unchecked — will unjustly destroy a legitimate industry . " The sites may continue to operate in the state , pending the result of court hearings .
On January 17 , 2016 , Attorney General of Texas Ken Paxton issued an opinion , stating that " it is prohibited gambling in Texas if you bet on the performance of a participant in a sporting event and the house takes a cut . " On the other hand , Paxton stated that traditional , season @-@ length fantasy sports were legal . Prior to the ruling , it was also reported that Gary Grief , executive director of the Texas Lottery , had been investigating ways of integrating DFS into the state lottery system , including attempts to pursue DraftKings as a partner for a proposed game which would have offered credit for the service as prizes . FanDuel ceased serving residents of Texas , but DraftKings filed a request for declaratory judgment on March 4 , 2016 , seeking clarification on the matter .
On January 27 , 2016 , at the request of Senator Rosalyn Baker , Attorney General of Hawaii Doug Chin issued an opinion that DFS could be illegal under Hawaii law , as it involves a wager on an event outside of the player 's control . He explained that " the technology may have changed , but the vice has not . "
On April 5 , 2016 , Attorney General of Alabama Luther Strange ruled that DFS was illegal under state law , and sent cease and desist notices to DraftKings and FanDuel ordering them to stop serving residents of Alabama by May 1 , 2016 . He argued that while picking players for a fantasy team is an activity of skill , player performance can vary , and Alabama law dictates that it is illegal to risk something of value on any game with an element of chance .
= = = = Legalization = = = =
In September 2015 , the state of Massachusetts tabled a bill exploring the possibility of allowing the Massachusetts Lottery to run online , skill @-@ based games , such as daily fantasy sports . On November 19 , 2015 , the government announced that it would allow daily fantasy sports services to operate within Massachusetts under proposed regulations , including the requirement for all players to be 21 and over , banning members of the professional sports industry from playing the games ( including athletes ) , and banning the marketing of the services in colleges and high schools .
On March 7 , 2016 , the state of Virginia passed legislation regulating " fantasy contests " , defined as skill @-@ based games with cash prizes that are based on the " accumulated statistical results of the performance of individuals " ; the law makes no reference to sports or DFS . Services must pay a $ 50 @,@ 000 registration fee , be restricted to those who are 18 and older , and be subject to yearly independent audits . The law was criticized for being broadly @-@ worded , with critics believing that it could feasibly apply to season @-@ length games or any similar activities , and that the required licensing fee adds a financial barrier for doing business in the state .
On May 10 , 2016 , it was reported that the U.S. House Subcommittee on Commerce , Manufacturing and Trade was planning to discuss the legal aspects of DFS in a hearing .
= = = = New York ruling and lawsuit = = = =
On November 10 , 2015 , Attorney General of New York State Eric Schneiderman issued a cease @-@ and @-@ desist order to DraftKings and FanDuel , arguing that DFS was illegal under state law ( which specifies that games where players " risk something of value " and do not have " control or influence " over the outcome , are gambling ) , and ordering the two services to cease serving residents of New York . He stated that DFS " wagers " represented " a wager on a ' contest of chance ' where winning or losing depends on numerous elements of chance to a ' material degree ' " . He characterized the DFS industry as being a " massive , multi @-@ billion @-@ dollar scheme intended to evade the law and fleece sports fans across the country " , causing the " same public health and economic problems associated with gambling , particularly for populations prone to gambling addiction and individuals who are unprepared to sustain losses , lured by the promise of easy money . "
In response , DraftKings and FanDuel filed lawsuits against the state of New York on November 13 , arguing that their games were one of skill , they had been denied due process due to the Attorney General 's abruptness , that he does not have the power to make such a ruling , and that Schneiderman engaged in tortious interference by sending cease and desist notices to their payment processors . On November 16 , the two services tried to request a temporary restraining order to prevent Schneiderman from enforcing the cease @-@ and @-@ desist , but a state judge declared their request to be premature . Following the hearing , a spokesperson for the Attorney General declared that he could file a formal lawsuit against the two sites " as soon as tomorrow " . The same day , state senator Michael Ranzenhofer introduced a bill that would explicitly classify daily fantasy sports as a game of skill .
On November 17 , 2015 , the Attorney General filed a request for a temporary injunction to force DraftKings and FanDuel to cease serving customers in the state of New York . In the filing , Schneiderman argued that DFS was merely a " re @-@ branding " of sports betting , and in response to claims that DFS constitutes a game of skill , he argued that " a few good players in a poker tournament may rise to the top based on their skill ; but the game is still gambling . " Schneiderman also acknowledged that the two services had " basic compliance issues " ( alluding to the inside information scandal ) , had associated themselves with gambling @-@ oriented entities , and that DraftKings had accepted entry fees from users in states where it argued that DFS was illegal . The Attorney General also issued a subpoena for information from Yahoo ! in regards to its own daily fantasy offerings . FanDuel stated that it would comply with the order and restrict participation by residents of New York , while DraftKings stated that it would continue to serve them , arguing that Schneiderman 's decision was based on an " incomplete understanding of the facts about how our business operates and a fundamental misinterpretation and misapplication of the law " .
During hearings on November 25 , 2015 , Judge Manuel J. Mendez disputed assertions by the services that a player 's choice of athletes represents " control or influence " over the outcome , stating that players are ultimately " relying on someone else 's skill " to determine an outcome . On December 11 , 2015 , the temporary injunction was granted , forbidding DraftKings and FanDuel from " accepting entry fees , wagers or bets " from residents of New York state . Mandez argued that " the payment of an ' entry fee ' as high as $ 10 @,@ 600 on one or more contests daily could certainly be deemed risking ' something of value ' . " He also ruled that the UIGEA " has no corresponding authority under New York State law " . However , Mandez granted a temporary stay following requests for an appeal . On December 31 , 2015 — prior to an appeals court on whether they could continue to operate during the lawsuit , the Attorney General amended the lawsuit to demand that the two companies pay restitution — including the return of all money collected from customers in New York State . Schneiderman also acknowledged the services ' deceptive advertising practices , such as " convoluted " first deposit bonuses .
On January 11 , 2016 , DraftKings ' and FanDuel 's stay was granted , meaning that they could continue to serve New York residents , pending the outcome of the appeal . However , later that month , Vantiv announced that it would no longer provide its payment processing services to the DFS industry , and in early @-@ February 2016 , Citigroup announced that it would no longer process payments for DraftKings and FanDuel made by residents of New York State , " pending a final decision by the courts " .
The Boston Globe believed that a ruling on the legality of DFS in New York State would have industry @-@ wide implications , as it is one of the largest markets for these services . Writing for The New Yorker , James Surowiecki believed that it was hypocritical for the state of New York to campaign against daily fantasy sports — which , in an op @-@ ed , the Attorney General classified as a " particularly pernicious " activity , as the state already sponsors and / or endorses other forms of legal gambling based purely on chance rather than a mix of chance and skill , such as the state lottery , casinos , and horse racing . Surowiecki argued that " given the absence of a good argument for why daily fantasy should be illegal in New York , while the lottery and racetrack betting and casinos are not , the best strategy that DraftKings and FanDuel could pursue might be to get the State Legislature to eliminate the inconsistency and explicitly legalize them . "
On March 21 , 2016 , the Attorney General announced a partial settlement of its lawsuit , under which DraftKings and FanDuel agreed to cease offering paid games in the state of New York , and abide by the result of an upcoming appeals court hearing . The hearings
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, which would determine whether the services would have to pay restitution , were tentatively scheduled for September 2016 — assuming that legislation legalizing daily fantasy sports was not passed by then . DraftKings and FanDuel spokespersons stated that the companies were working with local officials and supporting legislation to legalize DFS under state law . This settlement does not address the false advertising claims , which are still being pursued . The next day , Yahoo announced that it would voluntarily comply with the settlement and also cease offering paid games in the state of New York .
On the early morning of June 18 , 2016 , the New York State senate approved legislation to legalize daily fantasy sports . Daily fantasy providers will be required to pay 15 @.@ 5 % of their annual revenue to the New York Lottery 's education fund in order to serve customers in the state .
= = = League policies = = =
The NCAA considers all paid fantasy games — including daily fantasy — to fall under its prohibition of sports wagering by student athletes , punishable by ineligibility to participate in NCAA @-@ sanctioned athletics for one year . Advertising for daily fantasy services are also forbidden from being broadcast during telecasts of the NCAA 's tournaments . In August 2015 , the NCAA and a group of ten conferences jointly campaigned against daily fantasy games featuring college sports , asserting that DFS is inconsistent with the NCAA 's policies and values . The SEC had discussions with its broadcast partners in an attempt to discourage the advertising of daily fantasy games during its telecasts , while both Big Ten Network and Pac @-@ 12 Network prohibited advertising for daily fantasy games involving college sports . On December 9 , 2015 , it was reported that ESPN had similarly agreed not to air advertising for daily fantasy services during telecasts of the College Football Playoff . On March 31 , 2016 , DraftKings and FanDuel jointly agreed to stop offering daily fantasy college sports following the conclusion of the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
The NFL does not outright ban participation in paid or daily fantasy sports games by its players and staff , but does restrict how much one may win in such games .
The PGA Tour prohibits its players from participation in paid DFS games involving golf , or endorsing DFS companies .
= M @-@ 52 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 52 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The southern terminus is on the Ohio border , where it continues as State Route 109 ( SR 109 ) . The highway passes through communities like Adrian , where it intersects US Highway 223 ( US 223 ) , Chelsea and Webberville along its 127 @.@ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 204 @.@ 9 km ) course . It crosses some major rivers , including the River Raisin and the Shiawassee . The section of the highway between M @-@ 50 and Manchester was built as a limited @-@ access highway . M @-@ 52 's northern terminus is at M @-@ 46 , nine miles ( 14 km ) west of Saginaw .
Adrian previously converted their downtown streets to one @-@ way traffic between 1950 and 1973 . The traffic pattern created an unusual arrangement in the routings of the two state highways downtown . Southbound M @-@ 52 followed Winter Street , which also carried both eastbound and westbound directions of the US 223 business loop . These streets carried both highways around the downtown business district in this arrangement until November 2009 .
M @-@ 52 is an original state trunkline highway , dating to the 1919 formation of the system . Other segments of the modern routing were designated M @-@ 92 and M @-@ 47 at the time . Extensions to M @-@ 52 supplanted M @-@ 92 completely and M @-@ 47 partially along their routings . These extensions completed the modern M @-@ 52 routing in the late 1960s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 52 starts at the Ohio state line as Adrian Highway in Fairfield Township , Lenawee County , where it is the continuation of SR 109 into Michigan . The highway runs north to Adrian where it intersects US Highway 223 ( US 223 ) at the city border with Madison Township . As the highway crosses the city line , it is concurrently designated Business US 223 ( Bus . US 223 ) along Main Street into downtown Adrian . Bus . US 223 / M @-@ 52 intersects Beecher Street , which carries M @-@ 34 to the latter 's eastern terminus in Adrian . After Beecher , Main Street turns north @-@ northeast into the downtown area .
In downtown Adrian , M @-@ 52 runs north along Main Street to Church Street . Since November 2009 , the one @-@ way streets were converted back to two @-@ way functionality . Both directions of M @-@ 52 now turn east along Church , then north along Broad Street . At Front Street , traffic is diverted west back to Main Street . Continuing north out of downtown Adrian , M @-@ 52 follows Main Street over the South Branch of the River Raisin and out of the city limits , where it once again becomes Adrian Highway . The highway curves from running north @-@ northeast back to due north . West of the city of Tecumseh , the trunkline intersects M @-@ 50 . M @-@ 52 continues north as a limited @-@ access highway . Access to and from the highway is limited to select cross roads only . Just south of the county line , the highway intersects with US 12 before crossing into Washtenaw County .
The limited @-@ access section of M @-@ 52 continues north through western Washtenaw County , where it ends in Manchester . M @-@ 52 turns west along Austin and City roads into the village . The trunkline continues along the banks of the north branch of the River Raisin on Riverside Drive before turning north out of town . Just south of Chelsea , M @-@ 52 crosses Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The highway continues through downtown Chelsea and turns northwesterly through the Waterloo State Recreation Area in the northwesternmost part of the county . The highway clips the corner of Jackson County , running for almost 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) through Waterloo Township before crossing into Ingham County south of Stockbridge .
M @-@ 52 joins M @-@ 106 south of Stockbridge , and the two highways run together into the village . In downtown , M @-@ 106 turns east and M @-@ 52 turns west before heading north out of town . At the Stockbridge – White Oak township line , M @-@ 52 joins M @-@ 36 which follows the townships ' common border . The two highways run concurrently north into White Oak Township before M @-@ 36 turns west , ending the concurrency . In western Webberville , M @-@ 52 passes under I @-@ 96 and merges with M @-@ 43 at the latter 's eastern terminus . The two highways run north to , and turn west along , Grand River Avenue . At Perry Road , M @-@ 52 turns back north out of the village . The trunkline continues north into Shiawassee County and runs through Perry before crossing I @-@ 69 . Continuing north , M @-@ 52 curves northeasterly into downtown Owosso intersecting M @-@ 21 west of M @-@ 71 's western terminus . M @-@ 52 continues northward parallel to the Shiawassee River into Saginaw County .
The trunkline runs through the community of Oakley before intersecting M @-@ 57 west of Chesaning . North of Chesaning , M @-@ 52 angles to the northeast into and through St. Charles , crossing the Shiawassee River west of the Shiawassee National Wildlife Refuge . The northern terminus of M @-@ 52 is an intersection with M @-@ 46 west of Saginaw in Thomas Township .
= = History = =
M @-@ 52 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 . The original routing started at the Ohio state line and ran north through Adrian to M @-@ 50 much as it does today . It turned east along M @-@ 50 into Tecumseh and then turned north to Clinton where it terminated . The remainder of the modern highway routing is either not part of the state trunkline system , or it is parts of other highways at this time , M @-@ 92 or M @-@ 47 . In 1954 , M @-@ 92 was extended southward to end in Clinton at the same intersection with US 112 where M @-@ 52 terminated . By July 1 , 1960 , M @-@ 92 's southern end was shifted westward , terminating west of Clinton at US 112 on a new roadway south of Manchester . M @-@ 52 was extended around 1962 north between M @-@ 50 and US 12 ( the former US 112 ) west of Tecumseh and Clinton . This extension ended at M @-@ 92 's terminus with US 12 . M @-@ 52 was then extended north supplanting the M @-@ 92 designation in its entirety . M @-@ 52 at this time runs north from the Ohio state line to Millville in southwestern Ingham County . In the late 1960s , Stockbridge Road between Webberville and Stockbridge was upgraded to state highway standards and uploaded from the county to the state . This construction was shown on the 1969 state map . When it was completed later that year , M @-@ 52 was extended northward a second time , to I @-@ 96 outside of Webberville . Where Stockbridge Road crossed I @-@ 96 , M @-@ 52 was continued north , supplanting M @-@ 47 through Webberville and north to the junction with M @-@ 46 west of Saginaw . This designation change shortened M @-@ 47 to its current southern terminus in Saginaw Township .
In downtown Adrian , the highways previously split into an uncommon arrangement of one @-@ way streets . This arrangement was similar to a traffic circle in how the traffic was routed through the central business district on Church , Broad , Front and Winter streets . The first one @-@ way pairing started on Main Street at the intersection with Winter Street . Northbound traffic continued on Main Street , while southbound traffic was routed along Winter Street . At Church Street , westbound Bus . US 223 / northbound M @-@ 52 turned east for a block on Church and then north onto Broad Street . Then the highway designations continued on Broad Street three blocks north to Front Street , passing to the east of the downtown businesses . The designations were then routed west along Front Street . At Main Street , M @-@ 52 turned back north again as a two @-@ way street . In the opposite direction , southbound M @-@ 52 traffic was diverted from Main west on Front Street . Front Street west of Main Street carried southbound M @-@ 52 and westbound Bus . US 223 traffic one block west to Winter Street , which then turned down Winter . Westbound Bus . US 223 traffic turned west along Maumee Street while eastbound Bus . US 223 followed southbound M @-@ 52 down Winter to Main Street . This arrangement was ended in November 2009 when the City of Adrian converted all of the one @-@ way streets to two @-@ way traffic . Downtown streets had been converted to one @-@ way traffic between 1950 and 1973 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Sigeberht of East Anglia =
Sigeberht of East Anglia ( also known as Saint Sigebert ) , ( Old English : Sigebryht ) was a saint and a king of East Anglia , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . He was the first English king to receive a Christian baptism and education before his succession and the first to abdicate in order to enter the monastic life . The principal source for Sigeberht is Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , which was completed in the 730s .
Sigeberht was probably either a younger son of Rædwald of East Anglia , or his step @-@ son from Rædwald 's marriage to a pagan princess from the kingdom of Essex . Nothing is known of his life before he was forced into exile in Gaul , which was possibly done in order to ensure that Rædwald 's own descendants ruled the kingdom . After his step @-@ brother Eorpwald 's assassination in about 627 , Sigeberht returned to East Anglia and ( perhaps in the aftermath of a military campaign ) became king , ruling jointly with Ecgric , who may have been either a son of Rædwald 's , or his nephew .
During Sigeberht 's reign the cause of Christianity in East Anglia was advanced greatly , even though his co @-@ ruler Ecgric probably remained a pagan . Alliances were strengthened between the Christian kingdoms of Kent , Northumbria and East Anglia . Sigeberht himself played an important part in the establishment of the Christian faith in his kingdom : Saint Felix arrived in East Anglia to assist him in establishing his episcopal see at Dommoc , he started a school for teaching Latin and he granted the Irish monk Saint Fursey a monastery site at Cnobheresburg ( possibly Burgh Castle ) . He eventually abdicated his power to Ecgric and retired to his monastery at Beodricesworth . At an unknown date , East Anglia was attacked by a Mercian army led by its king , Penda . Ecgric and the East Anglians appealed to Sigeberht to lead them in battle , but he refused and had to be dragged from his monastery to the battlefield . He refused to bear arms during the battle , during which both kings were slain and the East Anglian army was destroyed .
= = Family background , exile , conversion and education = =
Sigeberht ruled the kingdom of East Anglia ( Old English : Ēast Engla Rīce ) , a small independent Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom that comprised what are now the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk and perhaps the eastern part of the Cambridgeshire Fens .
It is not known when Sigeberht was born and nothing is known of his life before he was exiled from East Anglia prior to becoming king , as few records have survived from this period of English history . The most reliable source for Sigeberht 's background and career is Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People ( produced in 731 ) , in which Bede stated that Sigeberht was the brother of Eorpwald and the son of Rædwald , who ruled the kingdom of East Anglia from about 599 to 624 , but William of Malmesbury described him as Rædwald 's stepson . The stepson theory is strengthened by the fact that the name Sigeberht is without comparison in the East Anglian Wuffingas dynasty , but closely resembles the naming fashions of the East Saxon royal house . If this identification is correct ( and Charles Cawley warns that it should be treated with scepticism ) , Rædwald 's wife had previously been married to an East Saxon prince or ruler . Rædwald 's own principal heir was Rægenhere ( a youth of warrior age in 616 , when he was slain in battle ) and his second heir was Eorpwald , slain by the heathen Ricberht in about 627 . ( There is no ancient record that Ricbehrt was a son of Rædwald 's , nor that he was a king . )
Rædwald was personally converted and baptised before 616 and a Christian altar existed in his temple , but his son Eorpwald was not himself a convert when he succeeded Rædwald in about 624 . Since it is known that Rædwald 's wife ( who was Sigeberht 's mother ) did not become a Christian , Sigeberht must have received limited encouragement to convert to Christianity before being sent to Gaul and remaining there as an exile for many years during the lifetime of Eorpwald , " while fleeing from the enmity of Rædwald " , as Bede reports . His exile supports the stepson theory , if Rædwald was protecting Eorpwald 's succession against a possible claim by a son who was not of the Wuffingas line .
Whilst living in Gaul as an exile , Sigeberht was converted and baptized and became a devout Christian and a man of learning . He was strongly impressed by the religious institutions and schools for the study of reading and writing which he found during his long exile .
= = King of the East Angles = =
= = = Accession = = =
After an interregnum prompted by Eorpwald 's assassination , Sigeberht returned from Gaul to become ruler of the East Angles . It is likely that he gained the kingdom by military means , because his prowess as a commander was later remembered . During his reign , part of the kingdom was governed by Ecgric his ' kinsman ' , a relationship described by the Latin term cognatus . This may mean that Ecgric was a son of Rædwald . However , the historian Steven Plunkett is amongst those that consider Ecgric to be the same person as Æthelric , named in the East Anglian tally ( in the Anglian collection ) as a son of Eni , Rædwald 's brother . Whoever the pagan Ecgric was , Sigeberht had equal or senior power while he ruled , because the influence of his religious patronage was felt throughout his kingdom .
Sigeberht 's Christian conversion may have been a decisive factor in his achieving royal power , since at that time Edwin of Northumbria ( 616 – 632 or 633 ) was the senior English king and he and Eadbald , who ruled Kent , were Christian . Eadbald certainly had contacts with the Frankish rulers . After Dagobert succeeded Clothar II in Francia in 628 , Sigeberht 's emergence helped to strengthen the English conversion upon which Edwin 's power rested . Sigeberht is likely to have encouraged the conversion of Ecgric , if he was not already Christian . Edwin 's encouragement took shape in the marriage of his grand @-@ niece Hereswitha , sister of Hilda of Whitby , to Æthelric , Rædwald 's nephew . Hereswith and Hilda were under Edwin 's protection and were baptised with him in 626 .
= = = Foundation of the East Anglian bishopric = = =
Bede relates that the East Anglian apostle Saint Felix came to England from Burgundy as a missionary bishop and was sent by Saint Honorius , Archbishop of Canterbury , to assist in establishing Christianity in Sigeberht 's kingdom . William of Malmesbury had the later story that Felix accompanied Sigeberht to East Anglia . In either case , this dates Sigeberht 's accession to around 629 – 630 , because Felix was bishop for seventeen years , his successor Thomas for five and Thomas ' successor Berhtgisl Boniface for seventeen – and Berhtgisl died in around 669 . Sigeberht established the bishop 's seat of his kingdom for Felix at Dommoc , claimed variously for Dunwich or Walton , Felixstowe ( both coastal sites in Suffolk ) . If the seat was at Walton ( as Rochester claimed during the 13th century ) , the site of Dommoc may have been within the precinct of a Roman fort which formerly stood there .
= = = Foundation of the East Anglian school = = =
Sigeberht secured the future of the Church in East Anglia when he established a school in his kingdom so that boys could be taught reading and writing in Latin , on the model that he had witnessed in Gaul . Felix assisted him by obtaining teachers of the kind who taught in Kent . According to the Life of Gregory the Great , Paulinus of York , who from 633 to 644 was the Bishop of Rochester in northern Kent , had been connected with Rædwald 's court during the exile of Edwin .
= = = Foundation of Cnobheresburg = = =
The allegiance of Felix to Canterbury determined the Roman basis of the East Anglian Church , influenced along continental lines , though Felix 's training in Burgundy may have been coloured by the teaching of the Irish missionary Saint Columbanus in Luxeuil . In around 633 , perhaps shortly before Saint Aidan was sent to Lindisfarne from Iona , the Irish royal hermit and missionary Saint Fursey came to East Anglia from the Athlone area , along with his priests and brethren . Sigeberht granted him a monastery site in an old Roman fort called Cnobheresburg , usually identified as Burgh Castle , near Great Yarmouth . Felix and Fursey both effected a large number of conversions and established many churches in Sigeberht 's kingdom . Bede records that Archbishop Honorius and Bishop Felix much admired the work of Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne and it is therefore likely that they also appreciated the tasks accomplished by Saint Fursey , whose community also lived according to the ascetic principles of Irish Christianity .
= = Abdication and martyrdom = =
At some point during his reign , Sigeberht abdicated his power to Ecgric and retired to lead a religious life within a monastery he had built for his own use . Bede does not name the location of Sigeberht 's monastery , but later sources name it as Beodricesworth , afterwards called Bury St Edmunds . If that identification is accepted , the likely site was in the original precinct of the mediaeval abbey at Bury St Edmunds , probably the ' worth ' or curtilage of Beodric after whom the place was originally named . The site occupied a strong position on the upper reaches of the Lark valley , which drains north @-@ west into the Great Fen through important early settlements at Icklingham , Culford , West Stow and others . This was a line of access towards Ely , where a foundation of Saint Augustine may already have existed , and towards Soham , where Saint Felix is thought to have founded a monastery .
At an unknown date , which may have been in the early 640s , East Anglia was attacked by a Mercian army and Ecgric was obliged to defend it with a much smaller force , though one that was not negligible . The East Angles appealed to Sigeberht to leave his monastery and lead them in battle , hoping that his presence and the memory of his former military exploits would encourage the army and make them less likely to flee . Sigeberht refused , saying that he had renounced his worldly kingdom and now lived only for the heavenly kingdom . However , he was dragged from the monastery to the battlefield where , unwilling to bear arms , he went into battle carrying only a staff . The Mercians were victorious and Sigeberht , Ecgric and many of the East Angles were slain and their army was routed . In this way Sigeberht became a Christian martyr . He is among the names of the kings who according to an ancient saying , were avenged by the slaying of Penda in 654 .
The Church that Sigeberht had done so much to establish in East Anglia survived for two centuries , enduring ' evil times ' ( such as the period when the kingdom was under attack by the armies of Penda of Mercia ) . It lasted continuously under a succession of bishops until the Danish Great Heathen Army invaded East Anglia in the 860s .
Lives of the English Saints , written by John Henry Newman in 1843 , is amongst the texts that gives Sigeberht 's feast day as being observed on 29 October .
= Mildred Lewis Rutherford =
Mildred Lewis " Miss Millie " Rutherford ( July 16 , 1851 – August 15 , 1928 ) was a prominent educator and author from Athens , Georgia . She served the Lucy Cobb Institute , as its head and in other capacities , for over forty years , and oversaw the addition of the Seney @-@ Stovall Chapel to the school . Heavily involved in many organizations , she became the historian general of the United Daughters of the Confederacy ( UDC ) , and a speech given for the UDC was the first by a woman to be recorded in the Congressional Record . She was a prolific non @-@ fiction writer . Also known for her oratory , Rutherford was distinctive in dressing as a southern belle for her speeches . She held strong pro @-@ Confederacy , proslavery views and opposed women 's suffrage .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background = = =
Mildred Rutherford was born July 16 , 1851 , in Athens , Georgia ; she was the daughter of Laura Cobb Rutherford ( Howell and Thomas 's sister ) and Williams Rutherford , a professor of mathematics at the University of Georgia . Mildred Rutherford was the granddaughter of John Addison Cobb , whose involvement in agriculture ( he owned a plantation with 209 slaves by 1840 ) , the Georgia Railroad , and real estate made him " one of the area 's wealthiest men " . She was the niece of John 's sons Howell Cobb , who served six terms as a Democratic Congressman and Speaker of the House for two years , and the lawyer Thomas R.R. Cobb , one of the founders of the University of Georgia School of Law – he " codified Georgia 's state laws " , " wrote the wartime state constitution of 1861 " , and was a prominent proslavery propagandist ; T.R.R. Cobb founded Lucy Cobb Institute in response to a letter that Laura Rutherford had sent anonymously to the local paper .
= = = Education and career = = =
Rutherford entered the Lucy Cobb Institute at the age of eight " in the school 's first session " . She was graduated from there at the age of sixteen in 1868 .
= = = = Educator = = = =
After teaching in Atlanta for eight years , Rutherford served as the principal of the Lucy Cobb Institute in Athens from 1880 to 1895 and lived in a house directly across the street until it burned c . 1926 , continuing to serve the school in various capacities for over forty years ( including several years again at its head " with the title of ' president ' signaling the school 's college @-@ level ambitions " ) . According to Sarah Case ,
Rutherford took over a struggling institution and rebuilt it into one of the most prestigious schools for young women in Georgia . She immediately went to work improving its academic standards , beautifying the physical plant , and increasing enrollment . In agreeing to head the school , Rutherford had insisted that the all @-@ male board of directors cede to her its control of the budget and power to hire and fire staff .
She decided the students needed a chapel and had them write seeking funding for one . In 1881 , Nellie Stovall wrote " a beautiful and girlish letter " to George I. Seney , who responded with $ 10 @,@ 000 in funding ( and a challenge to the town for an additional $ 4 @,@ 000 ) for the structure , an octagonal red brick building called the Seney @-@ Stovall Chapel .
Case further describes Lucy Cobb under Rutherford 's direction :
Rutherford 's deep concern with propriety and feminine modesty should not obscure the fact that the school prepared women for more than traditional domestic roles . Lucy Cobb recognized that many of its alumnae would seek employment , and by teaching students marketable , and at the same time , respectable , skills , as well as genteel decorum and dress , Lucy Cobb created a new image of elite white single womanhood that combined aspects of the new woman and the southern belle , what I call the " new belle . " As early as 1885 , a Lucy Cobb commencement speaker argued that women ought to be allowed into more professions .
= = = = Orator and historian = = = =
Rutherford was an accomplished public speaker – she ofttimes dressed as a southern belle when orating – who addressed a great number of local organizations , including the YMCA , the Ladies Memorial Association ( for which she served as president ) , and the Athens chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy ( UDC ) , and in November 1912 addressed the national assembly of the UDC as their historian general .
She " became perhaps the best @-@ known amateur historian in the early twentieth century for her extensive writings and speeches , her historical journal , published from 1923 to 1927 , and her promotion of historical work among the UDC as that organization 's Historian General from 1911 to 1916 " . She gave " the first speech by a woman to be printed in the Congressional Record " in 1916 at a UDC convention .
" Miss Millie , " always a champion of southern traditions , was a woman of powerful personality , commanding presence , and fearlessly outspoken opinions ; she was known widely for the speeches she delivered in hoop skirts . For all her decorum , she seemed to enjoy the protracted battles over the plaster goats that stood at the end of the dormitory 's long veranda . The college boys periodically painted these animals in their school colors , red and black . At last they were broken when the boys attempted to hide them ; some of the former belles of Lucy Cobb still cherish pieces of the goats as souvenirs .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1927 Rutherford became seriously ill . Late on Christmas night , as she convalesced , her house suffered a devastating fire , consuming many of her personal papers and belongings , including " most of her private collection of Confederate artifacts " . She died on August 15 , 1928 , and was interred in Oconee Hill Cemetery , in East Hill , one of the two original sections of the cemetery . Her great niece Mildred Seydell was named in her honor and became a well @-@ known journalist , one of the first in Georgia , and a nationally syndicated columnist .
= = Views = =
Rutherford was Baptist with a strong faith and expressed a " deep preoccupation with propriety and morality " in her textbooks , criticizing " authors who openly portrayed sexuality or themselves lived in ways Rutherford found immoral " . She lauded the works of Southern writers and female writers .
According to University of Georgia historian Ann E. Marshall , she was a " tireless advocate of the ' Lost Cause ' version of southern history " ( referring to the Lost Cause of the Confederacy ) . Goals of her writing included " establishing the South 's contribution to United States history , legitimizing secession , and idealizing the antebellum plantation " , and she defended American slavery , thinking its only problem was the burden it put upon the white slaveholders . She viewed " true history " – the way she saw , defined , and proselytized it – as a potential common ground between North and South , and also believed it to be a potent political weapon in support of the causes she espoused . She was willing to alter the historical record to make her point -- in a speech in Dallas in 1916 she claimed that " the negroes in the South were never called slaves . That term came in with the abolition crusade , " even though her own state of Georgia used the word " slaves " in its official Declaration of Causes of Secession
In 1914 , she joined the Georgia Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage and became a " vocal opponent " of women 's suffrage and the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which was ratified on August 18 , 1920 . She viewed suffrage as " not a step toward equality , but rather a way of robbing women of the only power they truly held – that of feminine influence and persuasion within their families . Rutherford never reconciled this view with the fact that she herself was one of Georgia 's most publicly active and well @-@ known women of her time " . Her opposition was " formidable " : Dolly Blount Lamar and Rutherford headed the organization , and in 1919 this " conservative state " became the nation 's first to reject the amendment . Case asserts that while " Rutherford reserved her strongest resistance for the suffrage amendment " , she " opposed all constitutional amendments , including prohibition , despite her anti @-@ alcohol sentiments , on the basis of limiting federal power " .
= = Selected writings = =
Mildred Lewis Rutherford wrote 29 historically significant books and pamphlets . These were widely read . Among them are :
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1890 ) . English Authors : a hand @-@ book of English literature from Chaucer to living writers . Atlanta : The Constitution Book & Job Print .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1894 ) . American authors : a hand @-@ book of American literature from early colonial to living writers . Atlanta : The Franklin Printing and Publishing Company .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1906 ) . The South in History and Literature : a handbook of Southern authors from the Settlement of Jamestown , 1607 , to living writers . Atlanta : The Franklin @-@ Turner Company .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( November 21 , 1912 ) . Address delivered by Miss Mildred Lewis Rutherford , historian general , United Daughters of the Confederacy . Thirteen periods of United States history . New Orleans , La . Retrieved January 23 , 2012 @.@ at Internet archive .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1906 ) . French authors : a hand @-@ book of French literature . Froissart --Living writers . Atlanta : The Franklin Printing and Publishing Company .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1916 ) . Four Addresses . Paul Hunter Books , Arranged and printed by The Mildred Rutherford Historical Circle .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1920 , reprinted with new material 1998 ) . Truths of History : A Historical Perspective of the Civil War From the Southern Viewpoint . Athens , Georgia ( original ) ; Atlanta , Georgia ( reprint ) : Southern Lion Books , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 9662454 @-@ 0 @-@ 7 @.@ at Internet Archive
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis , The South Must Have Her Rightful Place in History , Athens , Georgia , 1923 .
Rutherford , Mildred Lewis ( 1926 ) . Georgia : the thirteenth colony . Athens , Georgia : McGregor . OCLC 1390253 .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Battle of the Coral Sea =
The Battle of the Coral Sea , fought during 4 – 8 May 1942 , was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia . The battle was the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other , as well as the first in which neither side 's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other .
In an attempt to strengthen their defensive positioning for their empire in the South Pacific , Japanese forces decided to invade and occupy Port Moresby in New Guinea and Tulagi in the southeastern Solomon Islands . The plan to accomplish this , called Operation MO , involved several major units of Japan 's Combined Fleet , including two fleet carriers and a light carrier to provide air cover for the invasion fleets , under the overall command of Japanese Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue . The US learned of the Japanese plan through signals intelligence and sent two United States Navy carrier task forces and a joint Australian @-@ American cruiser force , under the overall command of American Admiral Frank J. Fletcher , to oppose the Japanese offensive .
On 3 – 4 May , Japanese forces successfully invaded and occupied Tulagi , although several of their supporting warships were surprised and sunk or damaged by aircraft from the US fleet carrier Yorktown . Now aware of the presence of US carriers in the area , the Japanese fleet carriers advanced towards the Coral Sea with the intention of finding and destroying the Allied naval forces . Beginning on 7 May , the carrier forces from the two sides exchanged airstrikes over two consecutive days . The first day , the US sank the Japanese light carrier Shōhō , while the Japanese sank a US destroyer and heavily damaged a fleet oiler ( which was later scuttled ) . The next day , the Japanese fleet carrier Shōkaku was heavily damaged , the US fleet carrier Lexington was critically damaged ( and was scuttled as a result ) , and the Yorktown was damaged . With both sides having suffered heavy losses in aircraft and carriers damaged or sunk , the two fleets disengaged and retired from the battle area . Because of the loss of carrier air cover , Inoue recalled the Port Moresby invasion fleet , intending to try again later .
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk , the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons . The battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies . More importantly , the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku – one damaged and the other with a depleted aircraft complement – were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway , which took place the following month , ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the US victory in that battle . The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from reattempting to invade Port Moresby from the ocean . Two months later , the Allies took advantage of Japan 's resulting strategic vulnerability in the South Pacific and launched the Guadalcanal Campaign that , along with the New Guinea Campaign , eventually broke Japanese defenses in the South Pacific and was a significant contributing factor to Japan 's ultimate defeat in World War II .
= = Background = =
= = = Japanese expansion = = =
On 7 December 1941 , using aircraft carriers , Japan attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . The attack destroyed or crippled most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's battleships and brought the United States into the war . In launching this war , Japanese leaders sought to neutralize the American fleet , seize territory rich in natural resources , and obtain strategic military bases to defend their far @-@ flung empire . At the same time that they were attacking Pearl Harbor , the Japanese attacked Malaya , causing Britain , Australia , and New Zealand to join the United States in the war against Japan . In the words of the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) Combined Fleet " Secret Order Number One " , dated 1 November 1941 , the goals of the initial Japanese campaigns in the impending war were to " ( eject ) British and American strength from the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines , ( and ) to establish a policy of autonomous self @-@ sufficiency and economic independence . "
To support these goals , during the first few months of 1942 , besides Malaya , Japanese forces attacked and successfully took control of the Philippines , Singapore , the Netherlands East Indies , Wake Island , New Britain , the Gilbert Islands , and Guam , while inflicting heavy losses on opposing Allied land , naval , and air forces . Japan planned to use these conquered territories to establish a perimeter defense for its empire from which it expected to employ attritional tactics to defeat or exhaust any Allied counterattacks .
Shortly after the war began , Japan 's Naval General Staff recommended an invasion of Northern Australia to prevent Australia from being used as a base to threaten Japan 's perimeter defenses in the South Pacific . The Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA ) , however , rejected the recommendation , stating that it did not have the forces or shipping capacity available to conduct such an operation . At the same time , Vice Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue , commander of the IJN 's 4th Fleet ( also called the South Seas Force ) which consisted of most of the naval units in the South Pacific area , advocated the occupation of Tulagi in the southeastern Solomon Islands and Port Moresby in New Guinea , which would put northern Australia within range of Japanese land @-@ based aircraft . Inoue believed the capture and control of these locations would provide greater security and defensive depth for the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain . The navy 's general staff and the IJA accepted Inoue 's proposal and promoted further operations , using these locations as supporting bases , to seize New Caledonia , Fiji , and Samoa and thereby cut the supply and communication lines between Australia and the United States .
In April 1942 , the army and navy developed a plan that was titled Operation MO . The plan called for Port Moresby to be invaded from the ocean and secured by 10 May . The plan also included the seizure of Tulagi on 2 – 3 May , where the navy would establish a seaplane base for potential air operations against Allied territories and forces in the South Pacific and to provide a base for reconnaissance aircraft . Upon the completion of MO , the navy planned to initiate Operation RY , using ships released from MO , to seize Nauru and Ocean Island for their phosphate deposits on 15 May . Further operations against Fiji , Samoa and New Caledonia ( Operation FS ) were to be planned once MO and RY were completed . Because of a damaging air attack by Allied land- and carrier @-@ based aircraft on Japanese naval forces invading the Lae @-@ Salamaua area in New Guinea in March , Inoue requested the Combined Fleet send carriers to provide air cover for the MO forces . Inoue was especially worried about Allied bombers stationed at air bases in Townsville and Cooktown , Australia , beyond the range of his own bombers located at Rabaul and Lae .
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , commander of Japan 's Combined Fleet , was concurrently planning an operation for June that he hoped would lure the U.S. Navy 's carriers , none of which had been damaged in the Pearl Harbor attack , into a decisive showdown in the central Pacific near Midway Atoll . In the meantime , however , Yamamoto detached some of his large warships , including two fleet carriers , a light carrier , a cruiser division , and two destroyer divisions , to support MO , and placed Inoue in charge of the naval portion of the operation .
= = = Allied response = = =
Unknown to the Japanese , the U.S. Navy , led by the Communication Security Section of the Office of Naval Communications , had for several years enjoyed some success with penetrating Japanese communication ciphers and codes . By March 1942 , the U.S. was able to decipher up to 15 % of the IJN 's Ro or Naval Codebook D code ( called the " JN @-@ 25B " code by the Americans ) which was used by the IJN for approximately half of its communications . By the end of April the Americans were reading up to 85 % of the signals broadcast in the Ro code .
In March 1942 , the U.S. first noticed mention of the MO operation in intercepted messages . On 5 April , the Americans intercepted an IJN message directing a carrier and other large warships to proceed to Inoue 's area of operations . On 13 April , the British deciphered an IJN message informing Inoue that the Fifth Carrier Division , consisting of the fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku , was en route to his command from Formosa via the main IJN base at Truk . The British passed the message to the Americans , along with their conclusion that Port Moresby was the likely target of MO .
Admiral Chester Nimitz , the new commander of Allied forces in the Pacific , and his staff discussed the deciphered messages and agreed that the Japanese were likely initiating a major operation in the Southwest Pacific in early May with Port Moresby as the probable target . The Allies regarded Port Moresby as a key base for a planned counteroffensive , under Douglas MacArthur , against Japanese forces in the southwest Pacific area . Nimitz 's staff also concluded that the Japanese operation might include carrier raids on Allied bases in Samoa and at Suva . Nimitz , after consultation with Admiral Ernest King , Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet , decided to contest the Japanese operation by sending all four of the Pacific fleet 's available aircraft carriers to the Coral Sea . By 27 April , further signals intelligence confirmed most of the details and targets of the MO and RY plans .
On 29 April , Nimitz issued orders that sent his four carriers and their supporting warships towards the Coral Sea . Task Force 17 ( TF 17 ) , commanded by Rear Admiral Fletcher and consisting of the carrier Yorktown , escorted by three cruisers and four destroyers and supported by a replenishment group of two oilers and two destroyers , was already in the South Pacific , having departed Tongatabu on 27 April en route to the Coral Sea . TF 11 , commanded by Rear Admiral Aubrey Fitch and consisting of the carrier Lexington with two cruisers and five destroyers , was between Fiji and New Caledonia . TF 16 , commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey and including the carriers Enterprise and Hornet , had just returned to Pearl Harbor from the Doolittle Raid in the central Pacific . TF16 immediately departed but would not reach the South Pacific in time to participate in the battle . Nimitz placed Fletcher in command of Allied naval forces in the South Pacific area until Halsey arrived with TF 16 . Although the Coral Sea area was under MacArthur 's command , Fletcher and Halsey were directed to continue to report to Nimitz while in the Coral Sea area , not to MacArthur .
Based on intercepted radio traffic from TF 16 as it returned to Pearl Harbor , the Japanese assumed that all but one of the U.S. Navy 's carriers were in the central Pacific . The Japanese did not know the location of the remaining carrier , but did not expect an American carrier response to MO until the operation was well underway .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
During late April , the Japanese submarines Ro @-@ 33 and Ro @-@ 34 reconnoitered the area where landings were planned . The submarines investigated Rossel Island and the Deboyne Group anchorage in the Louisiade Archipelago , Jomard Channel , and the route to Port Moresby from the east . They did not sight any Allied ships in the area and returned to Rabaul on 23 and 24 April respectively .
The Japanese Port Moresby Invasion Force , commanded by Rear Admiral Kōsō Abe , included 11 transport ships carrying about 5 @,@ 000 soldiers from the IJA 's South Seas Detachment plus approximately 500 troops from the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force ( SNLF ) . Escorting the transports was the Port Moresby Attack Force with one light cruiser and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Sadamichi Kajioka . Abe 's ships departed Rabaul for the 840 nmi ( 970 mi ; 1 @,@ 560 km ) trip to Port Moresby on 4 May and were joined by Kajioka 's force the next day . The ships , proceeding at 8 kn ( 9 @.@ 2 mph ; 15 km / h ) , planned to transit the Jomard Channel in the Louisiades to pass around the southern tip of New Guinea to arrive at Port Moresby by 10 May . The Allied garrison at Port Moresby numbered around 5 @,@ 333 men , but only half of these were infantry and all were badly equipped and undertrained .
Leading the invasion of Tulagi was the Tulagi Invasion Force , commanded by Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima , consisting of two minelayers , two destroyers , six minesweepers , two subchasers , and a transport ship carrying about 400 troops from the 3rd Kure SNLF . Supporting the Tulagi force was the Covering Group with the light carrier Shōhō , four heavy cruisers , and one destroyer , commanded by Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō . A separate Cover Force ( sometimes referred to as the Support Group ) , commanded by Rear Admiral Kuninori Marumo and consisting of two light cruisers , the seaplane tender Kamikawa Maru , and three gunboats , joined the Covering Group in providing distant protection for the Tulagi invasion . Once Tulagi was secured on 3 or 4 May , the Covering Group and Cover Force were to reposition to help screen the Port Moresby invasion . Inoue directed the MO operation from the cruiser Kashima , with which he arrived at Rabaul from Truk on 4 May .
Gotō 's force left Truk on 28 April , cut through the Solomons between Bougainville and Choiseul and took station near New Georgia Island . Marumo 's support group sortied from New Ireland on 29 April headed for Thousand Ships Bay , Santa Isabel Island , to establish a seaplane base on 2 May to support the Tulagi assault . Shima 's invasion force departed Rabaul on 30 April .
The Carrier Strike Force , with the carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku , two heavy cruisers , and six destroyers , sortied from Truk on 1 May . The strike force was commanded by Vice Admiral Takeo Takagi ( flag on cruiser Myōkō ) , with Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara , on Zuikaku , in tactical command of the carrier air forces . The Carrier Strike Force was to proceed down the eastern side of the Solomon Islands and enter the Coral Sea south of Guadalcanal . Once in the Coral Sea , the carriers were to provide air cover for the invasion forces , eliminate Allied air power at Port Moresby , and intercept and destroy any Allied naval forces which entered the Coral Sea in response .
En route to the Coral Sea , Takagi 's carriers were to deliver nine Zero fighter aircraft to Rabaul . Bad weather during two attempts to make the delivery on 2 – 3 May compelled the aircraft to return to the carriers , stationed 240 nmi ( 280 mi ; 440 km ) from Rabaul , and one of the Zeros was forced to ditch in the ocean . In order to try to keep to the MO timetable , Takagi was forced to abandon the delivery mission after the second attempt and direct his force towards the Solomon Islands to refuel .
To give advance warning of the approach of any Allied naval forces , the Japanese sent submarines I @-@ 22 , I @-@ 24 , I @-@ 28 , and I @-@ 29 to form a scouting line in the ocean about 450 nmi ( 520 mi ; 830 km ) southwest of Guadalcanal . Fletcher 's forces , however , had entered the Coral Sea area before the submarines took station , and the Japanese were therefore unaware of their presence . Another submarine , I @-@ 21 , which was sent to scout around Nouméa , was attacked by Yorktown aircraft on 2 May . The submarine took no damage and apparently did not realize that it had been attacked by carrier aircraft . Ro @-@ 33 and Ro @-@ 34 were also deployed in an attempt to blockade Port Moresby , arriving off the town on 5 May . Neither submarine engaged any ships during the battle .
On the morning of 1 May , TF 17 and TF 11 united about 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) northwest of New Caledonia ( 16 ° 16 ′ S 162 ° 20 ′ E ) . Fletcher immediately detached TF11 to refuel from the oiler Tippecanoe , while TF 17 refueled from Neosho . TF 17 completed refueling the next day , but TF 11 reported that they would not be finished fueling until 4 May . Fletcher elected to take TF 17 northwest towards the Louisiades and ordered TF 11 to meet TF 44 , which was en route from Sydney and Nouméa , on 4 May once refueling was complete . TF 44 was a joint Australia – U.S. warship force under MacArthur 's command , led by Australian Rear Admiral John Crace and made up of the cruisers HMAS Australia , Hobart , and USS Chicago , along with three destroyers . Once it completed refueling TF 11 , Tippecanoe departed the Coral Sea to deliver its remaining fuel to Allied ships at Efate .
= = = Tulagi = = =
Early on 3 May , Shima 's force arrived off Tulagi and began disembarking the naval troops to occupy the island . Tulagi was undefended : the small garrison of Australian commandos and a Royal Australian Air Force reconnaissance unit evacuated just before Shima 's arrival . The Japanese forces immediately began construction of a seaplane and communications base . Aircraft from Shōhō covered the landings until early afternoon , when Gotō 's force turned towards Bougainville to refuel in preparation to support the landings at Port Moresby .
At 17 : 00 on 3 May , Fletcher was notified that the Japanese Tulagi invasion force had been sighted the day before , approaching the southern Solomons . Unknown to Fletcher , TF 11 completed refueling that morning ahead of schedule and was only 60 nmi ( 69 mi ; 110 km ) east of TF 17 , but was unable to communicate its status because of Fletcher 's orders to maintain radio silence . TF 17 changed course and proceeded at 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) towards Guadalcanal to launch airstrikes against the Japanese forces at Tulagi the next morning .
On 4 May , from a position 100 nmi ( 120 mi ; 190 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 11 ° 10 ′ S 158 ° 49 ′ E ) , a total of 60 aircraft from TF 17 launched three consecutive strikes against Shima 's forces off Tulagi . Yorktown 's aircraft surprised Shima 's ships and sank the destroyer Kikuzuki ( 09 ° 07 ′ S 160 ° 12 ′ E ) and three of the minesweepers , damaged four other ships , and destroyed four seaplanes which were supporting the landings . The Americans lost one dive bomber and two fighters in the strikes , but all of the aircrew were eventually rescued . After recovering its aircraft late in the evening of 4 May , TF17 retired towards the south . In spite of the damage suffered in the carrier strikes , the Japanese continued construction of the seaplane base and began flying reconnaissance missions from Tulagi by 6 May .
Takagi 's Carrier Striking Force was refueling 350 nmi ( 400 mi ; 650 km ) north of Tulagi when it received word of Fletcher 's strike on 4 May . Takagi terminated refueling , headed southeast , and sent scout planes to search east of the Solomons , believing that the American carriers were in that area . Since no Allied ships were in that area , the search planes found nothing .
= = = Air searches and decisions = = =
At 08 : 16 on 5 May , TF 17 rendezvoused with TF 11 and TF 44 at a predetermined point 320 nmi ( 370 mi ; 590 km ) south of Guadalcanal ( 15 ° S 160 ° E ) . At about the same time , four Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters from Yorktown intercepted a Kawanishi H6K reconnaissance flying boat from the Yokohama Air Group of the 25th Air Flotilla based at the Shortland Islands and shot it down 11 nmi ( 13 mi ; 20 km ) from TF 11 . The aircraft failed to send a report before it crashed , but when it didn 't return to base the Japanese correctly assumed that it had been shot down by carrier aircraft .
A message from Pearl Harbor notified Fletcher that radio intelligence deduced the Japanese planned to land their troops at Port Moresby on 10 May and their fleet carriers would likely be operating close to the invasion convoy . Armed with this information , Fletcher directed TF 17 to refuel from Neosho . After the refueling was completed on 6 May , he planned to take his forces north towards the Louisiades and do battle on 7 May .
In the meantime , Takagi 's carrier force steamed down the east side of the Solomons throughout the day on 5 May , turned west to pass south of San Cristobal ( Makira ) , and entered the Coral Sea after transiting between Guadalcanal and Rennell Island in the early morning hours of 6 May . Takagi commenced refueling his ships 180 nmi ( 210 mi ; 330 km ) west of Tulagi in preparation for the carrier battle he expected would take place the next day .
On 6 May , Fletcher absorbed TF 11 and TF 44 into TF 17 . Believing the Japanese carriers were still well to the north near Bougainville , Fletcher continued to refuel . Reconnaissance patrols conducted from the American carriers throughout the day failed to locate any of the Japanese naval forces , because they were located just beyond scouting range .
At 10 : 00 , a Kawanishi reconnaissance flying boat from Tulagi sighted TF 17 and notified its headquarters . Takagi received the report at 10 : 50 . At that time , Takagi 's force was about 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) north of Fletcher , near the maximum range for his carrier aircraft . Takagi , whose ships were still refueling , was not yet ready to engage in battle . He concluded , based on the sighting report , TF 17 was heading south and increasing the range . Furthermore , Fletcher 's ships were under a large , low @-@ hanging overcast which Takagi and Hara felt would make it difficult for their aircraft to find the American carriers . Takagi detached his two carriers with two destroyers under Hara 's command to head towards TF 17 at 20 kn ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) in order to be in position to attack at first light the next day while the rest of his ships completed refueling .
American B @-@ 17 bombers based in Australia and staging through Port Moresby attacked the approaching Port Moresby invasion forces , including Gotō 's warships , several times during the day on 6 May without success . MacArthur 's headquarters radioed Fletcher with reports of the attacks and the locations of the Japanese invasion forces . MacArthur 's fliers ' reports of seeing a carrier ( Shōhō ) about 425 nmi ( 489 mi ; 787 km ) northwest of TF17 further convinced Fletcher fleet carriers were accompanying the invasion force .
At 18 : 00 , TF 17 completed fueling and Fletcher detached Neosho with a destroyer , Sims , to take station further south at a prearranged rendezvous ( 16 ° S 158 ° E ) . TF 17 then turned to head northwest towards Rossel Island in the Louisiades . Unbeknownst to the two adversaries , their carriers were only 70 nmi ( 130 km ) away from each other by 20 : 00 that night . At 20 : 00 ( 13 ° 20 ′ S 157 ° 40 ′ E ) , Hara reversed course to meet Takagi who completed refueling and was now heading in Hara 's direction .
Late on 6 May or early on 7 May , Kamikawa Maru set up a seaplane base in the Deboyne Islands in order to help provide air support for the invasion forces as they approached Port Moresby . The rest of Marumo 's Cover Force then took station near the D 'Entrecasteaux Islands to help screen Abe 's oncoming convoy .
= = = Carrier battle , first day = = =
= = = = Morning strikes = = = =
At 06 : 25 on 7 May , TF 17 was 115 nmi ( 132 mi ; 213 km ) south of Rossel Island ( 13 ° 20 ′ S 154 ° 21 ′ E ) . At this time , Fletcher sent Crace 's cruiser and destroyer force , now designated Task Group 17 @.@ 3 ( TG 17 @.@ 3 ) , to block the Jomard Passage . Fletcher understood that Crace would be operating without air cover since TF 17 's carriers would be busy trying to locate and attack the Japanese carriers . The detachment of Crace 's warships reduced the anti @-@ aircraft defenses for Fletcher 's carriers . Nevertheless , Fletcher decided that the risk was necessary in order to ensure that the Japanese invasion forces could not slip through to Port Moresby while he was engaged with the Japanese carriers .
Believing Takagi 's carrier force was somewhere north of his location , in the vicinity of the Louisiades , Fletcher directed Yorktown to send 10 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers as scouts to search that area beginning at 06 : 19 . In the meantime , Takagi , located approximately 300 nmi ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) east of Fletcher ( 13 ° 12 ′ S 158 ° 05 ′ E ) , launched 12 Nakajima B5Ns at 06 : 00 to scout for TF 17 . Hara believed that Fletcher 's ships were located to the south and advised Takagi to send the aircraft to search that area . Around the same time , Gotō 's cruisers Kinugasa and Furutaka launched four Kawanishi E7K2 Type 94 floatplanes to search southeast of the Louisiades . Augmenting their search were several floatplanes from Deboyne , four Kawanishi H6Ks from Tulagi , and three Mitsubishi G4M bombers from Rabaul . Each side readied the rest of its carrier attack aircraft to launch immediately once the enemy was located .
At 07 : 22 one of Takagi 's carrier scouts , from Shōkaku , reported that it located American ships bearing 182 ° , 163 nmi ( 188 mi ; 302 km ) from Takagi . At 07 : 45 , the scout confirmed that it had located " one carrier , one cruiser , and three destroyers " . Another Shōkaku scout aircraft quickly confirmed the sighting . The Shōkaku aircraft actually sighted and misidentified the Neosho and Sims . Believing that he had located the American carriers , Hara , with Takagi 's concurrence , immediately launched all of his available aircraft . A total of 78 aircraft — 18 Zero fighters , 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers , and 24 torpedo aircraft — began launching from Shōkaku and Zuikaku at 08 : 00 and were on their way by 08 : 15 towards the reported sighting .
At 08 : 20 , one of the Furutaka aircraft found Fletcher 's carriers and immediately reported it to Inoue 's headquarters at Rabaul , which passed the report on to Takagi . The sighting was confirmed by a Kinugasa floatplane at 08 : 30 . Takagi and Hara , confused by the conflicting sighting reports they were receiving , decided to continue with the strike on the ships to their south , but turned their carriers towards the northwest to close the distance with Furutaka 's reported contact . Takagi and Hara considered that the conflicting reports might mean that the U.S. carrier forces were operating in two separate groups .
At 08 : 15 , a Yorktown SBD piloted by John L. Nielsen sighted Gotō 's force screening the invasion convoy . Nielsen , making an error in his coded message , reported the sighting as " two carriers and four heavy cruisers " at 10 ° 3 ′ S 152 ° 27 ′ E , 225 nmi ( 259 mi ; 417 km ) northwest of TF17 . Fletcher concluded that the Japanese main carrier force was located and ordered the launch of all available carrier aircraft to attack . By 10 : 13 , the American strike of 93 aircraft – 18 Grumman F4F Wildcats , 53 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers , and 22 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers – was on its way . At 10 : 19 , Nielsen landed and discovered his coding error . Although Gotō 's force included Shōhō , Nielsen thought that he saw two cruisers and four destroyers . At 10 : 12 , however , Fletcher received a report from a flight of three United States Army B @-@ 17s of an aircraft carrier , ten transports , and 16 warships 30 nmi ( 35 mi ; 56 km ) south of Nielsen 's sighting at 10 ° 35 ′ S 152 ° 36 ′ E. The B @-@ 17s actually saw the same thing as Nielsen : Shōhō , Gotō 's cruisers , plus the Port Moresby Invasion Force . Believing that the B @-@ 17 sighting was the main Japanese carrier force , Fletcher directed the airborne strike force towards this target .
At 09 : 15 , Takagi 's strike force reached its target area , sighted Neosho and Sims , and searched in vain for the American carriers . Finally , at 10 : 51 Shōkaku scout aircrews realized they were mistaken in their identification of the oiler and destroyer as aircraft carriers . Takagi now realized the American carriers were between him and the invasion convoy , placing the invasion forces in extreme danger . Takagi ordered his aircraft to immediately attack Neosho and Sims and then return to their carriers as quickly as possible . At 11 : 15 , the torpedo bombers and fighters abandoned the mission and headed back towards the carriers with their ordnance while the 36 dive bombers attacked the two American ships .
Four dive bombers attacked Sims and the rest dived on Neosho . The destroyer was hit by three bombs , broke in half , and sank immediately , killing all but 14 of her 192 @-@ man crew . Neosho was hit by seven bombs . One of the dive bombers , hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire , crashed into the oiler . Heavily damaged and without power , Neosho was left drifting and slowly sinking ( 16 ° 09 ′ S 158 ° 03 ′ E ) . Before losing power , Neosho was able to notify Fletcher by radio that she was under attack and in trouble , but garbled any further details as to just who or what was attacking her and gave wrong coordinates ( 16 ° 25 ′ S 157 ° 31 ′ E ) for its position .
The American strike aircraft sighted Shōhō a short distance northeast of Misima Island at 10 : 40 and deployed to attack . The Japanese carrier was protected by six Zeros and two Mitsubishi A5M fighters flying combat air patrol ( CAP ) , as the rest of the carrier 's aircraft were being prepared below decks for a strike against the American carriers . Gotō 's cruisers surrounded the carrier in a diamond formation , 3 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 2 @,@ 700 – 4 @,@ 600 m ) off each of Shōhō 's corners .
Attacking first , Lexington 's air group , led by Commander William B. Ault , hit Shōhō with two 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs and five torpedoes , causing severe damage . At 11 : 00 , Yorktown 's air group attacked the burning and now almost stationary carrier , scoring with up to 11 more 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs and at least two torpedoes . Torn apart , Shōhō sank at 11 : 35 ( 10 ° 29 ′ S 152 ° 55 ′ E ) . Fearing more air attacks , Gotō withdrew his warships to the north , but sent the destroyer Sazanami back at 14 : 00 to rescue survivors . Only 203 of the carrier 's 834 @-@ man crew were recovered . Three American aircraft were lost in the attack : two SBDs from Lexington and one from Yorktown . All of Shōhō 's aircraft complement of 18 was lost , but three of the CAP fighter pilots were able to ditch at Deboyne and survived . At 12 : 10 , using a prearranged message to signal TF 17 on the success of the mission , Lexington SBD pilot and squadron commander Robert E. Dixon radioed " Scratch one flat top ! Signed Bob . "
= = = = Afternoon operations = = = =
The American aircraft returned and landed on their carriers by 13 : 38 . By 14 : 20 , the aircraft were rearmed and ready to launch against the Port Moresby Invasion Force or Gotō 's cruisers . Fletcher , however , was concerned that the whereabouts of the rest of the Japanese fleet carriers were still unknown . He was informed that Allied intelligence sources believed that up to four Japanese carriers might be supporting the MO operation . Fletcher concluded that by the time his scout aircraft located the remaining Japanese carriers it would be too late in the day to mount a strike . Thus , Fletcher decided to hold off on another strike this day and remain concealed under the thick overcast with fighters ready in defense . Fletcher turned TF17 southwest .
Apprised of the loss of Shōhō , Inoue ordered the invasion convoy to temporarily withdraw to the north and ordered Takagi , at this time located 225 nmi ( 259 mi ; 417 km ) east of TF 17 , to destroy the American carrier forces . As the invasion convoy reversed course , it was bombed by eight U.S. Army B @-@ 17s , but was not damaged . Gotō and Kajioka were told to assemble their ships south of Rossel Island for a night surface battle if the American ships came within range .
At 12 : 40 , a Deboyne @-@ based seaplane sighted and reported Crace 's force bearing 175 ° , 78 nmi ( 90 mi ; 144 km ) from Deboyne . At 13 : 15 , an aircraft from Rabaul sighted Crace 's force but submitted an erroneous report , stating the force contained two carriers and was located bearing 205 ° , 115 nmi ( 213 km ) from Deboyne . Based on these reports , Takagi , who was still awaiting the return of all of his aircraft from attacking Neosho , turned his carriers due west at 13 : 30 and advised Inoue at 15 : 00 that the U.S. carriers were at least 430 nmi ( 490 mi ; 800 km ) west of his location and that he would therefore be unable to attack them that day .
Inoue 's staff directed two groups of attack aircraft from Rabaul , already airborne since that morning , towards Crace 's reported position . The first group included 12 torpedo @-@ armed G4M bombers and the second group comprised 19 Mitsubishi G3M land attack aircraft armed with bombs . Both groups found and attacked Crace 's ships at 14 : 30 and claimed to have sunk a " California @-@ type " battleship and damaged another battleship and cruiser . In reality , Crace 's ships were undamaged and shot down four G4Ms . A short time later , three U.S. Army B @-@ 17s mistakenly bombed Crace , but caused no damage .
Crace at 15 : 26 radioed Fletcher he could not complete his mission without air support . Crace retired southward to a position about 220 nmi ( 250 mi ; 410 km ) southeast of Port Moresby to increase the range from Japanese carrier- or land @-@ based aircraft while remaining close enough to intercept any Japanese naval forces advancing beyond the Louisiades through either the Jomard Passage or the China Strait . Crace 's ships were low on fuel , and as Fletcher was maintaining radio silence ( and had not informed him in advance ) , Crace had no idea of Fletcher 's location , status , or intentions .
Shortly after 15 : 00 , Zuikaku monitored a message from a Deboyne @-@ based reconnaissance aircraft reporting ( incorrectly ) Crace 's force altered course to 120 ° true ( southeast ) . Takagi 's staff assumed the aircraft was shadowing Fletcher 's carriers and determined if the Allied ships held that course , they would be within striking range shortly before nightfall . Takagi and Hara determined to attack immediately with a select group of aircraft , minus fighter escort , even though it meant the strike would return after dark .
To try to confirm the location of the American carriers , at 15 : 15 Hara sent a flight of eight torpedo bombers as scouts to sweep 200 nmi ( 230 mi ; 370 km ) westward . About that same time , the dive bombers returned from their attack on Neosho and landed . Six of the weary dive bomber pilots were told they would be immediately departing on another mission . Choosing his most experienced crews , at 16 : 15 Hara launched 12 dive bombers and 15 torpedo planes with orders to fly bearing 277 ° to 280 nmi ( 320 mi ; 520 km ) . The eight scout aircraft reached the end of their 200 nmi ( 230 mi ; 370 km ) search leg and turned back without seeing Fletcher 's ships .
At 17 : 47 , TF 17 – operating under thick overcast 200 nmi ( 230 mi ; 370 km ) west of Takagi – detected the Japanese strike on radar heading in their direction , turned southeast into the wind , and vectored 11
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to some definitions of a planet , it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead . There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and there are others so far away that they take thousands of years to orbit . Some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star . Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way , but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets .
The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life . There is special interest in planets that orbit in a star 's habitable zone , where it is possible for liquid water , a prerequisite for life on Earth , to exist on the surface . The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life .
Besides exoplanets , there are also rogue planets , which do not orbit any star and which tend to be considered separately , especially if they are gas giants , in which case they are often counted , like WISE 0855 − 0714 , as sub @-@ brown dwarfs . The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions ( or more ) .
= = Definition = =
= = = IAU = = =
The official definition of " planet " used by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) only covers the Solar System and thus does not apply to exoplanets . As of April 2011 , the only defining statement issued by the IAU that pertains to exoplanets is a working definition issued in 2001 and modified in 2003 . That definition contains the following criteria :
Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium ( currently calculated to be 13 Jupiter masses for objects of solar metallicity ) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are " planets " ( no matter how they formed ) . The minimum mass / size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System .
Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are " brown dwarfs " , no matter how they formed or where they are located .
Free @-@ floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not " planets " , but are " sub @-@ brown dwarfs " ( or whatever name is most appropriate ) .
= = = Alternatives = = =
However , the IAU 's working definition is not universally accepted . One alternate suggestion is that planets should be distinguished from brown dwarfs on the basis of formation . It is widely thought that giant planets form through core accretion , which may sometimes produce planets with masses above the deuterium fusion threshold ; massive planets of that sort may have already been observed . Brown dwarfs form like stars from the direct collapse of clouds of gas and this formation mechanism also produces objects that are below the 13 MJup limit and can be as low as 1 MJup . Objects in this mass range that orbit their stars with wide separations of hundreds or thousands of AU and have large star / object mass ratios likely formed as brown dwarfs ; their atmospheres would likely have a composition more similar to their host star than accretion @-@ formed planets which would contain increased abundances of heavier elements . Most directly imaged planets as of April 2014 are massive and have wide orbits so probably represent the low @-@ mass end of brown dwarf formation .
Also , the 13 @-@ Jupiter @-@ mass cutoff does not have precise physical significance . Deuterium fusion can occur in some objects with a mass below that cutoff . The amount of deuterium fused depends to some extent on the composition of the object . The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 25 Jupiter masses , saying , " The fact that there is no special feature around 13 MJup in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit " . The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory : " The 13 Jupiter @-@ mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores , and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity . " The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass ( or minimum mass ) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses . Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs , rather than deuterium fusion , formation process or location , is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure with the dividing line at around 5 Jupiter masses . Another suggestion , based on mass – density relationships , is that the dividing line should be at 60 Jupiter masses .
= = History of detection = =
For centuries philosophers and scientists supposed that extrasolar planets existed , but there was no way of detecting them or of knowing their frequency or how similar they might be to the planets of the Solar System . Various detection claims made in the nineteenth century were rejected by astronomers . The first confirmed detection came in 1992 , with the discovery of several terrestrial @-@ mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257 + 12 . The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main @-@ sequence star was made in 1995 , when a giant planet was found in a four @-@ day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi . Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes , but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods such as the transit method and the radial @-@ velocity method .
= = = Early speculations = = =
In the sixteenth century the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno , an early supporter of the Copernican theory that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun ( heliocentrism ) , put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets .
In the eighteenth century the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the " General Scholium " that concludes his Principia . Making a comparison to the Sun 's planets , he wrote " And if the fixed stars are the centers of similar systems , they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One . "
In 1952 , more than 40 years before the first hot Jupiter was discovered , Otto Struve wrote that there is no compelling reason why planets could not be much closer to their parent star than is the case in the Solar System , and proposed that Doppler spectroscopy and the transit method could detect super @-@ Jupiters in short orbits .
= = = Discredited claims = = =
Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since the nineteenth century . Some of the earliest involve the binary star 70 Ophiuchi . In 1855 Capt. W. S. Jacob at the East India Company 's Madras Observatory reported that orbital anomalies made it " highly probable " that there was a " planetary body " in this system . In the 1890s , Thomas J. J. See of the University of Chicago and the United States Naval Observatory stated that the orbital anomalies proved the existence of a dark body in the 70 Ophiuchi system with a 36 @-@ year period around one of the stars . However , Forest Ray Moulton published a paper proving that a three @-@ body system with those orbital parameters would be highly unstable . During the 1950s and 1960s , Peter van de Kamp of Swarthmore College made another prominent series of detection claims , this time for planets orbiting Barnard 's Star . Astronomers now generally regard all the early reports of detection as erroneous .
In 1991 Andrew Lyne , M. Bailes and S. L. Shemar claimed to have discovered a pulsar planet in orbit around PSR 1829 @-@ 10 , using pulsar timing variations . The claim briefly received intense attention , but Lyne and his team soon retracted it .
= = = Confirmed discoveries = = =
As of 15 July 2016 , a total of 3 @,@ 472 confirmed exoplanets are listed in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia , including a few that were confirmations of controversial claims from the late 1980s . The first published discovery to receive subsequent confirmation was made in 1988 by the Canadian astronomers Bruce Campbell , G. A. H. Walker , and Stephenson Yang of the University of Victoria and the University of British Columbia . Although they were cautious about claiming a planetary detection , their radial @-@ velocity observations suggested that a planet orbits the star Gamma Cephei . Partly because the observations were at the very limits of instrumental capabilities at the time , astronomers remained skeptical for several years about this and other similar observations . It was thought some of the apparent planets might instead have been brown dwarfs , objects intermediate in mass between planets and stars . In 1990 additional observations were published that supported the existence of the planet orbiting Gamma Cephei , but subsequent work in 1992 again raised serious doubts . Finally , in 2003 , improved techniques allowed the planet 's existence to be confirmed .
On 9 January 1992 , radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257 + 12 . This discovery was confirmed , and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets . Follow @-@ up observations solidified these results , and confirmation of a third planet in 1994 revived the topic in the popular press . These pulsar planets are thought to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar , in a second round of planet formation , or else to be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that somehow survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits .
On 6 October 1995 , Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting a main @-@ sequence star , namely the nearby G @-@ type star 51 Pegasi . This discovery , made at the Observatoire de Haute @-@ Provence , ushered in the modern era of exoplanetary discovery . Technological advances , most notably in high @-@ resolution spectroscopy , led to the rapid detection of many new exoplanets : astronomers could detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their host stars . More extrasolar planets were later detected by observing the variation in a star 's apparent luminosity as an orbiting planet passed in front of it .
Initially , most known exoplanets were massive planets that orbited very close to their parent stars . Astronomers were surprised by these " hot Jupiters " , because theories of planetary formation had indicated that giant planets should only form at large distances from stars . But eventually more planets of other sorts were found , and it is now clear that hot Jupiters are a minority of exoplanets . In 1999 , Upsilon Andromedae became the first main @-@ sequence star known to have multiple planets . Kepler @-@ 16 contains the first discovered planet that orbits around a binary main @-@ sequence star system .
On 26 February 2014 , NASA announced the discovery of 715 newly verified exoplanets around 305 stars by the Kepler Space Telescope . These exoplanets were checked using a statistical technique called " verification by multiplicity " . Prior to these results , most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger as they are more easily detected , but the Kepler planets are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth .
On 23 July 2015 , NASA announced Kepler @-@ 452b , a near @-@ Earth @-@ size planet orbiting the habitable zone of a G2 @-@ type star .
= = = Candidate discoveries = = =
As of March 2014 , NASA 's Kepler mission had identified more than 2 @,@ 900 planetary candidates , several of them being nearly Earth @-@ sized and located in the habitable zone , some around Sun @-@ like stars .
= = Detection methods = =
= = = Direct imaging = = =
Planets are extremely faint compared to their parent stars . For example , a Sun @-@ like star is about a billion times brighter than the reflected light from any exoplanet orbiting it . It is difficult to detect such a faint light source , and furthermore the parent star causes a glare that tends to wash it out . It is necessary to block the light from the parent star in order to reduce the glare while leaving the light from the planet detectable ; doing so is a major technical challenge which requires extreme optothermal stability .
All exoplanets that have been directly imaged are both large ( more massive than Jupiter ) and widely separated from their parent star . Most of them are also very hot , so that they emit intense infrared radiation ; the images have then been made at infrared where the planet is brighter than it is at visible wavelengths . During the gas @-@ accretion phase of giant @-@ planet formation the star – planet contrast may be even better in H alpha than it is in infrared — an H alpha survey is currently underway .
Specially designed direct @-@ imaging instruments such as Gemini Planet Imager , VLT @-@ SPHERE , and SCExAO will image dozens of gas giants , however the vast majority of known extrasolar planets have only been detected through indirect methods . The following are the indirect methods that have proven useful :
= = = Indirect methods = = =
Transit method
If a planet crosses ( or transits ) in front of its parent star 's disk , then the observed brightness of the star drops by a small amount . The amount by which the star dims depends on its size and on the size of the planet , among other factors . This method suffers from a substantial rate of false positives and confirmation from another method is usually considered necessary . The transit method reveals the radius of a planet , and it has the benefit that it sometimes allows a planet 's atmosphere to be investigated through spectroscopy . Because the transit method requires that part of the planet 's orbit intersect a line @-@ of @-@ sight between the host star and Earth , the probability that an exoplanet in a randomly oriented orbit will be observed to transit the star is somewhat small . The Kepler telescope uses this method .
Radial velocity or Doppler method
As a planet orbits a star , the star also moves in its own small orbit around the system 's center of mass . Variations in the star 's radial velocity — that is , the speed with which it moves towards or away from Earth — can be detected from displacements in the star 's spectral lines due to the Doppler effect . Extremely small radial @-@ velocity variations can be observed , of 1 m / s or even somewhat less . This method has the advantage of being applicable to stars with a wide range of characteristics . One of its disadvantages is that it cannot determine a planet 's true mass , but can only set a lower limit on that mass . However , if the radial velocity of the planet itself can be distinguished from the radial velocity of the star , then the true mass can be determined .
Transit timing variation ( TTV )
When multiple planets are present , each one slightly perturbs the others ' orbits . Small variations in the times of transit for one planet can thus indicate the presence of another planet , which itself may or may not transit . For example , variations in the transits of the planet Kepler @-@ 19b suggest the existence of a second planet in the system , the non @-@ transiting Kepler @-@ 19c . If multiple transiting planets exist in one system , then this method can be used to confirm their existence . In another form of the method , timing the eclipses in an eclipsing binary star can reveal an outer planet that orbits both stars ; as of August 2013 , a few planets have been found in that way with numerous planets confirmed with this method .
Transit duration variation ( TDV )
When a planet orbits multiple stars or if the planet has moons , its transit time can significantly vary per transit . Although no new planets or moons have been discovered with this method , it is used to successfully confirm many transiting circumbinary planets .
Gravitational microlensing
Microlensing occurs when the gravitational field of a star acts like a lens , magnifying the light of a distant background star . Planets orbiting the lensing star can cause detectable anomalies in the magnification as it varies over time . Unlike most other methods which have detection bias towards planets with small ( or for resolved imaging , large ) orbits , microlensing method is most sensitive to detecting planets around 1 – 10 AU away from Sun @-@ like stars .
Astrometry
Astrometry consists of precisely measuring a star 's position in the sky and observing the changes in that position over time . The motion of a star due to the gravitational influence of a planet may be observable . Because the motion is so small , however , this method has not yet been very productive . It has produced only a few disputed detections , though it has been successfully used to investigate the properties of planets found in other ways .
Pulsar timing
A pulsar ( the small , ultradense remnant of a star that has exploded as a supernova ) emits radio waves extremely regularly as it rotates . If planets orbit the pulsar , they will cause slight anomalies in the timing of its observed radio pulses . The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet was made using this method . But as of 2011 , it has not been very productive ; five planets have been detected in this way , around three different pulsars .
Variable star timing ( pulsation frequency )
Like pulsars , there are some other types of stars which exhibit periodic activity . Deviations from the periodicity can sometimes be caused by a planet orbiting it . As of 2013 , a few planets have been discovered with this method .
Reflection / emission modulations
When a planet orbits very close to the star , it catches a considerable amount of starlight . As the planet orbits around the star , the amount of light changes due to planets having phases from Earth 's viewpoint or planet glowing more from one side than the other due to temperature differences .
Relativistic beaming
Relativistic beaming measures the observed flux from the star due to its motion . The brightness of the star changes as the planet moves closer or further away from its host star .
Ellipsoidal variations
Massive planets close to their host stars can slightly deform the shape of the star . This causes the brightness of the star to slightly deviate depending how it is rotated relative to Earth .
Polarimetry
With polarimetry method , a polarized light reflected off the planet is separated from unpolarized light emitted from the star . No new planets have been discovered with this method although a few already discovered planets have been detected with this method .
Circumstellar disks
Disks of space dust surround many stars , thought to originate from collisions among asteroids and comets . The dust can be detected because it absorbs starlight and re @-@ emits it as infrared radiation . Features in the disks may suggest the presence of planets , though this is not considered a definitive detection method .
= = Nomenclature = =
= = = Proper names = = =
Most exoplanets have catalog names that are explained in the following sections , but in July 2014 the IAU launched a process for giving proper names to exoplanets . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names , the results of which were announced in December 2015 . The planets so named were AEgir [ sic ] , Amateru , Arion , Arkas , Brahe , Dagon , Dimidium , Draugr , Dulcinea , Fortitudo , Galileo , Harriot , Hypatia , Janssen , Lippershey , Majriti , Meztli , Orbitar , Phobetor , Poltergeist , Quijote , Rocinante , Saffar , Samh , Smertrios , Sancho , Spe , Tadmor , Taphao Kaew , Taphao Thong and Thestias .
The decision to give the planets new names followed the private company Uwingu 's exoplanet naming contest , which the IAU harshly criticized . Previously a few planets had received unofficial names : notably Osiris ( HD 209458 b ) , Bellerophon ( 51 Pegasi b ) , and Methuselah ( PSR B1620 @-@ 26 b ) .
= = = Multiple @-@ star standard = = =
The convention for naming exoplanets is an extension of the one used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog ( WMC ) for multiple @-@ star systems , and adopted by the International Astronomical Union . The brightest member of a star system receives the letter " A " . Distinct components not contained within " A " are labeled " B " , " C " , etc . Subcomponents are designated by one or more suffixes with the primary label , starting with lowercase letters for the second hierarchical level and then numbers for the third . For example , if there is a triple star system in which two stars orbit each other closely with a third star in a more distant orbit , the two closely orbiting stars would be named Aa and Ab , whereas the distant star would be named B. For historical reasons , this standard is not always followed : for example Alpha Centauri A , B and C are not labelled Alpha Centauri Aa , Ab and B.
= = = Extrasolar planet standard = = =
Following an extension of the above standard , an exoplanet 's name is normally formed by taking the name of its parent star and adding a lowercase letter . The first planet discovered in a system is given the designation " b " and later planets are given subsequent letters . If several planets in the same system are discovered at the same time , the closest one to the star gets the next letter , followed by the other planets in order of orbital size .
For instance , in the 55 Cancri system the first planet – 55 Cancri b – was discovered in 1996 ; two additional farther planets were simultaneously discovered in 2002 with the nearest to the star being named 55 Cancri c and the other 55 Cancri d ; a fourth planet was claimed ( its existence was later disputed ) in 2004 and named 55 Cancri e despite lying closer to the star than 55 Cancri b ; and the most recently discovered planet , in 2007 , was named 55 Cancri f despite lying between 55 Cancri c and 55 Cancri d . As of April 2012 the highest letter in use is " j " , for the unconfirmed planet HD 10180 j , and with " h " being the highest letter for a confirmed planet , belonging to the same host star ) .
If a planet orbits one member of a binary star system , then an uppercase letter for the star will be followed by a lowercase letter for the planet . Examples are 16 Cygni Bb and HD 178911 Bb . Planets orbiting the primary or " A " star should have ' Ab ' after the name of the system , as in HD 41004 Ab . However , the " A " is sometimes omitted ; for example the first planet discovered around the primary star of the Tau Boötis binary system is usually called simply Tau Boötis b . The star designation is necessary when more than one star in the system has its own planetary system such as in case of WASP @-@ 94 A and WASP @-@ 94 B.
If the parent star is a single star , then it may still be regarded as having an " A " designation , though the " A " is not normally written . The first exoplanet found to be orbiting such a star could then be regarded as a secondary subcomponent that should be given the suffix " Ab " . For example , 51 Peg Aa is the host star in the system 51 Peg ; and the first exoplanet is then 51 Peg Ab . Because most exoplanets are in single @-@ star systems , the implicit " A " designation was simply dropped , leaving the exoplanet name with the lower @-@ case letter only : 51 Peg b .
A few exoplanets have been given names that do not conform to the above standard . For example , the planets that orbit the pulsar PSR 1257 are often referred to with capital rather than lowercase letters . Also , the underlying name of the star system itself can follow several different systems . In fact , some stars ( such as Kepler @-@ 11 ) have only received their names due to their inclusion in planet @-@ search programs , previously only being referred to by their celestial coordinates .
= = = Circumbinary planets and 2010 proposal = = =
Hessman et al. state that the implicit system for exoplanet names utterly failed with the discovery of circumbinary planets . They note that the discoverers of the two planets around HW Virginis tried to circumvent the naming problem by calling them " HW Vir 3 " and " HW Vir 4 " , i.e. the latter is the 4th object – stellar or planetary – discovered in the system . They also note that the discoverers of the two planets around NN Serpentis were confronted with multiple suggestions from various official sources and finally chose to use the designations " NN Ser c " and " NN Ser d " .
The proposal of Hessman et al. starts with the following two rules :
Rule 1 . The formal name of an exoplanet is obtained by appending the appropriate suffixes to the formal name of the host star or stellar system . The upper hierarchy is defined by uppercase letters , followed by lower @-@ case letters , followed by numbers , etc . The naming order within a hierarchical level is for the order of discovery only . ( This rule corresponds to the present provisional WMC naming convention . )
Rule 2 . Whenever the leading capital letter designation is missing , this is interpreted as being an informal form with an implicit " A " unless otherwise explicitly stated . ( This rule corresponds to the present exoplanet community usage for planets around single stars . )
They note that under these two proposed rules all of the present names for 99 % of the planets around single stars are preserved as informal forms of the IAU sanctioned provisional standard . They would rename Tau Boötis b formally as Tau Boötis Ab , retaining the prior form as an informal usage ( using Rule 2 , above ) .
To deal with the difficulties relating to circumbinary planets , the proposal contains two further rules :
Rule 3 . As an alternative to the nomenclature standard in Rule 1 , a hierarchical relationship can be expressed by concatenating the names of the higher order system and placing them in parentheses , after which the suffix for a lower order system is added .
Rule 4 . When in doubt ( i.e. if a different name has not been clearly set in the literature ) , the hierarchy expressed by the nomenclature should correspond to dynamically distinct ( sub ) systems in order of their dynamical relevance . The choice of hierarchical levels should be made to emphasize dynamical relationships , if known .
They submit that the new form using parentheses is the best for known circumbinary planets and has the desirable effect of giving these planets identical sublevel hierarchical labels and stellar component names that conform to the usage for binary stars . They say that it requires the complete renaming of only two exoplanetary systems : The planets around HW Virginis would be renamed HW Vir ( AB ) b & ( AB ) c , whereas those around NN Serpentis would be renamed NN Ser ( AB ) b & ( AB ) c . In addition the previously known single circumbinary planets around PSR B1620 @-@ 26 and DP Leonis ) can almost retain their names ( PSR B1620 @-@ 26 b and DP Leonis b ) as unofficial informal forms of the " ( AB ) b " designation where the " ( AB ) " is left out .
The discoverers of the circumbinary planet around Kepler @-@ 16 followed the naming scheme proposed by Hessman et al. when naming the body Kepler @-@ 16 ( AB ) -b , or simply Kepler @-@ 16b when there is no ambiguity .
= = = Other naming systems = = =
Another nomenclature , often seen in science fiction , uses Roman numerals in the order of planets ' positions from the star . ( This was inspired by an old system for naming moons of the outer planets , such as " Jupiter IV " for Callisto . ) But such a system is impractical for scientific use , because new planets may be found closer to the star , changing all numerals .
= = Formation and evolution = =
Planets form within a few tens of millions of years of their star forming , and there are stars that are forming today and other stars that are ten billion years old , so unlike the planets of the Solar System , which can only be observed as they are today , studying exoplanets allows the observation of exoplanets at different stages of evolution . When planets form they have hydrogen envelopes that cool and contract over time and , depending on the mass of the planet , some or all of the hydrogen is eventually lost to space . This means that even terrestrial planets can start off with large radii . An example is Kepler @-@ 51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times the mass of Earth . Kepler @-@ 51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old .
= = Planet @-@ hosting stars = =
There is at least one planet on average per star . About 1 in 5 Sun @-@ like stars have an " Earth @-@ sized " planet in the habitable zone
Most known exoplanets orbit stars roughly similar to the Sun , i.e. main @-@ sequence stars of spectral categories F , G , or K. Lower @-@ mass stars ( red dwarfs , of spectral category M ) are less likely to have planets massive enough to be detected by the radial @-@ velocity method . Despite this , several tens of planets around red dwarfs have been discovered by the Kepler spacecraft , which uses the transit method to detect smaller planets .
Stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun are more likely to have planets , especially giant planets , than stars with lower metallicity .
Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system , and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star . A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler @-@ 64 .
= = Orbital parameters = =
Most known extrasolar planet candidates have been discovered using indirect methods and therefore only some of their physical and orbital parameters can be determined . For example , out of the six independent parameters that define an orbit , the radial @-@ velocity method can determine four : semi @-@ major axis , eccentricity , longitude of periastron , and time of periastron . Two parameters remain unknown : inclination and longitude of the ascending node .
= = = Distance from star , semi @-@ major axis and orbital period = = =
There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun , and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star . Mercury , the closest planet to the Sun at 0 @.@ 4 astronomical units ( AU ) , takes 88 days for an orbit , but the smallest known orbits of exoplanets have orbital periods of only a few hours , e.g. Kepler @-@ 70b . The Kepler @-@ 11 system has five of its planets in smaller orbits than Mercury 's . Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit it , but there are exoplanets that are thousands of AU from their star and take tens of thousands of years to orbit , e.g. GU Piscium b .
The orbit of a planet is not centered on the star but on their common center of mass ( see diagram on right ) . For circular orbits , the semi @-@ major axis is the distance between the planet and the center of mass of the system . For elliptical orbits , the planet – star distance varies over the course of the orbit , in which case the semi @-@ major axis is the average of the largest and smallest distances between the planet and the center of mass of the system . If the sizes of the star and planet are relatively small compared to the size of the orbit and the orbit is nearly circular and the center of mass is not too far from the star 's center , such as in the Earth – Sun system , then the distance from any point on the star to any point on the planet is approximately the same as the semi @-@ major axis . However , when a star 's radius expands when it turns into a red giant , then the distance between the planet and the star 's surface can become close to zero , or even less than zero if the planet has been engulfed by the expanding red giant , whereas the center of mass from which the semi @-@ major axis is measured will still be near the center of the red giant .
Orbital period is the time taken to complete one orbit . For any given star , the shorter the semi @-@ major axis of a planet , the shorter the orbital period . Also comparing planets around different stars but with the same semi @-@ major axis , the more massive the star , the shorter the orbital period .
Over the lifetime of a star , the semi @-@ major axes of its planets changes . This planetary migration happens especially during the formation of the planetary system when planets interact with the protoplanetary disk and each other until a relatively stable position is reached , and later in the red @-@ giant and asymptotic @-@ giant @-@ branch phases when the star expands and engulfs the nearest planets that can cause them to move inwards , and when the red giant loses mass as the outer layers dissipate causing planets to move outwards as a result of the red giant 's reduced gravitational field .
The radial @-@ velocity and transit methods are most sensitive to planets with small orbits . The earliest discoveries such as 51 Peg b were gas giants with orbits of a few days . These " hot Jupiters " likely formed further out and migrated inwards . The Kepler spacecraft has found planets with even shorter orbits of only a few hours , which places them within the star 's upper atmosphere or corona , and these planets are Earth @-@ sized or smaller and are probably the left @-@ over solid cores of giant planets that have evaporated due to being so close to the star , or even being engulfed by the star in its red @-@ giant phase in the case of Kepler @-@ 70b . As well as evaporation , other reasons why larger planets are unlikely to survive orbits only a few hours long include orbital decay caused by tidal force , tidal @-@ inflation instability , and Roche @-@ lobe overflow . The Roche limit implies that small planets with orbits of a few hours are likely made mostly of iron .
The direct imaging method is most sensitive to planets with large orbits , and has discovered some planets that have planet – star separations of hundreds of AU . However , protoplanetary disks are usually only around 100 AU in radius , and core accretion models predict giant planet formation to be within 10 AU , where the planets can coalesce quickly enough before the disk evaporates . Very @-@ long @-@ period giant planets may have been rogue planets that were captured , or formed close @-@ in and gravitationally scattered outwards , or the planet and star could be a mass @-@ imbalanced wide binary system with the planet being the primary object of its own separate protoplanetary disk . Gravitational instability models might produce planets at multi @-@ hundred AU separations but this would require unusually large disks . For planets with very wide orbits up to several hundred thousand AU it may be difficult to observationally determine whether the planet is gravitationally bound to the star .
Most planets that have been discovered are within a couple of AU from their host star because the most used methods ( radial @-@ velocity and transit ) require observation of several orbits to confirm that the planet exists and there has only been enough time since these methods were first used to cover small separations . Some planets with larger orbits have been discovered by direct imaging but there is a middle range of distances , roughly equivalent to the Solar System 's gas giant region , which is largely unexplored . Direct imaging equipment for exploring that region is being installed on the world 's largest telescopes and should begin operation in 2014 @.@ e.g. Gemini Planet Imager and VLT @-@ SPHERE . The microlensing method has detected a few planets in the 1 – 10 AU range . It appears plausible that in most exoplanetary systems , there are one or two giant planets with orbits comparable in size to those of Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System . Giant planets with substantially larger orbits are now known to be rare , at least around Sun @-@ like stars .
The distance of the habitable zone from a star depends on the type of star and this distance changes during the star 's lifetime as the size and temperature of the star changes .
= = = Eccentricity = = =
The eccentricity of an orbit is a measure of how elliptical ( elongated ) it is . All the planets of the Solar System except for Mercury have near @-@ circular orbits ( e < 0 @.@ 1 ) . Most exoplanets with orbital periods of 20 days or less have near @-@ circular orbits , i.e. very low eccentricity . That is thought to be due to tidal circularization : reduction of eccentricity over time due to gravitational interaction between two bodies . The mostly sub @-@ Neptune @-@ sized planets found by the Kepler spacecraft with short orbital periods have very circular orbits . By contrast , the giant planets with longer orbital periods discovered by radial @-@ velocity methods have quite eccentric orbits . ( As of July 2010 , 55 % of such exoplanets have eccentricities greater than 0 @.@ 2 , whereas 17 % have eccentricities greater than 0 @.@ 5 . ) Moderate to high eccentricities ( e > 0 @.@ 2 ) of giant planets are not an observational selection effect , because a planet can be detected about equally well regardless of the eccentricity of its orbit . The statistical significance of elliptical orbits in the ensemble of observed giant planets is somewhat surprising , because current theories of planetary formation suggest that low @-@ mass planets should have their orbital eccentricity circularized by gravitational interactions with the surrounding protoplanetary disk . However , as a planet grows more massive and its interaction with the disk becomes nonlinear , it may induce eccentric motion of the surrounding disk 's gas , which in turn may excite the planet 's orbital eccentricity . Low eccentricities are correlated with high multiplicity ( number of planets in the system ) based on the analysis of planets observed by the radial @-@ velocity method .
However , for weak Doppler signals near the limits of the current detection ability the eccentricity becomes poorly constrained and biased towards higher values . It is suggested that some of the high eccentricities reported for low @-@ mass exoplanets may be overestimates , because simulations show that many observations are also consistent with two planets on circular orbits . Reported observations of single planets in moderately eccentric orbits have about a 15 % chance of being a pair of planets . This misinterpretation is especially likely if the two planets orbit with a 2 : 1 resonance . With the exoplanet sample known in 2009 , a group of astronomers has concluded that " ( 1 ) around 35 % of the published eccentric one @-@ planet solutions are statistically indistinguishable from planetary systems in 2 : 1 orbital resonance , ( 2 ) another 40 % cannot be statistically distinguished from a circular orbital solution " and " ( 3 ) planets with masses comparable to Earth could be hidden in known orbital solutions of eccentric super @-@ Earths and Neptune mass planets " .
Radial velocity surveys found exoplanet orbits beyond 0 @.@ 1 AU to be eccentric , particularly for large planets . Kepler spacecraft transit data is consistent with the RV surveys and also revealed that smaller planets tend to have less eccentric orbits .
= = = Inclination vs. spin – orbit angle = = =
Orbital inclination is the angle between a planet 's orbital plane and another plane of reference . For exoplanets the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth : the angle used is that between the normal to the planet 's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star . Therefore , most planets observed by the transit method are close to 90 degrees . Because the word ' inclination ' is used in exoplanet studies for this line @-@ of @-@ sight inclination then the angle between the planet 's orbit and the star 's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin – orbit angle or spin – orbit alignment . In most cases the orientation of the star 's rotational axis is unknown . The Kepler spacecraft has found a few hundred multi @-@ planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane , much like the Solar System . However , a combination of astrometric and radial @-@ velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other . More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star 's rotation . A substantial fraction of hot @-@ Jupiters even have retrograde orbits , meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star 's rotation . Rather than a planet 's orbit having been disturbed , it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system 's formation due to interactions between the star 's magnetic field and the planet @-@ forming disk .
= = = Periastron precession = = =
Periastron precession is the rotation of a planet 's orbit within the orbital plane , i.e. the axes of the ellipse change direction . Various factors cause the precession . In the Solar System perturbations from other planets are the main cause , but for close @-@ in exoplanets the largest factor can be tidal forces between the star and planet . For close @-@ in exoplanets , the general relativistic contribution to the precession is also significant and can be orders of magnitude larger than the same effect for Mercury . Some exoplanets have significantly eccentric orbits , which makes it easier to detect the precession . The effect of general relativity can be detectable in timescales of roughly 10 years or less .
= = = Nodal precession = = =
Nodal precession is rotation of a planet 's orbital plane . This differs from periastron precession , which is rotation of a planet 's orbit within that plane . Nodal precession is more easily seen as distinct from periastron precession when the orbital plane is inclined to the star 's rotation , the extreme case being a polar orbit .
WASP @-@ 33 is a fast @-@ rotating star that hosts a hot Jupiter in an almost polar orbit . The quadrupole mass moment and the proper angular momentum of the star are 1900 and 400 times , respectively , larger than those of the Sun . This causes significant classical and relativistic deviations from Kepler 's laws . In particular , the fast rotation causes large nodal precession because of the star 's oblateness and the Lense – Thirring effect .
= = Rotation and axial tilt = =
In April 2014 the first measurement of a planet 's rotation period was announced : the length of day for the super @-@ Jupiter gas giant Beta Pictoris b is 8 hours ( based on the assumption that the axial tilt of the planet is small . ) With an equatorial rotational velocity of 25 km per second , this is faster than for the giant planets of the Solar System , in line with the expectation that the more massive a giant planet , the faster it spins . Beta Pictoris b 's distance from its star is 9AU . At such distances the rotation of Jovian planets is not slowed by tidal effects . Beta Pictoris b is still warm and young and over the next hundreds of millions of years , it will cool down and shrink to about the size of Jupiter , and if its angular momentum is preserved then as it shrinks the length of its day will decrease to about 3 hours and its equatorial rotation velocity will speed up to about 40 km per second . The images of Beta Pictoris b do not have high enough resolution to directly see details but doppler spectroscopy techniques were used to show that different parts of the planet were moving at different speeds and in opposite directions from which it was inferred that the planet is rotating . With the next generation of large ground @-@ based telescopes it will be possible to use doppler imaging techniques to make a global map of the planet , like the recent mapping of the brown dwarf Luhman 16B .
= = = Origin of spin and tilt of terrestrial planets = = =
Giant impacts have a large effect on the spin of terrestrial planets . The last few giant impacts during planetary formation tend to be the main determiner of a terrestrial planet 's rotation rate . On average the spin angular velocity will be about 70 % of the velocity that would cause the planet to break up and fly apart ; the natural outcome of planetary embryo impacts at speeds slightly larger than escape velocity . In later stages terrestrial planet spin is also affected by impacts with planetesimals . During the giant impact stage , the thickness of a protoplanetary disk is far larger than the size of planetary embryos so collisions are equally likely to come from any direction in three @-@ dimensions . This results in the axial tilt of accreted planets ranging from 0 to 180 degrees with any direction as likely as any other with both prograde and retrograde spins equally probable . Therefore , prograde spin with a small axial tilt , common for the Solar System 's terrestrial planets except Venus , is not common in general for terrestrial planets built by giant impacts . The initial axial tilt of a planet determined by giant impacts can be substantially changed by stellar tides if the planet is close to its star and by satellite tides if the planet has a large satellite .
= = = Tidal effects = = =
For most planets the rotation period and axial tilt ( also called obliquity ) are not known , but a large number of planets have been detected with very short orbits ( where tidal effects are greater ) and will probably have reached an equilibrium rotation that can be predicted .
Tidal effects are the result of forces acting on a body differing from one part of the body to another . For example , the gravitational effect of a star varies with distance from one side of a planet to another . Also heat from a star creates a temperature gradient between the day and nightsides which is another source of tides . For example , on Earth , air pressure variations on the ground are affected more by temperature differences than gravitational ones .
Tides modify the rotation and orbit of planets until an equilibrium is reached . Whenever the rotation rate is slowed , there is an increase of the orbit semi @-@ major axis due to the conservation of angular momentum . Most of the large moons in the Solar System , including the Moon , are tidally locked to their host planet ; the same side of the moon is always facing the planet . This means the moons ' rotation periods are synchronous with their orbital period . However , when an orbit is eccentric , as is the case with many exoplanets ' orbits of their host stars , there are equilibrium states such as spin – orbit resonances that are far more likely than synchronous rotation . A spin – orbit resonance is when the rotation period and the orbital period are in an integer ratio – this is called a commensurability . Non @-@ resonant equilibria such as the retrograde rotation of Venus can also occur when both gravitational and thermal atmospheric tides are both significant .
A synchronous tidal lock is not necessarily particularly slow – there are planets with orbits that take only a few hours .
Gravitational tides tend to reduce the axial tilt to zero but over a longer timescale than the rotation rate reaches equilibrium . However , the presence of multiple planets in a system can cause axial tilt to be captured in a resonance called a Cassini state . There are small oscillations around this state and in the case of Mars these axial tilt variations are chaotic .
Hot Jupiters ' close proximity to their host star means that their spin – orbit evolution is mostly due to the star 's gravity and not the other effects . Hot Jupiters rotation rate is not thought to be captured into spin – orbit resonance due to way fluid @-@ body reacts to tides , and therefore slows down to synchronous rotation if it is on a circular orbit or slows to a non @-@ synchronous rotation if on an eccentric orbit . Hot Jupiters are likely to evolve towards zero axial tilt even if they had been in a Cassini state during planetary migration when they were further from their star . Hot Jupiters ' orbits will become more circular over time , however the presence of other planets in the system on eccentric orbits , even ones as small as Earth and as far away as the habitable zone , can continue to maintain the eccentricity of the Hot Jupiter so that the length of time for tidal circularization can be billions instead of millions of years .
The rotation rate of planet HD 80606 b is predicted to be about 1 @.@ 9 days . HD 80606 b avoids spin – orbit resonance because it is a gas giant . The eccentricity of its orbit means that it avoids becoming tidally locked .
= = Physical parameters = =
= = = Mass = = =
When a planet is found by the radial @-@ velocity method , its orbital inclination i is unknown and can range from 0 to 90 degrees . The method is unable to determine the true mass ( M ) of the planet , but rather gives a lower limit for its mass , M sini . In a few cases an apparent exoplanet may be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or red dwarf . However , the probability of a small value of i ( say less than 30 degrees , which would give a true mass at least double the observed lower limit ) is relatively low ( 1 − ( √ 3 ) / 2 ≈ 13 % ) and hence most planets will have true masses fairly close to the observed lower limit .
If a planet 's orbit is nearly perpendicular to the line of vision ( i.e. i close to 90 ° ) , a planet can be detected through the transit method . The inclination will then be known , and the inclination combined with M sini from radial @-@ velocity observations will give the planet 's true mass .
Also , astrometric observations and dynamical considerations in multiple @-@ planet systems can sometimes provide an upper limit to the planet 's true mass .
The mass of a transiting exoplanet can also be determined from the transmission spectrum of its atmosphere , as it can be used to constrain independently the atmospheric composition , temperature , pressure , and scale height .
Transit @-@ timing variation can also be used to find planets ' masses .
= = = Radius , density and bulk composition = = =
Prior to recent results from the Kepler spacecraft most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected . However , the planets detected by Kepler are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth .
If a planet is detectable by both the radial @-@ velocity and the transit methods , then both its true mass and its radius can be found . The planet 's density can then be calculated . Planets with low density are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium , whereas planets of intermediate density are inferred to have water as a major constituent . A planet of high density is inferred to be rocky , like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System .
= = = = Gas giants , puffy planets , and super @-@ Jupiters = = = =
Gaseous planets that are hot because they are close to their star or because they are still hot from their formation are expanded by the heat . For colder gas planets there is a maximum radius which is slightly larger than Jupiter which occurs when the mass reaches a few Jupiter @-@ masses . Adding mass beyond this point causes the radius to shrink .
Even when taking heating from the star into account , many transiting exoplanets are much larger than expected given their mass , meaning that they have surprisingly low density . See the magnetic field section for one possible explanation .
Besides those inflated hot Jupiters there is another type of low @-@ density planet : occurring at around 0 @.@ 6 times the size of Jupiter where there are very few planets . The planets around Kepler @-@ 51 are far less dense ( far more diffuse ) than the inflated hot Jupiters as can be seen in the plots on the right where the three Kepler @-@ 51 planets stand out in the diffusity vs. radius plot . A more detailed study taking into account star spots may modify these results to produce less extreme values .
= = = = Ice giants and super @-@ Neptunes = = = =
Kepler @-@ 101b is the first super @-@ Neptune discovered . It has three times Neptune 's mass but its density suggests that heavy elements make up more than 60 % of its total mass , unlike hydrogen – helium @-@ dominated gas giants .
= = = = Super @-@ Earths , mini @-@ Neptunes , and gas dwarfs = = = =
If a planet has a radius and / or mass between that of Earth and Neptune then there is a question about whether the planet is rocky like Earth , a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune , a small planet with a hydrogen / helium envelope ( mini @-@ Jupiter ) , or of some other composition .
Some of the Kepler transiting planets with radii in the range 1 – 4 Earth radii have had their masses measured by radial @-@ velocity or transit @-@ timing methods . The calculated densities show that up to 1 @.@ 5 Earth radii , these planets are rocky and that density increases with increasing radius due to gravitational compression . However , between 1 @.@ 5 and 4 Earth radii the density decreases with increasing radius . This indicates that above 1 @.@ 5 Earth radii planets tend to have increasing amounts of volatiles and gas . Despite this general trend there is a wide range of masses at a given radius , which could be because gas planets can have rocky cores of different masses or compositions and could also be due to photoevaporation of volatiles . Thermal evolutionary atmosphere models suggest a radius of 1 @.@ 75 times that of Earth as a dividing line between rocky and gaseous planets . Excluding close @-@ in planets that have lost their gas envelope due to stellar irradiation , studies of the metallicity of stars suggest a dividing line of 1 @.@ 7 Earth radii between rocky planets and gas dwarfs ; then another dividing line at 3 @.@ 9 Earth radii between gas dwarfs and gas giants . These dividing lines are statistical trends and do not necessarily apply to specific planets because there are many other factors besides metallicity that affect planet formation , including distance from star – there may be larger rocky planets formed at larger distances . An independent reanalysis of the data suggests that there are no such dividing lines and that there is a continuum of planet formation between 1 and 4 Earth radii and no reason to expect that the amount of solid material in a protoplanetary disk determines whether super @-@ Earths or mini @-@ Neptunes form . Studies made in 2016 based on over 300 planets suggest that most objects over approximately two Earth masses collect significant hydrogen – helium envelopes , which would mean rocky super @-@ Earths may be rare .
The discovery of the low @-@ density Earth @-@ mass planet Kepler @-@ 138d shows that there is an overlapping range of masses in which both rocky planets and low @-@ density planets occur . Low @-@ mass low @-@ density planets could be ocean planets or super @-@ Earths with a remnant hydrogen atmosphere , or hot planets with a steam atmosphere , or mini @-@ Neptunes with a hydrogen – helium atmosphere . Other possibilities for low @-@ mass low @-@ density planets are large atmospheres of carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , methane , or nitrogen .
= = = = Massive solid planets and giant planets with massive cores = = = =
In 2014 , new measurements of Kepler @-@ 10c found that it is a Neptune @-@ mass planet ( 17 Earth masses ) with a density higher than Earth 's , indicating that Kepler @-@ 10c is composed mostly of rock with possibly up to 20 % high @-@ pressure water ice but without a hydrogen @-@ dominated envelope . Because this is well above the 10 @-@ Earth @-@ mass upper limit that is commonly used for the term ' super @-@ Earth ' , the term mega @-@ Earth has been coined . A similarly massive and dense planet could be Kepler @-@ 131b , although its density is not as well measured as that of Kepler 10c . The next most massive known solid planets are half this mass : 55 Cancri e and Kepler @-@ 20b .
Gas planets can also have large solid cores : the Saturn @-@ mass planet HD 149026 b has only two @-@ thirds of Saturn 's radius , so it may have a rock – ice core of 60 Earth masses or more . Corot @-@ 20b has 4 @.@ 24 times Jupiter 's mass but a radius of only 0 @.@ 84 that of Jupiter — it may have a metal core of 800 Earth masses if the heavy elements are concentrated in the core or a core of 300 Earth masses if the heavy elements are more distributed throughout the planet .
Transit @-@ timing variation measurements indicate that Kepler @-@ 52b , Kepler @-@ 52c and Kepler @-@ 57b have maximum masses between 30 and 100 times that of Earth , although the actual masses could be much lower . With radii about 2 Earth radii in size , they might have densities larger than that of an iron planet of the same size . They orbit very close to their stars , so they could be the remnant cores ( chthonian planets ) of evaporated gas giants or brown dwarfs . If cores are massive enough they could remain compressed for billions of years despite losing the atmospheric mass .
Solid planets up to thousands of Earth masses may be able to form around massive stars ( B @-@ type and O @-@ type stars ; 5 – 120 solar masses ) , where the protoplanetary disk would contain enough heavy elements . Also , these stars have high UV radiation and winds that could photoevaporate the gas in the disk , leaving just the heavy elements . For comparison , Neptune 's mass equals 17 Earth masses , Jupiter has 318 Earth masses , and the 13 Jupiter @-@ mass limit used in the IAU 's working definition of an exoplanet equals approximately 4000 Earth masses .
Another way of forming massive solid planets is when a white dwarf in a close binary system loses material to a companion neutron star . The white dwarf can be reduced to planetary @-@ mass , leaving just its crystallised carbon – oxygen core . A likely example of this is PSR J1719 @-@ 1438 b .
Cold planets have a maximum radius because adding more mass at that point causes the planet to compress under the weight instead of increasing the radius . The maximum radius for solid planets is lower than the maximum radius for gas planets .
= = = Shape = = =
When the size of a planet is described using its radius this is approximating the shape by a sphere . However , the rotation of a planet causes it to be flattened at the poles so that the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius , making it closer to an oblate spheroid . The oblateness of transiting exoplanets will affect the transit light curves . At the limits of current technology it has been possible to show that HD 189733b is less oblate than Saturn . If the planet is close to its star , then gravitational tides will elongate the planet in the direction of the star , so that the planet will be closer to a triaxial ellipsoid . Because tidal deformation is along a line between the planet and the star , it is difficult to detect from transit photometry — it will have an order of magnitude less effect on the transit light curves than that caused by rotational deformation even in cases where the tidal deformation is larger than rotational deformation ( such as is the case for tidally locked hot Jupiters ) . Material rigidity of rocky planets and rocky cores of gas planets will cause further deviations from the aforementioned shapes . Thermal tides caused by unevenly irradiated surfaces are another factor .
= = Atmosphere = =
As of February 2014 , more than fifty transiting and five directly imaged exoplanet atmospheres have been observed , resulting in detection of molecular spectral features ; observation of day – night temperature gradients ; and constraints on vertical atmospheric structure . Also , an atmosphere has been detected on the non @-@ transiting hot Jupiter Tau Boötis b .
Spectroscopic measurements can be used to study a transiting planet 's atmospheric composition , temperature , pressure , and scale height , and hence can be used to determine its mass .
Stellar light is polarized by atmospheric molecules ; this could be detected with a polarimeter . HD 189733 b has been studied by polarimetry .
Extrasolar planets have phases similar to the phases of the Moon . By observing the exact variation of brightness with phase , astronomers can calculate atmospheric @-@ particle sizes .
= = Surface = =
= = = Surface composition = = =
Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy . Mid @-@ infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces , and near @-@ infrared may identify magma oceans or high @-@ temperature lavas , hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice , giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets .
= = = Surface temperature = = =
One can estimate the temperature of an exoplanet based on the intensity of the light it receives from its parent star . For example , the planet OGLE @-@ 2005 @-@ BLG @-@ 390Lb is estimated to have a surface temperature of roughly − 220 ° C ( 50 K ) . However , such estimates may be substantially in error because they depend on the planet 's usually unknown albedo , and because factors such as the greenhouse effect may introduce unknown complications . A few planets have had their temperature measured by observing the variation in infrared radiation as the planet moves around in its orbit and is eclipsed by its parent star . For example , the planet HD 189733b has been found to have an average temperature of 1205 ± 9 K ( 932 ± 9 ° C ) on its dayside and 973 ± 33 K ( 700 ± 33 ° C ) on its nightside .
= = General features = =
= = = Color and brightness = = =
In 2013 the color of an exoplanet was found for the first time . The best @-@ fit albedo measurements of HD 189733b suggest that it is deep dark blue .
Visually , GJ 504 b would have a magenta color .
Kappa Andromedae b if seen up close , would appear reddish in color .
The apparent brightness ( apparent magnitude ) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is , how reflective the planet is ( albedo ) , and how much light the planet receives from its star , which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is . So , a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from the star .
The darkest known planet in terms of geometric albedo is TrES @-@ 2b , a hot Jupiter that reflects less than 1 % of the light from its star , making it less reflective than coal or black acrylic paint . Hot Jupiters are expected to be quite dark due to sodium and potassium in their atmospheres but it is not known why TrES @-@ 2b is so dark — it could be due to an unknown chemical .
For gas giants , geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect . Increased cloud @-@ column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths , but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths . Optical albedo increases with age , because older planets have higher cloud @-@ column depths . Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass , because higher @-@ mass giant planets have higher surface gravities , which produces lower cloud @-@ column depths . Also , elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition , which can have a significant effect .
There is more thermal emission than reflection at some near @-@ infrared wavelengths for massive and / or young gas giants . So , although optical brightness is fully phase @-@ dependent , this is not always the case in the near infrared .
Temperatures of gas giants reduce over time and with distance from their star . Lowering the temperature increases optical albedo even without clouds . At a sufficiently low temperature , water clouds form , which further increase optical albedo . At even lower temperatures ammonia clouds form , resulting in the highest albedos at most optical and near @-@ infrared wavelengths .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
In 2014 , a magnetic field around HD 209458 b was inferred from the way hydrogen was evaporating from the planet . It is the first ( indirect ) detection of a magnetic field on an exoplanet . The magnetic field is estimated to be about one tenth as strong as Jupiter 's .
Interaction between a close @-@ in planet 's magnetic field and a star can produce spots on the star in a similar way to how the Galilean moons produce aurorae on Jupiter . Auroral radio emissions could be detected with radio telescopes such as LOFAR . The radio emissions could enable determination of the rotation rate of a planet which is difficult to detect otherwise .
Earth 's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core , but in super @-@ Earths the mass can produce high pressures with large viscosities and high melting temperatures which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles . Magnesium oxide , which is rocky on Earth , can be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super @-@ Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super @-@ Earths .
Hot Jupiters have been observed to have a larger radius than expected . This could be caused by the interaction between the stellar wind and the planet 's magnetosphere creating an electric current through the planet that heats it up causing it to expand . The more magnetically active a star is the greater the stellar wind and the larger the electric current leading to more heating and expansion of the planet . This theory matches the observation that stellar activity is correlated with inflated planetary radii .
= = = Plate tectonics = = =
In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super @-@ Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super @-@ Earths even if the planet is dry .
If super @-@ Earths have more than 80 times as much water as Earth then they become ocean planets with all land completely submerged . However , if there is less water than this limit , then the deep water cycle will move enough water between the oceans and mantle to allow continents to exist .
= = = Volcanism = = =
Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions .
= = = Rings = = =
The star 1SWASP J140747.93 @-@ 394542 @.@ 6 is orbited by an object that is circled by a ring system much larger than Saturn 's rings . However , the mass of the object is not known ; it could be a brown dwarf or low @-@ mass star instead of a planet .
The brightness of optical images of Fomalhaut b could be due to starlight reflecting off a circumplanetary ring system with a radius between 20 to 40 times that of Jupiter 's radius , about the size of the orbits of the Galilean moons .
The rings of the Solar System 's gas giants are aligned with their planet 's equator . However , for exoplanets that orbit close to their star , tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet 's orbital plane around the star . A planet 's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet 's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis , then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system .
= = = Moons = = =
In December 2013 a candidate exomoon of a rogue planet was announced . No exomoons have been confirmed so far .
= = = Comet @-@ like tails = = =
KIC 12557548 b is a small rocky planet , very close to its star , that is evaporating and leaving a trailing tail of cloud and dust like a comet . The dust could be ash erupting from volcanos and escaping due to the small planet 's low surface @-@ gravity , or it could be from metals that are vaporized by the high temperatures of being so close to the star with the metal vapor then condensing into dust .
In June 2015 , scientists reported that the atmosphere of GJ 436 b was evaporating , resulting in a giant cloud around the planet and , due to radiation from the host star , a long trailing tail 14 × 10 ^ 6 km ( 9 × 10 ^ 6 mi ) long .
= = = Insolation pattern = = =
Tidally locked planets in a 1 : 1 spin – orbit resonance would have their star always shining directly overhead on one spot which would be hot with the opposite hemisphere receiving no light and being freezing cold . Such a planet could resemble an eyeball with the hotspot being the pupil . Planets with an eccentric orbit could be locked in other resonances . 3 : 2 and 5 : 2 resonances would result in a double @-@ eyeball pattern with hotspots in both eastern and western hemispheres . Planets with both an eccentric orbit and a tilted axis of rotation would have more complicated insolation patterns .
= = Habitability = =
= = = Habitable zone = = =
The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet ; that is , not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze . The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star so that the habitable zone can be at different distances . Also , the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet 's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet : desert planets ( also known as dry planets ) , with very little water , will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect , meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun . The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space , so the outer edge of desert @-@ planet habitable zones is further out . Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth – Sun distance . Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star .
Planetary rotation rate is one of the major factors determining the circulation of the atmosphere and hence the pattern of clouds : slowly rotating planets create thick clouds that reflect more and so can be habitable much closer to their star . Earth with its current atmosphere would be habitable in Venus 's orbit , if it had Venus 's slow rotation . Venus is oceanless : if Venus lost its water ocean due to a runaway greenhouse effect , it is likely to have had a higher rotation rate in the past ; alternatively Venus never had an ocean because water vapor was lost to space during its formation and could have had its slow rotation throughout its history .
Tidally locked planets ( a.k.a. " eyeball " planets ) can be habitable closer to their star than previously thought due to the effect of clouds : at high stellar flux , strong convection produces thick water clouds near the substellar point that greatly increase the planetary albedo and reduce surface temperatures .
Habitable zones have usually been defined in terms of surface temperature , however over half of Earth 's biomass is from subsurface microbes , and the temperature increases as you go deeper underground , so the subsurface can be conducive for life when the surface is frozen and if this is considered , the habitable zone extends much further from the star , even rogue planets could have liquid water at sufficient depths underground . In an earlier era of the universe the temperature of the cosmic microwave background would have allowed any rocky planets that existed to have liquid water on their surface regardless of their distance from a star . Jupiter @-@ like planets might not be habitable , but they could have habitable moons .
= = = Ice ages and snowball states = = =
The outer edge of the habitable zone is where planets will be completely frozen but even planets well inside the habitable zone can periodically become frozen . If orbital fluctuations or other causes produce cooling then this creates more ice but ice reflects sunlight causing even more cooling creating a feedback loop until the planet is completely or nearly completely frozen . When the surface is frozen this stops carbon dioxide weathering resulting in a build @-@ up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from volcanic emissions . This creates a greenhouse effect which unfreezes the planet again . Planets with a large axial tilt are less likely to enter snowball states and can retain liquid water further from their star . Large fluctuations of axial tilt can have even more of a warming effect than a fixed large tilt . Paradoxically planets around cooler stars , such as red dwarfs , are less likely to enter snowball states because the infrared radiation emitted by cooler stars is mostly at wavelengths that are absorbed by ice which heats it up .
= = = Tidal heating = = =
If a planet has an eccentric orbit then tidal heating can provide another source of energy besides stellar irradiation . This means that eccentric planets in the radiative habitable zone can be too hot for liquid water ( Tidal Venus ) . Tides also circularize orbits over time so there could be planets in the habitable zone with circular orbits that have no water because they used to have eccentric orbits . Eccentric planets further out than the radiative habitable zone would still have frozen surfaces but the tidal heating could create a subsurface ocean similar to Europa 's . In some planetary systems , such as in the Upsilon Andromedae system , the eccentricity of orbits is maintained or even periodically varied by perturbations from other planets in the system . Tidal heating can cause outgassing from the mantle , contributing to the formation and replenishment of an atmosphere .
= = = Potentially habitable planets = = =
A review in 2015 came to the conclusion that the exoplanets Kepler @-@ 62f , Kepler @-@ 186f and Kepler @-@ 442b were likely the best candidates for being potentially habitable . These are at a distance of 1200 , 490 and 1 @,@ 120 light @-@ years away , respectively . Of these , Kepler @-@ 186f is in similar size to Earth with its 1 @.@ 2 @-@ Earth @-@ radius measure , and it is located towards the outer edge of the habitable zone around its red dwarf sun .
When looking at the nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates , Tau Ceti e is merely 11 @.@ 9 light @-@ years away . Its average surface temperature is estimated to be 68 ° C ( 341 K ) .
= = = = Earth @-@ size planets = = = =
In November 2013 it was announced that 22 ± 8 % of Sun @-@ like stars have an Earth @-@ sized planet in the habitable zone . Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way , that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earths , rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included .
Kepler @-@ 186f , a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ Earth @-@ radius planet in the habitable zone of a red dwarf , announced in April 2014 .
In February 2013 , researchers calculated that up to 6 % of small red dwarfs may have planets with Earth @-@ like properties . This suggests that the closest " alien Earth " to the Solar System could be 13 light @-@ years away . The estimated distance increases to 21 light @-@ years when a 95 percent confidence interval is used . In March 2013 a revised estimate based on a more accurate consideration of the size of the habitable zone around red dwarfs gave an occurrence rate of 50 % for Earth @-@ size planets in the habitable zone of red dwarfs .
At 1 @.@ 63 times Earth 's radius Kepler @-@ 452b is the first discovered near @-@ Earth @-@ size planet in the “ habitable zone ” around a G2 @-@ type Sun @-@ like star ( 23 July 2015 ) .
= = Cultural impact = =
On 9 May 2013 , a congressional hearing by two United States House of Representatives subcommittees discussed " Exoplanet Discoveries : Have We Found Other Earths ? " , prompted by the discovery of exoplanet Kepler @-@ 62f , along with Kepler @-@ 62e and Kepler @-@ 62c . A related special issue of the journal Science , published earlier , described the discovery of the exoplanets .
= = = Formation and evolution = = =
John Lee Grenfell ; Rauer , Heike ; Selsis , Franck ; Kaltenegger , Lisa ; Beichman , Charles ; Danchi , William ; Eiroa , Carlos ; Fridlund , Malcolm ; Henning , Thomas ; Herbst , Tom ; Lammer , Helmut ; Léger , Alain ; Liseau , René ; Lunine , Jonathan ; Paresce , Francesco ; Penny , Alan ; Quirrenbach , Andreas ; Röttgering , Huub ; Schneider , Jean ; Stam , Daphne ; Tinetti , Giovanna ; White , Glenn J. ( 2010 ) . " Co @-@ evolution of atmospheres , life , and climate " . Astrobiology 10 ( 1 ) : 77 – 88 @.@ arXiv : 1005 @.@ 3589 . Bibcode : 2010AsBio .. 10 ... 77G. doi : 10 @.@ 1089 / ast.2009.0375. PMID 20307184 .
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= = = Volcanism = = =
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= = = Interior structure = = =
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= = = Surface mapping = = =
Kawahara , Hajime ; Fujii , Yuka ( 2010 ) . " Global Mapping of Earth @-@ like Exoplanets from Scattered Light Curves " . The Astrophysical Journal 720 ( 2 ) : 1333 – 1350 @.@ arXiv : 1004 @.@ 5152 . Bibcode : 2010ApJ ... 720.1333K. doi : 10 @.@ 1088 / 0004 @-@ 637X / 720 / 2 / 1333 .
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= = = Climate and weather = = =
Patterns of Sunlight on Extra @-@ Solar Planets , Tony Dobrovolskis , 18 March 2014
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New Technique Could Measure Exoplanet Atmospheric Pressure , an Indicator of Habitability , Shannon Hall on 6 March 2014 , www.universetoday.com
= = = Water = = =
After hydrogen and helium , oxygen is the most common element in many planetary systems ( in some systems carbon is more common than oxygen ) , and water H2O one of the most common compounds . Gas giants are composed mostly of hydrogen and helium , but most planets are between the size of Earth and Neptune , where many planets will have deep water oceans covering the entire surface in addition to a hydrogen – helium envelope .
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Are Exoplanets Orbiting Red Dwarf Stars too Dry for Life ? , Michael Schirber , Astrobiology Magazine , 27 August 2013
Carbon @-@ Rich Exoplanets May Lack Surface Water , 26 October 2013
'Water @-@ Trapped ' Worlds , Adam Hadhazy , Astrobiology Magazine , 18 July 2013
Lobster @-@ Shaped Extrasolar Oceans , 10 March 2014 , Charles Q. Choi , Astrobiology Magazine
Alien Moons Could Bake Dry from Young Gas Giants ' Hot Glow , Adam Hadhazy , Astrobiology Magazine 25 March 2014
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= = = Orbital dynamics = = =
= = = = Eccentricity dynamics = = = =
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Moorhead , Althea V. ; Ford , Eric B. ( 2009 ) . " Type II migration of planets on eccentric orbits " . arXiv : 0904 @.@ 3336 [ astro @-@ ph.EP ] .
D 'Angelo , Gennaro ; Lub
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ow , Stephen H. ; Bate , Matthew R. ( 2006 ) . " Evolution of Giant Planets in Eccentric Disks " . The Astrophysical Journal 652 ( 2 ) : 1698 – 1714 @.@ arXiv : astro @-@ ph / 0608355 . Bibcode : 2006ApJ ... 652.1698D. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 508451 .
= = = = Inclination dynamics = = = =
Dawson , Rebekah ; Chiang , Eugene ( 2014 ) . " A Class of Warm Jupiters with Mutually Inclined , Apsidally Misaligned , Close Friends " . Science 346 ( 6206 ) : 212 – 6 @.@ arXiv : 1410 @.@ 2604 . Bibcode : 2014Sci ... 346 .. 212D. doi : 10 @.@ 1126 / science.1256943. PMID 25301622 .
= Aikido =
Aikido ( Japanese : 合気道 , Hepburn : Aikidō ) [ a.i.ki.doː ] is a modern Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies , philosophy , and religious beliefs . Aikido is often translated as " the way of unifying ( with ) life energy " or as " the way of harmonious spirit . " Ueshiba 's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury .
Aikido techniques consist of entering and turning movements that redirect the momentum of an opponent 's attack , and a throw or joint lock that terminates the technique .
Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō @-@ ryū Aiki @-@ jūjutsu , but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s , partly due to Ueshiba 's involvement with the Ōmoto @-@ kyō religion . Ueshiba 's early students ' documents bear the term aiki @-@ jūjutsu .
Ueshiba 's senior students have different approaches to aikido , depending partly on when they studied with him . Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles , with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis . However , they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well @-@ being of the attacker .
= = Etymology and basic philosophy = =
The word " aikido " is formed of three kanji :
合 – ai – joining , unifying , combining , fitting
気 – ki – spirit , energy , mood , morale
道 – dō – way , path
The term " aiki " does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of Budo . This has led to many possible interpretations of the word . 合 is mainly used in compounds to mean ' combine , unite , join together , meet ' , examples being 合同 ( combined / united ) , 合成 ( composition ) , 結合 ( unite / combine / join together ) , 連合 ( union / alliance / association ) , 統合 ( combine / unify ) , and 合意 ( mutual agreement ) . There is an idea of reciprocity , 知り合う ( to get to know one another ) , 話し合い ( talk / discussion / negotiation ) , and 待ち合わせる ( meet by appointment ) .
気 is often used to describe a feeling , as in X気がする ( ' I feel X ' , as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning ) , and 気持ち ( feeling / sensation ) ; it is used to mean energy or force , as in 電気 ( electricity ) and 磁気 ( magnetism ) ; it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things , as in 気質 ( spirit / trait / temperament ) .
The term dō is also found in martial arts such as judo and kendo , and in various non @-@ martial arts , such as Japanese calligraphy ( shodō ) , flower arranging ( kadō ) and tea ceremony ( chadō or sadō ) .
Therefore , from a purely literal interpretation , aikido is the " Way of combining forces " , in that the term aiki refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker 's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort . One applies aiki by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter @-@ technique .
= = History = =
Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba ( 植芝 盛平 Ueshiba Morihei , 14 December 1883 – 26 April 1969 ) , referred to by some aikido practitioners as Ōsensei ( " Great Teacher " ) . The term ' aikido ' was coined in the twentieth century . Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training , but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation . During Ueshiba 's lifetime and continuing today , aikido has evolved from the Aiki that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world .
= = = Initial development = = =
Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied . The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō @-@ ryū aiki @-@ jūjutsu , which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sōkaku , the reviver of that art . Additionally , Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō in Tokyo in 1901 , Gotōha Yagyū Shingan @-@ ryū under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908 , and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi ( 高木 喜代市 Takagi Kiyoichi , 1894 – 1972 ) in Tanabe in 1911 .
The art of Daitō @-@ ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido . Along with empty @-@ handed throwing and joint @-@ locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons , such as those for the spear ( yari ) , short staff ( jō ) , and perhaps the bayonet ( 銃剣 , jūken ) . However , aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship ( kenjutsu ) .
Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912 , and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915 . His official association with Daitō @-@ ryū continued until 1937 . However , during the latter part of that period , Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō @-@ ryū . At that time Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as " Aiki Budō " . It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name " aikido " , but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society ( Dai Nippon Butoku Kai ) was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts .
= = = Religious influences = = =
After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919 , he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi , the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto @-@ kyō religion ( a neo @-@ Shinto movement ) in Ayabe . One of the primary features of Ōmoto @-@ kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one 's life . This was a great influence on Ueshiba 's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others . Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it . In an ideal resolution , not only is the receiver unharmed , but so is the attacker .
In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth , the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist . As a result of this exposure , he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students . Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido .
= = = International dissemination = = =
Aikido was first brought to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students . He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952 , who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative , remaining in France for seven years . Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953 . Later that year , Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for a full year , where he set up several dojo . This trip was followed by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States . The United Kingdom followed in 1955 ; Italy in 1964 by Hiroshi Tada ; and Germany in 1965 by Katsuaki Asai . Designated " Official Delegate for Europe and Africa " by Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961 . Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965 . Today there are aikido dojo throughout the world .
= = = Proliferation of independent organizations = = =
The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation , which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family . However , aikido has many styles , mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba 's major students .
The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido , begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931 , Yoshinkan Aikido , founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955 , and Shodokan Aikido , founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967 . The emergence of these styles pre @-@ dated Ueshiba 's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized . Shodokan Aikido , however , was controversial , since it introduced a unique rule @-@ based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido .
After Ueshiba 's death in 1969 , two more major styles emerged . Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo 's chief instructor Koichi Tohei , in 1974 . Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder , Kisshomaru Ueshiba , who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation . The disagreement was over the proper role of ki development in regular aikido training . After Tohei left , he formed his own style , called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido , and the organization that governs it , the Ki Society ( Ki no Kenkyūkai ) .
A final major style evolved from Ueshiba 's retirement in Iwama , Ibaraki and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito . It is unofficially referred to as the " Iwama style " , and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu . Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito 's death in 2002 , followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups . One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent Shinshin Aikishuren Kai in 2004 around Saito 's son Hitohiro Saito .
Today , the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization , have their own headquarters ( 本部道場 , honbu dōjō ) in Japan , and have an international breadth .
= = Ki = =
The study of ki is an important component of aikido , and its study defies categorization as either " physical " or " mental " training , as it encompasses both . The kanji for ki normally is written as 気 . It was written as 氣 until the writing reforms after World War 2 , and this older form still is seen on occasion .
The character for ki is used in everyday Japanese terms , such as " health " ( 元気 , genki ) , or " shyness " ( 内気 , uchiki ) . Ki has many meanings , including " ambience " , " mind " , " mood " , and " intention " , however , in traditional martial arts it is often used to refer to " life energy " . Gōzō Shioda 's Yoshinkan Aikido , considered one of the " hard styles , " largely follows Ueshiba 's teachings from before World War II , and surmises that the secret to ki lies in timing and the application of the whole body 's strength to a single point . In later years , Ueshiba 's application of ki in aikido took on a softer , more gentle feel . This was his Takemusu Aiki and many of his later students teach about ki from this perspective . Koichi Tohei 's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical ( albeit subjective ) experience of ki with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ki development .
= = Training = =
In aikido , as in virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are both physical and mental aspects of training . The physical training in aikido is diverse , covering both general physical fitness and conditioning , as well as specific techniques . Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws , beginners learn how to safely fall or roll . The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs ; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins . After basic techniques are learned , students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents , and techniques with weapons .
= = = Fitness = = =
Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation , correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders , flexibility , and endurance , with less emphasis on strength training . In aikido , pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements . This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner .
In aikido , specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone , mass , or power . Aikido @-@ related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole @-@ body movement and balance similar to yoga or pilates . For example , many dojos begin each class with warm @-@ up exercises ( 準備体操 , junbi taisō ) , which may include stretching and ukemi ( break falls ) .
= = = Roles of uke and tori = = =
Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre @-@ arranged forms ( kata ) rather than freestyle practice . The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique ( uke ) to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique — the 取り tori , or shite 仕手 ( depending on aikido style ) , also referred to as 投げ nage ( when applying a throwing technique ) , who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique .
Both halves of the technique , that of uke and that of tori , are considered essential to aikido training . Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation . Tori learns to blend with and control attacking energy , while uke learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous , off @-@ balance positions in which tori places them . This " receiving " of the technique is called ukemi . Uke continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities ( e.g. , an exposed side ) , while tori uses position and timing to keep uke off @-@ balance and vulnerable . In more advanced training , uke will sometimes apply reversal techniques ( 返し技 , kaeshi @-@ waza ) to regain balance and pin or throw tori .
Ukemi ( 受身 ) refers to the act of receiving a technique . Good ukemi involves attention to the technique , the partner and the immediate environment — it is an active rather than a passive receiving of aikido . The fall itself is part of aikido , and is a way for the practitioner to receive , safely , what would otherwise be a devastating strike or throw .
= = = Initial attacks = = =
Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack , so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner . Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking @-@ based arts , sincere attacks ( a strong strike or an immobilizing grab ) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique .
Many of the strikes ( 打ち , uchi ) of aikido resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object , which indicate its origins in techniques intended for armed combat . Other techniques , which explicitly appear to be punches ( tsuki ) , are practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword . Kicks are generally reserved for upper @-@ level variations ; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous , and that kicks ( high kicks in particular ) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan . Some basic strikes include :
Front @-@ of @-@ the @-@ head strike ( 正面打ち , shōmen 'uchi ) a vertical knifehand strike to the head . In training , this is usually directed at the forehead or the crown for safety , but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the maxillary sinus .
Side @-@ of @-@ the @-@ head strike ( 横面打ち , yokomen 'uchi ) a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck .
Chest thrust ( 胸突き , mune @-@ tsuki ) a punch to the torso . Specific targets include the chest , abdomen , and solar plexus . Same as " middle @-@ level thrust " ( 中段突き , chūdan @-@ tsuki ) , and " direct thrust " ( 直突き , choku @-@ tsuki ) .
Face thrust ( 顔面突き , ganmen @-@ tsuki ) a punch to the face . Same as " upper @-@ level thrust " ( 上段突き , jōdan @-@ tsuki ) .
Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs , both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike . Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon ; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender . The following are examples of some basic grabs :
Single @-@ hand grab ( 片手取り , katate @-@ dori ) one hand grabs one wrist .
Both @-@ hands grab ( 諸手取り , morote @-@ dori ) both hands grab one wrist . Same as " single hand double @-@ handed grab " ( 片手両手取り , katateryōte @-@ dori )
Both @-@ hands grab ( 両手取り , ryōte @-@ dori ) both hands grab both wrists . Same as " double single @-@ handed grab " ( 両片手取り , ryōkatate @-@ dori ) .
Shoulder grab ( 肩取り , kata @-@ dori ) a shoulder grab . " Both @-@ shoulders @-@ grab " is ryōkata @-@ dori ( 両肩取り ) . It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as Shoulder grab face strike ( 肩取り面打ち , kata @-@ dori men @-@ uchi ) .
Chest grab ( 胸取り , mune @-@ dori or muna @-@ dori ) grabbing the ( clothing of the ) chest . Same as " collar grab " ( 襟取り , eri @-@ dori ) .
= = = Basic techniques = = =
The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins . Many of these techniques derive from Daitō @-@ ryū Aiki @-@ jūjutsu , but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba . The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles , so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation . Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed , they are not universally taught in numeric order .
First technique ( 一教 ( 教 ) , ikkyō ) a control using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which leverages uke to the ground . This grip applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist .
Second technique ( 二教 , nikyō ) a pronating wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure . ( There is an adductive wristlock or Z @-@ lock in ura version . )
Third technique ( 三教 , sankyō ) a rotational wristlock that directs upward @-@ spiraling tension throughout the arm , elbow and shoulder .
Fourth technique ( 四教 , yonkyō ) a shoulder control similar to ikkyō , but with both hands gripping the forearm . The knuckles ( from the palm side ) are applied to the recipient 's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone .
Fifth technique ( 五教 , gokyō ) visually similar to ikkyō , but with an inverted grip of the wrist , medial rotation of the arm and shoulder , and downward pressure on the elbow . Common in knife and other weapon take @-@ aways .
Four @-@ direction throw ( 四方投げ , shihōnage ) The hand is folded back past the shoulder , locking the shoulder joint .
Forearm return ( 小手返し , kotegaeshi ) a supinating wristlock @-@ throw that stretches the extensor digitorum .
Breath throw ( 呼吸投げ , kokyūnage ) a loosely used term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques , although they generally do not use joint locks like other techniques .
Entering throw ( 入身投げ , iriminage ) throws in which tori moves through the space occupied by uke . The classic form superficially resembles a " clothesline " technique .
Heaven @-@ and @-@ earth throw ( 天地投げ , tenchinage ) beginning with ryōte @-@ dori ; moving forward , tori sweeps one hand low ( " earth " ) and the other high ( " heaven " ) , which unbalances uke so that he or she easily topples over .
Hip throw ( 腰投げ , koshinage ) aikido 's version of the hip throw . Tori drops his or her hips lower than those of uke , then flips uke over the resultant fulcrum .
Figure @-@ ten throw ( 十字投げ , jūjinage ) or figure @-@ ten entanglement ( 十字絡み , jūjigarami ) a throw that locks the arms against each other ( The kanji for " 10 " is a cross @-@ shape : 十 ) .
Rotary throw ( 回転投げ , kaitennage ) Tori sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint , then uses forward pressure to throw .
= = = Implementations = = =
Aikido makes use of body movement ( tai sabaki ) to blend with uke . For example , an " entering " ( irimi ) technique consists of movements inward towards uke , while a " turning " ( 転換 , tenkan ) technique uses a pivoting motion . Additionally , an " inside " ( 内 , uchi ) technique takes place in front of uke , whereas an " outside " ( 外 , soto ) technique takes place to his side ; a " front " ( 表 , omote ) technique is applied with motion to the front of uke , and a " rear " ( 裏 , ura ) version is applied with motion towards the rear of uke , usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion . Finally , most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture ( seiza ) . Techniques where both uke and tori are standing are called tachi @-@ waza , techniques where both start off in seiza are called suwari @-@ waza , and techniques performed with uke standing and tori sitting are called hanmi handachi ( 半身半立 ) .
Thus , from fewer than twenty basic techniques , there are thousands of possible implementations . For instance , ikkyō can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike ( perhaps with an ura type of movement to redirect the incoming force ) , or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance ( perhaps an omote @-@ waza version ) . Specific aikido kata are typically referred to with the formula " attack @-@ technique ( -modifier ) " . For instance , katate @-@ dori ikkyō refers to any ikkyō technique executed when uke is holding one wrist . This could be further specified as katate @-@ dori ikkyō omote , referring to any forward @-@ moving ikkyō technique from that grab .
Atemi ( 当て身 ) are strikes ( or feints ) employed during an aikido technique . Some view atemi as attacks against " vital points " meant to cause damage in and of themselves . For instance , Gōzō Shioda described using atemi in a brawl to quickly down a gang 's leader . Others consider atemi , especially to the face , to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques . A strike , whether or not it is blocked , can startle the target and break his or her concentration . The target may become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow , for example by jerking the head back , which may allow for an easier throw . Many sayings about atemi are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba , who considered them an essential element of technique .
= = = Weapons = = =
Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff ( jō ) , wooden sword ( bokken ) , and knife ( tantō ) . Some schools incorporate firearm @-@ disarming techniques . Both weapon @-@ taking and weapon @-@ retention are taught . Some schools , such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito , usually spend substantial time with bokken and jō , practised under the names aiki @-@ ken , and aiki @-@ jō , respectively .
The founder developed many of the empty @-@ handed techniques from traditional sword and spear movements . Consequently , the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements , and reinforces the concepts of distance , timing , foot movement , presence and connectedness with one 's training partner ( s ) .
= = = Multiple attackers and randori = = =
One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers , often called taninzudori , or taninzugake . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers , called randori ( 乱取 ) or jiyūwaza ( 自由技 ) , is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher level ranks . Randori exercises a person 's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment . Strategic choice of techniques , based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers , is important in randori training . For instance , an ura technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind .
In Shodokan Aikido , randori differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker , but between two people , where both participants attack , defend , and counter at will . In this respect it resembles judo randori .
= = = Injuries = = =
In applying a technique during training , it is the responsibility of tori to prevent injury to uke by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner 's proficiency in ukemi . Injuries ( especially those to the joints ) , when they do occur in aikido , are often the result of tori misjudging the ability of uke to receive the throw or pin .
A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other . Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido , as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes . Several deaths from head @-@ and @-@ neck injuries , caused by aggressive shihōnage in a senpai / kōhai hazing context , have been reported .
= = = Mental training = = =
Aikido training is mental as well as physical , emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations . This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter @-@ and @-@ blend movements that underlie aikido techniques , wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness . Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one " must be willing to receive 99 % of an opponent 's attack and stare death in the face " in order to execute techniques without hesitation . As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life , this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners .
= = Uniforms and ranking = =
Aikido practitioners ( commonly called aikidōka outside Japan ) generally progress by promotion through a series of " grades " ( kyū ) , followed by a series of " degrees " ( dan ) , pursuant to formal testing procedures . Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners ' grades , often simply white and black belts to distinguish kyu and dan grades , though some use various belt colors . Testing requirements vary , so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another . Some dojos do not allow students to take the test to obtain a dan rank unless they are 16 or older .
The uniform worn for practicing aikido ( aikidōgi ) is similar to the training uniform ( keikogi ) used in most other modern martial arts ; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket , usually white . Both thick ( " judo @-@ style " ) , and thin ( " karate @-@ style " ) cotton tops are used . Aikido @-@ specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow .
Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a hakama ( used also in kendo and iaido ) . In many schools , its use is reserved for practitioners with ( dan ) ranks or for instructors , while others allow all practitioners to wear a hakama regardless of rank .
= = Criticisms = =
The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training . The attacks initiated by uke ( and which tori must defend against ) have been criticized as being " weak , " " sloppy , " and " little more than caricatures of an attack . " Weak attacks from uke allow for a conditioned response from tori , and result in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners . To counteract this , some styles allow students to become less compliant over time but , in keeping with the core philosophies , this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners . Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practising in a competitive format . Such adaptations are debated between styles , with some maintaining that there is no need to adjust their methods because either the criticisms are unjustified , or that they are not training for self @-@ defense or combat effectiveness , but spiritual , fitness or other reasons .
Another criticism pertains to the shift toward ki as the focus of training . After the end of Ueshiba 's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid @-@ 1950s , he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido . As a result , strikes to vital points by tori , entering ( irimi ) and initiation of techniques by tori , the distinction between omote ( front side ) and ura ( back side ) techniques , and the use of weapons , were all de @-@ emphasized or eliminated from practice . Some Aikido practitioners feel that lack of training in these areas leads to an overall loss of effectiveness .
Conversely , some styles of aikido receive criticism for not placing enough importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba . According to Minoru Shibata of Aikido Journal , " O @-@ Sensei 's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts . " That is , that aikido practitioners who focus on aikido 's roots in traditional jujutsu or kenjutsu are diverging from what Ueshiba taught . Such critics urge practitioners to embrace the assertion that " [ Ueshiba 's ] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals [ sic ] of the paradigm that he demonstrated . "
= Henry Pering Pellew Crease =
Sir Henry Pering Pellew Crease ( 20 August 1823 – 27 November 1905 ) was a British lawyer , judge , and politician , influential in the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia . He was the first Attorney General of the united Colony of British Columbia , and sat on the Supreme Court of that province for 26 years .
= = Early life = =
Crease was born at Ince Castle , in Cornwall , the son of a Royal Navy captain . He earned his BA from Clare College , Cambridge and then studied law at the Middle Temple . Though called to the bar in June 1849 , he did not immediately pursue his career in law . Instead he joined his parents in an unsuccessful canal building endeavour in Upper Canada . After only a short turn as a barrister on his return to England , he took a job in Cornwall managing a tin mine owned by Great Wheal Vor United Mines , which ended with his employer suing him .
By the time Crease left again for Canada in April 1858 , he had married Sarah Lindley and had three young daughters , Susan , Mary , and Barbara . Sarah was the daughter of the famous botanist , John Lindley . She was also a talented amateur artist , and would go on to create many drawings and watercolours of early BC . Unable to find work in Toronto , Henry decided to try his luck in Victoria , and arrived there in December .
= = Lawyer and politician = =
Upon his arrival in Victoria , Crease was admitted as a barrister to the courts of Vancouver Island and British Columbia , becoming the first lawyer qualified to practice in both jurisdictions . Crease opened a practice in Victoria , sent for his family , and soon found himself travelling with Supreme Court Judge Matthew Baillie Begbie on his first circuit , dealing out justice on the frontier as a Crown prosecutor in the midst of the Gold Rush .
Politically , Crease presented himself as a foe of the Hudson 's Bay Company 's hegemony over the colony , and in 1860 was elected to the Vancouver Island House of Assembly as an independent member representing Victoria . However , he was soon criticised by the British Colonist ( a paper run by opposition leader Amor de Cosmos ) for being too cozy with the HBC @-@ backed government . The following year , as if to prove de Cosmos right , governor Sir James Douglas appointed Crease Attorney @-@ General of British Columbia , and Crease resigned his seat in the Assembly . He was a key member of the government , responsible for pushing literally hundreds of laws through the legislature , in between his continuing circuit tours , most of which was concerned with regulating the resource @-@ based economic activity of the colony , including land settlement and gold mining . His legislation cemented his reputation as an advocate of free trade .
Even as a colonial pioneer , Crease clung to the aristocratic traditions of Britain . The Crease family 's home in New Westminster was Ince Cottage , on Sapperton Road , named for the castle that belonged to Henry 's mother 's family in England . He sent his sons to Haileybury College in England for their schooling , and was dismayed to note that , " While you and I talk of the Old Country as ' Home , ' all our children call Canada ' home . ' "
When the colonies were joined in 1866 Crease became the first Attorney General of the united British Columbia . In 1868 the colonial capital was moved to Victoria , and the Creases moved with it . There they built a new home , Pentrelew , on Fort Street .
In Victoria , as in New Westminster , Crease was active in many community organisations : the Church of England , Royal Colonial Institute , and the Law Society of British Columbia , which he was key in founding . He sat on the board of the Colonial Securities Company , and was a lieutenant in the Seymour Artillery Company .
At a time when British policy called for North American colonies to extinguish native title by means of treaties , the British Columbia government , including Crease , made no effort to negotiate treaties . Indeed , when the issue was raised in the legislature in 1870 , Attorney General Crease objected to the mere discussion of the issue as potentially damaging , " for Indians do get word of what 's going on . " In response to the criticism that the government had no Indian policy , Crease stated simply that " our policy has been , let the Indians alone . "
= = BC Supreme Court judge = =
In 1870 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of British Columbia and retired from his government post . Crease was suspicious of both Confederation and responsible government , largely because they threatened greater government control over judges and central Canadian domination of patronage . Like many British Columbians , he was disappointed that London seemed to have given up on BC as an independent colony , abandoning either it to annexation to the United States or confederation with Canada . " I believe that England is sick of her Colonies , " he wrote , " and to be a Colonist , whatever your POSITION & CHARACTER when at Home – is to lose Caste the moment you become a bona fide settler . " Regardless of his opposition to Confederation , Crease was chosen to prepare for it as the chair of the Royal Commission for the Revision of Laws of BC .
After BC became a Canadian province in 1871 , Crease devoted the next few years to fighting for judicial independence — specifically the right of judges to live outside their districts . In 1881 the BC Supreme Court , including Crease , ruled in the Thrasher case that the province 's attempts to regulate judges were unconstitutional . This decision was overturned two years later by the Supreme Court of Canada .
In 1882 , Crease presided over the trial of John Hall , who owned most of the land on Burrard Inlet that now makes up the community of Belcarra , British Columbia , and who was accused of murdering his mother in law . Hall and Crease had known each other for years , and Crease had once employed him as his agent in a dispute with trespassers who illegally logged on land he and his friend Robert Burnaby owned near Hall 's ranch . Hall was found guilty of manslaughter , and his land signed over to his attorney to pay for his defence .
In 1884 , Crease overturned the Chinese Population Regulation Bill , which imposed an annual tax of ten dollars on each Chinese over the age of ten . He ruled that the provincial government had acted beyond its constitutional authority in passing the act , which fell within federal powers of taxation . The next year , as a member of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration , Crease wrote that " The real fact is , and the more completely it is recognized the better , that we cannot do without a certain number of Chinese for manual labour and for domestic servants , " but went on to warn that Chinese immigrants " will never assimilate with the Anglo @-@ Saxon race , nor is it desirable that they should … They do not regard British Columbia as their home and when they die send their bones home to be buried in China . "
Sitting on several Royal commissions , the Exchequer Court of Canada , and the BC Supreme Court , Crease remained an influential figure long after his defeat in the Thrasher case . However , federal Justice Minister Sir Charles Hibbert Tupper was not impressed with Crease 's judgment toward the end of his career and pushed for Crease 's retirement in a letter to BC Supreme Court Chief Justice Theodore Davie . Crease retired soon afterward in January 1896 . On 23 January 1896 Crease was knighted . He died in 1905 and was buried at Ross Bay Cemetery in Victoria .
= Bryce Canyon National Park =
Bryce Canyon National Park / ˈbraɪs / is a National Park located in southwestern Utah in the United States . The major feature of the park is Bryce Canyon , which despite its name , is not a canyon , but a collection of giant natural amphitheaters along the eastern side of the Paunsaugunt Plateau . Bryce is distinctive due to geological structures called hoodoos , formed by frost weathering and stream erosion of the river and lake bed sedimentary rocks . The red , orange , and white colors of the rocks provide spectacular views for park visitors . Bryce sits at a much higher elevation than nearby Zion National Park . The rim at Bryce varies from 8 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 700 m ) .
The Bryce Canyon area was settled by Mormon pioneers in the 1850s and was named after Ebenezer Bryce , who homesteaded in the area in 1874 . The area around Bryce Canyon became a National Monument in 1923 and was designated as a National Park in 1928 . The park covers 35 @,@ 835 acres ( 55 @.@ 992 sq mi ; 14 @,@ 502 ha ; 145 @.@ 02 km2 ) and receives relatively few visitors compared to Zion National Park and the Grand Canyon , largely due to its remote location .
= = Geography and climate = =
Bryce Canyon National Park is located in southwestern Utah about 50 miles ( 80 km ) northeast of and 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) higher than Zion National Park . The weather in Bryce Canyon is therefore cooler , and the park receives more precipitation : a total of 15 to 18 inches ( 380 to 460 mm ) per year . Yearly temperatures vary from an average minimum of 9 ° F ( − 13 ° C ) in January to an average maximum of 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) in July , but extreme temperatures can range from − 30 to 97 ° F ( − 34 to 36 ° C ) . The record high temperature in the park was 98 ° F ( 37 ° C ) on July 14 , 2002 . The record low temperature was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) on December 10 , 1972 .
The national park lies within the Colorado Plateau geographic province of North America and straddles the southeastern edge of the Paunsaugunt Plateau west of the Paunsaugunt Fault ( Paunsaugunt is Paiute for " home of the beaver " ) . Park visitors arrive from the plateau part of the park and look over the plateau 's edge toward a valley containing the fault and the Paria River just beyond it ( Paria is Paiute for " muddy or elk water " ) . The edge of the Kaiparowits Plateau bounds the opposite side of the valley .
Bryce Canyon was not formed from erosion initiated from a central stream , meaning it technically is not a canyon . Instead headward erosion has excavated large amphitheater @-@ shaped features in the Cenozoic @-@ aged rocks of the Paunsaugunt Plateau . This erosion exposed delicate and colorful pinnacles called hoodoos that are up to 200 feet ( 60 m ) high . A series of amphitheaters extends more than 20 miles ( 30 km ) north @-@ to @-@ south within the park . The largest is Bryce Amphitheater , which is 12 miles ( 19 km ) long , 3 miles ( 5 km ) wide and 800 feet ( 240 m ) deep . A nearby example of amphitheaters with hoodoos in the same formation but at a higher elevation , is in Cedar Breaks National Monument , which is 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the west on the Markagunt Plateau .
Rainbow Point , the highest part of the park at 9 @,@ 105 feet ( 2 @,@ 775 m ) , is at the end of the 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) scenic drive . From there , Aquarius Plateau , Bryce Amphitheater , the Henry Mountains , the Vermilion Cliffs and the White Cliffs can be seen . Yellow Creek , where it exits the park in the north @-@ east section , is the lowest part of the park at 6 @,@ 620 feet ( 2 @,@ 020 m ) .
= = History = =
= = = Native American habitation = = =
Little is known about early human habitation in the Bryce Canyon area . Archaeological surveys of Bryce Canyon National Park and the Paunsaugunt Plateau show that people have been in the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years . Basketmaker Anasazi artifacts several thousand years old have been found south of the park . Other artifacts from the Pueblo @-@ period Anasazi and the Fremont culture ( up to the mid @-@ 12th century ) have also been found .
The Paiute Indians moved into the surrounding valleys and plateaus in the area around the same time that the other cultures left . These Native Americans hunted and gathered for most of their food , but also supplemented their diet with some cultivated products . The Paiute in the area developed a mythology surrounding the hoodoos ( pinnacles ) in Bryce Canyon . They believed that hoodoos were the Legend People whom the trickster Coyote turned to stone . At least one older Paiute said his culture called the hoodoos Anka @-@ ku @-@ was @-@ a @-@ wits , which is Paiute for " red painted faces " .
= = = European American exploration and settlement = = =
It was not until the late 18th and the early 19th century that the first European Americans explored the remote and hard @-@ to @-@ reach area . Mormon scouts visited the area in the 1850s to gauge its potential for agricultural development , use for grazing , and settlement .
The first major scientific expedition to the area was led by U.S. Army Major John Wesley Powell in 1872 . Powell , along with a team of mapmakers and geologists , surveyed the Sevier and Virgin River area as part of a larger survey of the Colorado Plateaus . His mapmakers kept many of the Paiute place names .
Small groups of Mormon pioneers followed and attempted to settle east of Bryce Canyon along the Paria River . In 1873 , the Kanarra Cattle Company started to use the area for cattle grazing .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints sent Scottish immigrant Ebenezer Bryce and his wife Mary to settle land in the Paria Valley because they thought his carpentry skills would be useful in the area . The Bryce family chose to live right below Bryce Canyon Amphitheater . Bryce grazed his cattle inside what are now park borders , and reputedly thought that the amphitheaters were a " helluva place to lose a cow . " He also built a road to the plateau to retrieve firewood and timber , and a canal to irrigate his crops and water his animals . Other settlers soon started to call the unusual place " Bryce 's canyon " , which was later formalized into Bryce Canyon .
A combination of drought , overgrazing and flooding eventually drove the remaining Paiutes from the area and prompted the settlers to attempt construction of a water diversion channel from the Sevier River drainage . When that effort failed , most of the settlers , including the Bryce family , left the area . Bryce moved his family to Arizona in 1880 . The remaining settlers dug a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) ditch from the Sevier 's east fork into Tropic Valley .
= = = Creation of the park = = =
These scenic areas were first described for the public in magazine articles published by Union Pacific and Santa Fe railroads in 1916 . People like Forest Supervisor J. W. Humphrey promoted the scenic wonders of Bryce Canyon 's amphitheaters , and by 1918 nationally distributed articles also helped to spark interest . However , poor access to the remote area and the lack of accommodations kept visitation to a bare minimum .
Ruby Syrett , Harold Bowman and the Perry brothers later built modest lodging , and set up " touring services " in the area . Syrett later served as the first postmaster of Bryce Canyon . Visitation steadily increased , and by the early 1920s the Union Pacific Railroad became interested in expanding rail service into southwestern Utah to accommodate more tourists .
At the same time , conservationists became alarmed by the damage overgrazing , logging , and unregulated visitation were having on the fragile features of Bryce Canyon . A movement to have the area protected was soon started , and National Park Service Director Stephen Mather responded by proposing that Bryce Canyon be made into a state park . The governor of Utah and the Utah State Legislature , however , lobbied for national protection of the area . Mather relented and sent his recommendation to President Warren G. Harding , who on June 8 , 1923 declared Bryce Canyon a national monument .
A road was built the same year on the plateau to provide easy access to outlooks over the amphitheaters . From 1924 to 1925 , Bryce Canyon Lodge was built from local timber and stone .
Members of the United States Congress started work in 1924 on upgrading Bryce Canyon 's protection status from a U.S. National Monument to a National Park in order to establish Utah National Park . A process led by the Utah Parks Company for transferring ownership of private and state @-@ held land in the monument to the federal government started in 1923 . The last of the land in the proposed park 's borders was sold to the federal government four years later , and on February 25 , 1928 , the renamed Bryce Canyon National Park was established .
In 1931 , President Herbert Hoover annexed an adjoining area south of the park , and in 1942 an additional 635 acres ( 257 ha ) was added . This brought the park 's total area to the current figure of 35 @,@ 835 acres ( 14 @,@ 502 ha ) . Rim Road , the scenic drive that is still used today , was completed in 1934 by the Civilian Conservation Corps . Administration of the park was conducted from neighboring Zion National Park until 1956 , when Bryce Canyon 's first superintendent started work .
= = = More recent history = = =
The USS Bryce Canyon was named for the park and served as a supply and repair ship in the U.S. Pacific Fleet from September 15 , 1950 , to June 30 , 1981 .
Bryce Canyon Natural History Association ( BCNHA ) was established in 1961 . It runs the bookstore inside the park visitor center and is a non @-@ profit organization created to aid the interpretive , educational and scientific activities of the National Park Service at Bryce Canyon National Park . A portion of the profits from all bookstore sales are donated to public land units .
Responding to increased visitation and traffic congestion , the National Park Service implemented a voluntary , summer @-@ only , in @-@ park shuttle system in June 2000 . In 2004 , reconstruction began on the aging and inadequate road system in the park .
= = Geology = =
The Bryce Canyon area shows a record of deposition that spans from the last part of the Cretaceous period and the first half of the Cenozoic era . The ancient depositional environment of the region around what is now the park varied . The Dakota Sandstone and the Tropic Shale were deposited in the warm , shallow waters of the advancing and retreating Cretaceous Seaway ( outcrops of these rocks are found just outside park borders ) . The colorful Claron Formation , from which the park 's delicate hoodoos are carved , was laid down as sediments in a system of cool streams and lakes that existed from 63 to about 40 million years ago ( from the Paleocene to the Eocene epochs ) . Different sediment types were laid down as the lakes deepened and became shallow and as the shoreline and river deltas migrated .
Several other formations were also created but were mostly eroded away following two major periods of uplift . The Laramide orogeny affected the entire western part of what would become North America starting about 70 million to 50 million years ago . This event helped to build the Rocky Mountains and in the process closed the Cretaceous Seaway . The Straight Cliffs , Wahweap , and Kaiparowits formations were victims of this uplift . The Colorado Plateaus were uplifted 16 million years ago and were segmented into different plateaus , each separated from its neighbors by faults and each having its own uplift rate . The Boat Mesa Conglomerate and the Sevier River Formation were removed by erosion following this uplift .
This uplift created vertical joints , which over time were preferentially eroded . The soft Pink Cliffs of the Claron Formation were eroded to form freestanding pinnacles in badlands called hoodoos , while the more resistant White Cliffs formed monoliths . The brown , pink and red colors are from hematite ( iron oxide ; Fe
2O
3 ) ; the yellows from limonite ( FeO ( OH ) · nH
2O ) ; and the purples are from pyrolusite ( MnO
2 ) . Also created were arches , natural bridges , walls , and windows . Hoodoos are composed of soft sedimentary rock and are topped by a piece of harder , less easily eroded stone that protects the column from the elements . Bryce Canyon has one of the highest concentrations of hoodoos of any place on Earth .
The formations exposed in the area of the park are part of the Grand Staircase . The oldest members of this supersequence of rock units are exposed in the Grand Canyon , the intermediate ones in Zion National Park , and its youngest parts are laid bare in Bryce Canyon area . A small amount of overlap occurs in and around each park .
= = Biology = =
More than 400 native plant species live in the park . There are three life zones in the park based on elevation : The lowest areas of the park are dominated by dwarf forests of pinyon pine and juniper with manzanita , serviceberry , and antelope bitterbrush in between. aspen , cottonwood , water birch , and willow grow along streams . Ponderosa pine forests cover the mid @-@ elevations with blue spruce and Douglas fir in water @-@ rich areas and manzanita and bitterbrush as underbrush . Douglas fir and white fir , along with aspen and Engelmann spruce , make up the forests on the Paunsaugunt Plateau . The harshest areas have limber pine and ancient Great Basin bristlecone pine , some more than 1 @,@ 600 years old , holding on .
The forests and meadows of Bryce Canyon provide the habitat to support diverse animal life including foxes , badgers , porcupines , elk , black bears , bobcats , and woodpeckers . Mule deer are the most common large mammals in the park . Elk and pronghorn , which have been reintroduced nearby , sometimes venture into the park .
Bryce Canyon National Park forms part of the habitat of three wildlife species that are listed under the Endangered Species Act : the Utah prairie dog , the California condor , and the southwestern willow flycatcher . The Utah prairie dog is a threatened species that was reintroduced to the park for conservation , and the largest protected population is found within the park 's boundaries .
About 170 species of birds visit the park each year , including swifts and swallows . Most species migrate to warmer regions in winter , although jays , ravens , nuthatches , eagles , and owls stay . In winter , the mule deer , cougars , and coyotes migrate to lower elevations . Ground squirrels and marmots pass the winter in hibernation .
Eleven species of reptiles and four species of amphibians have been found in the park . Reptiles include the Great Basin rattlesnake , short @-@ horned lizard , side @-@ blotched lizard , striped whipsnake , and the tiger salamander .
Also in the park are the black , lumpy , very slow @-@ growing colonies of cryptobiotic soil , which are a mix of lichens , algae , fungi , and cyanobacteria . Together these organisms slow erosion , add nitrogen to soil , and help it to retain moisture .
= = Activities = =
Most park visitors sightsee using the scenic drive , which provides access to 13 viewpoints over the amphitheaters . Bryce Canyon has eight marked and maintained hiking trails that can be hiked in less than a day ( round trip time , trailhead ) : Mossy Cave ( one hour , State Route 12 northwest of Tropic ) , Rim Trail ( 5 – 6 hours , anywhere on rim ) , Bristlecone Loop ( one hour , Rainbow Point ) , and Queens Garden ( 1 – 2 hours , Sunrise Point ) are easy to moderate hikes . Navajo Loop ( 1 – 2 hours , Sunset Point ) and Tower Bridge ( 2 – 3 hours , north of Sunrise Point ) are moderate hikes . Fairyland Loop ( 4 – 5 hours , Fairyland Point ) and Peekaboo Loop ( 3 – 4 hours , Bryce Point ) are strenuous hikes . Several of these trails intersect , allowing hikers to combine routes for more challenging hikes .
The park also has two trails designated for overnight hiking : the 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) Riggs Spring Loop Trail and the 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) Under @-@ the @-@ Rim Trail . Both require a backcountry camping permit . In total there are 50 miles ( 80 km ) of trails in the park .
More than 10 miles ( 16 km ) of marked but ungroomed skiing trails are available off of Fairyland , Paria , and Rim trails in the park . Twenty miles ( 32 km ) of connecting groomed ski trails are in nearby Dixie National Forest and Ruby 's Inn .
The air in the area is so clear that on most days from Yovimpa and Rainbow points , Navajo Mountain and the Kaibab Plateau can be seen 90 miles ( 140 km ) away in Arizona . On extremely clear days , the Black Mesas of eastern Arizona and western New Mexico can be seen some 160 miles ( 260 km ) away .
The park also has a 7 @.@ 4 magnitude night sky , making it one of the darkest in North America . Stargazers can , therefore , see 7 @,@ 500 stars with the naked eye , while in most places fewer than 2 @,@ 000 can be seen due to light pollution , and in many large cities only a few dozen can be seen . Park rangers host public stargazing events and evening programs on astronomy , nocturnal animals , and night sky protection . The Bryce Canyon Astronomy Festival , typically held in June , attracts thousands of visitors . In honor of this astronomy festival , Asteroid 49272 was named after the national park .
There are two campgrounds in the park , North Campground and Sunset Campground . Loop A in North Campground is open year @-@ round . Additional loops and Sunset Campground are open from late spring to early autumn . The 114 @-@ room Bryce Canyon Lodge is another way to stay overnight in the park .
= Skinners Falls – Milanville Bridge =
The Skinners Falls – Milanville Bridge is a bridge spanning the Delaware River between Milanville , Pennsylvania and Skinners Falls , New York in Wayne County , Pennsylvania and Sullivan County , New York . The bridge is 470 feet ( 140 m ) long and holds one single lane of Skinners Falls Road , a local road . The bridge was constructed by the American Bridge Company and funded by the Milanville Bridge Company . The bridge replaced a ferry run by raftsman Daniel Skinner and his family . The bridge opened in 1902 and remains in service today . It is one of several bridges in Sullivan County that are on the National Register of Historic Places , including the Roebling Aqueduct and Pond Eddy Bridge .
= = Early history and construction ( 1764 – 1902 ) = =
In 1764 , the crossing from Skinners Falls to Milanville was the location of timber rafting for one of the most prominent families in the area , the Skinners . That year , Daniel Skinner took the first timber raft down the Delaware River . Completing this accomplishment , Skinner received the name " Lord High Admiral " , an honor that still stands to this date . The Skinners lived in a place christened as Milanville , but was known more locally as Skinners Falls . Upstream from the falls along the Delaware , another member of the Skinner family , Milton L. Skinner , operated a private ferry across the river between Pennsylvania and New York . Along with his brother , Volney , Milton Skinner also operated a local sawmill in Pennsylvania . For many years , these two rivermen remained prominent in the area .
The idea to construct a bridge in the area did not arise until the 20th Century . In 1900 and 1901 , politicians started to feel it was appropriate to build a bridge in the area . A firm , run by Milton L. Skinner , first opened in 1901 to help sell stock , construct the bridge , and then follow it by operating it for the general public . The firm , named the Milanville Bridge Company , was located in the community of Milanville on the Pennsylvania side . At the time the name of the bridge was referred to as the Milanville Bridge , but eventually , locals referred it as the " Skinners Falls Bridge " . The corporation received the charter from the state of Pennsylvania to construct the bridge in the later months of 1901 . The firm hired the American Bridge Company to construct the bridge . Construction did not get far , before an ice flood raised the river to the second story level of Milanville homes . This , along with local opposition , caused a short delay in construction .
Other than local opposition , the company owners for the nearby Narrowsburg – Darbytown Bridge and Cochecton – Damascus Bridge , complained about the competition of a bridge just 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) apart from each . The owners said that the bridge was unnecessary , and the issues eventually reached the state capital of New York , Albany . The attorney of the Cohecton Bridge , John Anderson , went to the capital to fight the construction of the bridge . The most noticed objection to the companies was that the bridge under construction could only handle one lane of traffic , increasing the necessity of the other two bridges for people in a hurry . Objections decreased with the compromise , and the American Bridge Company finished construction of the bridge in November 1902 , the total cost being $ 14 @,@ 000 .
= = Private ownership ( 1902 – 1920s ) = =
After construction of the Skinners Falls – Milanville Bridge was completed in late 1902 , tolls were immediately charged along the one lane structure . However , unlike the other two bridges , the Skinners Falls – Milanville Bridge cost $ 0 @.@ 22 ( 1902 USD ) . A person traveling on foot did not have to pay to cross the structure . This decision was different compared to the other bridges , which made it separate . Another decision was that ministers were not tolled so they could better serve their communities . However , when one minister began to abuse the special privilege , he was charged $ 0 @.@ 05 for crossing . The tollhouse for collection was in Milanville and was run by the Dexter family .
Just two years after opening , a flood in March 1904 did serious damage to the structure . However , the owners hired the Horseheads Bridge Company , run by the Perkins brothers . They charged $ 7 @,@ 000 ( 1904 USD ) to complete repairs of the bridge . With the reopening of the bridge , and along with the newly constructed Erie Railroad station , a new revitalization came to Skinners Falls and Milanville , including an acid company , creamery , and a dairy company , which helped raise income for the bridge using the $ 0 @.@ 22 toll . One company that could not make it is the Skinners ' timber rafting , which had been in business for over 140 years . In 1914 , J. Skinner was the new owner , but the company was devastated when one of their timber rafts collided with a Myers family @-@ owned ferryboat , killing four . The blame was placed on the ferry operator . However , along with the tragedy , the lack of riverside forests made it hard for timber rafting to prosper and in 1914 , they closed their doors .
= = Bridge Commission ownership ( 1920s – present ) = =
With the opening of the New York – Pennsylvania Joint Bridge Commission , a predecessor of the current Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission , in the 1920s to buy out these bridges from private ownership , the tolls along the bridges of the Delaware were beginning to come to an end . The Commission offered the Bridge Company an offer of $ 19 @,@ 542 @.@ 22 ( 1920s USD ) . The company took the offer and under new ownership , the tolls were eliminated . The bridge had more activity after the elimination of tolls and business continued to prosper . With the new owners , the bridge was kept under routine maintenance , and the bridge has continued to maintain a strong structure . Even with the floods from Hurricanes Connie and Diane of 1955 and the 1960s , the bridge survived with little to no structural damage . From May to October 1986 , the commission closed the bridge to do some renovations . The wooden deck was replaced , the entire bridge was painted , and new guide rails were constructed . The only thing is that the 3 ton ( 6000 lb ) weight limit remained after the revamping . On November 14 , 1988 , the bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places .
On January 19 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation shut down access to the Skinners Falls – Milanville Bridge when a truss member of the bridge was found to be defective . The bridge was supposed to undergo rehabilitation of the truss members later in the year for $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) and a larger $ 8 million ( 2015 USD ) rehabilitation in 2015 . As of July 2013 , the bridge is in operation and open to vehicle traffic .
An inspection on December 11 , 2015 revealed that the bridge 's suspension wires were twisted and out of line , making the bridge unsafe to carry vehicles and the 114 @-@ year @-@ old bridge will be closed indefinitely , according to the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation .
" This is not something that 's going just weeks or even months ; it 's going to be a while , " added DOT spokesman , James May .
Signs for detours are posted .
= 23 ( song ) =
" 23 " is a song by American record producer Mike Will Made It , featuring American recording artists Miley Cyrus , Wiz Khalifa and Juicy J ; it was released on September 10 , 2013 by Interscope Records . The song was written and produced by Mike Will Made It , with additional songwriting provided by Juicy J , Khalifa , Pierre Ramon Slaughter , and Rock City . " 23 " is set to a midtempo beat and lyrically references Air Jordan sneakers and recreational drug use .
" 23 " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its production and Cyrus ' rapping ability . It peaked at number 11 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and charted moderately internationally . An accompanying music video was filmed in Brooklyn on August 26 , 2013 , and premiered through Vevo on September 24 , 2013 . It received mixed reviews from critics , who were divided in their opinions of its 1990s and high school influences . Cyrus performed the song during the first leg of her ongoing Bangerz Tour .
= = Production and composition = =
During the production of " 23 " , Mike Will Made It prepared a verse for himself to rap , which he originally planned to include alongside verses by Juicy J and Wiz Khalifa . However , after the latter two finished their respective recordings , Mike Will Made It decided that his contribution should be replaced by a woman . Mike Will Made It had recently finished producing Miley Cyrus ' track " We Can 't Stop " for her fourth studio album Bangerz ( 2013 ) when she first heard " 23 " and expressed interest in being included on the track . Mike Will Made It was initially hesitant of her suggestion , having met her earlier that day , although he " left her on there " after " she laid down the verse [ and ] killed it . "
" 23 " is a synth @-@ driven hip hop song set to a midtempo beat and contains elements of bass. and is distinguished in Cyrus ' catalog as the first track in which she raps . In the chorus , Cyrus mentions recreational drug use , particularly in the line " I ’ m in the club high off purp with some shades on " . The track later transitions into the repeated hook " J 's on my feet " delivered by Juicy J , which references Air Jordan sneakers . Cyrus ' individual verse appears first , and is respectively followed by those by Khalifa and Juicy J.
= = Release and reception = =
Mike Will Made It first previewed a 25 @-@ second snippet of " 23 " on August 7 , 2013 , and announced that the full recording would be released on August 26 ; however , its release was eventually delayed . Its original single cover was unveiled by September 3 ; it features a modified version of Michael Jordan 's Chicago Bulls basketball jersey , and was designed by Kreemo of Atlanta , Georgia . The track was ultimately released on September 10 , and was serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio stations in the United States on September 17 .
" 23 " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its production and Cyrus ' rapping ability . In a favorable review , Mike Wass of Idolator was complimentary of Mike Will Made It 's " slick , multi @-@ layered production " and was indifferent towards Cyrus ' contributions . Sharing a similar sentiment , a writer for That Grape Juice stated that the artists " [ gave ] fans just what they want " , adding that they " [ went ] a long to make the jam the smash that it is . " Complex ranked " 23 " at number 23 on their list of the 50 best songs of 2013 , saying that Mike Will Made It knew that Miley would make this collaboration even better . However , in a more mixed review , Danielle Cheesman of MSN opined that " the song sounds like everything else Mike WiLL 's touched and turned to gold so it will be a smash but , much to Miley 's chagrin , it won 't be because of her " , and criticized Cyrus ' verses for " [ stealing 2 Chainz 's ] whole flow . " Tony Maglio from The Wrap also questioned her lyrical content , specifically criticizing the lyrics " I back it up , cause I don ’ t give a fuck " and " I ’ m MC Hammer fly . " Jordan Sargent from Spin called the track " far from Mike Will 's best work " and negatively compared Cyrus ' delivery to that of Lil Debbie .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " 23 " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 70 , and later peaked at number 11 . It additionally peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs component chart .
Elsewhere in North America , the track reached number 26 on the Canadian Hot 100 . In Europe , " 23 " respectively peaked at numbers 19 and 85 on the UK Singles Chart and the UK R & B Chart , both of which are organized by the Official Charts Company . The track respectively peaked at numbers 27 and 1 on the Ultratip component charts in Flanders and Wallonia , representing the fifty songs that failed to reach the flagship Ultratop chart in each Belgian region . It also peaked at number 31 on the French Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique , and number 44 on the Spanish Productores de Música de España . In Oceania , " 23 " reached number 39 on the Australian ARIA Charts and number 22 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " 23 " was filmed in an undisclosed location in Brooklyn on August 26 , 2013 ; it was directed by Hannah Lux Davis . An advertisement for a casting call posted to Juicy J 's Instagram account requested " edgy , rebellious , sexy , [ and ] hood types " to appear as extras in the clip , and further stated that individuals " must wear [ their ] favorite pair of Jordans " .
The music video was premiered through Vevo on September 24 . The music video takes place in a high school ; it begins with the school principal leaving his office , which Mike Will Made It enters and begins playing " 23 " on a Beats Pill over the intercom . Interspersed throughout are scenes of Cyrus wearing a bikini similar to Michael Jordan 's Chicago Bulls basketball jersey ; she is frequently shown smoking in the bathroom and writing on its mirrors with red lipstick . Khalifa raps his verse in a chemistry lab , while Juicy J 's verse is rapped in a trophy room . A school @-@ wide pep rally later takes place , where Cyrus is gyrating against Mike Will Made It and notably wearing the foam finger used in her controversial performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards in August .
Critics were divided in their opinions for the music video . In a more favorable review , Zayda Rivera of Daily News stated that Cyrus is " undoubtedly the star of the video " and that the " ultimate cameo takes place when Cyrus brings back the infamous foam finger she waved and gyrated against during her MTV Video Music Awards performance " . Ray Rahman from Entertainment Weekly recognized the prominent 1990s influence throughout the clip , and felt it was " reminiscent " to the visuals for " Make ' Em Say Uhh ! " by Master P. In a more critical review , Carl Williott of Idolator opined that the music video was " sort of like a massive hip @-@ hop version of the " Smells Like Teen Spirit " video , with Air Jordans and Beats instead of anarchy symbols " , while Kayla Upadhyaya from The Michigan Daily called it a " pile of red and black vomit and a poorly edited mishmash of uninspired shots " .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus performed the song during the first leg of her ongoing Bangerz Tour . During the second leg of the tour , " 23 " was replaced with The Beatles ' " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " . During the performance , Cyrus wore black @-@ and @-@ red Jordan 1s , a striped fishnet bikini and crotchless leather chaps with " Miley " scrawled down the side , through which she paid homage to Christina Aguilera 's " Dirrty " music video . Aguilera herself approved of the outfit and named Cyrus her dirrty girl successor , writing , " Cheers from one dirrty girl to the next @ MileyCyrus ... wear em ' loud & proud , girl- yes ! ! " on her Twitter account . Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun praised the performance and wrote that it saw Cyrus finally twerk it out with her dancers .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Son of God ( TV series ) =
Son of God ( also known as Jesus : The Complete Story and Jesus : The Real Story ) is an award @-@ winning British documentary series that chronicles the life of Jesus Christ using scientific and contemporary historical evidence . It was presented by Jeremy Bowen , and its first episode premiered in the United Kingdom on 1 April 2001 . The executive producer was Ruth Pitt and it was directed by Jean @-@ Claude Bragard — it took a total of 16 months to produce and cost GB £ 1 @.@ 5 million . A full symphonic score was composed by James Whitbourn . Son of God featured interviews with 21 historians and other Biblical experts , live action reenactments of the life of Jesus with Leron Livo in the lead role , and computer @-@ generated images of what locations from Jesus 's time might have looked like . These images , created by design team Red Vision , were praised by critics and received an Outstanding Achievement Award at the 2001 Royal Television Society North Awards .
Son of God ran for a single series of three episodes , each of which focused on a different stage of Jesus 's life . The first episode , " The Real Man " , looked at the historical evidence for the existence of Jesus , and documented his life from his birth to his temptation . Episode two , " The Mission " , discussed how Jesus became popular among Jews and Greeks , and why the Pharisees of the area might have seen him as a threat . " The Final Hours " , the third and final episode of Son of God , looked at Jesus 's crucifixion , and presented some ideas as to how the traditional views of the crucifixion may conflict with how it really occurred . The episode concluded with the construction of a computer @-@ generated animation of how Jesus may have appeared .
Critical reaction to the series was mixed . While some reviewers praised the programme for being worthy of its publicity by focusing on history rather than spirituality , others remarked that it was dumbed down and went off on strange tangents . The reliability of the facial reconstruction was also questioned . Son of God first aired in the UK on BBC One during April 2001 , where it received a viewership of six million and an audience share of 25 % . In the United States , the series was shown on the Discovery Channel under the name Jesus : The Complete Story as a single three @-@ hour programme , two weeks after its UK broadcast . The show was also licensed to countries including France , Denmark and New Zealand .
= = Production = =
Son of God was devised in 1999 , and was produced and joint @-@ sponsored by BBC Manchester and the Discovery Channel in association with France 3 and Jerusalem Productions . The show was directed by Jean @-@ Claude Bragard — whose previous BBC work had included Kicking & Screaming – A History of Football and the documentary series Panorama — and the executive producer was Ruth Pitt , who had worked on documentaries such as 42 Up and Channel 4 's The State of Marriage . During its promotion , Pitt described Son of God as " the most complete biography of Jesus that [ had ] ever been done " .
Jeremy Bowen , a former Middle East correspondent for BBC News , was chosen to present the programme for its UK broadcast . Despite not being religious , he was drawn to the programme for its use of scientific and historical information . As well as presenting , Bowen also narrated and scripted large portions of the series . He stated that he brought a degree of scepticism to the show : before the first episode aired , he admitted that he did not think that you could " corroborate anything that was in the Gospels " . In the US version of Son of God , which was broadcast on the Discovery Channel and retitled Jesus : The Complete Story , the footage of Bowen was edited out and his narration was redubbed by American actor Avery Brooks . It was also released in this format under the name Jesus : The Real Story , with narration from Tom Hodgkins .
Son of God took 16 months to produce , and cost approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 million . It was featured as part of a £ 253 million season of new television programming on the BBC during the spring of 2001 . British conductor James Whitbourn was commissioned to write a complete symphonic score for the series , which was performed by the BBC Philharmonic . The completed programme featured more than an hour and a half of Whitbourn 's music . Whitbourn subsequently used the seminal themes from his orchestral score as the basis of his popular choral work , Son of God Mass , for soprano saxophone , choir and organ . Computer graphic images were created by design group Red Vision , who employed techniques similar to ones used in the 2000 BBC series Walking with Dinosaurs . Speaking in September 2001 , a spokesman for Red Vision stated that their involvement in Son of God had been " incredibly successful " for them .
Promotional campaigns for both the British and American broadcasts of the series focused on the technology and science being used in the programme , and the special effects that Red Vision had created . In particular , a facial reconstruction during the final episode showing what Jesus might have looked like garnered significant media attention . In the lead @-@ up to episode one , several newspapers , including The Daily Mail and The Guardian , ran stories speculating whether the computer @-@ generated image could show the true face of Jesus . British television listings magazine Radio Times featured the reconstructed face on the cover of its 31 March issue under the headline " Is This the Face of Jesus ? " . This cover and its headline received criticism from some commentators for being sensationalist and misleading .
= = Episodes = =
Son of God consists of a single series of three episodes . Each episode lasts approximately 50 minutes and documents a different stage of Jesus 's life . The episodes take the format of Bowen visiting significant locations from the life of Jesus , talking head interviews with 21 historians and Biblical experts , and reenactments of Jesus 's life featuring Israeli actor Liron Levo . Locations from Jesus 's time — such as Caesarea , Yatta and Sepphoris — were recreated by archaeologists using evidence from buildings and street plans , and were then digitised into computer graphics by Red Vision .
= = = " The Real Man " = = =
The first episode of Son of God , " The Real Man " , documents Jesus 's life up to his temptation , and details the historical evidence for his existence . Bowen visits Jerusalem , where he calls Jesus 's death " one of the best attested facts in ancient history " . He cites the Romano @-@ Jewish historian Josephus as one of 80 sources that confirms that Jesus existed and that describes him as " a wise man who did surprising feats , ... won over followers from among Jews and Greeks , ... was accused by the Jewish leaders , [ and ] was condemned to be crucified by Pilate " . Bowen interviews James H. Charlesworth from Princeton University about the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 , then travels to Bethlehem to visit the Church of the Nativity , a structure built over a series of first @-@ century caves and grottos . While there , he speculates that Jesus may have been born in a cave rather than an inn , the more traditional image . Joe Zias , an archaeologist from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem confirms this , saying that the Greek word " katalyma " is usually translated into English as " upper room " rather than " inn " .
" The Real Man " also looks at the story of the Star of Bethlehem , which Bowen states would have been an " astrological " rather than " astronomical " phenomenon . According to astronomer Michael Molner , astrologers from around the time of Herod the Great would have believed that the constellation Aries symbolised his kingdom and the lands that he controlled – during 6 BC , the year that some scholars theorise that Jesus was born , a rare planetary alignment meant that Jupiter , Saturn , the Sun and the Moon would have all appeared in this constellation . Bowen next looks at how Jesus would have been born out of wedlock : Mark Goodacre , a historian from the University of Birmingham , asserts that Jewish , pagan and Christian sources all confirm that Jesus was born out of wedlock , as do both the Gospels of Matthew and Luke . All four canonical gospels agree that the city of Nazareth was where Jesus grew up . Hanan Eshel , an archaeologist from Bar @-@ Ilan University , proposes that Jesus 's interest in religion and politics might have been sparked off during a family visit to the Temple Mount , the " headquarters of the Jewish faith " . The episode ends with Bowen spending the night alone at the Mount of Temptation just above Jericho , where Jesus is traditionally believed to have spent 40 days and nights being tempted by the devil .
= = = " The Mission " = = =
Episode two , " The Mission " , discusses how Jesus became popular and why the Pharisees might have seen him as a potential threat . Bowen visits the Dome of the Rock , the site of Jerusalem 's temple , and discusses how Jesus went to the Sea of Galilee to recruit his disciples . He speaks with Orna Cohen , a conservator of antiquities who led the excavation of the Sea of Galilee Boat , who suggests that the boat may have been similar to one owned by Saint Peter . Bowen then travels to Capernaum and visits the House of Peter , where he speaks to Mordechai Aviam , an archaeologist from the Israel Antiquities Authority . Aviam states that first @-@ century Greek " graffiti " in the house suggests that the house belonged to Peter . Bowen visits the tomb of a first @-@ century scholar and miracle @-@ worker named Hanina ben Dosa , and contrasts Hanina 's life with that of Jesus 's : for example , while Jesus was executed , Hanina was not .
" The Mission " then looks at how Jesus may have been viewed by the religious leaders of the time . The canonical gospels report over one hundred cases of Jesus healing or performing exorcisms , and " making the unclean clean again " . Jesus told lepers to go up to the Temple Mount , where they were usually excluded , and claimed that he could forgive sins without going through the ordinary channels . Jesus met and ate with sinners , the disabled and prostitutes , and fulfilled Old Testament prophecy by riding into the Temple Mount through the Golden Gate on a donkey at Passover . Bowen concludes that all these reasons would have meant that the Pharisees of the time would have seen him as threatening .
= = = " The Final Hours " = = =
" The Final Hours " , the third episode of Son of God , details Jesus 's last days alive . Bowen claims that the Last Supper would have been held in the guest room of a " well @-@ to @-@ do " house in Jerusalem . Writings by Josephus suggest that the Last Supper took place in a triclinium . As guest of honour , Jesus would have been at the end of the table with John the Apostle at his side , rather than at the centre , as proposed by more familiar depictions such as Leonardo da Vinci 's The Last Supper . Bowen then looks at whether or not Jesus could have sweated blood at Gethsemane . Leaving the Middle East for the first time , he travels to New York City and meets with Frederick Zugibe , a forensic pathologist at Columbia University . Zugibe states that Jesus may have been suffering from hematidrosis , a medical condition brought about by stress from knowing that one is about to die . He also says that he has seen similar symptoms in sailors and in men given death sentences . Zugibe experiments on volunteers in Rutland County , Vermont , by measuring their blood pressure while they are strapped to crosses with their arms outstretched and level with their shoulders . He concludes that the traditional view of Jesus 's crucifixion , with the nails of the cross driven through his hands rather than wrists , may have been possible if his feet were supported . The 1968 discovery of the skeleton of Jehohanan , a first @-@ century man who was put to death by crucifixion , also supports this theory . Next , Bowen questions whether the disciple Judas Iscariot truly did double @-@ cross Jesus . William Klassen , an historian at École Biblique in Jerusalem , theorises that the Greek word " paradidomi " was mistranslated , and that Judas simply " handed over " Jesus to the Romans , rather than betrayed him .
" The Final Hours " ends with a facial reconstruction suggesting what Jesus may have looked like . Using one of three first @-@ century Jewish skulls from a forensic science department in Israel , a clay model is created through forensic anthropology by Richard Neave , a retired medical artist from the Unit of Art in Medicine at Manchester University . The face that Neave constructs suggests that Jesus would have had a broad face and large nose , and differs significantly from his traditional depictions in renaissance art . Additional information about Jesus 's skin colour and hair is provided by Goodacre . Using third @-@ century images from the Dura @-@ Europos synagogue — the earliest pictures of Jewish people — Goodacre proposes that Jesus 's skin would have been " olive @-@ coloured " and " swarthy " , and much darker than his traditional Western image . He also suggests that Jesus would have had short , curly hair and a short cropped beard .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction to Son of God was mixed . The series received praise from commentators such as Andrew Billen of the New Statesman for focussing on " history against spirituality every time " . However , Billen also contrasted the show with The Lives of Jesus , a similar series from December 1996 , remarking that it was flash and filmic , whereas The Lives of Jesus had been far more discreet . BBC News 's Michael Osborn acclaimed the series , saying that it was " worthy of all [ its ] publicity " and that Bowen was well placed in his role as presenter . The graphics created by Red Vision were well received : The Daily Record described the computer imagery as stunning , while Gareth McLean of The Guardian noted that the series was " visually , ... quite a treat " . McLean also commented that the programme itself was rather interesting , but that it contained " slightly odd , slightly irrelevant diversions " .
A review of a more critical nature came from Catherine Bennett , also writing for The Guardian , who questioned the facial reconstruction from the third episode and suggested that it was dismissive to imply that it was how Jesus truly appeared . Speaking about the study , Bennett remarked : " We must hope that ... future BBC controllers do not dig up , say , Robin Cook 's skull , drape it in Plasticine , and ask : ' Is this the real face of Tony Blair ? ' " . John Preston , writing for The Sunday Telegraph , also questioned the reliability of the reconstruction , and branded the series as dumbed down . The programme received criticism from theological scholars : following the broadcast of the first episode , Tom Wright , one of two consultants used during production of the series , felt that Jesus 's mission had been misrepresented by the show . Wright claimed that the BBC had elected to portray Jesus simply as " a politically correct social worker " .
Reviews of the American broadcast of Jesus : The Complete Story were also mixed . While some reviewers described the show as fascinating and reverent , others were more negative . Writing for The Orlando Sentinel , Hal Boedeker agreed that the computer imaging was spectacular , but that the rest of the show was a " hodgepodge " that " [ went ] off on some strange tangents " . Eric Mink of The Daily News stated that the show relied too heavily on exaggeration and that it was " sloppy with facts " , while Ann Rodgers @-@ Melnick of The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described it as " uneven but vivid " .
= = = Ratings and awards = = =
The first episode of Son of God shown in the UK gained six million viewers and an audience share of 25 % , which was considered high for a religious documentary . During its American broadcast on the Discovery Channel , the series was watched by 12 million . It was repeated in the US during March the following year , and gained a figure of 1 @.@ 5 million viewers per episode . The series was nominated for two awards , both for the computer @-@ generated images created by graphics team Red Vision : it was first nominated at the 2001 LEAF Awards , then won an Outstanding Achievement award at the 2001 Royal Television Society North Awards .
= = Distribution = =
Son of God was distributed by the BBC , who broadcast the show on BBC One . It premiered in the UK at 9 : 10 p.m. on 1 April 2001 , and ran for a single series of three episodes , with each episode being shown weekly on Sunday nights . As well as being shown in the UK , Son of God was also licensed to New Zealand and seven European territories , including France and Denmark . In the United States , the show was aired by the Discovery Channel under the name Jesus : The Complete Story , as a single three @-@ hour special at 8 p.m. on 15 April , two weeks after its UK broadcast . It was also repeated in the US on Christmas Day 2002 and 2003 .
In March 2002 , a
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Battle of Ypres = = = =
In early May , the 11th Battalion moved to Norieul , where they occupied a recently captured portion of the German line . A couple of days later , during the Second Battle of Bullecourt , their position was attacked by German " shock troops " . In response to the attack , supporting artillery was called down , and the attack repulsed . The Germans laid down a heavy bombardment in retaliation . An attack was ordered , but the order was rescinded when the senior officer in the forward trench , Major Aubrey Darnell , expressed concerns about the state of the soldiers in the assault wave . The Germans then put in another attack , which was once again turned back , before the 11th launched a limited counterattack and regained the ground that had been lost . The battalion , having lost 68 men killed , two captured and 140 wounded , was down to a strength of just over 400 men . They were relieved and then moved back to Bapaume , where they received a draft of over 100 reinforcements .
Over the next couple of months , the battalion was rebuilt , reaching a strength of 44 officers and 1 @,@ 002 other ranks by late August . The following month they were committed to the Third Battle of Ypres . Their first attack came around Glencorse Wood on 20 September , during which the 11th Battalion lost 46 killed and 100 wounded , before moving to Westhoek Ridge in early October . Another move saw them transferred to Broodeseinde Ridge , where they conducted a raid on German positions around Celtic Wood on 6 / 7 October in concert with the 12th Battalion . The following day , the 11th Battalion moved to a position on " Anzac Ridge " , before later moving to Zonnebeke at the end of the month where they suffered heavy casualties from German artillery . Throughout November and the first part of December , the battalion remained out of the line , resting around Bologne , before returning to the front around Messines in late December , remaining there over New Years . The battalion 's strength during this time was 32 officers and 687 other ranks .
= = = = German Spring Offensive and the final Hundred Days = = = =
In early 1918 , after the capitulation of Tsarist Russia the Germans , having moved the bulk of their forces to the Western Front , launched the Spring Offensive , striking against the British forces in the Somme . The initial onslaught pushed the Allied forces back and the Australian divisions , which had been merged into the Australian Corps , were thrown into the line in an effort to stem the tide . In early March , the 11th Battalion moved to the Hollebeke sector , where they were subjected to gas attacks before being sent south to Amiens at the start of April , joining the rest of the 1st Division in defence of Hazebrouck in the middle of the month . For the next couple of months the battalion rotated through the line in a defensive role as the German offensive was blunted . In June , as the Allies sought to regain some of the initiative , they undertook a series of Peaceful Penetration raids . On 2 June , the 11th Battalion attacked Mont de Merris , which resulted in the capture of a large amount of German equipment and over 200 prisoners for the loss of 16 men killed and 74 wounded . A lesser attack was launched on the German trenches opposite the battalion on 22 June . Around this time , a small group of US soldiers was attached to the 11th Battalion to gain experience . The following month , the battalion captured Gerbedoen Farm before supporting the 10th Battalion 's successful attack on Merris .
On 8 August , the Allies launched their own offensive , known as the Hundred Days Offensive , around Amiens . The 11th Battalion did not take part in the opening phase of the offensive , moving to Hamel and establishing themselves in a defensive position around Harbonnieres . On 10 August , the battalion was committed to a strong attack around Lihons ; although successful , the attack lasted three days and resulted in heavy casualties , including 58 killed and 140 wounded . On the night of 12 / 13 August , the 11th was withdrawn to the support line just behind the front . Later , they were moved to Vaire and then Cerisy , before supporting the 9th and 12th Battalions around Chuignolles and Proyart on 23 August and then around Chuignes and Cappy two days later , where further losses were experienced . The 11th Battalion 's final attack came against the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18 September when they launched a three @-@ company attack around Fervaque Farm and Carpeza Copse near Villeret . Despite being severely understrength – each company had an average strength of just 76 men – they advanced over 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and took over 120 prisoners and large quantities of German equipment , for the loss of 18 men killed . Further casualties came on 24 October when German aircraft attacked the battalion headquarters , killing a number of officers , including Darnell , who was the acting commanding officer . The heavy casualties that the Australians had suffered during the final year of the war , and the decrease in volunteers arriving from Australia , meant that the battalion was desperately understrength . In October , they were withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation , at the insistence of the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes . At this time , the battalion was reorganised into a two @-@ company structure . In early November , the battalion prepared to return to the front around St. Quentin , but before they could return to the fighting , an armistice came into effect , bringing the war to an end .
By the end of the war , a total of over 9 @,@ 000 men had served in the 11th Battalion , of which 1 @,@ 115 were killed and 2 @,@ 424 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations for their service during the war : one VC , one CB , two CMGs , seven DSOs , one OBE , 30 MCs and one bar , 25 DCMs with one bar , 96 MMs with two bars , three MSMs , 85 MIDs and seven foreign awards . Following the armistice , the 11th Battalion was moved to Chaelet , in Belgium , where the demobilisation process began . The battalion 's personnel were slowly repatriated to Australia , while those that waited undertook training to prepare them for civilian life . On 6 February 1919 , the 11th Battalion was amalgamated with the 12th , to form the 11th / 12th Battalion ; a further amalgamation occurred on 27 March when the 11th / 12th merged with the 9th / 10th Battalion , forming the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade Battalion . A short time later , the battalion disbanded . The 11th Battalion 's final commanding officer was Major Jack O 'Neil , an original member of the battalion who had been appointed a company sergeant major during the battalion 's formative period at Blackboy Camp .
= = Inter war years and World War II = =
In 1921 , following the conclusion of the demobilisation of the AIF , the government undertook a review of Australia 's military requirements and the part @-@ time military force , the Citizens Forces , was reorganised to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF units . As a result , the 11th Battalion was reformed in Perth , drawing personnel and lineage from the 2nd Battalion , 11th Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion , 51st Infantry Regiment . Upon formation , the battalion inherited the battle honour of " South Africa , 1899 – 1902 " , which it bore for the 1st and 2nd Battalions , West Australian Infantry . In 1927 , territorial designations were introduced and the battalion adopted the title of the " Perth Regiment " ; it was also awarded battle honours for World War I , receiving a total of 23 . Its motto at this time was Vigilans .
Upon establishment , the Citizens Forces units were manned through both voluntary and compulsory service ; but , in 1929 – 30 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory service scheme was abolished and the Citizens Forces was replaced with an all volunteer " Militia " . As a result of the economic pressures of the Great Depression the number of volunteers fell , and consequently a number of infantry battalions had to be disbanded or amalgamated . The 11th Battalion was one of those amalgamated , being joined with the 16th Battalion in 1930 to become the 11th / 16th Battalion . The two units remained linked until 1 October 1936 , when the 11th Battalion ( City of Perth Regiment ) was re @-@ formed in its own right , as part of an expansion of the Militia due to concerns about war in Europe .
During World War II , like most Militia units , the 11th Battalion performed garrison duties for most of the war . It stayed in Western Australia , and was assigned to the 4th Division , as part of the 13th Brigade , before later moving to the Northern Territory in 1943 . Later that year , the battalion was gazetted as an AIF battalion , after more than 65 percent of its personnel volunteered to serve outside Australian territory . The battalion , along with the rest of the 13th Brigade , was later transferred to the 5th Division and saw service against the Japanese during 1945 in the New Britain Campaign . Due to the large size of Japanese forces on New Britain , the Australian campaign was focused mainly upon containment . After landing at Jacquinot Bay the battalion was based around the Tol Plantation and conducted patrolling operations to restrict the Japanese to the Gazelle Peninsula . Little contact was made and actual combat was limited ; the battalion 's casualties amounted to three dead and four wounded . Following the end of the war , the 11th Battalion was disbanded on 11 April 1946 .
= = Post World War II = =
In 1948 , Australia 's part @-@ time military force was re @-@ raised in the guise of the Citizens Military Force . At this time , the 11th / 44th Battalion ( City of Perth Regiment ) was formed . From 1960 , following a reorganisation of the Army that saw the adoption of the Pentropic divisional establishment , the 11th / 44th was reduced to a company @-@ sized element and ' A ' ( City of Perth ) Company , 1st Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment maintained the traditions of the 11th Battalion . The following year , the 11th Battalion was awarded the 15 battle honours that had been earned by the 11th and 2 / 11th Battalions during World War II . A separate 11th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment was reformed in 1966 , being formed through a designation of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment . Ten years later , the battalion was reduced to an independent company and in 1987 , the 11th Independent Rifle Company was amalgamated with the 28th Independent Rifle Company to form the current 11th / 28th Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
= = Alliances = =
The 11th Battalion held the following alliance :
United Kingdom – Royal Sussex Regiment ( approved in 1925 ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 11th Battalion received the following battle honours :
Boer War
South Africa , 1899 – 1902 ( inherited ) .
World War I
Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 1918 , ANZAC , Landing at ANZAC , Defence of ANZAC , Suvla , Sari Bair , Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 .
World War II
North Africa 1940 – 41 , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Derna , Greece 1941 , Brallos Pass , Crete , Retimo , South @-@ West Pacific 1944 – 45 , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Matapau , Abau – Malin , Wewak , Wirui Mission .
= Joe West ( umpire ) =
Joseph Henry West ( born October 31 , 1952 ) , nicknamed " Cowboy Joe " or " Country Joe , " is an American professional baseball umpire in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Born in Asheville , North Carolina , he grew up in Greenville and played football at East Carolina University ( ECU ) and Elon College . West entered the National League as an umpire in 1976 ; he joined the NL staff full @-@ time in 1978 . West has worn uniform number 22 throughout his career . As a young umpire , West worked Nolan Ryan 's fifth career no @-@ hitter , was on the field for Willie McCovey 's 500th home run and was involved in a 1983 pushing incident with manager Joe Torre .
A few years later , West was the home plate umpire during the 1988 playoff game in which pitcher Jay Howell was ejected for having pine tar on his glove . In 1990 , he threw pitcher Dennis Cook to the ground while attempting to break up a fight . West resigned during the 1999 Major League Umpires Association mass resignation , but was rehired in 2002 . Since then , he has umpired throughout MLB . In a 2004 playoff game between the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees , West 's crew made a controversial decision that necessitated police presence to calm the crowd . He served as crew chief for the 2005 World Series .
In 2010 , West attracted media attention after he publicly complained about the slow pace of a game between the Red Sox and Yankees . He also worked the game that year in which Albert Pujols hit his 400th career home run . West has worked several no @-@ hitters , including a 2012 perfect game by Félix Hernández . As of 2015 , West has the longest tenure of any MLB umpire . West has appeared in five World Series , two All @-@ Star Games , nine League Championship Series ( LCS ) , seven League Division Series ( LDS ) and two Wild Card Games .
West is president of the World Umpires Association ( WUA ) . As the organization 's president , West helped negotiate the largest umpiring contract in baseball history . He works with a sporting goods company to design and patent umpiring equipment endorsed by MLB . West is also a singer and songwriter , and has released two country music albums . He had a small acting role in the comedy film The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! and a cameo appearance in the television crime drama The Oldest Rookie . He plays golf on the Celebrity Players Tour .
= = Early life = =
West was born in Asheville , North Carolina in 1952 . He grew up in Greenville , North Carolina , where he played youth baseball and football . He graduated from Rose High School in Greenville . West played safety on the freshman football team at East Carolina University ( ECU ) in 1970 and he was a quarterback for Elon College ( now Elon University ) from 1971 to 1973 . He intended to play his college football career at ECU , but head coach Mike McGee resigned after his freshman year , prompting West 's transfer .
While in college , West hoped to play both baseball and football . However , spring practice for football interfered with West 's ability to be on the baseball team as well . He concentrated on football and umpired high school baseball games on the side . In his three seasons at Elon , West was the starting quarterback and the team won three conference championships . He was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) on the 1973 team that lost the Division I National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics title game to Abilene Christian ; the Abilene Christian team was led by future professional football players Clint Longley and Wilbert Montgomery . West left Elon holding three passing records that were not broken for 20 years , and was inducted into the Elon Sports Hall of Fame in 1986 , in the same class as former North Carolina State women 's basketball coach Kay Yow .
= = Umpiring career = =
= = = Early career = = =
While umpiring locally as a college student , West met Carolina League umpire supervisor Malcolm Sykes , who recommended that West attend an umpire training school . West went to umpire school and graduated at the top of his class . He worked in several minor @-@ league circuits ( the Western Carolinas League , Puerto Rican League , Florida Instructional League , Southern League and American Association ) before he was promoted to the major leagues . West made his first National League ( NL ) appearance in 1976 and joined the full @-@ time NL staff in 1978 .
In his first season as a full @-@ time MLB umpire , West umpired the game in which Willie McCovey hit his 500th career home run . In the same year , he was at first base when Pete Rose tied the NL record for most consecutive games with a hit , and he was the home plate umpire when Rose broke it the following day . In 1981 , West worked first base for Nolan Ryan ’ s fifth career no @-@ hitter . On October 13 , 1981 , West was 28 when he became the youngest NL umpire to call an LCS . In 1983 , West was suspended for three days and fined US $ 500 after a shoving incident with Atlanta Braves manager Joe Torre . The manager became angry at the end of a game and followed West into the walkway outside the umpires dressing room . West then shoved Torre . On appeal , NL President Chub Feeney reduced West 's fine to $ 300 . Torre also received a fine stemming from the incident .
= = = Middle career = = =
West made his second NLCS appearance in 1986 . He umpired his first All @-@ Star Game in 1987 . On September 28 , 1988 , West was on the field when Orel Hershiser set the MLB record for consecutive scoreless innings pitched . West returned to the NLCS in 1988 and was the plate umpire when Dodgers pitcher Jay Howell was ejected for having pine tar on his glove .
During a 1990 on @-@ field brawl , West attempted to break up the fight by throwing Phillies pitcher Dennis Cook to the ground . The matter ultimately was handled among West , NL President Bill White , then @-@ Commissioner Fay Vincent and the umpires union . West said White supported his actions in the brawl , but White quickly issued a statement saying he had prohibited West from making further physical contact with players . White was reported to have nearly resigned due to lack of support from Vincent , but the NL president remained in his post after receiving support from league owners . West met more controversy the next year when Chicago Cubs outfielder Andre Dawson bumped him after a called third strike during a game at Wrigley Field . After Dawson was ejected from the game , he walked back to the dugout and tossed 14 bats onto the field . Chicago fans threw debris onto the field , causing a delay in the game . Dawson received a one @-@ game suspension and a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine . On his check to the league , Dawson wrote " donation for the blind . "
In 1992 , West made his first World Series appearance when the Atlanta Braves faced the Toronto Blue Jays . West was behind the plate in the first World Series game played in Canada and ejected Braves manager Bobby Cox for throwing a helmet onto the field . In 1993 , he appeared in the NLCS . He worked another no @-@ hitter on April 8 , 1994 , when Kent Mercker shut down the Los Angeles Dodgers . The 1995 NLDS was West ’ s first League Division Series . The following year West worked in the NLCS . He returned to the World Series in 1997 , when the Cleveland Indians faced the Florida Marlins .
In 1999 , West was among 22 MLB umpires who engaged in mass resignations during a labor dispute . The strategy backfired when MLB simply accepted the resignations instead of entering into further negotiations with the umpiring union . The union filed charges against MLB with the National Labor Relations Board , saying the mass resignation was " a concerted action protected by law . " After arbitration and appeals , MLB settled with the union . A few umpires received severance pay and were allowed to retire under the settlement , but West and several other umpires were rehired by MLB in 2002 .
= = = Since rehire = = =
In the same year he returned to the field , West worked in the ALDS . He also umpired in the 2003 and 2004 ALCS . In game six of the latter series , West 's crew ruled Yankees batter Alex Rodriguez out for interference after Rodriguez appeared to swat the ball out of the glove of opposing pitcher Bronson Arroyo on his way to first base . Fans threw debris on the field , Red Sox manager Terry Francona pulled his team off the field , and NYPD officers in riot gear took to the field to calm the crowd . West said fans actually applauded the umpires for the correct call when they came onto the field the following day . West ’ s first All @-@ Star Game and World Series appearances after his rehire came in 2005 ; that year he umpired in his second ALDS and his third World Series , serving as World Series crew chief .
West was the home plate umpire when rookie pitcher Clay Buchholz threw a no @-@ hitter against the Baltimore Orioles on September 1 , 2007 , at Fenway Park ; West called a curveball strike three for the final out . He worked his 4,000th career game on July 30 , 2009 , at Miller Park in Milwaukee , Wisconsin ; he ejected Washington Nationals manager Jim Riggleman from the contest . That same year he appeared in the American League Division Series and the World Series . He was also elected president of the World Umpires Association ( WUA ) . West and the union 's governing board negotiated the largest umpiring contract in the history of MLB . The contract runs from 2010 through the 2014 season . West designed the chest protector sold commercially as the West Vest , now marketed by Wilson Sporting Goods . He holds patents on the West Vest in the US , Australia , Canada and Japan . He also designed Wilson 's high @-@ end umpiring gear , the only umpiring equipment endorsed by MLB .
In 2010 , West sparked controversy by criticizing the slow pace of the recently completed series between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox , which he called " pathetic and embarrassing . " Red Sox manager Terry Francona referred to the remarks as " troubling " , while Yankees closer Mariano Rivera remarked , " If he has places to go , let him do something else " . Columnist Wallace Matthews defended West , saying the umpire was simply expressing what people had been thinking for a long time . West was not fined by MLB for his comments , but was " admonished firmly , " according to press reports . On August 26 , 2010 , West was the plate umpire for Albert Pujols ’ 400th career home run .
On September 14 , 2014 , West ejected Jonathan Papelbon , resulting in a confrontation where West grabbed Papelbon 's jersey . West later falsely claimed Papelbon had initiated first contact . Videos replay showed West was not correct , Papelbon had not touched him . MLB subsequently suspended Papelbon for seven games for his lewd act and West for one game for initiating contact with Papelbon , marking the first umpire suspension since Fieldin Culbreth 's May 2013 suspension for misapplication of baseball rules and the first on @-@ field misconduct suspension of an umpire since Bob Davidson 's May 2012 suspension for situation handling violations related to his ejection of Phillies Manager Charlie Manuel .
West umpired in his second NLDS ( and fifth LDS ) in 2011 . The next year West was the first base umpire for Félix Hernández 's August 15 perfect game against the Tampa Bay Rays . He umpired another NLDS that year , then appeared in his fifth World Series . His career has spanned the tenure of baseball commissioners Bowie Kuhn , Peter Ueberroth , Bart Giamatti , Fay Vincent , Bud Selig and Rob Manfred . As of the 2014 season , West was MLB 's most senior umpire . Umpire Bruce Froemming , who was previously the most senior umpire , spent 37 seasons in MLB , but he announced his retirement in 2007 .
= = = Reception = = =
West has been mentioned in several polls of MLB players . In 2006 , the spring after he was crew chief in the World Series , a Sports Illustrated survey asked 470 MLB players to identify the best and worst umpires . West was identified as the best MLB umpire by 2 percent of those players , ranking him ninth on that list . With respect to the worst umpire , 6 percent of players in the survey selected West . Only three umpires were named more frequently as worst umpire in the survey . A 2007 review of umpire strike zones by The Hardball Times determined that West was the most consistent umpire in the major leagues .
In a 2010 poll of 100 players , West ranked as the second @-@ worst umpire in the league . In a 2011 players poll , West was named the best MLB umpire by 5 percent of players polled , placing him fifth . However , he was named the worst umpire in the same poll by 41 percent of players polled .
= = Outside of baseball = =
West is known outside of umpiring as a singer – songwriter . His involvement in country music and his demeanor on the field have earned him the nickname " Cowboy Joe . " West has described his music as " two chords and the truth . ... It 's simple . It tells a story . " In 2009 , West said of his music pursuits , " I was lucky . You know , the dues you have to pay to get here as an umpire are long and tedious , but the music business , because I was already in the major leagues , kind of opened a lot of doors I normally wouldn 't have been able to open . "
West has appeared at the Grand Ole Opry . He has performed with Mickey Gilley , Johnny Lee and Merle Haggard . West served as a pallbearer for Boxcar Willie .
West released his first album , Blue Cowboy , in 1987 . Blue Cowboy is an album of three original songs and five covers . Chuck Yarborough of the Cleveland Plain Dealer said , " Listening to the first excerpt of his " Blue Cowboy " made me balk — you 'll pardon the expression — at listening to the second . But I did . And the third . And so on . And now ? Well , if I 'm Nashville , I run West outta the game . The Hook . The Heave @-@ Ho . The Thumb . " In a September 2012 review , music blog Long After Dark said , " Blue Cowboy easily ranks with Ron Artest and Carl Lewis as one of the worst albums that a sports figure has cut ... ever . I can say that I managed to make it through the record , although it was not easy . "
He released Diamond Dreams in 2008 . The album was a collaboration with Kent Goodson , pianist for country star George Jones . It tells baseball stories inspired by West 's umpiring career . Goodson later said , " As I look back on how this CD came together , I realize that I am a musician and Joe is an umpire . But his love for music and my love for baseball bonded us in this project . " Sports blogger Voodoo Brown described West as " in creepmode from the gate . " Sportswriter Doug Miller said that the album was " a fun , humorous and often touching collection of spoken @-@ word gems in which the listener gets a perfect sampling of the true personality of Cowboy Joe West . "
West has made one film appearance , playing a third base umpire in the 1988 comedy film The Naked Gun : From the Files of Police Squad ! He also made a cameo appearance on the television crime drama The Oldest Rookie , An avid golfer , West appears on the Celebrity Players Tour .
= Ched Evans =
Chedwyn Michael " Ched " Evans ( born 28 December 1988 ) is a Welsh footballer who plays as a striker for League One club Chesterfield .
Born in St Asaph , Denbighshire , Evans was signed by Manchester City from Chester City 's youth set up in 2002 and he subsequently progressed through the ranks . Evans was loaned to Norwich City in 2007 , where he scored 10 goals in 28 league appearances , before returning to his parent club . With first team opportunities at City limited he was subsequently sold to Sheffield United for £ 3 million in 2009 . After an unspectacular first two seasons at Bramall Lane he scored 35 goals during the 2011 – 12 season . He also represented Wales at Wales under @-@ 21 and senior level , scoring on his debut for the national side in 2008 , and making a total of 13 appearances .
Evans was convicted of rape in April 2012 and spent two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years in prison . His conviction was quashed on 21 April 2016 by the Court of Appeal , after a referral by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , and a retrial has been ordered . In June 2016 , he signed a contract for Chesterfield .
= = Club career = =
= = = Manchester City = = =
Evans began his playing career in Rhyl , before spending two seasons in Chester City 's youth set @-@ up from where he moved to Manchester City in 2002 following the closure of Chester 's youth team . During the 2006 – 07 season , Evans was a regular in the Academy and reserve teams and was also in the side that reached the final of the 2006 FA Youth Cup , where City lost to Liverpool . In May 2007 , Evans signed his first professional contract with Manchester City .
In September 2007 Evans came off the bench to make his senior debut in City ’ s 1 – 0 League Cup victory against Norwich City . With first choice opportunities at City limited Evans moved on loan to Norwich City in November of that year , agreeing a deal until 1 January 2008 . He made his debut for Norwich the following week when he came on as a substitute in the 3 – 1 victory over Blackpool . His first goal for the club came two games later , and just two minutes into his first start in a 2 – 1 victory over Plymouth Argyle at the start of December . Evans returned to Manchester City after his initial loan deal expired in January 2008 , having made eight appearances and scored two goals .
Initially , Norwich manager Glenn Roeder 's attempts to extend the loan were refused , however , on 10 January , the two clubs agreed a deal to allow Evans to return to Norwich on loan until 26 February , with Manchester City able to recall him after an initial period . However , after talks between the two clubs at the end of January 2008 , the deal was extended to allow Evans to stay with the Carrow Road club until the end of the season . Then Manchester City manager Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson stated he had no plans to sell Evans and that he would not be leaving the summer transfer window . Evans played regularly for Norwich for the remainder of his loan spell and by the end of the season he had notched up 10 goals from 20 starts and eight substitute appearances .
Evans made his Premier League debut for Manchester City in the opening game of the following season on 18 August , against Aston Villa . He was not chosen for the starting eleven but replaced Valeri Bojinov , who suffered an injury during the pre @-@ game warm @-@ up . Evans scored his first Premier League goal for Manchester City against Portsmouth on 21 September , scoring the fifth goal as City went on to win 6 – 0 . With City 's acquisition of Craig Bellamy and later Emmanuel Adebayor , Roque Santa Cruz and Carlos Tevez , Evans opted to leave in 2009 in order to get more first team football .
= = = Sheffield United = = =
Evans joined Sheffield United for an initial fee of £ 3 million plus possible future add @-@ ons on a three @-@ year deal in July 2009 , making his debut for United in the first game of the new season ; a 0 – 0 draw with Middlesbrough . Having bagged a brace for the Wales U21s during the midweek fixtures he then scored his first goal in Blades colours on his home debut , a 2 – 0 win over Watford . Despite a promising start Evans struggled to maintain any real form and was often relegated to the role of substitute during his first season with the Blades , making 36 appearances but scoring only four goals . The following season Evans was a regular first team choice and his form and scoring rate began to improve , despite the club going through a season of turmoil and battling against relegation . He finished the campaign as top scorer with nine goals in all competitions , but was unable to prevent the team dropping out of the division .
With the Blades now in League One there was speculation that Evans would be sold to ease the club 's wage bill but an injury picked up in the last days of the previous campaign meant he was unavailable until early September , preventing him from moving on to another club . Having returned from injury Evans hit a rich vein of form scoring regularly in both league and cup competitions as the Blades contested for promotion . On 28 March 2012 he scored a second @-@ half hat trick within 15 minutes against Chesterfield giving him his thirtieth goal of the season in a 4 – 1 win for Sheffield United at Bramall Lane . During this impressive third season , Evans drew attention from Championship and Premier League clubs with his contract scheduled to expire in the summer . However , Blades manager Danny Wilson stated that Evans " [ wasn ’ t ] even thinking about leaving Bramall Lane " , adding " Of course we don ’ t want to lose Ched . We still need to achieve sustainability whatever division we are in and of course people are bound to take notice of the goals he ’ s getting , maybe I ’ m in cloud cuckoo land but I don ’ t think it always comes down to money and , talking to Ched , I know he ’ s very happy . " Evans was named League One Player of the Month for March 2012 , having scored 10 goals in 8 games . He was nominated for ' League One Player of the Season ' , and in April 2012 Evans was named in the League One PFA Team of the Year . He ended the season with 35 goals in all competitions , but following his rape conviction Evans was released by United at the end of the season .
= = International career = =
= = = Wales U21s = = =
Evans gained his first Wales U21 cap in 2007 . He became a regular member of the squad and in November 2007 he scored a hat @-@ trick against France U21s . In doing so he became only the fourth player to have scored a hat @-@ trick for the under @-@ 21 side , along with John Hartson , Craig Davies and Lee Jones . Evans scored a brace against Bosnia and Herzegovina U21s in October 2009 , taking his tally for the Welsh U21s to 13 goals in 12 games .
= = = Wales = = =
Evans made his senior debut for Wales on 28 May 2008 , scoring the winning goal ( with a back heel ) in a 1 – 0 away friendly victory against Iceland . He made 13 appearances for Wales in total , scoring once .
= = = Team GB ambitions = = =
On 28 March 2012 Stuart Pearce , the Great Britain Olympic football team manager , was present at the match against Chesterfield , in which Evans scored a hat @-@ trick , taking his season tally to thirty , in a 4 – 1 win at Bramall Lane . Evans commented on the possibility of representing Team GB at the London 2012 Summer Olympics : " If I was asked then it 's something I 'd definitely look at doing . I don 't know whether I even will be though ... But if the chance was there then , like anyone else , I ’ d certainly have to think about it . "
= = Personal life = =
Evans was born in St Asaph , Denbighshire . His father left the family after Evans 's birth .
After signing for Sheffield United , Evans moved to Millhouse Green , Penistone , in the nearby Barnsley area . After the death of former Wales boss and Sheffield United player , coach and manager Gary Speed , Evans revealed a message under his shirt after scoring his first goal in the FA Cup win over Torquay United , which read : " Rest in peace Speedo . " Evans stated regarding the death of Gary Speed that " I was a man on a mission . I had a message on my top for Gary Speed which I wanted to show . I 'm thankful I got the goal ... the crowd started singing [ Speed 's name ] – it gave me goose pimples ... not one person has a bad word to say about him , he was a gentleman ... even people who haven 't met him know how much of a nice man he was ... it still hasn 't hit home , it still feels surreal . "
Since 2009 , Evans has been dating Natasha Massey . Massey 's father , Karl , a businessman , funded a website , " Chedevans.com " , which proclaimed Evans to be " wrongly convicted of rape on 20th April 2012 " . He also hired lawyers for an appeal . In January 2015 , the Attorney general 's office announced that they were " considering the issues " of a possible breach of the contempt of court laws by the website . Evans and Massey have a son , born in January 2016 .
= = = Rape trial = = =
Evans and another footballer , Clayton McDonald , were tried at the Crown Court at Caernarfon after being indicted of the rape of a 19 @-@ year @-@ old woman , who was deemed too drunk to consent , at an hotel near Rhyl in May 2011 . Evans was convicted on 20 April 2012 and was sentenced to five years imprisonment . He was eligible for release after serving half of that sentence . During his incarceration , Evans worked as a painter and decorator in the prison in order to afford a healthy diet . In August 2012 , Evans was refused leave to appeal against the conviction by a single Court of Appeal of England and Wales judge and the full court upheld the decision in November . Evans continues to maintain his innocence and in November 2013 recruited a new legal team to attempt to clear his name .
He was released on 17 October 2014 , although he remains on the Violent and Sex Offender Register indefinitely . Following his release , the Criminal Cases Review Commission announced that they were fast @-@ tracking a review of his conviction . In January 2015 , it was reported that Evans had submitted fresh evidence to the Criminal Cases Review Commission , with the claim that it would strengthen his case . In October 2015 the Criminal Cases Review Commission , following a ten @-@ month investigation , and relying on " new material which was not considered by the jury at trial " referred the case to an appeal before the Court of Appeal . The Chair of the commission stated that the " decision of the commission is not a judgment on guilt or innocence in relation to Ched Evans , nor is it a judgement about the honesty or integrity of the victim or any other person involved in the case . "
On 22 March 2016 the case was heard by the Court of Appeal , which imposed a ban on reporting details of the legal argument . On 21 April 2016 , the appeal was allowed and the conviction quashed . A retrial was ordered , and the details of the reasons for the decision cannot be reported until the conclusion of the retrial . Evans ' retrial is due to begin on 4 October 2016 .
= = Attempts to find a new club = =
= = = Sheffield United = = =
In April 2014 , Sheffield United Co @-@ Chairman Kevin McCabe and new manager Nigel Clough met with Evans in HM Prison Wymott to discuss the possibility of Sheffield United re @-@ signing Evans after his release from prison . Following speculation that Evans could rejoin his former club , a petition was signed by 150 @,@ 000 people urging the club not to do so , which stated that it would be a " deep insult to the woman who was raped and to all women like her who have suffered at the hands of a rapist " .
In November 2014 , following his release from prison , it was announced that Evans would resume training with Sheffield United after the Professional Footballers ' Association had requested that Sheffield United let Evans train at the club as they were his last club before his conviction . The decision was controversial , and caused television presenter Charlie Webster , businesswoman Lindsay Graham and musicians Dave Berry and Paul Heaton to resign as patrons of the club . Athlete Jessica Ennis @-@ Hill stated that she would want her name removed from a stand at Bramall Lane if Evans were signed by the club .
The Football League stated that although they recognised the gravity of Evans ' crime , they valued the reintegration of reformed criminals and could not take any action against any club which would hire Evans . Sheffield United manager Nigel Clough said on 12 November that the club were " nowhere near " signing Evans , citing his 30 months out of the professional game and an important run of fixtures as reasons why a decision would not be taken immediately . DBL Logistics , Sheffield United 's sponsor on the back of their shirts , stated that they would end their sponsorship if Evans were signed by the club . John Holland Sales , who sponsor on the front of the shirts , declared that they would " re @-@ evaluate " their relation to the club if he were signed . On 20 November , Sheffield United withdrew their offer to allow Evans to use their training facilities . Co @-@ chairman Jim Phipps , however , attributed the decision to " mob @-@ like behaviour " , stating his belief that Evans had a right to return to his career having served his sentence .
= = = Hartlepool United = = =
In December 2014 , Hartlepool United manager Ronnie Moore said that he would like Evans to join the club . The comment brought criticism from Hartlepool 's MP , Iain Wright , who described Evans as a " pariah " . The club later followed up this headline with a statement saying that Hartlepool does not wish to sign Evans .
= = = Hibernians = = =
On 2 January 2015 , Hibernians of the Maltese Premier League , through their English vice @-@ president Stephen Vaughan , announced that they had offered Evans a contract up to the end of the season . The British Ministry of Justice said that such a move would not be possible as Evans was a convicted sex offender on licence and , as such , barred from working abroad . Malta 's Prime Minister , Joseph Muscat , warned Hibernians that hiring Evans could affect the whole country 's reputation , while Justice Minister Owen Bonnici stated that Evans had a right to return to his profession after being released from prison .
= = = Oldham Athletic = = =
On 4 January 2015 , it was reported that Evans had been in discussion with League One club Oldham Athletic and was expected to sign for them in a deal which may be worth as little as £ 400 per week . The club 's manager Lee Johnson was reported to have expressed " grave reservations " about the signing , but was overruled by the club 's owner Simon Corney . A petition against the signing gathered 19 @,@ 000 signatures within a few hours and over 30 @,@ 000 by the next day , while politicians such as Labour Party leader Ed Miliband voiced their opposition to the move .
On 8 January 2015 , Oldham Athletic ended their interest in signing Evans , citing that proceeding could have resulted in " significant financial pressure " and would have " continued to be a divisive influence " , while condemning the " vile and abusive threats , some including death threats , which have been made to our fans , sponsors and staff " . BBC Sport reported that a named relative of a staff member was threatened with rape , and that one sponsor already having ended their association with Oldham in protest and another saying that it would follow suit if Evans signed . The petition against Evans signing had reached over 60 @,@ 000 signatures . Meanwhile , a total of ten other clubs ( other than Oldham and Sheffield United ) from League One and League Two told BBC Sport that they would not sign Evans .
Evans stated that he withdrew from the deal due to " mob rule " , and that he was concerned the building of Oldham 's new stand would be adversely affected by his signing . He also apologised for any grievances he had caused due to his rape case , but maintained his innocence . Journalist Henry Winter , writing for The Daily Telegraph , refuted Evans ' claims , instead saying that " it was people ’ s disgust that a convicted rapist felt he could swan back into a high @-@ profile job after revealing no remorse for a crime that would preclude re @-@ employment for many " , while criticising Evans for making " his statement of contrition ... on the offensive , legally questionable website that continues to make life miserable for his victim " .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
On 8 January 2015 , it was announced by Grimsby Town director John Fenty that a financial backer had offered the club to pay his full wages in order to bring Evans to the Conference Premier club . Having held a board meeting along with team manager Paul Hurst it was decided that the move would be of too high risk for the club . Grimsby had previously employed Clayton McDonald , the fellow footballer and friend of Evans who was acquitted in the same case , during the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Chesterfield = = =
On 20 June 2016 , Evans signed his first contract since his release from prison and the quashing of his conviction , signing for one year at Chesterfield in League One . He was signed by his former Sheffield United manager Wilson , and their first @-@ team coach was his former Blades teammate Chris Morgan .
He scored on his debut for Chesterfield on 23 July , his first game in nearly four years , in a 3 – 0 friendly win over Ilkeston .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 14 April 2012 .
1 . ^ Statistics includes Football League Trophy .
= = = International = = =
As of 5 May 2012 .
= 2013 CECAFA Cup =
The 2013 CECAFA Cup ( known as the GOtv CECAFA Challenge Cup for sponsorship reasons ) was the 37th edition of the annual CECAFA Cup , an international football competition consisting of the national teams of member nations of the Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations ( CECAFA ) . The tournament was held in Kenya from 27 November to 12 December .
Contested by twelve national teams , the tournament had Zambia invited as a guest nation to fill in for Djibouti , who failed to participate for a second consecutive year . This followed the tournament 's recent tradition of inviting other African nations to take part once a CECAFA nation pulled out ; Malawi were invited to take part in the previous edition held in Uganda , while they and Zimbabwe took part in 2011 after Eritrea withdrew from the competition .
Hosts Kenya ran out 2 – 0 winners in the final against three @-@ time champions Sudan , with a brace from Allan Wanga securing the Harambee Stars their sixth title after losing to previous hosts Uganda at the same stage the previous year . The third place playoff was won by guests Zambia , who beat Tanzania 6 – 5 on penalties after playing out to a 1 – 1 draw after 90 minutes .
= = Background and sponsorship = =
On 25 November 2012 , it was announced that Kenya was chosen to host the tournament after bids were placed by the host nation as well as Rwanda . However , their hosting of the tournament was not confirmed until a congress meeting for the Confederation of African Football held in Marrakesh , Morocco on 11 March 2013 , after it was announced that the Football Kenya Federation had met all the requirements for hosting the tournaments with support from the Kenyan government . The capital city Nairobi , Mombasa , Kisumu , Machakos and Nakuru were identified as host cities for the tournament .
On 21 November 2013 , CECAFA announced that GOtv would be the title sponsors of the tournament , having committed Ksh . 11 @.@ 25 million towards the organisation of the event and a further Ksh . 45 million towards the broadcasting of all 26 matches . Other companies that were sponsoring the tournament were Coca @-@ Cola , who committed Ksh . 6 @.@ 5 million , and UAP Insurance , who committed Ksh . 5 @.@ 5 million .
Of Ksh . 8 @.@ 7 million ( approx . US $ 100 @,@ 000 ) that was allocated for prize money , the winners were to receive Ksh . 5 @.@ 6 million , while the runners @-@ up were to take home Ksh . 2 @.@ 5 million . The third place playoff winners were to receive Ksh . 600 @,@ 000 .
= = Participants = =
The draw for teams to participate in the tournament was held during the tournament 's launch on 15 November 2013 . Alongside the 12 member nations of CECAFA , Ivory Coast , Malawi and Zambia were initially mooted as invitees for the tournament . However , CECAFA decided against inviting the Ivory Coast , with Secretary @-@ General Nicholas Musonye saying that flying in Les Éléphants and keeping them in the country would cost the organisers over US $ 25 @,@ 000 . The Football Association of Malawi decided not to enter a team for the tournament due to a lack of funds .
The following teams were confirmed to participate in the tournament :
= = Match officials = =
The following 18 officials were appointed by CECAFA to participate in the tournament .
Referees
Assistant referees
= = Group stage = =
The group stage began on 27 November and ended on 5 December . The matchdays were 27 – 29 November , 30 November – 2 December and 3 – 5 December .
= Aylesbury duck =
The Aylesbury duck is a breed of domesticated duck , bred mainly for its meat and appearance . It is a large duck with pure white plumage , a pink bill , orange legs and feet , an unusually large keel , and a horizontal stance with its body parallel to the ground . The precise origins of the breed are unclear , but raising white ducks became popular in Aylesbury , Buckinghamshire , England , in the 18th century owing to the demand for white feathers as a filler for quilts . Over the 19th century selective breeding for size , shape and colour led to the Aylesbury duck .
Duck rearing became a major industry in Aylesbury in the 19th century . The ducks were bred on farms in the surrounding countryside . Fertilised eggs were brought into the town 's " Duck End " , where local residents would rear the ducklings in their homes . The opening of a railway to Aylesbury in 1839 enabled cheap and quick transport to the markets of London , and duck rearing became highly profitable . By the 1860s the duck rearing industry began to move out of Aylesbury into the surrounding towns and villages , and the industry in Aylesbury itself began to decline .
In 1873 the Pekin duck was introduced to the United Kingdom . Although its meat was thought to have a poorer flavour than that of the Aylesbury duck , the Pekin was hardier and cheaper to raise . Many breeders switched to the Pekin duck or to Aylesbury @-@ Pekin crosses . By the beginning of the 20th century competition from the Pekin duck , inbreeding , and disease in the pure @-@ bred Aylesbury strain and the rising cost of duck food meant the Aylesbury duck industry was in decline .
The First World War badly damaged the remaining duck industry in Buckinghamshire , wiping out the small scale producers and leaving only a few large farms . Disruption caused by the Second World War further damaged the industry . By the 1950s only one significant flock of Aylesbury ducks remained in Buckinghamshire , and by 1966 there were no duck @-@ breeding or -rearing businesses of any size remaining in Aylesbury itself . Although there is only one surviving flock of pure Aylesbury ducks in the United Kingdom and the breed is critically endangered in the United States , the Aylesbury duck remains a symbol of the town of Aylesbury , and appears on the coat of arms of Aylesbury and on the club badge of Aylesbury United .
= = Origins and description = =
The precise origin of the Aylesbury duck is unclear . Before the 18th century , duck breeds were rarely recorded in England , and the common duck , bred for farming , was a domesticated form of the wild mallard . The common duck varied in colour , and as in the wild , white ducks would occasionally occur . White ducks were particularly prized , as their feathers were popular as a filler for quilts .
In the 18th century selective breeding of white common ducks led to a white domestic duck , generally known as the English White . Since at least the 1690s ducks had been farmed in Aylesbury , and raising English Whites became popular in Aylesbury and the surrounding villages . By 1813 it was remarked that " ducks form a material article at market from Aylesbury and places adjacent : they are white , and as it seems of an early breed : they are bred and brought up by poor people , and sent to London by the weekly carriers " . The duck farmers of Aylesbury went to great lengths to ensure the ducks retained their white colouring , keeping them clear of dirty water , soil with a high iron content and bright sunlight , all of which could discolour the ducks ' feathers . Over time , selective breeding of the English White for size and colour gradually led to the development of the Aylesbury duck .
A rather large duck breed , the Aylesbury duck has pure white plumage and bright orange legs and feet . Its legs are placed midway along the body and it stands with its underside parallel to the ground , giving it a body described as " boat @-@ shaped " . It has a relatively long and thin swan @-@ like neck , and a long pink bill which comes straight out from the head .
An Aylesbury duckling incubates in the egg for 28 days . Until eight weeks after hatching , the time of their first moult , ducks and drakes ( females and males ) are almost indistinguishable . After moulting , males have two or three curved tail feathers and a fainter , huskier quack than the female . By one year of age , females and males grow to an average weight of 6 and 7 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 2 kg ) respectively , although males can reach around 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) .
Unlike the Rouen duck , the other popular meat variety in England in the 19th century , Aylesbury ducks lay eggs from early November . Aylesbury ducks fatten quickly and by eight weeks after hatching weigh up to 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) , large enough to eat but still young and extremely tender . Consequently , their meat came onto the market from February onwards , after the close of the game season but before the earliest spring chickens were on sale . Rouen ducks , whose mallard @-@ like coloration made them less valuable , lay eggs from early February and take six months to grow large enough to eat . As a consequence , Aylesbury ducks were sold primarily in the spring and summer , and Rouen ducks in the autumn and winter .
= = Aylesbury duck farming = =
The white Aylesbury duck is , and deservedly , a universal favourite . Its snowy plumage and comfortable comportment make it a credit to the poultry @-@ yard , while its broad and deep breast , and its ample back , convey the assurance that your satisfaction will not cease at its death . In parts of Buckinghamshire , this member of the duck family is bred on an extensive scale ; not on plains and commons , however , as might be naturally imagined , but in the abodes of the cottagers . Round the walls of the living @-@ rooms , and of the bedroom even , are fixed rows of wooden boxes , lined with hay ; and it is the business of the wife and children to nurse and comfort the feathered lodgers , to feed the little ducklings , and to take the old ones out for an airing . Sometimes the " stock " ducks are the cottager 's own property , but it more frequently happens that they are intrusted to his care by a wholesale breeder , who pays him so much per score for all ducklings properly raised . To be perfect , the Aylesbury duck should be plump , pure white , with yellow feet , and a flesh coloured beak .
Unlike most livestock farming in England at this time , the duck breeders and duck rearers of Aylesbury formed two separate groups . Stock ducks — i.e. , ducks kept for breeding — were kept on farms in the countryside of the Aylesbury Vale , away from the polluted air and water of the town . This kept the ducks healthy , and meant a higher number of fertile eggs .
Stock ducks would be chosen from ducklings hatched in March , with a typical breeder keeping six males and twenty laying females at any given time . The females would be kept for around a year before mating , typically to an older male . They would then generally be replaced , to reduce the problems of inbreeding . Stock ducks were allowed to roam freely during the day , and would swim in local ponds which , although privately owned , were treated as common property among the duck breeders ; breeders would label their ducks with markings on the neck or head . The stock ducks would forage for greenery and insects , supplemented by greaves ( the residue left after the rendering of animal fat ) . As ducks lay their eggs at night , the ducks would be brought indoors overnight .
Female Aylesbury ducks would not sit still for the 28 days necessary for their eggs to hatch , and as a consequence the breeders would not allow mothers to sit on their own eggs . Instead the fertilised eggs would be collected and transferred to the " duckers " of Aylesbury 's Duck End .
= = = Rearing = = =
The duckers of Aylesbury would buy eggs from the breeders , or be paid by a breeder to raise the ducks on their behalf , and would raise the ducklings in their homes between November and August as a secondary source of income . Duckers were typically skilled labourers , who invested surplus income in ducklings . Many of the tasks related to rearing the ducks would be carried out by the women of the household , particularly the care of newly hatched ducklings .
The eggs would be divided into batches of 13 , and placed under broody chickens . In the last week of the four @-@ week incubation period the eggs would be sprinkled daily with warm water to soften the shells and allow the ducklings to hatch .
Newly hatched Aylesbury ducklings are timid and thrive best in small groups , so the duckers would divide them into groups of three or four ducklings , each accompanied by a hen . As the ducklings grew older and gained confidence , they would be kept in groups of around 30 . Originally the ducks would be kept in every room in the ducker 's cottage , but towards the end of the 19th century they were kept in outdoor pens and sheds with suitable protection against cold weather .
The aim of the ducker was to get every duckling as fat as possible by the age of eight weeks ( the first moult , the age at which they would be killed for meat ) , while avoiding any foods which would build up their bones or make their flesh greasy . In their first week after hatching , the ducklings would be fed on boiled eggs , toast soaked in water , boiled rice and beef liver . From the second week on , this diet would gradually be replaced by barley meal and boiled rice mixed with greaves . ( Some larger @-@ scale duckers would boil a horse or sheep and feed this to the ducklings in place of greaves . ) This high @-@ protein diet was supplemented with nettles , cabbage and lettuce to provide a source of vitamins . As with all poultry , ducks require grit in their diet to break up the food and make it digestible . Aylesbury ducklings ' drinking water was laced with grit from Long Marston and Gubblecote ; this grit also gave their bills their distinctive pinkish colour . Around 85 % of ducklings would survive this eight @-@ week rearing process to be sent to market .
While ducks are naturally aquatic , swimming can be dangerous to young ducklings , and it can also restrict a duck 's growth . Thus , although duckers would ensure the ducklings always had a trough or sink to paddle in , the ducklings would be kept away from bodies of water while they were growing . The exception was shortly before slaughter , when the ducklings would be taken for one swim in a pond , as it helped them to feather properly .
Although there were a few large @-@ scale duck rearing operations in Aylesbury , raising thousands of ducklings each season , the majority of Aylesbury 's duckers would raise between 400 and 1 @,@ 000 ducklings each year . Because ducking was a secondary occupation , it was not listed in Aylesbury 's census returns or directories and it is impossible to know how many people were engaged in it at any given time . Kelly 's Directory for 1864 does not list a single duck farmer in Aylesbury , but an 1885 book comments that :
In the early years of the present [ 19th ] century almost every householder at the " Duck End " of the town followed the avocation of ducker . In a living room it was no uncommon sight to meet with young ducks of different ages , divided in pens and monopolizing the greatest space of the apartment , whilst expected new arrivals often were carefully lodged in the bedchamber .
The Duck End was one of the poorer districts of Aylesbury . Until the end of the 19th century it had no sewers or refuse collections . The area had a number of open ditches filled with stagnant water , and outbreaks of malaria and cholera were common . The cottages had inadequate ventilation and lighting , and no running water . Faeces from the duck ponds permeated the local soil and seeped into the cottages through cracks in the floors .
= = = Slaughter and sale = = =
When the ducklings were ready for slaughter , the duckers would generally kill them on their own premises . The slaughter would generally take place in the morning , to ensure the ducks would be ready for market in the evening . To keep the meat as white as possible , the ducks would be suspended upside down and their necks broken backwards , and held in this position until their blood had run towards their heads . They were kept in this position for ten minutes before being plucked , as otherwise their blood would collect in those parts of the body from which the feathers had been plucked . The plucking was generally carried out by the women of the household . The plucked carcasses would be sent to market , and the feathers would be sold direct to London dealers .
The market for duck meat in Aylesbury itself was small , and the ducks were generally sent to London for sale . By the 1750s Richard Pococke recorded that four cartloads of ducks were sent from Aylesbury to London every Saturday , and in the late 18th and early 19th centuries the ducks continued to be sent over the Chiltern Hills to London by packhorse or cart .
On 15 June 1839 the entrepreneur and former Member of Parliament for Buckingham , Sir Harry Verney , 2nd Baronet , opened the Aylesbury Railway . Built under the direction of Robert Stephenson , it connected the London and Birmingham Railway 's Cheddington railway station on the West Coast Main Line to Aylesbury High Street railway station in eastern Aylesbury . On 1 October 1863 the Wycombe Railway also built a line to Aylesbury , from Princes Risborough railway station to a station on the western side of Aylesbury ( the present @-@ day Aylesbury railway station ) . The arrival of the railway had a powerful impact on the duck industry , and up to a ton of ducks in a night were being shipped from Aylesbury to Smithfield Market in London by 1850 .
A routine became established in which salesmen would provide the duckers with labels . The duckers would mark their ducklings with the labels of the firm to whom they wished them to be sold in London . The railway companies would collect ducklings , take them to the stations , ship them to London and deliver them to the designated firms , in return for a flat fee per bird . By avoiding the need for the duckers to travel to market , or the London salesmen to collect the ducklings , this arrangement benefited all concerned , and ducking became very profitable . By 1870 the duck industry was bringing over £ 20 @,@ 000 per year into Aylesbury ; a typical ducker would make a profit of around £ 80 – £ 200 per year .
= = Developments in the late 19th century = =
In 1845 , the first National Poultry Show was held , at the Zoological Gardens in London ; one of the classes of poultry exhibited was " Aylesbury or other white variety " . The personal interest of Queen Victoria in poultry farming , and its inclusion in the Great Exhibition of 1851 , further raised public interest in poultry . From 1853 the Royal Agricultural Society and the Bath and West of England Society , the two most prominent agricultural societies in England , included poultry sections in their annual agricultural shows . This in turn caused smaller local poultry shows to develop across the country .
Breeders would choose potential exhibition ducks from among newly hatched ducklings in March and April , and they would be given a great deal of extra attention . They would be fed a carefully controlled diet to get them to the maximum weight , and would be allowed out for a few hours each day to keep them in as good a physical condition as possible . Before the show , their legs and feet would be washed , their bills trimmed with a knife and sandpapered smooth , and their feathers brushed with linseed oil . While most breeders would give the ducks a healthy meal before the show to calm them , some breeders would force @-@ feed the ducks with sausage or worms , to get them to as heavy a weight as possible . Exhibition standards judged an Aylesbury duck primarily on size , shape and colour . This encouraged the breeding of larger ducks , with pronounced exaggerated keels , and loose baggy skin . By the beginning of the 20th century the Aylesbury duck had diverged into two separate strains , one bred for appearance and one for meat .
= = = Pekin ducks = = =
In 1873 the Pekin duck was introduced from China to Britain for the first time . Superficially similar in appearance to an Aylesbury duck , a Pekin is white with orange legs and bill , with its legs near the rear , giving it an upright stance while on land . Although not thought to have such a delicate flavour as the Aylesbury , the Pekin was hardier , a more prolific layer , fattened more quickly , and was roughly the same size as an Aylesbury at nine weeks .
Aylesbury ducks , meanwhile , were becoming inbred , meaning fertile eggs were scarcer and the ducks were more susceptible to disease . Exhibition standards had led to selection for an exaggerated keel by breeders , despite it being unpopular with dealers and consumers . Poultry show judges also admired the long neck and upright posture of Pekin ducks over the boat @-@ like stance of the Aylesbury . Some of the breeders in the Aylesbury area began to cross Pekin ducks with the pure Aylesbury strain . Although the Aylesbury @-@ Pekin cross ducks did not have the delicate flavour of the pure Aylesbury , they were hardier and much cheaper to raise .
Until the mid @-@ 19th century duck rearing was concentrated on the Duck End , but by the 1860s it had spread to many other towns and villages in the area , particularly Weston Turville and Haddenham . Contamination of Aylesbury 's soil by years of duck rearing , and new public health legislation which ended many traditional practices , caused the decline of the duck rearing industry in the Duck End , and by the 1890s the majority of Aylesbury ducks were raised in the villages rather than the town itself . Population shifts and the improved national rail network reduced the need to rear ducks near London , and large duck farms opened in Lancashire , Norfolk and Lincolnshire . Although the number of ducks raised nationwide continued to grow , between 1890 and 1900 the number of ducks raised in the Aylesbury area remained static , and from 1900 it began to drop .
= = Decline = =
By the time Beatrix Potter 's 1908 The Tale of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck — about an Aylesbury duck although set in Cumbria — caused renewed interest in the breed , the Aylesbury duck was in steep decline . The duckers of Buckinghamshire had generally failed to introduce technological improvements such as the incubator , and inbreeding had dangerously weakened the breed . Meanwhile , the cost of duck food had risen fourfold over the 19th century , and from 1873 onwards competition from Pekin and Pekin cross ducks was undercutting Aylesbury ducks at the marketplace .
The First World War devastated the remaining duckers of Buckinghamshire . The price of duck food rose steeply while the demand for luxury foodstuffs fell , and wartime restructuring ended the beneficial financial arrangements with the railway companies . By the end of the war small @-@ scale duck rearing in the Aylesbury Vale had vanished , with duck raising dominated by a few large duck farms . Shortages of duck food in the Second World War caused further disruption to the industry , and almost all duck farming in the Aylesbury Vale ended . A 1950 " Aylesbury Duckling Day " campaign to boost the reputation of the Aylesbury duck had little effect ; by the end of the 1950s the last significant farms had closed , other than a single flock in Chesham owned by Mr L. T. Waller , and by 1966 there were no duck breeders or rearers of any size remaining in Aylesbury . As of 2015 the Waller family 's farm in Chesham remains in business , the last surviving flock of pure Aylesbury meat ducks in the country .
Aylesbury ducks were imported into the United States in 1840 , although they never became a popular breed . They were , however , added to the American Poultry Association 's Standard of Perfection breeding guidelines in 1876 . As of 2013 , the breed was listed as critically endangered in the United States by The Livestock Conservancy .
= = Legacy = =
The Aylesbury duck remains a symbol of the town of Aylesbury . Aylesbury United F.C. are nicknamed " The Ducks " and include an Aylesbury duck on their club badge , and the town 's coat of arms includes an Aylesbury duck and plaited straw , representing the two historic industries of the town . The Aylesbury Brewery Company , now defunct , featured the Aylesbury duck as its logo , an example of which can still be seen at the Britannia pub . Duck Farm Court is a shopping area of modern Aylesbury located near the historic hamlet of California , close to one of the main breeding grounds for ducks in the town , and there have been two pubs in the town with the name " The Duck " in recent years ; one in Bedgrove that has since been demolished and one in Jackson Road that has recently been renamed .
= Pennsylvania Route 652 =
Pennsylvania Route 652 ( PA 652 ) is a 10 @.@ 559 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 993 km ) east – west state highway located in the northeast Pennsylvania county of Wayne . The western terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) in the Texas Township community of Indian Orchard . The highways heads to the northeast , and reaches the eastern terminus at the New York @-@ Pennsylvania border in Damascus Township , where PA 652 crosses the Narrowsburg – Darbytown Bridge over the Delaware River and into New York , continuing as New York State Route 52 ( NY 52 ) and County Route 24 ( CR 24 ) in Sullivan County .
The highway originated as the easternmost stretch of US 106 when the United States Highway System was first put together in 1926 . The route , however , was assigned as a state highway in 1920 . PA 652 was once used south of the alignment , in the northern suburbs in Philadelphia . PA 652 remained on that alignment until 1946 , and in 1972 , the PA 652 designation was reassigned onto the US 106 alignment .
= = Route description = =
PA 652 begins at an intersection with US 6 ( Texas – Palmyra Highway / Grand Army of the Republic Highway ) in the village of Indian Orchard . PA 652 progresses northeast as a two @-@ lane local road through Texas Township as the Beach Lake Highway . Crossing into the village of Bethel , the route winds northeast through Berlin Township and enters Beach Lake . PA 652 is the main road through downtown Beach Lake , crossing an intersection with Milanville Road , which connects to the Skinners Falls @-@ Milanville Bridge .
After Beach Lake , PA 652 wanders northeast past Little Beach Pond and into Damascus Township . In Damascus , PA 652 enters a more wooded region of the county until Woodland Drive , where it becomes primarily residential once again . The route soon bends eastward then to the southeast at Kaiser Street , reaching the Delaware River as it enters Darbytown . Running eastward along the river , PA 652 reaches the Narrowsburg @-@ Darbytown Bridge , where it crosses the river into the state of New York , where it continues as NY 52 and CR 24 in Narrowsburg .
= = History = =
PA 652 was first assigned in 1928 to a series of local streets in the northwestern suburbs of Philadelphia . The southern terminus of the route was at the modern US 30 / Old Eagle School Road intersection on the Chester – Delaware county line near Devon to the west and Wayne to the east . PA 652 followed Old Eagle School Road north to King of Prussia , where the route turned east onto East Swedesford Road . At the location of the modern US 422 / US 202 interchange , PA 652 turned north onto Guthrie Road , running alongside the right @-@ of @-@ way of what is now the US 422 expressway to North Gulph Road . PA 652 continued north on North Gulph Road to the Valley Forge National Historical Park , where it terminated at PA 23 .
In 1946 , PA 652 was transferred to the control of the local suburbs along its entire length , and control of the roads went to local highway departments . The portion of the route between Guthrie Road and PA 23 returned to state control in 1967 when PA 363 was routed onto North Gulph Road .
The current alignment of PA 652 was classified as a state highway as early as 1920 , nine years after the Sproul Road Bill was passed by the Pennsylvania State Legislature . The Sproul Road Bill also assigned the first state highways in Pennsylvania . There was no designation given to the highway . From 1926 to 1972 , the modern routing of PA 652 was part of US 106 . The road also carried a portion of PA 19 from 1927 to 1930 . On March 14 , 1972 , US 106 was decommissioned and replaced with the PA 652 designation between Indian Orchard and the Delaware River . Signs were changed by April of that year .
PA 652 has a consistent stretch of water crossings that helps put the highway together . The first bridge along the highway , built in 1925 , was the US 106 bridge spanning a tributary of the Delaware River . The concrete @-@ paved span was reconstructed in 1980 and crosses the tributary into New York on a 50 @.@ 85 feet ( 15 @.@ 50 m ) long span . The next bridge was the current Narrowsburg – Darbytown Bridge , built in 1954 over the Delaware . The bridge is structurally deficient according to the United States Department of Transportation , and is in need of replacement . The bridge is 425 feet ( 130 m ) long and made of steel .
The final two bridges were constructed in 1964 . The first was constructed for US 106 over Indian Orchard Brook . It is located about 500 feet ( 150 m ) east of State Route 2011 ( Poor Farm Road ) . It is a structurally deficient , 20 @.@ 99 feet ( 6 @.@ 40 m ) concrete bridge . There is no recorded estimate for replacement costs . The second bridge is also over Indian Orchard Brook , and is in Texas Township . The bridge is 41 @.@ 99 feet ( 12 @.@ 80 m ) long and built out of concrete , which handles an average of 6 @,@ 804 commuters a year .
= = Major intersections = =
= The Boat Race 1860 =
The 17th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1860 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . It was the first time in the history of the event that the race had to be restarted as a result of an obstruction . Cambridge won the event by one length , in the slowest time ever .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge as they sank in the previous year 's race . Cambridge led overall with nine wins to Oxford 's seven .
The challenge to race was sent by the president of the Cambridge University Boat Club to the president of the Oxford University Boat Club in the October term , with subsequent agreement to compete on 30 March 1860 . However , this was soon deemed unacceptable : the Cambridge crew were required to take examinations in the days prior and the tide on that day was " inconvenient " . As such , it was agreed to hold the race the following day , on 31 March . Oxford were initially considered the favourites , but after Cambridge 's practice rows , the odds evened .
Cambridge 's boat was built specifically for the race by Edward Searle of Simmons boat yard and was 57 @.@ 5 feet ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) in length . The Oxford vessel was the same as that used in the previous year 's race , a 54 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) long boat built by Matthew Taylor of Newcastle . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
Both crews were downselected from pairs of trials eights . The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 5 lb ( 75 @.@ 3 kg ) , 2 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . Each crew contained four members who had featured in the previous year 's race : Chaytor and Morland represented Cambridge again while Fairbairn and Hall competed in their third race . Meanwhile Morrison , Baxter and Robarts represented Oxford for the second time , with Risley making his third appearance in the event .
= = Race = =
The crowd lining the banks of the Thames was " immense " , while the weather was " drizzly and windy " . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Immediately after the starter , Edward Searle , had commanded the boats to commence , a wherry interrupted proceedings , blocking the boats ' passage and forcing Searle to declare a false start . It was the first time in Boat Race history that the event was required to be restarted .
Neither crew made a good start , but Cambridge took an early lead . Oxford had recovered to draw level by the " Star and Garter " pub and led by half a length by Craven Cottage . The Dark Blues were nearly clear by the " Crab Tree " pub and their cox Robarts steered across in an attempt to take clear water . Cambridge 's cox Morland called for a push to defend their course causing the crews to clash oars . They passed through the central pier of Hammersmith Bridge , with Cambridge holding a 3 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) lead , which they extended to half a length around Chiswick Reach . By Barnes Bridge the Light Blues held a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lead . They passed the " Ship Tavern " at Mortlake , winning by a length in a time of 26 minutes 5 seconds . As of 2014 , this remains the slowest winning time in the history of the event .
= Jim Umbricht =
James Umbricht ( September 17 , 1930 – April 8 , 1964 ) was an American professional baseball player . A right @-@ handed relief pitcher , he played Major League Baseball ( MLB ) between 1959 and 1963 for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Houston Colt .45s.
Umbricht was born in Chicago but grew up in Georgia . He started his professional career in 1953 , making the majors in 1959 . Over the next seasons , he alternated between teams , playing for the Pirates and that team 's farm system . Umbricht was drafted by the Colt .45s in 1962 , and became one of the National League 's top relief pitchers .
Diagnosed with malignant melanoma in his right leg in March 1963 , his comeback to baseball following surgery made national headlines and encouraged research on the disease . He spent the 1963 season as a relief pitcher , sometimes in excruciating pain . Umbricht 's health deteriorated soon afterwards and he died within six months , from complications from melanoma in a Houston area hospital at age 33 . His ashes were spread over the construction site of the Astrodome , the future home of the Colt .45s. The team retired Umbricht 's jersey number and wore black armbands for the 1964 season in his honor .
= = Early career = =
Umbricht was born in Chicago , and moved with his family to Atlanta in 1946 . Aspiring to be a professional baseball player , Umbricht practiced every day on a field by his house and became a multi @-@ sport star at Decatur High School in Decatur , Georgia . He attended the University of Georgia on a scholarship and played on the school 's baseball and basketball teams , becoming the captain of both for his senior year . He was named to the All @-@ Southeastern Conference first @-@ team as a shortstop in 1951 .
After graduating from Georgia , Umbricht participated in a local tryout camp for the Waycross Bears in the Class D Georgia – Florida League , a low @-@ level minor league affiliate in the Milwaukee Braves organization . He made the team , starting his professional baseball career as a pitcher and infielder . In 1953 , Umbricht pitched for the Bears in 10 games , starting in eight of them . Umbricht finished with a 4 – 3 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 87 earned run average .
Umbricht missed the 1954 and 1955 seasons while serving in the United States Army , but pitched for a military team at Fort Carson in Colorado . After his discharge in 1956 , Umbricht played for the Baton Rouge Rebels of the Evangeline League ; he had a 15 – 15 Win – loss record in 32 games as the team finished with a 53 – 70 record , and led the league with 27 complete games . He was promoted to the Topeka Hawks of the Western League in 1957 , and had a 13 – 8 record with a 3 @.@ 24 earned run average in 28 games pitched . In 1958 he played for the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association . He went 6 – 10 with a 4 @.@ 06 earned run average in 55 games , mostly as a relief pitcher . Umbricht was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates organization for Emil Panko prior to the 1959 season . The Pirates assigned Umbricht to their Triple @-@ A affiliate , the Salt Lake City Bees in the Pacific Coast League . While with the Bees , Umbricht had a 14 – 8 record with a 2 @.@ 78 earned run average in 47 games , mostly in relief .
= = Major League career = =
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
On the strength of his performance for the Bees , Umbricht was promoted to the Pirates roster near the end of the 1959 season . He appeared in only one game , a 7 – 6 loss to the Cincinnati Reds . He pitched seven innings , giving up five earned runs while striking out three . Umbricht left the game in position for the win , as the Pirates were leading 6 – 5 , but reliever Don Gross gave up two earned runs in the ninth inning for the blown save and the loss .
Two spots in the starting rotation were available by the time the Pirates started their 1960 season . At the beginning of spring training , Umbricht competed against fellow rookies Bennie Daniels and Joe Gibbon for a place . The Pirates began strongly in spring training , winning 11 in a row at one point . In a game against the Detroit Tigers , Umbricht combined with Daniels to throw a no @-@ hitter . Manager Danny Murtaugh was impressed with Umbricht 's pitching and expected him to become the Pirates ' fifth starter ( a combination of spot starter and reliever ) by opening day . He won the spot and in his first start of the season against the Reds on April 17 , he gave up six earned runs in 5 @.@ 1 innings , getting charged with the 11 – 3 loss . In his next start against the Philadelphia Phillies on April 21 , Umbricht had poor control , giving up three runs and walking five batters in 2 @.@ 1 innings . He made a last @-@ minute start against Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale on May 25 , after Pirates starting pitcher Bob Friend had a sore throat and could not play . Umbricht pitched five innings , striking out five batters , but gave up two critical second @-@ inning home runs to Frank Howard and John Roseboro and was charged with the loss . After an off @-@ day and a game postponed because of rain , the Pirates faced the Phillies at home on May 28 . After the game went to extra innings , Umbricht pitched the thirteenth inning . The Pirates won in the later half of the inning , earning Umbricht his first career win .
Umbricht continued to struggle in the bullpen and was demoted alongside Daniels on June 27 to the Columbus Jets of the International League as pitchers Tom Cheney and Earl Francis were promoted to the main squad . Between June 27 and September 9 , he appeared in 19 games , 15 of them starts , earning an 8 – 5 record , two shutouts and a 2 @.@ 50 earned run average . With his strong pitching performance at Columbus , Umbricht was re @-@ promoted to the main roster in early September to help the Pirates in their pennant race . On September 27 against the Reds , he struck out three batters in two innings in relief as the Pirates broke a team record by striking out 19 batters in a 16 @-@ inning victory . The Pirates managed to win the National League pennant , but he was not named in the final roster for the World Series , which the Pirates won in seven games . Overall during the 1960 season , Umbricht appeared in 17 games for the Pirates , compiling a 1 – 2 record with a 5 @.@ 09 earned run average and 26 strikeouts .
He appeared in one game during the 1961 season , pitching three innings in relief during a May 5 loss against the Dodgers . He was demoted alongside outfielder Román Mejías on May 10 as the Pirates had to trim their roster from 28 players to 25 per league rules . Umbricht was sent back to Columbus , where he spent the rest of the 1961 season as a full @-@ time starter . In 22 games , Umbricht had a 9 – 6 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 35 earned run average in 142 innings pitched .
= = = Houston Colt .45s = = =
Umbricht was selected by the Houston Colt .45s with the 35th pick in the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft . Umbricht had become friends with Houston 's general manager Paul Richards when the two were at Waycross in 1953 , and Richards selected Umbricht to give him a better chance of pitching in the majors . With the Colts , Umbricht quickly became one of the best relief pitchers in the National League . Umbricht started the season on the Colts roster , but was demoted to the Oklahoma City 89ers of the American Association to make room for veteran pitcher Don McMahon . He appeared in 23 games for the 89ers , posting a 3 – 4 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 39 earned run average , mostly in relief . He rejoined the Colts roster in the middle of the 1962 season as a relief specialist . He appeared in 34 games that season , earning a 4 – 0 win – loss record with a solid 2 @.@ 01 earned run average . He struck out 55 batters while walking only 17 .
Umbricht threw four pitches , a fastball , curveball , slider and the changeup . He was used primarily as a setup pitcher during his brief tenure with the Colts . According to former teammate and roommate Ken Johnson , Umbricht was used by the Colts mainly to control damage caused by starting pitchers after they were removed from games . In his five @-@ year Major League Baseball career , Umbricht compiled a 9 – 5 win – loss record , with 133 strikeouts , three saves and a 3 @.@ 06 earned run average in 88 games .
= = Cancer and early death = =
= = = Cancer diagnosis and 1963 season = = =
At the beginning of spring training for the 1963 season , Umbricht noticed a small black mole in his right leg , near the thigh while on a golf outing with Richards . Umbricht ignored the mole at first , but it grew at a rapid pace . Richards and team trainer Jim Ewell told Umbricht to have it checked by a doctor . A three @-@ inch section of the mole was removed for testing and a doctor confirmed it was a " black mole " tumor that had spread to his groin area . Ewell , the team trainer said , Umbricht " had the most wonderful attitude of anyone you 'll ever meet " . Umbricht 's cancer diagnosis shocked baseball and made national headlines . On March 7 , Umbricht underwent a six @-@ hour operation using perfusion to remove the tumor from his right leg . The perfusion technique was radical at the time , entering use as a surgical procedure not long before Umbricht 's surgery . After a month @-@ long hospital stay , Umbricht and his doctors told the media that he beat the cancer , crediting " early detection and good physical condition " , further stating that he " should have five or six good years left " in his baseball career . However , Umbricht learned that the doctors were unsure if the cancer surgery was a success , or even if it had been completely removed from his body . Even if it was , his chance of survival was slim at best . Upon hearing the news , Umbricht decided to keep it a secret outside his immediate family .
Umbricht wanted to return to pitch for the Colt .45s and was in uniform by opening day . Manager Harry Craft added Umbricht to the Colts ' active list prior to a May 9 game against Cincinnati , telling the Associated Press that the player was " anxious to get back to pitching " . He appeared in the sixth inning in a 13 – 3 loss , giving up four runs , including a home run to Frank Robinson in one inning of work . After the game , Umbricht said he felt " real good " despite the poor performance . The surgery took a toll on his leg : he required over 100 stitches , and blood seeped from the wound while he pitched at times . That year Umbricht posted a 4 – 3 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 61 earned run average in 35 games . He played his last game on September 29 , 1963 , the final day of the regular season . By that time , Umbricht 's cancer had started to spread throughout his body and he needed to be sedated at times because of the pain . In November , Umbricht learned that the cancer spread to his chest area and was incurable . He was released from his contract on December 16 due to his deteriorating health . The National League allowed the Colts to sign Umbricht to a scout contract given the circumstances , with the proviso that it would become a player contract if he rejoined the active roster .
= = = Final months and death = = =
By early 1964 , Umbricht was constantly in and out of hospital for further treatment , but was only given a few months to live . When he was not hospitalized , Umbricht played golf and attended baseball dinners in his honor , often for a " most courageous athlete " award ceremony . Umbricht did not travel to Cocoa Beach for the Colts ' spring training camp in late February . He returned to the hospital permanently on March 16 , where his health steadily declined after a third operation . During his final hospital stay , the Colts ' management , his family and the hospital staff agreed not to release any further details about his illness , though word had leaked that he was dying . He remained optimistic that he would beat the illness until his final days , stating that " everything will be ok " in an interview with United Press International sports editor Milton Richman . Umbricht succumbed to the disease on April 8 , 1964 , in the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center . Umbricht 's death came on the eve of the Colts ' 1964 season . Several members of the team attended the funeral ; manager Harry Craft , coach Lum Harris and teammate Dick Farrell were among the six pallbearers . Teammate Russ Kemmerer , who in the off @-@ season was a Methodist preacher , gave the eulogy during the service , and Umbricht 's body was cremated . Construction of the Astrodome , the Colts ' future ballpark had begun a few weeks before Umbricht 's death . His family decided to spread his ashes on its grounds , so the new ballpark " could be his headstone " . After the funeral service , Umbricht 's brother Ed flew a plane over the construction site and scattered his ashes .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The day after Umbricht 's death , the Colts decided to honor their teammate by wearing black armbands for the entire 1964 season . Umbricht 's uniform number ( 32 ) was immediately retired by the team ; it was the first time the club retired a uniform number , and only the ninth time in Major League history a number was retired . In the Colts ' opening @-@ day match against the Cincinnati Reds , starting pitcher Ken Johnson dedicated his victory in Umbricht 's memory . The Astros ' MVP award was also named in his honor . The back of Umbricht 's 1964 Topps baseball card was updated to mention his death shortly before printing . The retirement of Umbricht 's number received some criticism , however . Former teammate Jimmy Wynn wrote in his autobiography that Walt Bond , a former Astros player who was African @-@ American , died from leukemia while he was still active . His jersey number was not retired by the club after his death , although he appeared in more games for the Astros than Umbricht . ( It should be noted , however , that Bond ended his career not with Houston but as a member of the Minnesota Twins . ) Journalists criticizing the retirement of numbers sometimes use Umbricht as an example of someone whose number was retired but who is unfamiliar to baseball fans .
Umbricht 's death from melanoma helped alert the general public about the disease . Former Los Angeles Rams linebacker Jack Pardee credited Umbricht 's battle with melanoma for saving his life in 1965 . Pardee , a Pro Bowl linebacker , had been ignoring a mole on his armpit . After hearing of Umbricht 's battle with cancer , and that his mole was similar to Umbricht 's , he went to the team doctor , who diagnosed him with melanoma . Although Pardee 's melanoma had also spread throughout his body , he made a complete recovery .
= Eric Gascoigne Robinson =
Rear Admiral Eric Gascoigne Robinson VC , OBE ( 16 May 1882 – 20 August 1965 ) was a Royal Navy officer and an English recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . He earned his award by going ashore and single @-@ handedly destroying a Turkish naval gun battery while a lieutenant commander with the fleet stationed off the Dardanelles during the Gallipoli campaign in the First World War .
After these exploits , he was badly wounded on the front line on the Gallipoli Peninsula , but recovered and served continuously for the remainder of the war and into the Russian Civil War . In 1939 aged 57 , he again volunteered for military service and spent three more years at sea , commanding convoys during the Battle of the Atlantic . During his lengthy career , Robinson remained a highly regarded officer who had served through four wars .
= = Early life = =
Eric Gascoigne Robinson was born in 1882 at Greenwich in South @-@ East London to John Lovell Robinson and Louisa Aveline Gascoigne . John was the chaplain of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and Eric 's youth was spent in preparation for a life at sea . Robinson joined HMS Britannia aged just fifteen in 1897 and rapidly progressed to the battleship HMS Majestic and then the first class protected cruiser HMS Endymion , in which he took part in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China . It was here , aged 18 , that he saw his first action with the relief force , being wounded in action , mentioned in despatches and gaining a reputation as a daring and resourceful officer . He remained in China serving on a Yangtze gunboat for several years before returning to England and becoming a torpedo specialist at HMS Vernon , Portsmouth , in 1907 .
In 1910 , Robinson was promoted to Lieutenant Commander and spent his time between HMS Vernon , the depot ship HMS Thames and the cruisers HMS Blenheim and HMS Amethyst on active service . In 1913 , he married Edith Gladys Cordeux , with whom he had three children . Robinson was slightly injured in a train accident shortly after his wedding , but soon recovered and was dispatched to the Mediterranean Sea at the outbreak of the First World War on board the old battleship HMS Vengeance .
= = Gallipoli campaign and the Victoria Cross = =
The exploit in his Victoria Cross nomination was the result of Robinson 's close friendship and working relationship with another aggressive officer , Roger Keyes , whom he had first met in China fifteen years before . Keyes was asked by his superior , Admiral John de Robeck , to prepare an assault on the Turkish gun battery at Orkanieh ( also known as Achilles ' Tomb ) , a position between Kum Kale and Yeni Shehr on the southern shore of the Dardanelles . This position had withstood fire from the battleships of the Allied fleet during the preceding weeks . Robinson was suggested as the leader of a commando force of sailors and Royal Marines tasked with destroying the battery and withdrawing in good order .
Robinson accepted the mission without hesitation . His force landed undetected early in the morning of 26 February , destroyed two small artillery pieces and made fast progress towards the main battery before being pinned down by Turkish snipers in the mid @-@ afternoon . The white naval uniforms of the sailors proved an easy target for the Turks and casualties mounted as Turkish reinforcements were brought up to cut off the raiding party . Instead of withdrawing in the face of this threat , Robinson marched his men through gullies and came out close to a small rise behind the main battery . The open ground of the rise was covered by several Turkish snipers , but realising the importance of removing the artillery overlooking the sea passage , Robinson delegated command of the party to a junior officer and made the climb alone , dodging bullets in his white uniform until he crested the rise unhurt , emerging a few minutes later and starting back apparently unconcerned by the increasingly heavy gunfire directed at him . He was said to be " strolling around . . . under heavy rifle fire . . . like a sparrow enjoying a bath from a garden hose " . The battery had been ungarrisoned , and Robinson was able to lay fuses which destroyed the large 9 @.@ 4 " main gun and two anti @-@ aircraft emplacements within the position . Withdrawing in good order , Robinson evaded the Turkish reinforcements and then directed gunfire from the fleet onto their positions , including a force garrisoning an ancient tomb , inflicting heavy casualties . An immediate recommendation for the Victoria Cross was put forward by Admiral de Robeck who had observed proceedings from HMS Queen Elizabeth offshore .
During March , in preparation for the landings on the peninsula , Robinson led four sorties into the extensive sea minefields around the beaches and bays of Gallipoli . On one of these , his minesweeper was struck by small calibre shells 84 times and the other operations were scarcely less dangerous but , in spite of the Turkish resistance , Robinson was able to clear wide lanes for the invasion forces .
= = = E15 mission = = =
Robinson volunteered in April for an even more dangerous mission , following the Turkish capture of submarine HMS E15 which had stranded below the guns of Fort Dardanus near Kepez Point . All efforts to destroy this craft had so far failed and it was considered vital for naval morale that it was not salvaged by the enemy . Robinson took command of two picket boats from the battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic , each armed with two torpedoes mounted on the gunwales in dropping gear , and entered the Dardanelles under cover of darkness on 18 April . Caught in a blaze of searchlights , and under heavy fire from the Turkish artillery and machine guns , both boats miraculously arrived unscathed . A carelessly @-@ directed Turkish searchlight briefly illuminated E15 . The boat from HMS Majestic under the command of Lt Goodwin seized the opportunity and attacked . The first torpedo missed , and seconds later the boat was struck by a shell that blew away much of her stern , mortally wounding one of her crew and causing her irreparable damage . Undeterred , Goodwin went in again and scored a direct hit with his second torpedo , just forward of the conning tower , wrecking the submarine .
Observing his consort 's plight , Robinson did not hesitate , steaming to the stricken vessel and rescuing her crew before escaping downstream to Mudros . It was estimated that the Turks fired at least 500 heavy calibre rounds of ammunition at the two boats in just a few minutes . A German officer present noted that " I have never on the course of the war seen an attack carried out with such pluck and fearlessness " . It has also been commented that this action should have brought Robinson a second Victoria Cross , but he was promoted to Commander by special decree instead .
= = = Later war service = = =
In August , Robinson was sent to Anzac Cove as a naval liaison officer and on his second day there , was badly wounded near the front line , forcing his evacuation to England , where King George V presented him with his medal at Buckingham Palace . Returned to the Mediterranean in December 1915 following his recuperation , he took over the coastal monitor HMS M21 , in which he shelled Turkish positions throughout Egypt and Palestine and was awarded another mention in despatches and the Egyptian Order of the Nile , 4th Class . Returning to England in the summer of 1917 , he narrowly missed selection for Keyes 's operations against Zeebrugge and Ostend owing to his war wounds , and instead trained crews of coastal torpedo boats , a role which led to a distant posting in the Caspian Sea during the Russian Civil War , fighting the Bolshevik forces along the Russian coastline . Robinson commanded a squadron of coastal torpedo boats in the Caspian and forced the surrender of several enemy forts through aggressive tactics . These achievements would later win him the Imperial Russian Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class . His most notable achievement at this time was leading a small coastal motor boat inside the harbour of Fort Alexandrovsk , where he sank a barge and prompted a mass surrender from the garrison .
= = Peacetime and Second World War service = =
Following this period of extended service , Robinson was brought home , appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire by the King for his Caspian Sea service , promoted again to Captain and posted to HMS Iron Duke . Robinson then served in a number of training establishments and dockyards , as well as a brief stint with the Far East Fleet , during which he received the Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure , Third Class for his services . In 1925 , he was inducted into the Freemasons and remained a prominent member of the Navy Lodge for the rest of his life . The organisation still commemorates him in their publications . He retired at age 51 in 1933 as a rear @-@ admiral , but when the Second World War broke out , Robinson immediately offered his services and for three years , commanded convoys across the Atlantic Ocean . For this service , he was later presented with the Norwegian King Haakon VII 's Freedom Cross . Eventually a bout of ill @-@ health caused by a combination of the strain of long service , his age , and the death of his son , Midshipman Edward Cordeaux Robinson , in the sinking of the cruiser HMS Neptune in December 1941 , prompted a second retirement in 1942 .
= = Retirement and death = =
Robinson settled in the village of Langrish , near Petersfield in east Hampshire . He died peacefully at Haslar Naval Hospital , Gosport , on 20 August 1965 and was laid to rest at St John 's , the village church he had served for 20 years as warden . For unknown reasons , his grave was without a headstone until 1998 , although a large plaque to him was dedicated by his sister in 1969 and surmounts the altar . Following investigations by the Naval VC Association , his grave was discovered and a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone erected . At the dedication ceremony , attended by over 150 friends , relatives , Masons and servicemen , Admiral Derek Reffell gave the eulogy which stated : " The admiral was a hero , but more importantly he was a naval man from the finest mould . Now at last we can accord him the dignity he deserves . "
= Peter Evans ( swimmer ) =
Peter Maxwell Evans ( born 1 August 1961 ) is an Australian breaststroke swimmer of the 1980s , who won four Olympic medals , most notably a gold in the 4 × 100 m medley relay at the 1980 Moscow Olympics as part of the Quietly Confident Quartet . He also won consecutive bronze medals in the 100 m breaststroke at the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics .
The son of prominent Western Australian businessman and politician Max Evans , Evans had a late start to his swimming career , making his debut at the Australian championships aged 17 . Despite placing second in the 100 m breaststroke , he was not selected for Australia , and instead travelled to the United Kingdom to train under David Haller . During this period , he quickly improved his times and rose from outside the top 200 into the top 25 in the world rankings . Evans returned to Australia in 1980 and qualified for the Olympics in both the 100 m and 200 m breaststroke . A sprinter , he won the 100 m in an Australian record time and showed a preference for shorter events , which required less training mileage . Evans gained a reputation for often doing fewer training laps than his coach asked of him . Having rebuffed Australian government pressure to boycott the Moscow Olympics in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , Evans won bronze in the 100 m breaststroke . His career peak came in the 4 × 100 m medley relay , when he outsplit his opponents in the breaststroke leg of the relay , bringing Australia into contention for its eventual win , which remains the only time that the United
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, Harrison met Anna Tuthill Symmes , of North Bend , Ohio . She was a daughter of Anna Tuthill and Judge John Cleves Symmes , a prominent figure in the state and former representative to the Congress of the Confederation . When Harrison asked the judge for permission to marry Anna , he was refused . The pair waited until Symmes left on business , then they eloped and married on November 25 , 1795 . They married at the North Bend home of Dr. Stephen Wood , Treasurer of the Northwest Territory . The couple honeymooned at Fort Washington , as Harrison was still on duty . Two weeks later , at a farewell dinner for General Wayne , Symmes confronted his new son @-@ in @-@ law for the first time since the wedding , sternly demanding to know how Harrison intended to support a family . Harrison responded , " by my sword , and my own right arm , sir . " Afterward , still concerned about Harrison 's ability to provide for Anna , Symmes sold the young couple 160 acres ( 65 ha ) of land in North Bend . Symmes did not come to accept Harrison until he had achieved fame on the battlefield .
Together , the Harrisons had 10 children . Nine lived into adulthood and one died in infancy . Anna was frequently in poor health during the marriage , primarily due to her many pregnancies . She nonetheless outlived William by 23 years , dying at age 88 on February 25 , 1864 .
In a biography of Walter Francis White , the noted African American civil rights leader and president of the NAACP in the mid @-@ 20th century , historian Kenneth Robert Janken notes that White 's mother Madeline Harrison traced some of her mixed @-@ race white ancestry to Harrison in Virginia . Her family holds that Dilsia , a female slave belonging to William Henry Harrison , had six children by him , born into slavery . Four were said to be sold to a planter in La Grange , Georgia , including a daughter , Marie Harrison . Marie was Madeline 's mother .
= = Political career = =
Harrison resigned from the army in 1798 and began campaigning among his friends and family for a post in the Northwest Territorial government . With the aid of his close friend , Secretary of State Timothy Pickering , he was recommended to replace the outgoing Secretary of the Territory . Harrison was appointed to the position , and frequently acted as governor during the absences of Governor Arthur St. Clair .
= = = As Member of Congress = = =
Harrison had many friends in the elite eastern social circles , and quickly gained a reputation among them as a frontier leader . He ran a successful horse @-@ breeding enterprise that won him acclaim throughout the Northwest Territory . He championed for lower land prices , a primary concern of settlers in the Territory at the time . The U.S. Congress had legislated a territorial land policy that led to high land costs , a policy disliked by many of the territory 's residents . When Harrison ran for Congress , he campaigned to work to alter the situation to encourage migration to the territory .
In 1799 , at age 26 , Harrison defeated the son of Arthur St. Clair and was elected as the first delegate representing the Northwest Territory in the Sixth United States Congress . He served from March 4 , 1799 , to May 14 , 1800 . As a delegate from a territory , not a state , he had no authority to vote on bills , but was permitted to serve on a committee , submit legislation , and debate .
As delegate , Harrison successfully promoted the passage of the Harrison Land Act . This made it easier for the average settler to buy land in the Northwest Territory by allowing land to be sold in small tracts . The availability of inexpensive land was an important factor in the rapid population growth of the Northwest Territory . Harrison also served on the committee that decided how to divide the Northwest Territory . The committee recommended splitting the territory into two segments , creating the Ohio Territory and the Indiana Territory . The bill , 2 Stat . 58 , passed and the two new territories were established in 1800 .
Without informing Harrison , President John Adams nominated him to become governor of the new territory , based on his ties to " the west " and seemingly neutral political stances . Harrison was confirmed by the Senate the following day . Caught unaware , Harrison accepted the position only after receiving assurances from the Jeffersonians that he would not be removed from office after they gained power in the upcoming elections . He then resigned from Congress . The Indiana Territory consisted of the future states of Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin , and the eastern portion of Minnesota .
= = = As Governor = = =
Harrison moved to Vincennes , the capital of the newly established Indiana Territory , on January 10 , 1801 . While in Vincennes , Harrison built a plantation @-@ style home on his farm that he named Grouseland for its many birds . It was one of the first brick structures in the territory . The home , which has been restored and has become a popular modern tourist attraction , served as the center of social and political life in the territory . He also built a second home near Corydon , the second capital , at Harrison Valley .
As governor , Harrison had wide @-@ ranging powers in the new territory , including the authority to appoint all territorial officials , and the territorial legislature , and to control the division of the territory into political districts . A primary responsibility was to obtain title to Indian lands . This would allow European @-@ American settlement to expand and increase U.S. population to enable the region to gain statehood . Harrison was eager to expand the territory for personal reasons as well , as his political fortunes were tied to Indiana 's rise to statehood . In 1803 , President Thomas Jefferson granted Harrison authority to negotiate and conclude treaties with the Indians .
Harrison supervised the development of 13 treaties , through which the territory bought more than 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land from Indian leaders , including much of present @-@ day southern Indiana . The 1804 Treaty of St. Louis with Quashquame led to the surrender by the Sauk and Meskwaki of much of western Illinois and parts of Missouri . This treaty and loss of lands were greatly resented by many of the Sauk , especially Black Hawk . It was the primary reason the Sauk sided with the United Kingdom during the War of 1812 . Harrison thought the Treaty of Grouseland in 1805 appeased some of the issues for Indians , but tensions remained high on the frontier .
The 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne raised new tensions . Harrison purchased from the Miami tribe , who claimed ownership of the land , more than 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 km ² ) of land inhabited by Shawnee , Kickapoo , Wea , and Piankeshaw peoples . Harrison rushed the process by offering large subsidies to the tribes and their leaders so that he could have the treaty in place before President Jefferson left office and the administration changed . The tribes living on the lands were furious and sought to have the treaty overturned , but were unsuccessful .
In 1803 , Harrison lobbied Congress to repeal Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance , to permit slavery in the Indiana Territory . He claimed it was necessary to make the region more appealing to settlers and would make the territory economically viable . Congress suspended the article for 10 years , during which time the territories covered by the ordinance were granted the right to decide for themselves whether to permit slavery . That year , Harrison had the appointed territorial legislature authorize indenturing . He attempted to have slavery legalized outright , in both 1805 and 1807 . This caused a significant stir in the territory . When in 1809 the legislature was popularly elected for the first time , Harrison found himself at odds with them as the abolitionist party came to power . They immediately blocked his plans for slavery and repealed the indenturing laws he had passed in 1803 .
President Jefferson , the primary author of the Northwest Ordinance , had made a secret compact with James Lemen to defeat the proslavery movement led by Harrison . Although a slaveholder , he did not want slavery to expand into the Northwest Territory , as he believed the institution should end . Under the " Jefferson @-@ Lemen compact " , Jefferson donated money to Lemen to found churches in Illinois and Indiana to stop the proslavery movement . In Indiana , the founding of an antislavery church led to citizens ' signing a petition and organizing politically to defeat Harrison 's efforts to legalize slavery . Jefferson and Lemen were both instrumental in defeating Harrison 's attempts in 1805 and 1807 to secure approval of slavery in the territory .
= = Army general = =
= = = Tecumseh and Tippecanoe = = =
An Indian resistance movement against U.S. expansion had been growing through the leadership of the Shawnee brothers , Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa ( The Prophet ) . The conflict became known as Tecumseh 's War . Tenskwatawa convinced the native tribes that they would be protected by the Great Spirit and no harm could befall them if they would rise up against the white settlers . He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to pay white traders only half of what they owed and to give up all the white man 's ways , including their clothing , muskets , and especially whiskey , which was becoming known as evil for American Indians .
In August 1810 , Tecumseh led 400 armed warriors down the Wabash River to meet with Harrison in Vincennes . As the warriors were dressed in war paint , their sudden appearance at first frightened the soldiers at Vincennes . The leaders of the group were escorted to Grouseland , where they met Harrison . Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne Treaty was illegitimate . He argued that no one tribe could sell land without the approval of the other tribes ; he asked Harrison to nullify it and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty . Tecumseh informed Harrison that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who signed the treaty if they carried out its terms , and that his confederation of tribes was growing rapidly . Harrison said the Miami were the owners of the land and could sell it if they so chose . He rejected Tecumseh 's claim that all the Indians formed one nation . He said each tribe could have separate relations with the United States if they chose to . Harrison argued that the Great Spirit would have made all the tribes speak one language if they were to be one nation .
Tecumseh launched an " impassioned rebuttal " , but Harrison was unable to understand his language . A Shawnee friendly to Harrison cocked his pistol from the sidelines to alert Harrison that Tecumseh 's speech was leading to trouble . Some witnesses reported that Tecumseh was encouraging the warriors to kill Harrison . Many of the warriors began to pull their weapons , representing a substantial threat to Harrison and the town , which held a population of only 1 @,@ 000 . Harrison pulled his sword . Tecumseh 's warriors backed down after the officers had pulled their firearms in defense of Harrison . Chief Winnemac , who was friendly to Harrison , countered Tecumseh 's arguments and told the warriors that since they had come in peace , they should return home in peace . Before leaving , Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the treaty were nullified , he would seek an alliance with the British . After the meeting , Tecumseh journeyed to meet with many of the tribes in the region , hoping to create a confederation to battle the United States .
In 1811 , while Tecumseh was traveling , Harrison was authorized by Secretary of War William Eustis to march against the nascent confederation as a show of force . Harrison led an army of more than 1 @,@ 000 men north to try to intimidate the Shawnee into making peace . Instead , the tribes launched a surprise attack on Harrison 's army early on the morning of November 7 , in what became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe . Harrison defeated the tribal forces at Prophetstown , next to the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers . Harrison was hailed as a national hero and the battle became famous . However , his troops had greatly outnumbered the attackers , and suffered many more casualties during the battle .
When reporting to Secretary Eustis , Harrison informed him the battle occurred near the Tippecanoe River ( which led to its naming ) , and he feared an imminent reprisal attack . The first dispatch did not make clear which side had won the conflict , and the secretary at first interpreted it as a defeat . The follow @-@ up dispatch made the US victory clear . When no second attack came , the defeat of the Shawnee was more certain . Eustis demanded to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp against attacks . Harrison countered by saying he had considered the position strong enough . The dispute was the catalyst of a disagreement between Harrison and the Department of War that continued into the War of 1812 .
The press did not cover the battle at first , and one Ohio paper misinterpreted Harrison 's dispatch to Eustis to mean he was defeated . By December , as most major American papers carried stories on the battle , public outrage over the Shawnee attack grew . At a time of high tensions with the United Kingdom , many Americans blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence and supplying them with firearms . In response , Congress passed resolutions condemning the British for interfering in American domestic affairs . A few months later , the U.S. declared war against UK .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
The outbreak of war with the British in 1812 led to continued conflict with Indians in the Old Northwest , and Harrison was kept in command of the army in Indiana . After the American defeat in the Siege of Detroit , General James Winchester became the commander of the Army of the Northwest . He offered Harrison the rank of brigadier general , which he refused , as he wanted sole command of the army . President James Madison removed Winchester and made Harrison the commander on September 17 , 1812 . Harrison inherited an army of fresh recruits , which he endeavored to drill . Initially , he was greatly outnumbered by the British with their Indian allies . In the winter of 1812 – 13 , Harrison constructed a defensive position at the rapids on the Maumee River in northwest Ohio . He named it Fort Meigs in honor of the Ohio governor , Return J. Meigs , Jr .
After receiving reinforcements in 1813 , Harrison took the offensive . He led the army north to battle the Shawnee and their new British allies . He won victories in Indiana and Ohio , and recaptured Detroit , before invading Canada . He defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames , in which Tecumseh was killed . The Battle of the Thames was considered one of the great American victories in the war , second only to the Battle of New Orleans .
Secretary of War John Armstrong divided the command of the army , assigning Harrison to a " backwater " post and giving control of the front to one of Harrison 's subordinates . Armstrong and Harrison had disagreed over the lack of coordination and effectiveness in the invasion of Canada . When Harrison was reassigned , he promptly resigned from the army . His resignation was accepted in the summer of 1814 .
After the war ended , Congress investigated Harrison 's resignation . It determined that he had been mistreated by the Secretary of War during his campaign and that his resignation was justified . They awarded Harrison a gold medal for his services during the War of 1812 .
= = Postwar life = =
= = = Public office = = =
Harrison returned to North Bend after he was replaced as Governor of Indiana Territory , and he returned his farm to cultivation and enlarged the log cabin farmhouse . In 1814 , he was appointed by President Madison to serve as a commissioner to negotiate two treaties with the Indian tribes in the Northwest . Both treaties were advantageous to the United States , as the tribes ceded a large tract of land in the west . It provided more land for American purchase and settlement .
Harrison was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives to finish the term of John McLean of Ohio , serving from October 8 , 1816 , to March 4 , 1819 . He was elected to and served in the Ohio State Senate from 1819 to 1821 , having lost the election for Ohio governor in 1820 . In 1822 , he ran for the U.S. House , but lost by only 500 votes to James W. Gazlay . In 1824 , he was elected to the U.S. Senate , where he served until May 20 , 1828 . Fellow westerners in Congress called Harrison a " Buckeye " , a term of affection related to the native Ohio buckeye tree . He was an Ohio presidential elector in 1820 for James Monroe. and an Ohio presidential elector in 1824 for Henry Clay . In 1817 , Harrison declined to serve as Secretary of War under President Monroe .
Appointed as minister plenipotentiary to Gran Colombia , Harrison resigned from Congress and served in his new post until March 8 , 1829 . He arrived in Bogotá on December 22 , 1828 . He found the condition of Colombia saddening . Harrison reported to the Secretary of State that the country was on the edge of anarchy and he thought Simón Bolívar was about to become a military dictator . While minister in Colombia , Harrison wrote a rebuke to Bolívar , stating " ... the strongest of all governments is that which is most free " . He called on Bolívar to encourage the development of a democracy . In response , Bolívar wrote , " The United States ... seem destined by Providence to plague America with torments in the name of freedom " , a sentiment that achieved fame in Latin America . When the new administration of President Andrew Jackson took office in March 1829 , Harrison was recalled so the new president could make his own appointment to the position . He returned to the United States in June .
= = = Private citizen = = =
After Harrison returned to the United States in 1829 , he settled on his farm in North Bend , Ohio , his adopted home state . There , he lived in relative retirement after nearly 40 years of continuous government service . Having accumulated no substantial wealth during his lifetime , he subsisted on his savings , a small pension , and the income produced by his farm . Harrison cultivated corn and established a distillery to produce whiskey . After a brief time in the liquor business , he became disturbed by the effects of alcohol on its consumers , and closed the distillery . In a later address to the Hamilton County Agricultural Board in 1831 , Harrison said he had sinned in making whiskey , and hoped that others would learn from his mistake and stop the production of liquors .
In these early years , Harrison also earned money from his contributions to a biography written by James Hall , entitled A Memoir of the Public Services of William Henry Harrison , published in 1836 . That year , he made an unsuccessful run for the presidency as a Whig candidate . Between 1836 and 1840 , Harrison served as Clerk of Courts for Hamilton County . This was his job when he was elected president in 1840 . By 1840 , when Harrison campaigned for president a second time , more than 12 books had been published on his life . He was hailed by many as a national hero .
= = = 1836 presidential campaign = = =
Harrison was the Northern Whig candidate for president in 1836 , one of only two times in American history when a major political party intentionally ran more than one presidential candidate ( the Democrats ran two candidates in 1860 ) . Vice President Martin Van Buren , the Democratic candidate , was popular and deemed likely to win the election against an individual Whig candidate . The Whig plan was to elect popular Whigs regionally , deny Van Buren the 148 electoral votes needed for election , and force the House of Representatives to decide the election . They hoped the Whigs would control the House after the general elections . ( This strategy would have failed , as the Democrats retained a majority in the House following the election . )
Harrison ran in all the free states except Massachusetts , and the slave states of Delaware , Maryland , and Kentucky . Hugh L. White ran in the remaining slave states except for South Carolina . Daniel Webster ran in Massachusetts , and Willie P. Mangum in South Carolina . The plan narrowly failed , as Van Buren won the election with 170 electoral votes . A swing of just over 4 @,@ 000 votes in Pennsylvania would have given that state 's 30 electoral votes to Harrison , and the election would have been decided in the House of Representatives .
= = = 1840 presidential campaign = = =
Harrison was the Whig candidate ( and again faced Van Buren , now the incumbent president ) in the 1840 election . The Whig party unified behind a single candidate , and Harrison was chosen over more controversial members of the party , such as Clay and Webster . Harrison based his campaign on his military record and on the weak U.S. economy , caused by the Panic of 1837 . In a ploy to blame Van Buren for the depressed economy , the Whigs nicknamed him " Van Ruin " .
The Democrats ridiculed Harrison by calling him " Granny Harrison , the petticoat general " , because he resigned from the army before the War of 1812 ended . When asking voters whether Harrison should be elected , they asked them what his name backwards was , which happens to be " No Sirrah " . Democrats cast Harrison as a provincial , out @-@ of @-@ touch old man who would rather " sit in his log cabin drinking hard cider " than attend to the administration of the country . This strategy backfired when Harrison and his vice presidential running mate , John Tyler , adopted the log cabin and hard cider as campaign symbols . They used the images in banners and posters , and created bottles of hard cider that were shaped like log cabins , all to connect to the " common man " .
Although Harrison had come from a wealthy , slaveholding Virginia family , in this campaign he was promoted as a humble frontiersman in the style of the popular Andrew Jackson . A memorable example was the Gold Spoon Oration , delivered by a Whig representative . Van Buren , by contrast , was presented as a wealthy elitist .
A Whig chant from the time of the election exhibited the difference between candidates :
Old Tip he wore a homespun coat , he had no ruffled shirt : wirt @-@ wirt ,
But Matt he has the golden plate , and he 's a little squirt : wirt @-@ wirt !
People singing the chant would spit tobacco juice while singing " wirt @-@ wirt " .
The Whigs boasted of Harrison 's military record and reputation as the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe . Their campaign slogan , " Tippecanoe and Tyler , too " , became among the most famous in American politics . On election day , Harrison won a landslide electoral college victory , though the popular vote was much closer , at 53 % to 47 % .
= = Presidency ( 1841 ) = =
= = = Shortest presidency = = =
When Harrison came to Washington , he wanted to show both that he was still the steadfast hero of Tippecanoe , and that he was a better educated and thoughtful man than the backwoods caricature ascribed to him in the campaign . He took the oath of office on March 4 , 1841 , a cold and wet day . He wore neither an overcoat nor hat , rode on horseback to the ceremony rather than in the closed carriage that had been offered him , and delivered the longest inaugural address in American history . At 8 @,@ 445 words , it took him nearly two hours to read , although his friend and fellow Whig Daniel Webster had edited it for length . Harrison then rode through the streets in the inaugural parade , and that evening attended three inaugural balls , including one at Carusi 's Saloon entitled the " Tippecanoe " ball , which at a price of US $ 10 per person ( equal to $ 229 today ) attracted 1000 guests .
The inaugural address was a detailed statement of the Whig agenda , essentially a repudiation of Jackson and Van Buren 's policies . Harrison promised to reestablish the Bank of the United States and extend its capacity for credit by issuing paper currency ( Henry Clay 's American system ) ; to defer to the judgment of Congress on legislative matters , with sparing use of his veto power ; and to reverse Jackson 's spoils system of executive patronage . He promised to use patronage to create a qualified staff , not to enhance his own standing in government .
As leader of the Whigs and a powerful legislator ( as well as a frustrated presidential candidate in his own right ) , Clay expected to have substantial influence in the Harrison administration . He ignored his own platform plank of overturning the " spoils " system . Clay attempted to influence Harrison 's actions before and during his brief presidency , especially in putting forth his own preferences for Cabinet offices and other presidential appointments . Harrison rebuffed his aggression , saying " Mr. Clay , you forget that I am the President . " The dispute intensified when Harrison named Daniel Webster , Clay 's arch @-@ rival , for control of the Whig Party , as his Secretary of State , and appeared to give Webster 's supporters some highly coveted patronage positions . Harrison 's sole concession to Clay was to name his protégé John J. Crittenden to the post of Attorney General . Despite this , the dispute continued until the President 's death .
Clay was not the only one who hoped to benefit from Harrison 's election . Hordes of office applicants came to the White House , which was then open to all who wanted a meeting with the President . Most of Harrison 's business during his month @-@ long presidency involved extensive social obligations — an inevitable part of his high position and arrival in Washington — and receiving visitors at the White House . They awaited him at all hours and filled the Executive Mansion . Harrison wrote in a letter dated March 10 , " I am so much harassed by the multitude that call upon me that I can give no proper attention to any business of my own . " Nevertheless , Harrison sent a number of nominations for office to the Senate for confirmation during his month in office . The new 27th Congress had convened an extraordinary session for the purpose of confirming Harrison 's cabinet and other important nominees ; since a number of them arrived after Congress ' March 15 adjournment , however , John Tyler would ultimately be forced to renominate many of Harrison 's selections .
Harrison took his pledge to reform executive appointments very seriously , visiting each of the six executive departments to observe its operations and issuing through Webster an order to all departments that electioneering by employees would henceforth be considered grounds for dismissal . As he had with Clay , Harrison resisted pressure from other Whigs over partisan patronage . When a group arrived in his office on March 16 to demand the removal of all Democrats from any appointed office , Harrison proclaimed , " So help me God , I will resign my office before I can be guilty of such an iniquity ! " Harrison 's own cabinet attempted to countermand the president 's appointment of John Chambers as Governor of Iowa in favor of Webster 's friend , General James Wilson ; when Webster attempted to press this decision at a March 25 cabinet meeting , however , Harrison asked him to read aloud a handwritten note ( which said simply " William Henry Harrison , President of the United States " ) , then announced that " William Henry Harrison , President of the United States , tells you , gentlemen , that , by God , John Chambers shall be governor of Iowa ! "
Harrison 's only official act of consequence was to call Congress into a special session . Henry Clay and he had disagreed over the necessity of such a session , and when on March 11 Harrison 's cabinet proved evenly divided , the president vetoed the idea . When Clay pressed Harrison on the special session on March 13 , the president rebuffed his counsel and told him not to visit the White House again , but to address him only in writing . A few days later , however , Treasury Secretary Thomas Ewing reported to Harrison that federal funds were in such trouble that the government could not continue to operate until Congress ' regularly scheduled session in December ; Harrison thus relented , and on March 17 proclaimed the special session in the interests of " the condition of the revenue and finance of the country " . The session was scheduled to begin on May 31 .
= = = Administration and cabinet = = =
= = Death and funeral = =
On March 26 , Harrison became ill with a cold . According to the prevailing medical misconception of that time , his illness was believed to be directly caused by the bad weather at his inauguration ; however , Harrison 's illness did not arise until more than three weeks after the event .
The cold worsened , rapidly turning to pneumonia and pleurisy . He sought to rest in the White House , but could not find a quiet room because of the steady crowd of office seekers . His extremely busy social schedule made any rest time scarce .
Harrison 's doctors tried cures , applying opium , castor oil , leeches , and Virginia snakeweed , but the treatments only made Harrison worse , and he became delirious . He died nine days after becoming ill , at 12 : 30 am on April 4 , 1841 . Harrison 's doctor , Thomas Miller , diagnosed Harrison 's cause of death as " pneumonia of the lower lobe of the right lung " , but a 2014 medical analysis concluded that he instead died of enteric fever . The authors base their findings on the president 's symptoms and the close proximity of the White House to a dumping ground for sewage and human waste .
He was the first United States president to die in office . His last words were to his doctor , but assumed to be directed at John Tyler , " Sir , I wish you to understand the true principles of the government . I wish them carried out . I ask nothing more . " Harrison served the shortest term of any American president : March 4 – April 4 , 1841 , 30 days , 12 hours , and 30 minutes .
Harrison 's funeral took place in the Wesley Chapel in Cincinnati , Ohio , on April 7 , 1841 . His original interment was in the public vault of the Congressional Cemetery in Washington , D.C. He was later buried in North Bend , Ohio . The William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial was erected in his honor .
= = = Impact of death = = =
Harrison 's death was a disappointment to Whigs , who hoped to pass a revenue tariff and enact measures to support Henry Clay 's American system . John Tyler , Harrison 's successor and a former Democrat , abandoned the Whig agenda , effectively cutting himself off from the party .
Due to the death of Harrison , three Presidents served within a single calendar year ( Martin Van Buren , Harrison , Tyler ) . This has happened on only one other occasion , 40 years later in 1881 , when Rutherford B. Hayes was succeeded by James A. Garfield , who was assassinated later in that year . With the death of Garfield , Chester A. Arthur stepped into the presidency .
Harrison 's death revealed the flaws in the constitution 's clauses on presidential succession . Article II of the Constitution states , " In case of the removal of the President from office , or of his death , resignation , or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office , the same shall devolve on the Vice President ... and [ the Vice President ] shall act accordingly , until the disability be removed , or a President shall be elected " . Scholars at the time disagreed whether the vice president would become president or merely acting President . The Constitution did not stipulate whether the Vice President could serve the remainder of the President 's term , until the next election , or if emergency elections should be held .
Harrison 's cabinet insisted that Tyler was " Vice President acting as President " . After the cabinet consulted with the Chief Justice Roger Taney , they decided that if Tyler took the presidential Oath of Office , he would assume the office of President . Tyler obliged and was sworn in on April 6 . In May , Congress convened . After a short period of debate in both houses , it passed a resolution that confirmed Tyler in the presidency for the remainder of Harrison 's term . Once established , this precedent of presidential succession remained in effect until the Twenty @-@ fifth Amendment was ratified in 1967 . Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy and the succession of Lyndon B. Johnson to the presidency in 1963 , the Twenty @-@ fifth Amendment dealt with the finer points of succession . It defined in what situations the Vice President was acting President , and in what situation the Vice President could become President .
= = = Legacy = = =
Harrison was the first sitting President to have his photograph taken , on Inauguration Day in 1841 . Photographs exist of John Quincy Adams , Andrew Jackson , and Martin van Buren , but those images were all taken after these men had ceased to be President . The Harrison image was also the first of these photographs to be taken . The original daguerreotype , made in Washington on his Inauguration Day , has been lost — although at least one early photographic copy exists in the archives of the Metropolitan Museum of Art .
Harrison 's chief presidential legacy lies in his campaigning methods , which laid the foundation for the modern presidential campaign tactics . Harrison died nearly penniless . Congress voted to give his wife a Presidential widow 's pension , a payment of $ 25 @,@ 000 , one year of Harrison 's salary . This is equivalent to $ 573 @,@ 468 today . She also received the right to mail letters free of charge .
Harrison 's son John Scott Harrison served in the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio between 1853 and 1857 . Harrison 's grandson , Benjamin Harrison of Indiana , was the 23rd president , from 1889 to 1893 , making them the only grandparent – grandchild pair of Presidents .
Numerous places were named after Harrison :
Harrison , Michigan
Harrison , New Jersey
Harrison , Ohio
Harrison , Tennessee
Harrison County , Indiana
Harrison County , Mississippi
Harrison County , Iowa
Harrison County , Ohio
Three schools were named William Henry Harrison High School ( in Evansville and West Lafayette , Indiana and Harrison , Ohio ) in his honor .
During the American Civil War , the Union Army named a post near Cincinnati Camp Harrison . , and a military fort in Montana was named for him . Because of his short service , no military vessel was named after him as President .
A statue of Harrison was erected on Monument Circle in Indianapolis . Additionally , Harrison is shown ( on the left , facing the building ) in a pediment on the Tippecanoe County Courthouse , Lafayette , Indiana , 1882 .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= The Land of Green Plums =
The Land of Green Plums ( German : Herztier ) is a novel by Herta Müller , published in 1994 by Rowohlt Verlag . Perhaps Müller 's best @-@ known work , the story portrays four young people living in a totalitarian police state under the Soviet @-@ imposed communist dictatorship in Romania , ending with their emigration to Germany . The narrator is an unidentified young woman belonging to the ethnic German minority . Müller said the novel was written " in memory of my Romanian friends who were killed under the Ceauşescu regime " .
Like many of Müller 's books , The Land of Green Plums illustrates the position of dissidents from the German minority in Romania , who suffered a double oppression under the regime of Nicolae Ceauşescu . The rural German @-@ speaking community tries to preserve its culture by enforcing traditional rules ; once the main characters escape this environment through university study in the city , they suffer , as political dissidents , the oppression exercised by the totalitarian regime . Those who flee the country for Germany become cultural outcasts : they are not considered German there but rather Eastern Europeans . Critics read the novel as testifying to abuse and the ensuing trauma . Normal human relationships are rendered impossible by the lack of freedom of expression ; the threat of violence , imprisonment , and execution ; and the possibility that any personal friend may be a traitor . Written in a paratactic style , full of flashbacks and time shifts , the language of the book reflects trauma and political oppression .
After its publication in German and its translation into Dutch , the novel received moderate attention . It gained an international audience when the English translation by Michael Hofmann was published in 1996 . In 1998 this translation won the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award , the largest prize given for a single work of fiction published in English . Following the announcement that Müller was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Literature , The Land of Green Plums entered the bestseller list on Amazon.com.
= = Plot = =
The first character introduced to the reader is a girl named Lola , who shares a college dormitory room with five other girls , including the narrator . Lola records her experiences in a diary , relating her efforts to escape from the totalitarian world of school and society . She rides the buses at night and has brutish , anonymous sex with men returning home from factory work . She also has an affair with the gym teacher , and soon joins the Communist Party . This first part of the book ends when Lola is found dead , hanging in the closet ; she has left her diary in the narrator 's suitcase .
Having supposedly committed suicide and thus betrayed her country and her party , Lola is publicly denounced in a school ceremony . Soon after , the narrator shares Lola 's diary with three male friends , Edgar , Georg , and Kurt ; Lola 's life becomes an escape for them as they attend college and engage in mildly subversive activities — " harbouring unsuitable German books , humming scraps of banned songs , writing to one another in crude code , taking photographs of the blacked @-@ out buses which carry prisoners between the prison and the construction sites . " The four are from German @-@ speaking communities ; all receive mail from their mothers complaining about their various illnesses and how their children 's subversiveness is causing them trouble ; all have fathers who had been members of the Nazi SS in Romania during World War II . They hide the diary and other documents , including photographs and books , in the well of a deserted summerhouse in town . Very quickly it becomes clear that an officer of the Securitate , Captain Pjele , is interested in the four ; he begins to subject them to regular interrogations . Their possessions are searched , their mail opened , and they are threatened by the captain and his dog .
After graduation the four go their separate ways , but they remain in contact through letters and regular visits , although their letters are read by the Securitate . They take menial jobs : Kurt works in a slaughterhouse as a supervisor , for instance ; and the narrator translates German manuals in a factory . A fifth member , Tereza , befriends the narrator even as it becomes clear that she is acting partly on Pjele 's orders .
The lives of all five become more miserable , and each conforms to the regime 's demands even as they lose their jobs for apparently political reasons . They discuss fleeing the country , and Georg is the first to do so . Weeks after he arrives in Germany , he is found dead from a fall from the window of a Frankfurt hotel . The narrator and Edgar likewise acquire passports and go to Germany , but continue to receive death threats after emigrating . Kurt remains in Romania , no longer working ; he is later found hanged . The novel ends with the same passage as it began : " When we don 't speak , said Edgar , we become unbearable , and when we do , we make fools of ourselves " .
= = Characters = =
The narrator , Edgar , Georg , and Kurt hail from similar backgrounds . All are German Romanian and students at the same university . They all suffer persecution , and oppose the regime . The characters — especially Edgar , Georg , and Kurt — are quite deliberately not developed in great detail , as noted by critics . " Characterization is not the point here . Müller is primarily a poet " , and this poetic interest likewise is said to explain the lack of chapter organization and of transitional phrases . Only two of the six main characters who suffer oppression survive at the end of the book : Lola dies by hanging , Georg commits suicide after fleeing to Germany , Kurt is found hanged , and Tereza , the narrator 's friend who betrays her to the Securitate , dies of cancer .
= = Genre = =
= = = Autobiography = = =
The novel is partly autobiographical . Like her narrator , Müller comes from the German @-@ speaking minority in Romania , the Banat Swabians , with a father who had been former SS man during World War II . Trained as a teacher , she lost her position after refusing to cooperate with the Securitate . She emigrated to Germany in 1987 . In a 1998 interview she mentioned that real persons can be recognized in some of her characters , including one in The Land of Green Plums : " That [ recognition of characters ] was already the case in my previous book [ The Land of the Green Plums ] . Because my best girlfriend died young , and because she had betrayed me , and because I had to despise her and could not stop loving her . "
In an earlier interview with the Danish newspaper Politiken , Mülller went into greater detail about her friend , portrayed as Tereza in this novel :
I had a good friend in Romania , who came and visited me in Germany , when I had finally escaped from the country . She was in the service of the Securitate , as it turned out . She had left her passport lying out , and I saw it by chance one morning , when she was out . No ordinary person had such a passport with visas to Greece , to Italy , and Spain . She confessed everything , and shortly after I naturally had to throw her out . This happened in the same period that I was receiving death threats like many others who had fled from Romania , and I kept far away from Romanians I did not know or could not count on . But she was my friend .
= = = Allegory = = =
The novel approaches allegory in many of its details , such as the green plums of the title . Mothers warn their children not to eat green , unripe plums , claiming that they are poisonous . Yet the novel regularly depicts police officers gorging themselves on the fruit : " The officers ' lack of constraint in engulfing the fruit parallels the remorseless persecution of the human race " under Nicolae Ceauşescu . The green plums also suggest childhood , or regression into childhood : " The narrator watches the Romanian police guards in the streets of the city as they greedily pocket green plums ... ' They reverted to childhood , stealing plums from village trees . ' Ms. Muller 's vision of a police state manned by plum thieves reads like a kind of fairy tale on the mingled evils of gluttony , stupidity and brutality . "
= = Language and style = =
Critics have recognized Müller 's writing as political , " as a form of manifest resistance against totalitarian claims to power , " and have studied her " complex and ambiguous imagery . " According to Larry Wolff , reviewing the book for The New York Times , the poetic quality of the language is essentially connected to its author 's objective : " the author seeks to create a sort of poetry out of the spiritual and material ugliness of life in Communist Romania . " Critics have generally shown appreciation for the novel 's language , as did Nicholas Lezard , writing in The Guardian :
The prose , while simple at the level of the sentence ( and we can safely assume that Hofmann 's translation is very faithful to the original ) , is shifty , blurred , to the point where at times we are left unsure as to what exactly is going on – a deliberate flight from causation , quite understandable in a country where everyone ( even , we learn , the horses ) has been driven mad by fear .
Though the novel 's language , and Müller 's language in general , is praised for its precision--Peter Englund , secretary of the Swedish Academy , noted her " extreme precision with words " — many things are left unsaid . As a reviewer for The Australian noted , the narrator is never named , the words " totalitarian " and " liberty " never appear in the book , and even Ceausescu , usually referred to as the " dictator , " is named only twice , first when one of the characters ( a Jewish WWII survivor ) notes how the greeting " ciao " is also the first syllable of the dictator 's name , and again when a comparison is made between Ceausescu , Hitler , and Stalin .
= = Themes = =
= = = Trauma = = =
Psychological trauma caused by fear permeates the novel : " Fear , isolation , and abandonment characterize the lives of the first @-@ person narrator and her three friends .... Müller describes how fear acquires a life of its own ; it becomes independent of the subject 's will . " One critic argues that " Herztier was written in response to the trauma of life under the Ceauşescu dictatorship , when the citizens of Romania lived in constant fear of the secret police or Securitate . " As Müller said in an interview , this fear in the novel is autobiographical as well .
According to Beverley Driver Eddy , The Land of Green Plums presents trauma as well as its testimony ; the narrator gives her own testimony , and relates it to the testimony of her friends ' suffering . The first of these is Lola , the friend who supposedly kills herself ; her testimony is preserved in her diary , in which she wrote of her animalistic sexual exploits with nameless men and her struggle to cope with the guilt of having joined the Communist Party in an effort to better herself . For the narrator , preserving Lola 's notebook ( and sharing it with her three friends ) becomes of paramount importance , especially since the memory of Lola was erased days after her death by the Party establishment . Additional complexity comes from Lola 's testimony being interwoven in the narrator 's own — " a testimony within a testimony . " In an interview published in 1998 , Müller said that " she is concerned with showing that the childhood experiences have been internalised by the narrator , and that the traumas of the frightened , non @-@ conformist child are replicated to the larger traumas of the adult dissident . " In the image of the weeds cut down by the narrator 's father , an image presented early in the novel , the parallel between the father and the dictator is evidenced : " both ' make cemeteries ' without fear of retribution . " One symptom of the trauma this causes in its victims is disconnection , the strain of friendship resulting from lack of trust , disrupting normal human relationships for the remainder of the victim 's life . Müller 's novel portrays this disconnection and the ongoing trauma for survivors , even after the fall of the dictatorship .
Other critics have focused on different effects of trauma in the novel and in Müller 's work in general . Lyn Marven argues that the Müller 's poetics and style , characterized by paratactic as well as syntactic and narrative gaps , illustrates one of the effects of trauma :
" Trauma disrupts the structures of memory .... Trauma cannot be integrated into narrative memory and exists only as a gap or blank spot ; it therefore cannot be articulated , and returns in the form of surprisingly literal flashbacks , hallucinations , or dreams . "
Marven notes another effect : a " distorted body image " that often gives rise to a " radical metonymy , " a fragmentation , surfacing most notably in a scene where Pjele , during an interrogation , lists the narrator 's clothes and possessions , to which the narrator responds by listing her own body parts : " 1 pr. eyes , 1 pr. ears , 1 nose , 1 pr. lips , 1 neck . " Marven notes that Müller 's collages , which the critic says are " central to Müller 's œuvre , " show the same fragmentation , and says that her " increasingly readable " prose , coupled with recent collages moving toward narrative , might suggest that there is " a possibility of overcoming trauma . " ( Grazziella Predoui also noted that Müller 's prose is developing from parataxis toward more complicated syntax . )
= = = Banat @-@ Swabians = = =
The situation of the Banat @-@ Swabians , the German @-@ speaking minority in Romania , is a recurring theme in Müller 's writing . Historically , Germans were recruited by the Austria @-@ Hungary to repopulate southern areas following the expulsion of the Turks of the Ottoman Empire . They were given special privileges , allowed to keep their language and Roman Catholicism , even in areas in which the Orthodox Church was paramount . Their communities spoke German into the 20th century . They were among ethnic Germans , or Volksdeutsche , whom Adolph Hitler proposed to unite in a greater Germany . Millions of ethnic Germans were expelled from eastern Europe after the war ; thousands were forced into labor camps . Even years later , they were often discriminated against in Romania under the communist government .
By the late 20th century , their status is one of the central themes of The Land of Green Plums ; this idea is explored in detail in Valentine Glajar 's 1997 article " Banat @-@ Swabian , Romanian , and German : Conflicting Identities in Herta Müller 's Herztier . " The Banat @-@ Swabian community , of which the narrator is a member , was described by Müller as extremely ethnocentric . Following persecution after the war , while remaining survivors had no desire to emigrate to Germany , they exerted an almost totalitarian control , especially on their children to keep them within their community . Müller had already addressed this topic in her first work , Niederungen , translated as Nadirs in English , in which the German community holds on to its language and habits in an attempt to deny the Romanian dictatorship that rules them . One critic characterized this communal attempt in Niederungen as a " mechanistically followed tradition " .
According to Glajar , this is the world of the narrator 's mother , who writes of her sicknesses in her letters in the hope of keeping her daughter emotionally connected to her home village . The narrator 's father was a member of the SS ( as were Müller 's father and uncle ) , and is a troubling example of Germanness . The novel proposes a tension inside Romania between the culturally totalitarian atmosphere of the Banat @-@ Swabian community and the politically totalitarian world of Timişoara , where the main characters attend college — between German and Romanian . But the main characters who move to Germany quickly discover that although they were German in Romania , they are Romanian in Germany . They face new social , cultural and linguistic difficulties . Georg commits suicide a few weeks after his arrival in Frankfurt .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Academic interest = = =
The book attracted academic interest , and scholars discussed it in at least three distinct categories : language and style , often in relation to the politics of totalitarianism ; trauma studies , given the psychological pressure on the novel 's characters , who grow up under a totalitarian regime ; and ethnographic and literary studies of the German minority in Romania . On the latter topic , Valentine Glajar , now at Texas State University , published an article in 1997 . Müller 's Herztier is one of the four titles discussed in Glajar 's 2004 monograph The German Legacy , on German @-@ language literature from Eastern Europe .
= = = Attention in the press = = =
In the German press , the novel 's publication generated modest but positive attention . Rolf Michaelis reviewed the novel at length in Die Zeit in October 1994 , analyzing the function of fear and praising the book as a " poetic epic " , comparing transitions and structure to those found in Homer . " Herta Müller " , he wrote , " does not simply use the German language ; she makes it her own , in an incomparable way . She invents her own language . " A favorable review of the Dutch translation appeared in the national daily newspaper Trouw in 1996 .
The English translation was likewise favorably reviewed : a review in The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said " this heartbreaking tale is bitter and dark , yet beautiful " . Larry Wolff , in his review for The New York Times , described the book as " a novel of graphically observed detail in which the author seeks to create a sort of poetry out of the spiritual and material ugliness of life in Communist Romania " .
Radio Free Europe reported that the novel is a favorite of Mohammad @-@ Ali Abtahi , the Iranian pro @-@ democracy activist , who read it ( in the Persian translation by Gholamhossein Mirza @-@ Saleh ) shortly after being released from prison in 2009 .
= = Awards = =
= = = IMPAC Award = = =
The novel and its English translation won the 1998 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award ; Müller received £ 75 @,@ 000 , and translator Michael Hofmann £ 25 @,@ 000 . In its comments , the jury remarked on the main themes of the novel — politics , language , and allegory , saying :
The novel brilliantly evokes a world of cruelty and oppression . Set in Communist Romania under the Ceaucescu dictatorship , The Land of Green Plums portrays the lives of a group of dissident students and teachers whose integrity is continuously assailed and sometimes betrayed . Herta Müller 's stark and vivid prose explores a terror @-@ stricken society of mendacity and political slander . The " green plums " of the title stand in part for truth and its brutal suppression in a world of interrogators and informers , where speaking out can become a matter of life and death .
The author 's style , achieves a spartan eloquence , and the novel 's individual characters are powerfully drawn .
This elegantly understated book is at once bleak and beautiful , humorous and heartbreaking .
The IMPAC award drew attention to the novel , and by the end of the year , it had been published in paperback in the US by Hydra Books / Northwestern University Press .
= = = 2009 Nobel Prize in Literature = = =
In 2009 , Herta Müller won the Nobel Prize in Literature . During the presentation ceremony , Anders Olsson , member of the Swedish Academy , referred to The Land of Green Plums as " a masterful account of the flight of a group of youths from the terror regime " . Immediately following the announcement , sales of this and Müller 's other novels ( five had been translated into English by then ) skyrocketed : " On Thursday morning , when the award was announced , The Land of Green Plums , by all accounts Müller 's best book , was No. 56 @,@ 359 on Amazon.com ; by the close of business that day , it was No. 7 " .
= = Publication history = =
The Land of Green Plums is the second novel published by Müller since leaving Romania , after Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jäger ( 1992 ) . It appeared in German in 1994 , followed by the English translation in 1996 . The hardback was published in the United States by Metropolitan Books in November 1996 . A Dutch translation was published in 1996 . Although French @-@ language Swiss media had shown interest in the author , the novel had not been translated into French by 1998 After the IMPAC award , paperback editions of Hoffman 's translation were published in the United Kingdom by Granta later that year and again in September 1999 ( with new cover art . ) It was published in the United States by Northwestern University Press in November 1998 . In November 2010 , after Müller had won the Nobel Prize for Literature , a paperback was released in the United Kingdom and the United States by Picador .
= Golden Film =
The Golden Film ( Dutch : Gouden Film ) is a film award recognizing domestic box office achievements in the Netherlands . The Golden Film is awarded to films from the Netherlands once they have sold 100 @,@ 000 tickets . The award is an initiative by the Netherlands Film Festival and the Netherlands Film Fund to increase media attention for Dutch films . For each awarded film there is one trophy for the film crew and another for the film cast .
When the Golden Film was introduced in 2001 , it was awarded to films once they had sold 75 @,@ 000 tickets . In the following years , the public 's interest in Dutch films in the Netherlands had increased . In 2003 , the audience criterion was increased to 100 @,@ 000 tickets in an effort to further stimulate the Dutch film industry . Since its introduction , the Golden Film has been awarded to 62 films .
While the cast and crew have considered their receiving films to be successful , critics have said that films that sold only 75 @,@ 000 or 100 @,@ 000 tickets cannot be considered a commercial success . For this reason the fact that Dutch newspapers report about this award is also criticized .
= = Award = =
A Golden Film is awarded to a film from the Netherlands once it has sold 100 @,@ 000 cinema tickets in the Netherlands during the original cinema circulation . The number of tickets sold is based on box office information provided by the film 's distributor and the Netherlands Association of Film Distributors . After a film is awarded the Golden Film , it can receive a Platinum Film after it sells 400 @,@ 000 tickets and a Diamond Film after it sells 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tickets . In addition to these awards , there is the Crystal Film , which is awarded to documentary films that sell more than 10 @,@ 000 tickets .
The Golden Film is an initiative by the Netherlands Film Festival and the government @-@ subsidized Netherlands Film Fund , with the support of Film Investors Netherlands , to increase the public 's awareness of Dutch films in the Netherlands . The Golden Film recognises box office achievements to encourage positive publicity for a film after the initial media attention surrounding its release has begun to wane . The award is similar to the Dutch music industry 's Golden Record , that is awarded after selling 40 @,@ 000 singles , 35 @,@ 000 popular music albums , or 15 @,@ 000 classical music albums .
The Golden Film awards are presented during small press ceremonies throughout the year and shortly after a film has reached the audience criterion . The trophies are presented by the director of the Netherlands Film Festival or sometimes by a member of the crew or cast of the film itself . Two trophies are presented for each film : one to the film crew , represented by the producer and the director , and the other to the cast of the film , represented by the lead actors .
The trophy was designed by Jeroen Tirion and consists of a thick square frame , containing a film frame of the awarded movie . The outer frame is made of milled wood , which has a plate attached to it , on the first line inscribed with the text " Gouden Film " , three squares , and the year , and on the second line with the film 's title .
= = History = =
The Netherlands Film Festival and the Netherlands Film Fund announced the Golden Film on September 4 , 2001 . At that time , the Golden Film was awarded to films from the Netherlands once they had been seen by a paying audience of 75 @,@ 000 or more . The Platinum Film was introduced at the same moment , for films with paying audiences of 200 @,@ 000 or more . The first Golden Film was awarded on September 28 , 2001 to I Love You Too ( 2001 ) , and by the end of 2002 a total of 10 Golden Films had been awarded .
Within 18 months of the award 's introduction , the public 's interest in Dutch films in the Netherlands had increased . The audience for Dutch films as a percentage of the total cinema audience in the Netherlands was 5 @.@ 5 % in 1999 and 5 @.@ 9 % in 2000 . In 2001 , the year of the award 's introduction , audiences increased to 9 @.@ 5 % . And in 2002 , the audience for Dutch films further increased to 10 @.@ 5 % .
In 2003 , the criterion for the award was changed in an effort to further stimulate the Dutch film industry . Films released after January 1 , 2003 had to reach paying audiences of 100 @,@ 000 to qualify for the Golden Film and 400 @,@ 000 for the Platinum Film . All films that had received a Golden Film before 2003 would also have received a Golden Film under the new criterion . From 2003 until 2007 , the percentage of cinema visitors in the Netherlands who watched a Dutch film was between 9 @.@ 20 % and 13 @.@ 4 % .
Since its introduction , the Golden Film has been awarded to 62 films . In 2008 , fourteen films were awarded the Golden Film , the highest number to have received the award in a single year . Most of the films that are awarded the Golden Film have taken a week or more to reach the target audience figure . Only Full Moon Party ( 2002 ) and Black Book ( 2006 ) have reached the criterion , for respectively 75 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 visitors , during their opening weekends .
= = Response to the award = =
Recipients consider the Golden Film to be an award given to films that are a success . Director Martin Koolhoven said , when Schnitzel Paradise ( 2005 ) received the award , that he did not expect his film to be such a success . Schnitzel Paradise was his first commercially successful film . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Sem Veeger , lead actress in the film Keep Off ( 2006 ) , said she knew that many people had seen the film , but she did not expect it to receive a Golden Film .
Critics of the award have said that films which have sold only 75 @,@ 000 or 100 @,@ 000 tickets cannot be considered commercially successful . In 2002 , film journalist Ronald Ockhuysen said about the Golden Film :
Ockhuysen also wrote that the Golden Film is a " child of our time " because it tries to reduce the value of a film to its commercial success , and it is supporting films that already have large publicity budgets instead of smaller and more vulnerable productions . Film producer Rob Houwer has said that he believes the Golden Film is the prize for a commercial flop . In 2005 , when the criterion for the award had already been increased from 75 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 visitors , he said in an interview :
Dutch newspapers , such as Algemeen Dagblad , De Telegraaf , and NRC Handelsblad , have reported about films receiving the Golden Film . When the film De Scheepsjongens van Bontekoe ( 2007 ) had drawn 100 @,@ 000 visitors to the cinema , the Dutch news agency Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau said the film had reached " the magical threshold of 100 @,@ 000 " .
= Music of The Last of Us =
The music for the 2013 action @-@ adventure survival horror video game The Last of Us , developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment , was composed by musician Gustavo Santaolalla . Supplementary music for the game 's downloadable content The Last of Us : Left Behind was composed by Santaolalla , Andrew Buresh , Anthony Caruso and Jonathan Mayer . Both soundtracks were produced by Santaolalla , Mayer , and Aníbal Kerpel , with separate segments recorded in both Los Angeles and Nashville . Santaolalla , known for his minimalist approach to composing , was excited to work on the soundtrack due to the game 's focus on the characters and story . He began composing the music early in the game 's development , with few instructions from the development team on the tone that they intended . In collaboration with each other , the team and Santaolalla aimed to make the soundtrack emotional , as opposed to scary . Santaolalla used various instruments to compose the score , including some that were unfamiliar to him .
The soundtrack album for The Last of Us was released on iTunes in June 2013 . Additional compositions , including some composed for Left Behind , were released on a second soundtrack in February 2014 . Critical reception to the soundtracks was positive , as reviewers felt that the music connected appropriately with the gameplay . In particular , critics felt that the minimalist approach of the soundtrack 's composition matched the gameplay . The game 's music was nominated for numerous awards . Several tracks became popular and begot cover versions and live performances .
= = Production and composition = =
During the initial development of The Last of Us , creative director Neil Druckmann and game director Bruce Straley compiled musical tracks that they found inspirational . When searching for a composer to work on the game 's music , they realised that Gustavo Santaolalla composed many of their compiled tracks . Straley described Santaolalla 's music as " organic instrumentation , minimalist , dissonance and resonance with the sounds " . The composer agreed to work on the game 's soundtrack when contacted by Sony . After hearing the game 's pitch , Santaolalla was excited to work on the game ; he had previously wanted to compose for video games , but refused to work on those without a focus on story and characters .
Santaolalla began work on The Last of Us early in its development . Druckmann did not give him specific directions but offered him the game 's stories and themes . Santaolalla appreciated this freedom and felt it assisted his process . He felt the need to " go into some more dark place , more textural and not necessarily melodic " , when composing . The composer prefers to compose as he records , as he has little knowledge of reading and writing sheet music . To challenge himself , Santaolalla used a variety of unique instruments that were new to him , giving " an element of danger and innocence " . For The Last of Us , he used a detuned guitar , producing deep noise . To produce unique sounds , Santaolalla recorded in various rooms , including a bathroom and kitchen . The team wanted the game 's AI to affect the music . They also tried to make the music evoke a reaction from the player , as their familiarization with the sounds would trigger a previous emotion that they felt . Music manager Jonathan Mayer felt that the game 's action music was atypical for video game action music , stating that it is " relatively low @-@ key " , and that taking it out of context changes the immediate reaction to it . The game 's theme , " The Last of Us " , was the first piece of music that the team received , and they were very impressed . With the music , the team aimed to " get emotion " , as opposed to " horror " . Inspired by the sparing use of music in the film No Country for Old Men ( 2007 ) , the team used music judiciously and tried to find other ways to " make your palms sweaty " . The orchestral portions of the score were recorded at Ocean Way Studios in Nashville by the Nashville Scoring Orchestra .
Aside from the official soundtracks , licensed tracks also appear in the game . In the main game , during the section titled " Alone and Forsaken " , Joel and Ellie listen to the songs " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " and " Alone and Forsaken " , both by Hank Williams . In the downloadable expansion pack The Last of Us : Left Behind , Ellie and Riley dance to the Etta James cover of the song " I Got You Babe " . In addition , " String Quartet No. 3 in E @-@ Flat Minor , Op. 30 " by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and " String Quartet No. 4 in E @-@ Minor ( B.19 ) " by Antonín Dvořák are also present in Left Behind .
= = Albums = =
= = = The Last of Us = = =
The soundtrack for The Last of Us comprises songs from the game , composed and produced by Gustavo Santaolalla . The soundtrack spans thirty tracks , covering a duration of 56 minutes . Sony Computer Entertainment first published the album digitally via iTunes on June 7 , 2013 , and physically on June 13 , 2013 . The soundtrack was also included as pre @-@ order downloadable content in the Sights and Sounds Pack .
The orchestral score , performed by the Nashville Scoring Orchestra , was recorded at Ocean Way Studios in Nashville , while the soundtrack 's drums and percussion , performed by Santaolalla , M.B. Gordy and Jonathan Mayer , was recorded at EastWest Studios in Hollywood . All recording was done by Mark Senasac and Aníbal Kerpel . The soundtrack was mastered by Tom Baker at Precision Mastering in Los Angeles .
In the context of the game , the soundtrack was well received . Andy Kelly of Computer and Video Games felt that the score is " sparse and delicate " ; Eurogamer 's Oli Welsh echoed these statements , adding that the music compliments the game 's environments . Jim Sterling of Destructoid also praised the music 's ability to compliment gameplay . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer praised Santaolalla 's work , calling it " understated and haunting " . Chris Kerr of Side One felt that the soundtrack was " the perfect companion " to the game , stating that it is " poignant , moving , and overflowing with desolate hope " . Similarly , Keri Honea of Game Revolution felt that the album can be " easily enjoy [ ed ] outside of the game " , praising its unusual tracks and sound . GameSpot 's Tom Mc Shea named the music as one of the game 's standout features , calling it " exceptional " and praising its addition during emotional scenes . Thom Jurek of AllMusic praised the album 's variety , stating that Santaolalla manages to " draw in and keep the attention of the listener . "
All songs written and composed by Gustavo Santaolalla .
= = = The Last of Us Volume 2 = = =
The Last of Us Volume 2 , the soundtrack for the downloadable content The Last of Us : Left Behind , features compositions from the game , composed and produced by Gustavo Santaolalla . It also features works from Andrew Buresh , Anthony Caruso , and Jonathan Mayer , as well as some additional tracks from the main game . The soundtrack spans 25 tracks , covering a duration of 58 minutes . Sony Computer Entertainment first published the album on iTunes and Amazon Music on February 7 , 2014 , one week prior to the release of Left Behind .
The recording and mastering of the soundtrack took place in the same locations as the first album . The orchestral score , performed by the Nashville Scoring Orchestra , was recorded at Ocean Way Studios in Nashville , while the soundtrack 's drums and percussion , performed by M.B. Gordy , Santaolalla and Mayer , was recorded at EastWest Studios in Hollywood . All recording and mixing was completed by Aníbal Kerpel , with additional mixing by Mark Senasac , Joel Yarger , Mayer and Caruso . The soundtrack was mastered by Marc Senasac at PlayStation Recording Studios .
In the context of the game , the soundtrack was generally well received . Mike Futter of Game Informer felt that the soundtrack improves the game . Adnan Riaz of Nouse echoed similar remarks , stating that the soundtrack accompanies some of the game 's " crucial moments " , and that it " builds the atmosphere for the exchanges " between the characters .
= = Legacy = =
The Last of Us won Excellence in Musical Score at the 2014 SXSW Gaming Awards , and the soundtrack received nominations at the 10th British Academy Video Games Awards and Spike VGX 2013 , and from Hardcore Gamer , IGN and GameTrailers . The game 's main theme was performed live at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards in Culver City , California on December 7 , 2012 . Music from The Last of Us was also performed live at The Last of Us : One Night Live in Santa Monica , California on July 28 , 2014 . The event featured scenes from the game performed live by the actors , accompanied by the game 's score , performed by Santaolalla and his band . The popularity of the game has led to numerous cover versions of the music being released by various artists , such as violinist Taylor Davis , guitarist Igor Presnyakov and musician Ben " Squid Physics " Morfitt .
= Murrays ' Mills =
Murrays ' Mills is a complex of former cotton mills on land between Jersey Street and the Rochdale Canal in the district of Ancoats , Manchester , England . The mills were built for brothers Adam and George Murray .
The first mill on the site , Old Mill , was begun in 1797 , and is the world 's oldest surviving urban steam @-@ powered cotton spinning factory . After Old Mill opened , the company continued to expand and prosper , and by 1806 the complex was the largest in the world , employing about 1 @,@ 000 people at its peak : Decker Mill was opened in 1802 , New Mill in 1804 , Little Mill in 1822 , and Doubling and Fireproof Mill in 1842 . The main complex formed a quadrangle surrounding a private canal basin linked under the road to the Rochdale Canal , which opened in 1804 . The canal basin was used to deliver raw cotton and coal and to transport spun cotton away from the complex .
In the 1898 , A & G Murray became part of the Fine Cotton Spinners ' and Doublers ' Association Limited ( FCSDA ) . The mill complex began to decline in the early 20th century as the canal basin was filled in and Little Mill burnt down . The mill was replaced with the earliest mill in Greater Manchester that was built to use mains electricity . The mill complex continued producing cotton until the 1950s . The mills were later leased out to other companies and in some cases allowed to fall into disrepair . Between 2000 and 2003 , Urban Splash redeveloped Fireproof and Doubling Mill into offices , winning a RIBA Award . The rest of the complex underwent a £ 17M regeneration between 2004 and 2006 and are proposed to be used as flats and a hotel .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation and establishment = = =
After migrating from Scotland in the 1780s , the Murrays established themselves as manufacturers of textile machinery before moving into spinning fine yarn . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the main market for Murrays ' fine spun yarn was the muslin @-@ weaving industry in Scotland ; along with McConnel & Kennedy , A & G Murray dominated the Scottish market . In 1790 , Adam Murray leased land in Ancoats ; in partnership with his brother George , began construction of his first mill – which was complete by about 1798 . The mill was probably designed to house equipment produced by the Murray brothers themselves . First known as Union Mill , from its position on Union Street , the Old Mill was a purpose @-@ built steam @-@ powered spinning mill . Construction took approximately a year and millwright Thomas Lowe – who had worked on Richard Arkwright 's first two factories – planned the building . It is eight storeys high and probably the first cotton @-@ spinning factory to have been built that high . The first phase of the mill , an area of 105 feet ( 32 m ) by 42 feet ( 13 m ) , was built of 400 @,@ 000 locally made bricks . The machinery was powered by a 12 horse power ( hp ) , £ 620 Boulton and Watt steam engine .
Construction of the Murrays ' second mill , Decker Mill , had begun by 1801 to the east of Old Mill . It was the same height as Old Mill and doubled the size of the complex . Decker Mill was completed in time to exploit the economic boom in the cotton trade that followed the brief peace in the war with France from 1802 – 1803 . During its construction , the steam engine was replaced a more powerful 40 hp Boulton and Watt engine .
After the completion of the Ancoats section of the Rochdale Canal in 1804 , raw materials no longer had to be moved by cart . Coal and cotton could be moved directly into the complex and there was a readily available supply of water for the steam engines from the private basin on the canal . The entrance tunnel to the basin was set 90 ° to the canal , with a short arm on the opposite side ; and as the canal is only 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide , it posed navigation problems for canal boats , which could be 70 feet ( 21 m ) in length . It is possible that cargo was transferred to smaller vessels for the journey between the canal and the complex basin .
Construction of New Mill was probably completed in 1804 . It measured 193 feet ( 59 m ) by 46 feet ( 14 m ) and as with the older mills , it was eight storeys high . It was fitted with a 45 hp steam engines from Boulton and Watt . All three mills were steam @-@ power cotton @-@ spinning factories .
The complex was further extended with the addition of two four @-@ storey blocks on Murray Street and Bengal Street by 1806 . These were mainly used as warehouses and offices . An entrance archway in the Murray Street block provided the only access to a central courtyard where the mills had their entrances . This meant that access to all parts of the site could be controlled .
By 1806 , the Murrays ' Mills was the largest mill complex in Manchester and the world . With 84 @,@ 000 mule spindles the complex was huge compared to others at the time , most of which had less than 10 @,@ 000 spindles . The status of the complex was reflected in the amount of ornamentation on the Murray Street and Bengal Street blocks compared to other mills . The Murray Street block had a symmetrical arrangement of arched doorways and windows . This pattern was in turn mirrored on the Bengal Street block , which had an arrangement of false doorways .
A & G Murray prospered during the early 19th century , and in 1809 the firm was valued at £ 20 @,@ 456 : 13 % more than their nearest rival , McConnel & Kennedy , and more than double the firm in third place . The company was " one of the largest cotton @-@ spinning firms in Manchester , and probably the country " . By 1815 , it employed 1 @,@ 215 people .
= = = Expansion = = =
During the early to mid @-@ 19th century there were several periods of depression and prosperity in the cotton trade . In this period , A & G Murray would have been less affected by these changes due to the size of the firm . In 1817 , engineers William Fairbairn and his partner James Lillie updated the complex . The contract , Fairbairn 's first as a millwright , involved the replacement of line shafting in the complex , with wrought iron line @-@ shafting designed to work at higher speeds . Adam Murray died in 1818 and his brother George continued to run the firm . By 1818 , the firm had nearly tripled in value since 1809 to £ 59 @,@ 000 .
Additionally , the firm also expanded beyond Bengal Street further along the strip of land between Jersey Street and the Rochdale Canal . Little Mill was built on the corner of Jersey Street and Bengal Street around 1822 . It was originally six storeys high , but an additional three storeys were added at an unknown later date . The building covered 644 square metres ( 6 @,@ 930 sq ft ) and just over half of this area would have been occupied by a gasometer house which would have supplied the complex with gas used for lighting . The mill was linked to New Mill via a tunnel which may have carried the gas supply . Engineer Joshua Field visited the mill in 1821 and commented " they spin the finest thread " . He also noted that the furnace which provided steam to drive the engines had been fitted with a " smoke burner " to " lessen the consumption of fuel " , also having the effect of reducing the amount of smoke produced .
Despite the continued expansion , by 1824 competitors McConnel and Kennedy had overtaken the Murrays as Manchester 's biggest cotton spinners . In 1833 A & G Murray were employing only 841 people , a reduction in workforce George Murray attributed to " recent improvement in the firm 's machinery " .
In 1842 , Doubling Mill and Fireproof Mill were built on the corner of Redhill Street and Bengal Street . Doubling Mill is five storeys high with an engine house designed to contain a 40 hp beam engine . Doubling Mill was used for doubling – the process of combining two or more lengths of yarn into a single thread – cotton produced in the company 's earlier mills , giving the mill its name . Fireproof Mill , again as its name suggests , was designed to be fireproof by using cast @-@ iron beams and columns rather than timber ; it was the first mill in the mill complex to have been built to resist fire . The mill is four storeys high and may have been used as a warehouse . The two new mills were also linked to the original complex by tunnels under Bengal Street . The firm " doubled more or less " in size during the early to mid nineteenth century and expanded into the fine yarn markets around Nottingham , the growth of the firm led to the creation of the Doubling and Fireproof Mills .
In December 1852 , the mill complex was valued at £ 75 @,@ 000 ; when George Murray died in 1855 , two of his three sons – James and Benjamin – inherited the complex . By 1881 , A & G Murray had become registered as a limited liability company and the running of it was mostly in the hands of manager Herbert Dixon , who had joined the company in 1876 , as the Murray family played less of a role . Under Dixon the company modernised and used new technology and was the reason for the firm 's continued success . The use of new , more efficient technologies resulted in the further reduction of the workforce so that by 1897 , A & G Murray only employed 500 people . In 1887 , Fireproof Mill and Doubling Mill were leased by A & G Murray Ltd to C E Bennet .
In September 1898 , A & G Murray was " voluntarily wound up and conveyed to the Fine Cotton Spinners ' and Doublers ' Association Limited ( FCSDA ) " . The association had been an idea on the part of Dixon and Scott Lings to form an association of cotton spinners . Thirty @-@ one other cotton spinners also joined the association . The association had the advantage of great size in comparison to the competition , and had the necessary clout to secure raw materials . With Dixon as its Managing Director until 1917 , by the 1920s , the FCSDA was the largest and most successful cotton @-@ spinning association in the world with over 60 mills and 30 @,@ 000 employees .
On 28 January 1908 , a fire broke out in Little Mill , caused by some machinery . The fire lasted for about 12 hours and caused an estimated £ 20 @,@ 000 damage and resulted in 200 employees at the mill losing their jobs . Whilst fighting the fire a fireman was killed when a fire @-@ tender blew over in high winds . The building was replaced by a new building , New Little Mill , five storeys high , four shorter than its predecessor but occupying a larger area of ground . The new mill had concrete floors and was designed to use mains electricity . The building is the earliest mill in Greater Manchester that was built to use mains electricity .
= = = Decline and later use = = =
An 1891 Ordnance Survey map shows that the arm on the Rochdale Canal had been filled in and the complex 's canal basin had been retitled as a reservoir , suggesting that the canal had ceased to be used as a way of transporting goods to and from the complex . By 1902 , the canal basin had been filled in , however exactly when it was filled in is unknown .
Between 1902 and 1903 , Old and Decker Mills were reduced in height by 1 storey to 7 storeys and New Mill was reduced in height by 2 storeys to 6 storeys . The exact reason for this reduction is unknown , however , it is speculated that the structure of the buildings was struggling to cope with the weight of increasingly heavy machinery . This theory is given added weight by the fact that at around the same time the timber beams used to support ceilings were replaced with steel beams to strengthen the building . In 1930 the Bengal Street block was also reduced in height by 2 storeys and buttresses were constructed against the south wall of Decker Mill .
By the 1940s Fireproof Mill and Doubling Mill were occupied by a bedding manufacturer . In 1948 , the break @-@ up of the main site began with Old Mill and Decker Mill being sold , with the Murray Street block following in 1950 , and the Bengal Street block in 1960 . Old and Decker Mill were used as a warehouse after 1954 and later used by several clothing manufacturers .
Although some work was done to strengthen the structure in the 1960s , the complex was allowed to fall into disrepair . Also during the 1960s , some sections of the complex began to be left unoccupied and others burned down including an engine block . During this period , parts of the complex were used for light industrial use before they too fell into disuse . In the 1990s , the buildings fell victim to vandalism and arson that threatened to destroy what remained of the site .
= = Redevelopment = =
In 2000 , Total Architecture appointed Urban Splash to convert Fireproof and Doubling Mill into office space . On completion in 2003 , the conversion received a RIBA Award .
The North West Development Agency used a compulsory purchase order to take control of the main site in 2003 . This allowed the Heritage Lottery Fund to give a £ 7.164M grant towards the restoration of the complex . Together with an additional grant from the North West Development Agency , a £ 10M regeneration project took place between 2004 and 2006 . The project included repair and strengthening of the structure , the restoration of the canal basin , a new roof and windows , and the reinstatement of two missing floors from the Murray Street block .
On completion of the repairs , there have been further proposals to bring the complex back into use by converting it into flats and a hotel . The conversion , including the replacement of the demolished Bengal Street block , was expected to start in 2007 or 2008 and take three years . However , in July 2008 it emerged that due to the current state of the housing market , developer Inpartnership wanted to amend planning consent for the development , replacing plans for flats in Old and Decker Mills with office space .
= = Working conditions = =
Like many factories of the nineteenth century , the complex was not without criticism for its working conditions . Although George Murray would not reveal working hours in the complex , it is likely that up until 1825 the workers had a similar work requirement as the 72 @-@ hour week demanded of workers at the neighbouring McConnel Kennedy complex . After 1825 , the Cotton Mills Regulation Act reduced this to 69 hours – 12 hours per day on Monday to Friday and 9 hours on a Saturday . These hours were worked by all but the youngest employees .
The workers were allowed three breaks per day . In order to stop employees wandering off and taking breaks that they were not entitled to , tunnels were built under the road between the main complex and the later mills on the other side of Bengal Street .
The worst conditions in the mill were experienced by those at the bottom end of the pay @-@ scale . The first stage of unpacking the raw cotton and cleaning out impurities , which was carried out by unskilled workers , produced large amounts of dust that was both a health hazard and serious fire risk . A visitor to the complex in 1832 described the dust as " almost suffocating " .
On the spinning floors , the spinning process required a warm humid environment . George Murray stated that they tried to keep temperatures at around 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . Spinners were regarded as craftsmen , and they were paid by the amount they produced . They were also left to recruit , train and pay their own assistants . These assistants were often children , and consisted of " piecers " who rejoined broken threads and mule scavengers who cleaned the machinery . Child labour was generally considered by mill managers to be an important way of securing a skilled adult work force .
Compared to other trades , wages in cotton mills were relatively high . In 1833 , the average earnings of an employee at the complex was 12 shillings ( 60p ) per week , which compared favourably with other mills . However , unlike some other mill owners the Murrays did not give employees credit to buy goods from company @-@ owned stores , or provide housing for employees beyond key workers .
Despite all this , evidence suggests that conditions were better than in some other mills . The complex had opening windows , and an extra room per floor for workers to wash . The third break of the day , in the afternoon , was also a luxury that many workers in other mills did not receive . Furthermore , the Murrays also claimed that , unlike many other mill owners , they did not use pauper children from workhouses , or knowingly employ children under the age of nine , although George Murray conceded that some parents did employ their own children below that age .
= = Current buildings = =
= 1928 Haiti hurricane =
The 1928 Haiti hurricane was considered the worst tropical cyclone in Haiti since the 1886 Indianola hurricane . The second tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the season , the storm developed from a tropical wave near Tobago on August 7 . Steadily intensifying as it moved northwestward , the system passed through the southern Windward Islands . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea early on August 8 , the tropical depression strengthened into a tropical storm . On August 9 , the storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane . The next day , the hurricane peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . After striking the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti , the cyclone began weakening and fell to tropical storm intensity on August 12 . By midday on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cienfuegos , Cuba . Upon emerging into the Straits of Florida , the storm began to re @-@ strengthen . Early on August 13 , it struck Big Pine Key , Florida , as a strong tropical storm . Weakening slowly while moving north @-@ northwestward , the system made another landfall near St. George Island . After moving inland , the tropical storm slowly deteriorated and dissipated over West Virginia on August 17 .
In Haiti , the storm completely wiped out live stock and many crops , particularly coffee , cocoa , and sugar . Several villages were also destroyed , rendering approximately 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage reached $ 1 million and there were at least 200 deaths . The only impact in Cuba was downed banana trees . In Florida , the storm left minor wind damage along the coast . A Seaboard Air Line Railroad station was destroyed in Boca Grande , while signs , trees , and telephone poles were knocked down in Sarasota . Several streets in St. Petersburg were closed due to flooding or debris . Between Cedar Key and the Florida Panhandle , several vessels capsized . Water washed up along the side of roads and in wooded areas . The storm contributed to flooding onset by the previous hurricane , with rainfall peaking at 13 @.@ 5 in ( 340 mm ) in Caesars Head , South Carolina . The worst impact from flooding occurred in North Carolina , where several houses were destroyed . Six people were killed in the state , of which four due to flooding . Property damage in the state totaled over $ 1 million . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 2 million in damage and 210 fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while situated near Tobago on August 7 . Initially , the storm was considered a " disturbance of slight to moderate intensity " . Moving northwestward , the system passed through the Windward Islands just south of Carriacou and Petite Martinique . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea early on August 8 , a ship reported winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . As a result , HURDAT indicts that the depression became a tropical storm at 00 : 00 UTC . On August 9 , the storm strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , while located about 155 mi ( 250 km ) south of San Pedro de Macorís , Dominican Republic . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 10 , the cyclone attained its peak intensity as strong Category 1 hurricane with maximum sustained winds with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Early on August 9 , the storm made landfall in the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti , based on " belated reports [ indicating ] that a very small but destructive disturbance passed over extreme southwest Haiti " . The quickly re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean Sea later that day .
A small cyclone , the hurricane passed between Cuba and Jamaica and weakened to a tropical storm early on August 12 . By midday , the storm made landfall near Cienfuegos , Cuba , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Several telegraphic reports indicated that " the center [ of the storm ] was not definitely traceable for the next 24 to 36 hours " , but other reports noted that the center passed over then @-@ Oriente Province . Hours later , the system reached the Straits of Florida and immediately began to re @-@ intensify . Early on August 13 , it struck Big Pine Key , Florida , as a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Thereafter , the storm moved north @-@ northwestward over the Gulf of Mexico . At 14 : 00 UTC on August 14 , it made landfall near St. George Island , Florida , with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . After moving inland , the tropical storm slowly deteriorated , falling to tropical depression intensity over east @-@ central Alabama on August 15 . Thereafter , the depression moved north @-@ northeastward and dissipated over West Virginia on August 17 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
As the storm approached Hispaniola , warnings were sent to vessels offshore Haiti and Jamaica . In Haiti , the storm brought torrential rainfall for over 20 hours . Many villages were completely destroyed , leaving over 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . The city of Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Sud was almost completely wiped out , with only two buildings retaining their roofs . Additionally , approximately 80 % of buildings in Grand @-@ Boucan and Petit Trou were flattened . Overall , most municipalities were flooded with 8 to 20 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) of water . At least 200 deaths were recorded , including 26 in Miragoâne and 12 at a single dwellings in Belle @-@ Riviere . In the most devastated areas , flooding also killed all farm animals and entire coffee , cocoa , and sugar crops were wiped out . An estimated three to six months was required to regrow the lost agriculture . Along the coast , rough seas capsized or washed ashore many small crafts . The storm was described as the worst in Haiti since the 1886 Indianola hurricane . The storm destroyed most of the unpaved , vehicular trails in its path . Overall , the damage to roadways , communications , and public services was estimated at $ 1 million .
After the storm , approximately 100 @,@ 000 people were facing starvation . Then @-@ Haitian president Louis Borno reported that the government had inefficient resources for recovery and asked citizens to assist with repairing infrastructure and providing food and shelter to others . The Government of Haiti , in turn , appropriated $ 200 @,@ 000 for relief . Eleven storages with relief supplies were established throughout the country . The approximately 10 @,@ 000 people left homeless were temporarily houses in larger , undamaged buildings . Within a few months after the storm , 299 homes were rebuilt or repair , costing almost $ 37 @,@ 000 . The vehicular paths destroyed by the hurricane were eventually replaced by 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) -wide paved gravel roads . In September , the American Red Cross donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Haitian Red Cross .
In Cuba , the storm brought gusty winds and excessive rainfall , but impact was primarily limited to fallen banana trees in an area then known as Oriente Province .
= = = United States = = =
Hurricane warnings were hoisted in portions of the Florida Keys early on August 13 . However , the highest observed wind speed was only 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) . Between Cedar Key and the Florida Panhandle , some residents took refuge at churches and schools . In the mainland of Florida , winds resulted in generally minor damage along the west coast . In Boca Grande , a Seaboard Air Line Railroad station was destroyed . Plate glass was damaged and signs , trees , and telephone poles were knocked down in Sarasota . Rough seas began smashing a revenue cutter service ship docked at the Coast Guard station in St. Petersburg against the wharves ; bumpers were placed between the ship and pilings to further damage . Several streets were closed due to flooding or debris . One street closed after roof tiles started falling from a theater . At one intersection , several cars were stranded due to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water covering the road . Although some coastal areas experienced rough seas , others reported their lowest tides in years , especially Pass @-@ a @-@ Grille and Tampa , with almost all of the water blown out of Boca Ciega Bay , which is located adjacent to the former . Several vessels , mostly small fishing crafts , capsized . Water washed up along the side of roads and in wooded areas , while many trees were toppled .
The storm also contributed to ongoing flooding in the Southeastern United States onset by the previous hurricane . In Georgia , hydroelectric dams in Quitman were overtopped by creeks and rivers . One highway was completely submerged and four bridges were swept away . A railroad passenger train was abandoned due to water rising above the tracks . The Ocmulgee River at Macon crested at 20 @.@ 9 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . Additionally , the Withlacoochee River was expect to reach its highest level in years . Overall , crops , highways , and railroads across the southern portion of the state were severely damaged . Milledgeville was left without water due to flooding . The Oconee River was expected to reach 34 ft ( 10 m ) in height at the city 's river gauge . A bridge across the Oconee was swept away as was approximately 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) of railroad tracks . About 200 families in Augusta evacuated due to the rising Savannah River . In South Carolina , rainfall peaked at 13 @.@ 5 in ( 340 mm ) in Caesars Head , which is the highest precipitation total associated with the storm . The city of Spartanburg prepared for its worst flood since 1916 . Throughout Upstate South Carolina , highways , railroads , and crops were flooded . In Bath , a " freakish " tornado destroyed at least 50 homes and injured one person . Additionally , a wind storm in Newberry County severely damaged " scores " of dwellings . Two deaths occurred in South Carolina .
In North Carolina , rainfall caused the Catawba , French Broad , Swannanoa , and Yadkin rivers to overflow their banks . Many nearby homes and structures were swept away . Families along the South Pacolet River near Tryon were evacuated . Additionally , two shelters were set up in Asheville , one at a Salvation Army post and another at the municipal auditorium , where hundreds of cots were set @-@ up . A mudslide near Asheville moved across a railroad track , blocking the route to locomotive traffic . Several feet of water covered highways near Marshall , leaving many roads impassable . Extensive crop losses also occurred in western North Carolina , with agricultural losses reaching $ 250 @,@ 000 in Burke County alone . Six people were killed in the state , of which four due to flooding and two others from a tornado in Ashley Heights . Property damage totaled over $ 1 million . Rainfall from both the previous hurricane and this storm brought flooding to Virginia . Major flooding was reported along the Roanoke River from Brookneal to Roanoke . At the former , the river crested at 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above flood stage . In Altavista , crops were ruined and 11 buildings were flooded . Route 17 north of Fincastle was inundated , blocking traffic between Clifton Forge and Covington . Two deaths occurred in Virginia , one from drowning and another from fright while crossing the Roanoke River .
= Behind These Hazel Eyes =
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " is a song recorded by American singer Kelly Clarkson for her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . It was written by Clarkson with the song 's producers Max Martin and Dr. Luke . The song was released on April 12 , 2005 as the second single from the album . Clarkson considered " Behind These Hazel Eyes " as one of her favorite songs and she once intended to name Breakaway after the song . " Behind These Hazel Eyes " is an uptempo pop rock song that incorporates crunchy guitars which are pulsated with driving beats and anthemic choruses ; it narrates Clarkson 's broken relationship with her ex @-@ boyfriend .
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100 and stayed inside the top ten in the chart for fifteen weeks . It also became Clarkson 's first song to top the Adult Pop Songs chart . It was certified platinum from Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over one million digital downloads . Elsewhere , the song charted in the top ten in Australia , Austria , Ireland , Netherlands , New Zealand and the United Kingdom .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and produced by Danyi Deats @-@ Barrett . The concept of the video was conceived by Clarkson and depicts her as a bride who experiences some dream @-@ like hints that her husband @-@ to @-@ be is having an affair with a brunette ceremony attendee . The music video premiered online at MTV and it also received heavy rotation on Total Request Live . The song was performed live by Clarkson at numerous venues , including the Breakaway World Tour ( 2005 ) and the All I Ever Wanted Tour ( 2009 ) .
= = Background and writing = =
In 2004 , Clarkson flew to Sweden to collaborate with Max Martin and Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald for her album , Breakaway . Clarkson and Martin were interested in turning in a more rock direction , as opposed to the " slick pop " with which they were identified . The songs " Since U Been Gone " as well as " Behind These Hazel Eyes " were the products of their collaboration . According to Dr. Luke , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was sent to Clarkson without any lyrics as part of an olive branch to the singer . He explained ,
We had just done with " Since U Been Gone , " which everyone was happy with . We sent a rough version of " Behind These Hazel Eyes , " without any lyrics , to Kelly and Clive Davis . It was in part an olive branch to Kelly , because there was miscommunication on " Since U Been Gone , " where Kelly had written some lyrics and Max and I didn 't know about it and we had finished the song . So we wanted to write " Behind " with her from the beginning , but we were in different places . She had just won " American Idol " and was on tour , so she 'd e @-@ mail me lyrics , and I 'd e @-@ mail her my thoughts .
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Clarkson explains that " Behind These Hazel Eyes " is " about the dipstick who completely screwed up and now is unhappy and you 're happy . " She also considered the song as one of her favorites that she once intended to name Breakaway after the song . Critics speculated that the song reflects Clarkson 's break @-@ up with David Hodges , the ex @-@ member of Evanescence . According to MTV , the song was originally written prior to the break @-@ up . Nonetheless , Clarkson decided to tweak the song lyrics after breaking up with Hodges to express her emotional pain . Clarkson also said that the song almost did not make it into the album . She explained , " It had different lyrics in the beginning [ ... ] I ended up calling Luke [ Lukasz Gottwald ] , the writer , and we did a totally different song to it . It 's now my favorite song on the record . Crappy relationships [ make for ] a good song . "
= = Composition = =
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " was written by Clarkson , Max Martin , and Dr. Luke and was produced by the latter two . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , it is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F sharp minor with Clarkson 's vocal range spanning over two octaves from F # 3 to F # 5 . The bridge was the only part of the song that was written by Dr. Luke and Martin together with Clarkson face to face . The song begins with Clarkson wailing " oh oh oh " over a restless percussion . In the first verse , the music becomes quiet to focus on Clarkson 's vocal as she wails " Seems like just yesterday / You were a part of me / I used to stand so tall / I used to be so strong / Your arms around me tight / Everything it felt so right / Unbreakable like nothing could go wrong . " During the chorus , the sound of electronic guitar is dominant as she vocalizes " Here I am / Once again / I ’ m torn into pieces / Can ’ t deny it / Can ’ t pretend / Just thought you were the one / Broken up deep inside / But you won ’ t get to see the tears I cry / Behind these hazel eyes . " Gil Kaufman of MTV noticed that the song " soared on crunchy guitars , driving beats and anthemic , agitated choruses . "
Lyrically , the song narrates the story of a failed relationship which initially started off well . Clarkson regrets having allowed herself to be vulnerable to her ex @-@ boyfriend and she is determined that despite the pain that she feels , he will not get the satisfaction of seeing her cry . Michael Paoletta of Billboard praised Clarkson 's vocal , writing " Clarkson simply delivers a loose , tour @-@ de @-@ force vocal that simmers alongside a steroid @-@ charged musical backdrop that is fun , fast and furious . " Scott Juba of The Trade praised the production of the song , writing " The song ’ s strong hook pulls listeners in and involves them in the lyrics without ever becoming gimmicky or manipulative . " He also complimented Clarkson 's vocal which " oscillates between pain and defiance with near pinpoint accuracy . "
= = Critical reception = =
Elizabeth Scott of Sky Living wrote , " while Clarkson is doing well musically , her love life still hasn 't picked up and she is heartbroken once again . I 'm sure the thought of another top ten hit might cheer her up ! " Scott Juba of The Trades considered " Behind These Hazel Eyes " as the highlight of the album , writing " Now that [ Clarkson is ] a few years older than she was when she recorded her first album , she brings more authenticity to relationship songs . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters compared " Don 't Let Me Stop You " ( 2009 ) with " Behind These Hazel Eyes " saying that the former " may sound like another rewrite of an older Clarkson hit ( in this case , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " ) , but the observational lyrics about a questionable relationship are what ultimately makes the whole thing click . " Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine felt that the song should sell records more because " the entire musical backing drops out to let Clarkson ’ s voice through to live or die on its own . " Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics believed that " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was superior to the writing of " Since U Been Gone " , commenting that " It 's punchier , well @-@ written and gives Clarkson a chance to show off her vocal skills without the trendy haughtiness . "
Joe Cross of Cox Communications thought that " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was a decent follow @-@ up to " Since U Been Gone " , saying " It 's no " Since U Been Gone " which is just a pop @-@ rock juggernaut , but as follow @-@ ups go , it 's not too shabby . Clarkson 's down @-@ home everything ( well , mostly her looks ) sells these little heartbreak haikus exceptionally well . " He also listed " Behind These Hazel Eyes " as one of the 40 songs that defined the summer of 2005 . Maria DiLorenzo of Yahoo ! ranked " Behind These Hazel Eyes " at number four in her list of " Top Ten Kelly Clarkson Song of the Decade " , writing " beautiful crooning and yes once again an elegant old world romantic video to go along with it . You have no choice but to be enamored by the combination . " Chris Kal of WKNS ranked " Behind These Hazel Eyes " at number four in his list of " Top 10 Summer Songs From 2005 " . Sam Lamsky of PopCrush described the song as " a surefire fan favorite " and ranked it at number nine in his list of " Top 10 Kelly Clarkson songs " . Bill Lamb of About.com put the song at number 62 on his list of " Top 100 Pop Songs of 2005 " . At the 24th ASCAP Pop Music Awards , the song was honored with the Most Performed Songs award . On January 2010 , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was the fifth most played song of the last decade by American Idol performers . The song was nominated in the category for Song of the Year : Mainstream Hit Radio in the 2005 Radio Music Awards . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy considered " Behind These Hazel Eyes " as Clarkson 's second best single after " Since U Been Gone " , writing " It proved a slow burner at the time of release , but this track 's greatness continues to be realised over time . " On May 12 , 2015 , Billboard ranked the song at number four on its list of Top 100 ' American Idol ' Hits of All Time .
= = Chart performance = =
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " debuted at number eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending , April 23 , 2005 . The song peaked at number six on the week ending June 11 , 2005 . It stayed inside the top ten in Billboard Hot 100 for fifteen weeks . On the week ending August 27 , 2005 , the song topped the Adult Top 40 and stayed in the position for five consecutive weeks . On the Billboard 's Radio Songs , the song peaked at number four on August 6 , 2005 . The song also appeared on the US Pop Songs at number thirty on the week ending April 30 , 2005 , and peaked at number two on the week ending July 9 , 2005 . It spent seven consecutive weeks at number two and was held off the top spot by Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " . It became the sixteenth ranked single of the 2000s decade on the Pop Songs chart complied by Billboard . On January 31 , 2008 , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song has sold 1 @,@ 508 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States as of March 2013 .
Internationally , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " was a commercial success . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number six on the week ending July 3 , 2005 . In New Zealand , the song entered New Zealand Singles Chart and peaked at number seven on the week ending July 4 , 2005 as the highest debut of the week . In the United Kingdom , the song also debuted and peaked at number nine on the week ending October 1 , 2005 . In Ireland , the song debuted at number nine on the week ending September 22 , 2005 , and peaked at number four on the week ending November 3 , 2005 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and release = = =
The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and was produced by Danyi Deats @-@ Barrett . It was shot for two days in April 2005 in Toronto at a Church and a sound stage while Clarkson was on tour . According to Kahn , Clarkson was sick during the production and could not speak . During Clarkson 's wardrobe fitting , they communicated together using notes written by her . Though she is seen speaking and is interviewed in the behind the scenes footage . Access Hollywood reported that a single sprinkler was used to produce rain in the music video . The concept of the music video was conceived by Clarkson . She explained , " The whole thing is a metaphor about a broken fairy tale [ ... ] You think everything is going well , and then reality kicks your butt . It 's kind of a sad video , but it 's going to be my best one . It 's real , and that 's why people like me . " Clarkson also added that after the production of the music video was completed , she had bruises and a green @-@ and @-@ yellow splotch on her left biceps . The music video premiered online on May 9 , 2005 , on MTV . On May 16 , 2005 , it premiered on Total Request Live where it debuted at number five on the chart the following day .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video begins with Clarkson standing in a room wearing a white wedding dress . Holding a bouquet of red rose , she is surrounded by her bridesmaids as they prepare for her wedding . She sits down on a sofa and sees a wedding photo of her fiancé with another woman as a storm begins to form outside . The bridesmaids try to close the windows but fail so they run out of the room leaving Clarkson alone , who is seen dropping the bouquet of rose as well as the wedding photo from her hands onto the floor . The next scene shows Clarkson walking down the aisle in a church wearing a black dress . She sees a bride standing at the altar with her fiancé , getting married . When she draws the veil of the bride , she realizes that the bride is the woman from the photo . Clarkson , who is now wearing a white wedding dress , runs out of the church and into a dark swamp . A montage of Clarkson singing with her band in a dark swamp is shown alternately with scenes of Clarkson running in the forest and laying on the ground . Clarkson is also seen standing inside an abandoned house , wearing a voluminous black dress . As the rain starts to fall , Clarkson finally collapsed , kneeling on the ground while looking at and being comforted by her other self who is singing with the band . The scene shifts to a present day , where Clarkson is standing at the altar , exchanging vows with her fiancé . Before he puts the ring on her finger , she looks at the guests and notices that the woman from the photo is among the audience . She sees her fiancé exchanging a smile with the woman as the woman blows him a kiss . Clarkson then reaches for the ring and throws it at her fiancé , before running away from the altar . She throws her wedding bouquet into the lap of the woman and shoves her way past the wedding guests who are trying to stop her from leaving . The video ends with Clarkson stepping out the doors into the bright sunlight .
= = = Reception = = =
James Dinh of MTV Newsroom listed " Behind These Hazel Eyes " as one of the music videos with " a bad case of the runaway bride syndrome , " writing , " Throughout the clip , Clarkson finds herself running through a swampy mud land until she snaps out of her visions , refuses to proceed with the wedding and makes a shocking escape out of the church . " Andrea Holmes of AOL ranked " Behind These Hazel Eyes " at number five in her list of " Top Wedding Music Videos : 15 Clips for the Big ' I Do ' . " She commented , " The perfect illustration of our point about wedding videos , ' Behind These Hazel Eyes ' takes an atypical approach to marriage [ ... ] Throughout the video the weather is dark and rainy , matching the story line , but when Clarkson ditches the wedding and runs out of the church , she is greeted with sunshine . In an interview with MTV , the lead vocalist of Yellowcard , Ryan Key , praised Clarkson in the music video . He said , " She is so unbelievably gorgeous in that video that is all over TV right now [ ... ] The wet wedding dress and the wet hair and ... come on , man ! Who knew ? She is so hot . She looks so good in it . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy opined that the music video is Clarkson 's best video to date . The music video had a successful run at Total Request Live where it topped the chart for 33 days , a record that Clarkson holds for the longest stay by a female artist at number one on the chart .
= = Live performances = =
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " was included in the setlist of her Breakaway World Tour ( 2005 ) . During her concert tour at Germain Arena , Clarkson performed the song wearing the same wedding dress she wore in the song 's music video . Clarkson also performed " Behind These Hazel Eyes " on her All I Ever Wanted Tour ( 2009 ) . While touring at Hammerstein Ballroom , New York City , Clarkson sang the stripped down version of the song , accompanied by guitars and vocal . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone felt that Alanis ' influence was evident on the chorus of " Behind These Hazel Eyes " which was performed acoustically in the event . Clarkson explained that the arrangement was intended to maximize audience sing @-@ along potential in which Jim Cantiello of MTV thought was effective . On December 2011 , Clarkson also performed " Behind These Hazel Eyes " on Chicago Theatre as part of the Miracle on State Street benefit concert . Bob Gendron of Chicago Tribune reviewed Clarkson 's performance , writing " the Texas native could 've impressed simply by projecting her booming voice and relishing its prodigious range . Yet she seemed determined to reinforce female empowerment themes often missing from her mainstream @-@ pop contemporaries ' hits . "
= = Cover versions = =
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " was covered by Cassadee Pope in the third season of The Voice . According to Pope , she decided to sing the song in order to reach out to her father who divorced from her mother when she was still 11 years old . Her rendition was praised by Christina Aguilera saying , " I got to feel your heart . "
= = Track listings = =
Digital download and CD single
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 16
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Live @ Sony Connect ) – 3 : 39
" Behind Theze Hazel Eyes " ( Enhanced CD Video ) - 3 : 16
Behind These Hazel Eyes – EP
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Joe Bermudez & Josh Harris Mixshow Edit ) – 3 : 29
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Joe Bermudez & Josh Harris Mixshow Remix ) – 5 : 24
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Joe Bermudez & Josh Harris Mixshow Instrumental ) – 5 : 25
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Joe Bermudez & Josh Harris Top 40 Radio Remix ) – 3 : 10
" Behind These Hazel Eyes " ( Joe Bermudez & Josh Harris Acappella ) – 2 : 58
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded by Max Martin , Dr. Luke , Lasse Marten and Kevin M. Guarnieri at Maratone Studios , Stockholm , Sweden and Dr. Luke 's NYC & Westlake Audio , Los Angeles , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Breakaway .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Eeyore 's Birthday Party =
Eeyore 's Birthday Party is a day @-@ long festival taking place annually in Austin , Texas since 1963 . It typically occurs on the last Saturday of April in Austin 's Pease District Park . It includes live music , food and drink vending which benefit local non @-@ profit organizations , attendees in colorful costumes , and very large drum circles . The event is frequented by children and families , with specific events presented for them by the event organizers . The festival is named in honor of Eeyore , a character in A. A. Milne 's Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh stories .
= = History = =
Eeyore 's Birthday Party began in 1963 as a spring party and picnic for Department of English students at the University of Texas at Austin by Lloyd W. Birdwell , Jr. and other UT students . It was named for Eeyore , a chronically depressed donkey in A. A. Milne 's Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh stories who , in one story , believes his friends have forgotten his birthday only to discover they have planned a surprise party for him . Despite its name , the event does not fall on the official birthday of the fictional character . The original event featured a trashcan full of lemonade , beer , honey sandwiches , a live , flower @-@ draped donkey , and a may pole ( in keeping with the event 's proximity to May Day ) . For many years the party was a UT tradition , but subsequently the annual Birthday Party became a tradition in Austin 's hippie subculture .
When the festival moved from Eastwoods Park to Pease District Park in 1974 , Austin @-@ area non @-@ profit Friends of the Forest Foundation , an organization which distributes funds to other area charities , began arranging for food and drink vendors at the festival . They continue this task today along with arranging public services ( toilets , buses , security , medics ) and scheduling live music and family @-@ oriented games and contests . The event is still known to most as a festival oriented towards modern hippies . It now boasts an annual attendance in the thousands .
Over time , the festival has outgrown its original founders . It is now sponsored by the Friends of the Forest Foundation .
= = Contemporary = =
Drummers bring a wide variety of instruments from hand drums to kettledrums . What started as a small picnic for University of Texas at Austin students has today swelled to a major annual festival with live bands , non @-@ profit vendors of food , drink and local beers , as well as a children 's area complete with arts and crafts and carnival games , family @-@ oriented games and contests such as costume contests , and an egg toss . Attendance at the Birthday Party is free . Weather @-@ permitting , it occurs on the last Saturday in April in Pease District Park ; a rain date is scheduled for the following weekend . Bright and diverse costumes are common . In keeping with the original traditions of the event , a live donkey and a may pole are always present . The event begins in the late morning and continues until dusk . Food and drinks are sold onsite by local Austin 501c @-@ 3 non @-@ profit groups . Purified water is available onsite for participants to fill their own containers . Due to the lack of parking in the area and the high attendance , the Friends of the Forest Foundation provides festive shuttle buses between state parking lots just north of the capitol building and Pease Park . Singing of folk and road trip songs is encouraged on the short bus ride .
Eeyore 's Birthday Party is attended by people from a wide variety of backgrounds and ages , some of whom may have been attending for decades . Austin 's hippie community still puts in a major appearance at the event , which they celebrate by forming large drum circles which can sometimes contain hundreds of drummers and dancers in the large areas of the park not occupied by other events . Members of the Deaf community like the drum circles because they can feel the vibrations .
As of 2008 , the event has also spread to Seattle 's Cal Anderson Park as an annual celebration .
= SM U @-@ 28 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 28 or U @-@ XXVIII was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 28 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in January 1917 and commissioned in June .
She had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 28 sank the British Q ship Bradford City and nine other ships , sending a combined tonnage of 47 @,@ 743 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 28 was surrendered at Venice in 1919 , granted to Italy as a war reparation and broken up the following year .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 28 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 28 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 28 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 28 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down by early 1916 at the Pola Navy Yard , and launched on 8 January 1917 .
= = Service career = =
After her completion , U @-@ 28 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 26 June 1917 under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Zdenko Hudeček . Previously in command of U @-@ 17 , Hudeček was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old native of Theresienstadt ( present @-@ day Terezín in the Czech Republic ) . Four days after the U @-@ boat 's commissioning , Hudeček achieved his first kill at the helm of U @-@ 28 . On 30 June , while on patrol about 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ) east of Malta , U @-@ 28 came upon the 4 @,@ 809 @-@ ton British steamer Haigh Hall . The turret hull ship was carrying wheat from Bombay to Naples when torpedoed and sunk by Hudeček . Three days later , the British India passenger ship Mongara met the same fate . Even though escorted by an Italian destroyer and a trawler , Mongara was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 28 just 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) from the breakwater at Messina . The 8 @,@ 205 @-@ ton liner — the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 28 — was en route from Sydney to London when she went down , but was spared any loss of life in the attack . In eight days in commission , U @-@ 28 's tally was over 13 @,@ 000 tons , already exceeding the totals of all four U @-@ boats of the U @-@ 20 class .
The following month , U @-@ 28 sank the 3 @,@ 881 @-@ ton collier Maston 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ) from Cape Spartivento , Calabria , on 13 August , killing two men of the British ship 's crew . Three days after Maston went down , U @-@ 28 sank Bradford City , a 3 @,@ 683 @-@ ton British Q ship in the Straits of Messina , with no loss of life . Bradford City , operating under the pseudonym Saros , had been particularly detached to the Straits to hunt U @-@ 28 and had ignored orders to proceed to port from officers unaware of her naval status . After the torpedo struck , the ship 's " panic party " had taken to the boats in the hope of luring her attacker to the surface , but the arrival of the French naval trawler Hiver drove U @-@ 28 away before the gun crews aboard Bradford City could engage the submarine . Bradford City sank within 30 minutes off San Remo . In October , U @-@ 28 closed out her 1917 list of victims with Bontnewydd , a British steamer sunk 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) north @-@ northeast of Susa . The 3 @,@ 296 @-@ ton steamer was sailing in ballast from Marseilles for Karachi .
In January 1918 , U @-@ 28 sank an additional three ships . Bosforo , an Italian steamer of 2 @,@ 723 tons headed for Salonika , was sent to the bottom near Cape Spartivento on 12 January . The following day , U @-@ 28 dispatched the British steamer Rapallo 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) south of Cape Peloro . One sailor aboard the one @-@ year @-@ old ship died in the attack , which occurred while the ship was headed to Messina in ballast . On 21 January , West Wales , a collier headed from Barry to Alexandria , was sunk 140 nautical miles ( 260 km ) from Malta , taking her load of coal and two of her crew to the bottom .
On 8 March , U @-@ 28 attacked two ships , sinking one of them . The first ship , Mitra , a 5 @,@ 592 @-@ ton tanker was hit by U @-@ 28 but was able to make port in Malta with her cargo of oil . Later in the month , U @-@ 28 sank Uganda 32 nautical miles ( 59 km ) from Linosa , killing one sailor in the attack . The 1905 British ship was carrying cotton and cottonseed from Alexandria for London when the attack occurred . Three days later , Stolt Nielsen , a 5 @,@
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freeway and the old routing was used as a connector until the next section south to Plainwell opened the next year . After this next freeway segment was opened , M @-@ 118 was truncated to end at the freeway .
In 1988 , the M @-@ 118 designation was decommissioned and the highway was renumbered M @-@ 222 to prevent confusion with 118th street which runs parallel to the route about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north for most of the length .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Allegan County .
= The Truth ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Truth " is the collective name for the 201st and 202nd episodes of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The last episodes of the show 's ninth season , " The Truth " originally served as the finale for the entire series , until the return of the series in January 2016 . First aired together on the Fox network on May 19 , 2002 , the episodes were written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " The Truth " was the most @-@ watched episode of the ninth season in the United States , receiving a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 , attracting 7 @.@ 5 percent of the available audience and being viewed by approximately 13 @.@ 25 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . The finale received mixed reviews , with many commentators criticizing the episode 's lack of closure . Others were pleased with the full return of actor David Duchovny to the series , as well as the episode 's conclusion .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on unsolved paranormal cases called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , after not knowing Fox Mulder 's ( Duchovny ) whereabouts for the past year , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Scully learn that Mulder is being held for the murder of a military man he could not possibly have killed : Knowle Rohrer ( Adam Baldwin ) , one of the government 's secret " Super Soldiers " . Mulder breaks out of prison with the help of Skinner , Reyes , Doggett , Scully and Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . Mulder and Scully travel to New Mexico where helicopters destroy an Anasazi cliff dwelling ruin along with The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) .
The episode featured the return of Duchovny — following his departure after the eighth season finale — as well as several other recurring characters . " The Truth " served to conclude many long @-@ time story arcs while creating new ones for a possible film franchise . Shooting took place at various California locales , including a hydroelectric power plant east of Fresno and Anza @-@ Borrego Desert State Park . Carter would return to The X @-@ Files universe with a feature film , The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe ( 2008 ) , and has publicly discussed the possibility of a third film , which would focus on the impending extraterrestrial invasion revealed in " The Truth " .
= = Plot = =
At the Mount Weather military base , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) appears with several government officials . He gains access to highly classified documents on a secure computer system , and is shocked and dismayed to read the documents , which provide details of the final colonization of the planet by alien forces . Before he can continue reading , Mulder hears another person approaching . He hides quickly and observes Knowle Rohrer ( Adam Baldwin ) , a former friend of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) but who has been irreversibly transformed into an enemy " Super Soldier " , approach the computer system . Rohrer immediately realizes the system has been accessed . Mulder attempts to attack Rohrer , but Rohrer overpowers him . Mulder frantically flees , but Rohrer outflanks him . In a violent altercation , Mulder flips Rohrer off a catwalk onto high @-@ voltage wiring , and Rohrer apparently dies by electrocution . Mulder attempts to escape , but is quickly arrested by several soldiers .
News of Mulder 's arrest spreads to the FBI . Upon hearing that he has resurfaced , and in such a dire manner , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) visit him in military custody . During his time in captivity , Mulder receives mysterious visits from two phantoms of his past : Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) and X ( Steven Williams ) . Meanwhile , Scully and Skinner go to great lengths to get him released , but are unsuccessful . Mulder 's fate is ultimately made the subject of a military tribunal with Deputy Director Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) in charge . At the outset , it appears Mulder will become the hopeless victim of a show trial stacked against him .
Skinner takes Mulder 's defense , while Scully , Doggett , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) and Jeffrey Spender ( Chris Owens ) testify on Mulder 's behalf . The prosecution presents Rohrer 's body as evidence against Mulder . Aware that Rohrer is a seemingly @-@ invincible " Super Soldier " , Scully performs a medical examination and proves that the body is not that of Rohrer . Despite this , the defense is ultimately overruled , and Mulder is sentenced to death for the murder of a military officer . Later , Doggett , Skinner , Reyes , and Scully help Mulder escape , with the unexpected help of Kersh who decided he should have let Mulder go in the first place . Despite being advised to immediately leave the continent via Canada , Mulder instead takes Scully to New Mexico . On their way , Mulder receives a visit by three additional ghosts : The Lone Gunmen , who advise him to flee for his life rather than continue his pursuit of the truth . Mulder politely declines . Meanwhile , Doggett and Reyes find their office emptied , suggesting that the X @-@ Files have been closed down for the third time .
Mulder and Scully arrive at Anasazi ruins to find a " wise man " who they believe can make sense of the classified documents Mulder has read . They discover the so @-@ called " wise man " is none other than The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , who is hiding to survive the colonization — an event that will happen on December 22 , 2012 , the predicted end of the world . Outside , Reyes and Doggett arrive and prepare to fight Rohrer , who has been sent to kill Mulder and The Smoking Man . Rohrer is killed when the magnetite in the ruins affects his superhuman body . Switching cars with Mulder and Scully , Doggett and Reyes drive off . Black helicopters destroy the cliff dwellings — and The Smoking Man within — thinking that Mulder is still inside before flying away . Doggett and Reyes are last seen speeding away .
In a motel room in Roswell , New Mexico , Mulder and Scully prepare for bed and talk . Mulder explains his belief " that the dead are not lost to us . That they speak to us as part of something greater than us — greater than any alien force . And if you and I are powerless now , I want to believe that if we listen to what 's speaking , it can give us the power to save ourselves . " Despite their slim chance for success , Mulder declares , " Maybe there 's hope . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter . He noted , " It 's the end — you don 't get another chance . So you 'd better put everything you 've ever wanted to put in into the episode . There were things to distract us from what was really going on . The band was breaking up . " He expounded on the idea , saying that executive producer Frank Spotnitz and he decided " it was probably time to go [ ... ] it was strange to be writing these things knowing it was the last time we 'd see Scully doing certain things or hear Mulder saying certain things . " Spotnitz explained that Carter made the announcement in January so that " we had time to wrap our minds around the end and plan for it and give all of the characters their due . " Gish later said , " I have a great respect for the elegant way in which they 're closing the curtain " . Actor Bruce Harwood , who played John Fitzgerald Byers on the show , called the finale the " passing of a generation " .
Several of the episode 's scenes feature elements that reference earlier installments . The final scene in which Mulder and Scully speak in a hotel room is reminiscent of the series ' pilot episode . Furthermore , in " The Truth , " it is revealed to Mulder by The Smoking Man that the aliens plan to colonize the earth on December 22 , 2012 , an event that , according to the show , the Mayans predicted . This is a throw @-@ back to the second season episode " Red Museum , " which featured members of a new religious movement who believed that the year 2012 would bring about the dawning of the New Age .
Before the release of the 2008 film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , Carter expressed an intent to make a third X @-@ Files feature film that would focus on the impending alien invasion revealed in this episode , depending on the success of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . Following the release of The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , Carter , Spotnitz , Duchovny , and Anderson all expressed their interest in making one . However , on January 17 , 2015 , Fox Television Group chairman and CEO Gary Newman revealed that there was network interest in reviving The X @-@ Files , not as a movie franchise , but as a limited run television event .
= = = Casting = = =
With this episode , Duchovny rejoined the main cast of The X @-@ Files after his departure following the eighth season finale " Existence " . The episode marks the only time that all five principal actors — Duchovny , Anderson , Patrick , Gish , and Pileggi — are credited together in the opening titles . Mulder , Scully , and the The Smoking Man are the only characters to appear in both this episode and the series ' pilot . This episode is the fourth of only four episodes in season nine where Duchovny appeared , the others being " Trust No 1 " , " Jump the Shark " , and " William " . Duchovny appeared in the first two via archival footage and only made a small cameo in the third . The episode marks the return of several characters who had either previously been killed @-@ off or had left the show , including X , who was killed in the season four opener " Herrenvolk " ; Deep Throat , who was murdered in the first season finale " The Erlenmeyer Flask " ; Alex Krycek , who was shot and killed by Skinner in the eighth season finale " Existence " ; The Smoking Man , who was purportedly killed in " Requiem " ; Gibson Praise , who was last seen in the eighth season episode " Without " ; The Lone Gunmen , who were killed @-@ off in the ninth season episode " Jump the Shark " ; Jeffrey Spender , who originally was killed @-@ off in the sixth season episode " One Son " but reappeared in the ninth season episode " William " ; and Marita Covarrubias , who last appeared in the seventh season finale " Requiem " .
Originally , this episode was to feature the recurring character Shannon McMahon . However , actress Lucy Lawless became pregnant shortly after filming the two @-@ part episode , " Nothing Important Happened Today " and was not available for subsequent episodes . Actress Julia Vera was called in to play the role of the woman who is helping the Smoking Man live in the Anasazi ruins . Vera had previously appeared in the sixth season two @-@ part episode " Dreamland " . She later called the opportunity " amazing " and declared that " my greatest experience was The X @-@ Files " . The final scene of the episode was originally going to feature the Toothpick Man , the alien leader of the New Syndicate played by Alan Dale , informing U.S. President George W. Bush , played by actor Gary Newton , of Mulder 's escape . The scene was filmed , but was not included in the broadcast version ; executive producer Frank Spotnitz later said that he was " so happy " that the producers cut the scene , noting that — despite " a lot of debate about it , on both sides " — the scene was unable to top the final scene with Mulder and Scully . On the DVD 's audio commentary , the producers mentioned that they had considered filming the shot on the Oval Office set created by The West Wing , a serial drama created by Aaron Sorkin that was originally broadcast on NBC . In addition , they originally wanted to have Martin Sheen appear as his character on The West Wing , Josiah Bartlet , instead of Bush , noting that the cameo would have been " a nice , sort of wink " to the television audience . Despite being cut from the final episode , the shot was featured as a deleted scene on the season nine video release .
= = = Filming = = =
The majority of the episode — like the rest of seasons six , seven , eight and nine — was filmed in Los Angeles , California . The first scene , featuring Mulder breaking into a military base , was shot in a hydroelectric power plant east of Fresno , California . The rooms that were featured in the episode were the main rooms for the power plant that The X @-@ Files design team redecorated ; the crew later called the set the " war room " . Most of the decoration and interior scene was done by the visual effect crew ; the only visible part seen in real life was a large generator that pumped water . Bill Roe , the cinematographer for the episode , spent four to five days lighting the set for filming . Kim Manners called his work " a great job " . The scenes that take place in the main computer terminal room were shot on a sound stage at 20th Century Fox ; the crew built the set themselves . The scenes with Mulder being tortured by the military guards were shot at Fort MacArthur , an abandoned military base in San Pedro , California , including The Marine Mammal Care Center located at Fort MacArthur . Filming the court room was one of the " most challenging sequences " Manners had ever done . Carter wanted the courtroom to have no spectators and no jury . This meant that Manners had to shoot each scene with a limited amount of actors and make them look " fresh " . Manners was terrified to film the 40 @-@ page long courtroom scene , pointing out that the show was basically re @-@ telling a nine @-@ year history of The X @-@ Files . Corey Kaplan designed the set .
The Anasazi ruins were constructed in Anza @-@ Borrego Desert State Park . Location manager Mac Gordon later noted that , due to the presence of a rare " spiny black horned toad " in the area , he and his crew were forced to hire several biologists to locate any lizards in the area and move them elsewhere . In addition , Gordon had a difficult time persuading the park rangers to build and then blow up faux @-@ ruins . He explained , " we were on a state park property that was an off road park , with motorcycles and [ All @-@ terrain vehicles ] flying all over the place , but they still blanched when I said we have to build Indian ruins and then blow it up . " However , the cameo of The Smoking Man was filmed on a sound stage back at 20th Century Fox . Manners noted that Davis had " a hell of a time " trying to smoke his cigarettes through a hole in his neck , because the hole was fake . The scene featuring The Smoking Man being burnt up by the fire from a missile was done via computer animation . The missiles were created via CGI technology by animator Mat Beck . The helicopter , however , included real smoke bombs . A shot of William B. Davis was overlapped with fire , and eventually a skull to give the effect that The Smoking Man 's flesh was burnt away . Paul Rabwin later called the scene a " great sequence " .
The last scene of the episode shot was between Anderson and Duchovny and was called " extremely tough " by Manners , due to it being " very emotional " . He noted that the scene " sums up the series " about a " man who believed and a woman who was skeptical but became a believer " . The scene was filmed at an actual motel , called La Cresenta . The location had previously been used in episodes " Sein Und Zeit " and " This is Not Happening " .
= = Themes = =
The final scene , featuring a conversation between Mulder and Scully , has been examined by author V. Alan White due to its perceived religious undertones . In the book The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , he notes that the final scene " undermines Mulder 's seemingly persistent scorn of traditional " religion and his subtle acceptance of theism . In previous episodes — mainly those dealing with Scully 's Catholicism — Mulder shows a lack of approval when it came to the concept of organized religion , often pointing out that " theologians can be just as dogmatic as scientists " when it comes to unexplained phenomena . White proposes that this needling may be intentional on Mulder 's part , as a form of " ironic reversal of [ Scully 's ] skepticism about the paranormal " . However , the final lines of " The Truth " see Mulder talking about a belief in " something greater than us , greater than any alien force " . White also points out the fact that during this scene Mulder grabs Scully 's gold cross , an icon that symbolizes her belief through much of the series .
Several of the episode 's scenes and motifs have been compared to popular myths and legends . Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , equated Mulder 's overall quest to that of the search for the Holy Grail . She notes that in " The Truth " , Mulder and Scully metaphorically " find their way to the Grail castle " only to discover that the Fisher King — the wounded knight charged with protecting the secret — is actually The Smoking Man . Furthermore , Bush compared the final scene of the episode — featuring Mulder musing about hope regarding an alien invasion — to the myth of Pandora 's Box . According to legend , the ancient Greek gods gave Pandora a box filled with evils and told her not to open it . Due to her curiosity , she disobeyed and unleashed various calamities unto the world . Bush argues that the Syndicate 's tampering with alien technology — such as their alien @-@ human hybrid experiments — are similar to the contents of the box . She notes that , in both cases , " man 's curiosity is his downfall " . In the end , however , both Pandora 's box and the world of The X @-@ Files contain hope , which , in the legend , was the only thing in the box that Pandora did not let go of .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Truth " was originally aired on the Fox network on May 19 , 2002 , and became the most @-@ watched episode of the ninth season , receiving the season 's highest Nielsen ratings . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement system that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States . " The Truth " earned a household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 5 percent of the nation 's estimated households . It was viewed by a total of 13 @.@ 25 million viewers in the United States alone . On the date of its airing , the episode ranked third in its timeslot , behind the season finale of Survivor : Marquesas and the heavily promoted reunion of The Cosby Show . " The Truth " , however , placed ahead of the season finale of The Practice . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the episode made its first appearance on Sky1 on September 26 , 2002 and received 1 @.@ 03 million viewers , placing The X @-@ Files second in the top ten broadcasts for Sky1 for that week , behind The Simpsons . The episode was included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains installments involved with the alien " Super Soldiers " arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
The entry received mixed reviews by critics ; the main reason for criticism was that , instead of creating a conclusion , the episode raised new questions for the audience . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it one star out of five . The two , despite calling the opening " promising " , derided the episode 's ending — especially the revelation of alien colonization of December 22 , 2012 — writing , " is this really what the series was about ? " Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson concluded that the problem with the episode was that the show , which he called " brilliant — frequently , truly brilliant " decided " to define itself in the summing up " with the episode , which did not answer very many questions . UGO named the episode the fourteenth " Worst Series Finale " and wrote that the episode — and the show 's eighth and ninth seasons by extension — were negatively affected by the series ' lack of a defining plot line . The article noted that , while the episode claimed to wrap up the story arcs for the series , " the trial of Mulder ultimately resulted in very little satisfying payoff to the series ' overarching mysteries " . Joyce Millman , writing for The New York Times , after the premiere of " The Truth " , said of the show : " The most imaginative show on television has finally reached the limits of its imagination . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , was critical of the episode 's trial sequences . While he stated that these scenes " do a good job of bringing together the many disparate threads of this arc " , he felt that they were " interminably dull " .
Not all reviews were critical . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a rather positive review of the episode . He noted that , while the episode " told us nothing of significance " regarding the " big picture " mythology story arc , the chance to see Mulder and Scully together one last time resulted in " an exquisite Mulder @-@ Scully moment " . He was particularly pleased with the final scene , noting that it was an appropriate conclusion ; he called it " fitting " , as well as " wonderful " . Kessenich maintained that , were it not for the return of Duchovny , " nobody would have given a damn about the end of this series . " Julie Salamon of The New York Times gave the episode a positive review . Salamon noted that " Until the end , the series maintained its mesmerizing visual gloominess , cleverly punctuated with suggestive plays of color and light " . She claimed the show " also retained its conspiracy @-@ theory heart that has appealed so greatly to viewers " . John C. Snider of SciFiDimensions praised the episode , stating " The Truth is a satisfying conclusion to the series , with plenty of twists and turns , a few surprise guest appearances , and an explosive finale complete with requisite black helicopters . The romantics among us will also be pleased with the culmination of the Mulder / Scully relationship " .
In 2011 , the finale was ranked number twenty @-@ two on the TV Guide Network special , TV 's Most Unforgettable Finales .
= = = Filming locations = = =
= Seisho Maru =
Seisho Maru ( Japanese : 盛祥丸 , Seishō Maru ) was a cargo ship for Mitsui Bussan Kaisho in military service that was sunk by an American submarine during World War II . The ship had been built as SS West Caruth , a cargo ship for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) shortly after the end of World War I. Shortly after completion , the ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Caruth ( ID @-@ 2850 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name . Before being sold to Japanese owners in 1928 , she was also known as SS Exmoor and SS Antonio Tripcovich .
West Caruth was built in 1918 for the USSB , as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the second ship built at Southwestern Shipbuilding in San Pedro , California . After operating for four years under American registry , she was sold several times and operated under British , Italian , and Japanese registry throughout the remainder of her career . In November 1944 , while serving as Japanese transport Seisho Maru during World War II , she was sunk by U.S. Navy submarine Sunfish .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Caruth , the second of some 18 West ships built by the Southwestern Shipbuilding of San Pedro , California . West Caruth ( Southwestern Shipbuilding No. 2 ) was launched at 08 : 00 on 31 December 1918 by sponsor Betty Howard , the nine @-@ year @-@ old daughter of company vice president , William F. Howard , and completed in February 1919 .
West Caruth was 5 @,@ 632 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 5 inches ( 125 @.@ 10 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) abeam . The ship had a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , and moved the ship at up to 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
= = Career = =
West Caruth was inspected by the 12th Naval District of the United States Navy after completion for possible use as a service collier and was assigned the identification number of 3850 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Caruth ( ID @-@ 3850 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
The cargo ship sailed for the USSB under American registry for the first four years of her existence , and sailed to the west African ports of Dakar and Monrovia through 1921 . The Los Angeles Times reported that West Caruth sailed out of Los Angeles in both transpacific and European – Pacific service for two years .
In 1923 , West Caruth was sold to the North Devon Steamship Company and operated as tramp steamer Exmoor under the British flag . In 1924 , she was purchased by the Tripcovich Shipping Company of Trieste and sailed under the Italian flag as Antonio Tripcovich . Four years later , she was renamed Seisho Maru as a part of Oguma Shoten Gomei Kaisha of Tsurumi under Japanese registry . By the early 1930s Seisho Maru had been sold to Mitsui Bussan Kaisho .
There is scant record of the ship 's movements under any of her later names . The Los Angeles Times reports her arrival at West Coast ports as Seisho Maru at least twice . In March 1930 , the ship arrived at Tacoma , Washington , from Singapore to pick up a load of logs for export . Another notice in November 1933 noted her impending return to Los Angeles , where she was scheduled to take on a load of borax and scrap brass . In early May 1939 , Seisho Maru ran aground in Tokyo Bay , but was refloated after several days .
During World War II , Seisho Maru served as an army transport , but sources reporting her movements are incomplete . It is known that she was one of some 20 ships that departed Takau as part of three combined convoys — TASA @-@ 17 , TE @-@ 03 , and No. 82 — in mid @-@ April 1944 .
Seisho Maru and seven other ships formed convoy MI @-@ 27 which departed Moji for Miri , Borneo , on 15 November that same year . Escorted by a converted minesweeper and three smaller vessels , the convoy hugged the coast of the Korean peninsula to try to avoid American submarines . Nevertheless , a group of three submarines — Peto , Spadefish , and Sunfish — found and attacked the convoy on the night of 17 / 18 November . Torpedoes from Sunfish sank Edogawa Maru and damaged Seisho Maru shortly after 22 : 00 , while Peto sank Osakasan Maru at 23 : 40 . At 01 : 30 , the damaged Seisho Maru engaged in a gun battle with a surfaced submarine . Then , at 03 : 17 , another spread of torpedoes from Sunfish finished off Seisho Maru , which sank at position 33 ° 36 ′ N 124 ° 18 ′ E in the East China Sea .
= Ocellated electric ray =
The ocellated electric ray or bullseye electric ray ( Diplobatis ommata ) is a species of electric ray in the family Narcinidae , native to the shallow inshore waters of the eastern central Pacific from the Gulf of California to Ecuador . Reaching 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in length , this species has a rounded pectoral fin disc and pelvic fins with convex margins . Its short and thick tail bears two dorsal fins and terminates in a triangular caudal fin . The ocellated electric ray is named for the distinctive large eyespot on the middle of its disc , consisting of a black or yellow center surrounded by concentric rings . Its dorsal coloration is otherwise highly variable , ranging from plain to ornately patterned on a light to dark brown background . The front part of its disc is darker brown .
Solitary and nocturnal in nature , the ocellated electric ray is a bottom @-@ dweller found in sandy and rocky habitats . It moves along the bottom by " hopping " on its pelvic fins , and feeds on small crustaceans and polychaete worms . For defense , it can generate an electrical discharge from its electric organs . This species probably bears live young that are sustained by yolk and later histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) during gestation . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the ocellated electric ray as Vulnerable , as it is susceptible to the heavy trawling activity within its limited range .
= = Taxonomy = =
American ichthyologists David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert described the ocellated electric ray in an 1890 article for the scientific journal Proceedings of the United States National Museum . Their account was based on a female specimen caught by the United States Fish Commission steamer USS Albatross in 1888 . The female was collected off the Pacific coast of Colombia at a depth of 60 m ( 200 ft ) . Gilbert had previously obtained a specimen from Panama in 1882 , but it had been destroyed in a fire before it could be studied . Jordan and Gilbert named the new species ommata ( Greek for " eyed " ) in reference to the distinctive spot on its back , and assigned it to the genus Discopyge . In 1948 , Henry Bryant Bigelow and William Charles Schroeder created the new genus Diplobatis for this species based on then @-@ unique subdivision of its nostrils . Three other species of Diplobatis have since been described from the Atlantic . The Atlantic species more closely resemble each other in morphology than they do the ocellated electric ray , though as a whole all four Diplobatis species are extremely similar . Another common name for this species is " target ray " .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the ocellated electric ray is heart- or trowel @-@ shaped and slightly wider than long . A pair of large , kidney @-@ shaped electric organs are visible through the skin on either side of the head . The small eyes are followed by smaller spiracles , which have seven to ten small , rounded projections on their rims . The snout is broadly rounded , with each nostril divided into two openings by a strut . Between the nostrils is a curtain of skin with a smooth to gently wavy posterior margin . The small mouth forms a transverse line ; the edge of the lower jaw is scalloped , and when closed usually conceals the teeth . There are 14 – 16 tooth rows in each jaw . The small and pointed teeth become progressively longer and sharper towards the back , and are arranged in a quincunx pattern . Five pairs of small gill slits are present on the underside of the disc .
The large pelvic fins originate beneath the disc and have convex trailing margins . Adult males have very short and thick claspers . The broad and flattened tail is shorter than the disc and bears a fold of skin along either side . There are two small dorsal fins , both with rounded to angular apices ; the first is slightly smaller than the second , and its position varies from over to behind the pelvic fins . The caudal fin is triangular with rounded corners , and is roughly symmetrical above and below . The skin is soft and entirely devoid of dermal denticles .
The dorsal coloration of the ocellated electric ray is extremely variable , with the only constant being the large ocellus ( " eyespot " ) in the middle of the back . The center of the ocellus is black or yellow , which is surrounded by concentric , alternating dark and light rings that may be either continuous or broken . The remainder of the upper surface is most commonly a shade of light brown with numerous fine dark dots ; there may also be light dots , larger dark spots or blotches , and / or irregular brown marbling . Some individuals are plain light or dark brown with a black ocellus . The portion of the disc in front of the eyes is brown with up to five darker blotches . The dorsal pattern often extends to the ventral fin margins ; the underside is otherwise white to cream @-@ colored . This species grows up to 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The ocellated electric ray is common in the tropical coastal waters of the eastern Pacific . Its range extends as far north as the Gulf of California and Bahía San Juanico in Baja California Sur , and as far south as Ecuador . A bottom @-@ dwelling species , it has been recorded from the intertidal zone to a depth of 94 m ( 308 ft ) . The favored habitat of this ray is sandy bays , though it can also be found over rubble bottoms , rocky terrain , and rhodolith beds .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Like the rest of its family , the ocellated electric ray can defend itself by producing a moderate electric shock . During the day , this solitary ray spends most of its time lying partially buried in sand , often near rocky reefs . It becomes more active at night , using its pelvic fins to " hop " along the sea floor . It feeds on small crustaceans such as amphipods and shrimp , as well as polychaete worms . Parasites documented from this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium dollyae , A. maryanskii , and A. royi , and the fluke Anaporrhutum euzeti . Though reproductive details are unknown , the ocellated electric ray is presumably viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained first by yolk and later by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) , as in other electric rays . Females mature sexually at under 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) long ; the maturation size for males is unknown .
= = Human interactions = =
The shock from the ocellated electric ray is not dangerous to humans . It occasionally appears in the home aquarium trade , but is difficult to keep because it requires live invertebrates for food . The ocellated electric ray and other electric rays are used as model organisms in biomedical research because their electric organs are rich in ion channels and acetylcholine receptors , which play important roles in the human nervous system . The protein agrin , which concentrates acetylcholine receptors during human embryonic development , was first isolated from this species . Though the ocellated electric ray is not utilized economically , it is caught incidentally by shrimp trawlers . Its mortality from fishing has not been quantified but is thought to be high , considering that trawling operations in the Atlantic are known to take Diplobatis species in large numbers . The catch rate is also probably underestimated due to problematic identification . Given the restricted range of this species and the intensity of trawling within its habitat , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Vulnerable .
= The Gold @-@ Bug =
" The Gold @-@ Bug " is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe published in 1843 . The plot follows William Legrand who was bitten by a gold @-@ colored bug . His servant Jupiter fears that Legrand is going insane and goes to Legrand 's friend , an unnamed narrator , who agrees to visit his old friend . Legrand pulls the other two into an adventure after deciphering a secret message that will lead to a buried treasure .
The story , set on Sullivan 's Island , South Carolina , is often compared with Poe 's " tales of ratiocination " as an early form of detective fiction . Poe became aware of the public 's interest in secret writing in 1840 and asked readers to challenge his skills as a code @-@ breaker . He took advantage of the popularity of cryptography as he was writing " The Gold @-@ Bug " , and the success of the story centers on one such cryptogram . The characterization of Legrand 's servant Jupiter has been criticized as racist from a modern perspective , especially because his speech is written in dialect and because of his often comical dialogue .
Poe submitted " The Gold @-@ Bug " as an entry to a writing contest sponsored by the Philadelphia Dollar Newspaper . His story won the grand prize and was published in three installments , beginning in June 1843 . The prize also included $ 100 , probably the largest single sum that Poe received for any of his works . " The Gold @-@ Bug " was an instant success and was the most popular and most widely read of Poe 's works during his lifetime . It also helped popularize cryptograms and secret writing .
= = Plot summary = =
William Legrand has relocated from New Orleans to Sullivan 's Island in South Carolina after losing his family fortune , and has brought his African @-@ American servant Jupiter with him . The story 's narrator , a friend of Legrand , visits him one evening to see an unusual scarab @-@ like bug he has found . The bug 's weight and lustrous appearance convince Jupiter that it is made of pure gold . Legrand has lent it to an officer stationed at a nearby fort , but he draws a sketch of it for the narrator , with markings on the carapace that resemble a skull . As they discuss the bug , Legrand becomes particularly focused on the sketch and carefully locks it in his desk for safekeeping . Confused , the narrator takes his leave for the night .
One month later , Jupiter visits the narrator and asks him to come immediately , fearing that Legrand has been bitten by the bug and gone insane . Once they arrive on the island , Legrand insists that the bug will be the key to restoring his lost fortune . He leads them on an expedition to a particular tree and has Jupiter climb it until he finds a skull nailed at the end of one branch . At Legrand 's direction , Jupiter drops the bug through one eye socket and Legrand paces out to a spot where the group begins to dig . Finding nothing there , Legrand has Jupiter climb the tree again and drop the bug through the skull 's other eye ; they choose a different spot to dig , this time finding two skeletons and a chest filled with gold coins and jewelry . They estimate the total value at $ 1 @.@ 5 million , but even that figure proves to be below the actual worth when they eventually sell the items .
Legrand explains that on the day he found the bug on the mainland coastline , Jupiter had picked up a scrap piece of parchment to wrap it up . Legrand kept the scrap and used it to sketch the bug for the narrator ; in so doing , though , he noticed traces of invisible ink , revealed by the heat of the fire burning on the hearth . The parchment proved to contain a cryptogram , which Legrand deciphered as a set of directions for finding a treasure buried by the infamous pirate " Captain Kidd . " The final step involved dropping a slug or weight through the left eye of the skull in the tree ; their first dig failed because Jupiter mistakenly dropped it through the right eye instead . Legrand muses that the skeletons may be the remains of two members of Kidd 's crew , who buried the chest and were then killed to silence them .
= = = The cryptogram = = =
The story involves cryptography with a detailed description of a method for solving a simple substitution cipher using letter frequencies . The encoded message is :
53 ‡ ‡ † 305 ) ) 6 * ; 4826 ) 4 ‡ . ) 4 ‡ ) ; 806 * ; 48 † 8
¶ 60 ) ) 85 ; ; ] 8 * ; : ‡ * 8 † 83 ( 88 ) 5 * † ; 46 ( ; 88 * 96
* ? ; 8 ) * ‡ ( ; 485 ) ; 5 * † 2 : * ‡ ( ; 4956 * 2 ( 5 * — 4 ) 8
¶ 8 * ; 4069285 ) ; ) 6 † 8 ) 4 ‡ ‡ ; 1 ( ‡ 9 ; 48081 ; 8 : 8 ‡
1 ; 48 † 85 ; 4 ) 485 † 528806 * 81 ( ‡ 9 ; 48 ; ( 88 ; 4
( ‡ ? 34 ; 48 ) 4 ‡ ; 161 ; : 188 ; ‡ ? ;
The decoded message is :
53 ‡ ‡ † 305 ) ) 6 * ; 4826 ) 4 ‡ . ) 4 ‡ ) ; 806 * ; 48 † 8
agoodglassinthebishopshostelinthede
¶ 60 ) ) 85 ; ; ] 8 * ; : ‡ * 8 † 83 ( 88 ) 5 * † ; 46 ( ; 88 * 96
vilsseattwentyonedegreesandthirteenmi
* ? ; 8 ) * ‡ ( ; 485 ) ; 5 * † 2 : * ‡ ( ; 4956 * 2 ( 5 * — 4 ) 8
nutesnortheastandbynorthmainbranchse
¶ 8 * ; 4069285 ) ; ) 6 † 8 ) 4 ‡ ‡ ; 1 ( ‡ 9 ; 48081 ; 8 : 8 ‡
venthlimbeastsideshootfromthelefteyeo
1 ; 48 † 85 ; 4 ) 485 † 528806 * 81 ( ‡ 9 ; 48 ; ( 88 ; 4
fthedeathsheadabeelinefromthetreeth
( ‡ ? 34 ; 48 ) 4 ‡ ; 161 ; : 188 ; ‡ ? ;
roughtheshotfiftyfeetout
The decoded message with spaces , punctuation , and capitalization is :
A good glass in the bishop 's hostel in the devil 's seat
twenty @-@ one degrees and thirteen minutes northeast and by north
main branch seventh limb east side
shoot from the left eye of the death 's @-@ head
a bee line from the tree through the shot fifty feet out .
Legrand determined that the " bishop 's hostel " referred to the site of an ancient manor house , where he found a narrow ledge that roughly resembled a chair ( the " devil 's seat " ) . Using a telescope and sighting at the given bearing , he spotted something white among the branches of a large tree ; this proved to be the skull through which a weight had to be dropped from the left eye in order to find the treasure .
= = Analysis = =
" The Gold @-@ Bug " includes a cipher that uses a simple substitution cipher . Though he did not invent " secret writing " or cryptography ( he was probably inspired by an interest in Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe ) , Poe certainly popularized it during his time . To most people in the 19th century , cryptography was mysterious and those able to break the codes were considered gifted with nearly supernatural ability . Poe had drawn attention to it as a novelty over four months in the Philadelphia publication Alexander 's Weekly Messenger in 1840 . He had asked readers to submit their own substitution ciphers , boasting he could solve all of them with little effort . The challenge brought about , as Poe wrote , " a very lively interest among the numerous readers of the journal . Letters poured in upon the editor from all parts of the country . " In July 1841 , Poe published " A Few Words on Secret Writing " and , realizing the interest in the topic , wrote " The Gold @-@ Bug " as one of the few pieces of literature to incorporate ciphers as part of the story . Poe 's character Legrand 's explanation of his ability to solve the cipher is very like Poe 's explanation in " A Few Words on Secret Writing " .
The actual " gold @-@ bug " in the story is not a real insect . Instead , Poe combined characteristics of two insects found in the area where the story takes place . The Callichroma splendidum , though not technically a scarab but a species of longhorn beetle ( Cerambycidae ) , has a gold head and slightly gold @-@ tinted body . The black spots noted on the back of the fictional bug can be found on the Alaus oculatus , a click beetle also native to Sullivan 's Island .
Poe 's depiction of the African servant Jupiter is often considered stereotypical and racist from a modern perspective . Jupiter is depicted as superstitious and so lacking in intelligence that he cannot tell his left from his right . Poe probably included the character after being inspired by a similar character in Sheppard Lee ( 1836 ) by Robert Montgomery Bird , which he had reviewed . Black characters in fiction during this time period were not unusual , but Poe 's choice to give him a speaking role was . Critics and scholars , however , question if Jupiter 's accent was authentic or merely comic relief , suggesting it was not similar to accents used by blacks in Charleston but possibly inspired by Gullah .
Though the story is often included amongst the short list of detective stories by Poe , " The Gold @-@ Bug " is not technically detective fiction because Legrand withholds the evidence until after the solution is given . Nevertheless , the Legrand character is often compared to Poe 's fictional detective C. Auguste Dupin due to his use of " ratiocination " . " Ratiocination " , a term Poe used to describe Dupin 's method , is the process by which Dupin detects what others have not seen or what others have deemed unimportant .
= = Publication history and reception = =
Poe originally sold " The Gold @-@ Bug " to George Rex Graham for Graham 's Magazine for $ 52 but asked for it back when he heard about a writing contest sponsored by Philadelphia 's Dollar Newspaper . Incidentally , Poe did not return the money to Graham and instead offered to make it up to him with reviews he would write . Poe won the grand prize ; in addition to winning $ 100 , the story was published in two installments on June 21 and June 28 , 1843 , in the newspaper . His $ 100 payment from the newspaper may have been the most he was paid for a single work . Anticipating a positive public response , the Dollar Newspaper took out a copyright on " The Gold @-@ Bug " prior to publication .
The story was republished in three installments in the Saturday Courier in Philadelphia on June 24 , July 1 , and July 8 , the last two appeared on the front page and included illustrations by F. O. C. Darley . Further reprintings in United States newspapers made " The Gold @-@ Bug " Poe 's most widely read short story during his lifetime . By May 1844 , Poe reported that it had circulated 300 @,@ 000 copies , though he was probably not paid for these reprints . It also helped increase his popularity as a lecturer . One lecture in Philadelphia after " The Gold @-@ Bug " was published drew such a large crowd that hundreds were turned away . As Poe wrote in a letter in 1848 , it " made a great noise . " He would later compare the public success of " The Gold @-@ Bug " with " The Raven " , though he admitted " the bird beat the bug " .
The Public Ledger in Philadelphia called it " a capital story " . George Lippard wrote in the Citizen Soldier that the story was " characterised by thrilling interest and a graphic though sketchy power of description . It is one of the best stories that Poe ever wrote . " Graham 's Magazine printed a review in 1845 which called the story " quite remarkable as an instance of intellectual acuteness and subtlety of reasoning " . Thomas Dunn English wrote in the Aristidean in October 1845 that " The Gold @-@ Bug " probably had a greater circulation than any other American story and " perhaps it is the most ingenious story Mr. POE has written ; but ... it is not at all comparable to the ' Tell @-@ tale Heart ' — and more especially to ' Ligeia ' " . Poe 's friend Thomas Holley Chivers said that " The Gold @-@ Bug " ushered in " the Golden Age of Poe 's Literary Life " .
The popularity of the story also brought controversy . Within a month of its publication , Poe was accused of conspiring with the prize committee by Philadelphia 's Daily Forum . The publication called " The Gold @-@ Bug " an " abortion " and " unmitigated trash " worth no more than $ 15 . Poe filed for a libel lawsuit against editor Francis Duffee . It was later dropped and Duffee apologized for suggesting Poe did not earn the $ 100 prize . Editor John Du Solle accused Poe of stealing the idea for " The Gold @-@ Bug " from " Imogine ; or the Pirate 's Treasure " , a story written by a schoolgirl named Miss Sherburne .
" The Gold @-@ Bug " was republished as the first story in the Wiley & Putnam collection of Poe 's Tales in June 1845 , followed by " The Black Cat " and ten other stories . The success of this collection inspired the first French translation of " The Gold @-@ Bug " published in November 1845 by Alphonse Borghers in the Revue Britannique under the title , " Le Scarabée d 'or " , becoming the first literal translation of a Poe story into a foreign language . In the French version , the enciphered message remained in English , with a parenthesized translation supplied alongside its solution . The story was translated into Russian from that version two years later , marking Poe 's literary debut in that country . In 1856 , Charles Baudelaire published his translation of the tale in the first volume of Histoires extraordinaires . Baudelaire was very influential in introducing Poe 's work to Europe and his translations became the definitive renditions throughout the continent .
= = Influence = =
" The Gold @-@ Bug " inspired Robert Louis Stevenson in his novel about treasure @-@ hunting , Treasure Island ( 1883 ) . Stevenson acknowledged this influence : " I broke into the gallery of Mr. Poe ... No doubt the skeleton [ in my novel ] is conveyed from Poe . "
Poe played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines in his time period and beyond . William F. Friedman , America 's foremost cryptologist , initially became interested in cryptography after reading " The Gold @-@ Bug " as a child — interest that he later put to use in deciphering Japan 's PURPLE code during World War II . " The Gold @-@ Bug " also includes the first use of the term " cryptograph " ( as opposed to " cryptogram " ) .
Poe had been stationed at Fort Moultrie from November 1827 through December 1828 and utilized his personal experience at Sullivan 's Island in recreating the setting for " The Gold @-@ Bug " . It was also here that Poe first heard the stories of pirates like Captain Kidd . The residents of Sullivan 's Island embrace this connection to Poe and have named their public library after him . Local legend in Charleston says that the poem " Annabel Lee " was also inspired by Poe 's time in South Carolina . Poe also set part of " The Balloon @-@ Hoax " and " The Oblong Box " in this vicinity .
O. Henry alludes to the stature of " The Gold @-@ Bug " within the buried @-@ treasure genre in his short story " Supply and Demand " . One character learns that the main characters are searching for treasure , and he asks them if they have been reading Edgar Allan Poe . The title of Richard Powers ' 1991 novel The Gold Bug Variations is derived from " The Gold @-@ Bug " and from Bach 's composition Goldberg Variations , and the novel incorporates part of the short story 's plot .
Jewish Russian author David Shrayer @-@ Petrov published " The House of Edgar Allan Poe " in 2011 Prose , with " The Gold Bug " serving as a major influence . Shrayer @-@ Petrov includes a beetle , also tied to a string , which finds treasure in the basement of the house of Sarah Helen Whitman , Poe 's love interest who lived in Providence , Rhode Island .
= = Adaptations = =
The story proved popular enough in its day that a stage version opened on August 8 , 1843 . The production was put together by Silas S. Steele and was performed at the American Theatre in Philadelphia . The editor of the Philadelphia newspaper The Spirit of the Times said that the performance " dragged , and was rather tedious . The frame work was well enough , but wanted filling up " .
In film and television , an adaptation of the work appeared on Your Favorite Story on February 1 , 1953 ( Season 1 , Episode 4 ) . It was directed by Robert Florey with the teleplay written by Robert Libott . A later adaptation of the work appeared on ABC Weekend Special on February 2 , 1980 ( Season 3 , Episode 7 ) . This version was directed by Robert Fuest with the teleplay written by Edward Pomerantz . A Spanish feature film adaptation of the work appeared in 1983 under the title En busca del dragón dorado . It was written and directed by Jesús Franco , using the alias " James P. Johnson " .
" The Gold Bug " episode on the 1980 ABC Weekend Special series starred Roberts Blossom as Mr. LeGrand , Geoffrey Holder as Jupiter , and Anthony Michael Hall . It won three Daytime Emmy Awards : 1 ) Outstanding Children 's Anthology / Dramatic Programming , Linda Gottlieb ( executive producer ) , Doro Bachrach ( producer ) ; 2 ) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Children 's Programming , Steve Atha ( makeup and hair designer ) ; and , 3 ) Outstanding Individual Achievement in Children 's Programming , Alex Thomson ( cinematographer ) .
A simplified version of the story was included in Murders in the Rue Morgue , and The Gold Bug ( 1973 ) by Robert James Dixson , published by Regents Pub . Co .
A " post @-@ modern " , anti @-@ racist radio dramatization of the story was transmitted on BBC Radio 4 in 2001 . It was written by Gregory Evans , produced and directed by Ned Chaillet , and starred Clarke Peters , Rhashan Stone , and William Hootkins .
The cipher used in " The Gold Bug " was also used in the novel " The Man who Was Poe " by Avi . It was used in the story for the antagonists to communicate and is decrypted by its writer , Edgar Allan Poe .
" The Gold Bug " was produced as a full cast audio drama on the Journey Into ... Podcast . ( 2014 ) Producer : Marshal Latham . Voice actors : Big Anklevich and Rish Outfield .
= Sarcoscypha coccinea =
Sarcoscypha coccinea , commonly known as the scarlet elf cup , scarlet elf cap , or the scarlet cup , is a species of fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae of the order Pezizales . The fungus , widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , has been found in Africa , Asia , Europe , North and South America , and Australia . The type species of the genus Sarcoscypha , S. coccinea has been known by many names since its first appearance in the scientific literature in 1772 . Phylogenetic analysis shows the species to be most closely related to other Sarcoscypha species that contain numerous small oil droplets in their spores , such as the North Atlantic island species S. macaronesica . Due to similar physical appearances and sometimes overlapping distributions , S. coccinea has often been confused with S. occidentalis , S. austriaca , and S. dudleyi .
The saprobic fungus grows on decaying sticks and branches in damp spots on forest floors , generally buried under leaf litter or in the soil . The cup @-@ shaped fruit bodies are usually produced during the cooler months of winter and early spring . The brilliant red interior of the cups — from which both the common and scientific names are derived — contrasts with the lighter @-@ colored exterior . The edibility of the fruit bodies is not clearly established , but its small size , tough texture and insubstantial fruitings would dissuade most people from collecting for the table . The fungus has been used medicinally by the Oneida Indians , and also as a colorful component of table decorations in England . Molliardiomyces eucoccinea is the name given to the imperfect form of the fungus that lacks a sexually reproductive stage in its life cycle .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = =
The species was originally named Helvella coccinea by the Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 . Other early names include Peziza coccinea ( Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin , 1774 ) and Peziza dichroa ( Theodor Holmskjold , 1799 ) . Although some authors in older literature have applied the generic name Plectania to the taxon following Karl Fuckel 's 1870 name change ( e.g. Seaver , 1928 ; Kanouse , 1948 ; Nannfeldt , 1949 ; Le Gal , 1953 ) , that name is now used for a fungus with brownish @-@ black fruit bodies . Sarcoscypha coccinea was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in 1889 .
Obligate synonyms ( different names for the same species based on one type ) include Lachnea coccinea Gillet ( 1880 ) , Macroscyphus coccineus Gray ( 1821 ) , and Peziza dichroa Holmskjold ( 1799 ) . Taxonomic synonyms ( different names for the same species , based on different types ) include Peziza aurantia Schumacher ( 1803 ) , Peziza aurantiaca Persoon ( 1822 ) , Peziza coccinea Jacquin ( 1774 ) , Helvella coccinea Schaeffer ( 1774 ) , Lachnea coccinea Phillips ( 1887 ) , Geopyxis coccinea Massee ( 1895 ) , Sarcoscypha coccinea Saccardo ex Durand ( 1900 ) , Plectania coccinea ( Fuckel ex Seaver ) , and Peziza cochleata Batsch ( 1783 ) .
Sarcoscypha coccinea is the type species of the genus Sarcoscypha , having been first explicitly designated as such in 1931 by Frederick Clements and Cornelius Lott Shear . A 1990 publication revealed that the genus name Sarcoscypha had been used previously by Carl F. P. von Martius as the name of a tribe in the genus Peziza ; according to the rules of Botanical Nomenclature , this meant that the generic name Peziza had priority over Sarcoscypha . To address the taxonomical dilemma , the genus name Sarcoscypha was conserved against Peziza , with S. coccinea as the type species , to " avoid the creation of a new generic name for the scarlet cups and also to avoid the disadvantageous loss of a generic name widely used in the popular and scientific literature " . The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word meaning " deep red " . The species is commonly known as the " scarlet elf cup " , the " scarlet elf cap " , or the " scarlet cup fungus " .
S. coccinea var. jurana was described by Jean Boudier ( 1903 ) as a variety of the species having a brighter and more orange @-@ colored fruit body , and with flattened or blunt @-@ ended ascospores . Today it is known as the distinct species S. jurana . S. coccinea var. albida , named by George Edward Massee in 1903 ( as Geopyxis coccinea var. albida ) , has a cream @-@ colored rather than red interior surface , but is otherwise identical to the typical variety .
Within the large area that includes the temperate to alpine @-@ boreal zone of the Northern Hemisphere ( Europe and North America ) , only S. coccinea had been recognized until the 1980s . However , it had been known since the early 1900s that there existed several macroscopically indistinguishable taxa with various microscopic differences : the distribution and number of oil droplets in fresh spores ; germination behavior ; and spore shape . Detailed analysis and comparison of fresh specimens revealed that what had been collectively called " S. coccinea " actually consisted of four distinct species : S. austriaca , S. coccinea , S. dudleyi , and S. jurana .
The phylogenetic relationships in the genus Sarcoscypha were analyzed by Francis Harrington in the late 1990s . Her cladistic analysis combined comparisons of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer in the non @-@ functional RNA with fifteen traditional morphological characteristics , such as spore features , fruit body shape , and degree of curliness of the " hairs " that form the tomentum . Based on her analysis , S. coccinea is part of a clade that includes the species S. austriaca , S. macaronesica , S. knixoniana and S. humberiana . All of these Sarcoscypha species have numerous , small oil droplets in their spores . Its closest relative , S. macaronesica , is found on the Canary Islands and Madeira ; Harrington hypothesized that the most recent common ancestor of the two species originated in Europe and was later dispersed to the Macaronesian islands .
= = Description = =
Initially spherical , the fruit bodies are later shallowly saucer- or cup @-@ shaped with rolled @-@ in rims , and measure 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . The inner surface of the cup is deep red ( fading to orange when dry ) and smooth , while the outer surface is whitish and covered with a dense matted layer of tiny hairs ( a tomentum ) . The stipe , when present , is stout and up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long ( if deeply buried ) by 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) thick , and whitish , with a tomentum . Color variants of the fungus exist that have reduced or absent pigmentation ; these forms may be orange , yellow , or even white ( as in the variety albida ) . In the Netherlands , white fruit bodies have been found growing in the polders .
Sarcoscypha coccinea is one of several fungi whose fruit bodies have been noted to make a " puffing " sound — an audible manifestation of spore @-@ discharge where thousands of asci simultaneously explode to release a cloud of spores .
Spores are 26 – 40 by 10 – 12 µm , elliptical , smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , and have small lipid droplets concentrated at either end . The droplets are refractive to light and visible with light microscopy . In older , dried specimens ( such as herbarium material ) , the droplets may coalesce and hinder the identification of species . Depending on their geographical origin , the spores may have a delicate mucilaginous sheath or " envelope " ; European specimens are devoid of an envelope while specimens from North America invariably have one .
The asci are long and cylindrical , and taper into a short stem @-@ like base ; they measure 300 – 375 by 14 – 16 µm . Although in most Pezizales all of the ascospores are formed simultaneously through delimitation by an inner and outer membrane , in S. coccinea the ascospores located in the basal parts of the ascus develop faster . The paraphyses ( sterile filamentous hyphae present in the hymenium ) are about 3 µm wide ( and only slightly thickened at the apex ) , and contain red pigment granules .
= = = Anamorph form = = =
Anamorphic or imperfect fungi are those that seem to lack a sexual stage in their life cycle , and typically reproduce by the process of mitosis in structures called conidia . In some cases , the sexual stage — or teleomorph stage — is later identified , and a teleomorph @-@ anamorph relationship is established between the species . The International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants permits the recognition of two ( or more ) names for one and the same organism , one based on the teleomorph , the other ( s ) restricted to the anamorph . The name of the anamorphic state of S. coccinea is Molliardiomyces eucoccinea , first described by Marin Molliard in 1904 . Molliard found the growth of the conidia to resemble those of the genera Coryne and Chlorosplenium rather than the Pezizaceae , and he considered that this suggested an affinity between Sarcoscypha and the family Helvellaceae . In 1972 , John W. Paden again described the anamorph , but like Molliard , failed to give a complete description of the species . In 1984 , Paden created a new genus he named Molliardiomyces to contain the anamorphic forms of several Sarcoscypha species , and set Molliardiomyces eucoccinea as the type species . This form produces colorless conidiophores ( specialized stalks that bear conidia ) that are usually irregularly branched , measuring 30 – 110 by 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 7 µm . The conidia are ellipsoidal to egg @-@ shaped , smooth , translucent ( hyaline ) , and 4 @.@ 8 – 16 @.@ 0 by 2 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 8 µm ; they tend to accumulate in " mucilaginous masses " .
= = = Similar species = = =
Similar species include S. dudleyi and S. austriaca , and in the literature , confusion amongst the three is common . Examination of microscopic features is often required to definitively differentiate between the species . Sarcoscypha occidentalis has smaller cups ( 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 cm wide ) , a more pronounced stalk that is 1 – 3 cm long , and a smooth exterior surface . Unlike S. coccinea , it is only found in the New World and in east and midwest North America , but not in the far west . It also occurs in Central America and the Caribbean . In North America , S. austriaca and S. dudleyi are found in eastern regions of the continent . S. dudleyi has elliptical spores with rounded ends that are 25 – 33 by 12 – 14 µm and completely sheathed when fresh . S. austriaca has elliptical spores that are 29 – 36 by 12 – 15 µm that are not completely sheathed when fresh , but have small polar caps on either end . The Macaronesian species S. macaronesica , frequently misidentified as S. coccinea , has smaller spores , typically measuring 20 @.@ 5 – 28 by 7 @.@ 3 – 11 µm and smaller fruit bodies — up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
A saprobic species , Sarcoscypha coccinea grows on decaying woody material from various plants : the rose family , beech , hazel , willow , elm , and , in the Mediterranean , oak . The fruit bodies of S. coccinea are often found growing singly or clustered in groups on buried or partly buried sticks in deciduous forests . A Hungarian study noted that the fungus was found mainly on twigs of European hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) that were typically less than 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . Fruit bodies growing on sticks above the ground tend to be smaller than those on buried wood . Mushrooms that are sheltered from wind also grow larger than their more exposed counterparts . The fruit bodies are persistent and may last for several weeks if the weather is cool . The time required for the development of fruit bodies has been estimated to be about 24 weeks , although it was noted that " the maximum life span may well be more than 24 weeks because the decline of the colonies seemed to be associated more with sunny , windy weather rather than with old age . " One field guide calls the fungus " a welcome sight after a long , desperate winter and ... the harbinger of a new year of mushrooming . "
Common over much of the Northern Hemisphere , S. coccinea occurs in the Midwest , in the valleys between the Pacific coast , the Sierra Nevada , and the Cascade Range . Its North American distribution extends north to various locations in Canada and south to the Mexican state Jalisco . The fungus has also been collected from Chile in South America . It is also found in the Old World — Europe , Africa , Asia , Australia , and India . Specimens collected from the Macaronesian islands that once thought to be S. coccinea were later determined to be the distinct species S. macaronesica . A 1995 study of the occurrence of British Sarcoscypha ( including S. coccinea and S. austriaca ) concluded that S. coccinea was becoming very rare in Great Britain . All species of Sarcoscypha , including S. coccinea , are Red @-@ Listed in Europe . In Turkey , it is considered critically endangered .
= = Chemistry = =
The red color of the fruit bodies is caused by five types of carotenoid pigments , including plectaniaxanthin and β @-@ carotene . Carotenoids are lipid @-@ soluble and are stored within granules in the paraphyses . British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller suggested that pigments in fruit bodies exposed to the Sun absorb some of the Sun 's rays , raising the temperature of the hymenium — hastening the development of the ascus and subsequent spore discharge .
Lectins are sugar @-@ binding proteins that are used in blood typing , biochemical studies and medical research . A lectin has been purified and characterized from S. coccinea fruit bodies that can bind selectively to several specific carbohydrate molecules , including lactose .
= = Uses = =
Sarcoscypha coccinea was used as a medicinal fungus by the Oneida Indians , and possibly by other tribes of the Iroquois Six Nations . The fungus , after being dried and ground up into a powder , was applied as a styptic , particularly to the navels of newborn children that were not healing properly after the umbilical cord had been severed . Pulverized fruit bodies were also kept under bandages made of soft @-@ tanned deerskin . In Scarborough , England , the fruit bodies used to be arranged with moss and leaves and sold as a table decoration .
The species is said to be edible , inedible , or " not recommended " , depending on the author . Although its insubstantial fruit body and low numbers do not make it particularly suitable for the table , one source claims " children in the Jura are said to eat it raw on bread and butter ; and one French author suggests adding the cups , with a little Kirsch , to a fresh fruit salad . " The fruit bodies have been noted to be a source of food for rodents in the winter , and slugs in the summer .
= = = Cited books = = =
Buller AHR . ( 1958 ) . Researches on Fungi 6 . New York , New York : Hafner Publishing .
= Kissing You ( Des 'ree song ) =
" Kissing You " ( or " I 'm Kissing You " ) is a song by British singer Des 'ree . It was written by the singer with Timothy Atack for Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 film Romeo + Juliet . The song was included on the film 's soundtrack album and Des 'ree 's third studio album , Supernatural ( 1998 ) . A pop ballad set in the key of A minor , the record uses a simple instrumentation consisting only of piano and string instruments . " Kissing You " featured in Romeo + Juliet when the title characters meet at a ball . The song was well received by critics for its emotional melody and toned @-@ down production . First released as a single in Australia on 24 February 1997 , it appeared on the ARIA Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart . A music video accompanied the single , which included scenes from Romeo + Juliet .
" Kissing You " has been covered by Beyoncé ( 2007 ) , Taylor Dayne ( 2008 ) and Stan Walker ( 2010 ) . Beyoncé filmed a music video for her rendition , which she retitled " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " . The change of title and music video went against copyright terms , and thus Des 'ree 's publishers filed a lawsuit against Beyoncé and her representatives . Infringing albums were recalled , and both sides agreed that the case be dismissed with prejudice .
= = Background and composition = =
" Kissing You " was written by Des 'ree and Timothy Atack , and was produced by Nellee Hooper . The string instruments were arranged by Craig Armstrong , while Andy Todd and Jim Abbiss engineered the record . The pop ballad uses only piano and string instrumentation . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by T C F Music Publishing , Inc . , " Kissing You " is set in 12 / 8 time with a moderately slow tempo of 112 beats per minute . Written in the key of A minor , it has a sequence of Dm7 – Am7 – G / B – C – G / B – Am7 – C / G as its chord progression . Des 'ree 's voice spans from the low note of A3 to the high note of D5 .
" Kissing You " is featured during Romeo + Juliet , directed by Baz Luhrmann , when Romeo ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) and Juliet ( Claire Danes ) first meet at a ball at the Capulets ' mansion ; Des 'ree also appears in the scene performing the song . The song was featured on the film 's soundtrack album , and was included on Des 'ree 's third studio album , Supernatural ( 1998 ) . Sony Music released the single via compact disc on 18 June 1997 . " Kissing You " was also sold as the B @-@ side to " Life " ( 1998 ) in the UK . The musical interlude in the middle of " Kissing You " was used to promote the UEFA Euro 2004 .
= = Reception = =
New Statesman 's Lisa Jardine noted " Kissing You " as " a high point " of the film . J. D. Considine wrote for The Baltimore Sun that " the tremulous intensity of Des 'ree 's ' Kissing You ' has more emotional impact than many films " . In a review of Supernatural for Entertainment Weekly , Considine later commended the " throaty emotionalism " with which Des 'ree sang " Kissing You " . Jim Farber from the Daily News noted the song as the standout track from Supernatural and claimed that it " stands as the only track to deepen the mood , bringing out the indigo pleasures of her voice . " The Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch 's Kate Lipper called the record " an excellent slow song that you can play nonstop " . However , Ann Powers from The New York Times wrote that Des 'ree is too melodramatic on " Kissing You " . In an interview with The Sunday Telegraph , Charlotte Church described the song as one of her favourites : " This is one of the most beautiful songs I 've ever heard . It 's an original sound and they sing it so well . There 's no beat , it 's just a lovely , lulling song . " " Kissing You " debuted on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 42 on the week ending 9 March 1997 . It rose to its peak position of number 17 on 20 April 1997 , and slipped of the chart in June , having spent 13 weeks on the chart . In December 2010 , " Kissing You " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 137 . In 2013 Abbey Clancy waltzed to " Kissing You " on the 11th series of Strictly Come Dancing , and the song reentered the UK Singles Chart and reached a new peak of number 91 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Kissing You " features scenes of Romeo + Juliet , mainly those when Romeo and Juliet first meet at the Capulets ' ball . Interspersed are clips of Des 'ree singing the song in an empty building , with water on the floor . Towards the end of the video , some of the final scenes of the film are displayed , and the building that Des 'ree is in is illuminated through the windows . The video was included on the film 's special edition DVD , released in 2002 .
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Kissing You " – 4 : 56
" You Gotta Be " – 4 : 06
" Warm Hands , Cold Heart " – 4 : 35
" Sword of Love " – 4 : 03
" Livin ' in the City " ( Meme 's Extended Club Mix ) – 7 : 46
= = Cover versions = =
New Zealand singer Hayley Westenra covered " I 'm Kissing You " for her 2007 album Prayer . " Kissing You " was covered by Taylor Dayne , whose version appears as the eighth track on her fifth studio album , Satisfied ( 2008 ) . Her recording contains slow jam drums and backing singers . Australian Idol winner Stan Walker recorded his rendition of the song as the twelfth track on his second studio album , From the Inside Out ( 2010 ) . Allmusic 's Jon O 'Brien called it " a faithful rendition " . The New Zealand Herald 's Kara Scott noted that his cover was " a little over @-@ wrought and soppy , [ but ] it shows the true range and quality of Walker 's voice . " Cameron Adams of The Daily Telegraph noted that " for those who want to hear that voice sing something familiar , the lush but simple cover of Des 'ree 's ' Kissing You ' will cause jaws to drop . "
= = = Beyoncé version = = =
" Kissing You " was covered by American R & B singer Beyoncé under the title " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " , later replaced with other track " If " . Beyoncé 's rendition was included on the 2007 deluxe edition of her second studio album , B 'Day . Beyoncé contributed to the writing and production processes , and it was one of the last tracks to be added to the album . She called the song " a beautiful ballad " and said , " I 've always loved [ ' Kissing You ' ] . It gives you this emotion – I don 't care who you are , you just feel it . And it meant a lot for me to do this . " While reviewing the deluxe edition of B 'Day , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the song , saying that it " sound [ s ] downright subtle " .
= = = = Music video = = = =
A music video for the song was shot and directed by Cliff Watts , who had also shot Beyoncé 's Sports Illustrated cover . The video for the song served as the closing clip for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , and was filmed on Super 8 mm film in Miami . Beyoncé discussed the music video with MTV , stating that , " [ The video ] feels like something you shouldn 't be seeing , like you found a home video . It 's very raw : no retouching , no special effects . That 's who I am . You can see my soul . " In an interview with Vibe Beyoncé recalled the video , " I didn 't have any hair and makeup . [ The video features ] just me on the beach and in the sun , and I brought one bathing suit ' cause I was there for myself . It 's very artistic and grimy , and [ there is ] no retouching . It is what it is . "
= = = = Lawsuit = = = =
Des 'ree 's publishers , the Royalty Network , filed a lawsuit against Sony BMG , Sony BMG Sales Enterprise , Beyoncé , B @-@ Day Publishing and EMI April Music , claiming that Beyoncé 's cover of the song infringed copyright conditions . On 13 February 2007 , Beyoncé 's representatives had sought permission to use interpolations of " Kissing You " . The Royalty Network offered Beyoncé the use of the song under certain terms . Two of the conditions of the proposal were that the song 's title remain the same , and that the song was not published in video form . Beyoncé made no further contact with the Royalty Network , and planned to release " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " and its video , regardless of the two requested conditions , which the Royalty Network called " completely unacceptable " . The publishing company requested that Sony Music Entertainment ( SME ) — the parent company of Columbia Records — halt distribution of B 'Day with the retitled song . Nevertheless , the album was released on 3 April 2007 ; the Royalty Network considered the action " willful disregard " , and retracted their permission to use the song . The lawsuit , filed on 16 April 2007 in the District Court for the Southern District of New York , sought US $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages and a recall of the infringing material . The same day , SME ceased distribution of both the deluxe edition of B 'Day and the anthology video album , although the editions had sold over 214 @,@ 000 copies before the recall . Later reissues of the albums did not include " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " and its video , with " If " replacing the track on the B 'Day deluxe edition . An injunction hearing was scheduled for 4 May , and later postponed until 14 May 2007 . On 12 October 2007 , the case was dismissed with prejudice , by agreement of all parties . Beyoncé 's father and manager , Mathew Knowles , stated that his daughter did not know about the copyright issues prior to the legal action , and that recording artists rarely involve themselves with such matters .
= Terra Prime =
" Terra Prime " is the 21st episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on May 13 , 2005 . The story was developed by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , along with André Bormanis , and developed into a script by the Reeves @-@ Stevenses and show runner Manny Coto . The episode is the second of a two @-@ part story , which started in " Demons " . The episode was directed by Marvin Rush , his second for the series .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , John Frederick Paxton , the leader of the xenophobic human group Terra Prime , threatens to use an array on Mars to destroy Starfleet Command , unless all aliens leave Earth immediately . Enterprise , Captain Archer and an away team covertly take a shuttlepod to the array and attempt to stop Paxton and rescue their crew @-@ mates .
The guest actors who appeared in " Demons " were joined by Derek Magyar and Eric Pierpoint , who appeared earlier in the season in " Affliction " , while Joel Swetow had previously appeared in episodes of Deep Space Nine and The Next Generation . The script called for a reference to the United States space program and so the Carl Sagan Memorial Station and the Mars Exploration Rover Sojourner were included in a shot added in post production . " Terra Prime " received a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 0 / 4 % and it was praised by critics who described it as a " real " episode and there were suggestions that had Enterprise gone into a further season then the story could have acted as an ongoing subplot . It was ranked as the best episode of the series by Empire magazine .
= = Plot = =
Commander T 'Pol and Commander Tucker remain captives of Paxton , who continues to broadcast his demand on all channels and frequencies . Paxton 's action has an unsettling effect on the interspecies conference since it is clear that not all humans support it . On Mars , Paxton allows T 'Pol and Tucker see the baby , and T 'Pol uses her scanner to learn that the child is unwell ( and that Paxton has been using Rigelian gene therapy to treat himself ) . Seeking to fine @-@ tune their attack , Paxton then threatens T 'Pol to force Tucker to optimize the targeting system of the array .
Enterprise is then ordered to Mars to destroy the array , but is turned away when a warning shot from the weapon damages the ship . Gannet Brooks , now in the brig , reveals to Ensign Mayweather she is a Starfleet Intelligence operative , and that Terra Prime probably has an operative aboard . Under the urging of Minister Samuels , the crew of Enterprise conceive a way to approach the deadly station undetected , using a shuttlepod hidden inside the tail of a comet . Captain Archer elects to lead the away mission , along with Lieutenant Reed , Doctor Phlox , and Mayweather .
En route , the shuttle 's systems suddenly fail , nearly causing it to crash . Landing on Mars , the team then infiltrate Paxton 's ship . Teaming up with Tucker , who has escaped his cell , they battle the Terra Prime followers in the control room . During the shoot out , Paxton manages to lock the firing sequence — fortunately , Tucker has altered the targeting , and the beam misses . With Paxton under arrest , the hybrid child , named Elizabeth after Tucker 's sister , is delivered to Phlox who unfortunately cannot do anything to save her . Investigations also reveal that Ensign Masaro was the spy , and he dies by his own hand . Back in Starfleet , Archer makes an impassioned speech to convince the delegates to explore the universe 's mysteries together .
= = Production = =
Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens created the story with André Bormanis and developed it into a script with show runner Manny Coto . Because of the nature of the two @-@ part episode , revisions to the scripts for both " Demons " and " Terra Prime " were required as changes occurred in the other script . The Reeves @-@ Stevens felt that a " ticking clock " was required for " Terra Prime " , and so the 24 @-@ hour deadline set by Paxton 's group was written into the end of " Demons " . However , that exact ending was changed on several occasions which resulted in modifications to the " Terra Prime " script . Other changes were made following the filming of " Demons " as the Reeves @-@ Stevens changed some of the dialogue for Paxton after seeing Peter Weller 's performance . Shran , played by Jeffrey Combs , was written out of the episode as the decision was made to have the character appear in the series finale instead .
Filming began on " Terra Prime " on the afternoon of February 15 , 2005 and continued until February 25 . It was the second episode to be directed by Marvin Rush , who had previously worked on the second part of " In a Mirror , Darkly " . Rush was normally the director of photography on Enterprise . Whilst the majority of sets created for the Martian array had been created for the previous episode , a set was created to appear as an access tube specially for use in " Terra Prime " . In order to represent the shuttlecraft entering the comet , rather than using camera movement , the set was placed on rollers and physically moved to appear turbulent . The Martian landscape was inserted using a green screen where the away team enter the array , and the actors had make @-@ up applied to represent the red dust of the Martian landscape .
Several guest stars who had appeared in " Demons " continued in their roles in " Terra Prime " ; Harry Groener , Peter Mensah , Adam Clark along with Weller and Watts . A reference to Weller 's former show Odyssey 5 is included in the episode , when his character is diagnosed with " Taggart 's Syndrome " , where Taggart was the name of his character on Odyssey 5 . They were joined in this episode by several actors playing recurring roles , including Gary Graham who had played Ambassador Soval since the series pilot and Derek Magyar and Eric Pierpoint , who had played Commander Kelby and Harris respectively earlier in the season in " Affliction " . Joel Swetow also appeared in " Terra Prime " as an Andorian Ambassador , who had previously appeared in the pilot of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and the The Next Generation episode " Firstborn " as well as performing voice roles for several Star Trek video games . The baby in the episode was played by a pair of twins , whilst the pointed Vulcan ears were applied to the child in post production .
The script requested two post production shots to be added as references to the American space program , which would have been shown as the shuttlepod landed on Mars . These included the Mars Exploration Rover Sojourner which appeared in the opening titles of Enterprise , now lying dormant and covered in dust . A further shot showed a plaque which denoted the landing spot of the rover on board the Carl Sagan Memorial Station . Following the cancellation of the series two episodes earlier , Coto stated that he considered " Demons " and " Terra Prime " to be the actual finale of the Enterprise storyline , rather than the final aired episode " These Are the Voyages ... which would be a goodbye to the franchise . "
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Terra Prime " was first aired in the United States on UPN on May 13 , 2005 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fifth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 0 / 4 . This means that it was seen by 2 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , which aired re @-@ runs of What I Like About You and Reba , but was behind the other four major networks with a CBS special on Elvis Presley receiving ratings of 7 @.@ 8 / 14 . This was the same ratings received by " Demons " , but was less than the final episode , " These Are the Voyages ... " which received ratings of 2 @.@ 4 / 4 when it was aired immediately after " Terra Prime " .
Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation , saying that it felt like a " real Star Trek episode " but wasn 't sure about the characterisation for T 'Pol seen in " Terra Prime " . She would have preferred to see more of Mars , but was pleased with the glimpse of the Carl Sagan Memorial Station . She summed it up by saying that the two episodes were " no means perfect episodes , but they 're reaching very earnestly for what Star Trek was in the beginning " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " said that while there were plot holes in the story , and that elements were clumsy such as the showdown towards the end , the overall story was " sound " . He said that the episode was a " much more satisfying as a send @-@ off for the Enterprise crew " than " These Are the Voyages ... " . He gave " Terra Prime " a score of three out of four .
The review from IGN said that " In a perfect world , Enterprise would have gotten another year and could have used Terra Prime as a running subplot . " While they thought that the message was heavy @-@ handed , it was the type of stories that Enterprise should have been covering all along . They gave " Demons " and " Terra Prime " a score of four out of five . Jay Garmon , whilst compiling a list of the best episodes of Enterprise , listed " Demons " and " Terra Prime " as the third best . He thought that Peter Weller " stole the show " , and that it created a " solid conclusion " to the show despite the following episode , " These Are the Voyages ... " . Empire magazine ranked " Terra Prime " as the best episode of the series .
" Terra Prime " was released on home media in the United States on November 1 , 2005 , as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Castell y Bere =
Castell y Bere is a Welsh castle near Llanfihangel @-@ y @-@ pennant in Gwynedd , Wales . Constructed by Llywelyn the Great in the 1220s , the stone castle was intended to maintain his authority over the local people and to defend the south @-@ west part of the princedom of Gwynedd . In 1282 war with Edward I of England resulted in the death of Llywelyn 's grandson , Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , and Castell y Bere fell to English forces . Edward I expanded the castle further and established a small town beside it . In 1294 the Welsh leader Madoc ap Llywelyn mounted a major revolt and the castle was besieged and apparently burnt . Edward did not repair it and it became ruined . Today it is in the hands of Cadw and operated as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 1220 @-@ 40 = = =
Castell y Bere Castle was built in the 1220s by Llywelyn the Great on a rocky hillock overlooking the Dysynni Valley , near Llanfihangel @-@ y @-@ pennant . Traditionally the Welsh princes had not constructed castles , instead using undefended palaces called ilysoedd , or courts . From the late 11th century onwards , the Normans had advanced into Wales , taking lands in the north and establishing a band of occupied territory in the south called the Welsh Marches . During the 12th century some timber and earthwork castles began to be built , but in small numbers .
Llywelyn the Great initially controlled the princedom of Gwynedd , but grew more powerful over the course of his reign , extending his influence over much of Wales during the early years of the 13th century . Llywelyn was faced by several challenges , including dealing with the threat from the kings of England , and maintaining his authority over the native Welsh .
In 1221 Llywelyn took control of neighbouring Meirionnydd from his son , Gruffydd ; Llywelyn had previously placed Gruffydd in power there , but the father and son had fallen out . The prince then began to build the castle of Castell y Bere with the intent of controlling the local population and securing his new south @-@ west border , which included the mountain trade routes between Gwynedd , Powys Wenwynwyn and Deheubarth . Castell y Bere was the first of several stone castles built by Llywelyn and the initial castle consisted of several towers positioned around a courtyard , situated on a rocky hillock in the Dysynni Valley near Cadair Idris .
= = = 1240 @-@ 1300 = = =
Following Llywelyn 's death in 1240 , Gwynedd 's power declined and many of its eastern lands were taken by Henry III of England in 1247 . Llywelyn 's grandson , Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , took power in 1255 and imprisoned his brother Owain ap Gruffudd before extending his power across Wales . Llywelyn extended the castle with an additional tower to the south , similar to that built at Dolforwyn , probably in order to provide additional accommodation .
The conflict between the Welsh princes and the English kings continued in the reign Edward I. In 1282 Llywelyn fought a final campaign against Edward , ending in the prince 's death near Builth that December . His brother , Dafydd ap Gruffydd , assumed power but during 1283 was forced south into Snowdonia . Meanwhile , forces under the command of Roger Lestrange and William de Valence marched from south Wales and Shropshire , placing Castell y Bere under siege and taking it on 25 April . Edward deployed 7 @,@ 000 troops to detain Dafydd who was finally captured and executed in October . A team of five masons and five carpenters , under the command of Master Bertram the Engineer , were left at Castell y Bere to conduct unspecified work after the English army had left .
Edward continued to invest money and time in Castell y Bere ; he visited three times in 1284 , establishing a small town alongside the castle , possibly just to the east . Walter of Huntercombe was appointed the constable of the castle by Edward in 1284 and spent £ 47 building a new chamber there , potentially for the king to use during visits . Another £ 262 was spent between 1286 and 1290 , most of this in the year following the revolt of Rhys ap Maredudd . A pair of linking walls to the south tower was probably built around this time , and the external barbican and gate towers may also have been built at this time .
In 1294 , however , the Welsh leader Madoc ap Llywelyn mounted a major revolt across Wales . Richard Fitzalan , the Earl of Arundel , was ordered in mid @-@ October to ensure that the castle was secure , but by late October the castle was under siege from Madoc 's forces . Robert FitzWalter , the castle 's constable , was sent to lead a relief expedition . The final fate of Castell y Bere is uncertain , but it was probably taken by Welsh forces in late 1294 and subsequently burnt .
= = = 14th @-@ 21st century = = =
Following the revolt Castell de Bere and the new English town were both abandoned . While the castle was well situated , unlike the other new coastal castles built by Edward I it could not be provisioned by sea and as a result did not fit well into his plan for controlling North Wales . By the 16th century the castle had lapsed into a state of decay , and the Welsh poet Gruffydd Hiraethog observed that " on the banks of the river Dysynni is Castell @-@ y @-@ Bere , where stood a large strong building but which is now destroyed and cast to the ground " .
After many years , the site was finally cleared of undergrowth in the 1850s , revealing more of the castle 's remains , and William Wynne , the owner of the site , carried out the first archaeological investigations . In 1949 Charles Corbett , the last private owner of the ruins , placed them into the guardianship of the state . In the 21st century the site is in the care of Cadw and is protected as a scheduled monument and maintained as a tourist attraction . In the light of Welsh devolution and other political changes , the history of Castell y Bere and similar Welsh castles has become increasing prominent . In response , Cadw have noted that they intend to give an increased priority to communicating the history of these castles and the Welsh princes .
= = Architecture = =
Today the ruins of Castell y Bere still stand on a rocky outcrop , with protective ditches cut into the stone on the south and east sides . The entrance to the castle lies on the west side , where the barbican , probably built by Edward I , contains two gatetowers , overlooking the stone steps approaching the inner gate . Through the barbican is the castle courtyard , containing a large well and the remains of several internal buildings of uncertain date .
The north tower is an apsidal , or " D @-@ shaped " , design that is characteristic of Welsh castles of the early 13th century . Originally it may have contained either a hall or a chapel . What is today the middle tower was originally the southernmost part of the defences , but now leads through the Edwardian ditch yard to the south tower , another apsidal design that once contained spacious accommodation . Both the apsidal towers lacked fireplaces in the main chambers , instead using central heaths to heat the rooms .
Unusually for an early Welsh castle , there is evidence of decorative sculpture , including statues of soldiers , having been built into the castle , along with decorative floor tiles . Castell y Bere is the only castle , other than Criccieth , to display such features . Historian Lawrence Butler considers that the castle has delivered some of " some of the finest stone carving from thirteenth @-@ century Wales " .
= K @-@ 60 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 60 is a 4 @.@ 284 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 894 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . It runs from U.S. Route 36 ( US 36 ) north to K @-@ 383 near Almena . The route was established around 1930 .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 60 begins at an intersection with US 36 11 miles east of Norton and 19 miles west of Phillipsburg . The highway heads north , surrounded by a grassland terrain marked with several fields . The road turns northwestward . After an intersection with Main Street , K @-@ 60 turns back northward towards Almena . The highway ends at an intersection with K @-@ 383 near the Kyle Railroad .
The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that a total of 115 vehicles used the road daily , including 20 trucks . No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's defence , mobility , and economy .
= = History = =
K @-@ 60 was built and established between 1927 and 1932 by the Kansas State Highway Commission , who was at the time responsible for maintaining highways in Kansas . At this time , the road was surfaced with gravel . The entire route was paved between 1948 and 1950 . Since then , the road 's designation has not been changed .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Almena Township , Norton County .
= Indigo bunting =
The indigo bunting ( Passerina cyanea ) is a small seed @-@ eating bird in the family Cardinalidae . It is migratory , ranging from southern Canada to northern Florida during the breeding season , and from southern Florida to northern South America during the winter . It often migrates by night , using the stars to navigate . Its habitat is farmland , brush areas , and open woodland . The indigo bunting is closely related to the lazuli bunting and interbreeds with the species where their ranges overlap .
The indigo bunting is a small bird , with a length of 11 @.@ 5 – 13 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) . It displays sexual dimorphism in its coloration ; the male is a vibrant blue in the summer and a brown color during the winter months , while the female is brown year @-@ round . The male displays brightly colored plumage during the breeding season to attract a mate . Nest @-@ building and incubation are done solely by the female . The diet of the indigo bunting consists primarily of insects during the summer months and seeds during the winter months .
= = Taxonomy = =
The indigo bunting is included in the family Cardinalidae , which is made up of passerine birds found in North and South America , and is one of seven birds in the genus Passerina . It was originally described as Tanagra cyanea by Linnaeus in his 18th @-@ century work , Systema Naturae . The current genus name , Passerina , is derived from the Latin term passer for true sparrows and similar small birds , while the species name , cyanea , is from the Latin word meaning dark or sea blue .
The indigo bunting is closely related to the lazuli bunting and interbreeds with the species where their ranges overlap , in the Great Plains . They were declared to form a superspecies by the American Ornithologists ' Union in 1983 . However , according to sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome @-@ b gene of members of the genus Passerina , it was determined that the indigo bunting and lazuli bunting are not , in fact , sister taxa . The indigo bunting is the sister of two sister groups , a “ blue ” ( lazuli bunting and blue grosbeak ) and a “ painted ” ( Rosita 's bunting , orange @-@ breasted bunting , varied bunting , and painted bunting ) clade . This genetic study shows these species diverged between 4 @.@ 1 and 7 @.@ 3 million years ago . This timing , which is consistent with fossil evidence , coincides with a late @-@ Miocene cooling , which caused the evolution of a variety of western grassland habitats . Evolving to reduce size may have allowed buntings to exploit grass seeds as a food source .
= = Description = =
The indigo bunting is a smallish songbird , around the size of a small sparrow . It measures 11 @.@ 5 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , with a wingspan of 18 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) . Body mass averages 14 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 51 oz ) , with a reported range of 11 @.@ 2 – 21 @.@ 4 g
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i 's book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , Leonard explained that he was not comfortable with the lyrics and the sexual innuendos present in it . He gave the example of the first verse for " Like a Prayer " which goes " When you call my name , It 's like a little prayer , I 'm down on my knees , I wanna take you there . " Leonard understood that the dual meaning of the lines referred to someone performing fellatio . He was aghast and requested that Madonna change the line , but she was adamant about keeping it .
= = Recording = =
Once Madonna and Leonard finished writing the lyrics of " Like a Prayer " , they decided to record it alongside a choir at the end of 1988 . He wanted to have a quick recording session for the song , as he believed that not much work would be needed for it . Madonna and Leonard met with musician Andraé Crouch and a member of his management team / vocalist Roberto Noriega and signed his choir as one of the background vocalists . Since Crouch was the leader of the Los Angeles Church of God choir , he researched the lyrics of the song , as he wanted to " find out what the intention of the song might be . We 're very particular in choosing what we work with , and we liked what we heard . " At Jonny Yuma recording studio , Crouch got his choir together and explained to them what they needed to do during the recording session . He had listened to the demo of " Like a Prayer " in his car , and directed his choir according to his own interpretations of the music . The choir was recorded separately , and Leonard wanted it to be added during post @-@ production of the song .
Recording took more time than usual since Madonna and Leonard fought " tooth and nail " according to O 'Brien , the reason being Madonna wanting to prove everybody that her second time as a record producer was not a fluke . Leonard worked on the chord changes for the verses and the chorus . He hired guitarist Bruce Gaitsch and bass guitar player Guy Pratt as musicians for " Like a Prayer " . Pratt had in turn hired some additional drummers who were supposed to reach Jonny Yuma in the morning . However , the person cancelled at the last minute , which irritated Madonna greatly , and she started shouting and swearing profusely at Leonard . Pratt did not end up being fired , but as recording started for " Like a Prayer " , he realized that Madonna would not forgive him easily ; she called him at late nights for his opinion , and urgently asking him to come to the recording studio , only to dismiss him . In the meantime , Leonard hired British drum and guitar players such as Chester Kamens , David Williams and Dann Huff . He commented that the choice was deliberate since he was a fan of British rock , and wanted that kind of attitude and quirkiness of the musicians in " Like a Prayer " , as well as the other songs of the album . Madonna had her own opinion of how the different musical instruments should be played to achieve the sound that she envisioned .
Pratt recalled that after the middle chorus of the song was recorded , Madonna notified the musicians of some changes in the production . She wanted drummer Jonathan Moffet to " do less of the high @-@ hat in the middle eight , and more of a fill towards the end . Guy , I want duck eggs [ semibreves ] on the end , and Chester , bring in your guitar on the second verse . " The team ran through her instructions once more , and did a final take with vocals and one with the string arrangements . Gaitsch heard Madonna telling Leonard that " Like a Prayer " could not be improved further , and that the recording was finished . Leonard then gave the song to Bill Bottrell for the mixing process . As the mixing was nearing completion , Leonard felt that the bongos and the Latin Percussion would sound really mismatched , if Crouch 's choir was to be added afterwards ; hence , he removed them . Junior Vasquez remixed the 12 " version of the track , turning the church capella inside out and overlaying it with Fast Eddie 's single " Let 's Go " .
= = Composition = =
" Like a Prayer " is a pop rock song that incorporates elements of gospel and funk music . According to the sheet music from Alfred Publishing , it was composed using common time in the key of D minor , with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . Madonna 's vocals range from the lower octave of A3 to the two @-@ lined higher note of F5 . " Like a Prayer " starts with a Dm – C / D – Gm / D – Dm chord progression in the opening chorus , and a Dm – C / E – C7 – B ♭ – F / A sequence in the verses . The song begins with the sound of heavy rock guitar that is suddenly cut off after a few seconds , and replaced with the choir and the sound of an organ . Madonna sings the opening lines alongside the light sound of percussion , as drums start during the first verse . The percussion and the choir sound are added interchangeably between the verses and the bridges , until the second chorus . At this point the guitars start flickering from left to right , accompanied by a bubbling sequenced bassline .
Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , commented that " Like a Prayer " was the most complex track that Madonna had ever attempted . According to him , the complexity builds up more after the second chorus , in which the choir fully supports Madonna 's vocals and she re @-@ utters the opening lines , but this time accompanied by a synthesizer and drum beats . As Madonna sings the lines " Just like a prayer , your voice can take me there , Just like , a muse to me , You 're a mystery " , an R & B @-@ influenced voice backs her up along with the choir . The song ends with a final repetition of the chorus and the singing of the choir gradually fading out .
Taraborrelli noted in Madonna : An Intimate Biography that the lyrics of the song consist of " a series of button @-@ pushing anomalies " . With Madonna 's inclusion of double entendres in the lyrics , " Like a Prayer " refers to both the spiritual and the carnal . Taraborrelli felt that the song sounds religious , but with an undertone of sexual tension . This was achieved by the gospel choir , whose voice heightens the song 's spiritual nature , while the rock guitar sounds keep it dark and mysterious . Author Lucy O 'Brien explained how the song 's lyrics describe Madonna receiving a vocation from God : " Madonna is unashamedly her mother 's daughter — kneeling alone in private devotion , contemplating God 's mystery . She sings of being chosen , of having a calling . " The album version features bass guitar played by Guy Pratt doubled by an analogue Minimoog bass synthesizer , while the 7 " version has a different bass part played by Randy Jackson . " Like a Prayer " was also remixed by Shep Pettibone for the 12 " single of the song ; a re @-@ edited version of Pettibone 's mix is featured on Madonna 's 1990 compilation album The Immaculate Collection .
= = Critical reception = =
Following the release of " Like a Prayer " on March 3 , 1989 , it received widespread acclaim from critics and biographers . Taraborrelli commented that the track " deserved every bit of the curiosity it generated . While being devilishly danceable , the song also shows Madonna 's uncanny ability to inspire strong , conflicting emotions during the course of a single song , leaving the listener scratching his head for answers — and craving for more . " Stephen Holden from The New York Times , while writing about Madonna 's re @-@ invention of her image , observed how Madonna 's sound had changed from the " simple blaring dance @-@ pop to the rich , fully rounded pop of ' Like a Prayer ' " . O 'Brien felt that the most remarkable aspect of " Like a Prayer " was Madonna 's usage of liturgical words . " There is the surface meaning , forging sexuality with pop lyrics that sound so sweet . But underlying that is a rigorous mediation on prayer . In shorter words , ' Like a Prayer really takes you there , " she concluded . This view was shared by biographer Mary Cross , who wrote in her biography of Madonna that " the song is a mix of the sacred and the profane . There @-@ in lies Madonna 's triumph with ' Like a Prayer ' . It still sounds catchy and danceable . "
Michael Campbell , author of Popular Music in America : And the Beat Goes On , felt that the soothing melody , which " flows in gently undulating phases " , resembles English singer Steve Winwood 's 1986 single " Higher Love " . Australian rock music journalist Toby Creswell wrote in his book 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets Behind Them that " ' Like a Prayer ' is a beautifully crafted devotional song in the guise of perfect pop . God is the drum machine here . " Scholar Georges Claude Guilbert , author of Madonna as Postmodern Myth : How One Star 's Self @-@ Construction Rewrites Sex , Gender , Hollywood and the American Dream , noted that there was a polysemy in " Like a Prayer " as it was clear that the woman who sings is addressing either God , or her lover , and in doing so “ Madonna achieves the gold @-@ card of attaining her own divinity . Whenever someone calls her name , it alludes to the song . " Theologian Andrew Greeley compared " Like a Prayer " with the music and the hymns present in the Hebrew religious textbook Song of Songs . Greeley , although focusing more on the video , acknowledged the fact that sexual passion may be revelatory , and complimented Madonna for glorifying ideologies of female subjectivity and womanhood in the song .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic called the song haunting and felt that it displayed a commanding sense of Madonna 's songcraft . According to Rolling Stone 's Gavin Edwards , it sounded glorious and " is the most transgressive — and the most irresistible " song of Madonna 's career . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly commented that the " gospel @-@ infused title track demonstrates that her writing and performing had been raised to heavenly new heights . " In a review for The Immaculate Collection compilation album , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the " frothier " texture of the song added poignancy to its spiritual lyrics . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was impressed with the track , saying " ' Like a Prayer ' climbs to heights like no other pop song before it — or after . Like most of the songs on the album , the track 's glossy production gives way to a power beyond studio sonics , and if [ its ] ' church @-@ like ' reverence feels like a religious experience , it 's no mere coincidence . " Writing for the Official UK Charts Company , Justin Myers called " Like a Prayer " a simple love song and complemented the numerous hooks and the lyrics . He believed that the song had the potential to be successful even without its controversial music video .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Like a Prayer " debuted at number 38 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached the top of the chart on the issue dated April 22 , 1989 . It was number one for three weeks , before being replaced by the Bon Jovi song " I 'll Be There for You " . " Like a Prayer " also topped the Dance Club Songs chart , while reaching number three on the Adult Contemporary chart and number 20 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop songs chart . " Like a Prayer " was ranked at number 25 on the Hot 100 year @-@ end chart of 1989 , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in May 1989 , for shipment of a million copies of the single . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it has also sold 443 @,@ 000 digital downloads as of April 2010 , becoming Madonna 's best @-@ selling digital track since SoundScan started calculating downloads in 2005 . In Canada , the song reached the top of the RPM Singles Chart in its ninth week . It was present on the chart for 16 weeks and was the top @-@ selling Canadian single for 1989 .
In Australia , " Like a Prayer " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at number three on March 19 , 1989 . The next week it reached the top of the chart , and stayed there for another four weeks . It was present for a total of 22 weeks on the chart , and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . " Like a Prayer " was also the top @-@ selling Australian single of 1989 . In New Zealand , the song had a similar run as in Australia , by debuting at number three on the RIANZ Singles Chart , and reaching number one the next week . It was present for a total of 13 weeks on the chart . " Like a Prayer " became Madonna 's seventh number one single in Japan , and occupied the top position of the Oricon Singles chart for three weeks .
In the United Kingdom , " Like a Prayer " entered the UK Singles Chart at number two , before moving to the top the next week , remaining there for three weeks . Madonna became the artist with the most number @-@ one singles of the 1980s in the UK , with a total of six chart @-@ toppers . " Like a Prayer " became the tenth best @-@ selling song of 1989 in the UK , with the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certifying it gold , for shipment of 400 @,@ 000 copies of the single . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 580 @,@ 000 copies there . " Like a Prayer " also reached number one in Belgium , Ireland , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . It was Madonna 's fifth number one song on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles chart , reaching the top on March 25 , 1989 , and staying at number one for 12 weeks . After the Glee episode " The Power of Madonna " was broadcast , " Like a Prayer " again entered the chart at position 47 , on May 15 , 2010 . The song went on to sell over five million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " Like a Prayer " was directed by American film director Mary Lambert and was shot at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood , California and at San Pedro Hills in San Pedro , California . Madonna wanted the video to be more provocative than anything she had done before . She wanted to address racism by having the video depict a mixed @-@ race couple being shot by the Ku Klux Klan . However , upon further thought , she decided on another provocative theme to keep with the song 's religious connotations . When Madonna had recorded the song , she would play it over and over again ; she interpreted the visual as :
[ T ] his story of a girl who was madly in love with a black man , set in South , with this forbidden interracial love affair . And the guy she 's in love with sings in a choir . So she 's obsessed with him and goes to the church all the time . And then it turned into a bigger story , which was about racism and bigotry .
Lambert had a different visual aspect of the song on her mind . She felt that it was more about ecstasy , especially a sexual one , and how it related to religious ecstasy . She listened to the song with Madonna a number of times and came to the conclusion that the religious ecstasy part should be included . A sub @-@ plot about Madonna as a homicide witness was included and became the trigger factor in the ecstasy part of the plot . Actor Leon Robinson was hired to play the role of a saint , which was inspired by Martin de Porres , the patron saint of mixed @-@ race people and all those seeking interracial harmony .
The video was shot over four days , with an extra day allotted for re @-@ shooting some of the scenes . Originally Lambert had casts taken of Leon 's face , hand and feet to create the statue of the saint which would be used as a decoration . The actor only enacted the live scenes . However , after post @-@ production started , Lambert found that the statue did not look like Leon , who was asked to re @-@ shoot the respective scenes . Leon had to act as the statue and required special make @-@ up ; he had to stand motionless during extended periods of shooting and retakes . The actor recalled that standing like a statue was difficult since " first of all , I didn 't realize how hard it is on the back to stand absolutely tall and straight and not move . Secondly , as a performer you have this nervous energy — and my requirements here were total antithesis of that . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The viewers first see Madonna who runs on the street . She witnesses the murder of a young woman , but is too frozen in fear to protest . A black man walking down the alley notices the incident and decides to help the woman , but the police arrive and arrest him , mistakenly suspecting him to be the killer . The murderers give a threatening look towards Madonna and leave . She escapes to a church and sees a caged saint who resembles the black man on the street . As the song starts , Madonna utters a prayer in front of the saint , who appears to be crying .
Madonna lies down on a pew and has a dream in which she is falling through space . Suddenly , a woman , representing power and strength , catches her . She advises Madonna to do what is right and tosses her back up . Still dreaming , Madonna returns to the saint , who becomes the black man she had seen earlier . He kisses her forehead and leaves the church as she picks up a knife and cuts her hands , bleeding . As the chorus starts , the scene shifts to Madonna as she sings and dances wildly in front of burning crosses . In the meantime a church choir sings around Madonna , who continues to dance with them . Madonna wakes up , goes to the jail and tells the police that the black man is innocent ; the police release him . The video ends as Madonna dances in front of the burning crosses , and then everybody involved in the storyline takes a bow as curtains come down on the set .
= = = Pepsi commercial = = =
In January 1989 , while the music video was still being filmed , Pepsi @-@ Cola announced that they had signed Madonna to a US $ 5 million deal to use her and " Like a Prayer " in a television commercial for them . The agreement also called for Pepsi to financially sponsor Madonna 's next world tour . Madonna would use the commercial to launch the " Like a Prayer " single globally before its actual release — the first time something like this was being done in the music industry — thereby creating promotion for the single and the album to come . Pepsi , on the other hand , would have their product associated with Madonna , thereby creating promotion for the soft drink . According to the company 's advertising head , Alan Pottasch , " the global media buy and unprecedented debut of this long awaited single will put Pepsi first and foremost in consumer 's minds " . Problems started when Madonna refused to dance , " I ain 't dancing and I ain 't singing . " Joe Pytka introduced her to choreographer Vince Paterson ( from Michael Jackson days ) and she agreed to dance . She and Paterson continued their professional relationship for a number of years . Pepsi ran the expensive television commercial during the global telecast of the 31st Grammy Awards in February 1989 . A week later , the ad was premiered during NBC 's sitcom , The Cosby Show .
Titled " Make a Wish " , the two @-@ minute commercial portrayed Madonna back in time to revisit her childhood memories . It starts as Madonna watches a video of her childhood birthday party . As she reminisces , she interchanges places with her childhood self . The young Madonna roams aimlessly around the grown @-@ up Madonna 's room , while the latter dances with her childhood friends on the street and inside a bar . The commercial continues as Madonna dances inside a church , surrounded by a choir and her child self discovering her old play doll . As both of their lives are interchanged again , the grown @-@ up Madonna looks towards the TV and says , " Go ahead , make a wish " . Both depictions of Madonna raise their cans of Pepsi towards each other , and the young Madonna blows out the candles on her birthday cake . An estimated 250 million people around the world saw the commercial , which was directed by Joe Pytka . Pepsi @-@ Cola Company spokesman Todd MacKenzie said that the ad was planned to be aired simultaneously in Europe , Asia , Australia and North America . Bob Garfield from the Advertising Age observed that from " Turkey to El Salvador to anytown USA , around 500 million eyes [ were ] glued to the screen . Leslie Savan from The Village Voice noted that the ad qualified as a " hymn to the global capabilities of the age of electronic reproductions ; it celebrates the pan @-@ cultural ambitions of both soda pop and pop star . "
= = = Reception and protests = = =
Taraborrelli pointed out about the actual music video that " Madonna danced with such abundance in [ it ] , as if she knew that she was about to cause a commotion , and couldn 't wait to see how it would unfold . " The day after the Pepsi commercial was premiered , Madonna released the actual music video for " Like a Prayer " on MTV , who deemed it controversial . Among music critics , Phil Kloer from Record @-@ Journal felt that whether one condemns the video as racist or not , " It 's condemnable on the face of it because it exploits a symbol of evil [ the burning crosses of the Ku Klux Klan ] in order to sell records . " Jamie Portman from The Daily Schenectady Gazette noted that " the video is vulnerable to charges of being blatantly provocative in its calculated blending of sex and religion . " David Rosenthal from The Spokesman @-@ Review found the video " visually stunning " ; however , Edna Gundersen from USA Today did not understand the media mayhem behind the video . She pointed out that " Madonna is a good girl in the video . She saves someone . What is the big deal behind it ? " Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Chris Willman complimented the video for its portrayal of a love song , rather than blasphemy . He was more interested in the stigmata presented in the video .
Religious groups worldwide protested against the video , which they deemed contained blasphemous use of Christian imagery . They called for the national boycott of Pepsi and PepsiCo 's subsidiaries , including their fast food chains Kentucky Fried Chicken , Taco Bell and Pizza Hut . Pepsi had decided initially to continue airing their commercial ; however , they were taken aback by the protests . They explained the differences between their advertising methods and Madonna 's artistic opinions in the video . Ultimately , Pepsi caved in to the protests , and cancelled the advertising campaign . According to Taraborrelli , Pepsi was so eager to extricate themselves from the venture that they even allowed Madonna to keep the five million dollars she had been advanced . In the meantime , Pope John Paul II involved himself in the matter and encouraged fans to boycott her Italian performances . Protests from a small Catholic organization in the country prompted Italian state television network RAI and Madonna 's Italian record company WEA to not air the video there .
At the 1989 MTV Video Music Awards , " Like a Prayer " was nominated in the Viewer 's Choice and Video of the Year categories , winning the former . Ironically the award show was sponsored by Pepsi in 1989 , and when Madonna came onstage to receive the award she added , " I would really like to thank Pepsi for causing so much controversy . " " Like a Prayer " also topped video countdowns and critic lists . It was number one on MTV 's countdown of " 100 Videos That Broke The Rules " in 2005 , and for the 25th anniversary of MTV , viewers voted it as the " Most Groundbreaking Music Video of All Time " . In addition , the video was ranked at number 20 on Rolling Stone 's " The 100 Top Music Videos " and at number two on VH1 's 100 Greatest Videos . Fuse TV also named " Like a Prayer " one of its 10 " Videos That Rocked The World " . In a 2011 poll by Billboard , " Like a Prayer " was voted the second best music video of the 1980s , behind only Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " .
= = = Themes and analysis = = =
Scholars and academics have offered different interpretations of the music video . Allen Metz , one of the authors of The Madonna Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , noted that when Madonna enters the church at the beginning of the video , the line " I hear you call my name , And it feels like .... Home " is played . He explained that the scene highlighted Madonna 's continued fascination with Spanish culture right from her early videos . The women of Italian East Harlem in New York call their Church as la casa di momma ( Momma 's House ) . In that respect , Madonna alluded herself to be one from Harlem , but also refers to her own name as the divine returning to the Church . Nicholas B. Dirks , author of Culture / power / history , argued that Madonna falling into a dream is the most important point of the narrative as it signified that " Madonna is really not putting herself in place of the redeemer , but imagining herself as one . "
Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández wrote in his book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds that the Black woman who catches Madonna when she is falling through heaven in her dream , is a symbol for the divinity , as she helps Madonna throughout the video to come to the correct decision . Fouz @-@ Hernández also noted how the physical similarity between Madonna and woman indicated that it was actually Madonna 's inner divinity which was rescuing her . After the Black saint comes to life and departs from the church , Madonna picks up his dropped dagger and accidentally cut her hands . Scholar Robert McQueen Grant explained the action as a stigmata , that marked Madonna as having an important role to play in the narrative . During the second chorus , as the crime scene is shown in detail , an identification is established between Madonna and the victim . Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , coauthor with Fouz @-@ Hernández , noted that the woman cries out for help when Madonna sings the line " When you call my name , It 's like a little prayer " . However , Madonna does nothing about it , thus portraying failure of divinity to save . According to Jarman @-@ Ivens , the look between the gang member and Madonna also sets up a complicity of " White men rape / kill women , white men blame it on Black men ; Women are raped / killed for being on the streets at night , Black men are nevertheless thrown in jail . "
As Madonna sings the intermediate verse amidst a field of burning crosses , she evokes the murder scene of three civil workers , portrayed in the 1988 American crime drama film Mississippi Burning . Metz noted that when Madonna dances with the choir in the altar of the church , a young Black boy joins her . This referred to the only person who had protested against the Ku Klux Klan murders in Mississippi Burning , a Black man . Metz believed it was symbolic of how his protest was now transferred in Madonna . Benson described the erotic scene between the saint and Madonna as " leading the viewer to a single conclusion through its numerous cut @-@ scenes of burning crosses , shocked face of Madonna , bleeding eye of the icon etc that Black men have been martyred for kissing white women or even wanting them . " Grant believed this was where the racial equality message of the video came across as most poignant . On the contrary , when the curtain falls and the scene shifts to a smiling Madonna among the burning crosses , professor Maury Dean felt that another explanation was inevitable . Madonna portrays a successful heroine and thus the whole video becomes about female empowerment .
= = Live performances = =
The first live performance of " Like a Prayer " was on the 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour . Madonna started the performance by uttering the word " God ? " suddenly , as everything became silent . Then she started singing " Like a Prayer " , donning a dress that looked like a cross between a Mediterranean widow 's attire and evocative clergyman 's robes . A red velvet bed , which was present during the previous performance , was replaced by hundreds of burning candles . At the beginning of the song , Madonna knelt down in front of the stage , as the backup singers cried the words " Oh my God " several times . Madonna eventually removed a scarf from her head to display a huge crucifix hanging from her neck , and then rose and sang the full song , while her dancers gyrated around her . Two different performances were taped and released on video : the Blond Ambition : Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 . On his review of Blond Ambition World Tour Live , Entertainment Weekly 's Ty Burr praised the " gymnastic dance productions in songs such as ' Where 's the Party ' and ' Like a Prayer ' " , calling them " astonishing " .
In 2003 , Madonna released her ninth studio album , American Life . While doing a set of short promotional performances for the album , Madonna sang " Like a Prayer " , with the choir portion of the song being replaced by guitar sounds . The song was also included in the set list of the Re @-@ Invention World Tour of 2004 . Members of the audience asked to sing along with her , filling in the part of the choir . Backup vocalist Siedah Garrett sang the vocals during the intermediate verses , while the backdrops displayed a series of Hebrew letters , indicating the 72 names of God . Jim Farber from New York magazine complimented Madonna 's vocals during the song . The performance was included on the 2006 live album of the tour , titled I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . Madonna sang a similar version of the song during the Live 8 benefit concert at Hyde Park , London in July 2005 . She performed it alongside Birhan Woldu , an Ethiopian woman who , as a malnourished toddler , had appeared in some of the footage of the 1984 – 85 famine in Ethiopia . Roger Friedman from Fox News Channel praised her performance , describing her voice as " rich , supple and perfect " . Conversely , Chicago Tribune 's Jill Lawless found Madonna 's delivery to be uninspiring and " cathartic " .
A dance version of the song , mixed with fragments of the dance track " Feels Like Home " by Meck , was performed in the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour as part of the rave segment . Madonna 's line " feels like home " was replaced by the same line from Meck ’ s song . In the rave segment , Madonna appeared wearing a breastplate and a short wig . She danced energetically around the whole stage as backup singer Nicki Richards provided vocals during the intermediate solo . Screens displayed a message of equality of religions , as symbols and texts from different scriptures flashed by , including messages from the Bible , Qur 'an , Torah and Talmud . The performance ended with the line " We all come from the Light and to it shall we return " , as a circular screen covered Madonna to give way to the next song , " Ray of Light " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph declared the performance as one of the highlights of the tour , while Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle compared the sequences of Madonna rising on a platform with that of a superhero . The performance was included both in the CD and DVD of the live release of the tour , titled Sticky & Sweet Tour , filmed in Buenos Aires , Argentina from December 4 – 7 , 2008 . In January 2010 , Madonna performed an acoustic version of the song live during the Hope For Haiti telethon . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented : " For 20 years , that song has been the symbol of one of the most tumultuous and controversial periods in Madonna 's life . But for five minutes tonight , it was pure , put in service of something bigger than the singer . "
For The MDNA Tour in 2012 , a modernized gospel version of " Like a Prayer " was performed as the second @-@ to @-@ last song of the show . This version featured Madonna and 36 of her back @-@ up singers , who played the role of a choir and wore church robes , energetically performing the song as images of a gothic church and Hebrew letters appeared on the backdrops . Critical response towards the performance was generally positive , with many reviewers deeming it a highlight of the show . Jim Harrington from The Oakland Tribune gave the overall concert a negative review but stated that " It wasn 't until the last two songs — " Like a Prayer " and " Celebration " — that the whole deal finally clicked " . Timothy Finn from The Kansas City Star was particularly impressed with the backing choir , calling it " the best use of one since Foreigner ’ s " I Want to Know What Love Is " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour .
On October 27 , 2015 , during the Inglewood stop of her Rebel Heart Tour , Madonna performed " Like a Prayer " . The performance began with the singer playing the acoustic guitar before asking the crowd to sing along with her . She also performed the song during her concert in Stockholm , Sweden , on November 14 , 2015 , dedicating it to the victims of the terrorist attacks that took place in Paris , France , two days before .
= = Cover versions = =
One of the first cover versions of the song was done by folk singer @-@ songwriter John Wesley Harding , for his 1989 extended play , God Made Me Do It : The Christmas EP . The 1999 and 2000 compilation albums , Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 1 and Vol . 2 , included a cover of " Like a Prayer " by singers Loleatta Holloway and electro @-@ industrial band Bigod 20 . An uptempo eurodance remix was made by DJ group Sound Assassins for the remix album Dancemania Speed 2 , released in Japan in March 1999 . The song was redone as a hi @-@ NRG / eurodance song in 2002 by a group called Mad 'House , and was included in their album , Absolutely Mad . It was released as a single and was a commercial success , reaching the top of the charts in Austria , Germany , Ireland and the Netherlands , the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia regions ) , France , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and the top twenty in Denmark and Sweden . On the European Hot 100 Singles chart of Billboard , it reached a peak of two . A folk music cover of the song by Lavender Diamond was included on the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness , with an accompanying music video made by Peter Glantz .
" Like a Prayer " was featured in an episode of American television series , Glee , called " The Power of Madonna " . It was sung at the end of the episode by the fictional show choir New Directions , performed by the Glee cast members . The song was released as a digital downloadable single to the iTunes Store , and was also included on the soundtrack EP , Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna . The cover version reached number 28 in Australia , number 27 in Canada , number two in Ireland , and number 16 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , the song debuted at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while entering the Hot Digital Songs chart at number ten , with sales of 87 @,@ 000 copies .
DJs Meck and Dino did a mash up of his 2007 single " Feels Like Home " with " Like a Prayer " , and released it as " Feels Like a Prayer " . The song reached the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders region ) and the Netherlands , while peaking at number 15 in Belgium ( Walloon region ) . In the United States , " Feels Like a Prayer " debuted at number 36 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and reached a peak of number six , after seven weeks . We Are the Fallen , an American gothic metal band , covered " Like a Prayer " live in 2008 . Nick Duerden from Spin felt the song was " so successfully pulverized that one wondered whether it wasn 't written specifically to become the world 's greatest heavy rock anthem . " Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Nelly Furtado included " Like a Prayer " in the set list of her The Spirit Indestructible Tour .
= = Legacy = =
" Like a Prayer " is considered to be one of the best songs of Madonna 's career . It was ranked sixth on Blender magazine 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " , while Rolling Stone included it in their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , at number 300 . In 2003 , Madonna fans were asked to vote for their " Top 20 Madonna singles of all @-@ time " , by Q magazine . " Like a Prayer " was allocated the number one spot on the list . Another similar poll conducted by MSN Entertainment in 2008 had the same result . In 2014 , LA Weekly placed the song at rank two on their list of " The 20 Best Pop Songs in History By Female Artists " . Art Tavana from the publication opined that " ' Like a Prayer ' was the moment when Madonna went from being the voice of America 's teenagers to the worldwide high priestess of pop . " At their ranking of the best songs from the 1980s , Pitchfork Media listed " Like a Prayer " at number 50 .
Campbell noted that the popularity and the media mayhem surrounding the song and the music video helped introduce a very important factor in the celebrity world : the reception of free publicity . " Like a Prayer " ' s impact was more evident on its parent studio album , which shot to the top of the charts once it was released in April 1989 . The music video also served as evidence of the emergence of the video commodity as a different entity from the song that spawned it . As author Judith Marcus argued in her book Surviving the Twentieth Century , Madonna used the church to make her point on victimization . For Marcus , the main impact of the video lies in the fact that Madonna emerged from the role of a victim by " empowering " herself . The author asserted that the video metaphorically " attacked " the Church 's demand for female compliance , indicted the Church 's precept of a dichotomy between body and spirit , and at the same time assailed the Church 's denial of female spirituality . Campbell noted that the video does not follow any definite narrative , although there is a plethora of images in it . He found sequences where Madonna does not sing the song , but her voice is heard , as most interesting since it pointed out the rapid evolution of the music video medium and Madonna 's own work , which had moved beyond a simple capture of a live performance , as was the case for the music video of her first single , " Everybody " ( 1982 ) ; by 1989 , such videos were already a distant memory .
Like the video , Campbell noted the song for merging disparate and contradictory musical features in it . He found that the simple melody of " Like a Prayer " offered an easy listen , as the contrasts in sound , rhythm and texture appealed to different target audiences . He also believed that the usage of choir and organ paved the way for gospel music to be more mainstream than before . In 1999 , the University of Michigan School of Music , Theatre & Dance held a seminar on the different implications and metaphors present in the song ; it was headed by professors Martin Katz , George Shirley and Michael Daugherty . The main topic discussed was the fact that there can be different metaphorical meanings of the song , as the word " like " can be taken in separate contexts . Shirley explained that although when one thinks of " Like a Prayer " , they would first think of its visual aspects , but for him the lyrics are far more important as they reinforce the postmodern nature of the video . The ambiguity of the word " like " blurs distinctions between a human lover and God , evident strongly in the line " Like a child , you whisper softly to me " . This was further explained by Katz , who added : " The music of ' Like a Prayer ' is probably a mitigating one , blunting and softening the harder edges , the more challenging content of the lyrics and the video . "
Taraborrelli commented that " in the end , the events surrounding ' Like a Prayer ' only served to enhance Madonna 's reputation as a shrewd businesswoman , someone who knows how to sell a concept . " Before Madonna 's deal with Pepsi , pop stars in general were not given much artistic freedom by sponsors . However , Madonna had said from the very first day that she would be doing the commercial in her very own way , which Pepsi had to accept . While she said that it was never her intention that Pepsi be the fall guy in the fiasco surrounding the video , Taraborrelli argues that Madonna stayed true to herself . Although the commercial intended to promote Pepsi the soft drink , she did not bother to hold even a can of the product , leading Taraborrelli to comment that " Madonna the pop star was going to do it her way , no matter what Madonna the businesswoman had agreed to do . " She maintained all along that the Pepsi ad and the music video were two different commodities and she was right to stand her ground . Taraborrelli noted that after " Like a Prayer " , the recruitment of pop stars and athletes to sell soft drinks became commonplace . However , none of them generated the level of excitement on par with Pepsi 's failed deal with Madonna .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Typhoon Dolphin ( 2015 ) =
Typhoon Dolphin was a powerful tropical cyclone that produced the first typhoon @-@ force winds on Guam since Typhoon Pongsona in 2002 . The seventh named storm of the 2015 Pacific typhoon season , Dolphin formed on May 6 in the vicinity of the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . Moving eastward at first , the storm slowly organized before beginning a north and west @-@ northwest trajectory . Dolphin intensified into a typhoon before passing between Guam and Rota on May 15 , producing typhoon @-@ force winds on both islands . It later rapidly intensified as it curved to the north . The American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) designated Dolphin as a super typhoon , while the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated 10 minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Dolphin turned to the northeast and weakened , becoming extratropical on May 20 and exiting the western Pacific basin on May 24 .
The storm first affected the FSM , notably Pohnpei where it dropped 603 mm ( 23 @.@ 73 in ) of rainfall over three days . The rains and gusty winds knocked down many trees on the island , one of which killed a person , and causing $ 1 million in damage ( 2015 USD ) . Dolphin passed between Guam and Rota , producing gusts of 171 km / h ( 106 mph ) at Andersen Air Force Base on northern Guam . The winds left 40 % of the island without power and left at least 3 @,@ 300 people without water . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall , flooding Guam Memorial Hospital . Dolphin damaged 390 houses , including nine that were destroyed , leaving 1 @,@ 055 people homeless . With damage estimated at around $ 10 million , the island was declared a disaster area . The typhoon also brushed Rota , causing $ 2 @.@ 5 million in damage there , as well as Saipan .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Dolphin were related to a strong westerly wind burst that also led to the formation of previous Typhoon Noul . Early on May 5 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of deep convection approximately 300 km ( 185 mi ) southwest of Pohnpei . It had a poorly @-@ defined circulation and broad rainbands , while low to moderate wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures favored development . The convection quickly became better organized and more concentrated around the broad center , aided by increased outflow . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression at 06 : 00 UTC on May 6 about 325 km ( 200 mi ) southwest of Pohnpei . At 21 : 00 UTC that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began issuing advisories on the system , classifying it as Tropical Depression 07W .
After its formation , the depression moved slowly with the low @-@ level flow , in what the JTWC described as an " atypical eastward direction " . Wind shear in the region exposed the convection from the circulation early on May 7 , although the thunderstorms increased the next day , mostly in the storm 's northwest quadrant . A building subtropical ridge turned the system more to the north . By May 8 , the depression organized enough for the JTWC to upgrade it to a tropical storm . At 12 : 00 UTC on the next day , the JMA followed suit and upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Dolphin . By that time , the system had developed rainbands spiraling around the circulation , although continued wind shear left the center exposed . Around that time , Dolphin passed about 80 km ( 50 mi ) west of Kosrae in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) , and over the next few days it passed near other small islands in the region . Despite the sheared structure , the storm developed an eye feature on May 11 , indicative of further strengthening , while the storm was passing 285 km ( 180 mi ) east of Pohnpei . That day , the shear began to decrease , allowing the outflow to improve and convection to blossom . Early on May 12 , the JMA upgraded Dolphin to a severe tropical storm , estimating 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) .
On May 12 , Dolphin began moving steadily to the west @-@ northwest . It developed a persistent central dense overcast over the center as conditions became increasingly favorable . At 00 : 00 UTC , the JMA and JTWC both upgraded Dolphin to typhoon status , based on a developing eye feature . The eye , initially only 9 km ( 6 mi ) in diameter , became more defined in the center of the convection . The intensification trend was soon halted by a combination of moderate southerly wind shear and dry air from the west , causing the eye to become obscured on conventional satellite imagery . On May 15 , the wind shear once again lessened . The compact core persisted during this time , although the center was slightly obscured . As the typhoon approached Guam , radar imagery tracked the eye underneath the deepest convection . Late on May 15 , Dolphin passed between Guam and Rota , bringing its eyewall over both islands .
After leaving the Marianas Islands , the eye of Dolphin became much larger as the storm developed strong outflow channels , both indicative of further strengthening . On May 16 , the typhoon began rapid deepening as it reached the western periphery of the ridge , causing it to turn more to the north . At 06 : 00 UTC that day , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Based on the well @-@ defined structure and Dvorak ratings of T7.0 , the JTWC upgraded Dolphin to a super typhoon late on May 16 with 1 minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . The approaching westerlies turned Dolphin to the north and northeast on May 17 while also imparting unfavorable conditions , causing the eye and the convection to elongate and weaken . By May 18 , increased wind shear had exposed the circulation as the winds continued to drop . After the convection decreased further , the JTWC discontinued advisories on Dolphin on May 19 , once Dolphin was beginning to become extratropical near the Japanese island of Iwo Jima . On the next day , the winds fell below typhoon force , and at 00 : 00 UTC on May 21 , the JMA declared Dolphin extratropical . The storm accelerated to the northeast , passing through the Aleutian Islands on May 22 . The storm slowed once reaching the Gulf of Alaska , turning eastward to cross the International Date Line on May 24 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Early in Dolphin 's duration , it moved through the eastern FSM . On Kosrae , winds peaked at 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) . Later , the outer rainbands affected Pohnpei , producing a gust of 88 km / h ( 55 mph ) , as well as heavy rainfall . Over three days , the precipitation reached 603 mm ( 23 @.@ 73 in ) of rainfall over three days , including 388 mm ( 15 @.@ 26 in ) in one day . This accounted for about one @-@ third of Pohnpei 's record monthly rainfall total of 1 @,@ 109 mm ( 43 @.@ 68 in ) for May 2015 . The high winds downed hundreds of trees , some of which fell onto cars and homes , and killed one person . One family in Palikir needed medical attention when a tree fell onto their house . Residents lost power and water access for up to two weeks . Many houses had damage to roofs , and about 200 homes on Pohnpei were damaged or destroyed . Crops also sustained damage from high waves causing salt intrusion , affecting taro patches . Damage in the FSM was estimated at $ 1 million . In response to the damage , the FSM government declared Pohnpei as a state of emergency on June 8 . The typhoon 's westerly winds produced a swell that affected the Marshall Islands , sinking several boats in Kwajalein Atoll .
In preparation for the cyclone , schools , businesses , and public transit were closed on Guam . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) deployed approximately 15 representatives to the island to mitigate the response time in the wake of the storm . Eight schools were opened as shelters , and more than 1 @,@ 000 residents sought refuge during the height of the storm . Additional shelters were opened on the islands of Rota , Tinian , and Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands ( CNMI ) , and nearly 200 people sought cover there . Airports and seaports between the three islands were shut down , causing flights to be canceled . Earlier in 2015 , the Guam Weather Forecast Office created a Facebook page to help inform residents about typhoons ; during Dolphin , the page received over 425 @,@ 000 views .
Passing just north of Guam , Dolphin produced the first typhoon @-@ force winds on the island since 2002 during Typhoon Pongsona . Andersen Air Force Base recorded sustained winds of 135 km / h ( 84 mph ) , while gusts reached 171 km / h ( 106 mph ) . In the central portion of the island , the NWS office recorded gusts of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . The storm dropped torrential rainfall during its passage , reaching over 460 mm ( 18 in ) at Andersen Air Force Base , of which 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 3 in ) fell within a 12 @-@ hour period . Wave heights offshore Guam topped 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) . On Guam , the heavy rainfall caused flooding in areas lacking proper drainage . The Guam Memorial Hospital sustained about $ 1 million in damage from storm @-@ related flooding . High winds left about 40 % of Guam without power , mostly in the north and central portions of the island , although the outages were fixed within a few days . The power outages also disrupted generators for water wells , leaving 3 @,@ 300 people without access to clean water ; residents in some areas were under a boil @-@ water advisory . Utility damage was estimated at $ 3 million . Businesses sustained $ 1 @.@ 9 million in damage . Dolphin also caused $ 1 @.@ 2 million worth of crop damage . The typhoon damaged over 7 @,@ 000 banana trees as well as 39 of the endangered ironwood trees . Rough waves sank a boat at Apra Harbor , requiring workers to clean oil that escaped from the damaged vessel . Dolphin damaged 390 houses across Guam , of which 9 were destroyed and another 55 were severely damaged . This left 1 @,@ 055 people homeless , mostly in the towns of Yigo or Dededo . Overall damage was estimated at nearly $ 10 million , prompting Governor Eddie Calvo to declare a state of emergency . On June 5 , President Barack Obama signed a major disaster declaration for the territory , allowing for federal aid to be used . Ultimately , the government provided about $ 4 @.@ 7 million in aid , mostly in public assistance . A federal grant provided 220 temporary jobs toward cleaning and repairing damage .
On Rota to the north of Guam , Dolphin produced the first typhoon @-@ force winds since 2004 during Chaba . The storm damaged many homes on the island . High winds knocked down trees and power lines , causing an island @-@ wide power outage . Damage on Rota was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Continued high waves from the typhoon caused difficult conditions for ships trying to bring supplies to the country , after store supplies began running out . Workers quickly repaired the power outages and cleared roads of any storm debris . The government of the CNMI declared Rota a disaster area , meaning emergency funds could be allocated toward relief and reconstruction . On Saipan to the north of Rota , wind gusts reached 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) , while rainfall totaled 89 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
The remnants of Dolphin , in conjunction with previous Typhoon Noul , shifted the broader weather pattern to bring record warmth to Alaska , making the temperatures warmer than that of Washington , D.C ..
= David Larson =
David Erwin Larson ( born June 25 , 1959 ) is an American former competition swimmer who is an Olympic gold medalist and former world record @-@ holder . Larson is a Georgia native who became an All @-@ American college swimmer for the University of Florida . He was known for his success as a member of American relay teams in international competition at the Pan American Games and the Olympics – and for setting two world records in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter relay event on the same day at the 1984 Olympics .
= = Early years = =
Larson was born in the small town of Jesup , Georgia in 1959 . He started swimming as an age @-@ group competitor in 1963 . He attended the Bolles School in Jacksonville , Florida , where he swam for the Bolles high school swim team . He graduated from Bolles in 1977 .
= = College swimming career = =
Larson accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where he swam for the Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition under coach Randy Reese from 1978 to 1981 . Larson won two NCAA championships at Florida in the 800 @-@ yard freestyle relay ( 1979 , 1981 ) , setting American and NCAA records in the process . He finished second in the 200 @-@ yard freestyle to Rowdy Gaines of Auburn in 1981 , but then out @-@ swam Gaines on the final leg of the 800 @-@ yard freestyle relay to claim the NCAA championship in the event . Larson earned twenty @-@ one All @-@ American honors and was national record holder in the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay .
Larson graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in sociology in 1987 , and was later inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great . "
= = International swimming career = =
Larson was first selected for the U.S. national swim team for the 1979 Pan American Games held in San Juan , Puerto Rico . In what would become a regular match @-@ up , Larson earned a silver medal in the men 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle for his second @-@ place finish ( 1 : 52 @.@ 24 ) behind American teammate Rowdy Gaines ( 1 : 51 @.@ 22 ) . Two days later , Larson and Gaines combined with fellow Americans Brian Goodell and Kris Kirchner to win a Pan American Games gold medal in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay ( 7 : 31 @.@ 28 ) .
He qualified for the U.S. Olympic Team in 1980 , as a member of the U.S. team in the men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , but was unable to compete because of the United States @-@ led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow . After completing his college career in 1981 , Larson was tired of swimming and quit , only to return to competition a year later because he missed the focus . Larson continued his training with the program that coach Randy Reese had created for post @-@ college swimmers in Gainesville , Florida .
At the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas , Venezuela , he again won a gold medal as a member of the winning U.S. team in the men 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , together with Richard Saeger , Bruce Hayes and Rowdy Gaines ( 7 : 23 @.@ 63 ) .
Larson represented the United States at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . In the preliminary heats of the men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , he and U.S. teammates Geoff Gaberino , Hayes and Saeger set a new world record of 7 : 18 @.@ 87 . But the new record was short @-@ lived . Later that same afternoon , Larson won the gold medal in the event final of the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , together with his American teammates Mike Heath , Jeff Float and Hayes , by defeating the Michael Gross @-@ anchored West German team by four one @-@ hundredths ( 0 @.@ 04 ) of a second , and setting yet another new world record of 7 : 15 @.@ 69 in the process . The American media dubbed the four swimmers the " Gross Busters , " a play on the title of the popular 1984 movie Ghostbusters .
In the aftermath of the 1984 Olympics , Larson retired from competitive swimming at the age of 25 .
= = Life after swimming = =
After the post @-@ Olympic national celebrations , Larson was offered an opportunity to work in sports marketing in New York City . His early professional career involved dealings with agents , creating event sponsorships , and negotiating athlete contracts . He spent the next decade working in sports marketing , then in television . He worked with NBC on its Olympic broadcasts , including the 2005 Winter Games .
Larson and his wife Kitty , a Miami lawyer , have a son .
= = World records = =
Men 's 4 × 200 @-@ meter medley relay
= Nixon in China =
Nixon in China is an opera in three acts by John Adams , with a libretto by Alice Goodman . Adams ' first opera , it was inspired by U.S. President Richard Nixon 's visit to China in 1972 . The work premiered at the Houston Grand Opera on October 22 , 1987 , in a production by Peter Sellars with choreography by Mark Morris . When Sellars approached Adams with the idea for the opera in 1985 , Adams was initially reluctant , but eventually decided that the work could be a study in how myths come to be , and accepted the project . Goodman 's libretto was the result of considerable research into Nixon 's visit , though she disregarded most sources published after 1972 .
To create the sounds he sought , Adams augmented the orchestra with a large saxophone section , additional percussion , and electronic synthesizer . Although sometimes described as " minimalist " , the score displays a variety of musical styles , embracing minimalism after the manner of Philip Glass alongside passages echoing 19th @-@ century composers such as Wagner and Johann Strauss . With these ingredients , Adams mixes Stravinskian 20th @-@ century neoclassicism , jazz references , and big band sounds reminiscent of Nixon 's youth in the 1930s . The combination of these elements varies frequently , to reflect changes in the onstage action .
Following the 1987 premiere , the opera received mixed reviews ; some critics dismissed the work , predicting it would soon vanish . However , it has been presented on many occasions since , in both Europe and North America , and has been recorded twice . In 2011 , the opera received its Metropolitan Opera debut , a production based on the original sets , and in the same year was given an abstract production in Toronto by the Canadian Opera Company . Recent critical opinion has tended to recognize the work as a significant and lasting contribution to American opera .
= = Background = =
= = = Historical background = = =
During his rise to power , Richard Nixon became known as a leading anti @-@ communist . After he became president in 1969 , Nixon saw advantages in improving relations with China and the Soviet Union ; he hoped that détente would put pressure on the North Vietnamese to end the Vietnam War , and he might be able to manipulate the two main communist powers to the benefit of the United States .
Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president , writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election : " There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation . " Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor , Henry Kissinger , with whom the President worked closely , bypassing Cabinet officials . With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir — border clashes between the two took place during Nixon 's first year in office — Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations . A breakthrough came in early 1971 , when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players . Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials .
The announcement that Nixon would visit China in 1972 made world headlines . Almost immediately , the Soviet Union also invited Nixon for a visit , and improved US @-@ Soviet relations led to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks ( SALT ) . Nixon 's visit to China was followed closely by many Americans , and the scenes of him there were widely aired on television . Chinese Premier Chou En @-@ lai stated that the handshake he and Nixon had shared on the airport tarmac at the beginning of the visit was " over the vastest distance in the world , 25 years of no communication " . Nixon 's change , from virulent anti @-@ communist to the American leader who took the first step in improving Sino @-@ American relations , led to a new political adage , " Only Nixon could go to China . "
= = = Inception = = =
In 1983 , theater and opera director Peter Sellars proposed to American composer John Adams that he write an opera about Nixon 's 1972 visit to China . Sellars was intrigued by Nixon 's decision to make the visit , seeing it as both " a ridiculously cynical election ploy ... and a historical breakthrough " . Adams , who had not previously attempted an opera , was initially skeptical , assuming that Sellars was proposing a satire . Sellars persisted , however , and Adams , who had interested himself in the origin of myths , came to believe the opera could show how mythic origins may be found in contemporary history . Both men agreed that the opera would be heroic in nature , rather than poking fun at Nixon or Mao . Sellars invited Alice Goodman to join the project as librettist , and the three met at the Kennedy Center in Washington D.C. in 1985 to begin intensive study of the six characters , three American and three Chinese , upon whom the opera would focus . The trio endeavored to go beyond the stereotypes about figures such as Nixon and Chinese Chairman Mao Tse @-@ tung and to examine their personalities .
As Adams worked on the opera , he came to see Nixon , whom he had once intensely disliked , as an " interesting character " , a complicated individual who sometimes showed emotion in public . Adams wanted Mao to be " the Mao of the huge posters and Great Leap Forward ; I cast him as a heldentenor " . Mao 's wife , on the other hand , was to be " not just a shrieking coloratura , but also someone who in the opera 's final act can reveal her private fantasies , her erotic desires , and even a certain tragic awareness . Nixon himself is a sort of Simon Boccanegra , a self @-@ doubting , lyrical , at times self @-@ pitying melancholy baritone . "
Goodman explained her characterizations :
A writer tends to find her characters in her self , so I can tell you ... that Nixon , Pat , Mme. Mao , Kissinger and the chorus were all ' me . ' And the inner lives of Mao and Chou En @-@ Lai , who I couldn 't find in myself at all , were drawn from a couple of close acquaintances .
Sellars , who was engaged at the time in staging the three Mozart – Da Ponte operas , became interested in the ensembles in those works ; this interest is reflected in Nixon in China 's final act . The director encouraged Adams and Goodman to make other allusions to classical operatic forms ; thus the expectant chorus that begins the work , the heroic aria for Nixon following his entrance , and the dueling toasts in the final scene of Act 1 . In rehearsal , Sellars revised the staging for the final scene , changing it from a banquet hall in the aftermath of a slightly alcohol @-@ fueled dinner to the characters ' bedrooms .
The work required sacrifices : Goodman later noted that choruses which she loved were dropped for the improvement of the opera as a whole . The work provoked bitter arguments among the three . Nevertheless , musicologist Timothy Johnson , in his 2011 book about Nixon in China , noted " the result of the collaboration betrays none of these disagreements among its creators who successfully blended their differing points of view into a very satisfyingly cohesive whole " .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
Time : February 1972 .
Place : In and around Beijing ( then known as Peking )
= = = Act 1 = = =
At Peking Airport , contingents of the Chinese military await the arrival of the American presidential aircraft " Spirit of ' 76 " , carrying Nixon and his party . The military chorus sings the Three Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention . After the aircraft touches down , Nixon emerges with Pat Nixon and Henry Kissinger . The president exchanges stilted greetings with the Chinese premier , Chou En @-@ lai , who heads the welcoming party . Nixon speaks of the historical significance of the visit , and of his hopes and fears for the encounter ( " News has a kind of mystery " ) . The scene changes to Chairman Mao 's study , where the Chairman awaits the arrival of the presidential party . Nixon and Kissinger enter with Chou , and Mao and the president converse in banalities as photographers record the scene . In the discussion that follows , the westerners are confused by Mao 's gnomic and frequently impenetrable comments , which are amplified by his secretaries and often by Chou . The scene changes again , to the evening 's banquet in the Great Hall of the People . Chou toasts the American visitors ( " We have begun to celebrate the different ways " ) Nixon responds : ( " I have attended many feasts " ) , after which the toasts continue , as the atmosphere becomes increasingly convivial . Nixon , a politician who rose to prominence on anti @-@ communism , announces : " Everyone , listen ; just let me say one thing . I opposed China , I was wrong " .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Pat Nixon is touring the city , with guides . Factory workers present her with a small model elephant which , she delightedly informs them , is the symbol of the Republican Party which her husband leads . She visits a commune where she is greeted enthusiastically , and is captivated by the children 's games that she observes in the school . " I used to be a teacher many years ago " , she sings , " and now I 'm here to learn from you " . She moves on to the Summer Palace , where in a contemplative aria ( " This is prophetic " ) she envisages a peaceful future for the world . In the evening the presidential party , as guests of Mao 's wife Chiang Ch 'ing , attends the Peking Opera for a performance of a political ballet @-@ opera The Red Detachment of Women . This depicts the downfall of a cruel and unscrupulous landlord 's agent ( played by an actor who strongly resembles Kissinger ) at the hands of brave women revolutionary workers . The action deeply affects the Nixons ; at one point Pat rushes onstage to help a peasant girl she thinks is being whipped to death . As the stage action ends , Chiang Ch 'ing , angry at the apparent misinterpretation of the piece 's message , sings a harsh aria ( " I am the wife of Mao Tse @-@ tung " ) , praising the Cultural Revolution and glorifying her own part in it . A revolutionary chorus echoes her words .
= = = Act 3 = = =
On the last evening of the visit , as they lie in their respective beds , the chief protagonists muse on their personal histories in a surreal series of interwoven dialogues . Nixon and Pat recall the struggles of their youth ; Nixon evokes wartime memories ( " Sitting round the radio " ) . Mao and Chiang Ch 'ing dance together , as the Chairman remembers " the tasty little starlet " who came to his headquarters in the early days of the revolution . As they reminisce , Chiang Ch 'ing asserts that " the revolution must not end " . Chou meditates alone ; the opera finishes on a thoughtful note with his aria " I am old and I cannot sleep " , asking : " How much of what we did was good ? " The early morning birdcalls are summoning him to resume his work , while " outside this room the chill of grace lies heavy on the morning grass " .
= = Performance history = =
The work had been commissioned jointly by the Houston Grand Opera , the Brooklyn Academy of Music , Netherlands Opera and the Washington Opera , all of which were to mount early productions of the opera . Fearful that the work might be challenged as defamatory or not in the public domain , Houston Grand Opera obtained insurance to cover such an eventuality . Before its stage premiere , the opera was presented in concert form in May 1987 in San Francisco , with intermission discussions led by Adams . According to the Los Angeles Times review , a number of audience members left as the work proceeded .
Nixon in China formally premiered on the Brown Stage at the new Wortham Theatre Center in Houston on October 22 , 1987 , with John DeMain conducting the Houston Grand Opera . Former president Nixon was invited , and was sent a copy of the libretto ; however , his staff indicated that he was unable to attend , due to illness and an impending publication deadline . A Nixon representative later stated that the former president disliked seeing himself on television or other media , and had little interest in opera . According to Adams , he was later told by former Nixon lawyer Leonard Garment that Nixon was highly interested in everything written about him , and so likely saw the Houston production when it was televised on PBS ' Great Performances .
The piece opened in conjunction with the annual meeting of the Music Critics Association , guaranteeing what the Houston Chronicle described as a " very discriminating audience " . Members of the association also attended meetings with the opera 's production team . When Carolann Page , originating Pat Nixon , waved to the audience in character as First Lady , many waved back at her . Adams responded to complaints that the words were difficult to understand ( no supertitles were provided ) by indicating that it is not necessary that all the words be understood on first seeing an opera . The audience 's general reaction was expressed by what the Los Angeles Times termed " polite applause " , the descent of the Spirit of ' 76 being the occasion for clapping from both the onstage chorus and from the viewers in the opera house .
When the opera reached the Brooklyn Academy of Music , six weeks after the world premiere , there was again applause during the Spirit of ' 76 's descent . Chou En @-@ lai 's toast , addressed by baritone Sanford Sylvan directly to the audience , brought what pianist and writer William R. Braun called " a shocked hush of chastened admiration " . The meditative Act 3 also brought silence , followed at its conclusion by a storm of applause . On March 26 , 1988 , the work opened at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington , DC , where Nixon 's emergence from the plane was again met with applause .
After the opera 's European premiere at the Muziektheater in Amsterdam in June 1988 , it received its first German performance later that year at the Bielefeld Opera , in a production by John Dew with stage designs by Gottfried Pilz . In the German production , Nixon and Mao were given putty noses in what the Los Angeles Times considered " a garish and heavy @-@ handed satire " . Also in 1988 the opera received its United Kingdom premiere , at the Edinburgh International Festival in August .
For the Los Angeles production in 1990 , Sellars made revisions to darken the opera in the wake of the Tiananmen Square protests . The original production had not had an intermission between Acts 2 and 3 ; one was inserted , and Sellars authorized supertitles , which he had forbidden in Houston . Adams conducted the original cast in the French premiere , at the Maison de la Culture de Bobigny , Paris , on December 14 , 1991 . Thereafter , performances of the opera became relatively rare ; writing in the New York Times in April 1996 , Alex Ross speculated on why the work had , at that time , " dropped from sight " .
The London premiere of the opera took place in 2000 , at the London Coliseum , with Sellars producing and Paul Daniel conducting the English National Opera ( ENO ) . A revival of this production was planned for the reopening of the renovated Coliseum in 2004 , but delays in the refurbishment caused the revival to be postponed until 2006 . The ENO productions helped to revive interest in the work , and served as the basis of the Metropolitan Opera 's 2011 production . Peter Gelb , the Met 's general manager , had approached Adams in 2005 about staging his operas there . Gelb intended that Nixon in China be the first of such productions , but Adams chose Doctor Atomic to be the first Adams work to reach the Met . However , Gelb maintained his interest in staging Nixon in China , which received its Metropolitan premiere on February 2 , 2011 . The work received its BBC Proms debut at the Royal Albert Hall in London on September 5 , 2012 , although the second @-@ act ballet was omitted .
While a number of productions have used variations on the original staging , the February 2011 production by the Canadian Opera Company used an abstract setting revived from a 2004 production by the Opera Theatre of Saint Louis . Alluding to Nixon 's " News " aria , the omnipresence of television news was dramatized by set designer Allen Moyer by keeping a group of televisions onstage throughout much of the action , often showing scenes from the actual visit . Instead of an airplane descending in Act 1 , a number of televisions descended showing an airplane in flight .
Despite a recent proliferation of performances worldwide , the opera has not yet been shown in China .
Houston Grand Opera will again be producing the opera in 2017 on the 30th anniversary of the world premiere .
= = Reception = =
The original production in Houston received mixed reviews . Chicago Tribune critic John von Rhein called Nixon in China " an operatic triumph of grave and thought @-@ provoking beauty " . Houston Chronicle reviewer Ann Holmes said of the work , " The music of " Nixon " catches in your ear ; I find myself singing it while whizzing along the freeways . " Los Angeles Herald @-@ Examiner critic Mark Swed wrote that it would " bear relevance for as long as mankind cherished humanity " . Martin Bernheimer , writing in the Los Angeles Times , drew attention to the choreography of Morris ( " the trendy enfant terrible of modern dance " ) in the Act 2 ballet sequences . Morris had produced " one of those classical yet militaristic Sino @-@ Soviet ballets from the revolutionary repertory of Mme. Mao " . Bernheimer also praised " the subtle civility of Alice Goodman 's couplet @-@ dominated libretto " .
In a more critical vein , The New York Times chief music critic Donal Henahan alluded to the publicity buildup for the opera by opening his column , headed " That was it ? " , by calling the work " fluff " and " a Peter Sellars variety show , worth a few giggles but hardly a strong candidate for the standard repertory " . New York magazine Peter G. Davis admired Maddalena 's portrayal of the president , calling him " positively eerie . The tilt of his head , the jerky walk , the nervous hand movements , even the way he sits and crosses his legs are Nixon to the life " . However , Davis felt the opera had little chance of survival once the initial public attention ended . St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch critic James Wierzbicki called the opera " more interesting than good ... a novelty , not much more . " Television critic Marvin Kitman , just prior to the telecast of the original Houston production in April 1988 , stated " There are only three things wrong with Nixon in China . One , the libretto ; two , the music ; three , the direction . Outside of that , it 's perfect . "
The British premiere at the 1988 Edinburgh Festival brought critical praise : " Through its sheer cleverness , wit , lyrical beauty and sense of theater , it sweeps aside most of the criticism to which it lays itself open . " When the work was finally performed in London , 13 years after its Houston premiere and after a long period of theatrical neglect , Tempo 's critic Robert Stein responded to ENO 's 2000 production enthusiastically . He particularly praised the performance of Maddalena , and concluded that " Adams 's triumph ... consists really in taking a plot chock @-@ full of talk and public gesture , and through musical characterisation ... making a satisfying and engaging piece . " Of the ENO revival in 2006 , Erica Jeal of The Guardian wrote that " from its early visual coup with the arrival of the plane , Sellars ' production is an all @-@ too @-@ welcome reminder of his best form " . In Jeal 's view , the cast met admirably the challenge of presenting the work in a non @-@ satirical spirit . Reviewing the 2008 Portland Opera production ( the basis of the 2011 Canadian Opera Company presentation in Toronto ) , critic Patrick J. Smith concluded that " Nixon in China is a great American Opera . I suspected that it was a significant work when I saw it in 1987 ; I was ever more convinced of its stature when I heard it subsequently , on stage and on disc , and today I am certain that it is one of the small handful of operas that will survive . "
At the Met premiere in February 2011 , although the audience — which included Nixon 's daughter Tricia Nixon Cox — gave the work a warm reception , critical approval of the production was not uniform . Robert Hofler of Variety criticized Sellars for using body microphones to amplify the singing , thus compensating for the " vocally distressed " Maddalena . He further complained that the director , known for designing unorthodox settings for the operas he has staged ( Hofler mentions The Marriage of Figaro in the New York Trump Tower and Don Giovanni in an urban slum ) , here uses visually uninteresting , overly realistic sets for the first two acts . Hofler felt that it was time that the opera received a fresh approach : " Having finally arrived at the Met , Nixon in China has traveled the world . It is a masterpiece , a staple of the opera repertory , and now it simply deserves a new look " . However , Anthony Tommasini of The New York Times , while noting that Maddalena 's voice was not as strong as it had been at the world premiere , maintained that due to his long association with the role , it would have been impossible to bring the opera to the Met with anyone else as Nixon : " Maddalena inhabits the character like no other singer " . Tommasini also praised the performance of Robert Brubaker in the role of Mao , " captur [ ing ] the chairman 's authoritarian defiance and rapacious self @-@ indulgence " , and found the British soprano Janis Kelly " wonderful " as Pat Nixon .
Swed recalled the opera 's reception in 1987 while reviewing the Metropolitan Opera 's 2011 production :
An opera that was belittled in 1987 by major New York critics – as a CNN Opera of no lasting merit when Houston Grand Opera premiered it – has clearly remained relevant . Reaching the Met for the first time , it is now hailed as a classic .
= = Music = =
Nixon in China contains elements of minimalism . This musical style originated in the United States in the 1960s and is characterized by stasis and repetition in place of the melodic development associated with conventional music . Although Adams is associated with minimalism , the composer 's biographer , Sarah Cahill , asserts that of the composers classed as minimalists , Adams is " by far the most anchored in Western classical tradition " .
Timothy Johnson contends that Nixon in China goes beyond minimalism in important ways . Adams had been inspired , in developing his art , by minimalist composers such as Philip Glass , Steve Reich , and Terry Riley , and this is reflected in the work by repetitive rhythmic patterns . However , the opera 's complex harmonic structures are very different from the simpler ones in , for example , Glass 's Einstein on the Beach , which Adams terms " mindlessly repetitive " ; Johnson nevertheless considers the Glass opera an influence on Nixon in China . As Glass 's techniques did not allow Adams to accomplish what he wanted , he employed a system of constantly shifting metric organizational schemes to supplement the repeated rhythms in the opera . The music is marked by metrical dissonance , which occurs both for musical reasons and in response to the text of the opera .
The New York Times critic Allan Kozinn writes that with Nixon in China , Adams had produced a score that is both " minimalist and eclectic ... In the orchestral interludes one hears references , both passing and lingering , to everything from Wagner to Gershwin and Philip Glass . " In reviewing the first recording of the work , Gramophone 's critic discusses the mixture of styles and concludes that " minimalist the score emphatically is not " . Other commentators have evoked " neo @-@ classical Stravinsky " , and concocted the term " Mahler @-@ meets @-@ minimalism " , in attempts to pinpoint the opera 's idiom .
The opera is scored for an orchestra without bassoons , French horns , and tuba , but augmented by saxophones , pianos , and electronic synthesizer . The percussion section incorporates numerous special effects , including a wood block , sandpaper blocks , slapsticks and sleigh bells . The work opens with an orchestral prelude of repetitive ascending phrases , after which a chorus of the Chinese military sings solemn couplets against a subdued instrumental background . This , writes Tommasini , creates " a hypnotic , quietly intense backdrop , pierced by fractured , brassy chords like some cosmic chorale " , in a manner reminiscent of Philip Glass . Tommasini contrasts this with the arrival of Nixon and his entourage , when the orchestra erupts with " big band bursts , rockish riffs and shards of fanfares : a heavy din of momentous pomp " . Gramophone 's critic compares the sharply written exchanges between Nixon , Mao and Chou En @-@ lai with the seemingly aimless wandering of the melodic lines in the more reflective sections of the work , concluding that the music best serves the libretto in passages of rapid dialogue . Tommasini observes that Nixon 's own vocal lines reflect the real @-@ life president 's personal awkwardness and social unease .
The differences in perspective between East and West are set forth early in the first act , and underscored musically : while the Chinese of the chorus see the countryside as fields ready for harvest , the fruits of their labor and full of potential , the Nixons describe what they saw from the windows of the Spirit of ' 76 as a barren landscape . This gap is reflected in the music : the chorus for the workers is marked by what Johnson terms " a wide @-@ ranging palette of harmonic colors " , the Western perspective is shown by the " quick , descending , dismissive cadential gesture " which follows Nixon 's description of his travels .
The second act opens with warm and reflective music culminating in Pat Nixon 's tender aria " This is prophetic " . The main focus of the act , however , is the Chinese revolutionary opera @-@ ballet , The Red Detachment of Women , " a riot of clashing styles " according to Tommasini , reminiscent of agitprop theatre with added elements of Strauss waltzes , blasts of jazz and 1930s Stravinsky . The internal opera is followed by a monologue , " I am the wife of Mao Tse @-@ tung " in which Chiang Ch 'ing , Mao 's wife , rails against counterrevolutionary elements in full coloratura soprano mode that culminates in a high D , appropriate for a character who in real life was a former actress given to self @-@ dramatization . Critic Thomas May notes that , in the third act , her " pose as a power @-@ hungry Queen of the Night gives way to wistful regret " . In this final , " surreal " act the concluding thoughts of Chou En @-@ lai are described by Tommasini as " deeply affecting " . The act incorporates a brief foxtrot episode , choreographed by Morris , illustrating Pat Nixon 's memories of her youth in the 1930s .
Critic Robert Stein identifies Adams 's particular strengths in his orchestral writing as " motoring , brassy figures and sweetly reflective string and woodwind harmonies " , a view echoed by Gregory Carpenter in the liner notes to the 2009 Naxos recording of the opera . Carpenter pinpoints Adams 's " uncanny talent for recognising the dramatic possibilities of continually repeating melodies , harmonies and rhythms " , and his ability to change the mix of these elements to reflect the onstage action . The feel of the Nixon era is recreated through popular music references ; Sellars has observed that some of the music associated with Nixon is derived from the big band sound of the late 1930s , when the Nixons fell in love . Other commentators have noted Adams 's limitations as a melodist , and his reliance for long stretches on what critic Donal Henahan has described as " a prosaically chanted recitative style " . However , Robert Hugill , reviewing the 2006 English National Opera revival , found that the sometimes tedious " endless arpeggios " are often followed by gripping music which immediately re @-@ engages the listener 's interest . This verdict contrasts with that of Davis after the original Houston performance ; Davis commented that Adams ' inexperience as an opera writer was evident in often " turgid instrumentation " , and that at points where " the music must be the crucial and defining element ... Adams fails to do the job " .
= = List of arias and musical sequences = =
= = Recordings = =
Nixon in China has been recorded twice , the first time by Nonesuch Records in 1987 , with the full Houston premiere cast in their original roles . In this recording , Edo de Waart conducted the Orchestra of St. Luke 's and chorus . Gramophone 's Good DVD Guide praised the singing , specifically mentioning James Maddalena 's " aptly volatile Nixon " and Trudy Ellen Craney 's admirable delivery of Chiang Ch 'ing 's coloratura passages . This recording received a Grammy Award in 1988 for Best Contemporary Composition in the " Classical " category ; it was reissued in February 2011 , coinciding with the opera 's production at the Metropolitan Opera . The second recording was issued in 2008 by Naxos . Marin Alsop conducted the Colorado Symphony Orchestra and Opera Colorado Chorus , with Robert Orth as Nixon , Maria Kanyova as Pat Nixon , Thomas Hammons as Kissinger , Chen @-@ Ye Yuan as Chou En @-@ lai , Marc Heller as Mao Tse @-@ Tung and Tracy Dahl as Chiang Ch 'in.g
= = In Other Media = =
" The People are the heroes now " and " The Chairman Dances : Foxtrot for Orchestra " both make an appearance in the modern era soundtrack of the criticly acclaimed Sid Meier 's Civilization IV .
= Ye Qianyu =
Ye Qianyu ( or Yeh Ch 'ien @-@ yü ; 31 March 1907 – 5 May 1995 ) was a Chinese painter and pioneering manhua artist . In 1928 , he cofounded Shanghai Manhua , one of the earliest and most influential manhua magazines , and created Mr. Wang , one of China 's most famous comic strips .
Ye was also a master of traditional Chinese painting and served as the head of the Department of Chinese Painting of the China Central Academy of Fine Arts . During the Cultural Revolution he was persecuted and imprisoned for seven years .
Ye was married three times . His first two marriages , to Luo Caiyun and dancer Dai Ailian , ended in divorce . His third marriage , to movie star Wang Renmei , lasted more than 30 years until Wang 's death .
= = Early life = =
Ye Qianyu was born Ye Lunqi ( 葉綸綺 ) in Tonglu county , Zhejiang province in 1907 . Although he loved to paint since childhood , he had neither the money nor the opportunity to seek professional training , forcing him to teach himself how to paint .
= = Career in Shanghai = =
At age 18 Ye moved to Shanghai , where he found work at a small , short @-@ lived journal Sanri Huabao ( Three Day Pictorial ) . The journal shut down when Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's Northern Expedition army reached Shanghai in April 1927 .
Out of work , Ye Qianyu , then 20 years old , together with fellow cartoonists Huang Wennong and Lu Shaofei released a publication dedicated to manhua , called Shanghai Manhua ( or Shanghai Sketch ) . The first effort looked like a propaganda poster and was a failure . Undeterred , the original three , joined by eight more artists including Zhang Guangyu , Ding Song , and Wang Dunqing , formed the Shanghai Sketch Society ( also translated as Shanghai Cartoon Association ) in the autumn of 1927 . It was China 's first association dedicated to manhua , and its debut was a major event in the history of Chinese comics .
Under the leadership of Zhang Guangyu , who recruited the wealthy poet Shao Xunmei as a sponsor , the association successfully relaunched the Shanghai Manhua on 21 April 1928 . Ye drew several covers for the magazine and the back page of the publication carried his comic strip , Mr. Wang . Inspired by the American strip Bringing Up Father and portraying the daily life of the middle and lower classes of Shanghai , Mr. Wang became one of China 's most famous cartoons , eventually being made into 11 films in the 1930s and 40s .
In June 1930 Shanghai Manhua was merged into Modern Miscelleny ( or Modern Pictorial , 时代画报 ) , of which Ye became an editor while continuing his Mr. Wang series .
In September 1936 , Ye Qianyu , Lu Shaofei , and Zhang Guangyu organized the First National Cartoon Exhibition in Shanghai . It displayed over 600 cartoons from all over the country . After the overwhelming success of the exhibition , the artists formed the National Association of Chinese Cartoonists in the spring of 1937 . The blossoming movement , however , was brought to a halt by the Japanese invasion a few months later .
= = Sino @-@ Japanese War = =
When Japan invaded China and occupied Shanghai in 1937 , Ye Qianyu , together with a group of fellow Shanghai cartoonists , formed the " National Salvation Cartoon Propaganda Corps " , which included well @-@ known artists Zhang Leping , Lu Zhixiang , Te Wei , and Hu Kao . Funded by the Kuomintang government , the corps left Shanghai for the interior to spread anti @-@ Japanese propaganda . They first went to Wuhan , but were forced to leave when that city fell at the end of 1938 . They then travelled to Changsha , Guilin , and eventually to the wartime capital Chongqing . They published 15 issues of Resistance Cartoons before the government discontinued funding .
Ye went to Hong Kong prior to its fall to the Japanese in December 1941 , and traveled through Guizhou , Guangxi , and Vietnam . In 1943 he temporarily worked for the US General Joseph Stilwell as a war correspondent in India . Throughout his travels he drew many sketches of wartime scenes , including a series entitled Escape from Hong Kong .
= = After World War II = =
After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Ye Qianyu went to the United States , where he held a series of exhibitions to show and sell his artworks .
In 1947 , Ye became a professor at the Beiping ( Beijing ) Art Academy . After the founding of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , he remained at the academy , which was transformed into the China Central Academy of Fine Arts . He was also elected vice @-@ chairman of the China Artists Association . In 1954 , he was appointed head of the Chinese Painting Department of the academy . He painted prolifically in the 1950s , including such representative works as Indian Dancing , Autumn of the Summer River , and The Liberation of Beiping .
When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966 , Ye Qianyu was accused of being a Kuomintang ( KMT ) agent for having drawn propaganda paintings and cartoons for the KMT government during the Japanese invasion . The Red Guards labeled him as a KMT " Major General " because he was better paid than a real general . He was imprisoned for seven years . After his release in 1975 , he was allowed to return to work at the Central Academy of Fine Arts , as a janitor . He nearly died of a heart attack the following year , and underwent a major operation in 1978 . His wife Wang Renmei supported the family during this period .
Ye Qianyu was politically rehabilitated in 1979 . In 1981 he was appointed Vice President of the Research Institute of Chinese painting , and re @-@ elected vice @-@ chairman of the China Artists Association and member of the National Committee of the CPPCC . He died in 1995 in Beijing , aged 88 .
= = Personal life = =
Ye Qianyu was married three times . At age 23 , he married Luo Caiyun ( 罗彩云 ) , who was from a prominent family in his hometown Tonglu . It was a loveless marriage arranged by their parents . She gave birth to a son Ye Shen ( 叶申 ) and a daughter Ye Mingming ( 叶明明 ) .
In 1935 , while he was an editor with the Modern Sketch magazine , Ye fell in love with Liang Baibo ( 梁白波 ) , one of the first female Chinese cartoonists and creator of the comic strip Miss Bee . Luo Caiyun rejected Ye 's request for divorce , but they signed an agreement to officially separate .
At the start of the Sino @-@ Japanese War , Liang Baibo joined Ye 's Salvation Cartoon Propaganda Corps and went to Wuhan with him . However , Liang met and fell in love with an air force pilot in Wuhan , eventually following him to Taiwan . She suffered from mental illness in her later years and committed suicide in around 1970 .
In 1940 Ye Qianyu met the dancer Dai Ailian in Hong Kong . An overseas Chinese born in Trinidad , Dai had come to Hong Kong to support the war effort . Although Dai could not speak Chinese and Ye spoke little English , they fell in love and got married within a few weeks . Soong Ching @-@ ling , the widow of President Sun Yat @-@ sen , presided over their wedding . Because of a botched surgery in Hong Kong , Dai was unable to have children . According to Ye Qianyu 's daughter Mingming , who lived with her father and was initially hostile to her stepmother , Dai treated her as if she had been her own child .
In 1950 Ye spent more than half a year in Xinjiang . When he returned to Beijing , Dai Ailian unexpectedly asked for divorce , because she had fallen in love with her dance partner . Ye was devastated ; the divorce was finalized in 1951 . Dai Ailian lived until 2006 , and is now known as the " Mother of Chinese ballet " .
Ye 's last wife was Wang Renmei , a famous actress who had been previously married to the " Film Emperor " Jin Yan . Introduced by mutual friends , they got married in 1955 . The marriage was stormy from the beginning , but it lasted more than 30 years , through the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , until Wang 's death in 1987 .
Luo Caiyun , Ye Qianyu 's first wife , lived with their son Ye Shen in Wuxi , Jiangsu . When Ye Qianyu was accused of being a KMT agent and thrown into prison during the Cultural Revolution , Luo was persecuted for being his ex @-@ wife . She committed suicide in 1970 .
= = Selected works = =
= Dunston Power Station =
Sometimes confused with the nearby Stella power stations .
Dunston Power Station refers to a pair of adjacent coal @-@ fired power stations in the North East of England , now demolished . They were built on the south bank of the River Tyne , in the western outskirts of Dunston in Gateshead . The two stations were built on a site which is now occupied by the MetroCentre . The first power station built on the site was known as Dunston A Power Station , and the second , which gradually replaced it between 1933 and 1950 , was known as Dunston B Power Station . The A Station was , in its time , one of the largest in the country , and as well as burning coal had early open cycle gas turbine units . The B Station was the first of a new power station design , and stood as a landmark in the Tyne for over 50 years . From the A Station 's opening in 1910 until the B Station 's demolition in 1986 , they collectively operated from the early days of electricity generation in the United Kingdom , through the industry 's nationalisation , and until a decade before its privatisation .
Dunston A had a generating capacity of 48 @.@ 85 megawatts ( MW ) in 1955 , and Dunston B had a generating capacity of 300 MW . Electricity from the stations powered an area covering Northumberland , County Durham , Cumberland , Yorkshire and as far north as Galashiels in Scotland .
= = Dunston A Power Station = =
= = = History = = =
With the expansion of the electric supply industry in the early 1900s , power stations were built to supply homes with electric lighting . Around Newcastle upon Tyne this led to the construction of power stations at Lemington , The Close and Carville . Two supply companies built the stations , the Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne Electric Supply Company ( NESCo ) to the east of Newcastle , and the Newcastle and District Electric Lighting Company ( DisCo ) to the west . To meet an increasing demand for electricity , NESCo commissioned Dunston Power Station ( later Dunston A Power Station ) on the Derwent Haugh , a large flood plain to the west of Gateshead , to balance the supply of the Newcastle area with the Carville station . Construction of the new station began in 1908 , the work undertaken by the company of Sir Robert McAlpine . They completed the construction in the short time of 20 months , and this was to be their first in a large number of power station constructions , following the decline of the railway industry . In 1910 , the station was opened and began generating electricity .
= = = Design and specification = = =
The station was of a similar design to other local power stations at Carville and Lemington , and was a large triple @-@ gabled brick building . However Dunston A was built several years after the other local stations , and so because of advances in power station design , was larger and was able to produce more electricity than the others . The station was originally equipped with two turbo @-@ alternators rated at 7 @.@ 2 megawatts ( MW ) , made by AEG of Germany , and two turbo alternators rated at 6 @.@ 25 MW and 13 @.@ 2 MW , made by Brown Boveri of Switzerland , for a total generating capacity of 33 @.@ 85 MW . The turbo alternators were supplied with steam from 24 coal burning Babcock & Wilcox marine water @-@ tube boilers .
= = = = Low temperature carbonisation plant = = = =
In 1925 , NESCo set up separate plant at the power station for the low temperature carbonisation treatment of coal , before being burned in boilers and the steam used for electricity generation . The treatment plant was manufactured by Babcock & Wilcox , and set up in a self @-@ contained boiler house which contained four boilers , four retorts and pulverising mills . The building was also fitted with gas @-@ stripping and by @-@ product plants . The carbonising plant could handle up to 100 tonnes of coal per day , while its boilers produced 78 @,@ 000 lb of steam per hour . This plant was extended in 1931 .
= = = = Gas turbine plant = = = =
Between 1947 and November 1955 , the station was extended , and a 15 MW Parsons gas turbine turbo alternator was installed , bringing the capacity of the station up to 48 @.@ 85 MW . The gas was supplied by pipe line from the Norwood Coke Works , 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away in the Team Valley .
= = Dunston B Power Station = =
As part of a transition from the 40 Hertz ( Hz ) system , used by the Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne Electric Supply Company , to the 50 Hz system , used by the new UK National Grid , which took place in 1932 , a new power station was built to replace the A power station .
= = = Design and specification = = =
The new Dunston B Power Station was designed by consulting engineers Merz & McLellan . Its design was different from the design of other power stations at the time because it enclosed the machinery in a steel frame clad with glass . This was a departure from the usual power station designs , which normally enclosed the machinery in a concrete or brick wall . Dunston B is thought to be the first power station in the UK and possibly even the world to be built in this way . The station was also the first in the world to use metal clad switchgear at a voltage as high as 66 @,@ 000 V.
Construction of the new power station started in 1930 , but the Second World War delayed its full completion until 1951 . The station was opened in stages throughout its construction , as generating units were able to be put into production while the other sections were still under construction . The first units were commissioned in January 1933 .
The new station had a capacity of 300 megawatts ( MW ) , produced by six 50 MW generating sets . These were made by C. A. Parsons and Company and were the largest machines ever constructed under Charles Algernon Parsons ' supervision .
The station 's units were the first application of reheated steam in steam turbines in the world , an improvement which gave them a heat consumption of only 9 @,@ 280 BTU per kilowatt hour , the most efficient system in the UK . In 1939 the station was said to be " at the head of all the Power Stations in Great Britain as regards thermal efficiency . " The station remained one of Britain 's most efficient systems until the 1950s .
The stations ' buildings were around 100 ft ( 30 m ) tall . Flue gas was discharged through six 250 ft ( 76 m ) tall chimneys , one for each of the station 's six generating units . The station was fitted with two electrostatic precipitators in 1953 , one completed in June that year and the other in September . They were fitted to reduce smoke and pollution from the station .
= = = Operations = = =
The plant 's water system was cooled by using the nearby River Tyne , rather than using a cooling tower system . Coal for the station was supplied from various coal mines in the North Durham coalfields , and was brought to the station by train , on what was a freight only line . Since the station 's closure , this line has been upgraded for use by passenger trains and is now used as part of the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway . Once delivered to the station , coal was shunted by CEGB No. 15 " Eustace Forth " , which was built by Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns in 1942 , and No. 13 " The Barra " , which was built by Hawthorn Leslie & Company in 1928 . These two engines are now stored at Shildon Locomotion Museum and Tanfield Railway respectively .
Various ships disposed of the station 's ash waste , by carrying the fly ash down the river and dumping it in the North Sea . These vessels included " Bobby Shaftoe " , " Bessie Surtees " and " Hexhamshire Lass " , which were also used by the nearby Stella power stations ; as well as a number of tugs towing hopper barges , including " Mildred " .
= = Closure , demolition and present = =
See also MetroCentre ( shopping centre )
In its time , Dunston B Power Station ranked consistently in England 's leading stations , both in terms of thermal efficiency and cost per unit of electricity . However , the station eventually became outdated , and notification of its partial closure was given in October 1975 , with some units being closed the following October . It was then only used as a stand @-@ by station , operating only at peak electrical demand times . Finally , after some units having been in operation for about 40 years , the station ceased to generate electricity on 26 October 1981 . At the time of closure , only 98 MW of the station 's capacity was in use .
The station was demolished in 1986 to make way for the MetroCentre , which became Europe 's largest shopping and leisure centre . The land on which the MetroCentre was built was bought for only £ 100 @,@ 000 , because the site was water @-@ logged and had been used for dumping ash produced by the power station . American warehouse club chain Costco have since built a store on the actual site of the power station . The power station 's large indoor sub @-@ station still stands alongside it , as the only trace of the site 's former use .
Due to the closure of Dunston power station , along with the later closures of the power stations at Stella and Blyth , the northern part of North East England has become heavily dependent upon the National Grid for electrical supply . However , in the south of the region there are still two large power stations at Hartlepool and Teesside , meaning that the south of the region does not depend upon the National Grid for electrical supply as much as the north of the region .
= = Visual and cultural impact = =
The power station 's six chimneys were a prominent local landmark , visible from along a 8 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of the Tyne valley running from Bensham in Gateshead to Heddon @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Wall in Northumberland .
When in operation , the B station briefly featured in Get Carter , a 1971 crime film starring Michael Caine . Dunston B appears as part of the film 's backdrop , viewed from the now demolished Frank Street in Benwell , as the funeral cortège of the main character 's brother Frank leaves a house on the street .
The station was also a popular subject for photographers . It featured in the work of documentary and press photographer Bert Hardy , who photographed it from Benwell , using it as a backdrop whilst photographing a mother and child . It was also photographed by Welsh documentary photographer Jimmy Forsyth ( photographer ) as part of his Scotswood Road collection .
= Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep =
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep ( Japanese : キングダム ハーツ バース バイ スリープ , Hepburn : Kingudamu Hātsu Bāsu bai Surīpu ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable , serving as the sixth installment in the Kingdom Hearts series . The game was released on UMD in Japan on January 9 , 2010 , in North America on September 7 , 2010 and in the PAL regions on September 10 , 2010 . An international version of the game titled Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix was released in Japan in January 2011 featuring the changes made in the non @-@ Japanese versions .
The game utilizes an overhauled battle system different from previous games in the series with new elements . It is a prequel to the original Kingdom Hearts , taking place nine years before . The game centers on the journeys of Terra , Aqua and Ventus , characters briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II in their quest to locate the missing Master Xehanort , and protect the worlds from creatures known as the Unversed . The player has access to the three characters ' different scenarios when playing .
Development of the game began in June 2005 with parts of the game Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix meant to bring clues of Birth by Sleep . The game was directed by Tetsuya Nomura and co @-@ directed by Tai Yasue . Nomura has referred to the game as " Episode 0 " ( and later " Episode 0 @.@ 1 " ) saying that the game is on the same scale and plays as big an importance as Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II . The game has been well @-@ received , selling 1 @.@ 27 million copies worldwide as of November 2010 , and receiving positive comments by video game publications . Critics praised the gameplay , graphics , music , and storyline of the game , with criticism reserved for the level design and the characters . A high definition version of the Final Mix edition was released for the PlayStation 3 in 2014 as a part of the Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix collection .
= = Gameplay = =
Birth by Sleep is an action role @-@ playing game that introduces a gameplay aspect to the series called the Command System . This system allows players to customize a Command Deck with techniques and abilities that they can perform at will , called Deck Commands . Performing ordinary attacks and Commands fills a gauge displayed above the Command Deck . When certain requirements are fulfilled and the gauge is full , the player 's basic attack is changed to the " Surge " Command , which racks up powerful combos depending on what Command Style is activated . Filling the gauge a second time replaces the " Surge " Command with the more powerful " Storm " Command .
Unlike previous games in the series , the game does not utilize Magic Points ( MP ) for spells or magic casting . It instead uses a system known as Focus , which is displayed in an orange gauge on the interface . The player can use Focus to perform a technique called Shotlock with which the player enters a first person mode where they target enemies to cast homing spells that differ with each character and technique , depleting the gauge relative to the number of enemies targeted . Once depleted , the Focus gauge gradually refills with every attack and Deck Command the player lands on an enemy .
Another aspect introduced in the game is the Dimension Link ( D @-@ Link ) , measured in a blue gauge on the interface . It is used to draw power from certain companions who the player characters meet during the game , such as Experiment 626 , temporarily replacing the commands in the player 's customized command deck with a pre @-@ determined set of commands that differ with each D @-@ Link . Once the command gauge is filled while performing a D @-@ Link , a powerful finishing move is activated to take out enemies . Each finishing move has two levels which can render a finishing move more powerful than before , similar to that of the Command System . The D @-@ Link can only be used when its corresponding gauge is filled completely , and can be activated by pressing right on the directional pad to access the D @-@ Link menu , followed by selecting the chosen ally .
The game also features the Command Board , which appears whenever the player completes a world , and can be accessed from save points and the world map once unlocked . Each world has its own unique Command Board with its own tricks and mechanisms . The Command Board plays like a simplified version of the Fortune Street board game series . A die is thrown and the player moves , with each space having its own unique effect on the player . Various Disney characters from throughout the game also appear on their respective Command Board to either aid or hinder the player . Special panels in the board game can trigger " special events " when landed on by the player .
= = = Scenarios = = =
The game is divided into three separate scenarios , with each scenario surrounding the story of the three main characters : Terra , Aqua , and Ventus . While the first ten minutes of the story are the same regardless of which character is chosen , the events that follow differ in each scenario , with each character 's narrative occurring parallel to the others . The gameplay of each scenario differs based on the abilities of each character such as their power , speed and magic : Terra is the most powerful in terms of physical damage , Ventus is the fastest character , and Aqua specializes in magic . Players may choose which of the three scenarios they wish to start with near the beginning of the game . The recommended scenario order of play by Nomura is Terra , followed by Ventus , and lastly Aqua , allowing the player to best understand the story . Completing all three scenarios will unlock the story 's final chapter .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The game supports up to six players at a time in four new multiplayer modes , all set in a world known as the Mirage Arena . In each mode , players control one of the three main characters . In Versus , players fight against each other in a deathmatch @-@ style game , while in Arena players fight co @-@ operatively in a " Survival Mode " style of gameplay against wave after wave of Unversed . Rumble Racing features players racing against each other competitively on their Keyblade vehicles , which can also be used to attack rivals . Command Board is a board game using the in @-@ game Command Board mechanic , where players try to reach the end first as in traditional board games . Setting records in the Mirage Arena earns players medals which can be exchanged for rare items in @-@ game . Only Ad @-@ Hoc wireless multiplayer , where all of the players need to be physically near each other , is allowed .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Birth by Sleep is a prequel to the first Kingdom Hearts game , taking place nine years prior . Like the other games in the series , the player progresses through a collection of various worlds , based on various locales from the Disney animated features canon : Dwarf Woodlands from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , Enchanted Dominion from Sleeping Beauty , Castle of Dreams from Cinderella , Olympus Coliseum from Hercules , Deep Space from Lilo & Stitch , Neverland from Peter Pan , and Mysterious Tower from Fantasia . The game also features various new worlds specially created for the series by Square En
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ix such as the Land of Departure and Radiant Garden . Disney Town , which is the town that surrounds the castle grounds of Disney Castle , serves as the game 's minigame world . Worlds such as Destiny Islands and Castle Oblivion also appear in the form of cutscenes , while the 100 Acre Wood from the Winnie the Pooh franchise , which had appeared in most other games of the series , only appears as a Command Board in Birth by Sleep . The staff first chose the worlds based on the game 's scenario , leading to the inclusion of Princesses ' worlds . They then added the worlds of Neverland and Deep Space to add variety to the game , while Olympus Coliseum was selected to reflect the game 's earlier setting compared to the original Kingdom Hearts .
= = = Characters = = =
The three main characters are Terra , Aqua , and Ventus , a trio of apprentice Keyblade wielders under Master Eraqus who aspire to become Masters themselves . Another Keyblade Master , Xehanort , and his apprentice , Vanitas , serve as the game 's antagonists . Other characters from the previous games return , such as Sora , Riku , and Kairi , though they are younger than their original incarnations and given less prominent roles . A number of characters who later come to form Organization XIII also appear in their human forms . As with the Heartless in Kingdom Hearts and the Nobodies in Kingdom Hearts II , Birth by Sleep introduces a new type of enemy : the Unversed , fledgling emotions that are " not well @-@ versed in their own existences " and feed on negativity .
As with the other games in the series , Birth by Sleep features an extensive cast of Disney characters . The most prominent of these characters is King Mickey , who serves as a student under the sorcerer Yen Sid at this point in the series chronology . Donald Duck and Goofy , who assist Sora in most other games , appear in smaller roles . Most other Disney characters remain in their respective worlds regardless of their overall importance to the story in previous installments , such as Maleficent and Pete , who served as major antagonists between Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II , and a number of the Princesses of Heart . Some characters ( such as Experiment 626 , Prince Phillip , and King Mickey ) occasionally fight alongside the player characters in battles as partners similar to the other games , providing assistance and performing combos to help the player proceed . However , they do not follow the player around constantly like Donald and Goofy in the other games . Unlike the other major installments , which also featured casts of various characters throughout the Final Fantasy series , Birth by Sleep only features two of these characters : Zack from Final Fantasy VII , and Moogle , a creature from several of the Final Fantasy games , who sells items to the player . As Birth by Sleep is a prequel of the first Kingdom Hearts title , the staff decided to add Zack to the title as he is the protagonist of the Final Fantasy VII prequel , Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII .
= = = Story = = =
In the Land of Departure , Terra and Aqua take an exam to achieve the Mark of Mastery . Master Xehanort manipulates the test so only Aqua passes while Terra fails , lessening the control of darkness in his heart . Shortly after the test , Xehanort disappears and a horde of mysterious creatures called the Unversed begin to appear throughout the worlds in pursuit of the Princesses of Heart . Learning of these developments from Yen Sid , Master Eraqus sends Terra and Aqua to destroy the Unversed and find Xehanort throughout the countless worlds . Meanwhile , Ventus is coaxed by Xehanort 's apprentice Vanitas into following Terra against Eraqus ' wishes , while Eraqus orders Aqua to watch over Terra and bring Ventus back to the Land of Departure .
As the three travel through several worlds , Terra attracts the attention of several villains : Maleficent , Hades , Dr. Jumba Jookiba , Captain Hook , and the Wicked Queen who offer him the whereabouts of Xehanort in exchange for assistance in their own agendas . He eventually finds Xehanort , who instructs him to destroy Vanitas , revealed to be the source of the Unversed created from the darkness extracted from Ventus ' heart . The three friends briefly reunite at Radiant Garden where Aqua and Ventus confront Terra about his actions , but he dismisses them .
Ventus later encounters Xehanort , who reveals his intentions to fuse Ventus and Vanitas 's hearts to create an all @-@ powerful Keyblade called the χ @-@ blade . Xehanort sends Ventus to the Land of Departure to confront Eraqus , who tries to kill Ventus to foil Xehanort 's plans . However , Terra , who has also been sent to the Land of Departure by Xehanort , faces Eraqus to protect Ventus . Upon his defeat , Eraqus is vanquished by Xehanort , who covers the Land of Departure in darkness and tells Terra to go to a world known as the Keyblade Graveyard . Ventus is similarly instructed to do the same by Vanitas , as is Aqua by Yen Sid after he informs her of Eraqus ' fate .
Terra , Aqua , and Ventus gather at the Keyblade Graveyard , where Xehanort appears with Vanitas and reveals his plan to use the χ @-@ blade to unlock Kingdom Hearts and start a Keyblade War , an apocalyptic event that nearly destroyed the world in the past . Terra 's heart is swallowed by darkness in the ensuing battle , allowing Xehanort to take over his body , but Terra 's mind remains within his discarded suit of armor , which comes to life and defeats Xehanort . Meanwhile , Ventus is forced to fuse with Vanitas to create the χ @-@ blade and battles Aqua alongside Mickey , Yen Sid 's apprentice , while he engages Vanitas in a metaphysical battle within his mind . Aqua destroys the χ @-@ blade as Ventus defeats Vanitas from within , though Ventus loses his heart and falls into a deep sleep as a result .
After learning of Ventus ' state , Aqua brings his body to the Land of Departure , where she transforms it into Castle Oblivion to ensure Ventus will not be disturbed . She then goes to Radiant Garden where she fights Xehanort , who still possesses Terra 's body . The battle rages until Xehanort unlocks his own heart after Terra 's heart tries to regain control of his body . Terra 's body sinks into the realm of darkness , and Aqua dives in to save him , becoming trapped . Xehanort , who remains in Terra 's body , loses his memories and is found by Ansem the Wise , while Ventus ' heart reconnects to the heart of a young Sora where it is able to rest .
In the game 's secret ending , which takes place after the events of Kingdom Hearts II , Aqua meets Ansem the Wise in the Realm of Darkness and learns from him about Sora , who has the power to save those connected to his heart . Sora , having learned of their fates from King Mickey 's letter , undertakes another quest to save them .
= = Development = =
Development of the game began in June 2005 and was originally intended for the PlayStation 2 with Sora as the prototype protagonist of the game . Birth by Sleep was developed by Square Enix 's fifth Product Development Division , based in Osaka , the same team behind Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories , and uses the same graphical engine as both Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII and Dissidia Final Fantasy . During development of Kingdom Hearts II , the Osaka @-@ based team had requested to be involved in a spin @-@ off if one were to be made . Development of the game began before the release of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + . The plot was completed , but development was halted six months after it began due to development of Re : Chain of Memories . When development resumed , the team changed the platform to the PlayStation Portable so as to make use of the PSP 's functions such as co @-@ operative and competitive multiplayer gameplay . The title of the game is based on II Final Mix 's secret ending , " Birth by Sleep " , a title which director Tetsuya Nomura developed as he wanted a phrase having " by " as well as to use an English title like previous games . Nomura has referred to the game as " Episode 0 " , saying that the game is on the same scale and plays as big an importance as Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II .
Early during the game 's development , Nomura already had various scenes in mind such as Terra 's and Riku 's conversation in order to explain the latter 's ability in the original games . Various parts from the plot had to be modified to make the game more light @-@ hearted such as Eraqus ' death at the hands of Xehanort after being defeated by Terra , how Aqua 's scenario was supposed to end with her already trapped in the Realm of Darkness , and the relationship between Ventus and Sora . Two of the newly introduced protagonists , Ventus and Terra , were based on other characters from the franchise while Aqua 's design did not have a base . Nevertheless , the three wear outfits meant to expand the student @-@ and @-@ teacher bond shown in the game . The Disney worlds were chosen to expand the characters of the Princesess of Light as well as Maleficient 's who are connected with the events of the first Kingdom Hearts game , while the worlds of Neverland and Deep Space were chosen to add variety to the game , and Olympus Coliseum was selected to reflect the game 's earlier setting compared to the original Kingdom Hearts .
Birth by Sleep was directed by Nomura and co @-@ directed by Tai Yasue . It was announced alongside Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days and Kingdom Hearts coded at the Tokyo Game Show on September 20 , 2007 , where a trailer was shown in a photo @-@ prohibited theater . New trailers were shown at the 2008 Jump Festa in December 2007 and the DKΣ3713 Private Party , an invite @-@ only event by Square Enix for fans , in August 2008 ; a playable demo was also available at DKΣ3713 . The June 5 , 2009 issue of Famitsu covered an interview with Tetsuya Nomura , where he said that the game was , at the time , at the voice recording stage . Nomura also confirmed in an interview that Birth by Sleep would contain a secret ending like in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II for the next game in the Kingdom Hearts series , which he confirmed to be a main game and the one which Nomura stated would link up Birth by Sleep , 358 / 2 Days and coded . He also confirmed that a Birth by Sleep demo would indeed be playable at the 2009 Tokyo Games Show together with a new trailer . In early October 2009 , Nomura revealed that the concept of the Command Board originated from when he was in elementary school as at that time he was very fascinated with board games and even made his own ; hence he wanted to incorporate a fun board game into the game .
In late October 2009 , Nomura revealed that he was currently designing the cover art for Birth by Sleep as well as editing the staff rolls due to there being three main characters in the game . He also revealed that they were editing the new opening movie for the game . As with coded and 358 / 2 Days , Yoko Shimomura , the series ' main composer , composed the most prominent themes , while the rest was created by other composers . Like Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories , Birth by Sleep uses Hikaru Utada 's theme song " Hikari " for the Japanese version and its English version , " Simple and Clean " , in the other releases .
The game made its final public appearance before its Japanese release at Jump Festa 2010 on December 19 , 2009 where a playable demo as well as new footage from the game were present and shown . Like previous console titles in the series , the game contains a secret movie at the end , which had been described as being more like a " true ending " rather than a teaser for the future like previous ones . Development of the movie began in October where Nomura noted in the blog that the game would contain a teaser to the next major Kingdom Hearts game similar to the teasers in previous games in the series .
= = Reception = =
The game sold very well during its first two days of release with over 500 @,@ 000 copies of the game sold in Japan . By February 14 , just over a month later , the game had sold a total of 800 @,@ 551 copies . Sales in North America and Europe have also been good , with the game taking high places in various categories . After its release in the United States , it was listed as the sixth bestselling video game there in September 2010 by the NPD Group . By November 2010 , the game had sold 1 @.@ 27 million units worldwide with 310 @,@ 000 and 190 @,@ 000 copies coming from North America and Europe , respectively , and the rest from Japan .
Prior to the game 's release , IGN expressed their excitement at the release of the game in 2010 having played the demo . 1UP.com echoed similar statements , praising the visuals and stating it " plays better " than the previous Kingdom Hearts games . They had some complaints regarding Ven 's demo due to constant jumping , but further stated that Ven 's demo gave them an idea of " how the game is going to feel " , and predicted the game would improve the series . 1UP also put it on their article " Top 10 PSP Games of 2010 " , while Gamasutra put it in their " The Most Anticipated Games Of 2010 " and " The Most @-@ Awaited Games Of 2009 : PlayStation Portable " articles . IGN featured it as nominated of 2010 's " Best of E3 Award " in the category Best PSP Games . GameTrailers also had praise for the new title and gave it a nomination for Best PSP Game of E3 2010 .
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep has received positive reviews from gaming reviewers . The game 's average score is of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic and GameRankings , becoming the third highest ranking Kingdom Hearts game behind Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II . The game has been highly praised by Japanese gaming magazine , Famitsu , whose four reviewers gave scores of 10 / 9 / 9 / 9 , for a total of 37 / 40 , the third @-@ highest rated game in the Kingdom Hearts series behind Dream Drop Distance and Kingdom Hearts II . They praised the game 's graphics and music , calling them " superb " , as well as praising the wide variety of customization available to the players due to the three unique playable characters . It also praised the design of boss battles , calling them " lively and exciting " . English websites have also given praise to the game with GameZone calling it " amazing title that every KH fan must play " , finding it the best portable game from the series . RPGamer praised the " evolution " from the gameplay ever since the series ' start . PlayStation : The Official Magazine ( PSM ) agreed calling the fighting system " one of the deepest , most rewarding " ones from the PSP . IGN called its battle system " unique " , labeling it as the best one from all the series and having a campaign story . 1UP praised the differences between the protagonists ' fighting styles with PSN comparing them with different classes of RPG characters . A common complaint has been the game 's loading times , which tended to be very long depending on the PlayStation Portable 's memory . Reviewers also called the game 's worlds " hollow due to the lack of interaction , and also criticized the game 's camera which sometimes made fights confusing . Visuals were also well received for being similar to the ones from PlayStation 2 's games with praise on the design of the worlds , although a lack of details was also noted .
Sites have also praised the game 's story , for its accessibility as a result of being a prequel , or that it did not bear elements from previous games that tended to confuse gamers such as the characters ' identities . Critics also appreciated how the story is told from three different perspectives , which helped to give different point of views as well as expand the time the game can be played . Nevertheless , some character traits were criticized such as the similarities between the protagonists to previous ones . While Eurogamer cited that the three characters had little impact to the Disney worlds ' storyline , Terra 's role was praised by 1UP.com for distancing itself from previous scenarios . Although the lack of Final Fantasy characters received mixed opinions , PSM thought that it helped to expand the exploration of Disney worlds , while Zack 's role was found suitable by GameZone . The English casting for Birth by Sleep also received positive comments with GameTrailers stating that it " features one of the few good English dubs in recent memory " , particularly Leonard Nimoy 's performance . GameSpot stated that Ventus ' and Aqua 's voice actor to have done a good job voicing them , but criticized Terra 's as one of the worst ones from the game , most notably , when compared with other well @-@ received actors .
IGN featured the game in their " Game of the Month " article series for September 2010 in the PSP category . The game has been listed as one of the best PlayStation Portable titles with GamesRadar placing it sixth and IGN eighteenth . In an ASCII Media Works poll , it was listed as the tenth best game of 2010 . It won in the category of " Best Portable Console Videogame " in France 's 2011 Japan Expo . In November 2011 , Sony announced Birth by Sleep would receive the " Gold Prize " for selling over 500 @,@ 000 units in Japan .
= = Versions and merchandise = =
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep was also released with a limited edition PSP @-@ 3000 as a bundle in Japan featuring designs from the Kingdom Hearts series on its back . On March 16 , 2010 , Square Enix announced the English version of the game , which was released on September 7 , 2010 in North America , and on September 10 , 2010 in Europe . The English version of the game contains some adjustments from the original version , such as a new difficulty setting called Critical Mode , and additional songs for the Ice Cream Beat minigame . A new boss known only as the Unknown appears in the overseas versions , as well as a new gameplay element called " Crown Stickers " , which act much the same way as the Puzzle Pieces from Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix . The game also has a notable voice @-@ acting cast of returning members such as Jesse McCartney and James Woods , as well as numerous new actors such as Willa Holland , Jason Dohring , Leonard Nimoy , and Mark Hamill . An Ultimania guidebook of the game was released on March 25 , 2010 . Like previous games , a light novel of Birth by Sleep has been written by Tomoko Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano . Its first volume , " Something Strange " was published by Square Enix on December 24 , 2010 , the second - " Best Friends " - on February 24 , 2011 , and the third and final volume , " To the Future " , on May 26 , 2011 . Additionally , the tracks featured in the game have been released as part of a three @-@ disc album which includes the soundtracks from Birth by Sleep , 358 / 2 Days and coded .
= = = Final Mix = = =
In early 2010 , Nomura was asked in an interview if Square Enix would release an international Final Mix of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , to which he replied he would like to , as he enjoyed the work from the English voice casting done in the previous games . However , he stated that one of the main reasons for the popularity of the Final Mix version of Kingdom Hearts II was because it was released alongside the PlayStation 2 remake of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , so he and the staff would think on it more . In September 2010 , Square Enix announced that Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix would be released on January 20 , 2011 in Japan . Like all Final Mix releases , it combines English audio with Japanese game text and subtitles , and includes all additional features implemented in the Western versions as well as brand new content , such as a new playable secret episode . Alongside The 3rd Birthday , Final Mix includes a code that allows players to obtain downloadable content for Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , with Final Mix featuring the character Cloud Strife costume from the original Kingdom Hearts . Final Mix topped the video game charts following its release with 77 @,@ 317 units sold in the first week , and reaching 106 @,@ 276 in February 2011 . Final Mix was released for the first time outside Japan as part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix .
= = = HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix = = =
In the credits of Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix , clips of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix were shown , hinting at its inclusion in another collection . On October 14 , 2013 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix , a second compilation exclusively for the PlayStation 3 after HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . The release includes both Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix and Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix in HD with trophy support . Additionally , the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from Kingdom Hearts Re : coded . It was released in Japan on October 2 , 2014 , North America on December 2 , 2014 , Australia on December 4 , 2014 , and Europe on December 5 , 2014 .
= = = A Fragmentary Passage = = =
In September 2015 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . The collection features Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 : Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage , a new part of the story taking place after the events of the original Birth by Sleep , told from the perspective of Aqua . The collection also features an HD remaster of Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance as well as Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover , set to tell the tale of the Foretellers and revealing new parts of the series ' history in HD cinematics . It will be released worldwide in December 2016 .
= Council of Keewatin =
The Council of Keewatin was an unelected legislative body and territorial government for the now @-@ defunct District of Keewatin in Canada . The District of Keewatin was created by the passage of the Keewatin Act on October 7 , 1876 from a portion of Canada 's North West Territories . Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris convinced the government that the new territorial government of the North West Territories would be unable to effectively administer land to the north and east of Manitoba . Shortly after the District of Keewatin was formed a large group of Icelanders arrived , infected with smallpox which quickly spread to the indigenous First Nation population . The Government of Canada allowed the Council to be formed for the purpose of containing the smallpox epidemic . The Council also administered Indian treaty claims , immigrant land claims , Hudson 's Bay Company trading post concerns as well as policing and health care . The Council lasted from November 25 , 1876 , until April 16 , 1877 , after which control of the territory was returned under federal jurisdiction .
The founder of the Council of Keewatin as well as the District of Keewatin was Alexander Morris . He selected and appointed the members to serve after being given permission by the Government of Canada . After the Council was disbanded in 1877 , the legislation passed and departments organized by the council , such as the Boards of Health and Quarantine , continued to remain in force as late as 1878 . The council was not reconstituted before the District of Keewatin was ceded back to the Northwest Territories in 1905 . All matters of administration were handled by the Government of Canada and the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba .
= = Location = =
The new district of Keewatin was separate from the North West Territories . Keewatin was an area extending north of the " postage stamp " province of Manitoba and the Canada – United States border , to the northern shores of Canada . To the west was the North @-@ West Territories , to the east Ontario and again the North @-@ West Territories . The Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba , Alexander Morris , served ex officio as Lieutenant Governor of the district .
= = History = =
= = = Treaty 5 land negotiations = = =
Morris had fully expected the Sandy Bar Saulteaux to sign Treaty 5 , The Lake Winnipeg Treaty in 1875 . The purpose of the treaty would be to free up lands for immigration and settlement were then inhabited by the First Nations people . In return the First Nations would be granted reserve land , $ 5 @.@ 00 per person annual payment , two oxen , one bull and four cows for each band , an annual payment of $ 50 @.@ 00 salary for the Chief and three executive officers amounting to $ 70 @.@ 00 total , as well as agricultural implements . The Chief also received a flag and medal .
= = = Icelandic land grant = = =
Icelanders emigrated from Iceland due to volcanic eruptions and shortage of grasslands , as well as a population increase which limited access to resources . Canada was attracting immigrants with land to settle western Canada in this era . Lord Dufferin , Governor General of Canada , and Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris granted the Icelanders territory at Sandy Bar , south of the Icelandic River . Between 235 and 285 Icelanders arrived at Willowpoint near Gimli on October 21 , 1875 ; later that summer 1200 new immigrants from Iceland joined them . The Icelandic settlers elected a provisional town council of five members for the colony administration . The Dominion Government granted free transportation within Canada and settlement rights for a reserve known as New Iceland ( Nýja Ísland ) , established by an Order in Council . 27 @,@ 000 acres ( 110 km2 ) was set aside for the New Iceland territory , which comprised 57 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 36 @.@ 0 mi ) astride the western shore of Lake Winnipeg between Boundary Creek and White Mud River ( Icelandic River ) inclusive of Big Island ( Hecla Island ) . The Canadian government also promised the Icelanders local self @-@ government , laws and judicial system and maintenance of their own school system . The Icelanders received a loan , which was offered to the settlement in stages . $ 15 @,@ 000 was allotted to the first arrivals of 1875 . Then a loan of $ 5 @,@ 000 was extended to the summer immigrants to cover the cost of tickets , and $ 8 @,@ 000 for agricultural tools and provisions . An extra $ 9 @,@ 000 was paid to cover travel costs and three months provisions . $ 25 @,@ 000 was received in April which was used for seed and livestock : 250 head of cattle were purchased . October saw another loan of $ 18 @,@ 000 for winter provisions , and 100 cows . Altogether , $ 80 @,@ 000 was loaned to the Icelandic settlers , for which the 160 acres ( 65 ha ) of settlement lands per settler was used as collateral . Their local council was dissolved on April 12 , 1876 , when the District of Keewatin was established by the Dominion Government under the North @-@ West Territories Act . At this same time the territory of New Iceland underwent an official transfer to the District of Keewatin .
= = = Land claim dispute = = =
A land claim dispute arose between the Saulteaux family of John Ramsay and the Icelandic family of Ólafur Ólafsson . The Saulteaux believed the boundary line between the settlements was at the south shore of the river . Ólafur Ólafsson constructed his cabin on the river 's north shore . J.A.N. Provencher supported Ólafsson . Ramsay brought his claim to Morris . Ramsay had recently lost his wife and four of his five children to smallpox and wanted the Saulteaux title to be recognized . The surveyor general and the Indian Affairs Department deputy superintendent both agreed that Ramsay was entitled to the land under the Indian Act . Treaty 5 was not signed by the Sandy Bar Saulteaux until 1876 , after all appeals to federal agents regarding land claims failed .
= = = Smallpox = = =
The District of Keewatin had a severe epidemic of smallpox that started shortly after the territory 's creation in the settlements of Gimli and Sandy Bar . The disease originated from a large group of Icelandic settlers who settled on the west shore of Lake Winnipeg . The Icelanders thought the first appearance of the epidemic was chickenpox and so it was not recognized as a deadly smallpox epidemic . The epidemic quickly spread to the local native population who were the predominant inhabitants of the territory .
= = Council formation = =
The Council of Keewatin was created and its first and only members were appointed and sworn in on November 25 , 1876 , by Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris . Morris sent word to Ottawa by telegraph on November 24 , 1876 , asking for permission to set up the Council . The federal government responded quickly , allowing appointments and a proclamation to be printed the next day . Members of the Legislative Council were entitled to use the prefix The Honourable for the duration of their appointments . The first session of the Council opened on November 30 , 1876 , with Morris delivering the only throne speech . He emphasized the impending need for the council to deal with the smallpox epidemic in the fledgling territory . He detailed the history of the Temporary North @-@ West Council , why the District of Keewatin was created , and outlined the powers of the Council of Keewatin .
The council sat in Fort Garry , Manitoba even though this was outside of the boundaries of the District of Keewatin . Morris determined during the creation of the territory that the affairs of the District of Keewatin should be administered from Fort Garry until November 7 , 1876 . A total of six members were appointed to the Council . The law that created the territory allowed for a minimum of five members .
William Hespeler was appointed to serve on the Executive Council as a cabinet minister serving Lieutenant Governor Morris . His portfolio gave him the title of Territorial Immigration Agent . This office was needed to put measures and people in place to control access by settlers in the territory to help quarantine the smallpox epidemic .
The other members of the council were all chosen for their medical knowledge rather than a political background . The Council met at Early Government House in Fort Garry , which was also the home of Alexander Morris . The only clerk and secretary appointed to serve the council was F.G. Becher . The Council chose William Osborne Smith to chair the proceedings of the Council as well as the Board of Health .
= = = Emergency quarantine = = =
Fearing the disease would spread to Manitoba and the North West Territories , Morris advised the Department of the Interior that a territorial government needed to be set up to deal with the crisis . Morris appointed Dr Lynch to care for the Saulteaux smallpox epidemic . Sigtryggur Jonasson visited John Taylor to seek help , returning to New Iceland on November 8 , 1877 . Drs David Young , James S. Lynch , and A. Baldwin arrived at New Iceland and placed the area under quarantine as of November 27 , 1876 .
A hospital was established in Gimli , Keewatin and a quarantine station at Netley Creek . The Grassy Narrows House , a Hudson 's Bay " outpost " also became an emergency hospital during the epidemic . The nearby Sandy Bar Band first nation community at Riverton was reached by Lynch and Young , and had been abandoned . The buildings were burned to contain the smallpox epidemic . Following the trail , they found the remaining 17 residents of the Sandy Bar band of about 60 people . The Sandy Bar Band fled to the east shore of Lake Winnipeg . This spread the epidemic and infected any bands living there . Ramsay guided the doctor to the various bands . At Sandy River 200 dead bodies were found . The Hudson 's Bay Company warehouse , houses and teepees were all burned .
After the throne speech was read on November 30 , 1876 , the council of Keewatin got to work quickly and passed its first piece of legislation . The Act was entitled An Act respecting Small Pox , and it served as the centrepiece of the council . The Act defined penalties and provisions to enforce Morris ' proclamation outlawing intercourse by people outside the infected zone who did not have permission from the Council . The Act also offered advice and procedures for medical treatment of the disease . For the entire lifespan of the Council , all acts and regulations passed were geared towards dealing with smallpox . Everyone who wanted to do business with or visit the infected areas had to obtain permission from the council .
By April 1877 , the smallpox epidemic abated , however the quarantine remained until June 20 , 1877 . The Icelanders demonstrated to Netley Creek , the southern border of New Island , requesting an end to the quarantine , which had been lifted the previous day , June 19 . Of the 1200 Icelandic settlers , 102 died of smallpox . Many of the immigrants had been immunized in Iceland before they travelled to Canada .
= = = The fur trade = = =
During the short existence of the Council , it became involved with regulating the fur trade . The Council feared furs contaminated with smallpox would be exported outside the quarantine zone . The Council invited people involved in the fur trade from Keewatin , Manitoba , and even the United States government to discuss the matter . The purpose of the meeting was to solicit testimony and gain the support of the industry , so that the Council could effectively draft , implement and enforce legislation .
The Council passed an Act on February 26 , 1877 , which was subsequently given Royal Assent . The measures adopted effectively quarantined furs from areas of the district deemed infected , and prevented their export . However furs from areas in the District of Keewatin deemed to be free of smallpox could be exported as long as they did not come into contact with infected furs .
Before being exported from the district , all furs had to pass through depots manned by a quarantine officer appointed by the Board of Health . Any furs believed to have come into contact with parts of the district infected by smallpox were to be destroyed . This led to some problems for the Government of Canada after the Council was dissolved . Some people whose furs had been destroyed under these regulations applied to the Government for compensation , as no mechanism was put in place when the Act was drafted . These claims for compensation were considered , but ultimately ignored .
The Hudson 's Bay Company had lost a full year in the northern fur trade , and pressed for further steps to be taken to prevent another smallpox outbreak . Dr. D.W.J. Hagarty was appointed as medical superintendent of the Manitoba and North @-@ West Superintendencies in October 1878 . His mission was to vaccinate all Native persons resident in the Manitoba Superintendency . Every spring vaccinations were administered to thoe people who were not away hunting .
= = = Board of Health = = =
The Council of Keewatin established a powerful Board of Health for the territory . The Board of Health was run out of a head office in the city of Winnipeg and a local office was also established at the town of Gimli , in the District of Keewatin .
The Board of Health was led by Chief Health Officer Walter R. Nursey . All matters regarding quarantine within the district were handled by Edmund A. Struthers . The board was established to confine and treat the smallpox epidemic in the territory , and had wide powers to carry out this mission . The Board of Health established vaccination programs among native populations in the District of Keewatin based on legislation that continued well after the Council was dissolved . Mr Nursey was despatched by Governor Morris in February 1877 with a quarantine party to Lake Winnipeg to establish a northern quarantine and sanitary cordon between the City of Winnipeg and the infected area . This party was to regulate the traffic in fur as well . The party arrived at Dog Head outpost in May 1877 , having travelled the winter months by foot . There were no supplies , money or instruction on arrival . The quarantine party returned to Winnipeg in July 1877 half starved .
= = Dissolution = =
The council was short @-@ lived : there was just one legislative session . Less than a year after its formation , the smallpox crisis in the District of Keewatin subsided . The Department of the Interior determined that a territorial government for the district was no longer needed . The entire council resigned and was effectively dissolved after being requested to do so on April 16 , 1877 , by Secretary of State James Aikins . Aikins had the council resign as a cost @-@ saving measure ; also he did not want members of the council to abuse the powers of their appointments .
Control of the District of Keewatin returned to the federal government under the management of the Department of the Interior in cooperation with the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba . The council was not reconstituted until the remaining portions of the territory were once again merged with the Northwest Territories in 1905 . The land formally comprising the territory is today governed by the provincial and territorial governments of Ontario , Manitoba and Nunavut .
= = Debate of the Senate of the Dominion of Canada = =
On February 25 , 1878 , the Honourable Mr Girard presented to the Governor @-@ General the correspondence between the Government of Canada , the Council of Keewatin , and the Government of Manitoba regarding the smallpox claims and accounts . The Honourable Mr Pelletier replied that the accounts were examined by Honourables Mr. Norquay and Mr. Begg representing the Province of Manitoba , and Messrs. McCall and Graham representing the Dominion Government . The resolution would be that the Government of Keewatin ( Dominion Government ) would pay $ 20 @,@ 000 and the Government of Manitoba $ 5 @,@ 000 in settlement of claims . $ 20 @,@ 000 is equivalent to $ 490 thousand in present @-@ day terms and $ 5 @,@ 000 is equivalent to $ 123 thousand .
= = New Iceland = =
New Iceland elected administrators again on February 13 , 1877 . Under the provisional constitution , the colony was named Vatnsthing ( Lake assembly ) . It was divided into four districts each with its own administration : Vidinesbyggd ( Willow Point District ) , Arnesbyggd ( Arnes District ) , Flotsbyggd ( River District ) and Mikleyjarbyggd ( Big Island District ) . When the quarantine ended in July 1877 , it was too late to seed . The Federal government voted to survey a road in the colony , with an allotment of $ 8 @,@ 000 to employ labourers . Workers were paid 60 to 70 cents a day along with their daily expenses . The women looking after camps were also similarly paid . This monetary income enabled settlers to remain at New Iceland till the following agricultural season of 1878 . New Iceland became a part of the province of Manitoba in 1881 . This regional Icelandic government continued until 1887 .
= = First Nation = =
During Treaty 5 negotiations , Norway House Band requested the Grassey Narrows area which was the White Mud River – Icelandic River area which was a portion of New Iceland . The Norway House Band ( Kinosao Sipi Cree Nation ) agreed to settle at Fisher River . Norway House Band was a Western Woods Cree community of the Algonquian ( Central ) language group . The Sandy Bar group wanted also a reserve in the Grassey Narrows area . Their settlement area was on the northern edge of New Iceland . The Sandy Bar saulteaux / Cree of the Algonquian ( Central ) language group may have been a portion of the Peguis @-@ St. Peters Band . This group was almost entirely decimated during the smallpox epidemic , those who were left were re @-@ located . The Island band requested a reserve on Big Island ( later renamed Hecla Island ) . This band settled at Hollow Water River and renounced the traditional lands at Big Island . Blood Vein River , Big Island , Sandy Bar , Thickfoot and Jack @-@ Fish Head bands met with Messrs. Reid and Howard in October 1876 and requested lands for their reserves . The Dog Head Band requested a point opposite the Dog Head River . Similarly the Blood Vein River Band made a request for lands at the mouth of the Blood Vein River . The Big Island Band at this time requested the lands at the mouth of Badthroat River . The Jack @-@ Fish Head Band made requests for the north side of Jack Head Point at the Lobstick River . The Sandy Bar Band , a branch of St. Peter 's Band requested White Mud River site on the west Side of Lake Winnipeg . The Blood Vein River Band was a Saulteaux ( Ojibwa ) first nation of the Algonquian ( Central ) language family . The Moose Lake ( Big Island ) band which signed Treaty 5 in 1875 was a Cree first nation of the Algonquian ( Central ) language group . The Big Island band which signed Treaty 2 in 1877 was an Ojibwa first nation of the Algonquian ( Central ) language group .
= Night of Champions ( 2008 ) =
Night of Champions ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by P & G 's Gillette Fusion Power , which took place on June 29 , 2008 , at the American Airlines Center in Dallas , Texas . It was the first annual event to be promoted solely under the Night of Champions name and the eighth annual event under the Vengeance / Night of Champions chronology . It starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands . Like the previous year before , every match on the card was contested for a championship ; three were won and five were retained .
The main event was an interpromotional match for the WWE Championship between SmackDown representative , Triple H , and Raw representative , John Cena ; Triple H won the match and retained the championship . The main match was also an interpromotional match for the World Heavyweight Championship between SmackDown representative , Edge , and Raw representative , Batista , which Edge won to retain the championship . The main match from the ECW brand was an interpromotional standard match involving three wrestlers for the ECW Championship , in which ECW representative , Mark Henry , defeated the champion and Raw representative , Kane , and SmackDown representative , The Big Show .
Night of Champions received 273 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 21 @.@ 9 million compared to the previous year . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 stars , higher and lower than the 2007 event 's ratings of 5 and 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 ( there were two ratings because two different writers reviewed the show ) .
= = Background = =
The event featured eight professional wrestling matches , performances with pre @-@ determined outcomes between wrestlers with fictional personalities that are portrayed as real , were featured on the event 's card . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's creative staff . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown and ECW brands – storyline expansions of the promotion where employees are assigned to wrestling brands under the WWE banner . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick , as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match .
The main event scripted into Night of Champions on the Raw brand was between Triple H and John Cena over the WWE Championship . At the Royal Rumble , Cena won the Royal Rumble match , a multi @-@ competitor match type in which wrestlers are eliminated until one is left and declared winner , where he earned the right to challenge for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXIV . The next night on Raw , Cena stated that he did not want to wait until WrestleMania for a title match , and decided that he wanted to face then champion Randy Orton for the title on that same episode . Orton declined to defend the title on Raw , but proposed to Cena that they could meet at WWE 's next pay @-@ per @-@ view event , No Way Out , in a title match , to which Cena agreed . At the event , Cena defeated Orton by disqualification , but did not win the title because a title can only change hands via pinfall or submission . That same night , Triple H won an Elimination Chamber match , where the ring is surrounded by a steel structure of chain and girders , to earn a title shot at WrestleMania . The night after No Way Out , Cena demanded that he receive a title rematch , following his match with Orton , but Raw General Manager William Regal , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , announced that Cena and Orton would be facing each other in a non @-@ title match , with Triple H as the special guest referee , in the main event later that night , with the stipulation that if Cena won , he would join the title match at WrestleMania , making it a standard match involving three wrestlers . Cena won the match , making him part of the main event at WrestleMania . At WrestleMania , Orton defeated Triple H and Cena to retain the title , after pinning Cena . At Backlash , Orton defended the title once again against Cena and Triple H , this time in a Fatal Four @-@ Way Elimination match which also included John " Bradshaw " Layfield . Triple H won the match after eliminating Orton last to win the title . On the June 2 episode of Raw , Cena faced Jeff Hardy , with the stipulation being that if Cena or Hardy won they would earn a title shot against Triple H at Night of Champions . Cena won the match to challenge Triple H for the title at Night of Champions . Three weeks later , during the fifth annual WWE Draft , a mock sports draft lottery in which wrestlers switched programs , Triple H was drafted to the SmackDown brand . On the June 27 episode of SmackDown , it was revealed that Triple H would still defend the title against Cena .
The main feud on the SmackDown brand was between Edge and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the June 6 episode of SmackDown , Batista , Funaki , Nunzio , and Colin Delaney defeated Edge , Chavo Guerrero , Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder in an eight @-@ man tag team match . A stipulation was placed in the match that if Batista 's team won the tag team match , Batista earned a World title match against Edge at Night of Champions . The following week , SmackDown General Manager Vickie Guerrero added a predicament to Batista 's title shot , stating that in order for the title match to occur at Night of Champions , Batista would have to defeat The Great Khali to finalize his title shot . Batista defeated the Great Khali and retained his title shot . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Batista was drafted to the Raw brand as a part of the 2008 WWE Draft . That same night , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon informed Edge that even though Batista was drafted , Edge would still defend the title no matter what the outcome was .
The other predominant title match on the ECW brand was between ECW Champion Kane defending the title against The Big Show and Mark Henry in a standard match involving three wrestlers . At One Night Stand , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Big Show won a five @-@ man Singapore Cane match including CM Punk , Chavo Guerrero , Tommy Dreamer , and John Morrison to earn a title shot against Kane at Night of Champions . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Kane was drafted to the Raw brand , making the ECW title exclusive to the Raw program . During the supplemental draft , Mark Henry was drafted to the ECW brand . It was announced on WWE 's official website that Henry would be added to the title match , making it a Triple Threat match .
Each of the three top title feuds were affected by the 2008 WWE Draft and an additional Supplemental Draft held two days later on WWE 's official website . As a result , each of the world title matches became interpromotional matches between the Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands with the winner of each match determining the championships for each brand .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Jeff Hardy defeated Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in a dark match after performing a Swanton bomb .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first televised match was a tag team match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , in which the champions , John Morrison and The Miz defended the title against Finlay and Hornswoggle . The match began with Finlay in the ring as he crotched Morrison on the ring apron . Back in the ring , Morrison performed a dropkick on Finlay . Throughout the match , the Miz and Morrison were in control . Hornswoggle was tagged in the match , which led to him to hit a hurricanrana , stunner and run up from behind the Miz , grabbed his head with one hand and leaped forward to drive Miz 's face into the mat . Back and forth action took place between both teams . The match concluded with Finlay performing the Celtic Cross on Morrison , but the Miz knocked Finlay out of the ring , before he could pin Morrison . Morrison then gained consciousness . He then pushed Hornswoggle off the top ropes and slammed him into the ring mat to gain the win and retain the tag title .
The next match was for the WWE United States Championship , in which Matt Hardy defended the title against Chavo Guerrero accompanied with Bam Neely . Guerrero dominated most of the match and worked on Hardy 's left knee . Neely , who was at ringside , did as well , as he grabbed Hardy 's leg around the ring post at ringside , while Guerrero distracted the referee . Guerrero tried to perform a Frog splash from the top turnbuckle , but backfired when Hardy moved out of the way . The match ended as Hardy avoided a vertical suplex , dubbed as the Three Amigos . Hardy grabbed Guerrero 's head in a forward position and forcefully pulling it down over his shoulders , which he followed with a cover and a pinfall , thus retaining the WWE United States Championship .
The third match was a Triple Threat match for the ECW Championship , in which Kane defended the title against The Big Show and Mark Henry . The match began with The Big Show and Kane double teaming Henry and focusing on one another . The Big Show tossed Kane over the top rope . That incident saw Trainers and Emergency medical technicians ( EMTs ) attend to Kane at ringside . In the ring , the Big Show was able to get the upper hand over Henry . Kane returned to the match , which saw him perform a flying clothesline on Henry and hit an uppercut on the Big Show . That proceeded with Kane going back and forth splashing Henry and Big Show in the corner before being caught in a bear hug hold by Henry . Kane managed to get out of the hold , which led to both Kane and the Big Show to grab and lift Henry by the throat and slam him down into the mat . Afterwards , Kane performed a superplex on the Big Show off the top rope , but Henry performed a splash . Henry covered Kane for the pinfall victory and thus becoming the new ECW champion .
The match that followed was for the World Tag Team Championship , in which champions Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes defended the title against Ted DiBiase and a mystery partner . Before the match got underway , DiBiase grabbed the microphone and said his partner had text messaged him saying that he was running late . DiBiase said he would take Holly and Rhodes in a two @-@ on @-@ one match . The bell rang and the match began with Rhodes and DiBiase in the ring . DiBiase , however , said that he wanted to face Holly in the match . Holly came into the match , but was immediately attacked by Rhodes . This incident saw Rhodes betray Holly and becoming a villain in the process . DiBiase took the microphone and introduced Rhodes as his tag team partner . The match came to an end when DiBiase placed Holly in a cobra clutch hold , a move DiBiase calls the Million Dollar Dream , slamming his head to the mat . DiBiase covered Holly to get the win and thus become World Tag Team champion with Rhodes .
The next match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , in which Chris Jericho defended the title against Kofi Kingston . In the beginning of the match , Kingston gained the upper hand over Jericho , as he performed a body @-@ block . Kingston followed this by leaping onto Jericho on the top ring corner . Though , Jericho shoved him to the ring floor . Back in the ring , Jericho followed his assaults by applying an abdominal stretch submission hold , but Kingston escaped the hold . Back and forth action took place between both competitors . Jericho got Kingston in the Walls of Jericho , a submission hold that typically starts with the opponent laying supine on the mat , with the wrestler standing and facing them . As Jericho had the hold locked on , Shawn Michaels ran through the crowd and performed Sweet Chin Music on Lance Cade , who was at ringside . As Jericho witnessed the events , he released the submission hold and tackled Michaels off the ring apron . Kingston took the advantage as he performed a jump kick , a move Kingston calls Trouble in Paradise , pinned Jericho to become the new Intercontinental Champion .
The sixth match was a singles match , in which WWE Women 's Champion Mickie James defended the title against Katie Lea Burchill accompanied with Paul Burchill . The beginning of the match saw back and forth action between both females . Lea controlled the match , after she threw James shoulder @-@ first into the middle turnbuckle and worked on James ' shoulder . Throughout the match , James began to take the advantage over Lea , but was not in successful in doing so . The match concluded when James performed the Mickie DT on Lea , thus winning the match and retaining her title .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The main match was a singles match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Edge defended the title against Batista . For the duration of the match , Batista , who stood at 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) and weighed 290 pounds ( 130 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Edge . Batista grabbed Edge and performed a sidewalk slam , after he threw Edge to the ring corner . The match saw back and forth action between both Edge and Batista . Edge tried to perform a shoulder block takedown on Batista , but Batista charged towards Edge and hit him in the head . Mid @-@ way through the match , Edge 's associates , Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder , wheeled General Manager Vickie Guerrero to ringside to witness the match . Edge went for another shoulder takedown , but Batista managed to move out of the way , which saw Edge crash towards the ringpost and Batista performed a sitout powerbomb , a move Batista calls the Batista Bomb . Batista covered Edge , as the referee went for the three count , he was removed from the ring by Vickie . The referee began the 10 count on Edge , who left the ring , but Edge hit the official . Vickie proceeded to call in a new referee to the match ; Chavo Guerrero came out as the new referee . Following the events , Batista lifted Vickie to the ring and threw her directly onto Hawkins , Ryder , and Guerrero , who were at ringside . Edge took advantage of the situation as he hit Batista in the face with the World title belt . Guerrero entered the ring and gave Edge the victory in the match .
The main event was the WWE Championship match , in which Triple H defended the title against John Cena . During the beginning of the match , Triple H and Cena began to outperform one another . Triple H , however , gained the advantage , as he lifted his knee and hit Cena in the face , followed by a facebuster knee smash . Cena took control after he jumped from the top turnbuckle and dropped his leg across the back of Triple H 's head . Cena proceeded by trying to perform a fist drop with theatrics , but Triple H countered as he was able to perform a spinebuster . Triple H regained control in the match , until Cena picked Triple H up and threw him over the top rope , where Triple H landed awkwardly on his left knee . Cena went to the outside and began to work on Triple H 's knee , putting it into the ring post twice . Back in the ring , Cena took the upper hand as he hit a chop block , a shoulder block that targets the back of an opponent 's knee , on Triple H 's knee . Another moment in the match saw Cena apply the STFU on Triple H , a move in which the wrestler wraps his arm around the neck of the opponent in a sleeper hold instead of pulling back on the head of the opponent , but Triple H escaped the submission hold . Cena tried to lift Triple H onto his shoulder , but Triple H countered as he tucked Cena 's head between his knees and jumped up to slam his head to the mat , a move that Triple H calls the Pedigree . Triple H was not able to cover Cena , as he clutched on to his left knee . Both men were down . Triple H and Cena stood to their feet , leading to Cena to lift Triple H over his shoulders and throwing him down to execute the FU , only to receive a near @-@ fall . The match concluded with Triple H hitting Cena in the midsection , allowing him to execute the Pedigree on Cena . Triple H got the pinfall victory and thus retained his title .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Night of Champions , the Raw brand did not have a top @-@ tier championship belt , as Triple H was drafted to the SmackDown brand and took the WWE title to the program . On the June 30 episode of Raw , Edge made an appearance , causing Batista to show up and beat him down . Shortly afterwards , Edge lost the World Heavyweight title to CM Punk , after Punk cashed in his Money in the Bank contract , making the World title exclusive to the Raw brand , once more . Punk would lose the title at Unforgiven , after he was unable to compete in the title match at the event , following an attack backstage by Randy Orton . The match was won by Chris Jericho , who was named as his replacement . The ECW Championship was made exclusive to the ECW brand , following Mark Henry 's win at the event . Henry , however , lost the title to Matt Hardy at Unforgiven in September . Triple H dropped the WWE title at Survivor Series .
At The Great American Bash , WWE 's following pay @-@ per @-@ view event , John Morrison and The Miz lost the WWE Tag Team titles to Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match , which also involved the teams of Jesse and Festus and Finlay and Hornswoggle . At the same event , Shelton Benjamin defeated Matt Hardy for the United States Championship and Michelle McCool became the first ever WWE Divas Champion defeating Natalya in the process . At SummerSlam , Mickie James and Kofi Kingston lost their respective titles in an Intergender tag team match to Beth Phoenix and Santino Marella .
= = = Reception = = =
The American Airlines Center usually can accommodate 20 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for the event . This event received 273 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . Night of Champions helped WWE earn $ 39 @.@ 8 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 17 @.@ 9 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , on August 5 , 2008 in a quarterly result . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event seven out of 10 . The rating was higher and lower than the 2007 Vengeance : Night of Champions event with the rating of 5 and 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 ( there were two ratings because two different writers reviewed the show ) . The WWE title match between Triple H and John Cena was rated an 8 out of 10 . Additionally , the ECW title match between Kane , Mark Henry , and The Big Show was rated a 3 out of 10 .
The event was released on DVD on July 29 , 2008 . The DVD was distributed by the label Sony Music Entertainment .
= = Results = =
= Dreamlover ( song ) =
" Dreamlover " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , first released on July 27 , 1993 by Columbia Records , as the lead single from Carey 's third studio album Music Box . It was written by Carey and Dave Hall , and was produced by the pair and Walter Afanasieff . The song incorporates a sample of the hook from " Blind Alley " by The Emotions into its melody and instrumentation . " Dreamlover " helped Carey 's transition into the pop music market , a choice made following the mixed reception to her previous studio effort Emotions ( 1991 ) , which featured gospel and 1960s soul influences . Lyrically , the song pictures a protagonist calling for a perfect lover , her " dreamlover , " that will whisk her away into the night and not disillusion her like her exes did in the past .
" Dreamlover " received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , many of whom praised the song 's incorporated sample , as well as Carey 's carefree vocal style . The song was the first of several of her lead singles that sampled older tunes as a musical bed , as seen in " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) , " Honey " ( 1997 ) , " Heartbreaker " ( 1999 ) , and " Loverboy " ( 2001 ) . It experienced strong worldwide success , becoming Carey 's seventh chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , remaining there for eight weeks . It peaked at number one in Canada and became a top @-@ ten single in Australia , the Netherlands , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Dreamlover " live on several televised talk shows around the world , including The Arsenio Hall Show in September 1993 , the British music chart program Top of the Pops , and the 1993 Music Fair in Japan . In 1999 , following the release of Carey 's Rainbow , the song was included in the Mariah Carey Homecoming Special , and her appearance on The Today Show . Additionally , " Dreamlover " was featured in the set @-@ lists of most of her succeeding tours , making its debut on the Music Box Tour ( 1993 ) . The song was included on Carey 's compilation albums , Number 1 's ( 1998 ) , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) , and # 1 to Infinity ( 2015 ) .
The song 's music video was filmed by Diane Martel in Copake , NY in upstate New York during August 1993 . It features a cameo appearance by Carey 's dog Jack , and shows her frolicking through a flowerbed and field , swimming in a large pond , boarding a hot air balloon , and dancing alongside several shirtless male dancers . According to author Chris Nickson , the video 's carefree setting harmonized well with the song 's soft instrumentation . Due to the song 's strong radio airplay and extended charting , the video received frequent play on several music video channels throughout the summer of 1993 .
= = Background = =
Carey 's debut studio album made a strong impact on pop music , but the singer became interested in altering her sound and branching out into other genres for her second studio effort , Emotions ( 1991 ) . Columbia allowed her to take more control over her musical direction , enabling her to change the musical genre , melodies , and production style . Carey worked with many new musicians and producers on the album ; Walter Afanasieff being the only holdover from her debut . Emotions contained influences from 1950s , 60s , and 70s balladry , gospel , R & B and soul music . The album , while praised by some as being more mature and raw , failed to reach the critical or commercial heights of her debut effort ; selling fewer units and failing to introduce Carey into new markets . Columbia decided to return Carey to the same genre as her debut album and have her produce a more commercial and radio @-@ friendly record . Their plans were to tone down Carey 's vocals and soften the album 's production to create a contemporary pop record . Carey and Afanasieff agreed to the change and began writing and recording material for her third studio effort , Music Box ( 1993 ) .
= = Recording = =
While recording Music Box , Carey began to alter her songwriting style and genre choices , most notably in " Dreamlover " . The song is different from anything she had recorded on her previous album , as it leans on pop and light R & B influences . While searching for new record producers for the album , Carey came across Dave Hall , a New York native who was known from his work on Mary J. Blige 's debut album , What 's the 411 ? ( 1992 ) . Carey wanted to incorporate a sampled loop from an older song into " Dreamlover " , her second song to do so . The pair reviewed several older tunes and melodies , and chose " Blind Alley " , performed by The Emotions in 1972 . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Carey described working with Hall :
" I wanted to do something that had a happy feeling , something that was more open and released , and that 's really not Dave . It 's very anti what he 's about . So he said , ' Oh , you want to do that happy stuff ? All right , all right . ' He was not into doing it . Then we started listening to a lot of different and old loops and we used the ' Blind Alley ' loop and I started singing the melody over it . "
Although Carey had heard the hook used in several other songs over the years , she felt her use of the sample was done in a more innovative way . " We built the song from there and I wrote the lyrics and the melody and Dave ended up liking it , " she continued . After having completed the song , Hall complimented Carey 's work ethic and form of writing , calling her a " perfectionist " and " very professional . " He explained that they incorporated the hook , a melody , and the sample into the song over the course of one night . The song 's title was not added until the end of production . Hall said Carey works in a unique fashion , usually developing the song 's instrumentals and hook prior to the lyrics and title . Carey describes the songwriting process :
" The way I usually work is I do an untitled song . We 'll grab the hook , whether sampled or created , and use it as the working title . I wrote the verses first , as well as the melody and the inclusion of several instrumentals . Sometimes I 'll have an idea for a lyrics . If I 'm collaborating with someone , I 'll direct them in the direction that I 'm going chord wise , because I get all these melody ideas and then I lose them if I don 't have someone really good with the keyboard with me . That 's why I tend to collaborate because I lose the ideas by the time I figure out the chord . All these melody ideas just go . "
When Carey 's fiancé at the time , Tommy Mottola , came to hear the song in the studio , he had mixed feelings . He approached Walter Afanasieff and asked him to add some additional instrumentation and flavor . Afanasieff changed the song at the production level , altering the way in which the hook sample was incorporated into the song , as well as adding several new instruments . He described the changes to Bronson in an interview :
" Mariah and Dave did this loop thing which was new to us pop producers at the time . Their version of ' Dreamlover ' was missing a lot of stuff . The spirit of the song was up but it wasn 't hitting hard enough . I re @-@ worked the drums , organ and keyboard . The organ and hi @-@ hat part I changed made it a bit more swinging and a little bit more driving . I put a whole new shade of colors to it . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Dreamlover " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and light R & B track . According to the music sheet published at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of F major , and the beat is set in common time which moves at a moderate pace of 104 beats per minute . It has the sequence of F7 – Gm7 – F7 – Gm7 as its chord progression . The song was written and produced by Carey and Hall , with additional work done by Afanasieff , who added a slightly altered instrumentation . " Dreamlover " samples the hook and a musical loop from " Blind Alley " by R & B group The Emotions . The sampling provides a " backbone " for the instrumentation and production , as well as being interlooped in the bridge . Carey uses a whistle register to introduce the first verse .
In his review , Jozen Cummings from PopMatters described the song as " pure , frothy pop . " Cummings felt Afanasieff 's usage of the Hammond B3 organ added " an old school vibe " to " Dreamlover " , as it harmonizes with the " extremely catchy musical hook . " Cummings describes the theme of the lyrics :
" ... the lyric is a description of , and a call for , the mythic Dreamlover ; someone to take her away , to ' rescue ' her . Fluffy @-@ seeming stuff , to be sure ( and possibly cringe @-@ inducing for some folk ) , but very possibly also an expression of the simplest of romantic dreams : to find the ' right ' person ; someone who makes you feel taken care of , loved , safe . "
Cummings called the second verse 's first lines " Don 't want another pretender / To disillusion me one more time / Whispering words of forever / Playing with my mind " an " interesting mix of innocence and very grown @-@ up cynicism and world @-@ weariness . " Wayne Robins from Newsday compared the vocals to " Motown and Philly soul singing , " while praising Afansieff 's inclusion of the Hammond B @-@ 3 for the way the " riffs provide a nice organic contrast to the synthesizers that dominate the record . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Dreamlover " earned widely positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised its production , the sampling of the hook , and the vocals . In reference to the common criticism that Carey over @-@ sings and over @-@ uses her upper registers , Cummings wrote " truth is , she is never crass in the use of her amazing instrument . On ' Dreamlover ' , especially , she keeps a close , tasteful rein on the acrobatics . " While reviewing Butterfly ( 1997 ) , Rich Juzwiak of Slant Magazine praised the song 's incorporation of the " Blind Alley " hook , saying it was done " as sweetly as possible . " Ron Wynn from Allmusic called the song personal and intense . He enjoyed Carey 's more mature vocal style on the album , as well as the usage of the hook and the instrumentation . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly felt Carey 's soft singing and lack of volume was hurtful to the song , saying she " lost herself . " He thought the hook was catchy , but overly familiar . Tom Moon from The Philadelphia Inquirer called the song " irresistibly bubbly " while J. D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun called its melody " breezy . " Roger Friedman from Fox News named " Dreamlover " and " Vision of Love " Carey 's best , calling them " the original hits . " Entertainment Weekly listed the song as one of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Rock Music : The 90s " ; it was their top pick for 1993 . " Dreamlover " received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance .
= = Chart performance = =
" Dreamlover " was Carey 's seventh number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , topping the chart in its sixth week and stayed there for eight consecutive weeks ( September 5 to October 30 , 1993 ) — her longest stay at the time . It replaced " Can 't Help Falling in Love " by UB40 , and was later replaced by Meat Loaf 's " I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Won 't Do That ) . " It spent 26 weeks in the top 40 and was ranked number eight on the Hot 100 1993 Year @-@ End Charts and 20 on the Decade @-@ End Charts . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 22 , 1993 , denoting shipments of over one million units throughout the United States . It sold 935 @,@ 000 units domestically . " Dreamlover " holds the joint title of the highest debuting song on the Billboard Pop Songs chart , entering the chart at number 12 on the week dated August 14 , 1993 but was tied by Taylor Swift 's " Shake It Off " in 2014 . In Canada , " Dreamlover " became Carey 's fifth number one single on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart , debuting at number 60 on the chart during the week of August 14 , 1993 . Three weeks later , the song reached the chart 's number one position ; it spent six consecutive weeks at the top and a total of 21 weeks on the singles chart . On the RPM Year @-@ End Charts , " Dreamlover " finished at number two .
" Dreamlover " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 41 during the week of August 23 , 1993 , eventually reaching a peak of number seven and spending a total of 21 consecutive weeks on the chart . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units throughout the country . In New Zealand , " Dreamlover " reached a peak position of number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart and spent sixteen weeks fluctuating on the chart . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified the song gold for shipments of 7 @,@ 500 units in the country . On the Dutch Top 40 , " Dreamlover " debuted at number 36 during the week of August 28 , 1993 . After attaining a peak of number nine , the song dropped off the top 40 after a chart run of 13 weeks . On the yearly charts , the song finished at number 69 . In Switzerland the song peaked at number thirteen and spent sixteen weeks on the singles chart . On the UK Singles Chart , " Dreamlover " reached its peak position of number nine during the week of September 4 , 1993 . It spent a total of ten weeks on the chart , exiting on October 23 , 1993 . Sales in the United Kingdom are estimated at 150 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video and remixes = =
The music video for " Dreamlover " was directed by Diane Martel and filmed in upstate New York in June 1993 . The video features scenes of Carey swimming in a small pond by a waterfall , boarding a colorful hot air balloon , and dancing alongside several shirtless male dancers . As the video begins , Carey is swimming underwater while wearing clothing . She is soon gasping for air and climbing into a flower bed above . As she frolics and rolls in a field , scenes of Carey boarding a hot air balloon are inter @-@ cut . Her dog Jack makes a cameo appearance , as he follows her through the field and pond . After a short interval of dancing alongside several male dancers , Carey leaves with her dog as the video concludes . After filming the video , Carey revealed that the water was so cold that she refused to swim until the director , Martel , dived in first . Author Chris Nickson felt the video captured the song 's soft and relaxed nature : " The casual feel , almost like clips from home movies edited together , captured the song 's off @-@ the @-@ shoulder airiness . " The video received heavy rotation on several video music channels , which added to the song 's chart performance .
" Dreamlover " marked the first time Carey was given creative control over remixing her songs . She enlisted David Morales to create the Def Club Mix ; it was the first of Carey 's remixes to use re @-@ recorded vocals . An officially @-@ released live version of " Dreamlover " , derived from the television special Here Is Mariah Carey ( 1994 ) , is available . " Dreamlover " B @-@ side track ( " Do You Think of Me " ) was written and produced by Carey , Afanasieff , Cory Rooney , and Mark Morales . Kelefah Sanneh from The New York Times complimented the remix , writing " [ It ] is a revelation : after a long percussion break , he isolates a few of Ms. Carey 's ad @-@ libs ; her ultrafalsetto vocals sound spookier than all of Basement Jaxx 's sound effects combined . "
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Dreamlover " on several televised broadcasts in the US and throughout Europe . The song was sung live on The Arsenio Hall Show with " Hero " as a two @-@ piece set @-@ list . Carey performed " Dreamlover " on the British music program Top of the Pops , the Dutch program Platendaagse , and the Japanese show Music Fair . In a promotional effort for her seventh studio album Rainbow , Carey filmed a FOX special titled The Mariah Carey Homecoming Special , a mini @-@ concert filmed at her old high school in Huntington , New York . It aired on December 21 , 1999 . " Dreamlover " served as one of the opening numbers . The song was performed in 2003 on The Today Show as part of a four @-@ song set as a promotion for Carey 's 2002 album , Charmbracelet .
Following the televised appearances , Carey performed the song live on several of her tours . In the Daydream World Tour she performed it in front of a backdrop showing footage from the song 's video . On her Music Box Tour and Butterfly World Tour , the song served as the fifth song of the set @-@ list . Carey performed alongside several female back @-@ up dancers who mimicked her light dance routines . Carey used a similar presentation on the Rainbow World Tour . On Carey 's Charmbracelet and The Adventures of Mimi Tours , three male backup dancers were featured on stage , with the three female background vocalists behind them . On the latter tour , Carey 's wore a black bikini , with a matching cape and Christian Louboutin pumps . She mixed the song with an instrumental remix of Mtume 's song " Juicy Fruit . " Following the release of her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) , Carey embarked on the Angels Advocate Tour . It was her first tour that did not regularly feature the song , as it was only performed on a few select dates . In addition , Carey sang the song as a part of her Las Vegas residency , Mariah Carey Number 1 's , which chronicles the singer 's 18 US Hot 100 Number 1 hits . For the performance , she donned a sequined white dress , and entered the stage in a pink convertible car . At the end of the performance , she stands atop a stage fan , while her skirt blows in the wind , as an homage to Marilyn Monroe .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
These credits were adapted from the Music Box liner notes .
" Dreamlover " was recorded at Right Track Studios , New York , and mixed at Sony Music Studios , New York .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ producing , songwriting , vocals
Dave Hall – co @-@ producing , songwriting , synthesizer
Walter Afanasieff – co @-@ producing , songwriting , organ
Bob Ross – engineering
Ren Klyce – programming
Mick Guzauski – mixing
Bob Ludwig – mastering
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Red @-@ necked grebe =
The red @-@ necked grebe ( Podiceps grisegena ) is a migratory aquatic bird found in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere . Its wintering habitat is largely restricted to calm waters just beyond the waves around ocean coasts , although some birds may winter on large lakes . Grebes prefer shallow bodies of fresh water such as lakes , marshes or fish @-@ ponds as breeding sites .
The red @-@ necked grebe is a nondescript dusky @-@ grey bird in winter . During the breeding season , it acquires the distinctive red neck plumage , black cap and contrasting pale grey face from which its name was derived . It also has an elaborate courtship display and a variety of loud mating calls . Once paired , it builds a nest from water plants on top of floating vegetation in a shallow lake or bog .
Like all grebes , the Red @-@ necked is a good swimmer , a particularly swift diver , and responds to danger by diving rather than flying . The feet are positioned far back on the body , near the tail , which makes the bird ungainly on land . It dives for fish or picks insects off vegetation ; it also swallows its own feathers , possibly to protect the digestive system . The conservation status of its two subspecies — P. g. grisegena found in Europe and western Asia , and the larger P. g. holboelii ( formerly Holbœll grebe ) , in North America and eastern Siberia — is evaluated as Least Concern , and the global population is stable or growing .
= = Taxonomy = =
Grebes are small to medium @-@ large water birds with lobed , rather than webbed , toes . There are several genera , of which the most widespread is Podiceps with nine species , one recently extinct . The red @-@ necked grebe 's closest relative is the fish @-@ eating great crested grebe of Europe and western Asia . It is possible that the red @-@ necked grebe originally evolved in North America and later spread to Europe , where a change of diet to include more insects helped to reduce competition with its larger cousin . Fossils of the species dating to the middle Pleistocene have been found in Italy .
The genus name Podiceps comes from Latin podicis , " vent " or " anus " , and pes , " foot " , and is a reference to the placement of a grebe 's legs towards the rear of its body . The species name grisegena is from Latin griseus ( grey ) and gena ( cheek ) and refers to the face pattern of the breeding adult .
The red @-@ necked grebe has two subspecies , the nominate subspecies P. g. grisegena in Europe and western Asia , and P. g. holboelii ( Holboell 's grebe , named for Danish explorer of Greenlandic birds Carl Peter Holbøll ) in North America and eastern Siberia . The east Asian birds have slightly smaller bills than the American form , although the differences are too small to merit separation as a third subspecies .
= = Description = =
The red @-@ necked grebe is a medium @-@ large grebe , smaller than the great crested grebe of Eurasia , and the western and Clark 's grebes of North America . The adult of the nominate European subspecies is 40 – 50 cm ( 16 – 20 in ) long with a 77 – 85 cm ( 30 – 33 in ) average wingspan , and weighs 692 – 925 g ( 24 @.@ 4 – 32 @.@ 6 oz ) . In breeding plumage , it has a black cap that extends below the eye , very pale grey cheeks and throat , a rusty red neck , dark grey back and flanks , and white underparts . The eyes are dark brown and the long , pointed bill is black with a yellow base .
The winter plumage of the red @-@ necked grebe is duskier than that of other grebes ; its dark grey cap is less defined , and merges into the grey face , and a pale crescent that curves around the rear of the face contrasts with the rest of the head . The front of the neck is whitish or light grey , the hind neck is darker grey , and the yellow of the bill is less obvious than in summer . Although the red @-@ necked grebe is unmistakable in breeding plumage , it is less distinctive in winter and can be confused with similar species . It is larger than the Slavonian ( horned ) grebe , with a relatively larger bill and a grey , rather than white face . It is closer in size to the Eurasian great crested grebe , but that species is longer @-@ necked , has a more contrasting head pattern , and always shows white above the eye .
The sexes are similar in appearance , although the male averages heavier than the female . Chicks have a striped head and breast , and older juveniles have a striped face , diffuse blackish cap , pale red neck and extensive yellow on the bill .
The subspecies P. g. holboelii is larger than the nominate race at 43 – 56 cm ( 17 – 22 in ) length , with a 61 – 88 cm ( 24 – 35 in ) wingspan , and a weight of 750 – 1 @,@ 600 g ( 26 – 56 oz ) . The plumages are the same as those of the nominate race , although the adult 's bill is more extensively yellow . The difference in size between the sexes is greater than for this subspecies that for P. g. grisegena .
The red @-@ necked grebe flies with its long neck extended and its large feet trailing behind the body , which gives it a stretched @-@ out appearance . The relatively small wings are grey with white secondaries , and beat very rapidly . Its small wing area means that the grebe is unable to take off from land , and needs a lengthy run across water to gain the speed needed for take @-@ off . Like all grebes , the red @-@ necked is an expert swimmer ; it uses its feet for propulsion underwater , and steers by rotating its legs , since its tail is too short for this purpose .
This is one of the most vocal grebes during the breeding season , but , like its relatives , it is mainly silent for the rest of the year . It has a loud , wailing or howling display call uooooh , given by a single bird or a pair in duet , by night or during the day , and often from cover . Long sequences of up to 60 consecutive notes may be delivered during singing encounters between rival territorial birds . A great variety of quacking , clucking , hissing , rattling and purring calls are also given , with much individual variation .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Breeding takes place in shallow freshwater lakes , bays of larger lakes , marshes , and other inland bodies of water , often less than 3 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) in extent and less than 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep . The red @-@ necked grebe shows a preference for waters in forested areas or , further north , in shrub tundra , and favours sites with abundant emergent vegetation , such as reedbeds . The best breeding habitat is fish @-@ ponds , which have an abundance of food in addition to meeting the other requirements . The American subspecies is less tied to a high aquatic plant density , and sometimes breeds on quite open lakes .
All populations are migratory and winter mainly at sea , usually in estuaries and bays , but often well offshore where fish are within diving reach near shallow banks or islands . The preferred passage and wintering habitat is water less than 15 m ( 49 ft ) deep with a sand or gravel bottom , scattered rocks and patches of seaweed . During winter , birds typically feed alone and rarely aggregate into flocks , but on migration , concentrations of over 2000 individuals may occur at favoured staging sites . Migration is usually at night , but may occur during the day , especially when over water . This is particularly noticeable in autumn on the Great Lakes , when up to 18 @,@ 000 birds may pass Whitefish Point on Lake Superior ; these are thought to be Canadian breeders heading for the Atlantic Ocean to winter . This easterly route is longer than that to the Pacific , but avoids the Rockies .
The breeding range of the red @-@ necked grebe overlaps with that of the Slavonian grebe , although the latter species tends to be displaced from sites suited to both . The red @-@ necked grebe prefers an inland temperate climate , and is less successful near coasts and in subarctic and warm temperate zones . It is usually a lowland bird , breeding below 100 m ( 330 ft ) , although has nested at up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in Turkey .
The nominate subspecies breeds from southern Sweden and Denmark through central and eastern Europe east to western Siberia , and winters mainly in the North and Baltic Seas , with smaller numbers in the Adriatic , Black Sea , Caspian Sea , Mediterranean and on inland lakes . P. g. holboelii breeds in North America in Alaska , western and central Canada , and the northern US east to Minnesota ; in Asia it nests in eastern Siberia from Kamchatka south to Hokkaido and west to Mongolia . The Asian birds winter at sea from Japan to the East China Sea , and American breeders winter in the Pacific , mainly from southern Alaska to British Columbia ( with smaller numbers south to California ) , and in the Atlantic from Newfoundland and Labrador to Florida . Some birds remain on the Great Lakes if they are sufficiently ice @-@ free . This species occurs as a rare winter vagrant in Afghanistan , Pakistan and parts of northern and western India .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding and survival = = =
Red @-@ necked grebes usually nest as isolated pairs with more than 50 m ( 160 ft ) between neighbouring nests , although semi @-@ colonial nesting may occur in suitable sites , where up to 20 pairs each defend a linear territory . Semi @-@ colonial breeding is more likely to occur in prime locations , such as large floating mats of vegetation with no connection to the shoreline . Such sites , safe from most predators and large enough to provide some wind and wave protection , have grebes nesting much closer than shoreline breeders , down to 10 m ( 33 ft ) . Pairs nesting in these colonies produce larger clutches of eggs , which hatch earlier in the season and result in larger broods . The territory is defended with various threat displays , including wing @-@ spreading , hunching , and bill @-@ thrusting ; pairs breeding in colonies are more aggressive , less likely to leave the nest unguarded and show a greater tendency to move out of sight of the colony when not incubating . Breeding is often in loose association with gulls or other colonial water birds .
The monogamous pair forms in April or May on migration or at the breeding water , and a highly vocal courtship ritual commences . The elaborate breeding performance includes head @-@ shaking , a head @-@ lowered " cat " display , parallel rushes in an upright position and mutual presentations of green weeds , and culminates in a " penguin " dance in which pair members raise the whole body upright , breast to breast .
Like all grebes , the red @-@ necked grebe nests near water into which it can escape , since the position of the legs far back on the body prevents fast movement on land . It often breeds further within reed beds than other grebes . The nest is a floating platform of plant matter anchored to submerged or emergent vegetation , in water 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 75 m ( 20 – 30 in ) deep , and with the bulk of nest below the water line . Egg @-@ laying mainly takes place from mid @-@ April to May in Europe , and somewhat later , from mid @-@ May to June , in North America . Parents may leave the nest for significant periods of time during the night , possibly to evade nocturnal predators . It is unclear whether this is for self @-@ protection or to protect the eggs by diverting attention from the nest ; the clutch does not appear to suffer from this temporary abandonment , whatever the reason .
The red @-@ necked grebe lays four or five ( range one to nine ) dull white or pale blue eggs , which average 3 @.@ 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) in breadth , 5 @.@ 1 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in length , and weigh about 30 @.@ 5 g ( 1 @.@ 08 oz ) , of which 10 % is shell . Parents take turns to incubate the eggs for 21 – 33 days until the precocial downy chicks hatch ; they immediately climb onto the parent 's back , where they spend most of their time until they are 10 – 17 days old . The young may be fed by the parents for up to 54 days after fledging , and can fly at 50 – 70 days . The parents do not interfere with the feeding of their chicks when they are still being carried . Later they care for the younger chicks for longer , and are aggressive with the older offspring . This equalises the post @-@ fledging survival of all chicks , and encourages their independence . The brood may be split , so that each parent feeds only some of the chicks . This spreads the feeding demand equally between the parents .
After breeding the adults moult their wing feathers and are temporarily flightless ; migration commences once the flight feathers have regrown . The red @-@ necked grebe is normally single @-@ brooded , although second broods and re @-@ nesting after a clutch has been lost may extend nesting into July or August .
Eggs may be destroyed and chicks killed by a range of predators , including the raccoon in North America and the carrion crow in Europe . Pike may take swimming chicks . On average , for each adult , 0 @.@ 65 young birds are still alive by their fourth month , although the mortality rate for the adult is unknown . Red @-@ necked grebes attempt to evade birds of prey by diving ; when feeding , dives average less than 30 seconds , although escape dives are more prolonged .
= = = Feeding = = =
On the breeding grounds , the red @-@ necked grebe feeds mainly on invertebrates including adult and larval aquatic insects , such as water beetles and dragonfly larvae , crayfish and molluscs . Fish ( such as smelt ) may be important locally or seasonally , especially for the American subspecies , and crustaceans can constitute up to 20 % of the grebe 's diet . Birds breeding at the coast often make foraging flights to inland lakes or offshore areas to feed .
Aquatic prey is obtained by diving or by swimming on surface with the head submerged , and terrestrial insects and their larvae are picked off vegetation . A line slanting downward from the eye to the tip of the opened lower mandible may be used for sighting on prey before diving or when swimming under water . The grebe probably opens its bill and looks down the eye @-@ line toward its target . European breeders , which have to compete with the larger great crested grebe for fish , eat a greater proportion of invertebrates than the longer @-@ billed American subspecies , although both races eat mainly fish in winter . Birds of the nominate subspecies from the northernmost breeding populations in Finland and Russia , beyond the range of great crested grebe , have a longer and more slender bill than those further south , reflecting a greater proportion of fish in the diet where their main competitor is absent . If food is scarce , parents may desert unhatched eggs , or allow the smallest chicks to starve , although the latter strategy appears not to be particularly efficient in protecting the older chicks .
Like other grebes , the red @-@ necked grebe ingests large quantities of its own feathers , which remain in the bird 's stomach . Feathers are not only swallowed by adults , mainly during self @-@ preening , but are often fed to the young , sometimes within a day of hatching . These feathers soon decompose into a felt @-@ like , amorphous mass . The function of the feathers in the stomach is unknown , although it has been suggested that they help to protect the lower digestive tract from bones and other hard , indigestible material .
= = Status = =
The red @-@ necked grebe has a large range , estimated at 1 – 10 million square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) , and a global population of 150 @,@ 000 – 370 @,@ 000 individuals , with P. g. holboellii about twice as numerous as the nominate race . The population trend has not been quantified , but it is not believed to meet the thresholds for the population decline criterion ( declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) of the IUCN Red List . For these reasons , the species is evaluated as Least Concern .
The red @-@ necked grebe is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies . Parties to the Agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies which are describes in a detailed action plan . The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation , management of human activities , research , education , and implementation .
The Red @-@ necked Grebe was hunted by humans in northern Europe in the Mesolithic and Paleolithic periods , but there is no evidence that there is any significant level of hunting at the present time . In North America , there are potential threats from pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and pesticides such as DDT which cause reduced reproductive success due to egg sterility and eggshell thinning . Breeding areas may be threatened by the modification and degradation of lakes and by human disturbance from water @-@ based recreational activities . There is no evidence to suggest that these threats could result in a significant risk to the overall population ; more than 70 % of North American red @-@ necked grebes breed in Canada , where the population is stable or increasing .
= HMS Inflexible ( 1907 ) =
HMS Inflexible was an Invincible @-@ class battlecruiser of the British Royal Navy . She was built before World War I and had an active career during the war . She tried to hunt down the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Mediterranean Sea when war broke out and she and her sister ship Invincible sank the German armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau during the Battle of the Falkland Islands . Inflexible bombarded Turkish forts in the Dardanelles in 1915 , but was damaged by return fire and struck a mine while maneuvering . She had to be beached to prevent her from sinking , but she was patched up and sent to Malta , and then Gibraltar for more permanent repairs . Transferred to the Grand Fleet afterwards she damaged the German battlecruiser Lützow during the Battle of Jutland and watched Invincible explode . She was deemed obsolete after the war and was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
The Invincible @-@ class ships were formally known as armoured cruisers until 1911 when they were redesignated as battlecruisers by an Admiralty order of 24 November 1911 . Unofficially a number of designations were used until then , including cruiser @-@ battleship , dreadnought cruiser and battle @-@ cruiser .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Inflexible was significantly larger than her armoured cruiser predecessors of the Minotaur class . She had an overall length of 567 ft ( 173 m ) , a beam of 78 ft 10 @.@ 13 in ( 24 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draught of 29 ft 9 in ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) at deep load . She displaced 17 @,@ 290 long tons ( 17 @,@ 570 t ) at load and 20 @,@ 700 long tons ( 21 @,@ 000 t ) at deep load , nearly 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) more than the earlier ships .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Inflexible had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room and drove an outboard and inboard shaft . The high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines were coupled to the outboard shafts and the low @-@ pressure turbines to the inner shafts . A cruising turbine was also coupled to each inner shaft ; these were not used often and were eventually disconnected . Her three @-@ bladed propellers were 10 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 20 m ) in diameter on the inner shafts while the outer propellers were 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by thirty @-@ one Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers in four boiler rooms . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 41 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 574 kW ) , but reached nearly 47 @,@ 000 shp ( 35 @,@ 048 kW ) during her trials in 1908 . She was designed for 25 knots ( 29 mph ; 46 km / h ) , but reached 26 @.@ 48 knots ( 30 mph ; 49 km / h ) during trials . Her sister Indomitable maintained an average speed of 25 @.@ 3 knots ( 47 km / h ) for three days during a passage of the North Atlantic in August 1908 .
She carried 3 @,@ 084 long tons ( 3 @,@ 133 t ) of coal , and an additional 725 long tons ( 737 t ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full fuel capacity , she could steam for 3 @,@ 090 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 720 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Inflexible mounted eight BL 12 @-@ inch ( 304 @.@ 8 mm ) Mk X guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 4 in ( 102 mm ) QF Mk III guns . During 1915 the turret roof guns were transferred to the superstructure and the total number of guns was reduced to twelve . All of the remaining guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields at that time to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action . These guns were replaced by twelve 4 @-@ inch BL MK IX guns on CPI mountings during 1917 .
Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of a single QF 3 inch 20 cwt AA gun on a high @-@ angle MKII mount at the aft end of the superstructure that was carried from July 1915 . A 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun on a high @-@ angle MkIc mounting with a maximum elevation of 60 ° was fitted in November 1914 and used until August 1917 . A 4 @-@ inch BL MK VII on a HA MkII mount was added in April 1917 . Five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 @-@ mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted on the Invincibles , two on each side and one in the stern . Fourteen torpedoes were carried for them .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection given to the Invincibles was heavier than that of the Minotaurs — their waterline belt measured 6 inches ( 152 mm ) amidships in contrast to the 4 inches ( 102 mm ) belt of their predecessors . The belt was 6 inches thick roughly between the fore and aft 12 @-@ inch gun turrets , but was reduced to four inches from the fore turret to the bow , but did not extend aft of the rear turret . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 7 in ( 178 mm ) of armour , except for the turret roofs which used 3 in ( 76 mm ) of Krupp non @-@ cemented armour ( KNC ) . The thickness of the main deck was 1 – 2 in ( 25 – 51 mm ) and the lower deck armour was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 in ( 38 – 64 mm ) . Mild steel torpedo bulkheads of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thickness were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms .
After the Battle of Jutland revealed her vulnerability to plunging shellfire , additional armour was added in the area of the magazines and to the turret roofs . The exact thickness is not known , but it was unlikely to be thick as the total amount was less than 100 long tons ( 102 t ) .
= = Construction = =
She was authorized in the naval expansion program of 1905 , and built at the John Brown & Company shipyard on the Clyde . She was laid down on 5 February 1906 , launched on 26 June 1907 , and commissioned on 20 October 1908 .
= = Early career = =
Upon commissioning , Inflexible was assigned to the Nore Division of the British Home Fleet . She was the temporary flagship of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Edward Hobart Seymour while in New York for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in September 1909 . On 26 May 1911 , she was in a collision with the battleship Bellerophon that damaged her bow . She was refitted in October – November 1911 , where her fore funnel was also raised by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to reduce smoke interference with the bridge .
= = World War I = =
= = = Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau = = =
On the outbreak of World War I , Inflexible was flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet . Accompanied by HMS Indefatigable , under the command of Admiral Sir Archibald Berkeley Milne she encountered the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau on the morning of 4 August 1914 headed east after a cursory bombardment of the French Algerian port of Philippeville , but Britain and Germany were not yet at war so Milne turned to shadow the Germans as they headed back to Messina to recoal . All three battlecruisers had problems with their boilers , but Goeben and Breslau were able to break contact and reached Messina by the morning of the 5th . By this time war had been declared , after the German invasion of Belgium , but an Admiralty order to respect Italian neutrality and stay outside a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) limit from the Italian coast precluded entrance into the passage of the Strait of Messina where they could observe the port directly . Therefore Milne stationed Inflexible and Indefatigable at the northern exit of the Strait of Messina , still expecting the Germans to break out to the west where they could attack French troop transports , the light cruiser Gloucester at the southern exit and sent Indomitable to recoal at Bizerte where she was better positioned to react to a German sortie into the Western Mediterranean .
The Germans sortied from Messina on 6 August and headed east , towards Constantinople , trailed by Gloucester . Milne , still expecting Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon to turn west , kept the battlecruisers at Malta until shortly after midnight on 8 August when he set sail for Cape Matapan at a leisurely 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , where Goeben had been spotted eight hours earlier . At 2 : 30 p.m. he received an incorrect signal from the Admiralty stating that Britain was at war with Austria — war would not be declared until 12 August and the order was countermanded four hours later , but Milne followed his standing orders to guard the Adriatic against an Austrian breakout attempt , rather than seek Goeben . Finally on 9 August Milne was given clear orders to " chase Goeben which had passed Cape Matapan on the 7th steering north @-@ east . " Milne still did not believe that Souchon was heading for the Dardanelles , and so he resolved to guard the exit from the Aegean , unaware that the Goeben did not intend to come out . Indomitable remained in the Mediterranean to blockade the Dardanelles , but Inflexible was ordered home on 18 August .
= = = Battle of the Falklands = = =
The West Indies Squadron of Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock was destroyed by the German German East Asia Squadron commanded by Admiral Graf von Spee during the Battle of Coronel on 1 November 1914 . In response , the Admiralty ordered that a squadron be sent to destroy the Germans . The squadron , under the command of Admiral Sir Doveton Sturdee , consisted of Invincible ( flag ) and Inflexible . They departed on 11 November and rendezvoused with several other cruisers under Rear Admiral Stoddard at Abrolhos Rocks , off the coast of Brazil on the 26th . They departed the following day and reached Port Stanley on the morning of 7 December .
Spee , making a leisurely voyage back to the Atlantic , wished to destroy the radio station at Port Stanley and sent the armoured cruiser SMS Gneisenau and the light cruiser Nürnberg to see if the harbor was clear of British warships on the morning of 8 December . They were spotted at 7 : 30 AM , although the pre @-@ dreadnought Canopus , grounded in Stanley Harbor to defend the town and its wireless station , did not receive the signal until 7 : 45 . It mattered little because Sturdee was not expecting an engagement and most of his ships were coaling . Furthermore the armoured cruiser Cornwall and the light cruiser Bristol had one or both of their engines under repair . The armed merchant cruiser Macedonian was patrolling the outer harbor entrance while the armoured cruiser Kent was anchored in the outer harbor , scheduled to relieve the Macedonian at 8 : 00 AM . The Germans were not expecting any resistance and the first salvo from Canopus 's guns at 9 : 20 caused them to sheer off from their planned bombardment of the wireless station and fall back on Spee 's main body .
Sturdee 's ships did not sortie from the harbor until 9 : 50 , but they could see the retreating German ships on the southwest horizon . The Invincibles , fresh out of dry dock , had a 5 knots ( 5 @.@ 8 mph ; 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) advantage over Spee 's ships which all had fouled bottoms that limited their speeds to 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) at best . The light cruiser SMS Leipzig was lagging behind the other ships and Inflexible opened fire on her when the range dropped to 17 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @.@ 0 km ) at 12 : 55 PM . Invincible opened fire shortly afterwards and both ships began straddling Leipzig as the range closed to 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 km ) . At 1 : 20 Spee ordered his squadron to separate and ordered his light cruisers to turn to the southwest while his armoured cruisers turned to the north east to cover their retreat . The German ships opened fire first at 1 : 30 and scored their first hit at 1 : 44 when SMS Scharnhorst hit Invincible , although the shell burst harmlessly on the belt armour . Both sides fired rapidly during the first half @-@ hour of the engagement before Sturdee opened up the range a little to put his ships outside the effective range of the German guns . British gunnery was very poor during this period , scoring only four hits out of 210 rounds fired . The primary cause was the smoke from the guns and funnels as the British were downwind of the Germans .
Spee turned to the south in the hope of disengaging while the British had their vision obscured , but only opened the range to 17 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 km ) before the British saw his course change . This was futile as the British battlecruisers gave chase at 24 knots ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) . Forty minutes later the British opened fire again at 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 km ) . Eight minutes later Spee turned again to the east to give battle . This time his strategy was to close the range on the British ships so he could bring his 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) secondary armament into play . In this he was successful and they were able to open fire at 3 : 00 at maximum elevation . On this course the smoke bothered both sides , but multiple hits were made regardless . Those made by the Germans either failed to detonate or hit in some insignificant area . On the contrary , Gneisenau had her starboard engine room put out of action . Sturdee ordered his ships at 3 : 15 back across their own wakes to gain the windward advantage . Spee turned to the northwest , as if to attempt to cross the British T , but actually to bring Scharnhorst 's undamaged starboard guns to bear as most of those on his port side were out of action . The British continued to hit Scharnhorst and Gneisenau regularly during this time and Scharnhorst ceased fire at 4 : 00 before capsizing at 4 : 17 with no survivors . Gneisenau had been slowed by earlier damage and was battered for another hour and a half by Inflexible and Invincible at ranges down to 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) . Despite the damage her crew continued to fire back until she ceased firing at 4 : 47 . Sturdee was ready to order ' Cease fire ' at 5 : 15 when an ammunition hoist was freed up and she made her last shot . The British continued to pound her until 5 : 50 , after her captain had given the order to scuttle her at 5 : 40 . She slowly capsized at 6 : 00 and the British were able to rescue 176 men . She had fired 661 12 @-@ inch shells during the battle and had only been hit three times because she was often obscured by Invincible 's smoke . Only one man was killed and five wounded aboard the battlecruisers during the battle .
= = = Dardanelles Campaign = = =
After the Battle of the Falklands Inflexible was repaired and refitted at Gibraltar . She arrived at the Dardanelles on 24 January 1915 where she replaced Indefatigable as the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet . She bombarded Turkish fortifications on 19 February , the start of the Battle of Gallipoli , to little effect , and again on 15 March , with the same results . She was part of the first line of British ships on 18 March as they attempted to suppress the Turkish guns so the minefields could be swept . Turkish return fire was heavy and she was hit a number of times . A 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) howitzer shell knocked out the left gun of ' P ' turret , a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) shell hit the yard above the foretop and killed or wounded everybody within . A heavy shell of unknown size hit her on the port side 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline , but only dished in the side plating . A 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) shell hit the foremast at the same level as the flying bridge and set fire to the navigator 's sea cabin . The hit destroyed all the cables and voice pipes running through the foremast to the fire control director . The smoke from the fire was choking the wounded so she withdrew to turn her head to into the wind and the fire was then quickly put out . She returned to reengage the Turkish forts and was hit once more with little effect . Later , as she was turning in Eren Keui Bay , she was seriously damaged by a mine , probably about 100 kg ( 220 lb ) in size , that blew a large hole in her starboard bow and flooded the forward torpedo flat , drowning 39 men . She had to be beached at the island of Bozcaada ( Tenedos ) to prevent her sinking , as she had taken in some 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of water , but she was temporarily repaired with a cofferdam over the 30 by 26 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m × 7 @.@ 9 m ) hole . She sailed to Malta , escorted by Canopus and Talbot on 6 April . She nearly foundered when her cofferdam worked loose in heavy weather en route and had to be towed stern @-@ first by Canopus for six hours while the cofferdam was repaired . She was under repair at Malta until early June before she sailed for home . She reached the U.K. on 19 June where she joined the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) of the Grand Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral H.L.A. Hood .
= = = Battle of J
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utland = = =
At the end of May 1916 , the 3rd BCS was temporarily assigned to the Grand Fleet for gunnery practice . On 30 May , the entire Grand Fleet , along with Admiral Beatty 's battlecruisers , was ordered to sea to prepare for an excursion by the German High Seas Fleet . In order to support Beatty , Admiral Hood took his three battlecruisers ahead of the Grand Fleet . At about 2 : 30 PM Invincible intercepted a radio message from the British light cruiser Galatea , attached to Beatty 's Battlecruiser Force , reporting the sighting of two enemy cruisers . This was amplified by other reports of seven enemy ships steering north . Hood interpreted this as an attempt to escape through the Skagerrak and ordered an increase in speed to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ) at 3 : 11 and steered East @-@ Southeast to cut off the fleeing ships . Twenty minutes later Invincible intercepted a message from Beatty reporting five enemy battlecruisers in sight and later signals reporting that he was engaging the enemy on a south @-@ easterly course . At 4 : 06 Hood ordered full speed and a course of south @-@ southeast in an attempt to converge on Beatty . At 4 : 56 , with no British ships in sight , Hood requested Beatty 's course , position and speed , but never received a reply .
Hood continued on course until 5 : 40 when gunfire was spotted in the direction to which his light cruiser Chester had been dispatched to investigate other gunfire flashes . Chester encountered four light cruisers of Hipper 's 2nd Scouting Group and was badly damaged before Hood turned to investigate and was able to drive the German cruisers away . At 5 : 53 Invincible opened fire on Wiesbaden and the other two Invincibles followed two minutes later . The German ships turned for the south after fruitlessly firing torpedoes at 6 : 00 and attempted to find shelter in the mist . As they turned Invincible hit Wiesbaden in the engine room and knocked out her engines while Inflexible hit Pillau once . The 2nd Scouting Group was escorted by the light cruiser Regensburg and 31 destroyers of the 2nd and 9th Flotillas and the 12th Half @-@ Flotilla which attacked the 3rd BCS in succession . They were driven off by Hood 's remaining light cruiser Canterbury and the five destroyers of his escort . In a confused action the Germans only launched 12 torpedoes and disabled the destroyer Shark with gunfire . Having turned due west to close on Beatty 's ships , the Invincibles were broadside to the oncoming torpedoes , but Invincible turned north , while Inflexible and Indomitable turned south to present their narrowest profile to the torpedoes . All the torpedoes missed , although one passed underneath Inflexible without detonating . As Invincible turned north , her helm jammed and she had to come to a stop to fix the problem , but this was quickly done and the squadron reformed heading west .
At 6 : 21 , with both Beatty and the Grand Fleet converging on him , Hood turned south to lead Beatty 's battlecruisers . Hipper 's battlecruisers were 9 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 km ) away and the Invincibles almost immediately opened fire on Hipper 's flagship , Lützow , and Derfflinger . Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion , Inflexible and Invincible , including two hits below the waterline forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom her . But at 6 : 30 , Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger . The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible , and sank her in 90 seconds . A 305 mm ( 12 @-@ inch ) shell from the third salvo struck the roof of Invincible 's midships ' Q ' turret , flash detonated the magazines below , and the ship blew up and broke in two , killing all but six of her crew of 1 @,@ 032 officers and men , including Rear @-@ Admiral Hood .
Inflexible and Indomitable remained in company with Beatty for the rest of the battle . They encountered Hipper 's battlecruisers only 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 km ) away as the sun was setting about 8 : 19 and opened fire . Seydlitz was hit five times before the German battlecruisers were rescued by the appearance of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve and the British shifted fire to the new threat . Three of the predreadnoughts were hit before they too were able to turn into the gloom .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
The loss of three battlecruisers at Jutland ( the others were Queen Mary and Indefatigable ) led to the force being reorganised into two squadrons , with Inflexible and Indomitable in the 2nd BCS . However , after Jutland there was little significant naval activity for the Invincibles , other than routine patrolling , thanks to the Kaiser 's order that his ships should not be allowed to go to sea unless assured of victory . Two torpedoes fired by the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 65 during one of these patrols on 19 August 1916 missed astern . On 1 February 1918 she collided with the British submarine HMS K22 off the Isle of May with minor damage . She was fitted with two flying off ramps fitted above her midships turrets in early 1918 . On 21 November she was present at Scapa Flow for the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet .
The end of the war saw the end for many of the older vessels , not least the two remaining Invincible @-@ class ships . Inflexible was paid off to the Reserve Fleet in January 1919 before being decommissioned on 31 March 1920 . Chile briefly considered purchasing the ship in 1920 , however the sale did not materialise . She was sold for scrap on 1 December 1921 , and scrapped in Germany the following year . Mount Inflexible in the Canadian Rockies was named after the battlecruiser in 1917 .
= Into the Groove =
" Into the Groove " is a song by American singer Madonna from the 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan . It was featured on the re @-@ issue of her second studio album Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , and released on July 23 , 1985 , by Sire Records as the album 's fourth single outside North America . The original song was included on her third greatest hits album , Celebration ( 2009 ) , while remixes of it appeared on the remix compilation You Can Dance ( 1987 ) , and her first greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) .
Madonna 's inspiration behind the song was the dance floor , and she wrote it while watching a handsome Puerto Rican man , across her balcony . Initially written for her friend Mark Kamins , Madonna later decided to use it as the soundtrack of her film Desperately Seeking Susan . " Into the Groove " was recorded at Sigma Sound Studios . A remixed version , titled " Into the Hollywood Groove " , was created by Madonna in 2003 for a Gap commercial and featured a rap by Missy Elliott . " Into the Groove " consists of instrumentation from synthesizers and drum machines . Madonna 's voice is double tracked in the chorus ; the song also consists of musical contrasts , overdubs , and Madonna 's voice in lower register during the bridge . The lyrics of the song are simple , written as an invitation to dance with the singer . However , it carries sexual innuendos and undertones in the meaning .
The song was appreciated by contemporary critics as well as authors , who frequently called it " Madonna 's first great single " . The song was a commercial success , reaching the top of the charts in Australia , Belgium , Ireland , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , New Zealand , Spain and the United Kingdom , where it was Madonna 's first number @-@ one single . In the United States , the song was only available as the B @-@ side of the 12 @-@ inch single of " Angel " , therefore it was ineligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 according to the rules at the time . By the end of the 1980s , " Into the Groove " was honored by Billboard magazine as the Dance Single of the Decade .
A music video , consisting of clips from the film , was released to accompany the song . The song has been performed by Madonna in most of her concert tours , including the Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) , where she performed it while doing Double Dutch jump rope . " Into the Groove " has been covered by a number of artists , including Australian singer Dannii Minogue , who combined the song with her single " Don 't Wanna Lose This Feeling " .
= = Background = =
" Into the Groove " was written and produced by Madonna and her then @-@ boyfriend Stephen Bray . The singer had initially written the song for her friend Mark Kamins ' protégée , Chyne , and recorded a demo which Kamins intended to modify later . However , Madonna believed that the song would be more suitable for her film Desperately Seeking Susan , and recorded it with Bray for the film 's soundtrack . When Kamins found out he was furious that Madonna did not inform him that she would use the song for the film . The singer retorted : " I 'm tough , I 'm ambitious and I know exactly what I want . If that makes me a bitch , that 's okay . " " Into the Groove " ultimately did not appear on the soundtrack album of the film , but was released on the 1985 worldwide re @-@ issue of Madonna 's second studio album , Like a Virgin . During an interview with Time , Madonna said that she wrote the song while watching a Latin boy across her balcony . Describing the song as " dorky " , Madonna further explained :
" When I was writing it , I was sitting in a fourth @-@ floor walk @-@ up on Avenue @-@ B , and there was this gorgeous Puerto Rican boy sitting across me that I wanted to go out on a date with , and I just wanted to get the song over with . I ultimately did go out with him and the song was finished just before my last date with him , which I 'm kinda happy that it did not continue ... The dance floor was quite a magical place for me . I started off wanting to be a dancer , so that had a lot to do with the song . The freedom that I always feel when I 'm dancing , that feeling of inhabiting your body , letting yourself go , expressing yourself through music . I always thought of it as a magical place – even if you 're not taking ecstasy . Hence that came to me as the primary inspiration for ' Into the Groove ' . "
" Into the Groove " had an accompanying music video , made up of clips from the film , with the lyrics often matching the images . Doug Dowdle of Parallax Productions , a company that pioneered in movie tie @-@ in music videos during the 1980s , created this video from edited footage of the movie , directed by Susan Seidelman . This was done because there were five Madonna videos already on power rotation on MTV , and Warner Bros. did not want the audience to be saturated with any new video . Hence , they decided to use the shots from the film and made a music video . During a 2009 interview with Rolling Stone , Madonna commented : " ' Into the Groove ' is another song I feel retarded singing , but everybody seems to like it . "
= = Recording = =
Madonna and Bray started on the re @-@ recording and changed some portion of the lyrics . Bray commented on the recording sessions as : " I 've always kind of made the rib cage and the skeleton [ music ] of the song already – she 's there for the last things like the eyebrows and the haircut [ lyrics ] . She writes in a stream of mood really . " " Into the Groove " was recorded at Sigma Sound Studios . Madonna 's friend Erika Belle was present during the recording and watched the whole process . In Andrew Morton 's Madonna biography , she noted that at one point of the recording , Bray was facing difficulties with the bridge of the song , as the melody thought by him was not syncing with the rest of the composition . Undeterred by his obvious difficulties , Madonna stepped up to the microphone and sang the words " Live out your fantasy here with me " . Bray 's problem was solved ; Belle remembered the experience as : " [ The song ] seemed to come out of her , I was awestruck . "
Madonna re @-@ tailored the song in 2003 , and developed a remix called " Into the Hollywood Groove " , which replaced the first verse of " Into the Groove " with the first verse of Madonna 's single " Hollywood " ( 2003 ) . The lyrics of the chorus were also slightly altered and it featured a rap by Missy Elliott . This version of the song was used for a Gap commercial in the summer of 2003 , featuring Madonna and Elliot wearing Gap jeans . Another remix version was created by Josh Harris and Omar Galeano as " The Passengerz " , and was included in Madonna 's remix album , Remixed & Revisited ( 2003 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Into the Groove " begins with a spoken introduction by Madonna , and the sound of drums and synth bassline being heard . This is followed by the chorus , where Madonna 's voice is double tracked and the treble is increased by a notch . A synth line counterpoints the main tune , adding a contrast . The bridge , where Madonna sings the line " Live out your fantasy " , features her vocals in a lower register alongside the main ones . According to the sheet music published in Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing Co . Inc . , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a medium tempo of 116 beats per minute . The song is set in the key of C minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from the high @-@ tone of C4 to the low @-@ tone of D5 . It has a basic sequence of Cm7 – B ♭ / C – Cm7 – A ♭ as its chord progression .
The song was remixed by Shep Pettibone for Madonna 's remix compilation You Can Dance ( 1987 ) . In the remixed version , overdubs are present with the continuous repetition of the phrase " c 'mon " . The first verse does not start until about ninety seconds into the remix . After the first " Now I know you 're mine " line is sung , there is a percussion break , and repetition of the phrases " step to the beat " and " c 'mon " . The last verse incorporates echoing on the vocals , causing overlap of the phrases . The remix ends with instrumentation from congas , whistles and timbales , giving it a Mexican ending . Pettibone also remixed the song alongside Goh Hotoda for The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) compilation .
The lyrics of the song are simple , written as an invitation to dance with the singer . Despite the simple lyrics , it carries sexual innuendos and undertones in the meaning . Similar to Madonna 's previous single " Like a Virgin " ( 1984 ) , a lyrical hook is also present in " Into the Groove " , directed at shy girls . The line " At night I lock the door so no @-@ one else can see " implied that Madonna was not as brazen as her provocative image suggested . According to Barker , the nostalgic people would instantly recognize the song 's lyrics at night clubs . He added that the line , " Only when I 'm dancing can I feel this free , " expresses the freedom that a dance floor brings about , with the dancers happy to find freedom in the music . A neume is visible in the line " Live out your fantasy here with me " , which Barker believed , blurred the boundaries of reality and brought one closer to the world of fantasy .
= = Critical reception = =
Ever since its release , " Into the Groove " has received critical acclaim . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography , said that the song demonstrated Madonna 's ability to create infectitious dance music . Rikky Rooksby , author of Madonna : the complete guide to her music , said that " ' Into the Groove ' will make you feel like you 're a winner either way . And that 's one of the best things pop music can do for ya . [ It 's ] Madonna 's first great single . " Clive Barker and Simon Trussler , authors of New Theatre Quarterly , felt that the song was the first disco @-@ anthem of the 1980s .
Toby Cresswell , author of 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets , said that the song is a " sweet , limited white tune on the top , and there 's Madonna – all the right @-@ shop chic – dragging the straight world into this subterranean paradise . All the magic of the eighties is right here . " Matthew Rettenmund , author of Totally Awesome 80s : A Lexicon of the Music , Videos , Movies , TV Shows , Stars , and Trends of that Decadent Decade , declared " Into the Groove " as the ultimate 1980s song and felt that it " cemented Madonna 's place as the dancing queen of the era " . Dawn Keetley and John Pettigrew , authors of Public Women , Public Words : A Documentary History of American Feminism , called it a " mesmerizing theme song " .
Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández and Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , authors of Madonna 's drowned worlds : new approaches to her cultural transformations , commented that the song " taunted playfully " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine ranked it at twenty @-@ nine on the list of " 100 Greatest Dance Songs " . He commented : " It 's hard to imagine the most famous woman in the world dancing alone in her bedroom at night , locking the doors so ' no one else can see ' ( as she sings on ' Groove ' ) , even 20 years ago , but you can 't help but believe her . The song — and Madonna 's performance — are that good . " Alfred Soto from Stylus commented that " ' Into the Groove ' itself is as much wish @-@ fulfillment as ' Crazy For You ' . Austin Scaggs from Rolling Stone commented that the song had " an amazing bassline " .
By the end of the 1980s , " Into the Groove " was honored by Billboard magazine as the " Dance Single of the Decade " . In 2003 , Madonna fans were asked to vote for their top @-@ twenty Madonna singles of all @-@ time by Q magazine ; " Into the Groove " was allocated the number @-@ three spot . In 2009 , the song was ranked at ninety on Blender magazine 's " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . Billboard ranked the song number three on a 2015 list of Madonna 's top 15 best songs , calling it " the Madonna club track . " In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 19th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV . Pitchfork Media named " Into the Groove " the 17th best song from the 1980s .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , due to similar problems with " Crazy for You " and " Material Girl " being released at the same time and competing with each other , it was decided against releasing " Into the Groove " as a 7 " single so it would not compete with " Angel " , the third single from the Like a Virgin . " Into the Groove " was eventually released as the B @-@ side to the maxi @-@ single of " Angel " , therefore it was ineligible to enter the Billboard Hot 100 or Hot Singles Sales charts . The song debuted at number 40 on Hot Dance Club Songs chart , as a double A @-@ side with " Angel " , on the issue dated June 1 , 1985 . After four weeks , it reached the top of the chart and also reached number 19 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Into the Groove " is Madonna 's most played song on Billboard 's Recurrent Airplay Chart . On July 30 , 1985 , " Angel / Into the Groove " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of one million copies across the US — the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989 . It was the first 12 @-@ inch single to be certified gold since Frankie Smith 's " Double Dutch Bus " ( 1981 ) . The song placed at number 12 on the Dance year @-@ end charts and sold approximately 600 @,@ 000 copies of the 12 " ; it also reached number @-@ one on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart .
" Into the Groove " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number four , on the chart dated July 27 , 1985 . It reached the top of the chart and stayed there for four weeks , and was present for a total of 14 weeks on the chart . The song was Madonna 's first number @-@ one single in United Kingdom . During its stay at number @-@ one , Madonna 's first UK hit " Holiday " was at number @-@ two position . This made her the first female artist in UK chart history to hold the top @-@ two positions of the chart simultaneously . " Into the Groove " was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . The song was the third biggest selling UK single of 1985 , behind Jennifer Rush 's " The Power of Love " and Elaine Paige 's and Barbara Dickson 's " I Know Him So Well " . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 870 @,@ 000 copies there . In Australia , " Into the Groove " charted as a combined single with " Angel " and reached the top of the Kent Music Report chart . It was the second @-@ highest selling single of 1985 in Australia . Across Europe and Oceania , the song was able to reach the top of the charts in Belgium , Ireland , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , New Zealand and Spain , and inside the top five in France , Germany , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and European Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed " Into the Groove " on The Virgin Tour and the Live Aid concert ( 1985 ) , the Who 's That Girl World Tour ( 1987 ) , the Blond Ambition World Tour ( 1990 ) , the Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , the Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) , and the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) .
In The Virgin Tour , " Into the Groove " was the third song of the setlist . Madonna wore a blue see @-@ through crop @-@ top , revealing her characteristic black bra . She had lacy leggings and crucifixes around her ear and her neck . Her hair was tied at the top and fell in unkempt manner around her ears . She had a tambourine in her hand like her two male dancers , and together they sang the song while standing in front of a microphone , in tandem . The performance was included on the video release titled Live – The Virgin Tour , shot in Detroit . She also performed it on her Live Aid concert on July 13 , 1985 .
In the Who 's That Girl World Tour of 1987 , " Into the Groove " was the second @-@ last song before the encore . The outfit she wore during the performance was inspired by artist Andy Warhol . It consisted of a loose pant with a tin of Campbell 's soup on the side , the letter U in the front and the word DANCE in the back ; it was designed so that when she turned , audience were able to read ' U [ Can ] Dance ] ' . In the middle of her singing , a young boy joined her on stage to dance alongside . Madonna then wore a pink bolero jacket . At the end she is joined by her backup singers and dancers . Together they take a bow to the audience and finish the performance . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl – Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin on September 4 , 1987 .
Three years later on the Blond Ambition World Tour , " Into the Groove " was again performed before the encore . Madonna , her backup singers Niki Haris and Donna De Lory were portrayed as being seduced by three macho guys in leather jackets . The girls asked the guys to " prove their love to them " and wondered if they would wear a condom when necessary . After that , they sing the Shep Pettibone extended remix of " Into The Groove " . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition – Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
In the Re @-@ Invention World Tour of 2004 , Madonna included the song at the start of the final segment , which started with Scottish bagpiper players parading around the stage in kilts and playing drums and pipes . Madonna appeared onstage in similar long kilts and a white sleeveless T @-@ shirt to perform " Into the Groove " with Scottish bagpiper group Lorne Cousin . Rapper Missy Elliott appeared on the video screen for a rap interlude . The song was again added to the setlist of 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . Elements of Cassius 's " Toop Toop " , Frankie Smith 's " Double Dutch Bus " , The Sugarhill Gang 's " Apache ( Jump On It ) " and Madonna 's own " Jump " were added to the performance . " Into the Groove " marked the beginning of the second segment titled Old School . It began with Madonna appearing on the stage in shorts and T @-@ shirt , while skipping to a DJ station . She started singing the song while cartoon characters from late artist , and Madonna 's friend , Keith Haring dance on the backdrops . Near the end of the song , Madonna performed a Double Dutch dance interlude .
In 2015 , " Into the Groove " was included in the set list of the Rebel Heart Tour , performed in a flamenco @-@ style medley with " Dress You Up " , " Everybody " and " Lucky Star " . During the sequence the singer dressed by in a Latin and gypsy inspired dress , created by Alessandro Michele for Gucci consisting off a shawl , flamenco hat , lace , skirts and jacquard bodysuit .
= = Cover versions = =
The song was covered by alternative rock band Sonic Youth under the pseudonym Ciccone Youth for a 1986 single , and re @-@ titled " Into the Groove ( y ) " ; this recording also appears on the 1988 release The Whitey Album . Dale Bozzio , former lead singer of new wave band Missing Persons , covered the song for the Madonna tribute album Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 from 2000 . French pop / rock group Superbus covered " Into the Groove " for their 2002 album , Aéromusical . It was the third and final single from the album .
In 2003 , the song was combined with the vocals of Dannii Minogue 's " Don 't Wanna Lose This Feeling " , the fourth and final single from her album Neon Nights . " Into the Groove " ' s instrumentation and a small Madonna vocal sample were added to Minogue 's vocals , though Minogue 's pitch was altered to fit the tempo of the song .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , producer
Steve Bray – writer , producer
Shep Pettibone – audio mixing , additional production , audio editing
Andy Wallace – remix engineering
The Latin Rascals – audio editing
Herb Ritts – photography
Credits adapted from the Like a Virgin ( 1985 re @-@ issue ) and You Can Dance album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Shahrbaraz =
Shahrbaraz ( Persian : شهربراز ) or Shahrvaraz ( Middle Persian : Šahrwarāz ) ( died 9 June 630 ) was king of the Sasanian Empire from 27 April 629 to 9 June 630 . He usurped the throne from Ardashir III , and was killed by Sasanian nobles after forty days . Before usurping the Sasanian throne he was a general ( spahbed ) under Khosrau II ( 590 – 628 ) . He is furthermore noted for his important role during the climactic Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , and the events that followed afterwards . His name Shahrbaraz is actually an honorific title , and means " the Boar of the Empire " , attesting to his dexterity in military command and his warlike person , as the boar was the animal associated with the Zoroastrian Izad Vahram , the epitome of victory .
= = Early life = =
Shahrbaraz belonged to the House of Mihran , one of the Seven Parthian clans ; he was the son of a certain Ardashir . During Shahrbaraz 's later life , he joined the Sasanian army , where he rose to high offices , and was appointed as spahbed of Nēmrōz . He was married to the sister of the Sasanian king Khosrau II , Mirhran , whom Shahrbaraz had one boy with named Shapur @-@ i Shahrvaraz . Shahrbaraz also had another son named Niketas the Persian , who may be from the same woman or from another .
= = War against the Byzantine Empire = =
Shahrbaraz is first mentioned when Khosrau II started the last and most devastating of the Byzantine – Sasanian wars , which was going to last 26 years . Khosrau II , along with Shahrbaraz and his other best generals , conquered Dara and Edessa in 604 , and in the north , the Byzantines were driven back to the old , pre @-@ 591 frontier before Khosrau II gave them most of Sasanian Armenia , parts of Mesopotamia and western half of the Kingdom of Iberia . After reconquering lost territory , Khosrau II withdrew from the battlefield and handed military operations to his best generals . Shahrbaraz was one of them . In 610 , Heraclius , an Armenian of probable Arsacid descent , revolted against the Byzantine Emperor Phocas and killed him , crowning himself as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire . After becoming Byzantine Emperor , he prepared a major counter @-@ attack against the Sasanians outside Antioch in 613 , but was decisively defeated by Shahrbaraz , who inflicted heavy losses on the Byzantine army and then captured the city , giving the Sasanians naval access to the Mediterranean sea .
After the Byzantine defeat outside Antioch , Heraclius and his brother Theodore , along with General Nicetas , combined their armies in Syria , but were defeated by Shahrbaraz and his forces who besieged Damascus and captured it along with a large number of Byzantine troops as prisoners . Furthermore , Shahrbaraz also defeated a Byzantine army near Adhri 'at , which was important enough for the Arabs to write it down in Quran .
One of most important events during his career was when he led the Sasanian army towards Palaestina , and after a bloody siege captured Jerusalem , a city sacred to the Christians . After his conquest of Jerusalem the Holy Cross was carried away in triumph . In 618 , Shahrbaraz was ordered by Khosrau II to invade Egypt , and by 619 , Alexandria , the capital of Byzantine Egypt , was in Sasanian hands .
After the fall of Alexandria , Shahrbaraz and his forces extended Sasanian rule southwards along the Nile . By 621 , the province was securely in Sasanian hands , and a certain Sahralanyozan was appointed as its governor . In 622 , Heraclius counter @-@ attacked against the Sasanian Empire in Anatolia . Shahrbaraz was sent over there to deal with him , but was eventually defeated by him .
After Heraclius ' victory , he marched towards Caucasian Albania and wintered there . Shahrbaraz , along with Shahin and Shahraplakan were later sent by the orders of Khosrau II to trap the forces of Heraclius . Shahin managed to rout the Byzantine army . Due to jealousy between the Sasanian commanders , Shahrbaraz hurried with his army to take part in the glory of the victory . Heraclius met them at Tigranakert and routed the forces of Shahraplakan and Shahin one after the other . After this victory , Heraclius crossed the Araxes and camped in the plains on the other side . Shahin , with the remnants of both his and Shahraplakan 's armies joined Shahrbaraz in the pursuit of Heraclius , but marshes slowed them down . At Aliovit , Shahrbaraz split his forces , sending some 6 @,@ 000 troops to ambush Heraclius while the remainder of the troops stayed at Aliovit . Heraclius launched a surprise night attack on the Sasanian main camp in February 625 , destroying it . Shahrbaraz only barely escaped , naked and alone , having lost his harem , baggage , and men .
Heraclius spent the rest of winter to the north of Lake Van . In 625 , his forces attempted to push back towards the Euphrates . In a mere seven days , he bypassed Mount Ararat and the 200 miles along the Arsanias River to capture Amida and Martyropolis , important fortresses on the upper Tigris . Heraclius then carried on towards the Euphrates , pursued by Shahrbaraz . According to Arab sources , he was stopped at the Satidama or Batman Su River and defeated ; Byzantine sources , however , do not mention this incident . Another minor skirmish between Heraclius and Shahrbaraz took place at the Sarus river near Adana . Shahrbaraz stationed his forces across the river from the Byzantines . A bridge spanned the river , and the Byzantines immediately charged across . Shahrbaraz feigned retreat to lead the Byzantines into an ambush , and the vanguard of Heraclius ' army was destroyed within minutes . The Sasanians , however , had neglected to cover the bridge , and Heraclius charged across with the rearguard , unafraid of the arrows that the Sasanians fired , turning the tide of battle against the Sasanians . Shahrbaraz expressed his admiration at Heraclius to a renegade Greek : " See your Emperor ! He fears these arrows and spears no more than would an anvil ! " The Battle of Sarus was a successful retreat for the Byzantines that panegyrists magnified . In the aftermath of the battle , the Byzantine army wintered at Trebizond .
= = = Siege of Constantinople = = =
Shahrbaraz , along with a smaller army , later managed to slip through Heraclius ' flanks and bee @-@ lined for Chalcedon , the Sasanian base across the Bosphorus from Constantinople . Khosrau II coordinated with the Khagan of the Avars so as to launch a coordinated attack on Constantinople from both European and Asiatic sides . The army of Shahrbaraz stationed themselves at Chalcedon , while the Avars placed themselves on the European side of Constantinople and destroyed the Aqueduct of Valens . Because of the Byzantine navy 's control of the Bosphorus strait , however , the Sasanians could not send troops to the European side to aid their ally . This reduced the effectiveness of the siege , because the Sasanians were experts in siege warfare . Furthermore , the Sasanians and Avars had difficulties communicating across the guarded Bosphorus — though undoubtedly , there was some communication between the two forces .
On 7 August , a fleet of Sasanian rafts ferrying troops across the Bosphorus was surrounded and destroyed by Byzantine ships . The Slavs under the Avars attempted to attack the sea walls from across the Golden Horn , while the main Avar host attacked the land walls . Patrician Bonus ' galleys rammed and destroyed the Slavic boats ; the Avar land assault from 6 to 7 August also failed . With the news that Theodore had decisively triumphed over Shahin ( supposedly leading Shahin to die from depression ) , the Avars retreated to the Balkan hinterland within two days , never to threaten Constantinople seriously again . Even though the army of Shahrbaraz was still encamped at Chalcedon , the threat to Constantinople was over .
Disappointed by Shahrbaraz 's failure , Khosrau II sent a messenger bearing a letter to Kardarigan , who was the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Sasanian army . The letter said that Kardarigan should kill Shahrbaraz and take his army back to Ctesiphon , but the bearers of the letter were intercepted in Galatia by Byzantine soldiers , who gave the letter to Constantine III who in turn gave it to Heraclius . After reading the letter , he offered to show the letter to Shahrbaraz in a meeting at Constantinople . Shahrbaraz accepted his proposal and met Heraclius at Constantinople , where he read the letter and switched over to Heraclius ' side . Shahrbaraz then changed the contents of the letter , making it state that Khosrau II wanted 400 officers killed , ensuring that Kardarigan and the rest of the army remained loyal to him .
Shahrbaraz then moved his army to northern Syria , where he could easily decide to support either Khosrau or Heraclius at a moment 's notice . Still , with the neutralization of Khosrau 's most skilled general , Heraclius deprived his enemy of some of his best and most experienced troops , while securing his flanks prior to his invasion of Iran .
= = Overthrow of Khosrau II = =
In 627 , Khosrau sent Shahrbaraz a letter , which said that he should send his army to Ctesiphon . Shahrbaraz , however , disobeyed , and moved to Asuristan , where he set up a camp in Ardashir Khurrah . Khosrau then sent Farrukhzad to negotiate with him . However , Farrukhzad made a secret conspiracy against Khosrau and joined Shahrbaraz .
One year later , the feudal families of the Sasanian Empire , who were tired of war against the Byzantines and Khosrau 's oppressive policies , freed Khosrau 's son Kavadh , who had been imprisoned by his own father . The feudal families included : Shahrbaraz himself , who represented the Mihran family ; the House of Ispahbudhan represented by spahbed Farrukh Hormizd and his two sons Rostam Farrokhzad and Farrukhzad ; the Armenian faction represented by Varaztirots II Bagratuni ; and finally the Kanarang . In February , Kavadh , along with Aspad Gushnasp , captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrau II . Kavadh II then proclaimed himself as king of the Sasanian Empire on 25 February , and with the aid of Piruz Khosrow , executed all his brothers and half @-@ brothers , including Khosrau II 's favorite son Mardanshah . Three days later , he ordered Mihr Hormozd to execute his father . With the agreement of the nobles of the Sasanian empire , Kavadh then made peace with the Byzantine emperor Heraclius , which made the Byzantines regain all their lost territories , their captured soldiers , a war indemnity , along with the True Cross and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614 .
Following the loss of territory required for the peace treaty , the embittered aristocracy started forming independent states within the Sasanian Empire . This divided the resources of the country . Furthermore , dams and canals became derelict , and a devastating plague erupted in the western provinces of Iran , killing half of the population along with Kavadh II , who was succeeded by Ardashir III .
= = Usurping the throne = =
After the death of Kavadh II , Heraclius sent Shahrbaraz a letter saying :
On 27 April 629 ( or 630 ) Shahrbaraz besieged Ctesiphon with a force of 6 @,@ 000 men . He was , however , unable to capture the city , and then made an alliance with Piruz Khosrow , the leader of the Parsig ( Persian ) faction , and the previous minister of the Empire during the reign of Ardashir 's father , Kavadh II . He also made an alliance with Namdar Jushnas , who had succeeded him as the spahbed of Nēmrōz in 626 . Shahrbaraz , with the aid of these two powerful figures , captured Ctesiphon , and executed Ardashir III along with many Sasanian nobles , including Ardashir 's minister Mah @-@ Adhur Gushnasp . Shahrbaraz then became the new shah ( king ) of the Sasanian Empire , and killed Kardarigan , who opposed Shahrbaraz after his usurpation of the Sasanian throne .
Heraclius also acknowledged Shahrbaraz 's Christian son Niketas , as his heir . An Iranian Christian as the heir of the Sasanian Empire opened the chances of the Christianization of Iran . After some time , Shahrbaraz had Shamta , the son of the former financial minister Yazdin , crucified on a church in Margha . The reason of this execution was reportedly because the latter had insulted Shahrbaraz during the reign of Khosrau II . Forty days later , 9 June 630 , during a ceremony , Shahrbaraz was killed by a spear thrown by Farrukh Hormizd , who then helped Borandukht , the daughter of Khosrau II , to ascend the throne .
= = Legacy = =
Shahrbaraz had played an important role in the Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , and the events that occurred after the war ; his mutiny against Khosrau II resulted in a Byzantine Pyrrhic victory and caused the Sasanian Empire to fall into a civil war . After the death of Shahrbaraz , his son Shapur @-@ i Shahrvaraz deposed Borandukht and became king of the Sasanian Empire . His reign , however , did not last long , and he was shortly deposed by the Sasanian nobles . During the same period , Niketas entered in the service of the Byzantines , and would later appear as one of the Byzantine generals at the Battle of Yarmouk during the Arab – Byzantine wars .
= Honey ( Moby song ) =
" Honey " is a song by American electronica musician Moby . It was released as the first single from his fifth studio album Play on August 31 , 1998 . The uptempo song incorporates vocal samples from " Sometimes " by American blues singer Bessie Jones , while its instrumentation is built around a repeating piano riff . Moby discovered the " Sometimes " sample while listening to albums of folk music recordings compiled by field collector Alan Lomax . He subsequently composed " Honey " , along with several other songs from Play , using the Lomax recordings .
" Honey " was generally well received by music critics , who praised the song 's sampling of " Sometimes " and cited it as a highlight of Play . Upon release , it peaked at number thirty @-@ three on the UK Singles Chart and also charted in several other countries , including Austria and Germany . The song 's music video , directed by Roman Coppola , depicts three duplicates of Moby venturing through various locations . " Honey " was later remixed to feature vocals from American R & B singer Kelis .
= = Background and composition = =
Moby composed " Honey " for his fifth studio album Play after listening to a box set of folk music songs compiled by field collector Alan Lomax . He developed an interest in the acapella songs recorded by Lomax and subsequently wrote " Honey " in " about 10 minutes . " Lomax recordings were also used as the basis for several other songs from Play , including " Find My Baby " and " Natural Blues " . After producing " Honey " , Moby commissioned Brazilian record producer Mario Caldato , Jr. to carry out its mixing process ; he had heard of Caldato from his work on American hip hop group Beastie Boys ' 1998 album Hello Nasty , and later recounted :
I was hanging out at Max Fish and Mars Bar and Motor City drinking with the few remaining people in New York who would still hang out with me . At this time the Beasties had Hello Nasty , which was doing incredibly well , and I just couldn 't believe that Mario Caldato , Jr. was willing to work with me .
" Honey " features a piano @-@ driven beat and additional instrumentation performed by Moby himself , including original slide guitar parts . The song is built around samples of American blues singer Bessie Jones ' 1960 song " Sometimes " , from the Alan Lomax compilation Sounds of the South . The samples consist of several lines performed by Jones , each followed by a choir responding " sometime " – the lines are repeated , harmonized and orchestrated in different ways throughout the course of the song . Moby has said that the vocals are meant to " convey female sex . " Other musical elements incorporated in " Honey " include hand claps , vinyl record scratches and synthesized strings . John Bush of AllMusic notes the song 's mixture of sampled blues music with " breakbeat techno . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Honey " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Frank Owen of The Village Voice called the song a " mesmerizing floor @-@ filler , arousing memories of Hamilton Bohannon 's hypnotic ' 70s metronome funk . " Alexandra Marshall of MTV wrote that its samples of " Sometimes " " work both as ingredients in a sonic collage and stay totally recognizable at the same time " . A writer for The Guardian praised " Honey " as " joyous , hypnotic , romping blues " , while reviews from NME described the song as a " sparkling diamond " and a " natural born dancefloor groove " . In his book I Hear America Singing : An Introduction to Popular Music , author David Kastin notes that " Honey " was often singled out in reviews of Play for special praise . Jim Sullivan of The Boston Globe cited " Honey " as a highlight song from Play , while Gene Stout of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer called it " one of the album 's most riveting tracks . " The song ranked at number twenty @-@ four on The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . On their year @-@ end list , Spin named " Honey " the tenth best single of 1999 .
= = Release = =
" Honey " was released as the lead single from Play on August 10 , 1998 in the United Kingdom , months prior to the release of the album . Several remixes of the song were produced by various artists , including Rollo Armstrong , Sister Bliss , WestBam , Sharam Jey , Mickey Finn and Moby himself . Instead of selecting remixes for inclusion on issues of the " Honey " physical single , Moby and his label Mute Records ultimately opted to release all of them commercially . " Honey " was released in several other European countries the following month – several radio stations refused to play the song , however , with Moby later saying :
The song " Honey " was a single we put out in Europe in September , and a lot of radio stations wouldn 't play it because they said it was an instrumental dance track . I listen to it and all I hear is singing . Are they talking about the same song ?
Despite decreased European radio support , " Honey " managed to chart in several countries within the continent . The song debuted and peaked at number 33 on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated September 5 , 1998 . It achieved its highest chart placement in Austria , where it peaked at number 30 , and also charted in Germany and the Netherlands . Outside of Europe , " Honey " peaked at number 49 on the United States Billboard Dance / Electronic Singles Sales chart in conjunction with the single " Run On " and at number 56 in Australia . Moby later collaborated with American R & B singer Kelis for a remix of " Honey " on which she provided additional vocals . Additional production and remixing was provided by Fafu . The remix was released as a dual single with " Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad ? " on October 16 , 2000 and peaked at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Honey " was directed by Roman Coppola . It opens with a wooden box falling from the sky – upon hitting the ground , three clones of Moby dressed in suits emerge and make their way towards a city . One spots a car and walks toward it , but accidentally drops a map in his possession . Crawling underneath the car to retrieve it , the Moby clone soon finds himself in a bathing woman 's apartment room – he manages to obtain the map and exit the room before the woman discovers his presence . He enters another room , followed by his duplicates , and jumps out the window .
The other two clones are then seen in a forest – one walks behind a tree and reappears dressed in casual attire . He climbs another tree and ends up in the bathroom of the woman 's apartment , where he retrieves a package . The clone then crawls underneath her bed and finds himself underneath a car . He opens the package and finds a gasoline can , which he pours into a compartment located behind the car 's license plate . All three clones enter the car and drive to the box , which they step back into ; the video concludes with the box 's explosion .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= Gail Godwin =
Gail Godwin ( born June 18 , 1937 ) is an American novelist and short story writer . Godwin has written 14 novels , two short story collections , three non @-@ fiction books , and ten libretti . Her primary literary accomplishments are her novels , which have included five best @-@ sellers and three finalists for the National Book Award . Most of her books are realistic fiction novels that follow a character 's psychological and intellectual development , often based on themes taken from Godwin 's own life .
Godwin was born in Birmingham , Alabama , but raised mostly in Asheville , North Carolina by her mother and grandmother . She adopted her mother 's interest in writing at an early age and obtained a Bachelor 's degree in journalism from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( UNC ) . After graduating , she worked briefly as a reporter for The Miami Herald , then traveled to Europe and worked for the U.S. Travel Service run by the U.S. Embassy in London . She returned to the U.S. after six years . Godwin taught English at the University of Iowa , while earning her M.A. ( 1968 ) and PhD ( 1971 ) in English Literature .
While at the University of Iowa , Godwin 's dissertation became her first novel , The Perfectionists . By 1976 she had become a successful writer and author of three books . In particular , two books written by her in the 1980s , A Mother and Two Daughters ( 1982 ) and A Southern Family ( 1987 ) , resulted in further acclaim and expanded the readership of her books . Following The Finishing School ( 1984 ) , readership of her books dramatically declined until 2006 , when Queen of the Underworld was published . Flora ( 2013 ) became one of her more commercially successful novels .
= = Early life and family = =
Gail Godwin was born on June 18 , 1937 in Birmingham , Alabama . Her parents , Kathleen Krahenbuhl and Mose Winston Godwin , were both from North Carolina , but visiting cousins in Alabama when Godwin was born . Godwin 's parents divorced two years later . After the breakup , Gail and her mother moved in with her grandparents in Durham , North Carolina . They moved again to Weaverville , NC and then to Asheville , NC . Her grandfather died in 1939 , so Godwin was raised by her mother and grandmother in Asheville , where they lived until 1948 .
Godwin 's grandmother filled the traditional role of a mother , cleaning , cooking and sewing , while her mother was the breadwinner . Godwin 's mother had a Bachelor 's and master 's degree from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . She taught college @-@ level English in the mornings , and worked as a reporter for a local paper , Asheville Citizen @-@ Times , in the evenings . On the weekends she wrote love stories for magazines in New York . According to Godwin , growing up with two female guardians had an influence on her writing and her decision to become a writer . By age five she had started identifying with her mother 's occupation as a writer more so than her grandmother 's work . At nine years old Godwin wrote her first story , titled " Ollie McGonnigle " .
In 1948 Kathleen married Frank Cole , a World War II veteran , and moved the family to Virginia . Godwin was further inspired by her mother 's determination to continue writing after having a second child . According to Godwin , much of her time growing up was spent in the newsroom , where her mother worked . She also witnessed her mother 's plays and novels being rejected . Godwin 's autobiography creates the impression that much of her own writing was intended to accomplish the things her mother could not . As Cole 's salary increased and he was able to support the family , Godwin 's mother focused on being a wife and homemaker , eventually not writing at all .
In Godwin 's late teens , her stepfather was working as a salesman and the family moved often . Godwin attended several different high schools , including an all @-@ girls Catholic school , St. Genevieve @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Pines . It was Godwin 's favorite teacher at St. Genevieve @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Pines who persuaded her to start keeping a personal diary . According to Godwin , she had a " church upbringing or convent school training . " She attended church at St. Mary 's and All Souls . She also wrote a short novel as a teenager .
Godwin had no relationship with her father , until the two re @-@ connected at her high school graduation . Godwin 's father then offered to pay for her college education . During her junior year in college , Godwin moved in with her father , who committed suicide later that year . Godwin 's uncle and a half brother later committed suicide as well . Her mother died in a car accident in 1989 .
Godwin attended Peace College in Raleigh , North Carolina from 1955 to 1957 . She then transferred to University of North Carolina ( UNC ) , where she attended from 1957 to 1959 , graduating with a bachelor 's degree in journalism . While in college she worked on The Otherwise Virgins , a novel her mother had written , but was unable to find a publisher for . In 1959 Knopf sent an agent to UNC to scout young writers . Godwin submitted a portion of her novel Windy Peaks for their consideration . The story was about the staff and guests at a resort hotel in the mountains . Her manuscript was rejected . Godwin also worked as a waitress at Mayview Manor at Blowing Rock , North Carolina during her sophomore and junior years .
= = Early work = =
Godwin 's first job out of college was at The Miami Herald , where she worked as a journalist for one year . There she met and briefly married photographer and co @-@ worker , Douglas Kennedy . They were married in 1960 and divorced several months later in 1961 . According to Godwin , she " worked very hard " , but her stories were too " flamboyant " for the publication and she was fired . According to Contemporary Literary Criticism , she was incorporating too much human interest into the paper 's stories , which were supposed to be factual . After briefly living with her mother again , Godwin moved to London to distance herself from a failed marriage and job .
In London Godwin worked for the U.S. Travel Service run by the American embassy from 1961 to 1965 . Godwin said she was a " glorified receptionist , " who was able to read books in secret while at work . Her cousin , who was the mayor of Weaverville , North Carolina , helped to get her the job . While she was employed by the embassy , Godwin completed a novel entitled Gull Key . Like many of her early works , the book focuses on a female character figuring out if marriage and being a parent is the life she wants for herself . Several publishers rejected the novel and the manuscript was lost when Godwin sent the only copy to a publisher that went out of business without returning it .
While in England , Godwin took a course in creative writing at the City Literature Institute , where she met her second husband , psychiatrist Ian Marshall . They were married two months later . The marriage was brief and they were divorced in 1966 . After their breakup , Godwin returned to the United States . At age 29 , she took a job as fact @-@ checker in New York City for The Saturday Evening Post . She said the job was embarrassing , because she wanted to be a writer , as opposed to fact @-@ checking the work of others .
At this point , a distant uncle of Godwin 's died , leaving her an inheritance of $ 5 @,@ 000 . She used the money to apply to the Iowa Writers Workshop and , after being accepted , to move from New York to Iowa City in 1967 . There Godwin met her teacher and future mentor Kurt Vonnegut . At Iowa , Godwin worked as an instructor while earning an M.A. and Ph.D. from the same university in 1968 and 1971 respectively . She began teaching Greek Drama , before earning a position teaching literature . By age 30 , Godwin had written three novels , but was unable to get any of them published .
= = Author = =
= = = Early published work = = =
According to The Asheville Citizen @-@ Times , Godwin 's first successful work was a 1969 short story in Cosmopolitan . Her first published novel was her dissertation written as graduate work at University of Iowa . It was published in 1970 and called The Perfectionists . The story was based loosely on Godwin 's second marriage . It was accepted by Harper & Row in December 1968 , while Godwin completing her graduate work . From 1971 on , Godwin earned a living through her work as a writer and augmented her income by means of intermittent teaching positions .
After completing her graduate work in 1971 , Godwin spent two months at the Yaddo artist 's colony in Upstate New York in 1972 . There she wrote 100 pages of a novel called The Villain , which was never published . The work was scrapped , but ended up being part of the basis for The Odd Woman . According to author Jane Hill , it was while working on The Odd Women that Godwin transitioned from linear narratives to more complex structures where the plot interweaves past and present events .
It was at Yaddo that Godwin met composer Robert Starer and began a life partnership with him that lasted until his death in 2001 . They moved to Stone Ridge , New York in 1973 and later built a house in Woodstock , New York , where Godwin continued her work from home . In addition to her books and short stories , Godwin wrote libretti for ten of Starer 's musical compositions .
= = = Height of Godwin 's career = = =
By 1976 Godwin was a successful writer and novelist who had published three books : The Perfectionists , Glass People , and The Odd Woman . The Odd Woman was the longest and most widely recognized of the three . Several short stories by Godwin were published in prominent magazines like Harper 's Esquire , Ms. and the Paris Review , where she was often featured on the cover . Godwin was awarded grants from the National Endowment for the Arts ( 1975 – 76 ) and the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation ( 1975 – 76 ) .
Throughout her career , Godwin worked consistently with her agent , John Hawkins , but worked with several different publishing houses . Godwin 's early books were published by Knopf . After the editor for The Perfectionists , David Segal , died suddenly of a heart attack , Robert Gottlieb from Knopf became her editor for her next four books . Godwin credits Gottlieb for much of the success of her early works . Later on , when Godwin 's then @-@ recent books were less widely read , USA Today commented that this could be in part because she was no longer working with Gottlieb . After Knopf , Godwin contracted with Viking , who offered larger advances and more publicity for her books .
During the years 1982 to 1991 , Godwin produced another collection of short fiction and four more novels . According to Publishers Weekly , it was A Mother and Two Daughters ( 1982 ) and A Southern Family ( 1987 ) that substantially expanded her readership . These novels remained on bestseller lists for an extended period of time . Godwin 's earlier works had sold an average of less than 8 @,@ 000 copies , while A Mother and Two Daughters sold more than 1 @.@ 5 million . It was the most popular of Godwin 's early works and the first time she had written a narrative from the point @-@ of @-@ view of multiple characters . In 1987 , Godwin was awarded the Janet Heidinger Kafka Prize for her work on The Southern Family .
By the early 2000s , five of Godwin 's books had made the New York Times Bestsellers List and three were finalists for the National Book Award .
= = = Recent works = = =
By 1999 Godwin had published ten novels . In 2001 , Godwin 's partner , Robert Starer , died and she began writing a fictional story based on their life called Evenings at Five that was published two years later . In November 2004 Godwin signed a contract with the publisher Ballantine Books for her next four books .
According to Publishers Weekly , Godwin had " achieved a huge degree of success " and still had many devoted readers , but by 1999 she was " no longer the draw she once was . " By 2006 The Finishing School ( 1984 ) was her last major , commercially successful book , which was followed by a drop in readership . According to Godwin , she was " one of the many authors to be caught in the tumult while [ the publishing industry ] thrashed about in search of a new business model . " The Los Angeles Times said her characters that were progressive working women in the 1970s and 1980s , were now considered " tame " in a modern context .
Kirkus Reviews said Godwin had " a couple of subpar efforts , " until publishing Queen of the Underworld in 2006 . Flora ( 2013 ) became one of her better selling books . Godwin also authored an autobiography , Publishing that appeared in 2015 . The Los Angeles Times said her auto @-@ biography was a " preemptive strike " after she was approached by an independent biographer . As of 2015 , Godwin 's published works have included 14 novels , two collections of short stories , three non @-@ fiction works , and ten libretti .
= = = Academia and other work = = =
According to The Intellectual in Twentieth @-@ Century Southern Literature , Godwin was unusual in that she was a popular novelist that was also working in academia . Godwin taught at the University of Illinois Center for Advanced Studies from 1971 to 1972 . During her time as an author , she was also a lecturer at the Iowa Writers ' Workshop ( 1972 to 1973 ) , Vassar College ( 1977 ) , and Columbia University ( 1978 / 1981 ) . She acted as chair of the fiction panel for the National Book Awards in 1986 and 2008 . In 1989 , Godwin also founded a small publishing house called St. Hilda 's Press . It published religious texts not printed by more commercialized publishers . She later became a Distinguished Alumna of the University of North Carolina and the University of Iowa .
= = Themes = =
Most of Godwin 's works are based on themes or events taken from her own life . The characters , settings and narratives vary from novel @-@ to @-@ novel , but common topics have included family , the position of women in society and relationships , a woman 's artistic and career pursuits , and the role of religious faith . According to The Intellectual in Twentieth @-@ Century Southern Literature , Godwin 's characters " struggle intellectually to navigate the mazes of race , class , gender , family , faith and religion . " According to Contemporary Literary Criticism , " she writes about issues pertaining to women - male @-@ female roles , marriage , family , personal freedom , self @-@ concept , and self @-@ actualization . " Author Jane Hill said Godwin 's books are about co @-@ existing with authorities , the role of decision @-@ making in life , careers as an artist , and the consequences of thwarted ambition . Much of her emphasis is on the concept of the self and one 's struggles with society .
Most of the academic analysis of Godwin 's work focuses on challenges her characters have as women . According to Contemporary Fiction Writers of the South , a typical protagonist in Godwin 's novels is a young woman that " in search of herself , confronts obstacles caused by her family , her lovers , her husband , or her own inanition as she struggles to establish her independence and secure her identity through her work . " The main character may be personally flawed , then achieve self @-@ reflection or personal growth thanks to the support of their community or a mentor . Main characters often make poor choices , but become a better person , learn to make better decisions and build stronger bonds often as a result of intellectual pursuits . According to critic Anne Cheney , the protagonist may be " searching for happiness , academic or artistic achievement , love , respect , or , more generally , meaning in life . "
According to Warren French from the University of Wales , Godwin 's works are most often seen as having two primary themes : gender roles and southern settings . French said Godwin herself disapproves of being categorized , which she feels creates " externally imposed limitations " on the themes she covers . However scholars continue to attempt to put her work into a distinctive literary category . In her early works Godwin was seen as a " woman " writer , because her books appealed to a mostly female audience and because she is a woman . After publishing A Southern Family she began being identified as a southern writer . According to The Times ( London ) , Godwin has a " pesky resistance to categorisation " and she often changes themes even after being commercially successful with one . Academic Lihong Xie said Godwin could be identified with the literary tradition of the Bildungsroman , which focuses on the moral and psychological development of a character . Many other critics posit that a quest for meaning and self @-@ identification are Godwin 's primary themes .
Other themes in Godwin 's work have included escaping the cultural expectations of becoming a " southern lady , " childhood abandonment , depression and suicide , racial discrimination , social class and succeeding without a male companion . Her work has spanned different literary categories , such as realism , fantasy and allegory .
= = = Early works = = =
All of Godwin 's books written from 1970 to 1990 are fictional stories based on themes taken from Godwin 's life . Her early works focus on women hoping for a relationship with a male companion , but at the same time wanting independence and freedom . The main protagonist is often restricted by family , tradition and patriarchy . Most of Godwin 's early works include a prominent mother @-@ daughter relationship as well .
Her first three books , The Perfectionists ( 1970 ) , Glass People ( 1972 ) and The Odd Woman ( 1974 ) , have protagonists who find that their relationship with a male companion restricts their personal and professional development . The first two books are each about a female character who feels trapped in an unhappy marriage . According to Contemporary Southern Writers , " unlike fairy tale romances , these novels present a realistic depiction of feminist concerns and struggles . " Lihong Xie comments that Godwin 's protagonists are southern women that " caught between the ideal of southern womanhood and contemporary feminism , struggle to form a personal identity ... "
Violet Clay ( 1978 ) and A Mother and Two Daughters ( 1982 ) are each about an unmarried protagonist 's career in a creative profession . In A Mother and Two Daughters the main character resists the temptation to get married and chooses instead to focus on her work . A Mother and Two Daughters and A Southern Family ( 1987 ) each depend heavily on a southern setting and employ themes traditionally associated with social problems in the South . Some of their themes include racial discrimination , social @-@ economic class and the cultural differences between generations . Many characters struggle to reduce the gap between the rich and poor or try to break free from a dominant cultural tradition , with mixed success .
In Godwin 's early books , the female protagonists tend to be fearful , passive and repeat their mistakes . The protagonist is often depicted as a victim who has failed to achieve independence and is struggling to form a personal identity that could exist beyond that of their relationship with a male companion . In her next books , Godwin begins to introduce stronger and more independent central characters . Violet Clay ( 1978 ) for example , features a more assertive character than those in prior novels . According to Susan S. Kissel Adams from Northern Kentucky University , Godwin 's later characters :
" come to value inclusion and connection over exclusion and isolation in their lives . They seek ways to combine their private and their public selves , open and extend family structures , take political action , and fulfill their social responsibilities ... In their struggle against southern codes and family structures that retain a powerful hold even in the late twentieth century . Godwin 's daughters of the South grow from a state of dependency and arrested development : they begin to embark on mature , adult lives of their own . "
= = = Later works = = =
As in her earlier novels , Godwin 's work in the 1970s and ' 80s still centers mostly on difficulties female characters experienced as women . However , she departs from this theme in The Finishing School ( 1984 ) , which is about two women of different generations and the student @-@ mentor relationship between them , rather than their relationship with men . According to Lihong Xie , Godwin 's work during this period continues to be about " the female self " and a woman 's intimate relationships with husbands , fathers and God .
Godwin 's books begin to incorporate religious themes starting with Father Melancholy 's Daughter ( 1991 ) . The novel is told from the perspective of multiple characters , each of whom have a different perspective on religion . Father Melancholy 's Daughter was followed by several books that centered on the Episcopal church and Christian practices . In these novels female and male characters have a more equal influence on the events and plot than in prior novels . Godwin 's books neither evangelize nor mock the practices of the Episcopal Church , but rather treat it as a routine aspect of life , or as a subject of intellectual interest . During these years Godwin 's books continued to show father figures who have died or are absent . By 1996 two of her books had fathers that died and five had stepfathers that are depicted as intruding on the mother @-@ daughter relationship .
According to Narrative Magazine , Godwin transitions from female protagonists who are " looking for ways to get out of traps and confinements " to those who make " interesting or dangerous life choices . " Some of Godwin 's later works depict successful , but unconventional marriages . In The Good Husband ( 1994 ) both partners accept the wife 's career as having a priority over the husband 's . The Good Husband is also a return to the theme of marriage that is typical of some of Godwin 's earlier works . According to Contemporary Southern Writers , The Good Husband " explores the dying experience . " Godwin also published several non @-@ fiction works based on her own life during this period .
Godwin 's short story collections Dream Children and Mr. Bedford and the Muses focus on themes similar to those in her novels , but also incorporate dreams and myth . They tend to be less auto @-@ biographical than her novels . According to philosopher Anna @-@ Teresa Tymieniecka , Godwin 's approach to dream @-@ worlds is radical , because the dream is incorporated into the characters ' real @-@ world experiences . Her characters compare their real and dream worlds to each other in order to " negotiate their sense of destiny . " She said Dream Children challenges the distinction between reality and dream experiences , where the dream does not " violate one 's theory of reality . "
USA Today said that the subjects covered in Unfinished Desires ( 2010 ) include " Mean girls . Lesbian kisses . Learning disabilities . Domestic violence . Alcoholism . [ and ] Roman Catholic nuns . " According to The Times ( London ) , Flora ( 2013 ) " encompasses most of the themes that have preoccupied [ Godwin ] throughout her career . " It takes place in the South in the mid @-@ 1940s in the mountains , where a widowed schoolmaster raises his ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter . In a 2015 interview , Godwin says that her work has become less " angry " . She said her early works showed a frustration with not being heard , and that her later books focuses on her enemies . Now she 's working to understand " the villains ' villains . "
= = Reception = =
By 1980 Godwin 's writing had become the subject of essays , book chapters and other literary analysis from academic critics . According to The Washington Post , " Gail Godwin has been accused of not being able to decide whether she 's a popular or a literary writer , but she 's certainly accrued enough bestsellers and literary honors to claim both identities . " Much of the scholarly attention on her works comes from those critics with an interest in southern or feminist authors . According to Contemporary Fiction Writers of the South , Godwin 's books have been " widely and favorably reviewed " . Contemporary American Women Fiction Writers states that " although some reviews of her work have been mixed ... her books are accomplished works of fiction , if not masterpieces . "
Contemporary Literary Criticism said " most of her books are characterized as well @-@ written , well executed , readable , witty , and having vivid , believable characters . Godwin is typically praised for having convincing plots , witty , intelligent characters and that she has strong narrative skill . She has been criticized , in particular in response to The Good Husband , for excessive symbolism . According to the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Godwin is " thoughtful and philosophical " , but she is often critiqued for authoring fiction that is so closely representative of her own life .
The Odd Woman , The Finishing School and Southern Family received overall positive reviews , while Violet Clay and The Good Husband received more negative reviews . According to The Boston Globe , Flora was one of Godwin 's best books .
= = List of works = =
This list of works has been taken mostly from Gail Godwin 's entry in the Dictionary of Literary Biography .
= = Personal life = =
Gail Godwin lives in a large house in the mountains in Woodstock , New York . She does most of her writing in her study at home . As of 1999 , she was swimming every day . She has a southern accent . Godwin is an Episcopalian .
= Kidnapping of Jaycee Dugard =
The kidnapping of Jaycee Dugard occurred on June 10 , 1991 , south of South Lake Tahoe , California . Dugard was 11 years old at the time and was abducted from a street while she was walking from home to a school bus stop . Searches began immediately after her disappearance , but no reliable leads were generated despite the fact that her stepfather , Carl Probyn , witnessed her kidnapping and chased the kidnappers on his mountain bike . Dugard remained missing until 2009 , when a convicted sex offender , Phillip Garrido , visited the University of California campus in Berkeley accompanied by two young girls on August 24 and 25 that same year . The unusual behavior of the trio sparked an investigation that led Phillip 's parole officer to order him to bring the two girls to a parole office in Concord , California , on August 26 . He was accompanied by a woman who was successfully identified as Jaycee Dugard who was by then 29 years old .
Phillip , 58 , and his wife Nancy Garrido , 54 , of Antioch , were arrested by police for kidnapping , imprisonment and other charges . On April 28 , 2011 , they pleaded guilty to Dugard 's kidnapping and sexual assault . Law enforcement officers believe Dugard was kept in concealed tents , sheds and lean @-@ tos in an area behind the Garridos ' house in Antioch for almost 18 years . During this time , Dugard bore two daughters who were ages 11 and 15 at the time of her reappearance . On June 2 , 2011 , Phillip was sentenced to 431 years to life imprisonment ; his wife , Nancy , received 36 years to life . Phillip is a person of interest in at least one other San Francisco Bay Area missing person case .
In 1979 , Dugard 's biological father Ken Slayton had a fling with Jaycee 's mother Terry Dugard that resulted in a pregnancy that he was unaware of and had never met Jaycee ; upon her resurfacing , Slayton wanted to be let into her life . Dugard decided not to allow that to happen . In 2010 , the State of California awarded the Dugard family US $ 20 million . In 2011 , despite having a fifth grade education , Jaycee wrote a best @-@ selling book on her experiences titled A Stolen Life . According to interviews , she remains single , focusing on herself , her children , and her family . Her exact whereabouts are unknown .
= = Background of kidnappers = =
The primary arrestee in the case , Phillip Greg Garrido , was born in Contra Costa County , California , on April 5 , 1951 . He grew up in Brentwood , where he graduated from Liberty High School in 1969 . In 1972 , Phillip was arrested and charged with sexually assaulting a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl , but the case did not go to trial after the girl declined to testify .
In 1973 , Phillip married high school classmate Christine Murphy , who said Phillip was abusive . Murphy alleged that Phillip kidnapped her when she tried to leave him .
In 1976 , Phillip kidnapped 25 @-@ year @-@ old Katherine Callaway in South Lake Tahoe , California . He took her to a Reno , Nevada warehouse , where he raped her for five and a half hours . When a police officer noticed a car parked outside the unit and then the broken lock on the warehouse door , he knocked on the door and was greeted by Phillip . Callaway then emerged and asked for help . Phillip was promptly arrested . He was charged and convicted of crimes in both federal and state courts . In a 1976 court @-@ ordered psychiatric evaluation , Phillip was diagnosed as a " sexual deviant and chronic drug abuser . " The psychiatrist recommended that a neurological examination be conducted because Phillip 's chronic drug use could be " responsible in part " for his " mixed " or " multiple " sexual deviation . Phillip was then evaluated by a neurologist . The diagnostic impression was : " normal neurological examination . " In court , Phillip testified that he masturbated in his car by the side of grammar and high schools while watching girls . He was convicted on March 9 , 1977 and began serving a 50 @-@ year federal sentence on June 30 , 1977 , at Leavenworth Penitentiary in Kansas .
At Leavenworth , Phillip met Nancy Bocanegra – the secondary arrestee in Dugard 's kidnapping – who was visiting another prisoner , her uncle . On October 5 , 1981 , Phillip and Bocanegra were married at Leavenworth . On January 22 , 1988 , Phillip was released from Leavenworth to Nevada State Prison , where he served seven months of a five @-@ years @-@ to @-@ life Nevada sentence . He was transferred to federal parole authorities in Contra Costa on August 26 , 1988 . In Antioch , the Garridos lived in the home of his elderly mother , who suffered from dementia . As a parolee , he was monitored , later wore a GPS @-@ enabled ankle bracelet , and was visited many times by parole officers , local sheriff 's deputies , and federal agents .
In 2009 , his father , Manuel Garrido , who resided in Brentwood , said his son was a " good boy " as a child but changed radically after a serious motorcycle accident as a teenager – Phillip later turned to drug use – primarily crystal meth and LSD . Phillip 's brother Ron ( born 1944 ) who lives in Brentwood said Phillip became a " fruitcake " after getting hooked on hallucinogenic and stimulant street drugs . Manuel died in Brentwood in 2011 at the age of 90 .
= = Abduction = =
In September 1990 , Dugard and her family moved from the Los Angeles County city of Arcadia , to Meyers a rural town south of South Lake Tahoe , California , because they thought it was a safer community . At the time of the abduction , Dugard was in the fifth grade and , because of her shyness , was worrying about an upcoming field trip . She was close to her mother , Terry Probyn , and her infant half sister Shayna who was born in 1991 . Her biological father , Ken Slayton , had left the family before she was born . Although her mother had remarried to a man named Carl Probyn , Dugard was never close to her stepfather . On June 10 , 1991 , Dugard 's mother , who worked as a typesetter at a print house , left for work early in the day . Dugard , wearing her favorite all @-@ pink outfit , walked up the hill from her house , against traffic , to catch the school bus . When she was halfway up the hill , a car approached her . She thought that the man in the car would ask for directions . When he rolled down the window , he shocked her unconscious with a stun gun and abducted her . The man was Phillip . Nancy , who the District Attorney in the Dugard case believes scouted Dugard as a prize for Phillip , held Dugard down in the car as she drifted in and out of consciousness during the three hour drive from her home to the Garrido home in Antioch . The only time Dugard spoke was when she pleaded that her parents could not afford a ransom .
Carl Probyn witnessed the abduction of his stepdaughter from within sight of their home . He saw two people in a mid @-@ sized gray car – possibly a Mercury Monarch – make a U @-@ turn at the school bus stop where Dugard was waiting , and a woman forcing Dugard into the car . Probyn gave chase on a bicycle , but was unable to overtake the vehicle . Some of Dugard 's classmates were also witnesses to the abduction . Initial suspects included Probyn and Slayton , though they did not know each other and Slayton had only had a brief relationship with Terry in 1979 , not knowing he had a child . When Dugard was rescued , Slayton expressed an interest in meeting his daughter and taking a paternity test . Dugard refused . Probyn took and passed several polygraph tests , and Slayton was also quickly cleared of suspicion .
By the time the Garridos arrived at their home in an unincorporated area in Contra Costa County , they had removed Dugard 's clothing , leaving only a butterfly @-@ shaped ring that she hid from them for the next 18 years . Taking her from their car onto their property , Phillip placed a blanket over Dugard 's head and ushered her into an area of his backyard where sheds and storage units stood , placing her inside a tiny one that was soundproofed . After he finished raping her for the first time he left her naked in the structure , which he bolted shut , warning her that Doberman Pinschers were outside and trained to attack her if she tried to escape . Phillip would visit her in the structure , bringing her food and milkshakes , and talking to her .
= = Search effort = =
Within hours of Dugard 's disappearance , local and national media converged on South Lake Tahoe to cover the story . Within days , dozens of local volunteers assisted in the search effort , which involved nearly every resource within the community . Within weeks , tens of thousands of fliers and posters were mailed to businesses throughout the United States . Since her favorite color was pink , the town was blanketed in pink ribbons as a constant reminder of her disappearance , and as a demonstration of support for her family by the community .
Terry Probyn founded a group called Jaycee 's Hope , which directed the volunteer and fundraising efforts . Cassette tapes of the song " Jaycee Lee " along with T @-@ shirts , sweatshirts , and buttons were sold to raise money for poster materials , postage , printing , and related expenses . Child Quest International and the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children were involved in the effort . A reward was offered , which was noted on the posters and fliers . The kidnapping case attracted nationwide attention and was featured on the June 14 , 1991 episode of the television show America 's Most Wanted .
The ensuing months and years were a continuous effort of child safety awareness , fundraising events , and candlelight vigils marking Dugard 's disappearance keeping her story before the public .
= = Captivity = =
Immediately after he kidnapped her , Phillip forced Dugard into a shower with him . The first time he raped her , she was still in handcuffs , which she wore during her first week in captivity . During that period , Dugard 's only human contact was Phillip , who sometimes brought her fast food and told her amusing stories . He provided a bucket for her to use to relieve herself . At one point , he provided her with a television , but she could not watch the news and was unaware of the publicized search for her . Almost a month and a half after her kidnapping , by Dugard 's recollection , Phillip moved her to a larger room next door , where she was handcuffed to a bed . He explained that the " demon angels " let him take her and that she would help him with his sexual problems because society had ignored him . Phillip went on methamphetamine binges he called " runs " , during which he would dress Dugard up and spend time with her cutting out figures from pornographic magazines . He made her listen for the voices he said he could hear from the walls . Phillip also often professed the belief that he was a chosen servant of God . These binges would end with Phillip sobbing and apologizing to Dugard alternating with threats to sell her to people who would put her in a cage .
Seven months into her captivity , Phillip introduced Dugard to his wife , Nancy , who brought the child a stuffed animal and chocolate milk , and engaged in the same tearful apologies to her . Though Dugard craved the woman 's approval at the time , in retrospect she has stated that she was manipulated by Nancy , who alternated between motherly concern and coldness and cruelty , expressing her jealousy of Dugard , whom she regarded as the one to blame for her predicament . Dugard characterized Nancy , who worked as a nursing home aide , as " evil " and " twisted . " When Phillip was returned to prison for failing a drug test , Nancy replaced her husband as Dugard 's jailer . The Garridos manipulated Dugard further by presenting her , on two occasions , with kittens that would later " mysteriously vanish . " When they discovered that she was signing her real name in a journal that she kept on the kittens , she was forced to tear out the page with her name on it , the last time she would be permitted to say or write her name until years later . She was never allowed to see a doctor or dentist .
= = = Pregnancy and children = = =
Thirty @-@ four months into her captivity , the Garridos began to allow Dugard freedom from her handcuffs for periods of time , though they kept her locked in the bolted room . On April 3 , 1994 , Easter Sunday , they gave her cooked food for the first time . They informed her that they believed that she was pregnant . Age 13 and four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months pregnant , Dugard had learned of the link between sex and pregnancy from television . At this time , while raising her baby Shayna , Terry Probyn was holding rummage sales to pay for private investigators and distributing a million flyers across the United States featuring a sketch artist 's image of a teenage Dugard . Dugard watched programs on childbirth , in preparation for the birth of her first daughter , which occurred on August 18 , 1994 . Her second daughter was born on November 13 , 1997 . Dugard took care of her daughters using information learned from television , working to protect them from Phillip , who continued his enraged rants and lectures .
Neighbor Patrick McQuaid said that he recalls , as a child , meeting Dugard through a fence in the Garridos ' yard soon after the kidnapping . He said that she had identified herself by the name " Jaycee " and that when he asked her if she lived there or was just visiting , she answered that she lived there . At that point , Phillip came out and took her back indoors . Phillip eventually built an eight @-@ foot @-@ tall fence around the backyard and set up a tent for Dugard , the first time that she was allowed to walk outside since her kidnapping . She coped with her continued captivity by planting flowers in a garden and home @-@ schooling her daughters . At one point , Phillip informed Dugard that to pacify his wife , she and her daughters were to address Nancy as their mother , and that she was to teach her daughters that she was their older sister . When Dugard and her daughters were eventually allowed to come into contact with other people , they continued this fiction .
Phillip operated a print shop where Dugard acted as the graphic artist . Ben Daughdrill , a customer of Phillip 's printing business , claimed that he met and spoke by telephone with Dugard and that she did excellent work . During this time , Dugard had access to the business phone and an email account . Another customer indicated that she never hinted to him about her childhood abduction or her true identity .
Phillip kept a blog associated with what he called " God 's Desire Church . " In the blog , Phillip said that he had the power to control sound with his mind . Phillip asked several people , including customers , to sign testimonials confirming that they witnessed his ability to " control sound with my mind " and a device he developed " for others to witness this phenomena [ sic ] . "
Law enforcement officers believe that when they became involved in 2009 , Dugard 's living quarters were in a secondary backyard behind Phillip 's house . The private area of the yard included sheds ( one of which was soundproofed and used as a recording studio in which Phillip recorded himself singing religious @-@ themed and romantic country songs ) , two homemade tents , and what has been described as a camping @-@ style shower and toilet . The area was surrounded by tall trees and a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ) high fence . An entrance to the secondary backyard was covered by trees and a tarpaulin . Privacy was enhanced by tents and outbuildings , and also housed a car that matched the description of the one used in the abduction . Electricity was supplied by extension cords . Law enforcement officers visited the residence at least twice , but did not ask to inspect the back yard , and did not detect the presence of Dugard or her children in the areas of the property that they did inspect . Witnesses interviewed stated Jaycee Dugard was seen in the house , and sometimes answered the front door to talk to people , but never stated there was a problem or attempted to leave . While the family kept to themselves , the girls were sometimes seen playing in the backyard or as passengers in Phillip 's car .
= = = Missed opportunities to rescue Dugard = = =
Police failed to make the connection that Jaycee Lee Dugard was kidnapped in South Lake Tahoe , the same location as Phillip 's 1976 kidnapping and rape of Katherine Callaway Hall .
On April 22 , 1992 , less than a year after her kidnapping , a man called the Contra Costa County Sheriff 's Department from a gas station less than two miles from the Garridos ' home . The caller reported that he saw Dugard in the gas station staring intently at a missing child poster of herself . The caller then reported seeing her leave in a large yellow van , possibly a Dodge . In 2009 , after Dugard 's release , an old yellow Dodge van was recovered from the Garrido property that matched the description of the van given in the call . The license plate was not reported in the 1992 call ; the caller , the girl , and the van were gone by the time police arrived . The caller never identified himself , and the police did not pursue the matter any further . In contradiction to this story , Jaycee Dugard reported that she never left the Garrido property from the day she was kidnapped until shortly before her first child was born in August 1994 .
In June 2002 , the fire department responded to a report of a juvenile with a shoulder injury that occurred in a swimming pool at the Garridos ' home . This information was not relayed to the parole office , which had no record of either a juvenile or a swimming pool at the Garridos ' address .
In 2006 , one of Phillip 's neighbors called 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 to inform them that there were tents in the backyard with children living there and that Phillip was " psychotic " with sexual addictions . A deputy sheriff spoke with Phillip at the front of the house for about 30 minutes and left after telling him that there would be a code violation if people were living outside on the property . After Dugard was found in August 2009 , the local Contra Costa County Sheriff , Warren E. Rupf issued an apology to the victims in a news conference .
On November 4 , 2009 , the California Office of the Inspector General issued a report that enumerated lapses by the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation that had contributed to Dugard 's continued captivity . The central finding was that Phillip was incorrectly classified as needing only low @-@ level supervision ; all other lapses derived from that mistake . In his report , the inspector general detailed an instance in which a parole agent encountered a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl at the home but accepted Phillip 's explanation that " she was his brother 's daughter and [ the agent ] did nothing to verify it , " despite the fact that a call to Phillip 's brother verified that he did not have children .
= = Reappearance = =
On August 24 , 2009 , Phillip visited the San Francisco office of the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) and left a four @-@ page essay containing his ideas about religion and sexuality , suggesting that he had discovered a solution to problem behaviors like his past crimes . The essay described how he had cured his criminal sexual behaviors and how that information could be used to assist in curing other sexual predators by : " controlling human impulses that drive humans to commit dysfunctional acts . " On the same day , he went to a University of California , Berkeley police office with Dugard 's two daughters , seeking permission to hold a special event on campus as a part of his " God 's Desire " program . He spoke with U.C. Berkeley special events manager Lisa Campbell . She perceived his behavior as " erratic " and that the girls were " sullen and submissive . " She asked him to make an appointment for the next day , which he did , leaving his name in the process . Officer Ally Jacobs discovered , through a background check , that Phillip was a registered sex offender on federal parole for kidnapping and rape . When Phillip and the girls returned for their appointment at 2 : 00 p.m. the following day , August 25 , Jacobs made a point of sitting in during the meeting . The girls appeared to Jacobs to be pale , as if having not been exposed to sunlight , and their behavior unusual . As Phillip had multiple parole violations and the basis for an arrest , Jacobs phoned the parole office to relay her concerns , leaving a report of the meeting on voicemail .
After hearing Jacobs ' recorded message , two parole agents drove to the Garridos ' house later that day . Upon arrival , they handcuffed him and searched the house , finding only his wife Nancy and his elderly mother at home . Then the parole agents drove him back to the parole office . En route , he said that the girls who had accompanied him to UC Berkeley : " were the daughters of a relative , and he had permission from their parents to take them to the university . " Although the parole office had barred Phillip from being around minors a month before , and although Berkeley was 40 miles ( 64 kilometres ) from the Garridos ' Contra Costa residence , 15 mi ( 24 km ) in excess of the 25 mi ( 40 km ) limit he was allowed to travel from his home without permission from his parole agent , the agents overlooked this violation . After reviewing his file with a supervisor , they drove him home and ordered him to report back to the office again the next day to discuss further his visit to UC Berkeley , and to follow up on their concerns about the two girls .
Phillip arrived at the parole office in Concord , California on August 26 with his wife Nancy , the two girls , and Jaycee Dugard , who was introduced as " Allissa " . The parole officer decided to separate Phillip from the women and girls to obtain their identification .
Dugard , maintaining her false identity as " Allissa " , told investigators that the girls were her daughters . Although she indicated that she was aware that Phillip was a convicted sex offender , she stated that he was a " changed man " , a " great person " and was " good with her kids " , comments that were echoed by the two girls . When pressed for details that would confirm her identity , Dugard became " extremely defensive " and " agitated " , demanding to know why she was being " interrogated " , and subsequently stated that she was a battered wife from Minnesota who was in hiding from her abusive husband . The parole officer eventually called the Concord police . Upon the arrival of a police sergeant , Phillip admitted he had kidnapped and raped her . Only after this did Dugard identify herself as Jaycee Dugard . It was later suggested that Dugard was beginning to show signs of Stockholm syndrome during her questioning . Stockholm syndrome is a psychological phenomenon where , over time , captives begin to show fondness , compassion , and sometimes love for their captors .
Phillip and his wife were placed under arrest . An FBI Special Agent put Dugard on the telephone with her mother , Terry Probyn . Dugard retained custody of her children and was soon reunited with her mother .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Reunion and afterward = = =
Dugard 's aunt , Tina Dugard , and a former business associate of the Garridos ' , Cheyvonne Molino , have commented that Dugard 's children looked healthy . Tina Dugard said that upon her meeting them after their reappearance , they " always appeared and behaved like normal kids " . Molino said of the times that she met them while they were captive " that in her presence the girls never acted robotically " and didn 't wear unusual clothing .
In the days following Dugard 's return , Carl Probyn , her stepfather , confirmed that Dugard and her daughters were in good health and intelligent ; their reunion was going well ; and they were proceeding slowly . He said his stepdaughter had developed a significant emotional bond with Phillip , and the two daughters cried when they learned of their father 's arrest . Jaycee Dugard 's aunt , Tina Dugard , said Jaycee 's daughters : " are clever , articulate , curious girls who have a bright future ahead of them . " Ernie Allen , president of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children , said Dugard 's reappearance is an important event for families of other long @-@ term missing children , because it shows that there is hope even in long @-@ term cases . Notable abduction survivor Elizabeth Smart has stressed the importance of focusing on the future with a positive attitude as an effective approach to accepting what has happened . Shawn Hornbeck , another abduction survivor , also commented on the case , noting : " Coming out of what she 's had to endure is like entering a new world . It 's like a door has opened for her and she 's emerged from a world that 's black and white into one that 's full of color . " He opined that she was brainwashed , would feel angry and now needs to move on with her life .
Three weeks after her release , Dugard asked for the pets that were raised in the home . On October 14 , 2009 , People published the first verified photo of Jaycee Dugard as an adult on its cover . Dugard 's memoir , A Stolen Life : A Memoir , was published on July 12 , 2011 , by Simon & Schuster . Later , to regain trust with people , she would begin animal therapy by riding or petting horses with her mother Terry and her half sister Shayna .
= = = Police investigations = = =
Following the arrest , police searched the Garrido house extensively for evidence of other crimes . Because Phillip had access to his neighbor 's house , it was also searched for evidence . Police also searched the homes and business of one of Phillip 's printing business clients . Police agencies from Hayward and Dublin , California , conducted searches of the Garridos ' property for evidence pertaining to missing girls from those communities but turned up no clues . In July 2011 , Hayward police announced that Phillip has not been eliminated as a suspect and is still a person of interest in the abduction case of Michaela Garecht . Garecht was kidnapped in 1988 and Hayward is 55 miles ( 89 km ) from the Garridos ' Antioch home .
= = = Phillip 's statements = = =
On August 27 , 2009 , KCRA @-@ TV in Sacramento , California interviewed Phillip in his jail cell by telephone . During the interview , Phillip said , " In the end , this is going to be a powerful , heartwarming story " because , in his version of events :
My life has been straightened out . … Wait till you hear the story of what took place at this house . You 're going to be absolutely impressed . It 's a disgusting thing that took place with me at the beginning , but I turned my life completely around .
Phillip repeatedly told the reporter how he " filed documents " with the FBI on August 24 , 2009 , which , when they were published , would cause people to " fall over backwards " , and that he could not reveal more because he " had to protect law enforcement " , and " what happened " [ … ] was " something that humans have not understood well " . In the interview , Phillip denied he had ever harmed Dugard 's two daughters . He said their births changed his life and : " they slept in my arms every single night since birth . I never touched them . " On August 28 , 2009 , FBI spokesman Joseph Schadler confirmed that Phillip had indeed left the documents with the agency , as he had claimed , but declined to discuss further details . The document , titled Origin of Schizophrenia Revealed , was eventually released by the FBI . It is about stopping schizophrenics from turning violent and controlling sounds with the human mind .
= = = Legal proceedings = = =
On August 28 , 2009 , Phillip and his wife pleaded not guilty to charges including kidnapping , rape , and false imprisonment . The case was prosecuted in El Dorado County , by elected District Attorney Vern R. Pierson and Assistant District Attorney James A Clinchard . A bail review / pre @-@ preliminary hearing was held September 14 , 2009 , at the El Dorado County Superior Court in Placerville , California . At the hearing , Superior Court Judge Douglas Phimister set bail for Phillip 's wife , Nancy at US $ 30 million . However , there was a no @-@ bail parole hold on Phillip . The judge kept Nancy in custody on a no @-@ bail hold but able to request bail at a later date . At the September 14 hearing , Phimister also granted a request from Phillip 's attorney to have a psychologist or psychiatrist appointed to conduct a confidential evaluation of Phillip . Such examinations can be used by the defense to assist in case preparation , and additional mental health examinations can be ordered at subsequent phases in the proceedings . On October 29 , 2009 , a short hearing was held to set a date for the next pre @-@ preliminary hearing when issues such as discovery were to be discussed . This hearing occurred on December 11 , 2009 . Katie Callaway Hall , whom Phillip kidnapped and raped in 1976 , appeared in the courtroom at the October and December hearings . She did not speak during either proceeding .
On November 5 , 2009 , Phimister ordered Nancy 's defense attorney , Gilbert Maines , to be removed from the case . According to a posting on the court 's website , the decision occurred in review of " confidential evidence " that has not been disclosed to the public , and details of the proceedings were kept sealed . The decision was immediately stayed until November 30 , 2009 . On November 12 , 2009 , Phimister appointed Stephen A. Tapson as interim counsel for Nancy . Gilbert Maines appealed the decision and received a favorable ruling by the California Third District Court of Appeal on December 15 , 2009 . On December 22 , 2009 , the same court gave the Eldorado Superior Court until January 2010 to respond to the ruling . Both Gilbert Maines and Stephen Tapson appeared at the discovery hearing on December 11 , 2009 . A hearing was held on January 21 , 2010 . At that hearing , Maines was removed from the case and Tapson was appointed defense counsel for Nancy . In addition , bail , in the amount of US $ 20 million , was set for Nancy .
At a press conference on February 28 , 2011 , Tapson said that Nancy and Phillip Garrido had both made a ' full confession ' in the case . The development came as lawyers for both sides re @-@ opened discussions on a possible plea deal that had the potential to obviate the need for a trial . Nancy 's attorney acknowledged that she was facing " 241 years , eight months to life " and that he was working for a reduced sentence in the 30 @-@ year range . He stated that the prosecutor had acknowledged that Phillip was a master manipulator and that Nancy was under both his influence and that of substances during the period of Dugard 's kidnapping , so should receive some consideration while alluding to parallels with kidnap victim Patty Hearst and to Stockholm syndrome .
On Thursday , April 7 , 2011 , instead of pleading guilty , as had been expected based on the previous statements , the Garridos pleaded not guilty to charges of kidnapping and raping Dugard , as well as other charges , in an amended Grand Jury indictment . Phillip 's attorney , public defender Susan Gellman , alleged that the grand jury might have been selected improperly and might have acted improperly . Gellman did not elaborate on her claim in the courtroom , but said outside that she had questions about the racial and geographic makeup of the grand jury that originally indicted the Garridos in September 2010 . Judge Phimister noted that there were issues about the process itself before the grand jury , and also stated that the court would consider whether the grand jury acted appropriately . These developments were largely unforeseen by attorney Stephen Tapson , who represented Nancy ; Tapson had said earlier that week that Phillip had made a deal with prosecutors to plead guilty and spend the rest of his life in prison . Gellman was upset with Tapson for telling reporters that her client had planned to plead guilty , saying that he should only speak about his own client , Nancy . Tapson said he found out about Gellman 's plans only late on April 6 . Neither attorney would elaborate further on the specific concerns about the grand jury . El Dorado , California District Attorney Vern Pierson said he did not think the complaints about the grand jury would ultimately derail the case against the Garridos .
On April 28 , 2011 , the Garridos pleaded guilty to kidnapping and rape by force . On June 2 , 2011 , Phillip was sentenced to 431 years to life imprisonment ; Nancy received 36 years to life imprisonment . Phillip is serving his sentence at California State Prison , Corcoran , while Nancy is incarcerated at Central California Women 's Facility in Chowchilla . Dugard did not attend the sentencing .
= = = Settlement with the State of California = = =
In July 2010 , the State of California approved a US $ 20 million settlement with Jaycee Dugard to compensate her for : " various lapses by the Corrections Department [ that contributed to ] Dugard 's continued captivity , ongoing sexual assault and mental and / or physical abuse . " The settlement , part of AB1714 , was approved by the California State Assembly by a 70 to 2 vote , and by the California State Senate by a 30 to 1 vote . San Francisco County Superior Court Judge Daniel Weinstein , who mediated the settlement , stated that the settlement was reached to avoid a lawsuit , which would be a : " greater invasion of privacy and greater publicity for the state . " The bill was signed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on July 9 .
= = = Lawsuit against the United States = = =
On September 22 , 2011 , Dugard filed suit in United States District Court for the Northern District of California accusing the United States of failing to monitor Phillip when he was a federal parolee . Dugard alleged in her lawsuit against the federal government that parole officials should have returned Phillip to prison for any number of parole violations that preceded her abduction , including testing positive for drugs and alcohol . Her lawsuit was rejected by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on March 15 , 2016 . The court ruled in a 2 – 1 decision that Dugard had not been victimized by Phillip at the time he was placed under federal parole supervision , and there was no way to anticipate she would become his victim . As a result , federal authorities in California had no duty to protect her or other members of the general public from him . In a dissenting opinion , Chief District Court Judge William Smith said the majority had improperly analyzed Dugard 's case , and said there was good reason to hold the government liable .
= = In media = =
Dugard documented her life in captivity in a book , A Stolen Life : A Memoir , which she wrote as part of her therapy with Rebecca Bailey , who specializes in post @-@ trauma family reunification . Dugard says she wrote the book , which was published in July 2011 , to assist other survivors of sexual abuse . A few days before the book was released , Dugard gave her first extensive television interview taped in Ojai , California , to ABC 's Diane Sawyer .
An American crime show on the Investigation Discovery network titled Wicked Attraction aired an episode about Phillip and Nancy Garrido , which detailed Jaycee Dugard 's kidnapping and recovery .
A documentary that aired in October 2009 on Channel 4 in Britain titled Captive for 18 years : Jaycee Lee focused on the story of Dugard 's kidnapping , recovery , and the beginnings of the trial including interviews with Jaycee 's stepfather .
Dugard was awarded a Lifetime Leadership honor at the third annual The DVF Awards on March 9 , 2012 for her courage and her JAYC Foundation , which provides support to families dealing with abduction and other tragedies .
Dugard 's second book , Freedom : My Book of Firsts , was released on July 12 , 2016 by Simon & Schuster . The book focuses on her life since the publication of A Stolen Life and her recovery and re @-@ integration into the world . She was again interviewed by Diane Sawyer a few days before publication .
= Tanum Tunnel =
Tanum Tunnel ( Norwegian : Tanumtunnelen ) is 3 @,@ 590 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 11 @,@ 780 ft ) double @-@ track railway tunnel on the Asker Line , between Jong in Bærum and Åstad in Asker , Norway . It was built as part of the first state of the Asker Line , between Asker and Sandvika ; construction started in February 2002 and the tunnel opened on 27 August 2005 . The tunnel was built by AF Gruppen for the Norwegian National Rail Administration . Most of the tunneling was conducted using the drilling and blasting method , although the easternmost 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) were built using the cut @-@ and @-@ cover method . After the tunnel opened , there have been problems with leaks damaging the superstructure . The tunnel has double track , is electrified and allows for a maximum speed of 160 kilometers per hour ( 100 mph ) . The cost to build the tunnel , excluding the superstructure , was 370 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The tunnel will accelerate intercity and regional traffic west of Oslo and free up capacity for the Oslo Commuter Rail on the Drammen Line .
= = Specifications = =
The Tanum Tunnel is 3 @,@ 590 meters ( 11 @,@ 778 ft ) long and has a cross section varying between 105 and 115 square meters ( 1 @,@ 130 and 1 @,@ 240 sq ft ) . The tunnel consists of a 2 @,@ 718 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 8 @,@ 917 ft ) blasted section and a 800 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , cut @-@ and @-@ cover section — the latter the easternmost part of the tunnel . It carries the double @-@ tracked Asker Line between Jong and Åstad . The tunnel runs mostly through Cambrian @-@ Silurian sedimentary slate , nodular limestone and shale , with local occurrences of Permian igneous rock . There is also a 400 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) section of less stable sedimentary rock in the Asker Group . The tunnel had a cover most of the way of between 50 and 100 meters ( 160 and 330 ft ) ; however at Billingstad there was a much lower margin , laying for the most at 10 to 15 meters ( 33 to 49 ft ) and at the least at 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 ft 11 in ) . At Åstad , the line runs 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in the open before entering the Skaugum Tunnel . The line is electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC and allows a maximum speed of 160 kilometres per hour ( 100 mph ) . The tunnel has frost insulation 300 meters ( 980 ft ) into the tunnel form each end . The tunnel has frost fans which ensure that the air stays put in the middle of the tunnel , thus hindering cold air from flowing past the frost isolation .
= = History = =
The Asker Line runs from Lysaker Station via Sandvika Station to Asker Station , in the municipalities of Bærum and Asker . The line was built to allow increased railway traffic though the main corridor west of Oslo . Previously , the only railway west of Oslo was the Drammen Line , which has limited capacity and is used by a mix of local , regional , intercity and freight trains . This caused many delays and poor utilization of tracks , as some trains make many stops and others only a few . The Asker Line allows regional and intercity trains to by @-@ pass local stations east of Asker while local and freight trains remain on the Drammen Line . The Asker Line was built in two stages : the first , from Asker to Sandvika , was constructed between 2001 and 2005 . The second stage , from Sandvika to Lysaker , was constructed between 2007 and 2011 . The other two tunnels on the Asker Line are the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ meter @-@ long ( 11 @,@ 780 ft ) Skaugm Tunnel and the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) Bærum Tunnel .
The Norwegian National Rail Administration awarded the contract to build the Tanum Tunnel to AF Spesialprosjekt , part of AF Gruppen . The tunneling cost NOK 370 million , including the open section between Solstad and Åstad , but excluding superstructure . The main part of the tunnel was built using the drilling and blasting method , using two points of entry . Work on the tunneling started in 2002 and was concluded in February 2004 . Construction included the removal of 486 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 17 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork and the laying of 160 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 160 @,@ 000 long tons ; 180 @,@ 000 short tons ) of ballast . Laying of tracks , signaling , power supply and other superstructures were done by Baneservice . The cost of superstructures for the entire section from Asker to Sandvika was NOK 70 million . The work was completed by November 2004 . The opening of the tunnel and the rest of the section from Asker to Sandvika took place on 27 August 2005 .
A concern from people living along the tunnel was that they would be subject to low @-@ frequency noise . Originally the municipalities of Asker and Bærum had demanded that residents be subject to a maximum of 27 decibel A @-@ weighting ( dBA ) , but the National Rail Administration appealed the requirements and was permitted to allow up to 32 dBA . In March
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-@ soprano soubrette roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas . She spent twenty years on the stage , the bulk of them with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company .
Musical from an early age , Bond began a concert singing career in Liverpool by 1870 . At the age of 17 , she entered into a brief , unhappy marriage . After leaving her abusive husband , she continued her concert career and studied at the Royal Academy of Music in London with such famous singing teachers as Manuel García .
At the age of 25 , in 1878 , Bond began her theatrical career , creating the role of Cousin Hebe in Gilbert and Sullivan 's H.M.S. Pinafore , which became an international success . After this , she created roles of increasing importance with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company in a series of successful comic operas , including the title role in Iolanthe ( 1882 ) , Pitti Sing in The Mikado ( 1885 ) , Mad Margaret in Ruddigore ( 1887 ) , Phoebe in The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) , Tessa in The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) and others .
During the 1890s , she continued performing in the West End for several more years , while being courted by Lewis Ransome , a civil engineer . In 1897 , at the age of 44 , Bond married Ransome and left the stage . They were happily married for 25 years , moving to Nottinghamshire , where Bond lived the life of a country squire 's wife . She also occasionally gave charity concerts and assisted amateur theatre companies . She survived her husband by twenty years , living to the age of 89 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Jessie Charlotte Bond was born in Camden Town , London , the third of five children ( and eldest daughter ) born to John and Elizabeth Bond . John Bond was a pianomaker who gave his children a musical education . Bond 's mother often took the children to see theatre . When Jessie Bond was six , her family moved to Liverpool , where she grew up . At the age of eight , she played a Beethoven piano sonata in a concert . To help with family expenses , Bond taught music as a teenager . At the age of sixteen , she began to study singing , which she much preferred to teaching . The same year , at Hope Hall ( now the Everyman Theatre ) in Liverpool , she accompanied the music students of professor Isouard Praeger . The next year , she made her own concert singing debut .
Bond 's mother took her to see Ferdinand Alexis Schottlaender ( d . 1885 ) , the director of a choral society in Liverpool , who she hoped would be able to help Bond 's singing career . Schottlaender was ten years older than Bond and had travelled , and the teenaged Bond became fascinated by him , breaking off her previous relationship . Under Schottlaender 's tutelage , Bond 's voice developed rapidly , and she soon became the leading contralto soloist at the Seel Street Benedictine Church ( now known as St. Peter 's Catholic Church ) in the same city . Her father 's enquiries revealed that Schottlaender was a " bad lot " , and he forbade any engagement until Bond was older .
On 8 March 1870 , Schottlaender abducted the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Bond on her way to sing at a church service , took her to a friend 's house and forced her to stay the night with him . Schottlaender convinced her that she was " compromised " and that they must marry . The next day , she was taken to Manchester , where they were married . The marriage was a terrible experience for Bond , and she became pregnant and ill . " He ill @-@ treated both my mind and my body , he denied me every comfort , often I had not even enough to eat . To add to my wretchedness , the inevitable baby was coming . ... He had been violently ill @-@ treating me , I was a broken , pitiful creature . " Her family persuaded her to leave him after ten months of marriage . Bond contracted smallpox from the doctor who attended her , but she recovered . The baby , Sidney John Arthur Schottlaender , was born on 7 May 1871 and died on 18 June 1871 , six weeks later . The couple lived separately for several years , and Bond finally divorced her husband in 1874 . Bond stated in her divorce petition that she had been knowingly infected with a communicable disease by her husband .
After leaving her husband , Bond continued to teach piano and was immediately back on stage singing oratorios , masses and other concerts near Liverpool . She gave a recital at St. George 's Hall , Liverpool at the end of January 1871 . In November 1871 , Mr and Mrs Howard Paul 's Benefit at the Queen 's Hall , Liverpool , featured J. L. Toole , and " Miss Jessie Bond and Miss Pattie Laverne both sing several new ballads " . She became friendly with the baritone Charles Santley , who advised her to move to London to study at the Royal Academy of Music . Bond did so at the age of 21 , studying with Manuel García and then J. B. Welch , and she continued to sing concerts both in the Provinces and in London . For example , in 1873 , she was the contralto soloist in Mendelssohn 's Elijah in Birkenhead and in Handel 's Messiah in Liverpool . In 1875 at the Liverpool Institute , she sang in J. L. Hatton 's Enchantress , and in the summer of 1877 , she appeared at the Queen 's Theatre in London in at least three of conductor Jules Rivière 's promenade concerts . Impresario Richard D 'Oyly Carte first heard her in a concert at St. George 's Hall and suggested concert engagements for her .
= = = H.M.S. Pinafore = = =
In May 1878 , Bond made her first appearance on the dramatic stage at the age of 25 , creating the role of Cousin Hebe in W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan 's H.M.S. Pinafore . The role had been written for a veteran performer , Mrs Howard Paul . But Gilbert and Sullivan were unhappy with Mrs. Paul 's vocal abilities , which were deteriorating . Finally , with only about a week to go before opening night , Carte hired Bond to play Cousin Hebe . At this stage of her career , Bond was not comfortable with spoken dialogue , and so her character was written out , or given nothing to say , in several scenes . After opening night , however , a portion of the recitative was converted to spoken dialogue , and Bond would have dialogue in all of the remaining roles that she created . She quickly grew to enjoy character acting .
In December 1878 , Bond created the part of Maria in After All ! , composed by Alfred Cellier , when that companion piece was added to the bill with Pinafore . In late 1879 , Bond travelled to America with Gilbert , Sullivan and D 'Oyly Carte to give American audiences their first opportunity to see the authentic H.M.S. Pinafore , rather than the pirated versions that had sprung up in American theatres . While in New York City , she created the role of Edith in Gilbert and Sullivan 's next opera , The Pirates of Penzance . This was followed by a US tour of Pinafore and Pirates . Just before the American tour , Bond had developed an abscess in her leg . This never fully healed and would be with her throughout her stage career . In her autobiography , she wrote :
The abscess in my ankle was painful and persistent .... Owing to faulty treatment and want of rest my ankle became perfectly stiff , as it is to this day . Of course , I said as little as possible about it , for even partial lameness would spoil my chances on the stage . I doubt if the management ever knew ; the public certainly didn 't ; and those who saw me dancing and capering light @-@ heartedly about the stage for twenty years little thought under what difficulties I did it , and the pain I often suffered .
In fact , the management knew about Bond 's abscess , since Sullivan 's diary records that both he and Gilbert visited her during her temporary incapacity , and Sullivan paid the doctor 's bill .
= = = Pirates through Iolanthe = = =
Back in London , Bond continued to play Edith until Pirates ran its course in April 1881 . One of Bond 's sisters , Neva Bond , became a D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company chorister for approximately twelve years , from 1880 to 1891 . Neva created the role of Isabel in the London production of The Pirates of Penzance .
Bond , already ambitious , asked Gilbert if he might be able to increase the size of her role . Gilbert tried to mollify her in a letter , concluding , " I am writing such a particularly good part for you in the new piece that I should be distressed beyond measure if you should leave us . I 've never said as much as this to any actor or actress before . I don 't say it to induce you to play so insignificant a part as Edith , for if you left us now , and came back to us to play that part , I should be satisfied . But if you didn 't play it , my calculations would be all upset , and I should lose a dear little lady for whom I have always had a very special regard . " True to Gilbert 's word , Edith was followed by a string of roles of increasing importance . First was Lady Angela in Patience ( 1881 – 82 ) . Bond did not much like the role , writing later that she did not relate to the sentimental lady of luxury indulging in the aesthetic craze . At the same time , Bond was becoming known to theatregoers and attracting the attention of young men . Having had such bad experiences with romance in the past , Bond ignored such attentions . One poem sent to her by an admirer ran in mock @-@ Gilbertian style as follows ( in part ) :
Whene 'er I chance / A backward glance , / At times when , off my filbert
With you ( my " mash ! " ) , / I blew my cash / On Sullivan and Gilbert !
I loved you then / With all my pen / ( My heart 's amanuensis ) ,
And folks who read / Sat up and said / " His love for her immense is ! "
Nor were they wrong ; / Your merry song — / You sing divinely , sweetly !
Your lively dance / And roguish glance / Had captured me completely !
I don 't complain ! / I 'd still remain / A pris 'ner now and ever !
From such a Bond / ' Tis far beyond / My humble wish to sever !
Now , pray don 't scold , / I know I 'm bold , / But , still , I 'm not a sinner . For ,
Remember this , / I 've known you , miss , / Since you were in a Pinafore !
After the company had moved into the new Savoy Theatre , Bond met the Prince of Wales on several occasions , who assisted her career , securing singing engagements for her .
Bond wrote of her next role , " It was like a dream come true when I saw my own name in the title role " of Iolanthe ( 1882 – 84 ) . Bond 's first entrance as Iolanthe was across a " stream " . She wrote in her memoirs about a performance of Iolanthe : " Realism can be carried too far , as it was when one night a zealous property man said to me : ' It 'll be just like the real thing to @-@ night , Miss Bond . I 've put some frogs into the water ! ' ' Then you 'll just have to fish them out again , ' I retorted , ' and the curtain won 't go up until you do . ' They had to catch those frogs in an inverted umbrella . Everybody got splashed and agitated , and the performance was delayed for some time . " The critics praised Bond 's portrayal of the title character : " Miss Jessie Bond ... may be credited with all the grace , delicacy , and fascination we should expect from a fairy mother , and her singing of the really exquisite melody in the last scene was one of the most successful items in the entire opera . "
Iolanthe was followed by Princess Ida ( 1884 ) , in which Bond played the role of Melissa . Bond played the role of Constance in the first revival of The Sorcerer ( 1884 – 85 ) . The role had originally been written for a soprano , and some of the music was transposed down to suit Bond 's lower range and tessitura . Another feature of this revival was the pairing of Bond 's character with that of Rutland Barrington 's . The combination was so successful that in later Savoy operas , Bond and Barrington were generally paired together .
= = = The Mikado and Ruddigore = = =
Bond next created the role of Pitti @-@ Sing in The Mikado ( 1885 – 87 ) , one of the " three little maids from school . " Sometimes , inspiration for plot points in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas was provided by characteristics of the performers themselves . For instance , Gilbert noted in an interview that the fact that the female singers to be engaged for The Mikado , Leonora Braham , Bond , and Sybil Grey , were all of short stature inspired him to make them schoolgirls — three " little " maids — and to treat them as a closely linked trio throughout the work as much as possible . Bond , however , knew how to stand out on stage . During preparations for The Mikado , she persuaded the wardrobe mistress to make the obi of her costume twice as big as that of the other " little maids " . She wrote : " I made the most of my big , big bow , turning my back to the audience whenever I got a chance , and waggling it . The gallery was delighted , but I nearly got the sack for that prank ! However , I did get noticed , which was what I wanted . "
After seven years with D 'Oyly Carte , and still earning money from private and concert singing engagements , Bond 's salary had risen to the point where she was able to move into a better flat and hire a maid . Though she was happy with her success , Bond ( somewhat like Sullivan ) longed to devote herself to singing serious music . She wrote that when she was in a thoughtful mood , she would consider the following :
I had worked so hard at serious music , I had loved it so much and been so successful , that it was not without a pang that I gave it all up to sing little songs and choruses that were , after all , child 's play to me . ... [ O ] ften my heart ached when I thought of those days when I lived in an atmosphere of music of the highest order , and could express my inmost self in it . ... [ S ] ometimes when I thought things over I felt how far I had fallen from that first austere ideal , and wished that fame and success could have come in a higher sphere .
During the run of The Mikado , Bond met Lewis Ransome , a young civil engineer from a wealthy Quaker family . He had just returned from America , and the two compared travel experiences . Ransome admitted to Bond that , after watching The Mikado , he had mentioned to his sister that he " liked the little one with the big sash best . So next day when she saw a photograph of you in a shop window she went in and bought it . She gave it to me and I have it now . " Thus , despite Bond 's aversion to romance , began a long friendship that led , twelve years later , to Bond 's second marriage . Ransome , several years younger than Bond , proposed marriage on many occasions over the course of the relationship , but Bond told him that she would not marry while she continued on the stage . Over the years , the two spent many of Bond 's days off ( Sundays ) relaxing together in the country .
Bond next created the role of Mad Margaret in Ruddigore ( 1887 ; originally spelt " Ruddygore " ) , which she regarded as her favourite of all the Gilbert and Sullivan roles , " for it gave me the chance to show what I really could do as an actress . " The part was her largest to date , and Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte made her audition it for them to be sure that she could handle the responsibility . " It was an awful ordeal . I saw the three white faces looming out of the darkness as they sat close together ; criticizing me , talking me over , with cold managerial detachment . It nearly killed me . Perhaps it gave an added realism and abandon to my simulated madness , for indeed I was nearly mad with fear – but at any rate I came through triumphantly , they were all three of them delighted . " Bond was particularly nervous on opening night . " I shook and tottered so much that Mad Margaret 's staff was no mere adjunct , but an absolute necessity . Without it I should have fallen as I stood in the wings waiting to go on . Then some one gave me a push ; I was there , on the stage , in the glare of the footlights , hundreds of eyes fixed on me , tier upon tier of dim white faces rising from floor to ceiling in the gloom . It was enough ; I forgot myself , I was Mad Margaret and no one else . I made an immense success . " Cellier and Bridgeman seconded this assessment :
There were two particularly noteworthy features in the performance of ' Ruddigore . ' First to be mentioned was the acting of Miss Jessie Bond in the part of ' Mad Margaret . ' Among the host of her admirers few had given the popular Savoy soubrette credit for such great ability as a genuine comedy @-@ actress , for never before had the opportunity been afforded her to display her latent talent — Jessie Bond 's triumph came as a surprise to all .... So true to real life was the portrayal of Mad Margaret that Mr. Forbes Winslow , the famous authority on mental disorders , wrote a congratulatory letter to Miss Bond and inquired where she had found the model from which she had studied , and so faithfully copied the phases of insanity . No greater compliment could have been paid the actress .
Bond next appeared in the first revivals of H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1887 – 88 ) , Pirates ( 1888 ) , and The Mikado ( 1888 ) recreating her earlier roles . She had developed an enthusiastic following among the audiences at the Savoy Theatre . Between Savoy shows , Bond was able to appear in To the Death by fellow savoyard Rutland Barrington ( 1888 ) and Locked In ( 1889 ) .
= = = Yeomen and The Gondoliers = = =
After this , Bond 's next role was Phœbe Meryll in The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 – 89 ) . Of this role , Bond wrote , " My share in the most beautiful of all the Gilbert and Sullivan operas was delightfully easy and natural . When Gilbert gave it to me at the first reading he said , ' Here you are , Jessie , you needn 't act this , it 's you . ' " Gilbert was even more nervous than usual on the first night of Yeomen and came backstage to give his best wishes to the cast . Bond wrote , " I am afraid he made himself a perfect nuisance behind the scenes , and did his best , poor fellow , to upset us all . These first nights were very hard on me ... and nearly always my understudy was called upon to officiate on the second night of a play , while I lay exhausted in my bed . [ In Yeomen ] , the curtain rises on Phœbe alone at her spinning wheel , and Gilbert kept fussing about ... until I was almost as demented as he was . At last I turned on him savagely . ' For Heaven 's sake , Mr. Gilbert , go away and leave me alone , or I shan 't be able to sing a note ! ' He gave me a final frenzied hug , and vanished . "
In each of the new Gilbert and Sullivan operas , Bond 's roles continued to grow larger and more challenging , until with Margaret , Phœbe , and Tessa in The Gondoliers ( 1889 – 91 ) , Bond 's roles were at least as important as any other female role . By the time The Gondoliers was in preparation , Gilbert felt that his regular principal cast members were becoming too demanding and that the precision and style of D 'Oyly Carte productions could be maintained only if there were no " stars " . He endeavoured to make the nine leading roles as co @-@ equal as he could . Bond , aware of her importance to the company , declined to appear unless her salary was raised from twenty pounds to thirty pounds a week . Gilbert bitterly resisted the raise , but Bond prevailed .
I was the only one who asked for a rise , and Gilbert was furious with me . All the time we were rehearsing [ The Gondoliers ] he never spoke to me , and only acknowledged my existence by sometimes saying sneeringly : ' Make way for the High @-@ Salaried Artiste ! ' ... Passing storms like this did occasionally ruffle the course of our friendship , but on the whole it flowed on deep and strong .
During the run of The Gondoliers , Queen Victoria called for a royal command performance of the show at Windsor Castle . Bond wrote ,
I quaked a little as we began our quartet ' A Right @-@ down Regular Royal Queen . ' But [ this and Barrington 's solo ] numbers seemed to amuse the real Queen more than anything else in the opera , and , indeed , who could so well as she see the point of them ? The very fact of her choosing this opera from all the others to be played before her shows how vivid was her sense of fun , and how truly British was her willingness to laugh at herself . There was ... only one encore ... [ a ] nd who do you suppose was singled out for that honour ? Who but I who write this , little Jessie Bond ... for my song in the first act , ' When a Merry Maiden Marries.'
= = = Last years on stage = = =
After The Gondoliers closed , Gilbert and Sullivan were estranged for a time , and Carte hired Bond to play Chinna @-@ Loofa in Dance , Desprez , and Solomon 's The Nautch Girl ( 1891 ) . Although her salary continued to rise , she was less happy at the Savoy after Gilbert 's departure . She took a three @-@ month leave from the D 'Oyly Carte organisation in August 1891 , together with Rutland Barrington , performing a series of " musical duologues " and sketches , written mostly by Barrington and composed by Edward Solomon , on a provincial tour , where they received good notices and profits . Bond also did some of the writing . She had passed up the opportunity to create a role in Gilbert 's next opera , The Mountebanks at the Lyric Theatre ( 1892 ) , as she was still under contract to Carte . She and Barrington returned to the Savoy in November , but Bond left the D 'Oyly Carte organisation at the end of the run of The Nautch Girl in January 1892 , as there was no role for her in the next Savoy opera , The Vicar of Bray . Bond was unwilling to accept the part offered to her in the next Savoy piece , Haddon Hall ( 1892 ) .
Over the next few years , Bond had several engagements in London theatres , including in Ma Mie Rosette ( 1892 ) by Ivan Caryll , Poor Jonathan ( 1893 ) , Corney Courted ( 1893 ) , a revival of Pickwick by Solomon and F. C. Burnand ( 1893 ) Miami ( as Nelly O 'Neil ) at the Princess 's Theatre , and others . She enjoyed good runs as Helen Tapeleigh in the musical comedy Go @-@ Bang ( 1894 ) and Nanna in Gilbert and F. Osmond Carr 's His Excellency ( 1894 – 95 ) . In 1894 , she also played in Wapping Old Stairs , by Stuart Robertson and Howard Talbot ( with Courtice Pounds and Richard Temple ) , and Pick @-@ me @-@ up at the Trafalgar Square Theatre ( with George Grossmith , Jr. and Letty Lind ) . During these years , Bond owned a fox terrier named Bob . She returned to the Savoy to play Pitti @-@ Sing in the revivals of The Mikado that ran off and on from November 1895 to February 1897 . When the revivals were over , Bond left the stage .
After he had first seen her perform in The Mikado in 1885 , Bond 's friendship with Lewis Ransome continued and deepened . Subject to an increasing number of short illnesses that prevented her from performing , and tiring of life in the theatre , Bond finally agreed to marry Ransome , and the couple wed in May 1897 .
When I told Gilbert he was so angry that I don 't think he ever quite forgave me ; he would not accept my health as an excuse , he was unreasonable , as , alas , he often was ! ' You are a little fool ! ' he said . ' I have often heard you say you don 't like old women , ' I retorted . ' I shall soon be old . Will you provide for me ? Will Sir Arthur ? Will Carte ? No , of course you won 't . Well , I am going to marry a man who will.'
Bond wrote of her feelings at the end of her last performance :
Twenty years of hard work , twenty years of fun and frolic and jolly companionship , twenty years of living in an atmosphere of tuneful nonsense , with the glare of the footlights in my eyes and the thunders of applause in my ears . How terribly I should miss it all ! And domesticity , that all my life I had fled from , had caught me at last .
Bond and Ransome spent three years in London , where Bond entertained her neighbours and theatrical friends with musical soirees and dinner parties . She also participated in charity benefits , such as a performance of H.M.S. Pinafore for the benefit of the families of soldiers and sailors , on 6 January 1900 , in the village of Maiden Bradley . In 1900 , the lease on Ransome 's family business ( Ransome and Co . , later Ransome & Marles , a manufacturer of bearings and wood @-@ working machinery ) ran out , and it relocated to Newark , Nottinghamshire , to reduce costs . Bond and Ransome moved near the new factory to a large house in Farndon . Gilbert wrote to her that " The Savoy is not the same without you . "
= = = Later life = = =
Although Bond 's life as a performer in the theatre had ended at age 44 , she occasionally gave charity concerts thereafter . Unlike Bond 's first marriage , her second was a happy one . Initially reluctant to leave London , Bond reported , " We entertained a good deal , and gave hunt lunches and shooting parties of our own , so my time was well filled up , and I missed London less than I could have believed . " She founded and directed the Newark Amateur Dramatic Society , an amateur dramatic club , whose performances supported local charities . The couple also often visited London and did some travelling abroad .
In 1912 , and for some years afterwards , Bond played a significant role in developing the career of Donald Wolfit , whom she first saw perform when he was ten years old . Her first action on his behalf was to advise his concerned parents not to try to prevent him from pursuing a career on the stage . Together with George Power , Leonora Braham and Julia Gwynne , she was one of four artistes of the original D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company who attended a reunion at the Savoy Hotel in 1914 ( see photograph below ) . The four then posed for a group photograph beside the Sullivan monument in the Victoria Embankment Gardens . Her husband died in May 1922 , after 25 years of marriage . Two years later , Bond moved out of the large house to Newark and later to Worthing , Sussex , and often visited London .
In the 1920s , Bond wrote several articles about her memories of Gilbert and Sullivan and her years with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company for The Strand Magazine and The Gilbert & Sullivan Journal . Her autobiography , The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond , the Old Savoyard , was published in 1930 . In that book , she expressed great admiration particularly for Gilbert , but also for Sullivan and D 'Oyly Carte , and she bemoaned overacting by performers in the " modern " era . In March 1930 , the Gilbert and Sullivan Society invited the original three little maids to a reunion in London to celebrate the 45th anniversary of The Mikado .
In her last years , Bond entertained wounded World War I servicemen , playing the piano and singing at a south coast home for disabled soldiers and sailors . An obituary in The Evening Standard reported : " Every day for more than a year , until just recently , she was taken out in her wheelchair . After a breath of sea air ... she would always go into her favourite hotel for a drink and would often sit down at the piano and entertain the company with some of her old Gilbert and Sullivan tunes . She often used to go to a home for wounded ex @-@ servicemen of the last war [ and ] would give an impromptu entertainment , playing and singing her old songs . She liked to go to parties and would always play and sing . " The Worthing Gazette stated that Bond continued to be much loved in her later years , and people came to see her from all over Britain to pay homage in her old age . The Worthing Herald wrote : " Despite her great age , Miss Bond preserved a quick and active mind , and hated to be fussed over . "
She died in 1942 at age 89 in Worthing .
= House of the Rising Sun ( Lost ) =
" House of the Rising Sun " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American television series Lost . It centers on Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , who brutally attacks Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) ; the survivors do not know why since Jin and his wife Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) only speak Korean . Meanwhile , Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) proposes that the survivors move to the caves from the beach . The episode was the first to feature the backstory of Sun and Jin , and the former is shown in the episode 's flashbacks . It was directed by Michael Zinberg and written by Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach .
After being cast , Yunjin Kim and Daniel Dae Kim were nervous that their characters ' relationship would foster negative perceptions of Korean people ; the former felt that it was an outdated depiction which would influence a society little exposed to Korean culture . The actors discussed this with the series ' producers , leading to the writing of " House of the Rising Sun " and the multifaceted depiction of their relationship . " House of the Rising Sun " first aired on October 27 , 2004 , on the American network ABC . An estimated 16 @.@ 83 million viewers watched the episode on its first broadcast , and it earned a ratings share of 6 @.@ 4 / 17 , a slight increase from the previous episode . It received mainly positive reviews , with critics focusing on the revelations surrounding Jin and Sun 's relationship .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Sun is at a party , and is served champagne by a waiter , Jin . They soon develop a relationship , with Sun wanting to run away with Jin to America , but Jin insisting they honorably tell her father that they are seeing each other . Sun 's father approves of their relationship as long as Jin takes a job working for him . One night after they 're married , Jin returns home covered in someone else 's blood . Sun is angry that he refuses to explain the blood to her and slaps him . He tells Sun that he does whatever her father tells him to do . A few years later , Sun secretly plots to leave Jin and her father , so she will be free to go wherever she wants . However , she does not go through with her plans after he expresses a loving gesture to her , and boards Flight 815 with her husband .
= = = On the Island = = =
It is Day 7 , September 28 , 2004 , and Jack Shephard , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) go to the caves to gather water and investigate . Charlie steps on a beehive , and is told not to move by Locke or else the hive will snap . Charlie slaps at a bee on his face and shifts weight , causing the hive to snap and everyone to get stung . Locke and Charlie are clearing the wreckage at the caves and Locke tells Charlie that he recognizes him from a band Charlie is in , Drive Shaft . Charlie is happy that finally someone , other than Kate , is familiar with his musical background . Later , at the caves the team discovers two bodies , according to Jack a man and a woman , whom Locke dubs " Adam and Eve " . From the deterioration of their clothes Jack estimates that they have been dead for at least 40 – 50 years , and finds a pouch on them containing two stones : one black , one white .
Meanwhile , Sun is shocked to see Jin attack Michael on the beach for no apparent reason . James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) manage to subdue and handcuff Jin to the wreckage . Michael says the attack was racially motivated , which he later tells his son , Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) , is not true . Sun finds Michael alone , and in perfect , unbroken English says , " I need to talk to you . " Michael is shocked that she speaks English . Sun tells him that Jin is unaware of this , and explains that Jin angrily attacked Michael because of the watch he 's wearing , which belongs to her father . Michael says he just found it in the wreckage and it 's nothing important .
Jack and Kate return to the beach and Jack starts talking to people about moving to the caves . The castaways argue whether to stay on the beach where a rescue party could see them ( and keep the signal fire burning ) , or move to the caves , where there is more shelter and fresh water . The group splits into two camps accordingly : Jack , Locke , Charlie , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) , Jin , Sun , Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) , Dr. Leslie Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) , Doug , and Sullivan ( Scott Paulin ) move to the caves while Kate , Sawyer , Sayid , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) , Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) , Walt , Vincent ( Madison ) , Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) , Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) , Rose Nadler ( L. Scott Caldwell ) , Scott Jackson ( Christian Bowman ) , and Steve Jenkins ( Dustin Watchman ) remain on the beach .
At the caves , Locke tells Charlie that he knows Charlie is addicted to heroin . Locke says if Charlie gives up his drugs , the island will give him his guitar , which he misses deeply . Charlie hands over the heroin , Locke shows him where the guitar is , and Charlie is ecstatic . On the beach , Kate refuses to go with Jack to the caves . Michael menacingly approaches Jin with an axe , throws the watch at him , and shouts that the fight over the watch " is ridiculous , because time doesn 't matter on a damn island . " As Michael cuts Jin free of his handcuffs , one of the cuffs remains on his wrist , and Michael tells Jin to stay away from him and Walt . That night at the caves , Charlie plays his guitar as Jack returns with people from the beach . The episode ends with clips of the two groups , while Willie Nelson 's ' Are You Sure ' plays in the background .
= = Production = =
Both Yunjin Kim and Daniel Dae Kim were born in Korea but raised in the United States . Yunjin Kim initially auditioned for the role of Kate , but the producers liked her so much that they created an entirely new character , part of " a couple [ that 's ] alienated from the rest of the group because they can 't communicate . " A male Korean actor was sought out as Kim 's co @-@ star , with Dae Kim winning the part . He had moved from South Korea as a toddler and forgotten most of his Korean by the time he won the role of Jin ; while Kim helped him with the language , his accent reportedly sounded poor to native speakers .
The episode title is a reference to the song " The House of the Rising Sun " , popularized by English rock group The Animals in 1964 . It was the first episode to reveal the backstory of Sun and Jin , with the former being the focus of the episode 's flashbacks . Yunjin Kim felt the initial way in which Sun and Jin were portrayed represented an " outdated " depiction of a Korean relationship ; she and others in the Korean community worried that this would affect perceptions of Koreans , due to that race 's lack of exposure in the American media . The two actors discussed " potentially negative feedback " with the producers early in the series ' development , and Yunjin Kim 's fear led co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams to ensure her character 's story would be told .
Supervising producer Javier Grillo @-@ Marxuach , who wrote " House of the Rising Sun " , found it difficult to write the Jin @-@ Sun storyline , as he did not speak Korean and had to get into a " cultural headspace " for which he had no personal reference . Showrunner Damon Lindelof commented that given the script was written in English , only during the dailies the producers noticed that almost all of the episode would be subtitled , making them fear for ABC 's reaction . Instead the network executives received it well , only being concerned about " the complex inherent racial dynamics in the story where a Korean man was attacking a black man " . From Dae Kim 's perspective , Jin crashed on the island only to find himself in a " worst @-@ case scenario " – he is " among a bunch of strangers , he doesn 't speak any English , and he 's suspicious of people already . " Kim thought it was important to convey Sun and Jin 's first falling in love before showing their alienation from the other .
Grillo @-@ Marxuach stressed the importance of the episode due to the discovery of the caves , which prompts the survivors to become " full @-@ time dwellers of the island . " Referring to the episode 's Jin @-@ Sun and Locke @-@ Charlie storylines , Grillo @-@ Marxuach felt that the island was about being " forced to confront your inner demons [ and ] work out things " never addressed before . Charlie 's fear of bees is based on Grillo @-@ Marxuach 's life experience . Despite the character 's phobia , Monaghan enjoyed working with the bees . The ones used in the episode were male drones , which meant they lacked stingers and were docile enough to easily handle . Monaghan 's head and arms were covered in sticky honey to encourage the bees to land and stay on him during filming . To simulate Jack and Kate 's escape from the bees , the special effects team created " CG bees " and then added them in post @-@ production . Michael Zinberg directed and Sora Jung guest starred .
= = Reception = =
" House of the Rising Sun " first aired in the United States on October 27 , 2004 . An estimated 16 @.@ 83 million U.S. viewers watched the episode 's premiere , and it earned a ratings share of 6 @.@ 4 / 17 , a slight increase from the previous episode . " House of the Rising Sun " finished in thirteenth place for the week among all the major networks .
The episode has received mostly positive reviews . In her 2006 work Finding Lost : The Unofficial Guide , Nikki Stafford called it " an excellent episode , with a beautiful , mournful musical score . " Robert Dougherty , author of the 2008 book Lost Episode Guide for Others : An Unofficial Anthology , deemed the " smaller , character driven " episode a " must see " . He cited its showcase of Yunjin Kim and the revelations surrounding Jin and Sun 's relationship , though Dougherty admitted some viewers might have found these minor characters uninteresting .
In 2008 , Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode with an A − . He described the main Jin @-@ Sun storyline as " delicate and gripping , " and believed Sun 's eventual decision to stay with her husband was as " intriguing " as the revelation that she could speak English . Snierson also praised the episode 's humor and tension between the castaways ' " we 're @-@ gonna @-@ be @-@ rescued @-@ any @-@ minute- versus @-@ we 're @-@ gonna @-@ be @-@ here @-@ for @-@ awhile " mentalities .
Chris Carabott , writing for IGN in 2008 , rated " House of the Rising Sun " with an 8 out of 10 – an indication of a " great " episode . He felt that Jin 's situation deserved sympathy and was good fodder for future storylines , and also was pleased that the language barrier was somewhat resolved so early in the series with Sun 's ability to speak English . On a list ranking all the Lost episodes ( except the finale ) , the Los Angeles Times ranked " House of the Rising Sun " 44 out of 110 episodes , explaining : " Cutesy title aside , this first look into the Sun and Jin marriage proved the show was willing to try all kinds of different stories to be a success . " " House of the Rising Sun " , along with " Pilot " and " The Moth " , won a PRISM Award for Charlie 's drug storyline .
= Arctic Monkeys =
Arctic Monkeys are an English rock band formed in 2002 in High Green , a suburb of Sheffield . The band consists of Alex Turner ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar , lead guitar ) , Matt Helders ( drums , vocals ) , Jamie Cook ( lead guitar , rhythm guitar , piano ) and Nick O 'Malley ( bass , backing vocals ) . Former band member Andy Nicholson ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) left the band in 2006 shortly after their debut album was released .
They have released five studio albums : Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not ( 2006 ) , Favourite Worst Nightmare ( 2007 ) , Humbug ( 2009 ) , Suck It and See ( 2011 ) and AM ( 2013 ) , as well as one live album , At the Apollo ( 2008 ) . Their debut album is the fastest @-@ selling debut album by a band in British chart history , and in 2013 , Rolling Stone ranked it the 30th @-@ greatest debut album of all time .
The band has won seven Brit Awards — winning both Best British Group and Best British Album three times , and have been nominated for three Grammy Awards . They also won the Mercury Prize in 2006 for their debut album , in addition to receiving nominations in 2007 and 2013 . The band have headlined at the Glastonbury Festival twice , in 2007 and again in 2013 .
Arctic Monkeys were heralded as one of the first bands to come to public attention via the Internet , with commentators suggesting they represented the possibility of a change in the way in which new bands are promoted and marketed .
= = History = =
= = = Early years and record deal ( 2003 – 05 ) = = =
The band began rehearsing at Yellow Arch Studios in Neepsend , and played its first gig on 13 June 2003 at The Grapes in Sheffield city centre . After a few performances in 2003 , the band began to record demos at 2fly studios in Sheffield . 18 songs were demoed in all and the collection , now known as Beneath the Boardwalk , was burned on to CDs to give away at gigs , which were promptly file @-@ shared amongst fans . The name Beneath the Boardwalk originated when the first batch of demos were sent around . The first sender , wanting to classify the demos , named them after where he received them , the Boardwalk . Slowly , as more demos were spread , they were all classified under this name . This has led to many people falsely believing that Beneath the Boardwalk was an early album , or that the early demos were all released under this title . The group did not mind the distribution , saying " we never made those demos to make money or anything . We were giving them away free anyway – that was a better way for people to hear them . " When asked about the popularity of the band 's MySpace site in an interview with Prefix Magazine , the band said that they were unaware what it was , and that the site had originally been created by their fans .
The band began to grow in popularity across the north of England , receiving attention from BBC Radio and the British tabloid press . A local amateur photographer , Mark Bull , filmed the band 's performances and made the music video " Fake Tales of San Francisco " , releasing it on his website , alongside the contents of Beneath the Boardwalk – a collection of the band 's songs which he named after a local music venue . In May 2005 , Arctic Monkeys released their first single , Five Minutes with Arctic Monkeys on their own ' Bang Bang ' label , featuring the songs " Fake Tales of San Francisco " and " From the Ritz to the Rubble " . This release was limited to 500 CDs and 1 @,@ 000 7 " records , but was also available to download from the iTunes Music Store . Soon after , the band played at the Carling Stage of the Reading and Leeds Festivals , reserved for less known or unsigned bands . Their appearance was hyped by much of the music press and the band was watched by an unusually large crowd .
Eventually , they were signed to Domino in June 2005 . The band said they were attracted to the DIY ethic of Domino owner Laurence Bell , who ran the label from his flat and only signed bands that he liked personally . The UK 's Daily Star reported that this was followed in October by a £ 1 million publishing deal with EMI and a £ 725 @,@ 000 contract with Epic Records for the United States . Arctic Monkeys denied this on their website , dubbing the newspaper " The Daily Stir " . However , Domino had licensed the Australian and New Zealand publishing rights to EMI and the Japanese rights to independent label Hostess . Their first single with Domino , " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " , which was recorded at Chapel Studios in Lincolnshire , was released on 17 October 2005 and went straight to No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart , beating Sugababes and Robbie Williams . Two weeks previous to this , it made its first appearance on the cover of NME . Their second single , " When the Sun Goes Down " ( previously titled " Scummy " ) , released on 16 January 2006 , also went straight to No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart , selling 38 @,@ 922 copies and taking over that position from Shayne Ward . The band 's success with little marketing or advertising led some to suggest that it could signal a change in how new bands achieve recognition .
= = = Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not ( 2006 ) = = =
The band finished recording their debut album , Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not , at Chapel Studios in Lincolnshire in September 2005 with Jim Abbiss producing . Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not became the fastest selling debut album in UK chart history , selling 363 @,@ 735 copies in the first week . This smashed the previous record of 306 @,@ 631 copies held by Popstars by Hear 'Say , and sold more copies on its first day alone – 118 @,@ 501 – than the rest of the Top 20 albums combined . The cover sleeve of Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not , showing Chris McClure , a friend of the band smoking a cigarette , was criticised by the head of the NHS in Scotland for " reinforcing the idea that smoking is OK " . The image on the CD itself is a shot of an ashtray full of cigarettes . The band 's product manager denied the accusation , and suggested the opposite – " You can see from the image smoking is not doing him the world of good . "
The record was released a month later in the US on 21 February 2006 and entered at No. 24 on the Billboard album chart after it sold 34 @,@ 000 units in its first week , making it the second fastest selling for a debut indie rock album in America . However , US sales for the first year did not match those of the first week in the UK for the album . US critics were more reserved about the band than their UK counterparts , and appeared unwilling to be drawn into the possibility of " yet another example of the UK 's press over @-@ hyping new bands " . However , the band 's June 2006 tour of North America received critical acclaim at each stop – the hype surrounding them " proven to exist for good reason " . Meanwhile , the UK 's NME magazine declared the band 's debut album the " 5th greatest British album of all time " . It also equalled the record of The Strokes and Oasis at the 2006 NME Awards , winning three fan @-@ voted awards for Best British Band , Best New Band and Best Track for " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " .
Arctic Monkeys wasted no time in recording new material , and released a five @-@ track EP on 24 April 2006 , titled Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys ? . Due to its length , the EP was ineligible to chart as a UK single or album . Furthermore , the record 's graphic language has resulted in significantly less radio airplay than previous records , although this was not a reported concern according to an insider – " since they made their name on the Internet ... they don 't care if they don 't get radio play " . The release of the EP Who the Fuck Are Arctic Monkeys ? just three months after their record @-@ breaking debut album has been criticised by some , who have seen it as " money @-@ grabbing " and " cashing in on their success " . The band countered that it regularly releases new music not to make money , but to avoid the " boredom " of " spending three years touring on one album " .
Soon after the release of the EP in the UK , the band announced that Andy Nicholson would not take part in the band 's forthcoming North America tour due to fatigue from " an intensive period of touring " . On returning to the UK , Nicholson confirmed that he would leave Arctic Monkeys and start his own project . He also said that he couldn 't deal with the band 's fame and the success over the previous six months . In a statement on their official website , the band said : " We are sad to tell everyone that Andy is no longer with the band " , also confirmed that Nick O 'Malley – former bassist with The Dodgems who had drafted in as temporary bassist for the tour – would continue as bassist for the rest of their summer tour schedule . Shortly after , Nick O 'Malley was confirmed as the formal replacement for Nicholson .
Arctic Monkeys ' first release without Nicholson , the single " Leave Before the Lights Come On " , came on 14 August 2006 . Turner said that the song was one of the last songs he wrote before their rise to fame , and suggested that " it feels very much like it could be on the album " . Peaking at No. 4 in the UK , the single became the band 's first failure to reach No. 1 . The band was re @-@ united at the Leeds Festival when Nicholson met up with his former band mates and his replacement bassist , O 'Malley . Only the original band members , minus Nicholson , were present at the award ceremony when Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not won the 2006 Mercury Prize two weeks later .
= = = Favourite Worst Nightmare ( 2007 ) = = =
The band 's second album , Favourite Worst Nightmare , was released on 23 April 2007 , a week after the release of accompanying single " Brianstorm " . Like its predecessor , Favourite Worst Nightmare also quickly reached No. 1 in the album charts . Turner described the songs as " very different from last time " , adding that the sound of some tracks are " a bit full @-@ on – a bit like " From the Ritz to the Rubble " , " The View from the Afternoon " , that sort of thing . " A secret gig played at Sheffield 's Leadmill on 10 February 2007 , debuted seven new songs ( six from Favourite Worst Nightmare and one other ) . Early reviews of the release were positive , and described it as " very , very fast and very , very loud . "
Meanwhile , the band continued to pick up awards from around the world , namely the ' Best New Artist in the United States ' at the PLUG Independent Music Awards , the " Album of the Year " awards in Japan , Ireland and the US , awards for " Best Album " and " Best Music DVD " for the short film " Scummy Man " at the 2007 NME Awards . It ended the year by clinching the " Best British Band " and " Best British Album " at the 2008 BRIT Awards . For the second year in a row , the band was nominated for the annual Mercury Prize , although it failed to match its feat of 2006 after the award went to Klaxons ' Myths of the Near Future .
On 29 April 2007 , the day Favourite Worst Nightmare charted at No. 1 in the UK Albums Chart , all 12 tracks from the album charted in the Top 200 of the UK Singles Chart . On 27 April 2007 it had a total of 18 tracks in the Top 200 . " Fluorescent Adolescent " and " 505 " charted in the Top 75 , at No. 60 and No. 74 respectively . The band later released " Fluorescent Adolescent " as a single , and it charted at No. 5 , after debuting the song live on The Jonathan Ross Show .
The third single from Favourite Worst Nightmare , " Teddy Picker " , was released on 3 December 2007 . It charted at No. 20 and remained only one week in the top 40 staying in this position , making it the lowest charting single for the band so far . Prior to this release the band released an extremely limited number of 250 vinyl under the pseudonym The Death Ramps containing two of the b @-@ sides from the " Teddy Picker " single .
Arctic Monkeys headlined the Glastonbury Festival on 22 June 2007 , the highlights of which were aired on BBC2 . During their headline act , the band performed with Dizzee Rascal and Simian Mobile Disco and covered Shirley Bassey 's " Diamonds Are Forever " . The band also played a large gig at Dublin 's Malahide Castle on 16 June 2007 , with a second date added the following day . The band was also slated to play the Austin City Limits Music Festival in September 2007 . Other European festivals include Rock Werchter in 2007 . The band played two shows at Cardiff International Arena on 19 and 20 June 2007 supported by local friends of the band , Reverend and the Makers . It also played two London gigs at Alexandra Palace on 8 and 9 December 2007 . On 1 September 2007 the band insisted on taking a working holiday to Ibiza where it played what turned out to be the last ever full live Ibiza Rocks show in Bar M ( now Ibiza Rocks Bar ) . The band performed in front of 700 people in the bar by the beach whilst many thousands lined the beach outside unable to get a ticket – The Sun described this concert as the " rock event of the summer " stating that " most people left saying they had just witnessed the best gig of their lives " . The band played their last show of the tour on 17 December 2007 at Manchester Apollo , which was filmed for the live DVD ' At The Apollo ' which was released in cinemas the following year .
= = = Humbug ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
After a brief hiatus during which Alex Turner toured and recorded with his side project The Last Shadow Puppets , the band recorded a total of 24 songs ; 12 in the Rancho De La Luna recording sessions with Josh Homme of Queens of the Stone Age in early autumn , 2008 , and 12 in the New York sessions with James Ford in spring , 2009 , following their January tour of New Zealand and Australia . During this tour , lead single " Crying Lightning " , along with Humbug songs " Pretty Visitors " , " Dangerous Animals " , and " Potion Approaching " ( then known as " Go @-@ Kart " ) , was debuted live . It was later revealed by Matt Helders in a video diary that the album would consist of 14 tracks and that Alex Turner would stay in New York to oversee the mixing of the material . However , the final track listing , revealed on 1 June 2009 , listed only 10 .
In a preview article on ClashMusic.com , writer Simon Harper claimed that the band had " completely defied any expectations or presumptions to explore the depths they can reach when stepping foot outside their accepted styles , " and that " Turner is his usual eloquent self , but has definitely graduated into an incomparable writer whose themes twist and turn through stories and allegories so potent and profound it actually leaves one breathless " . On the same site , Alex Turner revealed that the band had listened to Nick Cave , Jimi Hendrix , and Cream while writing the new album , the title of which would be Humbug . Humbug was released on 19 August 2009 , and , like both of its predecessors , the album went straight to No. 1 .
As announced on Arctic Monkeys ' website , the first single was " Crying Lightning " , released on 6 July , digitally through iTunes and also received its first radio premiere on the same day . On 12 July 2009 , the single " Crying Lightning " debuted at number 12 in the UK Singles Chart and number 1 on the UK Indie Chart . The second single , " Cornerstone " , was released on 16 November 2009 to much critical acclaim , but failed to replicate the same success that every prior Arctic Monkeys single had , reaching a peak at position 94 on the UK singles chart . It was announced in February 2010 that the third and final single to be taken from Humbug would be " My Propeller " , released on 22 March , shortly before a one off UK show at the Royal Albert Hall in support of the Teenage Cancer Trust on 27 March .
Arctic Monkeys embarked on the first leg of the worldwide Humbug Tour in January 2009 and went on to headline 2009 's Reading and Leeds Festivals . During this performance , it played a number of songs from Humbug , plus older tracks and a cover of Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds ' " Red Right Hand " . It was also the headline act on the first night of 2009 's Exit festival in Serbia . In North America , where it has less of a following , it played abridged sets at Montreal 's Osheaga Festival , as well as New Jersey 's All Points West Music and Arts Festival . The tour finished on 22 April 2010 in Mexico .
= = = Suck It and See ( 2011 – 12 ) = = =
NME reported in May 2011 that the band were teaming up with producer James Ford once again , and would be releasing their fourth studio album in late spring at the earliest . Q magazine reported that the fourth Arctic Monkeys album would be of a " more accessible vintage " than Humbug . Q printed edition 299 states ' It 's the sound of a band drawing back the curtains and letting the sunshine in ' .
The album was recorded in Sound City Studios in Los Angeles in 2010 and 2011 . On 4 March 2011 the band premièred on its website a new track called " Brick by Brick " with lead vocals by Matt Helders . Helders explained that this is not a single , just a tease of what is coming and that is definitely going to be in the fourth album . On 10 March 2011 the band revealed the album is to be called Suck It and See and was released on 6 June 2011 .
Their fourth album 's first single , titled " Don 't Sit Down ' Cause I 've Moved Your Chair " was released as a digital download on 11 April , and on Vinyl with " Brick by Brick " on 16 April for Record Store Day . On 17 April , it went to No. 28 in the UK Singles Chart . A version of the single with 2 B @-@ sides was released on 7 and 10 inch vinyl on 30 May . The band allowed fans to listen to the entire album on their website before deciding about whether to purchase it or not . Suck It and See was then released on 6 June 2011 , and went straight to No. 1 in the album charts . In doing so , Arctic Monkeys became only the second band in history to debut four albums in a row at the top of the charts .
The band announced " The Hellcat Spangled Shalalala " as the second single to be taken from Suck It and See . Most of the stock was burned because of the London riots . A limited edition 7 " Vinyl of the single was then released over the band 's website on 14 August . The song only managed to chart in the top 200 in the UK , however reaching higher in Belgium at No. 25 . In September 2011 the band released a music video for the song " Suck It and See " featuring drummer Matt Helders , and announced they would be releasing it as a single on 31 October 2011 . In July 2011 , the band released a live EP over iTunes with 6 live recordings from the iTunes Festival in London .
Arctic Monkeys embarked in May 2011 on their Suck It and See Tour . They headlined the Benicassim Festival 2011 alongside The Strokes , Arcade Fire and Primal Scream . They also headlined Oxegen 2011 , Super Bock Super Rock 2011 , V Festival 2011 , Rock Werchter. and T in The Park . They confirmed on 7 February that they were playing two " massive homecoming shows " at the Don Valley Bowl in Sheffield on 10 and 11 June , support included Miles Kane , Anna Calvi , The Vaccines , Dead Sons and Mabel Love , clips from the show were also used in the music video for " The Hellcat Spangled Shalalala " . They played at Lollapalooza 5 – 7 August 2011 . On 21 August , they also played at Lowlands , the Netherlands . The tour continued until March 2012 . On Friday 27 July 2012 Arctic Monkeys performed during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in the Olympic Stadium , London .
On 27 October they released a music video for " Evil Twin " on YouTube , the b @-@ side to their new single " Suck It and See " . They performed the song on The Graham Norton Show on 28 October . The 4th single from Suck It and See , " Black Treacle " was released on 23 January 2012 . The video for the single was released on YouTube on 5 January 2012 . This video continued the theme from the previous single , " Suck It and See " and " Evil Twin " .
= = = AM ( 2013 – 14 ) = = =
On 26 February 2012 , the band released a brand new song titled " R U Mine ? " on their YouTube channel . On 4 March , it went to No. 23 on the UK Singles Chart on downloads alone . On 21 April , the song was released as a single , with the track " Electricity " as a B @-@ side , released additionally for the Record Store Day . The song marked a direct shift in musical direction in comparison to their previous album , Suck It and See , by incorporating a heavy use of falsetto and hip hop beats , and eventually became the inspiration for AM .
On 27 July 2012 , Arctic Monkeys played in the London Summer Olympics opening ceremony , performing " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " and a cover of The Beatles ' song " Come Together " . After the opening ceremony , their version of " Come Together " entered the UK Singles Chart . It later peaked at number 21 , becoming their highest charting single since 2009 's " Crying Lightning " .
On 22 May 2013 the band started the AM Tour at the Ventura Theatre in Ventura , California , where they debuted a new song titled " Do I Wanna Know ? " . On 1 June 2013 , the band performed at Free Press Summer Fest in Houston , TX , where they also played " Do I Wanna Know ? " . On 14 June , the band debuted another song titled " Mad Sounds " at Hultsfred Festival in Sweden . Four days later , on 18 June 2013 , the band released the official video to " Do I Wanna Know ? " via their Facebook page . The studio version of the song , along with accompanying visuals , was also made available to purchase via iTunes , and entered the UK Singles Chart at number 11 . On 23 June 2013 Arctic Monkeys headlined Southside Festival in Germany .
On 24 June 2013 , the band announced that their new album , entitled AM , would be released on 9 September 2013 . The album was recorded in Rancho de la Luna in Joshua Tree , California , and features guest appearances from Josh Homme of Queens of the Stone Age , Elvis Costello 's drummer Pete Thomas and Bill Ryder @-@ Jones of The Coral . Further , on 27 June , the band announced an eight date UK arena tour culminating with a homecoming gig at the Motorpoint Arena Sheffield . The band played at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival on 28 June as headliners at the Pyramid stage to resounding success , playing ' Mad Sounds ' and ' Do I Wanna Know ? ' from the forthcoming album ' AM ' . Arctic Monkeys also headlined the 2013 Open 'er Festival in Gdynia , Poland and played on the main stage on 4 July . On 20 July , the band performed at Benicassim 2013 .
On 11 August 2013 , the third single from the album , " Why 'd You Only Call Me When You 're High ? " , was released , with B @-@ Side ' Stop The World I Wanna Get Off With You ' . It debuted at no . 8 on the UK Singles Chart on 18 August 2013 , making it the band 's first UK Top 10 single since 2007 's " Fluorescent Adolescent " . The band streamed the album in its entirety four days ahead of its release .
Upon the release of AM on 9 September 2013 , the album debuted at number 1 in the UK album charts , selling over 157 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . As a result , Arctic Monkeys made history as the first independent label band with five consecutive number 1 albums in the UK . The album received widespread critical acclaim and brought Arctic Monkeys their third nomination for the Mercury Prize . The album also won the Brit award for Best British Album .
Alex Turner described AM as the band 's " most original [ album ] yet , " merging hip @-@ hop drum beats with 70 's heavy rock . The frontman has said that the song " Arabella " expresses the two styles of the album most effectively in one track . On AM , Turner continued to experiment with unusual lyrics , and the album includes the words from poem " I Wanna Be Yours " by John Cooper Clarke . Turner has stated that Homme 's appearance on the song " Knee Socks " marks his favourite moment of the whole album .
Arctic Monkeys headlined the Reading and Leeds Festival in August 2014 , with Turner stating ' I 'm going to have fun with you , Yorkshire ' at the Leeds show . The band had a handful of shows in late 2014 , which closed the ' AM ' Tour . In December 2014 , " Do I Wanna Know ? " was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance .
= = = Hiatus ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On 24 August 2014 , the band announced a hiatus following their AM tour .
Turner and Helders have both pursued other projects during this time . In 2016 , Turner announced his second album with The Last Shadow Puppets , Everything You 've Come to Expect . Helders played as a featured performer on Iggy Pop 's Post Pop Depression .
On 6 July 2016 , all four members of the band appeared together in public for the first time since the end of their AM tour . It was to promote the Sheffield Children 's Hospital arts trail .
= = Musical style and influences = =
The band 's music is known to fall under the umbrella of indie rock . A key part of their sound , and one that translates across their whole discography , is lead singer and frontman Alex Turner 's intricate and often rapidly delivered lyrics , sung in a distinctive strong Sheffield accent that their music became famed for in their early years . A large part of their iconic British sound is credited to the punk poet John Cooper Clarke from whom the Arctic Monkeys even borrowed lyrics and the title from in " I Wanna Be Yours " . Turner adapted Clarke 's method of delivery mostly in their first album , Whatever People Say I Am That 's What I 'm Not . Their early albums Whatever People Say I Am That 's What I 'm Not and Favourite Worst Nightmare were rooted in garage rock and post @-@ punk revival , with Turner 's sharp lyrics the focal point . On the first album Alex Turner examined human behaviour in nightclubs and in the culture of the band 's hometown , Sheffield . Turner describes " Dancing Shoes " as being about " people always looking to pull when they go out however much they mask it . "
These themes continued on the following album Favourite Worst Nightmare with the band still progressing as musicians . Songs such as " Fluorescent Adolescent " and " Do Me a Favour " explored failed relationships , nostalgia and growing old , while musically the band took up a more uptempo and aggressive sound .
Their third album Humbug includes strong stoner rock and desert rock elements , due to the influence of the album 's producer and Queens of The Stone Age frontman , Joshua Homme . For Humbug , the band actively sought a new sound . Homme was quoted saying , " They came to me : ' Will you take us to the weird and the strange ? ' "
Their fourth album Suck It and See sees the band exploring styles , mixing them with newfound maturity . Turner said : " I think the new album is a balance between our first three . There 's nothing about taxi ranks or anything like that , but there 's a bit of the standpoint I had on those early songs and the sense of humour , but also there 's a bit of the ' Humbug ' stuff which is kind of off in the corners . " Critics noted an influence from British rock bands from the 1960s , as well as The Smiths , and slower , love @-@ themed ballads featured more heavily on the album than the fast @-@ paced , rockier songs that typifies the band 's sound .
In a 2012 interview with NME magazine , frontman Alex Turner cited John Lennon as a major influence lyrically . Speaking about Lennon , Turner said ; " I remember when I first started writing songs , and writing lyrics , I really wanted to be able to write an " I Am the Walrus " type song , and I found it very difficult . You listen to that and it sounds like it 's all nonsense , but it 's difficult to write that sort of thing and make it compelling . Lennon definitely had a knack for that " .
According to the band , the fifth album AM is more hip @-@ hop influenced . As Alex Turner stated in an interview with NME , it 's " like a Dr. Dre beat , but we 've given it an Ike Turner bowl @-@ cut and sent it galloping across the desert on a Stratocaster " . He also cited Outkast , Aaliyah and Black Sabbath as influences for the album .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Whatever People Say I Am , That 's What I 'm Not ( 2006 )
Favourite Worst Nightmare ( 2007 )
Humbug ( 2009 )
Suck It and See ( 2011 )
AM ( 2013 )
= = Tour history = =
Whatever People Say I Am Tour ( 2005 – 06 )
Favourite Worst Nightmare Tour ( 2007 – 08 )
Humbug Tour ( 2009 – 10 )
Suck It and See Tour ( 2011 – 12 )
AM Tour ( 2013 – 14 )
= = Awards = =
= Delaware Route 6 =
Delaware Route 6 ( DE 6 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 291 ( MD 291 ) at the Maryland border west of Blackiston to the Delaware Bay in Woodland Beach . The route passes through rural areas of northern Kent County as well as the towns of Smyrna and Clayton . DE 6 intersects DE 42 in Blackiston , DE 15 in Clayton , DE 300 and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Smyrna , and DE 9 to the east of Smyrna . The road was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s and received the DE 6 designation by 1936 . The easternmost part of the route was paved in the 1960s and the route was moved to its current alignment bypassing downtown Smyrna by the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
DE 6 begins at the Maryland border , where the road continues west into that state as MD 291 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Millington Road , passing through the Blackiston Wildlife Area . The road runs through areas of woods and farms with some homes . In Blackiston , DE 6 intersects the western terminus of DE 42 , which heads southeast toward Kenton . The route continues east through more agricultural areas and reaches an intersection with DE 15 , at which point residential development near the road increases . DE 15 turns east to form a concurrency with DE 6 , with the two routes continuing east . Upon reaching the western edge of Clayton , DE 15 splits from DE 6 by heading to the north .
DE 6 proceeds northeast through Clayton on Main Street , where it passes homes along with a few businesses . In Clayton , the road crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line at @-@ grade as it turns more to the east . The route continues into Smyrna , where it becomes Smyrna Clayton Boulevard . Shortly after crossing into Smyrna , DE 6 intersects DE 300 , where it turns northeast onto Glenwood Avenue and forms a concurrency with DE 300 . The two routes pass a mix of homes and businesses before entering a commercial area in the northern part of Smyrna . Here , the road widens into a divided highway before intersecting US 13 . At this point , DE 300 ends and DE 6 turns southeast to form a concurrency with US 13 . The two routes pass more businesses on four @-@ lane divided Dupont Boulevard . DE 6 splits from US 13 by heading to the east on two @-@ lane undivided Commerce Street , running through residential areas . The route passes over the DE 1 toll road without an interchange and leaves Smyrna .
Upon leaving Smyrna , DE 6 becomes Woodland Beach Road and passes to the north of Smyrna Airport . The road heads east into agricultural areas , crossing Mill Creek as it winds east . The route intersects DE 9 before turning northeast into marshland within the Woodland Beach Wildlife Area . DE 6 turns north and reaches its eastern terminus at an intersection with Delaware Avenue in the community of Woodland Beach , located along the Delaware Bay .
The portion of the route between Alley Mill Road west of Clayton and DE 300 in Smyrna is part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway , a Delaware Byway . DE 6 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 21 @,@ 997 vehicles at the east end of the US 13 concurrency to a low of 764 vehicles at the Lighthouse Road intersection . None of DE 6 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 6 existed as an unimproved county road . The road was completed as a state highway within Clayton and was proposed as one from Clayton west to Blackiston by 1924 . On August 5 , 1925 , the state highway between Clayton and Blackiston was completed . In 1929 , the road leading to Woodland Beach was completed as a state highway . The portion of the road between Blackiston and the Maryland border was upgraded to a state highway in 1930 . When Delaware created its state highway system by 1936 , DE 6 was routed between the Maryland border west of Blackiston and Woodland Beach , following its current alignment to Smyrna , passing through Smyrna on Commerce Street , and continuing east on its current alignment to Woodland Beach . All of the route was paved except for the easternmost portion . The eastern portion of the road was paved by 1967 . By the 1990s , DE 6 was routed onto its current alignment through Smyrna along DE 300 and US 13 , bypassing the downtown area .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Paul Oscar =
Páll Óskar Hjálmtýsson ( born 16 March 1970 ) , known internationally as Páll Óskar and Paul Oscar , is an Icelandic pop singer , songwriter and disc jockey . He had a musical childhood , singing at private functions , with choirs and for media advertisements , but was affected by bullying in school and tension between his parents at home . He came out as gay to his family at the age of 16 years .
Paul Oscar 's musical range spans traditional Icelandic songs , ballads , love songs , disco , house and techno . He released his first album , Stuð ( Groove ) , in 1993 while in New York City , and also sang with Icelandic groups Milljónamæringarnir ( The Millionaires ) and Casino while establishing a career as a solo artiste . His album of ballads , Palli , was the best @-@ selling Icelandic album of 1995 . Paul Oscar came to international attention when he performed " Minn hinsti dans " ( " My Final Dance " ) , Iceland 's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 . His most recent album is Silfursafnið ( The Silver Collection , 2008 ) . In Reykjavík , Paul Oscar performs regularly as a disc jockey in clubs and appears on radio and TV shows .
= = Early life = =
The youngest of seven children of Hjálmtýr E. Hjálmtýsson , a bank clerk , and Margrét Matthíasdóttir , a writer , Paul Oscar was born on 16 March 1970 in Reykjavík . As a child he displayed artistic talent in drawing , writing fairy tales and singing – his mother had him sing for the women in her sewing club and at family birthday parties . He also spent much time singing in choirs and in media commercials , and recorded his first album at the age of seven . His first leading role in a professional theatre production was at 12 years of age in the musical version of Rubber Tarzan , a popular Danish children 's novel by Ole Lund Kirkegaard ( 1940 – 1979 ) . His voice broke two weeks after the musical 's last performance , and he did not sing for the next few years .
Although Paul Oscar 's family encouraged his musical talent , his parents did not get along with each other , and he was bullied by his schoolmates . Paul Oscar recalled : " My nickname was Little Palli , and Palli was chubby , nerdy , someone who never got jokes right , who was afraid of other men . " At age 13 , he realized that he found men attractive , and came out to his family at 16 . " For the first day , there was nice talk of acceptance , though my father did raise his voice . On the second day , and the third , and the fourth , there was this terrible silence . They treated me like an alien . " However , his mother was supportive . She said : " If Páll has the talent to fall in love , he should nurture that talent . And he has as much a right to sit down at my table with his partner as anybody else does with their partner . "
Paul Oscar rediscovered his voice at the age of 18 , singing bass with the Hamrahlíð college choir
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the king of the Hungarians was less and less inclined to send envoys and to make promises concerning a peace treaty , [ the emperor ] laid siege to the fortress of Pressburg and for a long time attacked it with various machines of war . Since , however , God aided the besieged , who anxiously called on Him , his efforts were always frustrated and he could by no means capture it . Meanwhile the lord Pope Leo had intervened at the request of Andreas to make peace and he called on the emperor to end the siege . Since [ the pope ] found [ the emperor ] in all respects in agreement with him , while discovering that Andreas on the contrary was less obedient to his advice , he was angry and threatened the latter with excommunincation for mocking the apostolic see .
= = = Succession crisis and death ( 1053 – 1060 ) = = =
Andrew 's queen , Anastasia , gave birth to a son , named Solomon in 1053 . Andrew attempted to make his son 's succession secure , even against his brother , Béla , who had strong claim to succeed Andrew according to the traditional principle of seniority .
The brothers ' relationship did not deteriorate immediately after Solomon 's birth . In the deed of the foundation of the Tihany Abbey , a Benedictine monastery established in 1055 by Andrew , Duke Béla was listed among the lords witnessing the act . This charter , although primarily written in Latin , contains the earliest extant text – Feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea ( " on the military road which leads to Fehérvár " ) – written in Hungarian . Andrew also established a lavra for Orthodox hermits in Tihany and an Orthodox monastery near Visegrád . The Third Book of Law of King Ladislaus I of Hungary ( r . 1077 – 1095 ) refers to an " estate survey of the judge Sarkas " under " King Andrew and Duke Béla " . According to György Györffy , the serfs of the royal domains were registered during this survey which took place around 1056 .
Andrew suffered a stroke which paralyzed him . In an attempt to strengthen his son 's claim to the throne , he had the child Solomon crowned in the one @-@ year @-@ long period beginning in the autumn of 1057 . For the same purpose , Andrew also arranged the engagement of his son with Judith – a daughter of the late Emperor Henry III , and sister of the new German monarch , Henry IV ( r . 1056 – 1105 ) – in September 1058 . Thereafter , according to an episode narrated by most Hungarian chronicles , the king invited Duke Béla to a meeting at Tiszavárkony . At their meeting , Andrew seemingly offered his brother to freely choose between a crown and a sword , which were the symbols of the kingdom and the ducatus , respectively . Duke Béla , who had previously been informed by his partisans in Andrew 's court that he would be murdered on the king 's order if he opted for the crown , chose the sword .
However , Béla , who actually had no intention of renouncing his claim to succeed his brother in favor of his nephew , fled to Poland and sought military assistance from Duke Boleslaus II of Poland ( r . 1058 – 1079 ) . With Duke Boleslaus 's support , Béla returned to Hungary at the head of Polish troops . On the other hand , the Dowager Empress Agnes – who governed the Holy Roman Empire in the name of her minor son , Henry IV – sent Bavarian , Bohemian and Saxon troops to assist Andrew .
The decisive battle was fought in the regions east of the river Tisza . Andrew suffered injuries and lost the battle . He attempted to flee to the Holy Roman Empire , but his brother 's partisans routed his retinue at Moson . The Annals of Niederaltaich narrates that wagons and horses trampled him in the battlefield . Deadly wounded in the battlefield , Andrew was seized and taken by his brother 's partisans to Zirc where " he was treated with neglect " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Andrew died in the royal manor there before his brother was crowned king on 6 December 1060 . Andrew was buried in the crypt of the church of the Tihany Abbey .
= = Family = =
Andrew 's wife , Anastasia , was the daughter of Grand Duke Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev by his wife , Ingegerd , who herself was the daughter of King Olof Skötkonung of Sweden . Andrew married Anastasia , who was born in about 1020 , around 1038 . Their first child , Adelaide was born around 1040 . She became the wife of Vratislaus II of Bohemia , who was initially Duke and , from 1085 , King of Bohemia . Andrew and Anastasia 's first son , Solomon , was born in 1053 , their second son , David , some years later . Neither Solomon nor David fathered sons ; the male line of Andrew 's family died out with their death by the end of the 11th century .
King Salomon and David , his brother , never had children , and the seed of King Andreas perished with them . We believe that this was by an act of God ; for on his first return with Levente , his brother , to Hungary , Andreas with the purpose of gaining the kingdom permitted the ungodly Vatha and other most evil men to kill the saintly Gerard and many Christians .
Medieval chronicles write that Andrew had a natural son , named George , " by a concubine " from the village of Pilismarót . Since his name was popular among Orthodox believers , Gyula Kristó says that his mother may have been a Russian lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of Andrew 's queen . The theory that the Clan Drummond in Scotland was descended from George is not widely accepted by scholars .
The following family tree presents Andrew 's ancestry , his offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .
* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty .
= = Gallery = =
= Russian ironclad Kreml =
The Russian ironclad Kreml ( Russian : Кремль ) was the third and last Pervenets @-@ class broadside ironclad built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the mid @-@ 1860s . She joined the Baltic Fleet upon completion and accidentally sank a Russian frigate in 1869 . The ship was assigned to the Gunnery Training Detachment in 1870 and was frequently rearmed . Kreml sank in shallow water after a storm in 1885 ; she was refloated and returned to service . The ship was placed in reserve in 1904 and disarmed the following year before being sold for scrap in 1908 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pervenents @-@ class ironclads were designed as coastal defence ships to protect the approaches to Saint Petersburg and were referred to as " self @-@ propelled armored floating batteries " . As such , heavy armament and protection were the most important factors in their design .
Kreml was 221 feet ( 67 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , with a beam of 53 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) and a mean draft of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . Displacing 3 @,@ 664 long tons ( 3 @,@ 723 t ) at full load , she was somewhat larger than her half @-@ sisters and displaced over 300 long tons ( 300 t ) more . She was fitted with a ram bow and lacked the stern ram of her half @-@ sisters . Based on the experiences with her sister Pervenets , bilge keels 12 inches ( 305 mm ) deep and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long were fitted to reduce the ship 's rolling . The ship did not steer well and historian Stephen McLaughlin notes that she had " an unpredictable habit of suddenly lurching to one side or another " , probably as a result of poor water flow to the rudder . Kreml required six men to man her wheel and her total crew numbered 459 officers and enlisted men .
As a cost @-@ cutting measure , the ship received the refurbished horizontal trunk steam engine from the wooden frigate Ilya Muromets , built by Carr and MacPherson of Saint Petersburg . It had two cylinders , each with a bore of 83 @.@ 6 inches ( 2 @,@ 120 mm ) and a stroke of 36 inches ( 910 mm ) . Using steam produced by four rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers to drive a single 13 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) propeller , the engine was designed to produce 870 indicated horsepower ( 650 kW ) and gave the ship a maximum speed of 7 @.@ 08 – 8 @.@ 93 knots ( 13 @.@ 11 – 16 @.@ 54 km / h ; 8 @.@ 15 – 10 @.@ 28 mph ) during her sea trials on 18 October 1866 . Kreml 's boilers proved to be unable to last more than about a decade in service before they had to be replaced , notably in 1876 , 1886 , 1892 and 1901 . To save money , the replacement boilers were taken from retiring ships and reconditioned before installation in Kreml .
The ship was intended to be rigged as a three @-@ masted schooner , like her half @-@ sisters , but her first captain suggested that her fore- and mainmasts be square rigged to take advantage of her more seaworthy hull form . Kreml 's masts were hollow iron and were used to ventilate the lower decks , the first such masts in the Imperial Russian Navy . To protect her leadsmen , sailors who determined the depth of water under the keel , in combat , Kreml was fitted with two sounding tubes that led from the gun deck through the bottom of the hull .
Kreml was completed with 17 of the most powerful guns available to the Russians , the 7 @.@ 72 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) 60 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun . Fifteen were mounted on the broadside and two guns were placed in pivot mounts on the upper deck to serve as chase guns . Unfortunately , it proved to be incapable of penetrating 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) of wrought iron armor at a distance of only 200 yards ( 183 m ) during trials in 1859 – 60 . Despite this , the ship continued to be armed with varying numbers of these guns , as well as 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled guns throughout her career . Her upper deck armament changed even more frequently and used different configurations of 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 8 @-@ inch rifled guns in addition to varying numbers of smaller guns .
The ship 's armor configuration differed from that of her half @-@ sisters . Most of her side was covered by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) of wrought @-@ iron armor , but transverse armored bulkheads of the same thickness protected the gun deck from raking fire and the upper part of the hull outside the bulkheads was unprotected . The teak backing of the armor was increased to 15 inches ( 381 mm ) . Kreml 's deck had a maximum thickness of 1 @.@ 14 inches ( 29 mm ) . The conning tower was also protected by 4 @.@ 5 inches of armor . The ship 's hull was divided by four watertight transverse and two longitudinal bulkheads for protection against underwater damage .
= = Construction and service = =
Kreml , named after the Kremlin , was ordered on 20 April 1863 when a contract was signed with the Russian shipbuilder Semiannikov & Poletika for a total cost of 898 @,@ 000 rubles . Construction had not yet begun when the Russian Admiralty Board amended the contract on 20 July to shorten the construction time by one year for a payment of an extra 48 @,@ 000 rubles in response to the adverse foreign reaction to the brutal Russian suppression of the revolts in Poland and Lithuania that year . Fearing attack by Britain and France , the Board switched priority to the smaller Uragan @-@ class monitors shortly afterwards in the belief that they could be completed more quickly so that progress on Kreml slowed to a crawl once construction began on 2 October . The ship was not formally laid down until 23 December and she was launched on 26 August 1865 .
The ship entered service in 1866 with the Baltic Fleet . She accidentally collided with and sank the wooden steam frigate Oleg on 15 August 1869 , killing 16 men from Oleg , but Kreml was only slightly damaged . She was assigned to the Gunnery Training Detachment in March 1870 and remained with it for the bulk of her career . In November 1881 , the steam @-@ powered steering gear taken from the ironclad Petr Veliky was installed which required the installation of a high @-@ pressure donkey boiler in the cramped boiler room . This proved to be more trouble than it was worth and was removed two years later . Kreml was caught by a storm on 10 June 1885 while sailing for Reval ( Tallinn ) and began taking on so much water that her captain decided to make for shallow water ; she reached Kunda Bay , on the Estonian coast , under sail alone after her engine bearings overheated and forced the engine to be stopped . Once there , the progressive flooding continued through the ventilation shafts , sounding tubes , and defective valves in the internal bulkheads , and the ship sank in 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) of water . Kreml was refloated on five days later and repaired in Kronstadt . She was reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and placed in reserve on 24 December 1904 . Kreml was disarmed and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 15 September 1905 . She was stricken from the Navy List on 12 October and sold for scrap on 8 September 1908 .
= Seorsumuscardinus =
Seorsumuscardinus is a genus of fossil dormice from the early Miocene of Europe . It is known from zone MN 4 ( see MN zonation ) in Oberdorf , Austria ; Karydia , Greece ; and Tägernaustrasse @-@ Jona , Switzerland , and from zone MN 5 in a single site at Affalterbach , Germany . The MN 4 records are placed in the species S. alpinus and the sole MN 5 record is classified as the species S. bolligeri . The latter was placed in a separate genus , Heissigia , when it was first described in 2007 , but it was reclassified as a second species of Seorsumuscardinus in 2009 .
The two species of Seorsumuscardinus are known from isolated teeth , which show that they were medium @-@ sized dormice with flat teeth . The teeth are all characterized by long transverse crests coupled with shorter ones . One of these crests , the anterotropid , distinguishes the two species , as it is present in the lower molars of S. alpinus , but not in those of S. bolligeri . Another crest , the centroloph , reaches the outer margin of the first upper molar in S. bolligeri , but not in S. alpinus . Seorsumuscardinus may be related to Muscardinus , the genus of the living hazel dormouse , which appears at about the same time , and the older Glirudinus .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1992 , Thomas Bolliger described some teeth of Seorsumuscardinus from the Swiss locality of Tägernaustrasse ( MN 4 ; early Miocene , see MN zonation ) as an indeterminate dormouse ( family Gliridae ) perhaps related to Eomuscardinus . Six years later , Hans de Bruijn named the new genus and species Seorsumuscardinus alpinus on the basis of material from Oberdorf in Austria ( also MN 4 ) and included fossils from Tägernaustrasse and from Karydia in Greece ( MN 4 ) in Seorsumuscardinus . In 2007 , Jerome Prieto and Madeleine Böhme named Heissigia bolligeri as a new genus and species from Affalterbach in Bavaria ( MN 5 , younger than MN 4 ) , and referred the Tägernaustrasse material to it , but failed to compare their new genus to Seorsumuscardinus . Two years later , Prieto published a note to compare the two and concluded that they were referable to the same genus , but different species . Thus , the genus Seorsumuscardinus now includes the species Seorsumuscardinus alpinus from MN 4 and S. bolligeri from MN 5 . Prieto provisionally placed the Tägernaustrasse material with S. alpinus . He also mentioned Pentaglis földváry , a name given to a single upper molar from the middle Miocene of Hungary , which is now lost . Although the specimen shows some similarities with Seorsumuscardinus , published illustrations are too poor to confirm the identity of Pentaglis , and Prieto considered the latter name to be an unidentifiable nomen dubium .
Because of its derived and specialized morphology , the relationships of Seorsumuscardinus are obscure . However , it shows some similarities with Muscardinus , a genus which includes the living hazel dormouse , and may share a common ancestor with it , such as the earlier fossil genus Glirudinus . All three are part of the dormouse family , which includes many extinct forms dating back to the early Eocene ( around 50 million years ago ) , as well as a smaller array of living species . The generic name Seorsumuscardinus combines the Latin seorsum , which means " different " , with Muscardinus and the specific name alpinus refers to the occurrence of S. alpinus close to the Alps . Heissigia honored paleontologist Kurt Heissig for his work in Bavaria on the occasion of his 65th birthday and bolligeri honors Thomas Bolliger for his early description of material of this dormouse .
= = Description = =
Only the cheek teeth of Seorsumuscardinus are known ; these include the fourth premolar and three molars in the upper ( maxilla ) and lower jaws ( mandible ) . The teeth are medium @-@ sized for a dormouse and have a flat occlusal ( chewing ) surface . S. bolligeri is slightly larger than S. alpinus .
= = = Upper dentition = = =
The fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) has four main , transversely placed crests ; the description of S. bolligeri mentions an additional , centrally placed small crest . De Bruijn interpreted the four main crests as the anteroloph , protoloph , metaloph , and posteroloph from front to back and wrote that these crests are not connected on the sides of the tooth . Prieto and Böhme note that the posteroloph is convex on the back margin of the tooth . In Muscardinus , the number of ridges on P4 ranges from five in Muscardinus sansaniensis to two in M. pliocaenicus and the living hazel dormouse , but the protoloph and metaloph are always connected on the lingual ( inner ) side of the tooth . P4 is two @-@ rooted in S. alpinus and three @-@ rooted in S. bolligeri .
The first upper molar ( M1 ) was described as square by De Bruijn and as rounded by Prieto and Böhme . There are five main transverse crests , which are mostly isolated , but some may be connected on the borders of the teeth . The middle crest , the centroloph , reaches to the labial ( outer ) margin in the single known M1 of S. bolligeri , but does not in any of the five M1 of S. alpinus . The front crest , the anteroloph , is less distinct in S. bolligeri than most S. alpinus , but one M1 of S. alpinus is similar to that of S. bolligeri . M1 has three roots in S. alpinus , but the number of roots in S. bolligeri is not known .
Prieto and Böhme describe M2 as less rounded than M1 and De Bruijn notes that the crests are more parallel . In addition to the five main crests , small crests are present in front of and behind the centroloph that do not cover the full width of the tooth . In one S. bolligeri M2 , there is a small crest on the lingual side in front of the centroloph , but such a crest does not occur in any S. alpinus . Another M2 of S. bolligeri has this crest on the labial side . On the other hand , all five M2 of S. alpinus have a minor crest on the labial side behind the centroloph . In two M2 of S. alpinus , the centroloph and the metaloph are connected by a longitudinal crest , which is never present in S. bolligeri . There are three roots .
M3 is known from a single specimen each from Oberdorf , Affalterbach , and Tägernaustrasse . In addition to the main crests , there are two or three additional smaller crests . The roots are unknown .
= = = Lower dentition = = =
The fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) is known from a poorly preserved specimen from Oberdorf and a less worn specimen from Tägernaustrasse . There are four ridges , of which the front and back pair are connected at the lingual side and in the Oberdorf specimen also at the labial side . This tooth is similar to that of Muscardinus hispanicus , but the front pair is better developed . There is one root .
The first lower molar ( m1 ) bears four main crests and a smaller one between the two crests at the back . An additional crest ( the anterotropid ) is present between the two front crests , the anterolophid and the metalophid , in S. alpinus , but not in S. bolligeri . The occlusal pattern of m2 resembles that of m1 . S. bolligeri also lacks an anterotropid on m2 , but the tooth is not known from Oberdorf . In a worn m2 from Tägernaustrasse , there is a thickened portion in the labial part of the anterolophid , which Prieto interpreted as a remnant of the anterotropid ; this led him to identify the Tägernaustrasse population as S. cf. alpinus . Only Oberdorf has yielded the m3 of Seorsumuscardinus . It resembles the m1 and has a short anterotropid , but has more oblique crests . In S. alpinus , the lower molars have two and occasionally three roots . The roots of the m1 of S. bolligeri are not preserved and the m2 has two roots .
= = Range = =
In MN 4 , Seorsumuscardinus has been recorded from Oberdorf , Austria ( sites 3 and 4 , which yielded 6 and 17 Seorsumuscardinus alpinus teeth , respectively ) ; Karydia , Greece ( S. alpinus ) ; and Tägernaustrasse , Switzerland ( 5 teeth ; S. cf. alpinus ) . Affalterbach , Germany , where 10 teeth of S. bolligeri were found , is the only known MN 5 locality . In all these localities , it is part of a diverse dormouse fauna . Because the distributions of the two known species are temporally distinct , Prieto suggested that the genus may be useful for biostratigraphy ( the use of fossils to determine the age of deposits ) . Seorsumuscardinus occurred at the same time as the oldest known Muscardinus .
= HMS Aurora ( 1887 ) =
HMS Aurora was one of seven Orlando @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1880s . The ship spent a brief time in reserve before she was assigned to the Channel Squadron for two years in 1890 . In 1893 Aurora became a coast guard ship in Ireland for two years before she was placed in reserve again . The ship recommissioned in 1899 for service on the China Station and some of her crew participated in the Battle of Tientsin in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . Aurora returned home two years later and was again reduced to reserve . She was taken out of service in 1905 and sold for scrap on 2 October 1907 .
= = Design and description = =
The Orlando @-@ class cruisers were enlarged versions of the Mersey class with more armour and a more powerful armament . Like their predecessors , they were intended to protect British shipping . Aurora had a length between perpendiculars of 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) . Designed to displace 5 @,@ 040 long tons ( 5 @,@ 120 t ) , all of the Orlando @-@ class ships proved to be overweight and displaced approximately 5 @,@ 535 long tons ( 5 @,@ 624 t ) . The ships were powered by a pair of three @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which were designed to produce a total of 8 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 300 kW ) and a maximum speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) using steam provided by four boilers with forced draught . The ship carried a maximum of 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal which was designed to give her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 484 officers and enlisted men .
Aurora 's main armament consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk V guns , one gun fore and aft of the superstructure on pivot mounts . Her secondary armament was ten BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , five on each broadside . Protection against torpedo boats was provided by six quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and ten QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns , most of which were mounted on the main deck in broadside positions . The ship was also armed with six 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes : four on the broadside above water and one each in the bow and stern below water .
The ship was protected by a waterline compound armour belt 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick . It covered the middle 200 feet ( 61 @.@ 0 m ) of the ship and was 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) high . Because the ship was overweight , the top of the armour belt was 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) below the waterline when she was fully loaded . The ends of the armour belt were closed off by transverse bulkheads 16 inches ( 406 mm ) . The lower deck was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) thick over the full length of the hull . The conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
Aurora , named for the eponymous Roman goddess of the dawn , was the eighth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy . She was laid down on 1 February 1886 by Pembroke Dockyard . The ship was launched on 28 October 1887 by Mrs. Sophia Morant , wife of Captain George Morant , Captain @-@ Superintendent of the dockyard and completed in July 1889 at a cost of £ 258 @,@ 390 .
Aurora went straight into reserve at Devonport after completion , but was commissioned for service with the Channel Squadron in 1890 – 92 . She was transferred to Bantry , Ireland , in 1893 to serve as the local coastguard ship until 1895 . That year the ship was reassigned to the Devonport Reserve and remained there until 1899 . Aurora participated in Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee Fleet review on 26 June 1897 at Spithead .
Aurora was recommissioned for service in the Far East in 1899 under the command of Captain Edward Bayly and some of her crew , including Bayly , took part in the Battle of Tientsin in July 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . In early February 1902 she was ordered to leave , homebound , arriving at Aden on 3 March , at Malta 17 March , and at Plymouth on 26 March . Officers and crew received the China War Medal ( 1900 ) on 15 April , before she paid off at Devonport two days later . Aurora was refitted in Clydebank upon her return and was placed in Devonport Reserve in 1904 before she was taken out of service the following year . The ship was sold for scrap to Payton , of Milford Haven , Wales , on 2 October 1907 .
= Maxim Lapierre =
Maxim Lapierre ( born March 29 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward currently playing for the HC Lugano of the NLA . Drafted out of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) , he was selected 61st overall in 2003 by the Montreal Canadiens . He spent parts of his first three professional seasons with the Canadiens ' minor league affiliate , the Hamilton Bulldogs of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) before playing his first full NHL season in 2008 – 09 .
Lapierre spent five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in the Canadiens organization before being traded to the Anaheim Ducks in December 2010 . Two months later , he was again traded , moving to the Vancouver Canucks , and helped the team to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the Boston Bruins . On July 5 , 2013 , Lapierre signed with the St. Louis Blues as a free agent . On January 27 , 2015 , Lapierre was traded from St. Louis to the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for Marcel Goc .
= = Early life = =
Lapierre was born in Saint @-@ Léonard , Quebec and grew up in Repentigny , Quebec . Beginning to play hockey at age nine , Lapierre 's midget team was based out of Cap @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Madeleine , Quebec . One of his teammates , Jean @-@ François Jacques , went on to play with him on the Hamilton Bulldogs , as well .
= = Playing career = =
= = = QMJHL = = =
During the 2001 – 02 season , Lapierre made his Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) debut with the Montreal Rocket , appearing in nine games , during which time he scored two goals . Playing in his first full QMJHL season in 2002 – 03 , Lapierre scored 22 goals and 43 points over 72 games . He added four points in seven playoff games . Following his rookie year in the juniors , Lapierre was selected in the second round , 61st overall , of the 2003 NHL Entry Draft by the Montreal Canadiens . Following his draft , Lapierre was returned to junior hockey early in the Canadiens ' 2003 training camp . Upon returning , his QMJHL club had relocated to Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island , to become the P.E.I. Rocket in 2003 – 04 . Lapierre recorded a junior career @-@ high 61 points over 67 games in his third season with the Rocket . Remaining in junior ranks for a fourth season in 2004 – 05 , he recorded 52 points over 69 games .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
In the off @-@ season , he was signed by the Canadiens to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract on July 28 , 2005 . Lapierre played his first professional season in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) with the Canadiens ' minor league affiliate , the Hamilton Bulldogs . He was called up to the NHL in November 2005 for a five @-@ day stint , playing his first NHL game on November 15 against the Florida Panthers . He registered three minutes of ice time in 4 – 3 Canadiens win , his lone NHL game during the 2005 – 06 season . In the AHL , Lapierre recorded 13 goals and 36 points over 73 games with the Bulldogs .
During the 2006 – 07 season , Lapierre received four separate call @-@ ups from Hamilton . Playing in the first game of a call @-@ up in December , he registered his first career NHL point in a 4 – 3 win against the Boston Bruins , earning the first assist on the game @-@ winning goal by Guillaume Latendresse on December 12 , 2006 . The following game , he scored his first NHL goal in a 4 – 2 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning , tipping a Mike Komisarek shot past goaltender Marc Denis . In late @-@ January 2007 , he received his last call @-@ up of the campaign , remaining with the club until the end of the NHL regular season . Over 46 NHL games , he recorded six goals and six assists , while also tallying 24 points over 37 games in the AHL .
With Montreal not qualifying for the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs , Lapierre was sent back to the Bulldogs for their 2007 playoff season . Hamilton advanced to the Calder Cup Finals , where they defeated the Hershey Bears in five games . Lapierre scored a goal and an assist in Hamilton 's 2 – 1 win in the championship @-@ deciding game . He totaled 12 points ( six goals and six assists ) in 22 playoff games .
After competing for a Canadiens roster spot in the 2007 NHL pre @-@ season , Lapierre was returned to the Bulldogs to start the 2007 – 08 season . On December 5 , 2007 , he was recalled to the Canadiens , earning a role as the club 's third or fourth line centre . His time with the Canadiens increased as he spent 53 games in the NHL with seven goals and 18 points , while registering 14 points over 19 games in the AHL .
By the 2008 – 09 campaign , Lapierre had established himself as a full @-@ time NHLer and earned a roster spot with the Canadiens out of training camp for the first time in his career . Just over a month into the season , he was elbowed in the head by opposing forward Jarkko Ruutu during a game against the Ottawa Senators on November 11 , 2008 . Lapierre was not injured on the play , while Ruutu received a two @-@ game suspension for the infraction . The following month , Lapierre recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick ( a goal , an assist and a fight ) in a 6 – 2 win against the New York Rangers on December 4 , 2008 . Later that month , on December 29 , 2008 , Lapierre recorded his first career NHL hat @-@ trick during a 5 – 2 win against the Florida Panthers . Lapierre had a career year in 2008 – 09 , finishing with 15 goals and 13 assists for 28 points over 79 games . After going scoreless in four playoff games , as the Canadiens were eliminated in the first round by the Boston Bruins , it was revealed that Lapierre had played the majority of the season in pain with an ankle injury . He underwent surgery in the off @-@ season , recovering in time for the 2009 training camp .
Lapierre 's offensive production decreased to 14 points in 2009 – 10 , his lowest total in the NHL since his rookie season . On March 5 , 2010 , Lapierre was suspended four games for a hit against opposing forward Scott Nichol during a game against the San Jose Sharks the previous day . Nichol left the game injured after Lapierre pushed him from behind , causing him to crash into the end boards . In addition to the suspension , Lapierre lost approximately $ 14 @,@ 000 in pay , which went to the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) ' s emergency fund . In the 2010 playoffs , Lapierre helped the Canadiens advance to the Eastern Conference Semi @-@ finals , scoring goals in Game 6 of the first round against the Washington Capitals and the second round against the Pittsburgh Penguins , both elimination games . The Canadiens , however , were eliminated in the third round by the Philadelphia Flyers ; Lapierre finished the playoff season with three goals and one assist in 19 games .
= = = Anaheim and Vancouver = = =
After five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons playing within the Canadiens organization , Lapierre was traded to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for defenceman Brett Festerling and a fifth @-@ round draft pick in 2012 on December 31 , 2010 . He made his Ducks debut on January 5 , 2011 , in a 4 – 1 loss to the Nashville Predators . The following game , he recorded his first point as a Duck , assisting on a goal by Matt Beleskey in a 6 – 0 win against the Columbus Blue Jackets . Lapierre played 21 games with the Ducks , recording three assists in that span , before being dealt again prior to the NHL trade deadline on February 28 , 2011 . He was sent to the Vancouver Canucks , along with forward MacGregor Sharp , in exchange for minor @-@ league forward Joel Perrault and a third @-@ round draft pick in 2012 .
Canucks Head Coach Alain Vigneault had reportedly recommended Lapierre to General Manager Mike Gillis , having coached Lapierre in the QMJHL . Upon his arrival in Vancouver , Lapierre 's reputation as an agitator was addressed by Vigneault and he was asked to reduce activity in between whistles , such as trash talking and unnecessary hits . Lapierre scored his first goal as a Canuck on March 16 , 2011 , in a 4 – 2 win against the Colorado Avalanche . While the Canucks originally acquired Lapierre with the intention of playing him on the fourth line , he soon moved up to the third with the injury of Manny Malhotra late in the season . Between Montreal , Anaheim and Vancouver , he finished the season with six goals and six assists over 78 games . Centring the third line with wingers Raffi Torres and Jannik Hansen during the 2011 playoffs , Lapierre added three goals and five points over 25 games . He helped Vancouver reach the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . During the Finals , Lapierre scored the only goal of Game 5 against the Boston Bruins , helping Vancouver to a 1 – 0 win . With a 3 – 2 lead in the series , the Canucks went on to lose the next two contests , losing the Stanley Cup in seven games . Set to become an restricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Lapierre was re @-@ signed by Vancouver to a two @-@ year , $ 2 million contract on June 27 , 2011 .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
Lapierre agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 2 million contract with the St. Louis Blues . On October 15 , 2013 against the San Jose Sharks , Lapierre checked Dan Boyle into the boards , hospitalizing him and causing a fight between the two teams ; Lapierre was ejected from the game . He was subsequently suspended , and a disciplinary hearing was held . Lapierre was suspended for five games by NHL Director of Player Safety Brendan Shanahan on October 18 , 2013 .
= = = Pittsburgh Penguins = = =
On January 27 , 2015 , Lapierre was traded from the Blues to the Pittsburgh Penguins in exchange for Marcel Goc . Lapierre played a key role during the 2015 playoffs , getting under the skin of the New York Rangers by drawing penalties , instigating fights , taunting and most notably doing play @-@ by @-@ play towards the Rangers ' bench . He played an important role on the face @-@ off dot and on the penalty kill , frustrating the New York Rangers and his former head coach in Vancouver , Alain Vigneault .
= = = Europe = = =
On September 1 , 2015 , Lapierre sign a one @-@ year contract with Modo Hockey of the Swedish Hockey League . The contract comes with an option for a second year . On January 20 , 2016 Lapierre 's asked for his contract to be terminated with Modo Hockey . After beginning the season with coach Larry Hurras who was later relieved of his duties as Modo coach . Andreas Johansson the new coach brought in a system that was not favourable for Lapierre 's style of play . Maxim Lapierre who was leading Modo in scoring posting 8G , 11A , 19P in 34 games asked for his contract to be formally terminated . Lapierre was the third NHL player to leave Modo during the 2015 – 16 season , both Ryan Whitney and Kyle Wilson left prior to Lapierre 's departure as well . On January 25 , 2016 , he signed a contract with HC Lugano of the Swiss NLA for the remainder of the season .
= = Playing style = =
Lapierre is known primarily as a checking forward , centring either the third or fourth line . He has a reputation as an agitator , distracting and provoking opposing players to take penalties . He plays with an aggressive edge and led all Canadiens forward in hits in his last full season with the club . Defensively responsible , he earns time on the penalty kill . In 2008 – 09 , he ranked third on the Canadiens in average short handed time on ice per game .
= = Career statistics = =
= Rodrigues parrot =
The Rodrigues parrot ( Necropsittacus rodricanus ) is an extinct parrot in the family Psittaculidae . It was endemic to the Mascarene island of Rodrigues in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . It is unclear what other species it is most closely related to , but it has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other Mascarene parrots . It had similarities with the broad @-@ billed parrot , and may have been closely related .
The Rodrigues parrot was green , and had a proportionally large head and beak along with a long tail . Its exact size is unknown , but it may have been around 50 cm ( 20 in ) long . It may have looked similar to the great @-@ billed parrot . It frequented and nested on islets off southern Rodrigues to avoid introduced rats , and fed on the seeds of the Fernelia buxifolia shrub . The species is known from subfossil bones and from mentions in three contemporary accounts . It was last mentioned in 1761 , and probably became extinct soon after , probably due to a combination of predation by rats , deforestation , and hunting by humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
Parrots matching the Rodrigues parrot were first mentioned by François Leguat in 1708 and Julien Tafforet in 1726 , who were both marooned on Rodrigues . The parrot was scientifically described as Psittacus rodricanus by the French ornithologist Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards in 1867 . He moved it to its own genus Necropsittacus in 1874 . The binomial , N. rodricanus , translates to " dead parrot of Rodrigues " , in reference to its extinction . The holotype specimen is a subfossil partial beak , but its current whereabouts are unknown . It may be specimen UMZC 575 , a rostrum that was sent from Milne @-@ Edwards ' to Alfred Newton after 1880 , which matches the drawing and description in Milne @-@ Edwards ' paper , but this cannot be confirmed . In addition , subfossil remains of at least four individuals have been found in the Plaine Corail .
After examining a skull of the Rodrigues parrot , Edward Newton and Hans Gadow found it to be closely related to the broad @-@ billed parrot due to their large jaws and other osteological features , but were unable to determine whether they both belonged in the same genus , since a crest was only known from the latter . Graham S. Cowles instead found their skulls too dissimilar for them to be close relatives . The skeleton of the Rodrigues parrot has similarities with the Tanygnathus and Psittacula parrot genera .
In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , Walther Rothschild placed two hypothetical parrot species in the Necropsittacus genus ; the Réunion red and green parakeet ( Necropsittacus ? borbonicus ) and the Mauritian parrot ( Necropsittacus ? francicus ) . The former was based on a single account by Sieur Dubois , and it is uncertain what the source for the latter is , so both are considered dubious today .
= = = Evolution = = =
Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are derived from South Asian ancestors , and the English palaeontologist Julian Hume has proposed that this may be the case for all the parrots there as well . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of the then less isolated islands . Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones .
Hume has suggested that they have a common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini may have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . A 2011 genetic study instead found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of nearby Réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin .
= = Description = =
The Rodrigues parrot was described as large and with a big head and a long tail . Its plumage was described as being of uniform green colouration . Its skull was flat and depressed compared to those of most other parrots , but similar to the genus Ara . The skull was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long without the beak , 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) wide , and 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) deep . Its exact body length is unknown , but it may have been around 50 cm ( 20 in ) . Its size has been likened to that of a large cockatoo . Its tibia was 32 % smaller than that of a female broad @-@ billed parrot , yet the pectoral bones were of similar size , and proportionally its head was the largest of any Mascarene species of parrot .
The pectoral and pelvic bones were similar in size to those of the New Zealand kaka ( Nestor meridionalis ) , and it may have looked similar to the great @-@ billed parrot ( Tanygnathus megalorynchos ) in life , but with a larger head and tail . It differed from other Mascarene parrots in several skeletal features , including having nostrils that faced upwards instead of forwards . No features of the skull suggest it had a crest like the broad @-@ billed parrot , and there is not enough fossil evidence to determine whether it had pronounced sexual dimorphism . There are intermediate specimens between the longest and shortest examples of the known skeletal elements , which indicates there were no distinct size groups .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Tafforet 's 1726 description is the only detailed account of the Rodrigues parrot in life :
The largest are larger than a pigeon , and have a tail very long , the head large as well as the beak . They mostly come on the islets which are to the south of the island , where they eat a small black seed , which produces a small shrub whose leaves have the smell of the orange tree , and come to the mainland to drink water ... they have their plumage green . The “ Bois de buis ” [ Fernelia buxifolia ] is common there and very small . The perroquets eat the seeds .
The shrub mentioned by Tafforet , Fernelia buxifolia , is endangered today , but was common all over Rodrigues and nearby islets during his visit . At this time , the parrots , the Rodrigues starling and the Rodrigues pigeon frequented and nested on these islets to avoid the large population of introduced rats on Rodrigues .
Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man , so the ecosystem of the island is heavily damaged . Before humans arrived , forests covered the island entirely , but very little remains today due to deforestation . The Rodrigues parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues solitaire , the Rodrigues rail , Newton 's parakeet , the Rodrigues starling , the Rodrigues owl , the Rodrigues night heron , and the Rodrigues pigeon . Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise , the saddle @-@ backed Rodrigues giant tortoise , and the Rodrigues day gecko .
= = Extinction = =
Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( Psittacula echo ) of Mauritius has survived . The others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation . The offshore islets of Rodrigues were eventually infested by rats as well , and this is believed to be the reason for the demise of the Rodrigues parrot and other birds there . The rats probably preyed on their eggs and chicks . The French astronomer Alexandre Guy Pingré visited Rodriges to observe the 1761 transit of Venus . He indicated that local species were popular game , and found that the Rodrigues parrot was rare :
The perruche [ Newton 's parakeet ] seemed to me much more delicate [ than the flying @-@ fox ] . I would not have missed any game from France if this one had been commoner in Rodrigues ; but it begins to become rare . There are even fewer perroquets [ Rodrigues parrots ] , although there were once a big enough quantity according to François Leguat ; indeed a little islet south of Rodrigues still retains the name Isle of Parrots [ Isle Pierrot ] .
Pingré also reported that the island was becoming deforested by tortoise hunters who set fires to clear vegetation . Along with direct hunting of the parrots , this likely led to a reduction in the population of Rodrigues parrots . Pingré 's account is the last known mention of the species , and it probably became extinct soon after .
= Manchester Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine =
The Manchester Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , nicknamed Baby , was the world 's first stored @-@ program computer . It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester , England , by Frederic C. Williams , Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill , and ran its first program on 21 June 1948 .
The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a testbed for the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory . Although considered " small and primitive " by the standards of its time , it was the first working machine to contain all the elements essential to a modern electronic computer . As soon as the SSEM had demonstrated the feasibility of its design , a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer , the Manchester Mark 1 . The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1 , the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose computer .
The SSEM had a 32 @-@ bit word length and a memory of 32 words . As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored @-@ program computer , the only arithmetic operations implemented in hardware were subtraction and negation ; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software . The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest proper divisor of 218 ( 262 @,@ 144 ) , a calculation that was known would take a long time to run — and so prove the computer 's reliability — by testing every integer from 218 − 1 downwards , as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor . The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for 52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131 @,@ 072 , after the SSEM had performed 3 @.@ 5 million operations ( for an effective CPU speed of 1 @.@ 1 kIPS ) .
= = Background = =
The first design for a program @-@ controlled computer was Charles Babbage 's Analytical Engine in the 1830s . A century later , in 1936 , mathematician Alan Turing published his description of what became known as a Turing machine , a theoretical concept intended to explore the limits of mechanical computation . Turing was not imagining a physical machine , but a person he called a " computer " , who acted according to the instructions provided by a tape on which symbols could be read and written sequentially as the tape moved under a tape head . Turing proved that if an algorithm can be written to solve a mathematical problem , then a Turing machine can execute that algorithm .
Konrad Zuse 's Z3 was the world 's first working programmable , fully automatic computer , with binary digital arithmetic logic , but it lacked the conditional branching of a Turing machine . On 12 May 1941 , it was successfully presented to an audience of scientists of the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt ( " German Laboratory for Aviation " ) in Berlin . The Z3 stored its program on an external tape , but it was electromechanical rather than electronic . The Colossus of 1943 was the first electronic computing device , but it was not a general @-@ purpose machine .
The ENIAC ( 1946 ) was the first machine that was both electronic and general purpose . It was Turing complete , with conditional branching , and programmable to solve a wide range of problems , but its program was held in the state of switches in patchcords , not in memory , and it could take several days to reprogram . Researchers such as Turing and Zuse investigated the idea of using the computer 's memory to hold the program as well as the data it was working on , but it was mathematician John von Neumann who became widely credited with defining that computer architecture , still used in almost all computers .
The construction of a von Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device on which to store the program . During the Second World War researchers working on the problem of removing the clutter from radar signals had developed a form of delay line memory , the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line , developed by J. Presper Eckert . Radar transmitters send out regular brief pulses of radio energy , the reflections from which are displayed on a CRT screen . As operators are usually interested only in moving targets , it was desirable to filter out any distracting reflections from stationary objects . The filtering was achieved by comparing each received pulse with the previous pulse , and rejecting both if they were identical , leaving a signal containing only the images of any moving objects . To store each received pulse for later comparison it was passed through a transmission line , delaying it by exactly the time between transmitted pulses .
Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory ( NPL ) in October 1945 , by which time scientists within the Ministry of Supply had concluded that Britain needed a National Mathematical Laboratory to coordinate machine @-@ aided computation . A Mathematics Division was set up at the NPL , and on 19 February 1946 Alan Turing presented a paper outlining his design for an electronic stored @-@ program computer to be known as the Automatic Computing Engine ( ACE ) . This was one of several projects set up in the years following the Second World War with the aim of constructing a stored @-@ program computer . At about the same time , EDVAC was under development at the University of Pennsylvania 's Moore School of Electrical Engineering , and the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory was working on EDSAC .
The NPL did not have the expertise to build a machine like ACE , so they contacted Tommy Flowers at the General Post Office 's ( GPO ) Dollis Hill Research Laboratory . Flowers , the designer of Colossus , the world 's first programmable electronic computer , was committed elsewhere and was unable to take part in the project , although his team did build some mercury delay lines for ACE . The Telecommunications Research Establishment ( TRE ) was also approached for assistance , as was Maurice Wilkes at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory .
The government department responsible for the NPL decided that , of all the work being carried out by the TRE on its behalf , ACE was to be given the top priority . NPL 's decision led to a visit by the superintendent of the TRE 's Physics Division on 22 November 1946 , accompanied by Frederic C. Williams and A. M. Uttley , also from the TRE . Williams led a TRE development group working on CRT stores for radar applications , as an alternative to delay lines . He had already accepted a professorship at the University of Manchester , and most of his circuit technicians were in the process of being transferred to the Department of Atomic Energy . The TRE agreed to second a small number of technicians to work under Williams ' direction at the university , and to support another small group working with Uttley at the TRE .
= = Williams – Kilburn tube = =
Although early computers such as EDSAC made successful use of mercury delay line memory , the technology had several drawbacks ; it was heavy , it was expensive , and it did not allow data to be accessed randomly . In addition , because data was stored as a sequence of acoustic waves propagated through a mercury column , the device 's temperature had to be very carefully controlled , as the velocity of sound through a medium varies with its temperature . Williams had seen an experiment at Bell Labs demonstrating the effectiveness of cathode ray tubes ( CRT ) as an alternative to the delay line for removing ground echoes from radar signals . While working at the TRE , shortly before he joined the University of Manchester in December 1946 , he and Tom Kilburn had developed a form of electronic memory known as the Williams or Williams – Kilburn tube based on a standard CRT , the first random @-@ access digital storage device . The Manchester Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) was designed to show that the system was a practical storage device , by testing that data held within it could be read and written at the speed necessary for use in a computer .
For use in a binary digital computer , the tube had to be capable of storing either one of two states at each of its memory locations , corresponding to the binary digits ( bits ) 0 and 1 . It exploited the positive or negative electrostatic charge generated by displaying either a dash or a dot at any position on the CRT screen , a phenomenon known as secondary emission . A dash generated a positive charge , and a dot a negative charge , either of which could be picked up by a detector plate in front of the screen ; a negative charge represented 0 , and a positive charge 1 . The charge dissipated in about 0 @.@ 2 seconds , but it could be automatically refreshed from the data picked up by the detector .
The Williams tube was initially based on the CV1131 , a commercially available 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) diameter CRT , but a smaller 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) tube , the CV1097 , was used in the SSEM .
= = Development and design = =
Following his appointment to the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Manchester University , Williams recruited his TRE colleague Tom Kilburn on secondment . By the autumn of 1947 the pair had increased the storage capacity of the Williams tube from one bit to 2 @,@ 048 , arranged in a 64 by 32 @-@ bit array , and demonstrated that it was able to store those bits for four hours . Engineer Geoff Tootill joined the team on loan from TRE in September 1947 , and remained on secondment until April 1949 .
Max Newman had been appointed to the Chair of Pure Mathematics at Manchester University in 1945 . During the Second World War he had worked as a cryptanalyst at Bletchley Park , and had led the team which in 1943 produced the first of the Colossus code @-@ breaking computers . Although Newman played no active role in the development of the SSEM , or any of the subsequent Manchester computers , he was generally supportive and enthusiastic about the project , and arranged for the acquisition of war @-@ surplus supplies for its construction , including GPO metal racks from Bletchley .
By June 1948 the SSEM had been built and was working . It was 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in length , 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) tall , and weighed almost 1 long ton ( 1 @.@ 0 t ) . The machine contained 550 valves — 300 diodes and 250 pentodes — and had a power consumption of 3500 watts . The arithmetic unit was built using EF50 pentode valves , which had been widely used during wartime . The SSEM used one Williams tube to provide 32 by 32 @-@ bit words of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , a second to hold a 32 @-@ bit accumulator in which the intermediate results of a calculation could be stored temporarily , and a third to hold the current program instruction along with its address in memory . A fourth CRT , without the storage electronics of the other three , was used as the output device , able to display the bit pattern of any selected storage tube .
Each 32 @-@ bit word of RAM could contain either a program instruction or data . In a program instruction , bits 0 – 12 represented the memory address of the operand to be used , and bits 13 – 15 specified the operation to be executed , such as storing a number in memory ; the remaining 16 bits were unused . The SSEM 's single operand architecture meant that the second operand of any operation was implicit : the accumulator or the program counter ( instruction address ) ; program instructions specified only the address of the data in memory .
A word in the computer 's memory could be read , written , or refreshed , in 360 microseconds . An instruction took four times as long to execute as accessing a word from memory , giving an instruction execution rate of about 700 per second . The main store was refreshed continuously , a process which took 20 milliseconds to complete , as each of the SSEM 's 32 words had to be read and then refreshed in sequence .
The SSEM represented negative numbers using two 's complement , as most computers still do . In that representation , the value of the most significant bit denotes the sign of a number ; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one . Thus the range of numbers that could be held in each 32 @-@ bit word was − 231 to + 231 − 1 ( decimal : − 2 @,@ 147 @,@ 483 @,@ 648 to + 2 @,@ 147 @,@ 483 @,@ 647 ) .
= = Programming = =
The SSEM 's three bit instruction set allowed a maximum of eight ( 23 ) different instructions . In contrast to the modern convention , the machine 's storage was arranged with the least significant digits to the left ; thus a one was represented in three bits as " 100 " , rather than the more conventional " 001 " .
The awkward negative operations were a consequence of the SSEM 's lack of hardware to perform any arithmetic operations except subtraction and negation . It was considered unnecessary to build an adder before testing could begin as addition can easily be implemented by subtraction , i.e. x + y can be computed as − ( − x − y ) . Therefore , adding two numbers together , X and Y , required four instructions :
LDN X / / load negative X into the accumulator
SUB Y / / subtract Y from the value in the accumulator
STO S / / store the result at S
LDN S / / load negative value at S into the accumulator
Programs were entered in binary form by stepping through each word of memory in turn , and using a set of 32 switches known as the input device to set the value of each bit of each word to either 0 or 1 . The SSEM had no paper @-@ tape reader or punch .
= = = First programs = = =
Three programs were written for the computer . The first , consisting of 17 instructions , was written by Kilburn , and so far as can be ascertained first ran on 21 June 1948 . It was designed to find the highest proper factor of 218 ( 262 @,@ 144 ) by trying every integer from 218 − 1 downwards . The divisions were implemented by repeated subtractions of the divisor . The SSEM took 3 @.@ 5 million operations and 52 minutes to produce the answer ( 131 @,@ 072 ) . The program used eight words of working storage in addition to its 17 words of instructions , giving a program size of 25 words .
Geoff Tootill wrote an amended version of the program the following month , and in mid @-@ July Alan Turing — who had been appointed as a reader in the mathematics department at Manchester University in September 1948 — submitted the third program , to carry out long division . Turing had by then been appointed to the nominal post of Deputy Director of the Computing Machine Laboratory at the university , although the laboratory did not become a physical reality until 1951 .
= = Later developments = =
Williams and Kilburn reported on the SSEM in a letter to the Journal Nature , published in September 1948 . The machine 's successful demonstration quickly led to the construction of a more practical computer , the Manchester Mark 1 , work on which began in August 1948 . The first version was operational by April 1949 , and it in turn led directly to the development of the Ferranti Mark 1 , the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose computer .
In 1998 , a working replica of the SSEM , now on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester , was built to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the running of its first program . Demonstrations of the machine in operation are held regularly at the museum . In 2008 , an original panoramic photograph of the entire machine was discovered at the University of Manchester . The photograph , taken on 15 December 1948 by a research student , Alec Robinson , had been reproduced in The Illustrated London News in June 1949 .
= Homer 's Night Out =
" Homer 's Night Out " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 25 , 1990 . It was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore . In the episode , Bart orders a mail @-@ order spy camera , which he uses to secretly take a photograph of Homer dancing with an exotic belly dancer . Marge makes Homer apologize to the exotic dancer to teach Bart that women are not objects . Sam McMurray guest stars in the episode as Gulliver Dark , the man that introduces Homer to the crowd at the burlesque show .
The episode was well received by critics and it was the second highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . This episode , along with three other episodes of the show , is featured on the The Simpsons Gone Wild DVD released in 2004 .
= = Plot = =
Bart purchases a miniature spy camera from a mail @-@ order catalog and uses it to take candid photos around the house . Later , Homer tells Marge he is going to a bachelor party for a co @-@ worker , Eugene Fisk . While Homer is gone , Marge decides to take the children to the Rusty Barnacle , a seafood restaurant where ( unknown to her ) the bachelor party is well under way .
A sexy belly dancer named Princess Kashmir arrives at the party and invites Homer on stage to dance with her . On the way to the restaurant bathroom , Bart wanders into the bachelor party room and eagerly snaps a picture of Homer and Kashmir . Bart brings the picture to school and gives a copy of it to Milhouse , who promptly gets requests from other students for a copy of the picture . It is not long before everyone in Springfield has one . Marge sees a copy of the picture at her aerobics class and furiously rips it from the bulletin board . When Homer gets home that day , Marge immediately shoves the picture in his face and demands an explanation . At that point , Bart inadvertently reveals that it was his picture , and Homer gets angry at him for taking the picture . After sending Bart to his room , Marge shoves a hastily half @-@ packed suitcase in front of Homer and kicks him out of the house . Homer spends the night at Barney 's apartment .
The next day Homer goes home to apologize to Marge . To his surprise , he learns that what upset her was not what he did , but that Bart saw it and will one day misconstrue it as a sign that it is okay to treat women like sex objects . She insists that he take Bart to meet Princess Kashmir so that Bart can see for himself that she is more than just a stripper . Left with no alternative , Homer and Bart scour the strip clubs of Springfield to find Princess Kashmir . Eventually , they track her down at the Sapphire Lounge .
Homer introduces himself and Bart to Kashmir , who is preoccupied with getting on stage for her performance , though she understands what Homer is trying to get through for his son . Without knowing it , Homer accidentally finds himself on stage at the burlesque show . Homer is about to be thrown offstage when the audience recognize him as the guy from the picture . The audience applauds and Homer gets caught up in the fanfare and starts dancing with the showgirls , until he sees Bart and realizes what he was supposed to do . Homer stops the show and successfully manages to make a plea to the audience to treat women with respect . Marge , who is in the audience , accepts Homer 's apology and the two make up .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore . Barney 's apartment , which Homer spends the night in when he is kicked out by Marge , is partly based on an apartment Jim Reardon , Moore , and a few other animators of The Simpsons shared in college . One of the strip clubs Homer and Bart visit when they are trying to find Princess Kashmir is based on the Seventh Veil Strip Club in Los Angeles , California . The staff went around Hollywood taking pictures of strip clubs so that they could get inspiration for the interior design of the strip club buildings in Springfield . The character designer designed over fifty different international showgirl costumes for the showgirls in the burlesque show sequence . Carl Carlson made his first appearance on The Simpsons in this episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homer 's Night Out " finished fourteenth place in the weekly ratings for the week of March 19 – 25 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 9 . It was the second highest rated show on the Fox network that week . " Homer 's Night Out " received generally positive reviews from critics . In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 4 / 5 and named it one of his two favorite episodes of the season . He added that it " allows us to see that Homer really does love Marge a lot without having to blatantly stamp sentimentality all over it . The episode is strange , goofy and fun . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said that " the concept of Marge ’ s anger at Homer got old , but this episode managed to offer a reasonably entertaining affair . It was fun to see Homer treated like a party god , and this offered a few nice moments . The overall level of quality remained good throughout the show , but it didn ’ t rise to any great heights . " David Packard at DVD Verdict said in a review of the The Simpsons Gone Wild DVD that " this episode sports some of the awkward animation and voice work that is prevalent in episodes from the first season . That aspect isn 't an issue to me ; in fact , I quite enjoy season one as it shows the early efforts of the series getting its legs in making the transition from its origin on The Tracey Ullman Show . The problem I have with this episode is that it 's not particularly funny . I chuckled a few times , but the episode doesn 't have the rollicking gags and sly humor of the two episodes to follow . "
= February 2009 tornado outbreak =
The February 2009 tornado outbreak occurred on February 10 and February 11 , 2009 , affecting portions of both the Central and Eastern United States . During the two @-@ day period , 15 tornadoes touched down in seven states . Oklahoma was struck by six tornadoes , the most of any state . The first day of the outbreak produced the most tornadoes ; the second brought mainly high wind damage and rain or snow in most of the Northeast .
The storm system responsible for the tornado outbreak resulted from the unusual congruence of a cold , dry system , originating in the Four Corners and a warm , moist system , moving north out of Texas . Complicating factors included daytime heating and a strong wind field favorable to the creation of circulating thunderstorms . On the second day , the stronger cold front limited discrete supercell activity and the risk of tornadoes decreased significantly . A squall line , however , produced high winds and rain along the river valleys , primarily those of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers . This squall line continued to renew its energy as it passed through the Midwest , Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , and New England , causing wind and water damage , and dumping 6 inches ( 15 cm ) of snow in central and eastern Massachusetts . The resulting power outages affected homes throughout the northeastern seaboard .
The most destructive of the weather events , an EF4 tornado , traveled for nearly an hour through four counties in Oklahoma during the evening of February 10 . It destroyed 114 residences in Lone Grove alone . All casualties ( 8 deaths and 46 injuries ) from the outbreak were due to the tornado in the Lone Grove area in Carter County . It was the deadliest tornado to hit Oklahoma since May 3 , 1999 and the strongest tornado during the month of February in Oklahoma since 1950 .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
= = = February 10 = = =
During the afternoon hours of February 10 , 2009 , a strong , middle and upper storm system moved across the Four Corners region into the central and southern Great Plains . A moist , low @-@ level air mass streamed northward across Texas and Louisiana into eastern Oklahoma and the Ozarks ahead of the system . Daytime heating of the moistening boundary layer increased throughout the afternoon across Oklahoma and Texas as cloud cover shifted eastward . Cooling aloft , in conjunction with the approaching storm system , led to atmospheric instability , resulting in thunderstorms . A very strong wind field increased with height through the lower troposphere , resulting in a wind shear favorable for rotation in the thunderstorms .
Meteorologists expected large hail stones and damaging winds , and recognized the potential for strong tornadoes as thunderstorms developed from central Oklahoma southward into north @-@ central Texas in the afternoon . During the night , a cold front moved eastward toward the Mississippi Valley and organized the thunderstorms into a lengthy squall line . Along with a continued threat of hail and tornadoes , the risk of damaging winds increased . The Storm Prediction Center announced a " moderate risk " of severe weather for portions of eastern Oklahoma , northeastern Texas , western Arkansas , and northwestern Louisiana .
At around 1 : 00 pm CST ( 19 : 00 UTC ) , a line of violent thunderstorms began developing near the Wichita Mountains in Comanche County , Oklahoma . The supercell that eventually produced the first tornado of the outbreak moved northeast through Caddo and Grady counties over the next 30 to 45 minutes , before reaching southeastern Canadian County at around 2 : 00 pm CST ( 20 : 00 UTC ) . By 2 : 14 pm CST ( 20 : 14 UTC ) , the line had formed a hook echo , which was fully developed four minutes later . Observers reported wall clouds from the Yukon area into western portions of Oklahoma City during the next 10 to 15 minutes . At 2 : 36 pm CST ( 20 : 37 UTC ) , the supercell produced a tornado near the Wiley Post Airport in Oklahoma City , causing damage at the Northwest Expressway . According to the Doppler weather radar , the hook continued to show signs of rotation as it moved northeast across Oklahoma County . At 2 : 52 pm CST ( 20 : 52 UTC ) , the supercell produced its second tornado on the northwestern side of Edmond which caused its most severe damage near the Oklahoma and Logan County line . The tornado dissipated north of the Logan County Line at 3 : 05 pm CST ( 21 : 05 UTC ) .
The supercell produced three more tornadoes in Oklahoma as it continued to move northeast . The third tornado occurred northwest of Meridian in Logan County at 3 : 26 pm CST ( 21 : 36 UTC ) . A fourth developed near Langston in Logan County and moved to about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Stillwater in Payne County . The fifth tornado occurred in Pawnee County . In addition to the five Oklahoma tornadoes , three tornadoes struck northern sections of Texas and one tornado hit Springfield , Missouri .
The most significant tornado , later named the Lone Grove Tornado , first touched down in southeast Jefferson County , Oklahoma at 6 : 48 pm CST ( 00 : 48 UTC ) near the Red River . The tornado crossed through rural areas as it moved to the northeast into Love County , before going into Carter County at 7 : 10 pm CST ( 01 : 10 UTC ) . The tornado continued moving to the northeast for the next 15 minutes before striking Lone Grove , Oklahoma . The tornado then crossed Interstate 35 just north of the Prairie Valley Road exit ramp and tracked through rural areas of northeastern Carter County to the east of Springer , ending at 7 : 43 pm CST ( 01 : 43 UTC ) .
= = = February 11 = = =
The Storm Prediction Center issued a slight risk warning for February 11 . The warning included parts of the Deep South , Ohio Valley , Midwest , and Appalachians . The risk of tornadoes was lower on February 11 due to a stronger front , which limited discrete supercell activity and decreased atmospheric instability . The " slight risk " was later upgraded to a " moderate risk " as a powerful squall line developed .
= = Notable tornadoes = =
= = = Edmond , Oklahoma = = =
The second tornado to touch down during the outbreak formed at around 2 : 52 pm CST ( 20 : 52 UTC ) about 3 mi ( 5 km ) north @-@ northwest of Edmond , Oklahoma . The tornado traveled towards the northeast , crossing into Logan County and dissipating at 3 : 05 pm CST ( 21 : 05 UTC ) . Following a survey by the National Weather Service , the tornado was estimated to have been about 75 yd ( 70 m ) wide and was rated as an EF2 . Most of the downtown residences were left without power after the tornado struck the area around 2 : 59 pm CST ( 20 : 59 UTC ) . Ten minutes earlier , tornado sirens were sounded as a tornado warning was issued for the area . Students who were being taken home by bus at the time were immediately taken to the nearest school for shelter . The schools were placed in lockdown for about two hours following the tornado sirens . In Edmond , six homes were destroyed , eight structures received major damage , 51 received minor damage and another 166 structures were affected . Some of the homes damaged by the tornado were estimated to be worth over $ 1 million . The Oak Tree Golf Club sustained severe damage , with numerous trees being uprooted . Hundreds of trees were uprooted or significantly damaged along the tornado 's path . In Oklahoma County , the tornado left an estimated 28 @,@ 500 people without power . Monetary damage numbers were not available .
= = = Lone Grove , Oklahoma = = =
At 6 : 48 pm CST ( 00 : 48 UTC ) , a large wedge tornado – a tornado that is wider than the distance from ground to cloud base – touched down near the Red River , along the Texas @-@ Oklahoma border . It crossed through Jefferson and Love counties before entering Carter County where it proceeded to slam into Lone Grove . The tornado dissipated at 7 : 43 pm CST ( 01 : 43 UTC ) after remaining on the ground for nearly an hour and traveling an estimated 35 mi ( 56 km ) . After an assessment by the National Weather Service office in Norman , Oklahoma , the tornado was rated as an EF4 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale with winds reaching an estimated 170 mph ( 270 km / h ) .
The Lone Grove Tornado was the deadliest to hit Oklahoma since May 3 , 1999 , and the strongest tornado during the month of February in Oklahoma since 1950 . The previous strongest were two F3 tornadoes which touched down on February 17 , 1961 .
The tornado destroyed businesses and residences across a swath over 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) wide and 35 mi ( 56 km ) long . In Lone Grove alone , buildings were thrown off their slabs and the local chamber of commerce office was flattened . The tornado destroyed a furniture store , and shattered the glass lobby of the local UPS building . The destruction of a mobile home park containing 40 homes left close to 100 people homeless . One mobile home was thrown 100 yd ( 91 m ) from its foundation . A total of 114 residences were destroyed in Lone Grove .
To the east of Lone Grove , the area north of Ardmore was also hard hit . Several buildings , including those of the Beaver Academy and the Ardmore Adventist Academy , were destroyed . Although damage centered on the Ardmore Academy gymnasium , most of the campus was considered a total loss . In Ardmore , eight homes were destroyed and another 20 sustained damage .
Eight people were confirmed dead as a result of the tornado . Seven of these fatalities were in the town of Lone Grove ; most were determined to have been caused by “ blunt @-@ force trauma to the head " . Three of the victims were found inside their homes and two were found outside . A victim found in an open field was reportedly picked up and thrown by the tornado , and died on impact with the ground . One victim was crushed when a pickup truck fell on him ; similarly , a truck driver died after being pinned under his vehicle on Interstate 35 . Two other victims , the parents of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl , were killed when the tornado picked the three of them out of their home and threw them 400 ft ( 120 m ) . Three people were rescued after being trapped in the ruins of their home for almost a day . Officials stated that 10 to 15 people remained unaccounted for on the night of February 12 but they were presumed to have left the area . An additional 46 people were injured . Total monetary damages from the tornado were estimated at $ 3 million .
= = Non @-@ tornadic events = =
During the evening of February 10 , a long line of severe thunderstorms developed along the tail @-@ end of a cold front in central Texas . Meteorologists predicted embedded supercell thunderstorms that could produce hail up to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 cm ) in diameter and wind gusts up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . North of the squall line , bow echo thunderstorms developed in Missouri , causing widespread wind damage . By the morning of February 11 , the squall line reached as far southeast as eastern Louisiana , where winds were recorded in excess of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) along with hail up to 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) in diameter . Around 12 pm EST ( 17 : 00 UTC ) , the first line of thunderstorms significantly weakened , but a new , narrow line developed in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee . A strong , deep layer wind field prevented a number of tornadoes from forming but instead caused widespread wind damage . Throughout the day , the line of low @-@ topped thunderstorms continued eastward , reaching Ohio and West Virginia by 4 pm EST ( 21 : 00 UTC ) . Several hours later , the line broke apart , with the strongest storms tracking through Pennsylvania . By February 12 , rain showers , accompanied by high winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , affected most of the Northeastern United States .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
In addition to the strong tornadoes , Oklahoma was affected by high winds and large hail . The hail , measuring up to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 11 cm ) in diameter , caused significant damage in Okesa . Numerous cars were hit and several houses sustained roof damage ; the cost of the hail damage was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 in the town . Heavy rains produced by the storms also caused isolated flooding , inundating numerous streets with several feet of water . Lightning also produced damage in the state , with one bolt striking an oil tank , igniting a fire . The fire severely damaged the tank , leaving $ 13 @,@ 000 in damages . Throughout the state , an estimated 61 @,@ 000 people lost power : 29 @,@ 000 lost power due to thunderstorms and 32 @,@ 000 due to tornadoes . In Mississippi , strong winds on the backside of the cold front blew a metal roof off a power company building , bringing down several trees and power lines . Damages in the state amounted to $ 35 @,@ 000 .
= = = Texas = = =
Strong straight @-@ line winds near 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) caused significant damage in Hamilton County , Texas . A barn sustained severe damage and a home lost most of its roof . 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind destroyed a small outbuilding and carried debris about 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north . A trailer near Hamilton Municipal Airport was broken off its moorings and moved 20 ft ( 6 m ) . Several mobile homes near Hamilton sustained damage after tree limbs fell on them . In Huron , several outbuildings were damaged or destroyed and a permanent building was damaged at a youth retreat center . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 residences were without power following the storms in Texas . One home in McGregor was destroyed by the winds . The three people who lived in the home , one of whom was a child , all sustained injuries . The father had a few broken ribs and several scratches , injuries sustained during a search for his son . In Louisiana , 12 @,@ 000 residences lost power due to the storm system . Two wildfires were sparked in Kenedy County and Kleberg County , burning 300 and 20 acres ( 121 @.@ 4 and 8 @.@ 1 ha ) respectively . The larger of the two fires was along Texas State Highway 77 . The second fire burned three homes and threatened 20 others .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In Arkansas , high winds produced by the squall line knocked out power to 315 @,@ 324 residences and caused widespread structural damage . Trees and power lines were brought down in eight counties , and several homes in Independence and Van Buren County sustained damage . The damage in these counties was caused by winds gusting up to 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) and leaving $ 200 @,@ 000 in damages . An 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind gust in Van Buren blew a barn onto Arkansas Highway 9 . Hundreds of trees were blown down , many of which fell on homes , causing widespread damage which amounted to approximately $ 625 @,@ 000 . In Conway County , a sawmill and two barns were destroyed , while several homes and a church also sustained damage , mainly roof damage . Damages in the county were estimated at $ 300 @,@ 000 . Numerous homes sustained wind damage and two mobile homes and a recreational vehicle were overturned . Damages in the county were estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 . Total damages throughout the state were estimated at $ 2 @.@ 4 million . Seven people sustained injuries in the state .
= = = Ohio = = =
In Ohio , 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) wind gusts led to a highway accident that killed a truck driver . The high winds also caused significant damage throughout the state . Heavy rains produced by the same system inundated several streets in flood @-@ prone towns in Ohio . In Scioto County , the high winds destroyed a brick house and brought down power lines . The most significant damage resulted from the strong pressure gradient behind the frontal system . Thousands of tree were knocked down or uprooted by winds gusting in excess of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , cutting power to 585 @,@ 775 residences . Ten railroad cars were knocked off their tracks near Shelby . Several hundred homes lost shingles and gutters due to the winds . Wind also overturned two semi @-@ trailers , though the drivers of both vehicles were unharmed . A vacant school building in Epworth lost its entire roof . Some windows were damaged or broken by flying debris or fallen trees . Power outages forced numerous schools to close for at least two days following the storm . A large barn was leveled just north of Brighton in Lorain County by 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) winds . Throughout the state , damages from the storm system amounted to $ 4 @.@ 7 million .
= = = Missouri , Kentucky , Tennessee and Michigan = = =
In Missouri , high winds caused widespread damage and knocked out power to 7 @,@ 629 residences . Several homes and businesses lost their windows due to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) wind gusts produced within squall lines . In Huntsville , Alabama , a car carrying four people lost control on rain @-@ slicked roads and crashed into a van , killing one of the occupants and injuring the other three . Another fatality occurred in Kentucky when a utility worker was knocked over by high winds and fell 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) to his death while trying to restore power . Following the widespread power outages from a severe ice storm , an additional 161 @,@ 588 residences lost power due to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds . Flooding and high winds in Michigan knocked out power to about 57 @,@ 000 residences . In southern Michigan , upwards of 0 @.@ 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 0 cm ) of rain fell , leading to faster snowmelt . In Tennessee , several structures were damaged and numerous trees were knocked down , closing roads throughout the state as the squall line tracked eastward . A total of 74 @,@ 052 residences lost power due to the winds . Winds gusting up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) caused substantial damage in Rutherford County . Several commercial buildings had major roof damage , leaving $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages . Throughout Tennessee , damages from the storm system were estimated at $ 1 @.@ 1 million .
= = = Iowa , Indiana and Virginia = = =
In Iowa , heavy rains triggered rapid snowmelt , causing isolated flooding . Only minor impacts resulted from the flooding and total damages from the event was estimated at $ 25 @,@ 000 . A total of 14 @,@ 590 residences lost power in Indiana . Several large trees were brought down by high winds , one of which fell on a home in South Bend , leaving $ 50 @,@ 000 in damages . In the town of Carmel , a total of 2 @.@ 75 inches ( 70 mm ) of rain fell , the highest in the state . The heavy rains , in combination with unseasonably warm temperatures , led to significant snowmelt and flooding . The highest wind gust recorded in the state was 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Crawford County . A total of 70 @,@ 695 residences lost power in Illinois . Rainfall up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) fell throughout most of the state . Several major roadways were covered in flood waters . The Little Wabash River overflowed its banks and inundated nearby roads . Along Illinois Route 1 , a large tree blocked a section of the road near Georgetown . The fallen tree resulted in a vehicle accident but the driver was unharmed . One person was killed by high winds in Davy , West Virginia when a gymnasium roof collapsed . Throughout the state , power was knocked out to an estimated 225 @,@ 000 residences . In Montgomery County , Virginia , winds knocked down power lines which sparked two brush fires , one of which burned a total of 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) . Winds up to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) cut power to 28 @,@ 059 residences in the state . The strong winds also cut power to 50 @,@ 820 residences in Maryland .
= = = Western Pennsylvania and Chesapeake watershed = = =
Hurricane @-@ force wind gusts up to 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) caused significant damage and power losses in Pennsylvania . Throughout the state , at least 400 @,@ 000 residences lost power due to the winds . Allegheny Power stated that the loss of power due to this system was the largest ever experienced by the company . Thousands of trees and power lines were brought down by strong winds and numerous homes sustained significant damage . Although most of the damage to homes consisted of shingle damage , several homes lost gutters and had portions of their siding blown off .
In Pottstown , a large portion of the roof of a four @-@ story building was blown off , forcing residents to evacuate the building . An 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) pillar was knocked down at the First Moravian Church in Easton . In Northampton County , a fire sparked by fallen power lines destroyed a barn and partially melted a nearby metal shed . The blaze was fully contained by 40 firefighters . Another fire sparked by fallen power lines destroyed a garage in Lower Merion Township . In Philadelphia , the roof of a portable classroom began to peel off , forcing the forty students inside to evacuate to a safer structure . A large tree fell through one house and severely damaged the roof of a nearby home . Numerous major highways and local streets were shut down for several hours to allow cleanup crews to clear debris . Throughout the state , damages from the storm system amounted to $ 3 @.@ 7 million .
= = = New York = = =
In upstate New York , winds in excess of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) shattered windows , toppled numerous trees , and brought down power lines , cutting power to more than 50 @,@ 000 residences . Unseasonably warm temperatures and heavy rains from the storm system increased the snowmelt rate in northern areas of the state . In Genesee County , an estimated 2 to 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 to 12 @.@ 7 cm ) of the snowpack melted , triggering flash floods along several rivers . The Tonawanda Creek reached a height of 14 @.@ 38 ft ( 4 @.@ 38 m ) , 2 @.@ 38 ft ( 0 @.@ 73 m ) above flood stage . Several homes were inundated by flood waters throughout the region . In all , 84 @,@ 624 residences lost power in New York State . The storm system continued producing gusty winds through February 12 , which caused tree damage and power outages , and killed a construction worker in the New York City metropolitan area . The construction worker was killed after a cinder block wall collapsed due to high @-@ winds . Winds in the city gusted to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in the Bronx . Throughout Long Island , an estimated 4 @,@ 000 people lost power .
= = = New Jersey , Connecticut and Massachusetts = = =
In New Jersey , strong winds gusted up to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) , bringing down tree limbs that killed two people . A total of 93 @,@ 816 residences were also left without power at the height of the storm . High winds on the backside of the storm brought down a power line that sparked a small fire in Galloway Township , burning a total of 40 acres ( 16 ha ) . A total of 8 @,@ 486 Connecticut residences were left without power and one boy was injured after high winds damaged numerous power lines and tree limbs . In Massachusetts , gusts up to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) brought down several trees and cut power to residences in Middleborough , Boston , Brookline and Hingham . The Western Massachusetts Electric Company reported that at least 360 residences lost power during the storm . Moderate snow fell across portions of The Berkshires late on February 12 as the storm system began entering the Atlantic Ocean , while isolated areas received upwards of 6 inches ( 15 cm ) .
= = Aftermath = =
In the wake of the tornado outbreak law enforcement officers , including 30 national guard troops , were sent to Lone Grove to provide security . The American Red Cross opened shelters in Ardmore , Edmond , and Oklahoma City . About 100 volunteers from the Sorghum Mill Estates Neighborhood Association traveled to affected areas in Edmond to help with cleanup efforts . A local restaurant provided free meals to the volunteers as they assisted relief workers . The Salvation Army had two canteens in Oklahoma City , one in Lone Grove , and one in Perkins . About 2 @,@ 000 meals , drinks , and snacks were provided by the Salvation Army to emergency responders . Feed the Children sent two truckloads of relief supplies to Carter County . They also sent three food trucks , containing a total of 619 meals , 900 drinks , and about 500 snacks , to Ardmore . On February 22 , the New Life Baptist Church sent drinks and prepackaged snacks , along with items needed for clean @-@ up . Baptist Disaster Relief assisted in Lone Grove with food and emotional care . The Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) gave away two tickets to anyone who made a donation of $ 25 or an equivalent amount of food to benefit victims of the tornado . A concert featuring Chris Cagle and other local musicians at Heritage Hall in Ardmore raised over $ 18 @,@ 000 to benefit Carter County tornado victims . Another concert set up by the Salvation Army raised $ 2 @,@ 300 more for victims .
The Governor of Oklahoma Brad Henry declared a State of Emergency in 17 counties and described the outbreak as the worst natural disaster he had seen since becoming governor . On February 15 , President Obama approved Henry 's request for federal assistance in Carter , Logan and Oklahoma counties . A disaster recovery center was set up by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) on February 20 . Homeowners were allowed to borrow $ 200 @,@ 000 to repair damages to their home or find a temporary or permanent shelter . They were also allowed to borrow up to $ 40 @,@ 000 to replace lost property . Businesses were allowed to borrow up to $ 2 million for damage repair , property loss , and economic loss . By February 23 , about $ 781 @,@ 000 had been given in federal grants . On February 25 , FEMA approved Governor Henry 's request for public assistance in Carter , Coal and Love counties . The estimated cost to clear the 7 @,@ 000 tons of debris in Lone Grove was placed at $ 500 @,@ 000 , of which $ 90 @,@ 000 has been paid for by FEMA . The Department of Homeland Security offered to assist with the reconstruction of homes and businesses and to support those who were left homeless . President Barack Obama passed along his condolences and best wishes to the victims of the tornado .
= This Little Wiggy =
" This Little Wiggy " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 22 , 1998 . It was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Neil Affleck . The episode sees Ralph Wiggum becoming friends with Bart. Phil Hartman guest stars as recurring character Troy McClure .
= = Plot = =
At a museum the family are visiting , Bart runs into Ralph Wiggum , who is in the process of being pushed into a giant ear by Kearney , Jimbo , Nelson , and Dolph . When Ralph is freed by a center employee , Marge and Chief Wiggum are there to meet him . Marge observes that Ralph has a vivid imagination and learns that he has no friends to play with ; she arranges a play @-@ date for Ralph to spend time with a horrified Bart.
During their play @-@ date , Bart notices that Ralph 's father has a police master key capable of opening any door in Springfield . Bart and Ralph thus steal the key and decide to enter several closed stores at night . After encountering Nelson and his gang , the boys go to a condemned penitentiary . When Ralph objects because he is afraid , the bullies leave , but not before tossing the key into the penitentiary . Ralph and Bart enter the prison to retrieve the key , and in the process stumble onto a room housing an old electric chair . After testing out the chair , the two flee when an elderly guard approaches .
At the Simpsons ' home , Bart and Ralph learn the penitentiary will once again be used by the town , and remember that they forgot to turn off the power . Unaware that the power is active , Mayor Quimby straps himself into the electric chair in a publicity attempt . Ralph then tells Bart that Lisa can probably figure out a way to warn the Mayor . She decides to launch a model rocket with a warning message attached and aims it toward the penitentiary . However , the rocket is blown off @-@ course and crashes through Mr. Burns ' office window . Mr. Burns reads the note and shuts off the penitentiary 's power . In the aftermath , the Simpsons congratulate Ralph , for pointing out that Lisa could solve the problem .
= = Production = =
Show runner Mike Scully had pitched an idea to Dan Greaney on Marge forcing Bart to become Ralph Wiggum 's friend . Scully gave the idea to Greaney due to his ability to write Ralph 's lines and actions well , and his overall liking of the character .
This episode was the second to focus on Ralph , after the fourth @-@ season episode " I Love Lisa " . Despite this , in 2007 , producer J. Stewart Burns did not believe Ralph had an episode with a plot centered on him .
The robot that was introduced early in the episode was influenced by Greaney 's experiences working with a USA Today themed robot . While at a baseball game with the robot , the robot led the stadium in singing " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " . The robot was not well @-@ received , and the spectators threw objects at it . The robot 's operator had to stay close to the robot during the baseball game , and was also teased and bothered in the same way as the operator in the episode .
Episode director Neil Affleck was praised by the staff for his directing in this episode . In the scene where Chief Wiggum falls on his back in his bedroom , unable to roll over or get back up , Affleck decided to act out the scene for the staff to showcase how Affleck envisioned Chief Wiggum 's predicament . Affleck was also praised for his ability to create three new elaborate settings in the episode : the science museum , the Springfield penitentiary , and the large toy store .
The episode originally did not involve Lisa helping Ralph and Bart to brainstorm an idea to alert the penitentiary . The original scene , which Greaney cites as one of his favorite scenes in the show , despite never actually being in the show , involved Bart , Ralph , and Homer trying to make a plan to save Mayor Quimby .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " This Little Wiggy " finished 27th in ratings for the week of March 16 – 22 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 9 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Ally McBeal .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , enjoyed the episode , remarking : " Marvellous fun as Bart comes to realize there 's more to Ralph , or at least his daddy , than he realised . "
= History of Philadelphia =
The written history of Philadelphia begins on October 27 , 1682 , when the city was founded by William Penn in the English Crown Province of Pennsylvania between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers .
= = Overview = =
In 1681 , King Charles II gave Penn a large piece of his newly acquired American land holdings to repay a debt the king owed to Admiral Sir William Penn , Penn 's father . This land included present @-@ day Pennsylvania and Delaware , though the claim as written would create a bloody conflict with Maryland ( dubbed Cresap 's War ) over the land grant already owned by Lord Baltimore . Penn put together a colonial expedition and fleet , which set out for America in the middle of the following summer . Penn , sailing in the vanguard , first set foot on American soil at the colony at New Castle , Delaware . An orderly change of government ensued , as was normal in an age used to the privileges and prerogatives of aristocracy and which antedated nationalism : the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new Proprietor . The first general assembly was soon held in the colony .
Afterwards , Penn journeyed up the river and founded Philadelphia with a core group of accompanying Quakers and others seeking religious freedom on lands he purchased from the local chieftains of the Lenape or Delaware nation . This began a long period of peaceful co @-@ operation between the colony and the Delaware , in contrast to the frictions between the tribe and the Swedish and Dutch colonists . However , the new colonists would not enjoy such easy relations with the rival and territorial Conestoga peoples to the west for a number of decades as the English and Dutch German settlers attracted to the religiously tolerant colony worked their way northwest up the Schuylkill and due west south of the hill country into the breadbasket lands along the lower Susquehanna River . Lord Baltimore and the Province of Maryland had circa 1652 @-@ 53 finished waging a decade long declared war against the Susquehannocks and the Dutch , who 'd been trading them furs for tools and firearms for some time . Both groups had uneasy relations with the Delaware ( Lenape ) and the Iroquois . Furthermore , Penn 's Quaker government was not viewed favorably by the Dutch , Swedish , and English settlers in what is now Delaware . They had no " historical " allegiance to Pennsylvania , so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own Assembly . In 1704 , they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new semi @-@ autonomous colony of Lower Delaware . New Castle , the most prominent , prosperous and influential settlement in the new colony , became the capital . During its brief period of ascendancy as an empire following the victory by Gustav the Great battle of Leipzig Swedish settlers arrived in the area in the early 17th century to found a nearby colony , New Sweden in what is today southern New Jersey . With the arrival of more numerous English colonists and development of the port on the Delaware , Philadelphia quickly grew into an important colonial city .
During the American Revolution , it was the site of the First and Second Continental Congresses . After the Revolution , the city was chosen to be the temporary capital of the United States from 1790 @-@ 1800 .
At the beginning of the 19th century , the federal and state governments left Philadelphia , but the city continued for some years to be the country 's cultural and financial center . Its large free black community aided fugitive slaves and founded the first independent black denomination in the nation , the African Methodist Episcopal Church . Philadelphia became one of the first U.S. industrial centers with a variety of industries , the largest being textiles . It had many economic and family ties to the South , with southern planters maintaining second homes in the city and having business connections with banks , sending their daughters to French finishing schools run by refugees from Saint @-@ Domingue ( Haiti ) , selling their cotton to textile manufacturers , which in turn sold some products to the South , for instance , clothing for slaves . At the beginning of the American Civil War , there were many southern sympathizers , although most city residents became firmly Union as the war went on .
After the war , American Civil War , city government was controlled by the Republican Party ; it established a political machine that gained power through patronage . By the beginning of the 20th century , Philadelphia was described as " corrupt and contented . " Various reform efforts slowly changed city government ; in 1950 , a new city charter strengthened the position of mayor and weakened the Philadelphia City Council . Beginning during the Great Depression , voters changed from traditional support for the Republican Party to increasing support for the Democratic Party of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , which has now been predominant in local politics for many decades .
The population grew dramatically at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries , through immigration from Ireland , Southern Europe , Eastern Europe , and Asia , as well as the Great Migration of blacks from the rural South and Puerto Ricans from the Caribbean , all attracted to the city 's expanding industrial jobs . The Pennsylvania Railroad was expanding and hired 10 @,@ 000 workers from the South . Manufacturing plants and the US Navy Yard employed tens of thousands of industrial workers along the rivers , and the city was also a center of finance and publishing , with major universities . By the 1950s , much Philadelphia housing was aged and substandard . In the post @-@ World War II era of suburbanization and construction of area highways , many middle @-@ class families met their demand for newer housing by leaving the city for the suburbs . Population decline accompanied the industrial restructuring and the loss of tens of thousands of jobs in the mid 20th century . With increasing poverty and social dislocation in the city , gang and mafia warfare plagued the city in from the mid @-@ 20th century to the early 21st century .
By the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st , revitalization and gentrification of historic neighborhoods attracted an increase in middle @-@ class population as people began to return to the city . New immigrants from Southeast Asia , and Central and South America have contributed their energy to the city . Promotions and incentives in the 1990s and the early 21st century have improved the city 's image and created a condominium boom in Center City and the surrounding areas .
= = Founding = =
Before Philadelphia was founded , the area was inhabited by the Lenape ( Delaware ) Indians . The village of Nitapèkunk , " Place that is easy to get to , " was located in today 's Fairmount Park area . The villages of Pèmikpeka , " Where the water flows , " and Shackamaxon were located on the Delaware River .
The European colonization of the Delaware River Valley ( called the Zuyd , meaning " South " River , or Lënapei Sipu at the time ) began in 1609 when a Dutch expedition led by Henry Hudson first entered the river in search of the Northwest Passage . The Valley , including the future location of Philadelphia , became part of the New Netherland claim of the Dutch and Dutch explorer Cornelius Jacobsen Mey ( after whom Cape May , New Jersey is named ) charted the shoals Delaware Bay in the 1620s . The Dutch built a fort on the west side of the bay at Swanendael .
In 1637 , Swedish , Dutch and German stockholders formed the New Sweden Company to trade for furs and tobacco in North America . Under the command of Peter Minuit , the company 's first expedition sailed from Sweden late in 1637 in two ships , Kalmar Nyckel and Fogel Gri . Minuit had been the governor of the New Netherland from 1626 to 1631 . Resenting his dismissal by the Dutch West India Company he had brought to the new project the knowledge that the Dutch colony had temporarily abandoned its efforts in the Delaware Valley to focus on the Hudson River valley to the north . ( The Hudson was known to the Dutch as the Noort , or " North " river relative to " South " of the Delaware . ) Minuit and his partners further knew that the Dutch view of colonies held that actual occupation was necessary to secure legal claim . The ships reached Delaware Bay in March 1638 , and the settlers began to build a fort at the site of present @-@ day Wilmington , Delaware . They named it Fort Christina , in honor of the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Queen Christina of Sweden . It was the first permanent European settlement in the Delaware Valley . Part of this colony eventually included land on the west side of the Delaware River from just below the Schuylkill River .
Johan Björnsson Printz , who it had been ennobled , was appointed to be the first royal governor of New Sweden , arriving in the colony on 15 February 1643 . Under his ten @-@ year rule , the administrative center of New Sweden was moved north to Tinicum Island ( to the immediate SW of today 's Philadelphia ) , where he built Fort New Gothenburg and his own manor house which he called the Printzhof .
The first English settlement occurred about 1642 , when 50 Puritan families from the New Haven Colony in Connecticut , led by George Lamberton , tried to establish a theocracy at the mouth of the Schuylkill River . The New Haven Colony had earlier struck a deal with the Lenape to buy much of New Jersey south of present @-@ day Trenton . The Dutch and Swedes in the area burned the English colonists ' buildings . A Swedish court under Swedish Governor Johan Björnsson Printz convicted Lamberton of " trespassing , conspiring with the Indians . " The offshoot New Haven colony received no support . The Puritan Governor John Winthrop said it was dissolved owing to summer " sickness and mortality . " The disaster contributed to New Haven 's losing control of its area to the larger Connecticut Colony .
In 1644 , New Sweden supported the Susquehannock in their victory in a war against the English Province of Maryland ( led by General Harrison II ) . The Dutch never recognized the legitimacy of the Swedish claim and , in the late summer of 1655 , Director @-@ General Peter Stuyvesant of New Amsterdam mustered a military expedition to the Delaware Valley to subdue the rogue colony . Though the colonists had to recognize the authority of New Netherland , the Dutch terms were tolerant . The Swedish and Finnish settlers continued to enjoy a much local autonomy , having their own militia , religion , court , and lands . This official status lasted until the English conquest of New Netherland in October 1664 , and continued unofficially until the area was included in William Penn 's charter for Pennsylvania in 1682 . By 1682 the area of modern Philadelphia was inhabited by about fifty Europeans , mostly subsistence farmers .
In 1681 , as part of a repayment of a debt , Charles II of England granted William Penn a charter for what would become the Pennsylvania colony . Shortly after receiving the charter , Penn said he would lay out " a large Towne or Citty in the most Convenient place upon the Delaware River for health & Navigation . " Penn wanted the city to live peacefully in the area , without a fortress or walls , so he bought the land from the Lenape . The legend is that Penn made a treaty of friendship with Lenape chief Tammany under an elm tree at Shackamaxon , in what became the city 's Kensington District .
Penn envisioned a city where all people regardless of religion could worship freely and live together . Being a Quaker , Penn had experienced religious persecution . He also planned that the city 's streets would be set up in a grid , with the idea that the city would be more like the rural towns of England than its crowded cities . The homes would be spread far apart and surrounded by gardens and orchards . The city granted the first purchasers land along the Delaware River for their homes . It had access to the Delaware Bay and Atlantic Ocean , and became an important port in the Thirteen Colonies . He named the city Philadelphia ( philos , " love " or " friendship " , and adelphos , " brother " ) ; it was to have a commercial center for a market , state house , and other key buildings .
Penn sent three commissioners to supervise the settlement and to set aside 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km ² ) for the city . The commissioners bought land from Swedes at the settlement of Wicaco , and from there began to lay out the city toward the north . The area went about a mile along the Delaware River between modern South and Vine Streets . Penn 's ship anchored off the coast of New Castle , Delaware , on October 27 , 1682 , and he arrived in Philadelphia a few days after that . He expanded the city west to the bank of the Schuylkill River , for a total of 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 4 @.@ 8 km ² ) . Streets were laid out in a gridiron system . Except for the two widest streets , High ( now Market ) and Broad , the streets were named after prominent landowners who owned adjacent lots . The streets were renamed in 1684 ; the ones running east @-@ west were named after local trees ( Vine , Sassafras , Mulberry , Cherry , Chestnut , Walnut , Locust , Spruce , Pine , Lombard , and Cedar ) and the north @-@ south streets were numbered . Within the area , four squares ( now named Rittenhouse , Logan , Washington and Franklin ) were set aside as parks open for everyone . Penn designed a central square at the intersection of Broad and what is now Market Street to be surrounded by public buildings .
Some of the first settlers lived in caves dug out of the river bank , but the city grew with construction of homes , churches , and wharves . The new landowners did not share Penn 's vision of a non @-@ congested city . Most people bought land along the Delaware River instead of spreading westward towards the Schuylkill . The lots they bought were subdivided and resold with smaller streets constructed between them . Before 1704 , few people lived west of Fourth Street .
= = Early growth = =
Philadelphia grew from a few hundred inhabitants in 1683 to over 2 @,@ 500 in 1701 . The population was mostly English , Welsh , Irish , Germans , Swedes , Finns , Dutch , and African slaves . Before William Penn left Philadelphia for the last time on October 25 , 1701 he issued the Charter of 1701 . The charter established Philadelphia as a city and gave the mayor , aldermen , and councilmen the authority to issue laws and ordinances and regulate markets and fairs . The first known Jewish resident of Philadelphia was Jonas Aaron , a German who moved to the city in 1703 . He is mentioned in an article entitled " A Philadelphia Business Directory of 1703 , " by Charles H. Browning . It was published in The American Historical Register , in April , 1895 .
Philadelphia became an important trading center and major port . Initially the city 's main source of trade was with the West Indies , which had established sugar cane plantations . It was part of the Triangle Trade , associated with Africa and the British Isles . During Queen Anne 's War ( 1702 and 1713 ) with the French , trade was cut off to the West Indies , hurting Philadelphia financially . The end of the war brought brief prosperity to all of the British territories , but a depression in the 1720s stunted Philadelphia 's growth . The 1720s and ' 30s saw immigration from mostly Germany and northern Ireland to Philadelphia and the surrounding countryside . The region was developed for agriculture and Philadelphia exported grains , lumber products and flax seeds to Europe and elsewhere in the American colonies ; this pulled the city out of the depression .
Philadelphia 's pledge of religious tolerance attracted many other religions beside Quakers . Mennonites , Pietists , Anglicans , Catholics , and Jews moved to the city and soon outnumbered the Quakers , but they continued to be powerful economically and politically . Political tensions existed between and within the religious groups , which also had national connections . Riots in 1741 and 1742 took place over high bread prices and drunken sailors . In October 1742 and the " Bloody Election " riots , sailors attacked Quakers and pacifist Germans , whose peace politics were strained by the War of Jenkins ' Ear . The city was plagued by pickpockets and other petty criminals . Working in the city government had such a poor reputation that fines were imposed on citizens who refused to serve an office after being chosen . One man fled Philadelphia to avoid serving as mayor .
In the first half the 18th century , like other American cities , Philadelphia was dirty , with garbage and animals littering the streets . The roads were unpaved and in rainy seasons impassable . Early attempts to improve quality of life were ineffective as laws were poorly enforced . By the 1750s , Philadelphia was turning into a major city . Christ Church and the Pennsylvania State House , better known
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for interceptions ( 9 ) and had the most in the nation that season when he caught an Andrew Luck pass in the first half . Tech 's defense also recorded its first safety since 2008 , and its blocked extra point was the first such block in Virginia Tech bowl @-@ game history . The Hokies ' leading tackler was Eddie Whitley , who had seven stops , while Stanford 's leading defensive performer was Shayne Skov , who had 12 tackles , including 3 quarterback sacks .
= = Postgame effects = =
With the victory , Stanford improved to 12 – 1 , while the loss sent Virginia Tech to 11 – 3 . Stanford 's 12 wins extended a school record for one season , and its eight @-@ game winning streak tied for the third @-@ longest in school history . Stanford 's win was its first bowl game victory since the 1996 Sun Bowl against Michigan State , and San Francisco Chronicle football writer Tom FitzGerald declared one of the 10 all @-@ time best Bay Area college football teams . In the final college football polls of the season , Stanford rose to No. 4 , while Virginia Tech dropped to 16th in the Associated Press Poll and 15th in the USA Today coaches ' poll .
Stanford 's victory in the Orange Bowl caused a massive jump in the number of season ticket sales at the school . By mid @-@ February 2011 , the school reported having sold 1 @,@ 400 new season tickets , as compared to just 458 in the first six months of 2010 .
Following the game , some actions by Orange Bowl Committee officials came under fire as the Miami Herald revealed the nonprofit committee had spent millions of dollars on junket trips for college football administrators . The U.S. federal Internal Revenue Service subsequently began investigating the allegations . In its annual transition to new leadership , the Orange Bowl committee picked Goldman Sachs vice president Jeffrey T. Roberts to serve as its president for the 2012 game .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Both teams underwent changes in leadership following the Orange Bowl . Four days after beating Virginia Tech , Stanford head coach Jim Harbaugh signed a contract as the new head coach of the National Football League 's San Francisco 49ers . He was replaced as Stanford head coach by David Shaw , the team 's offensive coordinator . Defensive coordinator Vic Fangio followed Harbaugh to the 49ers and was replaced by co @-@ defensive coordinators Jason Tarver and Derek Mason , the latter also serving as associate head coach . To replace the vacated offensive coordinator position , Shaw selected Stanford wide receivers coach Pep Hamilton .
Virginia Tech 's coaching changes came about a month after the Orange Bowl . On February 14 , the school announced that the son of head coach Frank Beamer , Shane Beamer , had been hired as running backs coach . He replaced Billy Hite , the longest @-@ tenured assistant coach in the country , who took an administrative role with the team . Two days later , Tech replaced 62 @-@ year @-@ old linebackers coach Jim Cavanaugh with 35 @-@ year @-@ old Cornell Brown . On February 22 , Tech announced that offensive coordinator Bryan Stinespring had been removed from play @-@ calling duties and replaced by quarterbacks coach Mike O 'Cain . Stinespring , who also was the team 's associate head coach , was replaced in that capacity by Shane Beamer .
= = = 2011 NFL Draft = = =
For several players on each team , the Orange Bowl was their final collegiate contest before attempting to move into professional football . Two days after the Orange Bowl , Virginia Tech running back Darren Evans announced his intention to enter the NFL Draft . Three days later , fellow running back Ryan Williams made a similar move . Stanford quarterback Andrew Luck made news for not entering the draft , where he had been widely predicted to be the No. 1 selection . In interviews , he said he looked forward " to earning [ his ] degree in architectural design from Stanford University " and graduating in spring 2012 .
The 2011 NFL Draft took place in late April , and several players from each Orange Bowl team were selected by professional squads seeking their talents . Virginia Tech 's Ryan Williams was the first Orange Bowl participant selected , taken with the 38th overall pick . Tech 's Rashad Carmichael ( 127th ) , and Tyrod Taylor ( 180th ) were also selected . Stanford had four players picked in the draft : Sione Fua ( 97th ) , Owen Marecic ( 124th ) , Richard Sherman ( 154th ) , and Ryan Whalen ( 157th ) .
= HMS Royal Oak ( 08 ) =
HMS Royal Oak was one of five Revenge @-@ class battleships built for the Royal Navy during the First World War . Launched in 1914 and completed in 1916 , Royal Oak first saw combat at the Battle of Jutland as part of the Grand Fleet . In peacetime , she served in the Atlantic , Home and Mediterranean fleets , more than once coming under accidental attack . The ship drew worldwide attention in 1928 when her senior officers were controversially court @-@ martialled . Attempts to modernise Royal Oak throughout her 25 @-@ year career could not fix her fundamental lack of speed and by the start of the Second World War , she was no longer suited to front @-@ line duty .
On 14 October 1939 , Royal Oak was anchored at Scapa Flow in Orkney , Scotland , when she was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 47 . Of Royal Oak 's complement of 1 @,@ 234 men and boys , 833 were killed that night or died later of their wounds . The loss of the outdated ship — the first of the five Royal Navy battleships and battlecruisers sunk in the Second World War — did little to affect the numerical superiority enjoyed by the British navy and its Allies , but the sinking had considerable effect on wartime morale . The raid made an immediate celebrity and war hero out of the U @-@ boat commander , Günther Prien , who became the first German submarine officer to be awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . Before the sinking of Royal Oak , the Royal Navy had considered the naval base at Scapa Flow impregnable to submarine attack , and U @-@ 47 's raid demonstrated that the German Navy was capable of bringing the war to British home waters . The shock resulted in rapid changes to dockland security and the construction of the Churchill Barriers around Scapa Flow .
The wreck of Royal Oak , a designated war grave , lies almost upside down in 100 feet ( 30 m ) of water with her hull 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) beneath the surface . In an annual ceremony to mark the loss of the ship , Royal Navy divers place a White Ensign underwater at her stern . Unauthorised divers are prohibited from approaching the wreck at any time under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .
= = Design and description = =
The Revenge @-@ class ships were designed as slightly smaller , slower , and more heavily protected versions of the preceding Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . As an economy measure they were intended to revert to the previous practice of using both fuel oil and coal , but First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher rescinded the decision for coal in October 1914 . Still under construction , the ships were redesigned to employ oil @-@ fired boilers that increased the power of the engines by 9 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) over the original specification .
Royal Oak had a length overall of 620 feet 7 inches ( 189 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 88 feet 6 inches ( 27 @.@ 0 m ) and a deep draught of 33 feet 7 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 m ) . She had a designed displacement of 27 @,@ 790 long tons ( 28 @,@ 240 t ) and displaced 31 @,@ 130 long tons ( 31 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . She was powered by two sets of Parsons steam turbines , each driving two shafts , using steam from 18 Yarrow boilers . The turbines were rated at 40 @,@ 000 shp ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) and intended to reach a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 42 @.@ 6 km / h ; 26 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 22 May 1916 , the ship only reached a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) from 40 @,@ 360 shp ( 30 @,@ 100 kW ) . She had a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 964 km ; 8 @,@ 055 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 18 @.@ 5 km / h ; 11 @.@ 5 mph ) . Her crew numbered 909 officers and enlisted men in 1916 .
The Revenge class was equipped with eight breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Mk I guns in four twin gun turrets , in two superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . Twelve of the fourteen BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns were mounted in casemates along the broadside of the vessel amidships ; the remaining pair were mounted on the shelter deck and were protected by gun shields . Their anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of two quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 20 cwt Mk I guns . The ships were fitted with four submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside .
Royal Oak was completed with two fire @-@ control directors fitted with 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinders . One was mounted above the conning tower , protected by an armoured hood , and the other was in the spotting top above the tripod foremast . Each turret was also fitted with a 15 @-@ foot rangefinder . The main armament could be controlled by ' X ' turret as well . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by directors mounted on each side of the compass platform on the foremast once they were fitted in March 1917 . A torpedo @-@ control director with a 15 @-@ foot rangefinder was mounted at the aft end of the superstructure .
The ship 's waterline belt consisted of Krupp cemented armour ( KC ) that was 13 inches ( 330 mm ) thick between ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes and thinned to 4 to 6 inches ( 102 to 152 mm ) towards the ship 's ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . Above this was a strake of armour 6 inches thick that extended between ' A ' and ' X ' barbettes . Transverse bulkheads 4 to 6 inches thick ran at an angle from the ends of the thickest part of the waterline belt to ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes . The gun turrets were protected by 11 to 13 inches ( 279 to 330 mm ) of KC armour , except for the turret roofs which were 4 @.@ 75 – 5 inches ( 121 – 127 mm ) thick . The barbettes ranged in thickness from 6 – 10 inches ( 152 – 254 mm ) above the upper deck , but were only 4 to 6 inches thick below it . The Revenge @-@ class ships had multiple armoured decks that ranged from 1 to 4 inches ( 25 to 102 mm ) in thickness . The main conning tower had 13 inches of armour on the sides with a 3 @-@ inch roof . The torpedo director in the rear superstructure had 6 inches of armour protecting it . After the Battle of Jutland , 1 inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added to the main deck over the magazines and additional anti @-@ flash equipment was added in the magazines .
The ship was fitted with flying @-@ off platforms mounted on the roofs of ' B ' and ' X ' turrets in 1918 , from which fighters and reconnaissance aircraft could launch . In 1934 the platforms were removed from the turrets and a catapult was installed on the roof of ' X ' turret , along with a crane to recover a seaplane .
= = = Major alterations = = =
Royal Oak was extensively refitted between 1922 and 1924 , when her anti @-@ aircraft defences were upgraded by replacing the original three @-@ inch AA guns with a pair of QF four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V AA guns . A 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder was fitted in ' B ' turret and a simple high @-@ angle rangefinder was added above the bridge . Underwater protection improved by the addition of anti @-@ torpedo bulges . They were designed to reduce the effect of torpedo detonations and improve stability at the cost of widening the ship 's beam by over 13 feet ( 4 m ) . They increased her beam to 102 feet 1 inch ( 31 @.@ 1 m ) , reduced her draught to 29 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 0 m ) , increased her metacentric height to 6 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load , and all of the changes to her equipment increased her crew to a total of 1 @,@ 188 . Despite the bulges she was able to reach a speed of 21 @.@ 75 knots ( 40 @.@ 28 km / h ; 25 @.@ 03 mph ) . A brief refit in early 1927 saw the addition of two more four @-@ inch AA guns and the removal of the six @-@ inch guns from the shelter deck . About 1931 , a High @-@ Angle Control System ( HACS ) Mk I director replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder on the spotting top . Two years later , the aft pair of torpedo tubes were removed .
The ship received a final refit between 1934 and 1936 , when her deck armour was increased to 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 cm ) over the magazines and to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 cm ) over the engine rooms . In addition to a general modernisation of the ship 's systems , her anti @-@ aircraft defences were strengthened by replacing the single mounts of the AA guns with twin mounts for the QF 4 @-@ inch Mark XVI gun and adding a pair of octuple mounts for two @-@ pounder Mk VIII " pom @-@ pom " guns to sponsons abreast the funnel . Two positions for " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft directors were added on new platforms abreast and below the fire @-@ control director in the spotting top . A HACS Mk III director replaced the Mk I in the spotting top and another replaced the torpedo director aft . A pair of quadruple mounts for Vickers .50 machine guns were added abreast the conning tower . The mainmast was reconstructed as a tripod to support the weight of a radio @-@ direction finding office and a second High @-@ Angle Control Station . The forward pair of submerged torpedo tubes were removed and four experimental 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes were added above water forward of ' A ' turret .
= = Construction and service = =
Royal Oak was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 15 January 1914 . She was launched on 17 November , and after fitting @-@ out , was commissioned on 1 May 1916 at a final cost of £ 2 @,@ 468 @,@ 269 . Named after the oak tree in which Charles II hid following his defeat at the 1651 Battle of Worcester , she was the eighth vessel to bear the name Royal Oak , replacing a pre @-@ dreadnought scrapped in 1914 .
= = = First World War = = =
Upon completion Royal Oak was assigned to the Third Division of the Fourth Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet and engaged the German High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland . Under the command of Captain Crawford Maclachlan , Royal Oak left Scapa Flow on the evening of 30 May in the company of the battleships Superb , Canada and Admiral Jellicoe 's flagship Iron Duke . The next day 's indecisive battle saw Royal Oak fire a total of thirty @-@ eight 15 @-@ inch and eighty @-@ four 6 @-@ inch shells , claiming three hits on the battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger , putting one of its turrets out of action , and a hit on the cruiser SMS Wiesbaden . She avoided damage herself , despite being straddled by shellfire on one occasion .
Following the battle , Royal Oak was reassigned to the First Battle Squadron . On 5 November 1918 — the final week of the First World War — she was anchored off Burntisland in the Firth of Forth accompanied by the seaplane tender Campania and the light battlecruiser Glorious . A sudden Force 10 squall caused Campania to drag her anchor , collide with Royal Oak and then with Glorious . Both capital ships suffered only minor damage ; Campania , however , was holed by her initial collision with Royal Oak . The ship 's engine rooms flooded , and she settled by the stern and sank five hours later , though without loss of life .
At the end of the First World War , Royal Oak escorted several vessels of the surrendering German High Seas Fleet from the Firth of Forth to their internment in Scapa Flow , and was present at a ceremony in Pentland Firth to greet other ships as they followed .
= = = Between the wars = = =
The peacetime reorganisation of the Royal Navy assigned Royal Oak to the Second Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . Modernised by the 1922 – 24 refit , she was transferred in 1926 to the Mediterranean Fleet , based in Grand Harbour , Malta . In early 1928 , this duty saw the notorious incident the contemporary press dubbed the " Royal Oak Mutiny " . What began as a simple dispute between Rear @-@ Admiral Bernard Collard and Royal Oak 's two senior officers , Captain Kenneth Dewar and Commander Henry Daniel , over the band at the ship 's wardroom dance , descended into a bitter personal feud that spanned several months . Dewar and Daniel accused Collard of " vindictive fault @-@ finding " and openly humiliating and insulting them before their crew ; in return , Collard countercharged the two with failing to follow orders and treating him " worse than a midshipman " . When Dewar and Daniel wrote letters of complaint to Collard 's superior , Vice @-@ Admiral John Kelly , he immediately passed them on to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Admiral Sir Roger Keyes . On realising that the relationship between the two and their flag admiral had irretrievably broken down , Keyes removed all three from their posts and sent them back to England , postponing a major naval exercise . The press picked up on the story worldwide , describing the affair — with some hyperbole — as a " mutiny " . Public attention reached such proportions as to raise the concerns of the King , who summoned First Lord of the Admiralty William Bridgeman for an explanation .
For their letters of complaint , Dewar and Daniel were controversially charged with writing subversive documents . In a pair of highly publicised courts @-@ martial , both were found guilty and severely reprimanded , leading Daniel to resign from the Navy . Collard himself was criticised for the excesses of his conduct by the press and in Parliament , and on being denounced by Bridgeman as " unfitted to hold further high command " , was forcibly retired from service . Of the three , only Dewar escaped with his career , albeit a damaged one : he remained in the Royal Navy , but in a series of more minor commands . His promotion to Rear @-@ Admiral , which would normally have been a formality , was delayed until the following year , just one day before his retirement . Daniel attempted a career in journalism , but when this and other ventures were unsuccessful , he disappeared into obscurity amid poor health in South Africa . Collard retreated to private life and never spoke publicly of the incident again .
The scandal proved an embarrassment to the reputation of the Royal Navy , then still the world 's largest , and it was satirised at home and abroad through editorials , cartoons , and even a comic jazz oratorio composed by Erwin Schulhoff . One consequence of the damaging affair was an undertaking from the Admiralty to review the means by which naval officers might bring complaints against the conduct of their superiors .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
During the Spanish Civil War , Royal Oak was tasked with conducting ' non @-@ intervention patrols ' around the Iberian Peninsula . On such a patrol and steaming some 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) east of Gibraltar on 2 February 1937 , she came under aerial attack by three aircraft of the Republican forces . They dropped three bombs ( two of which exploded ) within 3 cables ( 555 m ) of the starboard bow , though causing no damage . The British chargé d 'affaires protested the incident to the Republican Government , which admitted its error and apologised for the attack . Later that same month , while stationed off Valencia on 23 February 1937 during an aerial bombardment by the Nationalists , she was accidentally struck by an anti @-@ aircraft shell fired from a Republican position . Five men were injured , including Royal Oak 's captain , T. B. Drew . On this occasion however the British elected not to protest to the Republicans , deeming the incident " an act of God " . In May 1937 , she and HMS Forester escorted SS Habana , a liner carrying Basque child refugees , to England . In July , as the war in northern Spain flared up , Royal Oak , along with the battleship HMS Resolution rescued the steamer Gordonia when Spanish nationalist warships attempted to capture her off Santander . She was however unable on 14 July to prevent the seizure of the British freighter Molton by the Spanish nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera while trying to enter Santander . The merchantmen had been engaged in the evacuation of refugees .
This same period saw Royal Oak star alongside fourteen other Royal Navy vessels in the 1937 British film melodrama Our Fighting Navy , the plot of which centres around a coup in the fictional South American republic of Bianco . Royal Oak portrays a rebel battleship El Mirante , whose commander forces a British captain ( played by Robert Douglas ) into choosing between his lover and his duty . The film was poorly received by critics , but gained some redemption through its dramatic scenes of naval action .
= = = Second World War = = =
In 1938 , Royal Oak returned to the Home Fleet and was made flagship of the Second Battle Squadron based in Portsmouth . On 24 November 1938 , she returned the body of the British @-@ born Queen Maud of Norway , who had died in London , to a state funeral in Oslo , accompanied by her husband King Haakon VII . Paying off in December 1938 , Royal Oak was recommissioned the following June , and in the late summer of 1939 embarked on a short training cruise in the English Channel in preparation for another 30 @-@ month tour of the Mediterranean , for which her crew were pre @-@ issued tropical uniforms . As hostilities loomed , the battleship was instead dispatched north to Scapa Flow , and was at anchor there when war was declared on 3 September .
The next few weeks proved uneventful , but in October 1939 Royal Oak joined the search for the German battleship Gneisenau , which had been ordered into the North Sea as a diversion for the commerce @-@ raiding heavy cruisers Deutschland and Admiral Graf Spee . The search was ultimately fruitless , particularly for Royal Oak , whose top speed , by then less than 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , was inadequate to keep up with the rest of the fleet . On 12 October , Royal Oak returned to the defences of Scapa Flow in poor shape , battered by North Atlantic storms . Many of her Carley floats had been smashed and several of the smaller @-@ calibre guns rendered inoperable through flooding . The mission had underlined the obsolescence of the 25 @-@ year @-@ old warship . Concerned that a recent overflight by German reconnaissance aircraft heralded an imminent air attack upon Scapa Flow , Admiral of the Home Fleet Charles Forbes ordered most of the fleet to disperse to safer ports . Royal Oak remained behind , her anti @-@ aircraft guns still deemed a useful addition to Scapa 's otherwise scanty air defences .
= = Sinking = =
= = = Scapa Flow = = =
Scapa Flow made a near @-@ ideal anchorage . Situated at the centre of the Orkney Islands off the north coast of Scotland , the natural harbour , large enough to contain the entire Grand Fleet , was surrounded by a ring of islands separated by shallow channels subject to fast @-@ racing tides . The threat from U @-@ boats had however long been realised , and a series of countermeasures were installed during the early years of the First World War . Blockships were sunk at critical points , and floating booms deployed to block the three widest channels , and operated by tugboats to allow the passage of friendly shipping . It was considered possible — but highly unlikely — that a daring U @-@ boat commander could attempt to race through undetected before the boom was closed . Two submarines that had attempted infiltration during the First World War were ill @-@ fated : on 23 November 1914 U @-@ 18 was rammed twice before running aground with the capture of her crew , and UB @-@ 116 was detected by hydrophone and destroyed with the loss of all hands on 28 October 1918 .
Scapa Flow provided the main anchorage for the British Grand Fleet throughout most of the First World War , but in the interwar period this passed to Rosyth , more conveniently located further south in the Firth of Forth . Scapa Flow was reactivated with the advent of the Second World War , becoming a base for the British Home Fleet . Its natural and artificial defences , while still strong , were recognised as in need of improvement , and in the early weeks of the war were in the process of being strengthened by the provision of additional blockships .
= = = Special Operation P : the raid by U @-@ 47 = = =
Kriegsmarine Commander of Submarines ( Befehlshaber der U @-@ Boote ) Karl Dönitz devised a plan to attack Scapa Flow by submarine within days of the outbreak of war . Its goal would be twofold : firstly , that displacing the Home Fleet from Scapa Flow would slacken the British North Sea blockade and grant Germany greater freedom to attack the Atlantic convoys ; secondly , the blow would be a symbolic act of vengeance , striking at the same location where the German High Seas Fleet had surrendered and scuttled itself following Germany 's defeat in the First World War . Dönitz hand @-@ picked Kapitänleutnant Günther Prien for the task , scheduling the raid for the night of 13 / 14 October 1939 , when the tides would be high and the night moonless .
Dönitz was aided by high @-@ quality photographs from a reconnaissance overflight by Siegfried Knemeyer , ( who received his first Iron Cross for the mission ) , and which revealed the weaknesses of the defences and an abundance of targets . He directed Prien to enter Scapa Flow from its east via Kirk Sound , passing to the north of Lamb Holm , a small low @-@ lying island between Burray and Mainland . Prien initially mistook the more southerly Skerry Sound for the chosen route and his sudden realisation that U @-@ 47 was heading for the shallow blocked passage forced him to order a rapid turn to the northeast . On the surface , and illuminated by a bright display of the aurora borealis , the submarine threaded between the sunken blockships Seriano and Numidian , grounding itself temporarily on a cable strung from Seriano . It was briefly caught in the headlights of a taxi onshore , but the driver raised no alarm . On entering the harbour proper at 00 : 27 on 14 October , Prien entered a triumphant Wir sind in Scapa Flow ! ! ! in the log and set a south @-@ westerly course for several kilometres before reversing direction . To his surprise , the anchorage appeared to be almost empty ; unknown to him , Forbes ' order to disperse the fleet had removed some of the biggest targets . U @-@ 47 had been heading directly towards four warships , including the newly commissioned light cruiser Belfast , anchored off Flotta and Hoy 4 nautical miles ( 8 km , 5 mi ) distant , but Prien gave no indication that he had seen them .
On the reverse course , a lookout on the bridge spotted Royal Oak lying approximately 4 @,@ 400 yards ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) to the north , correctly identifying it as a battleship of the Revenge class . Mostly hidden behind her was a second ship , only the bow of which was visible to U @-@ 47 . Prien mistook it to be a battlecruiser of the Renown class , German intelligence later labelling it Repulse . It was in fact the World War I seaplane tender Pegasus .
At 00 : 58 U @-@ 47 fired a salvo of three torpedoes from its bow tubes , a fourth lodging in its tube . Two failed to find a target , but a single torpedo struck the bow of Royal Oak at 01 : 04 , shaking the ship and waking the crew . Little visible damage was received , though the starboard anchor chain was severed , clattering noisily down through its slips . Initially , it was suspected that there had been an explosion in the ship 's forward inflammable store , used to store materials such as kerosene . Mindful of the unexplained explosion that had destroyed HMS Vanguard in Scapa Flow in 1917 , an announcement was made over Royal Oak 's tannoy system to check the magazine temperatures , but many sailors returned to their hammocks , unaware that the ship was under attack .
Prien turned his submarine and attempted another shot via his stern tube , but this too missed . Reloading his bow tubes , he doubled back and fired a salvo of three torpedoes , all at Royal Oak , This time he was successful : at 01 : 16 all three struck the battleship in quick succession amidships and detonated . The explosions blew a hole in the armoured deck , destroying the Stokers ' , Boys ' and Marines ' messes and causing a loss of electrical power . Cordite from a magazine ignited and the ensuing fireball passed rapidly through the ship 's internal spaces . Royal Oak quickly listed some 15 ° , sufficient to push the open starboard @-@ side portholes below the waterline . She soon rolled further onto her side to 45 ° , hanging there for several minutes before disappearing beneath the surface at 01 : 29 , 13 minutes after Prien 's second strike . 833 men died with the ship , including Rear @-@ Admiral Henry Blagrove , commander of the Second Battle Squadron . Over one hundred of the dead were Boy Seamen , not yet 18 years old , the largest ever such loss in a single Royal Navy action . The admiral 's wooden gig , moored alongside , was dragged down with Royal Oak .
= = = Rescue efforts = = =
The tender Daisy 2 , skippered by John Gatt , had been tied up for the night to Royal Oak 's port side . As the sinking battleship began to list to starboard , Gatt ordered Daisy 2 to be cut loose , his vessel becoming briefly caught on Royal Oak 's rising anti @-@ torpedo bulge and lifted from the sea before freeing herself .
Many of Royal Oak 's crew who had managed to jump from the sinking ship were dressed in little more than their nightclothes and were unprepared for the chilling water . A thick layer of fuel oil coated the surface , filling men 's lungs and stomachs and hampering their efforts to swim . Of those who attempted the half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) swim to the nearest shore , only a handful survived . Gatt switched the lights of Daisy 2 on and he and his crew managed to pull 386 men from the water , including Royal Oak 's commander , Captain William Benn . The rescue efforts continued for another two and a half hours until nearly 4 : 00 am , when Gatt abandoned the search for more survivors and took those he had to Pegasus . Although aided by boats from Pegasus and the harbour , he was responsible for rescuing almost all the survivors , an act for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the only military award made by the British in connection with the disaster .
= = Aftermath = =
The British were initially confused as to the cause of the sinking , suspecting either an on @-@ board explosion or aerial attack . Once it was realised that a submarine attack was the most likely explanation , steps were rapidly made to seal the anchorage , but U @-@ 47 had already escaped and was on its way back to Germany . The BBC released news of the sinking by late morning on 14 October , and its broadcasts were received by the German listening services and by U @-@ 47 itself . Divers sent down on the morning after the explosion discovered remnants of a German torpedo , confirming the means of attack . On 17 October First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill officially announced the loss of Royal Oak to the House of Commons , first conceding that the raid had been " a remarkable exploit of professional skill and daring " , but then declaring that the loss would not materially affect the naval balance of power . An Admiralty Board of Enquiry convened between 18 and 24 October to establish the circumstances under which the anchorage had been penetrated . In the meantime , the Home Fleet was ordered to remain at safer ports until security issues at Scapa could be addressed . Churchill was obliged to respond to questions in the House as to why Royal Oak had had aboard so many Boys , most of whom lost their lives . He defended the Royal Navy tradition of sending boys aged 15 to 17 to sea , but the practice was generally discontinued shortly after the disaster , and under 18 @-@ year @-@ olds served on active warships in only the most exceptional circumstances .
The Nazi Propaganda Ministry was quick to capitalise on the successful raid , and radio broadcasts by the popular journalist Hans Fritzsche displayed the triumph felt throughout Germany . Prien and his crew reached Wilhelmshaven at 11 : 44 on 17 October and were immediately greeted as heroes , learning that Prien had been awarded the Iron Cross First Class , and each man of the crew the Iron Cross Second Class . Hitler sent his personal plane to bring the crew to Berlin , where he further invested Prien with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . This decoration , made for the first time to a German submarine officer , later became the customary decoration for successful U @-@ Boat commanders . Dönitz was rewarded by promotion from Commodore to Rear @-@ Admiral and was made Flag Officer of U @-@ Boats .
Prien was nicknamed " The Bull of Scapa Flow " and his crew decorated U @-@ 47 's conning tower with a snorting bull mascot , later adopted as the emblem of the 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla . He found himself in demand for radio and newspaper interviews , and his ' autobiography ' was published the following year , titled Mein Weg nach Scapa Flow . Ghost @-@ written for him by a German journalist , in the post @-@ war years certain of its claims , and in particular those relating to the events of October 1939 , were brought into question .
The British Admiralty 's official report into the disaster condemned the defences at Scapa Flow , and censured Sir Wilfred French , Admiral Commanding Orkney and Shetland , for their unprepared state . French was placed on the retired list , despite having warned the previous summer of Scapa Flow 's deficient anti @-@ submarine defences , and volunteering to bring a small ship or submarine himself past the blockships to prove his point . On Churchill 's orders , the eastern approaches to Scapa Flow were sealed with concrete causeways linking Lamb Holm , Glimps Holm , Burray and South Ronaldsay to Mainland . Constructed largely by Italian prisoners of war , the Churchill Barriers , as they became known , were essentially complete by September 1944 , though they were not opened officially until just after VE Day in May 1945 . They now form part of the transport infrastructure of Orkney , carrying the A961 road between the islands .
In the years that followed , a rumour circulated that Prien had been guided into Scapa by one Alfred Wehring , a German agent living in Orkney in the guise of a Swiss watchmaker named Albert Oertel . Following the attack , ' Oertel ' escaped with the submarine B @-@ 06 back to Germany . This account of events originated as an article by the journalist Curt Riess in the 16 May 1942 issue of the American magazine Saturday Evening Post and was later embellished by other authors , who added details of their own . Post @-@ war searches through German and Orcadian archives have , however , failed to find any evidence for the existence of Oertel , Wehring or a submarine named B @-@ 06 , and the story is now held to be wholly fictitious . The Orkneys ' chief librarian , in a 1983 letter on the matter to the historian Nigel West , offered his suggestion that the name Albert Oertel was likely a pun on the well @-@ known Albert Hotel in Kirkwall .
= = = Survivors = = =
In the immediate aftermath of the sinking , Royal Oak 's survivors were billeted in the towns and villages of Orkney . A funeral parade for the dead took place at Lyness on Hoy on 16 October ; many of the surviving crew , having lost all their own clothing on the ship , attended in borrowed boiler suits and gym shoes . They were generally granted a few days survivors ' leave by the navy , and then assigned to ships and roles elsewhere . Kenneth Toop , who survived the sinking while serving as a Boy , First Class on Royal Oak , served as the Royal Oak Association 's Honorary Secretary . An annual ceremony of remembrance is held by the survivors and descendants of the crew at the Naval War Memorial , Southsea , on the anniversary of the sinking . As of March 2016 , Arthur Smith was the last remaining survivor from the ship 's company .
Prien did not survive the war : he and U @-@ 47 were lost under unclear circumstances on 7 March 1941 , possibly as a result of an attack by the British destroyer HMS Wolverine . News of the loss was kept secret by the Nazi government for ten weeks . Several U @-@ 47 crew from the Royal Oak mission did survive , having been transferred to other vessels . Some of them subsequently met with their former enemies from Royal Oak and forged friendships with them .
= = Wreck = =
= = = Status as war grave = = =
Despite the relatively shallow water in which she sank , the majority of bodies could not be recovered from Royal Oak . Marked by a buoy at 58 ° 55 ′ 51 ″ N 2 ° 59 ′ 00 ″ W , the wreck has been designated a war grave and all diving or other unauthorised forms of exploration are prohibited under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 . In clear water conditions , the upturned hull can be seen reaching to within 5 m of the surface . The brass letters that formed Royal Oak 's name were removed as a keepsake by a recreational diver in the 1970s . They were returned almost twenty years later , and are now displayed in the Scapa Flow visitor centre in Lyness . Royal Oak 's loss is commemorated in an annual ceremony in which Royal Navy divers place the White Ensign underwater at her stern . A memorial at St Magnus ' Cathedral in nearby Kirkwall displays a plaque dedicated to those who lost their lives , beneath which a book of remembrance lists their names . This list of names was not released by the Government until 40 years after the sinking . Each week a page of the book is turned . The ship 's bell was recovered in the 1970s and , after being restored , was added to the memorial in St Magnus ' . A number of bodies , including some that could not be identified , were interred at the naval cemetery in Lyness .
= = = Environmental concerns = = =
Royal Oak sank with up to 3 @,@ 000 tons of fuel oil aboard , the precise amount being unknown since such records were lost with the ship . Oil leaked from the corroding hull at an increased rate during the 1990s and concerns about the environmental impact led the Ministry of Defence to consider plans for extracting it . Royal Oak 's status as a war grave required that surveys and any proposed techniques for removing the oil be handled sensitively : plans in the 1950s to raise and salvage the wreck had been dropped in response to public opposition . In addition to the ethical concerns , poorly managed efforts could destabilise the wreck , resulting in a mass release of the remaining oil ; the ship also contains many tons of unexploded ordnance .
The MOD commissioned a series of multi @-@ beam sonar surveys to image the wreck and appraise its condition . The high @-@ resolution sonograms showed Royal Oak to be lying almost upside down with her top works forced into the seabed . The tip of the bow had been blown off by U @-@ 47 's first torpedo and a gaping hole on the starboard flank was the result of the triple strike from her second successful salvo . Following several years of delays , Briggs Marine was contracted by the MoD to conduct the task of pumping off the remaining oil . Royal Oak 's mid @-@ construction conversion to fuel oil had placed her fuel tanks in unconventional positions , complicating operations . By 2006 , all double bottom tanks had been cleared and the task of removing oil from the inner wing tanks with cold cutting equipment began the next year . By 2010 , some 1600 tonnes of fuel oil had been removed , and the wreck was declared to be no longer actively releasing oil into Scapa Flow . Operations continue at a reduced pace to tackle the oil known to be remaining .
= Norodom Chakrapong =
Norodom Chakrapong ( born 21 October 1945 ) is a Cambodian prince , politician , military commander and businessman . He is the fourth son of Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia and also a half @-@ brother of the current king , Norodom Sihamoni . Chakrapong started his career as a military pilot in 1963 . After Sihanouk was overthrown in 1970 , Chakrapong spent time under house arrest and living overseas before he joined the Funcinpec Party in 1981 . In 1991 , Chakrapong left Funcinpec to join the Cambodian People 's Party ( CPP ) and served as the Deputy Prime Minister of Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 . When the CPP lost the 1993 general elections , Chakrapong led a secession attempt in 1993 and another coup attempt in 1994 which led him to be sent into exile . After Chakrapong was pardoned in 1998 , he founded a private airline company , Royal Phnom Penh Airways . The airlines later went bankrupt in early 2006 .
In 2002 , Chakrapong established a royalist party , the Khmer Soul Party . When the Khmer Soul Party failed to win a single parliamentary seat in the 2003 general elections , Charkapong rejoined Funcinpec and briefly served as the First Vice President of the Senate in 2005 . In 2006 , Chakrapong was expelled from Funcinpec and joined the Norodom Ranariddh Party . When the Cambodian government pursued legal investigations on the debts Chakrapong accumulated from his airlines , Chakrapong quit politics in 2007 . Chakrapong was subsequently appointed as a privy councillor to the Supreme Privy Council and dedicated himself to humanitarian work and supporting royal activities .
= = Early life = =
Norodom Chakrapong was born at the Khemarin Palace in Phnom Penh , Cambodia to Sihanouk and Sisowath Pongsanmoni . As a young boy , Chakrapong was trained as a ballet dancer at the Royal Ballet of Cambodia , and performed at several state functions when Sihanouk attended or hosted foreign dignitaries when he was Prime Minister . In 1958 , Chakrapong was sent with his half @-@ brother Ranariddh to Marseille , France , where they attended high school . After graduating in 1963 , Chakrapong returned to Cambodia and became an officer cadet with the Royal Cambodian Air Force where graduated at the top of his class . After completing his cadet course , Chakrapong was sent back to France for a year where he received extensive training in flying MiG @-@ 21 jets . He returned in 1967 and was later commissioned as a lieutenant . When Lon Nol launched a coup against Sihanouk in March 1970 , Chakrapong was arrested and kept under house arrest until November 1973 . After his release , Chakrapong went to Beijing , China , where he joined his father and served as his father 's Chief of Protocol between 1973 and 1975 . In 1975 , Chakrapong travelled to Yugoslavia at the invitation of Josip Broz Tito . He spent a year at the Yugoslav Air Force Staff College , before he moved to France with his family as political refugees in 1976 . Chakrapong settled in Marseille and lived close to Ranariddh until 1981 . During this time , Chakrapong ran a small enterprise to provide a source of income for his family .
= = Political career = =
= = = First time in Funcinpec = = =
Chakrapong joined Sihanouk in helping to form the Funcinpec Party in March 1981 . He was appointed a commander of the Armee Nationale Sihanoukiste ( ANS , informally known as the Funcinpec army ) . The following year , Chakrapong was made a committee member overseeing Health and Social Affairs for the party , a position that he held until 1984 . In March 1985 , Chakrapong became the deputy Chief of Staff of ANS . During this time , Chakrapong defended ANS military bases against Vietnamese incursions . In 1989 , Ranariddh made Chakrapong to represent Funcinpec in negotiations leading to the 1991 Paris Peace Accords . Chakrapong was against the decision to co @-@ opt the Khmer Rouge into playing any role in future Cambodian governments , a stand that came into conflict with Ranariddh and other senior Funcinpec leaders .
= = = Cambodia People 's Party , secession and coup attempt = = =
In October 1991 , Chakrapong held secret talks with the Khmer Rouge commander , Ta Mok , to explore the possibility of joining the Khmer Rouge . Ta Mok rejected his request , and he approached Hun Sen on the possibility of joining the CPP . The following month , Chakrapong quit Funcinpec to join the CPP at Hun Sen 's invitation . He was given a seat in the party 's politburo , and in January 1992 Chakrapong was appointed Deputy Prime Minister in charge of civil aviation , tourism , industry , culture , education , and social welfare affairs . Shortly after he was appointed to the post , Chakrapong was appointed director of Kampuchea Airlines . He also encouraged foreign investment in Cambodia and provided support to investors that established financial institutions and enterprises in the country .
When the 1993 general elections were held , Chakrapong campaigned for a Presidential system of government for Cambodia with Sihanouk as president . After Funcinpec won the elections in May 1993 , he enlisted Sin Song , the minister for national security , to jointly pressure Hun Sen to protest the election results . When Hun Sen did not agree to Chakrapong 's plans , a brief attempt was made to arrest him which ended in failure when the rest of the CPP politburo expressed solidarity to Hun Sen. Subsequently , Hun Sen issued a directive to strip Chakrapong and Sin Song of their status as Members of Parliament . On 10 June , Chakrapong led a few senior CPP allies , including Sin Song and Bou Thang , to declare the secession of seven eastern Cambodian provinces bordering Vietnam from control by the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( UNTAC ) . The region was renamed the " Samdech Euv Autonomous Zone " . UNTAC staff personnel were ordered to leave , and Chakrapong issued orders to soldiers under his command to ransack UNTAC and Funcinpec offices in these provinces . Three days later , Ranariddh returned to Cambodia to preside over an emergency parliamentary meeting to reinstate Sihanouk as the country 's Head of State . At the same time , Tea Banh issued a directive to the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces to restore order in the seven eastern provinces . When Chakrapong received news of these developments , he fled across the border to Vietnam on 15 June . Sihanouk made a formal request for Chakrapong to drop his secessionist movement and return to Phnom Penh . Chakrapong obeyed his father 's request to return and was awarded the military rank of Major @-@ General for the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces .
After a permanent government was formed in September 1993 , Chakrapong and Sin Song appealed to the CPP politburo to be reinstated as Members of Parliament . The CPP made several motions for this purpose , but faced strong opposition from Funcinpec members of parliament under Ranariddh 's instructions . In May 1994 , the CPP was able to secure support from Funcinpec to outlaw the Khmer Rouge in exchange for an agreement not to pursue any further motions to reinstate Chakrapong and Sin Song as Members of Parliament . A month later in June , Chakrapong and Sin Song approached Sin Sen – Sin Song 's colleague in the ministry of national security to plot a coup and overthrow the government . On 2 July , Sin Song commanded twelve APCs and three hundred police troops from Prey Veng and marched towards Phnom Penh . General Nhek Bun Chhay sent his troops to intercept and disarm Sin Song 's troops before they reached Phnom Penh .
Hun Sen ordered soldiers to arrest Sin Song , Sin Sen , and Chakrapong . When Chakrapong heard that Sin Song was arrested , he became worried for his life and safety , and sought refuge at Regent Hotel in Phnom Penh on 3 July . Chakrapong called American journalist Nate Thayer for help , who assisted him to negotiate with government ministers and diplomats for safe passage out of Cambodia . Thayer had initially to sought asylum in the United States but was unsuccessful in contacting US Ambassador Charles Twining . After several hours of negotiations , the government allowed Chakrapong to leave Cambodia for Malaysia . Chakrapong issued a statement to deny his involvement in the coup attempt , and sent a letter to then @-@ Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim for long @-@ term asylum in Malaysia . Anwar turned down Chakrapong 's request after Ranariddh expressed disapproval , and Chakrapong subsequently sought long @-@ term refuge in France where he was to stay for the next four years .
= = = Subsequent political career = = =
Chakrapong received a royal pardon from Sihanouk in November 1998 and returned to Cambodia in early 1999 . He subsequently rejoined Funcinpec as an ordinary member in March 1999 at Ranariddh 's invitation . Chakrapong abstained from playing an active role in the party to avoid renewing tensions with his brother , and focused on his business career . In April 2001 , Chakrapong shared the idea of forming a new party with Funcinpec party members . In May 2002 , Chakrapong launched the Khmer Soul Party . After the Khmer Soul Party failed to win any seats in the 2003 general elections , Chakrapong dissolved the party and returned to Funcinpec in March 2004 . In May 2005 , Chakrapong was appointed to the newly minted party post of general @-@ inspector . In January 2006 , Chakrapong was elected senator for Prey Veng Province , and was subsequently appointed the first vice @-@ president of the senate . Two months later , Ranariddh nominated him to run for the post of secretary @-@ general , but faced opposition from some senior party members such as Nhek Bun Chhay and Lu Laysreng . Within a week of Chakrapong 's nomination , the finance ministry issued a bill calling for him to pay up due taxes from a failed airline business venture , prompting Chakrapong to withdraw his candidacy for the secretary @-@ general post .
In May 2006 , an anonymous letter from the Ministry of Information was circulated within the party , stating Ranariddh 's purported intention to form a new royalist party . Nhek Bun Chhay followed the issue closely and provided a list of party members who were planning to defect from Funcinpec , which included Serey Kosal and Chakrapong . At the same time , Nhek Bun Chhay appointed Nouv Sovathero party spokesman , while re @-@ designating the then @-@ incumbent party spokesman Chea Chanboribo the personal spokesman for Ranariddh . The cascade of incidents from Nhek Bun Chhay stoked anger from Serey Kosal and Chakrapong who threatened to sue him . When Ranariddh was fired from his position as the president of Funcinpec in October 2006 , Chakrapong was also expelled from the party and senate the following month .
Within days after his expulsion , Chakrapong joined Ranariddh to form the Norodom Ranariddh Party ( NRP ) , and was in turn appointed the party 's vice president . Ranariddh had been issued two lawsuits over embezzlement of property and adultery , and Chakrapong publicly defended Ranariddh , saying that the lawsuits were politically motivated . After Ranariddh sought exile in Malaysia in March 2007 following his conviction over his embezzlement charges , Chakrapong served as the party 's acting president . In the same month , Hun Sen reopened the case on Chakrapong 's debts and filed legal charges against him . When the commune elections were held in April 2007 , Chakrapong led the NRP to secure 472 out of 11 @,@ 459 commune councilor seats available . Following the commune elections , Chakrapong resigned from the NRP in June 2007 .
= = Business career = =
In October 1999 , Chakrapong founded Royal Phnom Penh Airways . Chakrapong raised US $ 2 million from personal savings and bank loans , which he used to acquire one 52 @-@ seater Antonov @-@ 24 and another 100 @-@ seater Yakovlev Yak @-@ 42 airplanes . The airlines flew domestic routes within the first year of operations and most of its customers were Chinese , Taiwanese , and Japanese tourists . By May 2001 , Royal Phnom Penh Airways secured three tenders to fly between Phnom Penh – Bangkok , Phnom Penh – Ho Chi Minh City as well as Ho Chi Minh City – Siem Reap . The airlines attempted to secure two additional routes from the Cambodian government — Bangkok @-@ Siem Reap in August 2001 and Siem Reap @-@ Bangkok in August 2002 — but lost both bids to other airlines . Chakrapong accused the government political bias in awarding the deals due to his political affiliations . In October 2003 , the director of Battambang Airport , Prum Chantha , reported that Royal Phnom Penh Airways had accumulated $ 1 million in unpaid taxes . Chakrapong suspended domestic flights between Phnom Penh and Battambang as foreign tourists opted for land transport options to provincial capitals which were cheaper than air transport . Royal Phnom Penh Airways had already become bankrupt by March 2006 when the government presented Chakrapong a bill of $ 1 @.@ 36 million in unpaid taxes , navigation , and landing fees . When Chakrapong failed to repay the taxes to the government , Hun Sen issued a lawsuit in March 2007 against him .
= = Palace relations = =
= = = Awards and appointments = = =
Chakrapong was bestowed the title of Sdech Krom Khun in February 1994 , which translates as " The Great Prince " . Chakrapong was given the royal title of Samdech Preah Mohessara in August 2004 by Sihanouk shortly before the latter handed over the throne to Sihamoni . After Chakrapong announced his retirement from politics in 2007 , Chakrapong was appointed as a privy councilor of the Supreme Privy Council of Cambodia with the rank equivalent to Deputy Prime Minister . He also established a foundation named after his older brother , the Norodom Racvivong Foundation , to support charitable and humanitarian initiatives for the poor .
= = = Succession debates to the throne = = =
In the 1990s , a public debate on ensued in Cambodia over the succession to the royal throne after Sihanouk was diagnosed with multiple health problems . Unlike Ranariddh or Sihamoni , Chakrapong was not a popular candidate , and a poll in 1995 by the Khmer Journalists ' Association showed that only 6 % out of 700 respondents supported Chakrapong 's candidacy to the throne . Julio Jeldres , Sihanouk 's official biographer , expressed in 1999 that Chakrapong had little chance of becoming the next king due to his involvement in the 1994 coup attempt . In August 2002 , Chakrapong raised the idea of holding national elections to choose a successor , and expressed concern over political interference in the Cambodian throne council . Chakrapong 's proposal had the support of Jeldres and Son Chhay , an opposition member of parliament who expressed similar concerns , but was opposed by Hun Sen.
= = Family = =
Chakrapong 's mother , Sisowath Pongsanmoni , was the younger half @-@ sister of Sisowath Kossamak . Kossamak is the mother of Sihanouk , and both Pongsanmoni and Kossamak had the same father , Sisowath Monivong . Pongsanmoni died in 1974 . Chakrapong has six full siblings , consisting of three brothers ( Yuvaneath , Racvivong and Khemanourak ) and three younger sisters ( Sorya Roeungsi , Kantha Bopha and Botum Bopha ) . Khemanourak , Sorya Roeungsi and Botum Bopha were killed by the Khmer Rouge , while Racvivong and Kantha Bopha died young of illness . Yuvaneath is Chakrapong 's sole surviving full sibling , and Chakrapong has six other half @-@ siblings by Sihanouk 's unions with different wives .
Chakrapong married seven times and had thirteen children . Between 1963 and 1967 , Chakrapong married three times and remained in three separate polygamous unions into the 1970s : Hun Soeun , a ballet dancer from the Royal Ballet of Cambodia ; Kethy Tioulong , the daughter of Nhiek Tioulong ; and Duong Diyath . In 1974 , Chakrapong married Duong Yany in Beijing , while in the 1984 and 1990s Chakrapong married Charuwan Duangchan ( a Thai national ) , and Monirem respectively . Chakrapong married Kanchanipha , another Thai lady after his divorce from Duangchan .
In December 2005 , Thai journalists reported that Charuwan Duangchan had sought refuge in Thailand . Duangchan alleged that Chakrapong had kept her in confinement since 1993 , and she was not allowed to go out without escort by other family members or guards . She stated that the confinement started shortly after she filed for divorce from Chakrapong . When news reached Chakrapong and their son Charuchak , both of them refuted the allegations . In June 2007 , Charuchak was arrested and briefly detained by police for allegedly participating in organised crime and gang violence . The then @-@ second deputy president of NRP , Sisowath Thomico suggested that Charuchak 's arrest might have been politically motivated .
= = = Children = = =
HRH Prince Norodom Buddhapong ( born 1966 , by Hun Soeun )
HRH Princess Norodom Nanda Devi ( born 1966 , by Kethy Tioulong )
HRH Prince Norodom Amarithivong ( born 1967 , by Hun Soeun )
HRH Prince Norodom Naravong ( born 1970 , by Hun Soeun )
HRH Princess Norodom Vimalea ( born 1969 , by Diyath )
HRH Princess Norodom Bophary ( born 1971 , by Diyath )
HRH Prince Norodom Narithipong ( born 1972 , by Hun Soeun )
HRH Princess Norodom Ithipong ( born 1972 , by Diyath )
HRH Prince Norodom Ravichak ( born 1974 , by Hun Soeun )
HRH Prince Norodom Rindra ( born 1975 , by Duong Yany )
HRH Prince Norodom Charurak ( born 1985 , by Charuvan Dounchan )
HRH Princess Norodom Pongsoriya ( born 1997 , by Monirem )
HRH Prince Norodom Pongmonireth ( born 2000 , by Monirem )
= The Wild Bunch =
The Wild Bunch is a 1969 American epic Western Technicolor and Panavision film directed by Sam Peckinpah about an aging outlaw gang on the Texas – Mexico border , trying to exist in the changing modern world of 1913 . The film was controversial because of its graphic violence and its portrayal of crude men attempting to survive by any available means .
The movie , whose screenplay was written by Peckinpah and Walon Green , stars William Holden , Robert Ryan , Ernest Borgnine , Ben Johnson and Warren Oates . It was filmed in Mexico , notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen ( deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo , Coahuila ) and on the Rio Nazas .
The Wild Bunch is noted for intricate , multi @-@ angle , quick @-@ cut editing , using normal and slow motion images , a revolutionary cinema technique in 1969 . The writing of Green , Peckinpah , and Roy N. Sickner was nominated for a best @-@ screenplay Academy Award , and the music by Jerry Fielding was nominated for Best Original Score . Additionally , Peckinpah was nominated for an Outstanding Directorial Achievement award by the Directors Guild of America and cinematographer Lucien Ballard won the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Cinematography .
In 1999 , the U.S. National Film Registry selected it for preservation in the Library of Congress as culturally , historically , and aesthetically significant . The film was ranked 80th in the American Film Institute 's 100 best American films , and the 69th most thrilling film . In 2008 , the AFI revealed its " 10 Top 10 " of the best ten films in ten genres : The Wild Bunch ranked as the sixth @-@ best Western .
= = Plot summary = =
In Texas in 1913 , Pike Bishop ( William Holden ) , the leader of a gang of aging outlaws , is seeking retirement with one final score : the robbery of a railroad office containing a cache of silver . They are ambushed by Pike 's former partner , Deke Thornton ( Robert Ryan ) , who is leading a posse of bounty hunters hired and deputized by the railroad . A bloody shootout kills several of the gang . Pike uses a serendipitous temperance union parade to shield their getaway , and many citizens are killed in the crossfire .
Pike rides off with Dutch Engstrom ( Ernest Borgnine ) , brothers Lyle ( Warren Oates ) and Tector Gorch ( Ben Johnson ) and Angel ( Jaime Sánchez ) , the only survivors . They are dismayed when the loot from the robbery turns out to be a decoy : steel washers instead of silver coin . The men reunite with old @-@ timer Freddie Sykes ( Edmond O 'Brien ) and head for Mexico .
Pike 's men cross the Rio Grande and take refuge that night in the village where Angel was born . The townsfolk are ruled by Gen. Mapache ( Emilio Fernández ) , a corrupt , brutal general in the Mexican Federal Army , who has been ravaging the area 's villages to feed his troops , who have been fighting — and losing to — the forces of revolutionary Pancho Villa . Pike 's gang makes contact with the general . A jealous Angel spots Teresa , his former lover , in Mapache 's arms and shoots her dead , angering Mapache . Pike defuses the situation and offers to work for Mapache . Their task is to steal a weapons shipment from a U.S. Army train so that Mapache can resupply his troops and appease Col. Mohr ( Fernando Wagner ) , his German military adviser , who wishes to obtain samples of America 's armaments . The reward will be a cache of gold coins .
Angel gives up his share of the gold to Pike in return for sending one crate of the stolen rifles and ammunition to a band of rebels opposed to Mapache . The holdup goes largely as planned until Deke 's posse turns up on the very train the gang has robbed . The posse chases them to the Mexican border , only to be foiled again as the robbers blow up a trestle spanning the Rio Grande , dumping the entire posse into the river . The pursuers temporarily regroup at a riverside camp and then quickly take off again after the Bunch .
Pike and his men , knowing they risk being double @-@ crossed by Mapache , devise a way of bringing him the stolen weapons — including an ( anachronistic ) Browning M1917 machine gun — without him double @-@ crossing them . However , Mapache learns from the mother of Teresa that Angel embezzled a crate of guns and ammo , and reveals this as Angel and Engstrom deliver the last of the weapons . Surrounded by Mapache 's army , Angel desperately tries to escape , only to be captured and tortured . Mapache lets Engstrom go , and he returns to rejoin Pike 's gang and tell them what happened .
Sykes is wounded by Deke 's posse while securing spare horses . The rest of Pike 's gang returns to Agua Verde for shelter , where a bacchanal celebrating the weapons transfer has commenced ; they see Angel being dragged on the ground by a rope tied behind the general 's car . After a brief frolic with prostitutes and a period of reflection , Pike and the gang try to forcibly persuade Mapache to release Angel , barely alive after the torture . The general appears to comply ; however , as they watch , the general cuts his throat instead . Pike and the gang angrily gun Mapache down in front of hundreds of his men . For a moment , the federales are so shocked that they fail to return fire , causing Engstrom to laugh in surprise . Pike calmly takes aim at Mohr and kills him , too . This results in a violent , bloody shootout — dominated by the machine gun — in which Pike and his men are killed , along with many of Mapache 's troops and the remaining German adviser .
Deke finally catches up . He allows the remaining members of the posse to take the bullet @-@ riddled bodies of the gang members back and collect the reward , while electing to stay behind , knowing what awaits the posse . After a period , Sykes arrives with a band of the previously seen Mexican rebels , who have killed off what 's left of the posse along the way . Sykes asks Deke to come along and join the revolution . Deke smiles and rides off with them .
= = Cast = =
= = Casting = =
Director Sam Peckinpah considered many actors for the Pike Bishop role , before casting William Holden : Richard Boone , Sterling Hayden , Charlton Heston , Burt Lancaster , Lee Marvin , Robert Mitchum , Gregory Peck , and James Stewart . Marvin actually accepted the role but pulled out after he was offered a larger pay deal to star in Paint Your Wagon ( 1969 ) .
Peckinpah 's first two choices for the role of Deke Thornton were Richard Harris ( who had co @-@ starred in Major Dundee ) and Brian Keith ( who had worked with Peckinpah on The Westerner ( 1960 ) and The Deadly Companions ( 1961 ) ) . Harris was never formally approached , but Keith was , and turned the part down . Robert Ryan was ultimately cast in the part after Peckinpah saw him in the World War II action movie The Dirty Dozen ( 1967 ) . Other actors considered for the role were Henry Fonda , Glenn Ford , Van Heflin , Ben Johnson ( later cast as Tector Gorch ) , and Arthur Kennedy .
Mario Adorf was considered for the part of Mapache , but the role went to Emilio Fernández , the Mexican film director and actor and friend of Peckinpah .
Among those considered to play Dutch Engstrom were Charles Bronson , Jim Brown , Alex Cord , Robert Culp , Sammy Davis , Jr . , Richard Jaeckel , Steve McQueen , and George Peppard . Ernest Borgnine was cast based on his performance in The Dirty Dozen ( 1967 ) .
Robert Blake was the original choice to play Angel , but he asked for too much money . Peckinpah had seen Jaime Sánchez in the Broadway production of Sidney Lumet 's The Pawnbroker , was impressed , and demanded he be cast as Angel .
Albert Dekker , a stage actor , was cast as Harrigan , the railroad detective . He died months after filming ; The Wild Bunch was his final film .
Bo Hopkins played the part of Clarence " Crazy " Lee ; he was cast after Peckinpah saw him on television .
Warren Oates played Lyle Gorch , having previously worked with Peckinpah on the TV series The Rifleman and his previous films , Ride the High Country ( 1962 ) and Major Dundee ( 1965 ) .
= = Production = =
In 1967 , Warner Bros.-Seven Arts producers Kenneth Hyman and Phil Feldman were interested in having Sam Peckinpah rewrite and direct an adventure film called The Diamond Story . A professional outcast due to the production difficulties of his previous film Major Dundee ( 1965 ) and his firing from the set of The Cincinnati Kid ( 1965 ) , Peckinpah 's stock had improved following his critically acclaimed work on the television film Noon Wine ( 1966 ) . An alternative screenplay available at the studio was The Wild Bunch , written by Roy Sickner and Walon Green . At the time , William Goldman 's screenplay Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid had recently been purchased by 20th Century Fox . It was quickly decided that The Wild Bunch , which had several similarities to Goldman 's work , would be produced in order to beat Butch Cassidy to the theaters .
By the fall of 1967 , Peckinpah was rewriting the screenplay and preparing for the production . The principal photography was shot entirely on location in Mexico , most notably at the Hacienda Ciénaga del Carmen ( deep in the desert between Torreón and Saltillo , Coahuila ) and on the Rio Nazas . Peckinpah 's epic work was inspired by his hunger to return to films , the violence seen in Arthur Penn 's Bonnie and Clyde ( 1967 ) , and America 's growing frustration with the Vietnam War and what he perceived to be the utter lack of reality seen in Westerns up to that time . He set out to make a film which portrayed not only the vicious violence of the period , but as well the crude men attempting to survive the era . Multiple scenes attempted in Major Dundee , including slow motion action sequences ( inspired by Akira Kurosawa 's work in Seven Samurai ( 1954 ) ) , characters leaving a village as if in a funeral procession and the use of inexperienced locals as extras , would become fully realized in The Wild Bunch .
The film was shot with the anamorphic process . Peckinpah and his cinematographer , Lucien Ballard , also made use of telephoto lenses , that allowed for objects and people in both the background and foreground to be compressed in perspective . The effect is best seen in the shots where the Bunch makes " the walk " to Mapache 's headquarters to free Angel . As they walk forward , a constant flow of people passes between them and the camera ; most of the people in the foreground are as sharply focused as the Bunch . The editing of the film is notable in that shots from multiple angles were spliced together in rapid succession , often at different speeds , placing greater emphasis on the chaotic nature of the action and the gunfights .
Lou Lombardo , having previously worked with Peckinpah on Noon Wine , was personally hired by the director to edit The Wild Bunch . Peckinpah had wanted an editor who would be loyal to him . Lombardo 's youth was also a plus , as he was not bound by traditional conventions . One of Lombardo 's first contributions was to show Peckinpah an episode of the TV series Felony Squad he edited in 1967 . The episode , entitled " My Mommy Got Lost " , included a slow motion sequence where Joe Don Baker is shot by the police . The scene mixed slow motion with normal speed , having been filmed at 24 frames per second but triple printed optically at 72 frames per second . Peckinpah was reportedly thrilled and told Lombardo : " Let 's try some of that when we get down to Mexico ! " The director would film the major shootouts with six cameras , operating at various film rates , including 24 frames per second , 30 frames per second , 60 frames per second , 90 frames per second , and 120 frames per second . When the scenes were eventually cut together , the action would shift from slow to fast to slower still , giving time an elastic quality never before seen in motion pictures up to that time .
By the time filming wrapped , Peckinpah had shot 333 @,@ 000 feet ( 101 @,@ 000 m ) of film with 1 @,@ 288 camera setups . Lombardo and Peckinpah remained in Mexico for six months editing the picture . After initial cuts , the opening gunfight sequence ran 21 minutes . By cutting frames from specific scenes and intercutting others , they were able to fine @-@ cut the opening robbery down to five minutes . The creative montage became the model for the rest of the film and would " forever change the way movies would be made " . Further editing was done to secure a favorable rating from the MPAA which was in the process of establishing a new set of codes . Peckinpah and his editors cut the film to satisfy the new , expansive R @-@ rating parameters which , for the first time , designated a film as being unsuitable for children . Without this new system in place , the film could not have been released with its explicit images of bloodshed .
Peckinpah stated that one of his goals for this movie was to give the audience " some idea of what it is to be gunned down " . A memorable incident occurred , to that end , as Peckinpah 's crew were consulting him on the " gunfire " effects to be used in the film . Not satisfied with the results from the squibs his crew had brought for him , Peckinpah became exasperated ; he finally hollered : " That 's not what I want ! That 's not what I want ! " He then grabbed a real revolver and fired it into a nearby wall . The gun empty , Peckinpah barked at his stunned crew : " THAT 'S the effect I want ! ! " He also had the gunfire sound effects changed for the film . Before , all gunshots in Warner Bros. movies sounded identical , regardless of the type of weapon being fired . Peckinpah insisted on each different type of firearm having its own specific sound effect when fired .
= = Themes = =
Critics of The Wild Bunch noted the theme of the end of the outlaw gunfighter era . Pike Bishop says , " We 've got to start thinking beyond our guns . Those days are closing fast . " The Bunch live by an anachronistic code of honor without a place in 20th @-@ century society . When they inspect Gen. Mapache 's new automobile , they perceive it marks the end of horse travel , a symbol also in Peckinpah 's Ride the High Country ( 1962 ) and The Ballad of Cable Hogue ( 1970 ) .
The violence that was much criticized in 1969 remains controversial . Peckinpah noted it was allegoric of the American war in Vietnam , the violence of which was nightly televised to American homes at supper time . He tried showing the gun violence commonplace to the historic western frontier period , rebelling against sanitized , bloodless television Westerns and films glamorizing gunfights and murder : " The point of the film is to take this façade of movie violence and open it up , get people involved in it so that they are starting to go in the Hollywood television predictable reaction syndrome , and then twist it so that it 's not fun anymore , just a wave of sickness in the gut . . . it 's ugly , brutalizing , and bloody awful ; it 's not fun and games and cowboys and Indians . It 's a terrible , ugly thing , and yet there 's a certain response that you get from it , an excitement , because we 're all violent people . " Peckinpah used violence as catharsis , believing his audience would be purged of violence , by witnessing it explicitly on screen . He later admitted to being mistaken , that the audience came to enjoy rather than be horrified by his films ' violence , something that troubled him .
Betrayal is the secondary theme of The Wild Bunch . The characters suffer from their knowledge of having betrayed a friend and left him to his fate , thus violating their own honor code when it suits them ( " $ 10 @,@ 000 cuts an awful lot of family ties " ) . However , Bishop says , " When you side with a man , you stay with him , and if you can 't do that you 're like some animal . " Such oppositional ideas lead to the film 's violent conclusion , as the remaining men find their abandonment of Angel intolerable . Bishop remembers his betrayals , most notably when he deserts Deke Thornton ( in flashback ) when the law catches up to them and when he abandons Crazy Lee at the railroad office after the robbery ( ostensibly to guard the hostages ) . Critic David Weddle writes that " like that of Conrad 's Lord Jim , Pike Bishop 's heroism is propelled by overwhelming guilt and a despairing death wish . "
= = Reception = =
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Vincent Canby began his review by calling the film " very beautiful and the first truly interesting American @-@ made Western in years . It 's also so full of violence--of an intensity that can hardly be supported by the story--that it 's going to prompt a lot of people who do not know the real effect of movie violence ( as I do not ) to write automatic condemnations of it . " He said , " Although the movie 's conventional and poetic action sequences are extraordinarily good and its landscapes beautifully photographed . . . it is most interesting in its almost jolly account of chaos , corruption , and defeat " . Among the actors , he commented particularly on William Holden : " After years of giving bored performances in boring movies , Holden comes back gallantly in The Wild Bunch . He looks older and tired , but he has style , both as a man and as a movie character who persists in doing what he 's always done , not because he really wants the money but because there 's simply nothing else to do . " Time also liked Holden 's performance , describing it as his best since Stalag 17 ( a 1953 film that earned Holden an Oscar ) ; said Robert Ryan gave " the screen performance of his career " ; and concluded that " The Wild Bunch contains faults and mistakes " ( such as flashbacks " introduced with surprising clumsiness " ) , but " its accomplishments are more than sufficient to confirm that Peckinpah , along with Stanley Kubrick and Arthur Penn , belongs with the best of the newer generation of American filmmakers . "
In a 2002 retrospective Roger Ebert , who " saw the original version at the world premiere in 1969 , during the golden age of the junket , when Warner Bros. screened five of its new films in the Bahamas for 450 critics and reporters " , said that back then he had publicly declared the film a masterpiece during the junket 's press conference , prompted by comments from " a reporter from the Reader 's Digest [ who ] got up to ask ' Why was this film ever made ? ' " He compared the film to Pulp Fiction : " praised and condemned with equal vehemence . "
" What Citizen Kane was to movie lovers in 1941 , The Wild Bunch was to cineastes in 1969 , " wrote film critic Michael Sragow , adding that Peckinpah had " produced an American movie that equals or surpasses the best of Kurosawa : the Gotterdammerung of Westerns " .
= = = Box Office = = =
Produced on a budget of $ 6 million , the film grossed $ 10 @.@ 5 million at the US box office in 1970 and another $ 638 @,@ 641 in the US on its 1995 restored box @-@ office release , making a total of $ 11 @,@ 138 @,@ 641 . It was the 17th highest grossing film of 1969 . Today , the film holds a 98 % " Fresh " rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews from 46 critics .
= = Documentary = =
Sam Peckinpah and the making of The Wild Bunch were the subjects of the documentary The Wild Bunch : An Album in Montage ( 1996 ) directed and edited by Paul Seydor ; the documentary was occasioned by the discovery of 72 minutes of silent , black @-@ and @-@ white film footage of Peckinpah and company on location in northern Mexico during the filming of The Wild Bunch . Michael Sragow wrote in 2000 that the documentary was " a wonderful introduction to Peckinpah ’ s radically detailed historical film about American outlaws in revolutionary Mexico--a masterpiece that ’ s part bullet @-@ driven ballet , part requiem for Old West friendship and part existential explosion . Seydor ’ s movie is also a poetic flight on the myriad possibilities of movie directing . " Seydor and his co @-@ producer Nick Redman were nominated in 1997 for the Academy Award for Best Documentary ( Short Subject ) .
= = Awards , honors , and nominations = =
Following its release , Peckinpah was one of ten directors to receive a nomination for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film . The film received two Academy Award nominations , for Best Original Screenplay ( Walon Green , Roy N. Sickner , Sam Peckinpah ) and Best Original Music Score ( Jerry Fielding ) . At the 42nd Academy Awards ceremony , both awards went to crew members of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ( screenwriter William Goldman and composer Burt Bacharach ) .
Decades later the American Film Institute placed the film in several of its " 100 Years " lists :
AFI 's 100 Years … 100 Movies – # 80
AFI 's 100 Years … 100 Thrills – # 69
AFI 's 100 Years … 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 79
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – # 6 Western
The film is ranked # 94 on Empire magazine 's list of the 500 Greatest Films of All Time . In 1999 , the U.S. National Film Registry selected it for preservation in the Library of Congress as culturally , historically , and aesthetically significant .
= = Versions = =
In 1993 , Warner Bros. resubmitted the film to the MPAA ratings board prior to an expected re @-@ release . To the studio 's surprise , the originally R @-@ rated film was given an NC @-@ 17 , delaying the release until the decision was appealed . The controversy was linked to 10 extra minutes added to the film , although none of this footage contained graphic violence . Warner Bros. trimmed some footage to decrease the running time to ensure additional daily screenings . When the restored film finally made it to the screen in March 1995 , one reviewer noted :
By restoring 10 minutes to the film , the complex story now fits together in a seamless way , filling in those gaps found in the previous theatrical release , and proving that Peckinpah was firing on all cylinders for this , his grandest achievement .... And the one overwhelming feature that the director 's cut makes unforgettable are the many faces of the children , whether playing , singing , or cowering , much of the reaction to what happens on @-@ screen is through the eyes , both innocent and imitative , of all the children .
Today , almost all of the versions of the film include the missing scenes . Warner Bros. released a newly restored version in a two @-@ disc special edition on January 10 , 2006 . It includes an audio commentary by Peckinpah scholars , two documentaries concerning the making of the film , and never @-@ before @-@ seen outtakes .
There have been several versions of the film :
The original , 1969 European release is 145 minutes long , with an intermission ( per distributor 's request , before the train robbery ) .
The original , 1969 American release is 143 minutes long .
The second , 1969 American release is 135 minutes long , shortened to allow more screenings .
The 1995 re @-@ release is 145 minutes long , identical to the 1969 European release , the version labeled " The Original Director 's Cut " , available in home video .
= = Remake = =
On January 19 , 2011 , it was announced by Warner Bros. that a remake of The Wild Bunch was in the works . Screenwriter Brian Helgeland was hired to develop a new script . The 2012 suicide of Tony Scott , who was scheduled to direct , put the project in limbo .
On May 15 , 2013 , The Wrap reported that Will Smith was in talks to star in and produce the remake . The new version involves drug cartels and follows a disgraced DEA agent who assembles a team to go after a Mexican drug lord and his fortune . No director has been chosen , and a new screenwriter is being sought .
= The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 2 – Black Oil =
Volume 2 of The X @-@ Files Mythology collection is the second DVD release containing selected episodes from the third to the fifth seasons of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episodes collected in the release form the middle of the series ' mythology , and are centered on the discovery of a mind @-@ altering extraterrestrial " black oil " .
The collection contains five episodes from the third season , eight from the fourth season , and two from the fifth . The episodes follow the investigations of paranormal @-@ related cases , or X @-@ Files , by FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . Events covered in the episodes include the assassination of a secretive informant , Scully 's diagnosis with cancer and Mulder 's apparent suicide .
Production for many of the episode 's included in the collection required extensive effects . The titular black oil 's on @-@ screen appearance was achieved through visual effects ; the shimmering oil effect was digitally placed over the actors ' corneas in post @-@ production . Steven Williams , William B. Davis , Mitch Pileggi and Laurie Holden all play supporting roles in the collection . Released on August 2 , 2005 , the collection received mostly positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot summary = =
The collection opens with the two @-@ part episodes " Nisei " and " 731 " . Investigating evidence of an alien autopsy , FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) infiltrates a secretive government train carriage carrying an alien @-@ human hybrid . Mulder is almost killed by a Syndicate operative guarding the hybrid , but is saved by his informant X ( Steven Williams ) . X had been tipped off about Mulder 's activities by the agent 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Scully , meanwhile , meets a group of women with abduction experiences similar to her own , and meets another member of the Syndicate known as the First Elder ( Don S. Williams ) , who claims during her abduction she was placed on a similar train car and experimented upon by the Japanese scientists .
The crew of a French salvage ship trying to raise a World War II – era submarine from the sea floor are stricken with massive radiation burns — except for one , who has been infected with a parasitic black oil discovered on the submarine . The oil , controlling the crewman 's body , passes into the crewman 's wife and travels to Hong Kong in pursuit of a middleman selling government secrets , who Mulder has also been pursuing . After Mulder catches Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) in Hong Kong , the oil passes itself to Krycek . Scully finds that the submarine had been involved in discovering the oil on the sea floor during World War II , under the guise of finding a sunken fighter plane . The infected Krycek makes his way to a missile silo used to hide a UFO , and the oil escapes his body to board the craft . Meanwhile , Scully has tracked down Luis Cardinal , the man responsible for killing her sister .
When the Syndicate suspect that one of their members is passing information to Mulder and Scully , they organise a canary trap to find the leak , using information about the safety of Mulder 's mother as bait . X 's role as an informant is discovered , and he is shot dead , although he is able to pass along the name of another informant who can be of use to Mulder — Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , the Special Representative to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . Covarrubias ' aid is sought when Mulder attempts to reach Tunguska in Russia to investigate the source of a further black oil contamination . Whilst there , Mulder is held in a gulag and used as a successful test subject for a black oil vaccine . He escapes and is able to return to America , having found that Krycek is working with the Russians .
Having been diagnosed with cancer , Scully is unsure of her future with the FBI . Mulder is convinced that her condition is a result of her earlier abduction , and is prepared to make a deal with the Syndicate to find a cure . He is dissuaded by Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who secretly makes such a deal instead . While being pursued by an assassin responsible for a hoax alien corpse discovered on a mountaintop , Mulder fakes his own suicide , mutilating the assassin 's face to provide a decoy body . He uses the distraction this offers to infiltrate The Pentagon to find a cure for Scully 's cancer , while Scully is able to uncover and reveal a Syndicate connection within the FBI .
= = Background = =
During the third season the black oil was introduced , an alien entity that invaded bodies and made them into living hosts . The black oil was able to enter through a victim 's mouth , eyes or nose ; it would leave a victim 's body to revert to its original form or find a new host . The oil is revealed to be a tool used by the Colonists , brought to Earth by meteorites to create hosts of the human population living there . The fourth season episodes " Tunguska " and " Terma " were conceived by the writers when they were trying to conceive a " big and fun canvas " to tell stories . They decided to create a story which had connections to the Russian gulags , which led to the " natural " idea that the Russians were experimenting separately from the Syndicate to create a vaccine for the black oil . Writer John Shiban felt it was natural creating an arms race @-@ like story between the United States and Russia , being that the Cold War had ended a few years earlier . The inspiration for the oil @-@ containing rocks was NASA 's announcement of possible evidence of extraterrestrial life in the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite ; while the gulag scenes were based on Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 's books The Gulag Archipelago and One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
The on @-@ screen appearance of the black oil was achieved through visual effects ; the shimmering oil effect was digitally placed over the actors ' corneas in post @-@ production . The crew went through various iterations to find the two " right " types of fluids . According to physical effects crewman David Gauthier , they used a mix of oil and acetone , which he believed gave the substance a more globular look . During the filming of " Apocrypha " , Nicholas Lea was fitted with a mask with tubes for the scene where the alien black oil leaves his body . Lea said filming the scene was horrible , and the scene ended up having to be filmed again a few days later . A similar scene from the start of the episode with the submarine captain was accomplished using a dummy head .
The decision to have the character of X killed off in " Herrenvolk " was made at the end of the third season . The writers felt that they could only do so much with the character and decided that they would either make him a bigger character in the series , or have him pay the price for collaborating with Mulder . The show 's producers decided to give Gillian Anderson 's character Dana Scully cancer early in the fourth season . Carter initially discussed giving Scully 's mother cancer but decided to have Scully suffer from it instead . Carter felt the move would give the show an interesting platform on which to discuss things such as faith , science , health care and a certain element of the paranormal . Some of the writing staff felt that the decision was a poor one to make , citing it as " a cheap TV thing " . However , Frank Spotnitz felt that , given the appearances of cancer @-@ stricken abductees in previous episodes , it was an " obligatory " move to have Scully follow suit .
= = Reception = =
Released on August 2 , 2005 , the collection has received generally positive reviews from critics . Slant Magazine 's Keith Uhlich rated it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , noting that there is " an unabashed confidence to these episodes " , although this " comes with something of a price as the thrill and surprise of season two mythology stories like " Colony " and " End Game " are replaced by a nagging suspicion that the writers are starting to tread water " . Uhlich singles out " Talitha Cumi " as the collection 's highlight , calling it " an overall mindblower " . Writing for DVD Talk , Jeffrey Robinson was impressed with the collection , calling it " highly recommended " . However , he felt that the cohesion between the episodes was lacking somewhat , and that the two @-@ part episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " did not add much to the overall storyline . Exclaim ! ' s Monica S. Kuebler , on the other hand , felt negatively about the collection . She too felt that the interrupted nature of the episodes caused a lack of " believable " pacing , and noted that the release " feels like a blatant cash grab by Fox to milk an old franchise while they still can " .
= = Episodes = =
= = Special features = =
= Verna Fields =
Verna Fields ( née Hellman , 21 March 1918 – 30 November 1982 ) was an American film editor , film and television sound editor , educator , and entertainment industry executive . In the first phase of her career , from 1954 through to about 1970 , Fields mostly worked on smaller projects that gained little recognition . She was the sound editor for several television shows in the 1950s . She worked on independent films ( including The Savage Eye ( 1959 ) ) , on government @-@ supported documentaries of the 1960s , and on some minor studio films such as Peter Bogdanovich 's first film , Targets ( 1968 ) . For several years in the late 1960s , she was a film instructor at the University of Southern California . Her one major studio film , El Cid , led to her only industry recognition in this phase of her career , which was the 1962 Golden Reel award for sound editing .
Fields came into prominence as a film editor and industry executive during the ' New Hollywood ' era ( 1968 – 1982 ) . She had established close ties with the directors Peter Bogdanovich , George Lucas , and Steven Spielberg early in their careers , and became known as their " mother cutter " ; the term " cutter " is an informal variation of " film editor " . The critical and commercial success of the films What 's Up , Doc ? ( 1972 ) , American Graffiti ( 1973 ) , and Jaws ( 1975 ) brought Fields a level of recognition that appears to be unique among film editors . Jaws in particular was enormously and unexpectedly profitable , and ushered in the era of the " summer blockbuster " film . Fields ' contributions to this success were widely acknowledged . She received an Academy Award and an American Cinema Editors Award for best editing for the film . Within a year of the film 's release , she had been appointed as Vice @-@ President for Feature Production at Universal Studios . She was thus among the first women to enter upper @-@ level management in the entertainment industry . Her career as an executive at Universal continued until her death in 1982 at age 64 .
= = Early life , education , and training = =
Verna Hellman was born in St. Louis , Missouri . She was the daughter of Selma ( née Schwartz ) and Samuel Hellman , who was then working as a journalist for the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch and the Saturday Evening Post . Sam Hellman subsequently moved his family to Hollywood , where he became a prolific screenwriter . Verna Hellman graduated from the University of Southern California with a B.A. in journalism . She then held several positions at 20th Century Fox , including being the assistant sound editor on Fritz Lang 's 1944 film The Woman in the Window . In 1946 , she married the film editor Sam Fields and stopped working . The Fields had two sons ; one of them , Richard Fields , became a film editor . In 1954 , Sam Fields died of a heart attack at the age of 38 .
= = Career in sound editing = =
Following her husband 's death , Fields began a career as a television sound editor working on such shows as Death Valley Days and the children 's programs Sky King and Fury . She installed a film editing lab in her home so that she could work at night while her children were young ; she told them that she was the " Queen of Saturday morning " .
By 1956 , she was working on films as well . Her first credit as a sound editor was for Fritz Lang 's While the City Sleeps . She worked on the experimental documentary The Savage Eye ( 1959 ) ; the co @-@ directors Ben Maddow , Sidney Meyers , and Joseph Strick and the other connections she made on this film were important to her subsequent career . In 1962 Fields won the Motion Picture Sound Editors ' Golden Reel Award for the film El Cid ( directed by Anthony Mann ) .
Following El Cid , Fields was the sound editor on several lesser @-@ known films , including the experimental film The Balcony ( 1963 ) with her Savage Eye colleagues Strick and Maddow . Peter Bogdanovich 's first , low @-@ budget film Targets ( 1968 ) was one of her last sound @-@ editing projects , and represents her mature work . Bill Warren has described the scene in which the character Bobby starts sniping at freeway drivers from the top of a large oil storage tank : " The sound is mono , and brilliantly mixed -- the entire sequence of Bobby shooting from the tanks was shot without sound . Verna Fields , then a sound editor , added all the sound effects . The result is seamlessly realistic , from the scrape of the guns on the metal of the tanks , to the crack of the rifles , to the little gasps Bobby makes just before firing . "
= = Film editing and teaching = =
Fields ' career as a film editor commenced in 1960 , when the director Irving Lerner recruited her to be the editor of the film Studs Lonigan ; Fields and Lerner had both worked on The Savage Eye . In 1963 she edited An Affair of the Skin , which was directed by Ben Maddow ( another Savage Eye contact ) . Over the next five years , Fields edited several other independent films ; the best known is The Legend of the Boy and the Eagle ( 1967 ) , which was shown on the television program Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color . She also made documentaries funded by the United States government through the Office of Economic Opportunity ( OEO ) , the United States Information Agency ( USIA ) , and the U.S. Department of Health , Education , and Welfare ( HEW ) .
Starting in the mid @-@ 1960s , Fields taught film editing at the University of Southern California ( USC ) . Douglas Gomery wrote of her time at USC that : " Her greatest impact came when she began to teach film editing to a generation of students at the University of Southern California . She then operated on the fringes of the film business , for a time making documentaries for the Office of Economic Opportunity . The end of that Federal Agency pushed her back into mainstream Hollywood then being overrun by her former USC students . " Fields ' students had included Matthew Robbins , Willard Huyck , Gloria Katz , John Milius , and George Lucas .
Fields left no written lectures from her USC years , but a transcript exists from a 1975 seminar that she gave at the American Film Institute . In one characteristic excerpt she said that , " There 's a feeling of movement in telling a story and there is a flow . A cut that is off @-@ rhythm will be disturbing and you will feel it , unless you want it to be like that . On Jaws , each time I wanted to cut I didn 't , so that it would have an anticipatory feeling — and it worked . "
In 1971 Peter Bogdanovich , with whom Fields had worked on Targets , recruited her to edit What 's Up , Doc ? ( 1972 ) ; Bogdanovich had edited his previous films himself . The film was very successful , and is now considered as the second of Bogdanovich 's ' golden period ' that commenced with The Last Picture Show ( 1971 ) . What 's Up , Doc ? established Fields as an editor on studio films . She subsequently edited Bogdanovich 's final golden period film , Paper Moon ( 1973 ) , as well as his less successful film Daisy Miller ( 1974 ) .
= = George Lucas and American Graffiti = =
In 1967 , Fields had hired George Lucas to help edit Journey to the Pacific ( 1968 ) , which was a documentary film that she 'd directed for the USIA . She had also hired Marcia Griffin for the job , and introduced Griffin and George Lucas ; they subsequently married . In 1972 , Lucas was directing American Graffiti . While Lucas had intended that his wife would edit the film , Universal Studios asked him to add Verna Fields to the editing team . Over the first ten weeks of post @-@ production , George and Marcia Lucas , along with Fields and Walter Murch ( as sound editor ) , pieced together the original , 165 @-@ minute version of the film . Each of more than 40 scenes in the film had a continuously playing background song that had been popular around 1962 , when the film 's story was set . Michael Sragow has characterized the effect as " using rock ' n roll as a Greek chorus with a beat " .
Fields then left American Graffiti . It took another six months of editing to create a shorter , 110 @-@ minute version of the film , but upon its release in 1973 American Graffiti was extremely successful both with critics and at the box office . Shortly after its release , Roger Greenspun described the film and its editing : " American Graffiti exists not so much in its individual stories as in its orchestration of many stories , its sense of time and place . Although it is full of the material of fashionable nostalgia , it never exploits nostalgia . In its feeling for movement and music and the vitality of the night — and even in its vision in white — it is oddly closer to some early Fellini than to the recent American past of , say , The Last Picture Show or Summer of ' 42 . "
Verna Fields and Marcia Lucas were nominated for an Academy Award for Film Editing in 1974 for their work on American Graffiti ; while the film won no Academy Awards , both of the Lucases , Murch , and Fields all won Academy Awards for later work . The commercial success of the film gave George Lucas the opportunity to direct his next film , Star Wars .
= = Steven Spielberg and Jaws = =
Fields edited Steven Spielberg 's first major film , The Sugarland Express ( 1974 ) . She became widely celebrated for her work as the film editor on Spielberg 's next film , Jaws ( 1975 ) , for which she won both the Academy Award for Film Editing and the American Cinema Editors Eddie Award in 1976 . Leonard Maltin has characterized her editing as " sensational " . Gerald Peary , who interviewed Fields in 1980 , wrote that , " Jaws scared the world , brought in a fortune for Universal , and made Verna Fields , who won an Academy Award , about as famous ' overnight ' as an editor ever gets . " He then quoted Fields as saying that , " Steven told me it was because I had cut the first picture that was a monumental success in which you can really see the editing . And people discovered that it was a woman who edited Jaws . "
The editing of Jaws has been intensely studied for over thirty years . In film editor Susan Korda 's 2005 lecture , " We 'll Fix It in the Edit ! ? " , at the Berlinale Talent Campus , she broadly explained the contribution of editing to the film : " What is fascinating in Jaws is that the shark has a personality , the shark has an intelligence , indeed sometimes I think the shark has a sense of humor , morbid as it might be . And that was all achieved in the first two acts of the film before you see the shark . So the cutting was very essential for that . " David Bordwell has used the second shark attack scene in Jaws as ( literally ) a textbook illustration of an editing innovation that occurred in the late 1960s . The innovation , which Fields herself named the " wipe by cut " , can be used when a character is filmed from a distance using a telephoto lens . The cut to a different framing of the character occurs during the interruption by a figure who passes between the camera and the character . The cut thus masks itself , and avoids drawing the viewer 's attention away from the narrative of the scene .
The critic David Edelstein 's affectionate comments on Jaws and its editing are also a good indication of the film 's lasting influence 30 years after its release :
Jaws is still one of my favorite movies . I didn 't know I could be manipulated like that — so wittily , so teasingly , in a way that made me laugh at my own fear . ( The only Hitchcock film I 'd seen in a theater was Frenzy , which was too sick to appreciate in the same vein . ) What clinched it was that unbelievably brilliant sequence that begins with a high @-@ angle shot of Roy Scheider dropping fish entrails in the water as shark bait . He was resentful ; he said to Shaw and Dreyfuss , " Why don 't you guys come down here and shovel some of this shit ? " And we started to laugh — he said " shit ! " heh @-@ heh — and then the head of the shark appeared in the water ( no music , no foreshadowing ) , and I felt my mind detach from my body and my laugh turn into a shriek and merge into the collective shriek of everyone in that huge theater . I literally shook for the rest of the movie : Every cut by the late Verna Fields had me poised to leap out of my seat . ( I really learned to appreciate editing from Jaws . )
On a 2012 listing of the 75 best edited films of all time that was compiled by the Motion Picture Editors Guild , Jaws was listed eighth .
= = Management for Universal Studios = =
Shortly after the completion of Jaws in 1975 , Fields was hired by Universal Studios as an executive consultant . Some insight into Universal 's reasons for hiring her can be gleaned from the fact that during the filming of Jaws , in addition to her editing , Fields had been " omnipresent ... at Spielberg 's beck and call by means of a walkie @-@ talkie . Often she would shuttle back and forth on her bike between the producers in town and Spielberg at the dock for last @-@ minute decisions " . The producers of Jaws were David Brown and Richard Zanuck . Along with Brown , Zanuck , and Peter Benchley ( the book 's author ) , Fields helped promote Jaws on the " talk show circuit " in the eight months before its saturation release to 464 theaters on 20 June 1975 . Fields had plainly earned the confidence of the producers and of the studio executives at Universal .
Throughout her career , Fields had worked independently , but in 1976 , and following the unexpected success of Jaws , she accepted a position as the Feature @-@ Production Vice @-@ President with Universal . She was thus among the first women to hold high executive positions with the major studios . In a 1982 interview , Fields was quoted as saying , " I got a lot of credit for Jaws , rightly or wrongly . "
Fields had come " up from the cutting room floor " and out of the customary , near @-@ anonymity of film editors . Regarding this change in her career path , Fields told Peary in 1980 that " All these young filmmakers are possessive . They feel I belong to them , and they feel a certain resentment - that I went to the other side . In calmer moments , of course , they know it isn 't true , that I can do more for them now . " Of Fields ' work at Universal , Joel Schumacher was quoted in 1982 as saying : " In the record business , you have Berry Gordy and Ahmet Ertegün . They 're executives who actually made records . In the movie business , as an executive who 's worked with film , you have only Verna . She saves Universal a fortune ... every day . "
= = Final cuts = =
In 1981 , she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who , through their endurance and the excellence of their work , have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry .
Fields held her position as a Vice @-@ President at Universal until her death in 1982 . Jaws was the last film that she edited . There had apparently been some discussion that Fields might edit Spielberg 's next film , Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) , but Michael Kahn edited that film , and went on to edit all but one of Spielberg 's films for the next thirty years . After John D. Hancock , the initial director of Jaws 2 , was sacked , it was suggested that Fields co @-@ direct it with Joe Alves . Jeannot Szwarc , however , was hired to complete the film .
Fields died of cancer in Encino , California in 1982 . In her honor , Universal Studios named a building at its Universal City , California lot the " Verna Fields Building " ; it lies immediately across from the Alfred Hitchcock Building . The Motion Picture Sound Editors ( MPSE ) sponsor an annual Verna Fields Award for Student Sound Editing . The Women in Film Foundation , which honored Fields with its Crystal Award in 1981 , presently administers the Verna Fields Memorial Fellowship for women film students at UCLA .
= = Selected filmography ( editor ) = =
= Battle of Manzikert =
The Battle of Manzikert was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuq Turks on August 26 , 1071 near Manzikert ( modern Malazgirt in Muş Province , Turkey ) . The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army and the capture of the Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes played an important role in undermining Byzantine authority in Anatolia and Armenia , and allowed for the gradual Turkification of Anatolia .
The brunt of the battle was borne by the professional soldiers from the eastern and western tagmata , as large numbers of mercenaries and Anatolian levies fled early and survived the battle . The fallout from Manzikert was disastrous for the Byzantines , resulting in civil conflicts and an economic crisis that severely weakened the Byzantine Empire 's ability to adequately defend its borders . This led to the mass movement of Turks into central Anatolia — by 1080 , an area of 78 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 30 @,@ 000 sq mi ) had been gained by the Seljuk Turks . It took three decades of internal strife before Alexius I ( 1081 to 1118 ) restored stability to Byzantium . Historian Thomas Asbridge says : " In 1071 , the Seljuqs crushed an imperial army at the Battle of Manzikert ( in eastern Asia Minor ) , and though historians no longer consider this to have been an utterly cataclysmic reversal for the Greeks , it still was a stinging setback . " It was the first time in history a Byzantine Emperor had become the prisoner of a Muslim commander .
= = Background = =
Although the Byzantine Empire had remained strong and powerful in the Middle Ages , it began to decline under the reign of the militarily incompetent Constantine IX and again under Constantine X — a brief two @-@ year period of reform under Isaac I merely delayed the decay of the Byzantine army . Under Constantine IX the Byzantines first came into contact with the Seljuk Turks when they attempted to annex Ani , the Armenian capital . Constantine made a truce with the Seljuks that lasted until 1064 , but they then took Ani , and in 1067 the rest of Armenia , followed by Caesarea .
In 1068 Romanos IV took power , and after some speedy military reforms entrusted Manuel Comnenus ( nephew of Isaac I Comnenus ) to lead an expedition against the Seljuks . Manuel captured Hierapolis Bambyce in Syria , next thwarted a Turkish attack against Iconium with a counter @-@ attack , but was then defeated and captured by the Seljuks under the Sultan Alp Arslan . Despite his success Alp Arslan was quick to seek a peace treaty with the Byzantines , signed in 1069 ; he saw the Fatimids in Egypt as his main enemy and had no desire to be diverted by unnecessary hostilities .
In February 1071 , Romanos sent envoys to Alp Arslan to renew the 1069 treaty , and keen to secure his northern flank against attack , Alp Arslan happily agreed . Abandoning the siege of Edessa , he immediately led his army to attack Fatimid @-@ held Aleppo . However , the peace treaty had been a deliberate distraction : Romanos now led a large army into Armenia to recover the lost fortresses before the Seljuks had time to respond .
= = Prelude = =
Accompanying Romanos was Andronicus Ducas , his co @-@ emperor and rival . The army consisted of about 5 @,@ 000 professional Byzantine troops from the western provinces and probably about the same number from the eastern provinces ; 500 Frankish and Norman mercenaries under Roussel de Bailleul ; some Turkic ( Uz and Pecheneg ) and Bulgarian mercenaries ; infantry under the duke of Antioch ; a contingent of Georgian and Armenian troops ; and some ( but not all ) of the Varangian Guard , to total around 40 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 men . The quantity of the provincial troops had declined in the years prior to Romanos , as the government diverted funding to mercenaries who were judged less likely to be involved in politics and could be disbanded after use to save money .
The march across Asia Minor was long and difficult , and Romanos did not endear himself to his troops by bringing a luxurious baggage train along with him ; the local population also suffered some plundering by his Frankish mercenaries , whom he was obliged to dismiss . The expedition rested at Sebasteia on the river Halys , reaching Theodosiopolis in June 1071 . There , some of his generals suggested continuing the march into Seljuk territory and catching Alp Arslan before he was ready . Others , including Nicephorus Bryennius , suggested they wait and fortify their position . It was decided to continue the march .
Thinking that Alp Arslan was either further away or not coming at all , Romanos marched towards Lake Van , expecting to retake Manzikert rather quickly , as well as the nearby fortress of Khliat if possible . Alp Arslan was already in the area , however , with allies and 30 @,@ 000 cavalry from Aleppo and Mosul . Alp Arslan 's scouts knew exactly where Romanos was , while Romanos was completely unaware of his opponent 's movements .
Romanos ordered his general Joseph Tarchaniotes to take some of the regular troops and the Varangians and accompany the Pechenegs and Franks to Khliat , while Romanos and the rest of the army marched to Manzikert . This split the forces in half , each taking about 20 @,@ 000 men . It is unknown what happened to the army sent off with Tarchaniotes — according to Islamic sources , Alp Arslan smashed this army , but Roman sources make no mention of any such encounter , whilst Attaliates suggests that Tarchaniotes fled at the sight of the Seljuk Sultan — an unlikely event considering the reputation of the Roman general . Either way , Romanos ' army was reduced to less than half his planned 40 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 men .
= = Battle = =
Alp Arslan summoned his army and delivered a speech by appearing in a white robe , as in an Islamic funeral shroud , in the morning of the battle . This was an encouraging message that he was ready to die in battle . Romanos was unaware of the loss of Tarchaneiotes and continued to Manzikert , which he easily captured on August 23 ; the Seljuks responded with heavy incursions by bowmen . The next day some foraging parties under Bryennios discovered the Seljuk army and were forced to retreat back to Manzikert . The Armenian general Basilakes was sent out with some cavalry , as Romanos did not believe this was Alp Arslan 's full army ; the cavalry was destroyed and Basilakes taken prisoner . Romanos drew up his troops into formation and sent the left wing out under Bryennios , who was almost surrounded by the quickly approaching Turks and was forced to retreat once more . The Seljuk forces hid among the nearby hills for the night , making it nearly impossible for Romanos to counterattack .
On August 25 , some of Romanos ' Turkic mercenaries came into contact with their Seljuk kin and deserted . Romanos then rejected a Seljuk peace embassy . He wanted to settle the eastern question and the persistent Turkic incursions and settlements with a decisive military victory , and he understood that raising another army would be both difficult and expensive . The Emperor attempted to recall Tarchaneiotes , who was no longer in the area . There were no engagements that day , but on August 26 the Byzantine army gathered itself into a proper battle formation and began to march on the Turkish positions , with the left wing under Bryennios , the right wing under Theodore Alyates , and the centre under the emperor . At that moment , a Turkish soldier said to Alp Arslan , " My Sultan , the enemy army is approaching " , and Alp Arslan is said to have replied , " Then we are also approaching them " . Andronikos Doukas led the reserve forces in the rear — a foolish mistake , considering the loyalties of the Doukids . The Seljuks were organized into a crescent formation about four kilometres away . Seljuk archers attacked the Byzantines as they drew closer ; the centre of their crescent continually moved backwards while the wings moved to surround the Byzantine troops .
The Byzantines held off the arrow attacks and captured Alp Arslan 's camp by the end of the afternoon . However , the right and left wings , where the arrows did most of their damage , almost broke up when individual units tried to force the Seljuks into a pitched battle ; the Seljuk cavalry simply disengaged when challenged , the classic hit and run tactics of steppe warriors . With the Seljuks avoiding battle , Romanos was forced to order a withdrawal by the time night fell . However , the right wing misunderstood the order , and Doukas , as a rival of Romanos , deliberately ignored the emperor and marched back to the camp outside Manzikert , rather than covering the emperor 's retreat . With the Byzantines thoroughly confused , the Seljuks seized the opportunity and attacked . The Byzantine right wing was almost immediately routed , thinking they were betrayed either by the Armenians or the army 's Turkish auxiliaries . In fact the Armenians were the first to flee and they all managed to get away , while by contrast the Turkish auxiliaries remained loyal to the end . Other sources suggest that Armenian infantry were stoutly resisting and not turning tail and did not abandon the emperor as many had . When Romanos saw the boldness of Armenian foot soldiers , he displayed great affection for them and promised them unheard of rewards . In the end , the emperor 's personal troops and these Armenian foot soldiers suffered the most numerous casualties in the Byzantine army . The left wing under Bryennios held out a little longer but was also soon routed . The remnants of the Byzantine centre , including the Emperor and the Varangian Guard , were encircled by the Seljuks . Romanos was injured and taken prisoner by the Seljuks . The survivors were the many who fled the field and were pursued throughout the night , but not beyond that ; by dawn , the professional core of the Byzantine army had been destroyed whilst many of the peasant troops and levies who had been under the command of Andronikus had fled .
= = = Captivity of Romanos Diogenes = = =
When Emperor Romanos IV was conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan , the Sultan refused to believe that the bloodied and tattered man covered in dirt was the mighty Emperor of the Romans . After discovering his identity , Alp Arslan placed his boot on the Emperor 's neck and forced him to kiss the ground . A famous conversation is also reported to have taken place :
Alp Arslan : " What would you do if I were brought before you as a prisoner ? "
Romanos : " Perhaps I 'd kill you , or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople . "
Alp Arslan : " My punishment is far heavier . I forgive you , and set you free . "
Alp Arslan treated Romanos with considerable kindness and again offered the terms of peace that he had offered prior to the battle .
According to Ibn al @-@ Adim , in the presence of Arslan , Romanos blamed the raids of Rashid al @-@ Dawla Mahmud into Byzantine territory for his interventions in Muslim territories which eventually led to the Battle of Manzikert . Romanos remained a captive of the Sultan for a week . During this time , the Sultan allowed Romanos to eat at his table whilst concessions were agreed upon : Antioch , Edessa , Hierapolis , and Manzikert were to be surrendered . This would have left the vital core of Anatolia untouched . A payment of 10 million gold pieces demanded by the Sultan as a ransom for Romanos was deemed as too high by the latter , so the Sultan reduced its short @-@ term expense by asking for 1 @.@ 5 million gold pieces as an initial payment instead , followed by an annual sum of 360 @,@ 000 gold pieces . Plus , a marriage alliance was prepared between Alp Arslan 's son and Romanos ’ daughter . The Sultan then gave Romanos many presents and an escort of two emirs and one hundred Mamluks on his route to Constantinople .
Shortly after his return to his subjects , Romanos found his rule in serious trouble . Despite attempts to raise loyal troops , he was defeated three times in battle against the Doukas family and was deposed , blinded , and exiled to the island of Proti . He died soon after as a result of an infection caused by an injury during his brutal blinding . Romanos ' final foray into the Anatolian heartland , which he had worked so hard to defend , was a public humiliation .
= = Aftermath = =
While Manzikert was a long @-@ term strategic catastrophe for Byzantium , it was by no means the massacre that historians earlier presumed . Modern scholars estimate that Byzantine losses were relatively low , considering that many units survived the battle intact and were fighting elsewhere within a few months , and most Byzantine prisoners of war were later released . Certainly , all the commanders on the Byzantine side ( Doukas , Tarchaneiotes , Bryennios , de Bailleul , and , above all , the Emperor ) survived and took part in later events . The battle did not directly change the balance of power between the Byzantines and the Seljuks , however the ensuing civil war within the Byzantine Empire did , to the advantage of Seljuks .
Doukas had escaped with no casualties and quickly marched back to Constantinople , where he led a coup against Romanos and proclaimed Michael VII as basileus . Bryennios also lost a few men in the rout of his wing . The Seljuks did not pursue the fleeing Byzantines , nor did they recapture Manzikert itself at this point . The Byzantine army regrouped and marched to Dokeia , where they were joined by Romanos when he was released a week later . The most serious loss materially seems to have been the emperor 's extravagant baggage train .
The result of this disastrous defeat was , in simplest terms , the loss of the Eastern Roman Empire 's Anatolian heartland . John Julius Norwich says in his trilogy on the Byzantine Empire that the defeat was " its death blow , though centuries remained before the remnant fell . The themes in Anatolia were literally the heart of the empire , and within decades after Manzikert , they were gone . " In his smaller book , A Short History of Byzantium , Norwich describes the battle as " the greatest disaster suffered by the Empire in its seven and a half centuries of existence " . Sir Steven Runciman , in his " History of the Crusades " , noted that " The Battle of Manzikert was the most decisive disaster in Byzantine history . The Byzantines themselves had no illusions about it . Again and again their historians refer to that dreadful day . "
Anna Komnene , writing a few decades after the actual battle , wrote :
... the fortunes of the Roman Empire had sunk to their lowest ebb . For the armies of the East were dispersed in all directions , because the Turks had over @-@ spread , and gained command of , countries between the Euxine Sea [ Black Sea ] and the Hellespont , and the Aegean Sea and Syrian Seas [ Mediterranean Sea ] , and the various bays , especially those which wash Pamphylia , Cilicia , and empty themselves into the Egyptian Sea [ Mediterranean Sea ] .
Years and decades later , Manzikert came to be seen as a disaster for the Empire ; later sources therefore greatly exaggerate the numbers of troops and the number of casualties . Byzantine historians would often look back and lament the " disaster " of that day , pinpointing it as the moment the decline of the Empire began . It was not an immediate disaster , but the defeat showed the Seljuks that the Byzantines were not invincible — they were not the unconquerable , millennium @-@ old Roman Empire ( as both the Byzantines and Seljuks still called it ) . The usurpation of Andronikos Doukas also politically destabilized the empire and it was difficult to organize resistance to the Turkish migrations that followed the battle . Despite the traditional view of historians that a wave of Turkish immigration ' overran ' Anatolia in the decades that followed , modern genetic studies show that even with additional centuries of Turkic immigration , the population of Anatolia today has only a small admixture of Central Asian heritage . The conquest of the Seljuk 's appears to be one of installing a new political elite . Finally , while intrigue and the deposition of Emperors had taken place before , the fate of Romanos was particularly horrific , and the destabilization caused by it also rippled through the empire for centuries .
What followed the battle was a chain of events — of which the battle was the first link — that undermined the Empire in the years to come . They included intrigues for the throne , the fate of Romanos , and Roussel de Bailleul attempting to carve himself an independent kingdom in Galatia with his 3 @,@ 000 Frankish , Norman , and German mercenaries . He defeated the Emperor 's uncle John Doukas , who had come to suppress him , advancing toward the capital to destroy Chrysopolis ( Üsküdar ) on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus . The Empire finally turned to the spreading Seljuks to crush de Bailleul ( which they did ) . However the Turks ransomed him back to his wife , and it was not before the young general Alexios Komnenos pursued him that he was captured . These events all interacted to create a vacuum that the Turks filled . Their choice in establishing their capital in Nikaea ( Iznik ) in 1077 could possibly be explained by a desire to see if the Empire 's struggles could present new opportunities .
In hindsight , both Byzantine and contemporary historians are unanimous in dating the decline of Byzantine fortunes to this battle . As Paul K. Davis writes , " Byzantine defeat severely limited the power of the Byzantines by denying them control over Anatolia , the major recruiting ground for soldiers . Henceforth , the Muslims controlled the region . The Byzantine Empire was limited to the area immediately around Constantinople , and the Byzantines were never again a serious military force . " It is also interpreted as one of the root causes for the later Crusades , in that the First Crusade of 1095 was originally a western response to the Byzantine emperor 's call for military assistance after the loss of Anatolia . From another perspective , the West saw Manzikert as a signal that Byzantium was no longer capable of being the protector of Eastern Christianity or of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Places in the Middle East . Delbrück considers the importance of the battle to be exaggerated , but the evidence makes clear that it resulted in the Empire being unable to put an effective army into the field for many years to come .
The Battle of Myriokephalon , also known as the Myriocephalum , has been compared to the Battle of Manzikert as a pivotal point in the decline of the Byzantine Empire . In both battles , separated by over a hundred years , an expansive Byzantine army was ambushed by a more elusive Seljuk opponent . The implications of Myriocephalum were initially limited , however , thanks to Manuel I Komnenos holding on to power . The same could not be said of Romanos , whose enemies " martyred a courageous and upright man " , and as a result " the Empire ... would never recover " .
= Conwy town walls =
Conwy 's town walls are a medieval defensive structure around the town of Conwy in North Wales . The walls were constructed between 1283 and 1287 after the foundation of Conwy by Edward I , and were designed to form an integrated system of defence alongside Conwy Castle . The walls are 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) long and include 21 towers and three gatehouses . The project was completed using large quantities of labourers brought in from England ; the cost of building the castle and walls together came to around £ 15 @,@ 000 , a huge sum for the period . The walls were slightly damaged during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in 1401 , but political changes in the 16th century reduced the need to maintain such defences around the town . The fortifications were treated sympathetically during the development of the road and railway systems in Conwy during the 19th century and survived largely intact into the modern period . Today the walls form part of the UNESCO world heritage site administered by Cadw . Historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the defences as " one of the most impressive walled circuits " in Europe .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
Before the English construction of the town of Conwy , the site was occupied by Aberconwy Abbey , a Cistercian monastery favoured by the Welsh princes . The site also controlled an important crossing point over the river Conwy between the coastal and inland areas of North Wales , and was defended for many years by Deganwy Castle . The English kings and Welsh princes had vied for control of the region since the 1070s and the conflict had been renewed during the 13th century , leading to Edward I intervening in North Wales for the second time during his reign in 1282 . Edward invaded with a huge army , pushing north from Carmarthen and westwards from Montgomery and Chester . Edward captured Aberconwy in March 1283 and decided that the location would form the centre of a new county : the abbey would be relocated eight miles inland and a new English castle and walled town would be built on the monastery 's former site . The ruined castle of Deganwy was abandoned and never rebuilt . Edward 's plan was a colonial enterprise and placing the new town and walls on top of such a high @-@ status native Welsh site was in part a symbolic act to demonstrate English power .
Traditionally Conwy 's design and defences have been thought to have been inspired by the growth of the bastides . The bastides were new planned towns created in both France and English @-@ held Gascony during the period , characterised by grids of straight streets , often defended by combinations of castles and town walls . More recent research , however , has shown that English town design played a more significant role in shaping Conwy and other Edwardian town plans . Analysis of the new towns in Wales and England of the period has identified common similarities in their design , with most featuring a " T " -shaped street plan stretching away from the coast or river , aligned with a castle that is usually positioned at a top corner of the " T " . The street plan of Conwy forms a mirror image of Beaumaris , for example , although ditches and palisades protected Beaumaris rather than a stone wall .
The walls of Conwy were built at around the same time as the castle itself , under the overall supervision of Master James of Saint George , Edward 's chief architect in North Wales . Each summer huge numbers of labourers were mobilised from across England , massed at Chester , and then brought into Wales for the building season . The first phase of work on the walls in 1283 involved digging ditches and erecting a palisade around the future town to secure the area in order to allow further work to commence . The stone walls and towers were then constructed in three phases . Between 1284 and 1285 , Richard the Engineer , Master James ' second in command in North Wales , built the western side of the walls ; this was the most vulnerable side of the town and was deliberately given priority . In 1286 , John Francis , a Savoyard mason , finished the south wall and in 1287 the remainder of the walls along the eastern quayside were completed under the supervision of Philip of Darley . Edward 's accountants did not separate the costs of the town walls from that of the castle , and the total cost of the two projects came to around £ 15 @,@ 000 , a huge sum for the period .
= = = 14th – 18th centuries = = =
The new town of Conwy was populated by English settlers , particularly from nearby Cheshire and Lancashire , and the town walls were in part designed to encourage immigrants to settle there in safety . The town of Conwy was only modestly successful , however ; by 1312 it had 124 burgage tenements – properties paying rent to the king – making it more successful than neighbouring Caernarfon , but less so than Beaumaris . Welsh residents appear to have slowly arrived inside the town during the 14th century , and even then were subject to considerable suspicion . Protecting the town remained a priority and during this period the constable charged with the security of the castle was also the mayor of Conwy , although protecting the town walls was probably the duty of the citizens rather than the forces attached to the castle . The walls were guarded by crossbowmen , and improved firing positions for them were built into the town walls at the start of the 14th century .
In 1400 the Welsh prince Owain Glyndŵr rose in rebellion against English rule . Two of Owain 's cousins infiltrated and took control of Conwy Castle in 1401 and , despite the defensive walls , the town of Conwy was occupied for two months and sacked by Welsh forces . The townspeople complained that £ 5 @,@ 000 worth of damage had been done , including the destruction of the gates and the bridges along the town walls .
Over a century later , there are records of the walls being repaired in the 1520s and 1530s by Henry VIII in preparation for a potential royal visit , but the ascension of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne had heralded a change in the way Wales was administered . The Tudors were Welsh in origin , and their rule eased hostilities between the Welsh and English . The military importance of Conwy 's defences declined and the townspeople used the walls ' defensive ditches for discarding rubbish . Parts of the town walls were robbed for their stone during this period for use in the construction of local buildings .
= = = 19th – 21st centuries = = =
During the 19th century some changes to Conwy 's town walls were made in order to accommodate a new railway line and roads . The engineer Thomas Telford built two new gateways into the walls in 1826 to accommodate the traffic from the new suspension bridge across the river Conwy . In 1848 Robert Stephenson constructed the Chester to Holyhead railway line , which ran through Conwy ; unusually for the period , attempts were made to sensitively protect the appearance of the medieval fortifications and the entrance for the railway through the walls on the south side of the town was built in the form of a mock @-@ Gothic archway , while an exit tunnel was dug under the western walls .
Interest in the town walls grew and in the 19th century one of the towers was restored and part of the wall @-@ walk opened up for tourists . The walls were architecturally surveyed for the first time between 1928 and 1930 , with the results published in 1938 . The town walls were leased from Conwy 's local authority by the Ministry of Works in 1953 , and a concerted effort began to conserve and protect the fortifications . Many of the houses and buildings which had grown up against the walls since the 14th century were removed in an effort to improve the appearance of the walled circuit and to assist in conservation and archaeological work , and one of the 19th @-@ century gateways inserted by Telford was demolished in 1958 . Arnold J. Taylor , a prominent historian of the Edwardian castles , conducted extensive academic work on the history and architecture of Conwy 's walls during the 1950s and 1960s , adding to their prominence .
Today Conwy 's walls are managed by the Welsh heritage organisation Cadw as a tourist attraction ; they form a popular walk around the town , although not all of the walls are safe for tourists to use . The walls require ongoing maintenance ; in the financial year between 2002 and 2003 , for example , this cost £ 145 @,@ 000 ( £ 184 @,@ 000 in 2010 terms ) . The walls were declared part of a UNESCO world heritage site in 1986 and are classed as a grade 1 listed building and hold scheduled monument status . They are considered by historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham to be " one of the most impressive walled circuits " in Europe .
= = Architecture = =
The Conwy town walls today present a largely unbroken , 1 @.@ 3 km ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) long triangular circuit around the town , enclosing 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) , and – thanks in part to Conwy remaining a relatively small town – are unusually well preserved . They are mostly built from the same local sand- and limestone used at the castle , but with additional rhyolite stone used along the upper parts of the eastern walls . When first built , the historical record shows that the walls were " daubed " – it unclear precisely what this involved , but it implies the walls were not simply bare stone , and were possibly whitewashed . The 21 surviving towers are mostly " gap @-@ backed " , lacking walls on the inside of the towers , and originally included removable wooden bridges to allow sections of the walls to be sealed off from attackers . The tops of the walls feature an unusual design that uses a sequence of corbels to provide a flat , relatively wide wall @-@ walk .
The east side of the walls emerge from Conwy Castle , but are gapped where the Chester to Holyhead road enters the town . The east side has four towers , with a postern gate and the Lower Gate both giving access to the town 's quay ; all of these features have been substantially altered from their original medieval appearances . The Lower Gate , equipped with twin towers and a portcullis , controlled access to both the quayside and , prior to the construction of the bridge , the ferry across the estuary . The wall here was originally only 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) high in places , and was later raised to its current height using rhyolite stone in the early 14th century .
The west side of the walls include nine towers , rising upwards towards the south @-@ west corner . Two of the towers were significantly affected by 19th @-@ century developments ; one was converted into an entrance way for the Bangor Road in 1827 , whilst another suffered a deep fissure caused by subsidence from the excavation of the Chester to Holyhead railway tunnel in 1845 , and had to be underpinned in 1963 . One of the remaining merlons on this stretch of the walls ' battlements has a stone finial on top , a design originally used along all of the town walls . The western wall originally extended out to the river Conwy itself , ending in a round tower , but this has since been lost ; a similar spur arrangement was seen at Chester and Lincoln .
The walls stretch along the south of the town with eight towers and two gatehouses . The Upper Gate formed the main inland entrance to the town during the medieval period , and , in addition to its twin towers , was originally protected by a stone barbican , of which some stonework still remains – a rare survival for town barbicans of this period . A gatekeeper would have lived over the entrance during the medieval period . The original defensive ditch and drawbridge have been filled in , however , and replaced by a modern road . The second gatehouse , Mill Gate , was designed to allow access to the royal watermill that lay just outside the main town , and similarly features twin protective towers . In between the two gatehouses are the remains of Llywelyn 's Hall , a grand building originally built into the town walls by Edward I before being dismantled and moved to Caernarfon Castle in 1316 . Further along the walls is the mock @-@ Gothic archway built in 1846 to accommodate the local railway , possibly drawing on similar designs used in Chester . A unique set of twelve medieval latrines is built into the southern town walls , first constructed for the use of royal staff working in adjacent buildings in the 13th century .
= William Tecumseh Sherman =
William Tecumseh Sherman / tᵻˈkʌmsə / ( February 8 , 1820 – February 14 , 1891 ) was an American soldier , businessman , educator and author . He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) , for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy as well as criticism for the harshness of the " scorched earth " policies that he implemented in conducting total war against the Confederate States .
Sherman began his Civil War career serving in the First Battle of Bull Run and Kentucky in 1861 . He served under General Ulysses S. Grant in 1862 and 1863 during the battles of Forts Henry and Donelson , the Battle of Shiloh , the campaigns that led to the fall of the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River , and the Chattanooga Campaign , which culminated with the routing of the Confederate armies in the state of Tennessee . In 1864 , Sherman succeeded Grant as the Union commander in the Western Theater of the war . He proceeded to lead his troops to the capture of the city of Atlanta , a military success that contributed to the re @-@ election of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln . Sherman 's subsequent march through Georgia and the Carolinas further undermined the Confederacy 's ability to continue fighting . He accepted the surrender of all the Confederate armies in the Carolinas , Georgia , and Florida in April 1865 , after having been present at most major military engagements in the Western Theater .
When Grant assumed the U.S. presidency in 1869 , Sherman succeeded him as Commanding General of the Army , in which capacity he served from 1869 until 1883 . As such , he was responsible for the U.S. Army 's engagement in the Indian Wars over the next 15 years , in the western United States . He steadfastly refused to be drawn into politics and in 1875 published his Memoirs , one of the best @-@ known first @-@ hand accounts of the Civil War . British military historian B. H. Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was " the first modern general " .
= = Early life = =
Sherman was born in 1820 in Lancaster , Ohio , near the banks of the Hocking River . His father Charles Robert Sherman , a successful lawyer who sat on the Ohio Supreme Court , died unexpectedly in 1829 . He left his widow , Mary Hoyt Sherman , with eleven children and no inheritance . After his father 's death , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Sherman was raised by a Lancaster neighbor and family friend , attorney Thomas Ewing , Sr. , a prominent member of the Whig Party who served as senator from Ohio and as the first Secretary of the Interior . Sherman was distantly related to American founding father Roger Sherman and grew to admire him .
Sherman 's older brother Charles Taylor Sherman became a federal judge . One of his younger brothers , John Sherman , served as a U.S. senator and Cabinet secretary . Another younger brother , Hoyt Sherman , was a successful banker . Two of his foster brothers served as major generals in the Union Army during the Civil War : Hugh Boyle Ewing , later an ambassador and author , and Thomas Ewing , Jr . , who would serve as defense attorney in the military trials of the Lincoln conspirators . Sherman would marry his foster sister , Ellen Boyle Ewing , at age 30 and have eight children with her .
= = = Sherman 's given names = = =
Sherman 's unusual given name has always attracted considerable attention . Sherman reported that his middle name came from his father having " caught a fancy for the great chief of the Shawnees , ' Tecumseh . ' " Since an account in a 1932 biography about Sherman , it has often been reported that , as an infant , Sherman was named simply Tecumseh . According to these accounts , Sherman only acquired the name " William " at age nine or ten , after being taken into the Ewing household . His foster mother , Maria Willis Boyle ( Maria Ewing ) , was of Irish ancestry and a devout Roman Catholic . Sherman was raised in a Roman Catholic household , though he later left the church , citing the effect of the Civil War on his religious views . According to a story that may be myth , Sherman was baptized in the Ewing home by a Dominican priest , who named him William for the saint 's day : possibly June 25 , the feast day of Saint William of Montevergine . The story is contested , however . Sherman wrote in his Memoirs that his father named him William Tecumseh ; Sherman was baptized by a Presbyterian minister as an infant and given the name William at that time . As an adult , Sherman signed all his correspondence – including to his wife – " W.T. Sherman . " His friends and family always called him " Cump . "
= = = Military training and service = = =
Senator Ewing secured an appointment for the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Sherman as a cadet in the United States Military Academy at West Point , where he roomed and became good friends with another important future Civil War General , George H. Thomas . There Sherman excelled academically , but he treated the demerit system with indifference . Fellow cadet William Rosecrans would later remember Sherman at West Point as " one of the brightest and most popular fellows " and " a bright @-@ eyed , red @-@ headed fellow , who was always prepared for a lark of any kind . " About his time at West Point , Sherman says only the following in his Memoirs :
At the Academy I was not considered a good soldier , for at no time was I selected for any office , but remained a private throughout the whole four years . Then , as now , neatness in dress and form , with a strict conformity to the rules , were the qualifications required for office , and I suppose I was found not to excel in any of these . In studies I always held a respectable reputation with the professors , and generally ranked among the best , especially in drawing , chemistry , mathematics , and natural philosophy . My average demerits , per annum , were about one hundred and fifty , which reduced my final class standing from number four to six .
Upon graduation in 1840 , Sherman entered the Army as a second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery and saw action in Florida in the Second Seminole War against the Seminole tribe . He was later stationed in Georgia and South Carolina . As the foster son of a prominent Whig politician , in Charleston , the popular Lt. Sherman moved within the upper circles of Old South society .
While many of his colleagues saw action in the Mexican – American War , Sherman performed administrative duties in the captured territory of California . Along with fellow Lieutenants Henry Halleck and Edward Ord , Sherman embarked from New York on the 198 @-@ day journey around Cape Horn aboard the converted sloop USS Lexington . Due to the confined spaces aboard @-@ ship , Sherman grew close to Halleck and Ord , and in his Memoirs references a hike with Halleck to the summit of Corcovado , notable as the future spot of the Cristo Redentor statue . Sherman and Ord reached the town of Yerba Buena , in California , two days before its name was changed to San Francisco . In 1848 , Sherman accompanied the military governor of California , Col. Richard Barnes Mason , in the inspection that officially confirmed that gold had been discovered in the region , thus inaugurating the California Gold Rush . Sherman , along with Ord , assisted in surveys for the sub @-@ divisions of the town that would become Sacramento .
Sherman earned a brevet promotion to captain for his " meritorious service " , but his lack of a combat assignment discouraged him and may have contributed to his decision to resign his commission . He would eventually become one of the few high @-@ ranking officers during the Civil War who had not fought in Mexico .
= = = Marriage and business career = = =
In 1850 , Sherman was promoted to the substantive rank of Captain and married his foster sister , Ellen Boyle Ewing , four years younger , in a Washington ceremony attended by President Zachary Taylor and other political luminaries . Thomas Ewing was serving as the Secretary of the Interior at the time .
Like her mother , Ellen Ewing Sherman was a devout Roman Catholic , and the Shermans ' eight children were reared in that faith . In 1864 , Ellen took up temporary residence in South Bend , Indiana , to have her young family educated at the University of Notre Dame and St. Mary 's College . In 1874 , with Sherman having become world famous , their eldest child , Marie Ewing ( " Minnie " ) Sherman , also had a politically prominent wedding , attended by President Ulysses S. Grant and commemorated by a generous gift from the Khedive of Egypt . ( Eventually , one of Minnie 's daughters married a grandson of Confederate general Lewis Addison Armistead . ) Another of the Sherman daughters , Eleanor , was married to Alexander Montgomery Thackara at General Sherman 's home in Washington , D.C. , on May 5 , 1880 . To Sherman 's great displeasure and sorrow , his oldest surviving son , Thomas Ewing Sherman , joined the religious order of the Jesuits in 1878 and was ordained as a priest in 1889 .
In 1853 , Sherman resigned his captaincy and became manager of the San Francisco branch of the St. Louis @-@ based bank , Lucas , Turner & Co . He returned to San Francisco at a time of great turmoil in the West . He survived two shipwrecks and floated through the Golden Gate on the overturned hull of a foundering lumber schooner . Sherman suffered from stress @-@ related asthma because of the city 's aggressive business culture . Late in life , regarding his time in a San Francisco experiencing a frenzy of real estate speculation , Sherman recalled : " I can handle a hundred thousand men in battle , and take the City of the Sun , but am afraid to manage a lot in the swamp of San Francisco . " In 1856 , during the vigilante period , he served briefly as a major general of the California militia .
Sherman 's San Francisco branch closed in May 1857 , and he relocated to New York on behalf of the same bank . When the bank failed during the financial Panic of 1857 , he closed the New York branch . In early 1858 , he returned to California to wrap @-@ up the bank 's affairs there . Later in 1858 , he moved to Leavenworth , Kansas , where he tried his hand at law practice and other ventures without much success .
= = = Military college superintendent = = =
In 1859 , Sherman accepted a job as the first superintendent of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning & Military Academy in Pineville , a position he sought at the suggestion of Major D. C. Buell and secured because of General George Mason Graham . He proved an effective and popular leader of the institution , which later became Louisiana State University ( LSU ) . Colonel Joseph P. Taylor , the brother of the late President Zachary Taylor , declared that " if you had hunted the whole army , from one end of it to the other , you could not have found a man in it more admirably suited for the position in every respect than Sherman . "
Although his brother John was well known as an antislavery congressman , Sherman did not oppose slavery and was sympathetic to Southerners ' defense of the institution . He opposed , however , any attempt at dissolving the Union . On hearing of South Carolina 's secession from the United States , Sherman observed to a close friend , Professor David F. Boyd of Virginia , an enthusiastic secessionist :
You people of the South don 't know what you are doing . This country will be drenched in blood , and God only knows how it will end . It is all folly , madness , a crime against civilization ! You people speak so lightly of war ; you don 't know what you 're talking about . War is a terrible thing ! You mistake , too , the people of the North . They are a peaceable people but an earnest people , and they will fight , too . They are not going to let this country be destroyed without a mighty effort to save it ... Besides , where are your men and appliances of war to contend against them ? The North can make a steam engine , locomotive , or railway car ; hardly a yard of cloth or pair of shoes can you make . You are rushing into war with one of the most powerful , ingeniously mechanical , and determined people on Earth — right at your doors . You are bound to fail . Only in your spirit and determination are you prepared for war . In all else you are totally unprepared , with a bad cause to start with . At first you will make headway , but as your limited resources begin to fail , shut out from the markets of Europe as you will be , your cause will begin to wane . If your people will but stop and think , they must see in the end that you will surely fail .
He thus very accurately described the four years of war to come .
In January 1861 , as more Southern states were seceding from the Union , Sherman was required to accept receipt of arms surrendered to the State Militia by the U.S. Arsenal at Baton Rouge , Louisiana . Instead of complying , he resigned his position as superintendent and returned to the North , declaring to the governor of Louisiana , " On no earthly account will I do any act or think any thought hostile ... to the ... United States . "
= = = St. Louis interlude = = =
Immediately following his departure from Louisiana , Sherman traveled to Washington , D.C. , possibly in the hope of securing a position in the army , and met with Abraham Lincoln in the White House during inauguration week . Sherman expressed concern about the North 's poor state of preparedness but found Lincoln unresponsive .
Thereafter , Sherman became president of the St. Louis Railroad , a streetcar company , a position he would hold for only a few months . Thus , he was living in border @-@ state Missouri as the secession crisis came to a climax . While trying to hold himself aloof from controversy , he observed firsthand the efforts of Congressman Frank Blair , who later served under Sherman , to hold Missouri in the Union . In early April , he declined an offer from the Lincoln administration to take a position in the War Department as a prelude to his becoming Assistant Secretary of War . After the bombardment of Fort Sumter , Sherman hesitated about committing to military service and ridiculed Lincoln 's call for 75 @,@ 000 three @-@ month volunteers to quell secession , reportedly saying : " Why , you might as well attempt to put out the flames of a burning house with a squirt @-@ gun . " However , in May , he offered himself for service in the regular army , and his brother ( Senator John Sherman ) and other connections maneuvered to get him a commission in the regular army . On June 3 , he wrote that " I still think it is to be a long war – very long – much longer than any Politician thinks . " He received a telegram summoning him to Washington on June 7 .
= = Civil War service = =
= = = First commissions and Bull Run = = =
Sherman was first commissioned as colonel of the 13th U.S. Infantry Regiment , effective May 14 , 1861 . This was a new regiment yet to be raised , and Sherman 's first command was actually of a brigade of three @-@ month volunteers , at the head of which he became one of the few Union officers to distinguish himself at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21 , 1861 , where he was grazed by bullets in the knee and shoulder . The disastrous Union defeat at Bull Run led Sherman to question his own judgment as an officer and the capacities of his volunteer troops . President Lincoln , however , was impressed by Sherman while visiting the troops on July 23 and promoted him to brigadier general of volunteers ( effective May 17 , 1861 , with seniority in rank to Ulysses S. Grant , his future commander ) . He was assigned to serve under Robert Anderson in the Department of the Cumberland in Louisville , Kentucky , and in October Sherman succeeded Anderson in command of the department . Sherman considered that his new assignment broke a promise from Lincoln that he would not be given such a prominent position .
= = = Breakdown = = =
Having succeeded Anderson at Louisville , Sherman now had principal military responsibility for Kentucky , a border state in which Confederate troops held Columbus and Bowling Green and were present near the Cumberland Gap . He became exceedingly pessimistic about the outlook for his command and he complained frequently to Washington , D.C. about shortages while providing exaggerated estimates of the strength of the rebel forces . Very critical press reports appeared about him after an October visit to Louisville by the Secretary of War , Simon Cameron , and in early November 1861 Sherman insisted that he be relieved . He was promptly replaced by Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell and transferred to St. Louis , Missouri . In December , he was put on leave by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck , commander of the Department of the Missouri , who considered him unfit for duty . Sherman went to Lancaster , Ohio , to recuperate . While he was at home , his wife Ellen wrote to his brother , Senator John Sherman , seeking advice . She complained of " that melancholy insanity to which your family is subject . " Sherman later wrote that the concerns of command " broke me down " , and he admitted contemplating suicide . His problems were compounded when the Cincinnati Commercial described him as " insane . "
By mid @-@ December 1861 Sherman had recovered sufficiently to return to service under Halleck in the Department of the Missouri . ( In March , Halleck 's command was redesignated the Department of the Mississippi and enlarged to unify command in the West ) . Sherman 's initial assignments were rear @-@ echelon commands , first of an instructional barracks near St. Louis and then in command of the District of Cairo . Operating from Paducah , Kentucky , he provided logistical support for the operations of Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to capture Fort Donelson ( February 1862 ) . Grant , the previous commander of the District of Cairo , had recently won a major victory at Fort Henry ( February 6 , 1862 ) and been given command of the ill @-@ defined District of West Tennessee . Although Sherman was technically the senior officer at this time , he wrote to Grant , " I feel anxious about you as I know the great facilities [ the Confederates ] have of concentration by means of the River and R Road , but [ I ] have faith in you — Command me in any way . "
= = = Shiloh = = =
After Grant captured Fort Donelson , Sherman got his wish to serve under Grant when he was assigned on March 1 , 1862 , to the Army of West Tennessee as commander of the 5th Division . His first major test under Grant was at the Battle of Shiloh . The massive Confederate attack on the morning of April 6 , 1862 , took most of the senior Union commanders by surprise . Sherman had dismissed the intelligence reports received from militia officers , refusing to believe that Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston would leave his base at Corinth . He took no precautions beyond strengthening his picket lines , and refused to entrench , build abatis , or push out reconnaissance patrols . At Shiloh , he may have wished to avoid appearing overly alarmed in order to escape the kind of criticism he had received in Kentucky . He had written to his wife that , if he took more precautions , " they 'd call me crazy again " .
Despite being caught unprepared by the attack , Sherman rallied his division and conducted an orderly , fighting retreat that helped avert a disastrous Union rout . Finding Grant at the end of the day sitting under an oak tree in the darkness and smoking a cigar , Sherman felt , in his words , " some wise and sudden instinct not to mention retreat " . In what would become one of the most notable conversations of the war , Sherman said simply : " Well , Grant , we 've had the devil 's own day , haven 't we ? " After a puff of his cigar , Grant replied calmly : " Yes . Lick ' em tomorrow , though . " Sherman proved instrumental to the successful Union counterattack of April 7 , 1862 . At Shiloh , Sherman was wounded twice — in the hand and shoulder — and had three horses shot out from under him . His performance was praised by Grant and Halleck and after the battle , and he was promoted to major general of volunteers , effective May 1 , 1862 .
Beginning in late April , a Union force of 100 @,@ 000 moved slowly against Corinth , under Halleck 's command with Grant relegated to second @-@ in @-@ command ; Sherman commanded the division on the extreme right of the Union 's right wing ( under George H. Thomas ) . Shortly after the Union forces occupied Corinth on May 30 , Sherman persuaded Grant not to leave his command , despite the serious difficulties he was having with Halleck . Sherman offered Grant an example from his own life , " Before the battle of Shiloh , I was cast down by a mere newspaper assertion of ' crazy ' , but that single battle gave me new life , and I 'm now in high feather . " He told Grant that , if he remained in the army , " some happy accident might restore you to favor and your true place . " In July , Grant 's situation improved when Halleck left for the East to become general @-@ in @-@ chief , and Sherman became the military governor of occupied Memphis .
= = = Vicksburg = = =
The careers of both officers ascended considerably after that time . In Sherman 's case , this was in part because he developed close personal ties to Grant during the two years they served together in the West . During the long and complicated campaign against Vicksburg , one newspaper complained that the " army was being ruined in mud @-@ turtle expeditions , under the leadership of a drunkard [ Grant ] , whose confidential adviser [ Sherman ] was a lunatic . "
Sherman 's military record in 1862 – 63 was mixed . In December 1862 , forces under his command suffered a severe repulse at the Battle of Chickasaw Bayou , just north of Vicksburg , Mississippi . Soon after , his XV Corps was ordered to join Maj. Gen. John A. McClernand in his successful assault on Arkansas Post , generally regarded as a politically motivated distraction from the effort to capture Vicksburg . Before the Vicksburg Campaign in the spring of 1863 , Sherman expressed serious reservations about the wisdom of Grant 's unorthodox strategy , but he went on to perform well in that campaign under Grant 's supervision .
The historian John D. Winters in The Civil War in Louisiana ( 1963 ) describes Sherman :
... He had yet [ before Vicksburg ] to display any marked talents for leadership . Sherman , beset by hallucinations and unreasonable fears and finally contemplating suicide , had been relieved from command in Kentucky . He later began a new climb to success at Shiloh and Corinth under Grant . Still , if he muffed his Vicksburg assignment , which had begun unfavorably , he would rise no higher . As a man , Sherman was an eccentric mixture of strength and weakness . Although he was impatient , often irritable and depressed , petulant , headstrong , and unreasonably gruff , he had solid soldierly qualities . His men swore by him , and most of his fellow officers admired him .
= = = Chattanooga = = =
After the surrender of Vicksburg to the Union forces under Grant on July 4 , 1863 , Sherman was given the rank of brigadier general in the regular army , in addition to his rank as a major general of volunteers . Sherman 's family came from Ohio to visit his camp near Vicksburg ; his nine @-@ year @-@ old son , Willie , the Little Sergeant , died from typhoid fever contracted during the trip .
Command in the West was unified under Grant ( Military Division of the Mississippi ) , and Sherman succeeded Grant in command of the Army of the Tennessee . Following the defeat of the Army of the Cumberland at the Battle of Chickamauga by Confederate General Braxton Bragg 's Army of Tennessee , the army was besieged in Chattanooga , Tennessee . Sherman 's troops were sent to relieve them . While traveling to Chattanooga , Sherman departed Memphis on a train that arrived at the Battle of Collierville , Tenn . , while the Union garrison there was under attack on October 11 , 1863 . General Sherman took command of the 550 men and successfully defended against an attack of 3 @,@ 500 Confederate cavalry .
During the Chattanooga Campaign in November , under Grant 's overall command , Sherman quickly took his assigned target of Billy Goat Hill at the north end of Missionary Ridge , only to discover that it was not part of the ridge at all , but rather a detached spur separated from the main spine by a rock @-@ strewn ravine . When he attempted to attack the main spine at Tunnel Hill , his troops were repeatedly repulsed by Patrick Cleburne 's heavy division , the best unit in Bragg 's army . Sherman 's efforts were assisted by George Henry Thomas 's army 's successful assault on the center of the Confederate line , a movement originally intended as a diversion . Subsequently , Sherman led a column to relieve Union forces under Ambrose Burnside thought to be in peril at Knoxville . In February 1864 , he led an expedition to Meridian , Mississippi , to disrupt Confederate infrastructure .
= = = Atlanta = = =
Despite this mixed record , Sherman enjoyed Grant 's confidence and friendship . When Lincoln called Grant east in the spring of 1864 to take command of all the Union armies , Grant appointed Sherman ( by then known to his soldiers as " Uncle Billy " ) to succeed him as head of the Military Division of the Mississippi , which entailed command of Union troops in the Western Theater of the war . As Grant took overall command of the armies of the United States , Sherman wrote to him outlining his strategy to bring the war to an end concluding that " if you can whip Lee and I can march to the Atlantic I think ol ' Uncle Abe will give us twenty days leave to see the young folks . "
Sherman proceeded to invade the state of Georgia with three armies : the 60 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of the Cumberland under George Henry Thomas , the 25 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of the Tennessee under James B. McPherson , and the 13 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of the Ohio under John M. Schofield . He fought a lengthy campaign of maneuver through mountainous terrain against Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston 's Army of Tennessee , attempting a direct assault only at the disastrous Battle of Kennesaw Mountain . In July , the cautious Johnston was replaced by the more aggressive John Bell Hood , who played to Sherman 's strength by challenging him to direct battles on open ground . Meanwhile , in August , Sherman " learned that I had been commissioned a major @-@ general in the regular army , which was unexpected , and not desired until successful in the capture of Atlanta . "
Sherman 's Atlanta Campaign concluded successfully on September 2 , 1864 , with the capture of the city , which Hood had been forced to abandon . This success made Sherman a household name and helped ensure Lincoln 's presidential re @-@ election in November . In August , the Democratic Party had nominated as its candidate George B. McClellan , the popular former Union army commander , and it had seemed likely that Lincoln would lose to McClellan . Lincoln 's defeat could well have meant the victory of the Confederacy , as the Democratic Party platform called for peace negotiations based on the acknowledgment of the Confederacy 's independence . Thus the capture of Atlanta , coming when it did , may have been Sherman 's greatest contribution to the Union cause .
After ordering almost all civilians to leave the city in September , Sherman gave instructions that all military and government buildings in Atlanta be burned , although many private homes and shops were burned as well . This was to set a precedent for future behavior by his armies .
= = = March to the Sea = = =
During September and October , Sherman and Hood played cat @-@ and @-@ mouse in north Georgia ( and Alabama ) as Hood threatened Sherman 's communications to the north . Eventually , Sherman won approval from his superiors for a plan to cut loose from his communications and march south , having advised Grant that he could " make Georgia howl . " This created the threat that Hood would move north into Tennessee . Trivializing that threat , Sherman reportedly said that he would " give [ Hood ] his rations " to go in that direction as " my business is down south . " However , Sherman left forces under Maj. Gens . George H. Thomas and John M. Schofield to deal with Hood ; their forces eventually smashed Hood 's army in the battles of Franklin ( November 30 ) and Nashville ( December 15 – 16 ) . Meanwhile , after the November elections , Sherman began a march with 62 @,@ 000 men to the port of Savannah , Georgia , living off the land and causing , by his own estimate , more than $ 100 million in property damage . Sherman called this harsh tactic of material war " hard war , " often seen as a species of total war . At the end of this campaign , known as Sherman 's March to the Sea , his troops captured Savannah on December 21 , 1864 . Sherman then dispatched a famous message to Lincoln , offering him the city as a Christmas present .
Sherman 's success in Georgia received ample coverage in the Northern press at a time when Grant seemed to be making little progress in his fight against Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia . A bill was introduced in Congress to promote Sherman to Grant 's rank of lieutenant general , probably with a view towards having him replace Grant as commander of the Union Army . Sherman wrote both to his brother , Senator John Sherman , and to General Grant vehemently repudiating any such promotion . According to a war @-@ time account , it was around this time that Sherman made his memorable declaration of loyalty to Grant :
General Grant is a great general . I know him well . He stood by me when I was crazy , and I stood by him when he was drunk ; and now , sir , we stand by each other always .
While in Savannah , Sherman learned from a newspaper that his infant son Charles Celestine had died during the Savannah Campaign ; the general had never seen the child .
= = = Final campaigns in the Carolinas = = =
Grant then ordered Sherman to embark his army on steamers and join the Union forces confronting Lee in Virginia , but Sherman instead persuaded Grant to allow him to march north through the Carolinas , destroying everything of military value along the way , as he had done in Georgia . He was particularly interested in targeting South Carolina , the first state to secede from the Union , because of the effect that it would have on Southern morale . His army proceeded north through South Carolina against light resistance from the troops of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston . Upon hearing that Sherman 's men were advancing on corduroy roads through the Salkehatchie swamps at a rate of a dozen miles per day , Johnston " made up his mind that there had been no such army in existence since the days of Julius Caesar . "
Sherman captured the state capital of Columbia , South Carolina , on February 17 , 1865 . Fires began that night and by next morning most of the central city was destroyed . The burning of Columbia has engendered controversy ever since , with some claiming the fires were accidental , others a deliberate act of vengeance , and still others that the retreating Confederates burned bales of cotton on their way out of town .
Local Native American Lumbee guides helped Sherman 's army cross the Lumber River , which was flooded by torrential rains , into North Carolina . According to Sherman , the trek across the Lumber River , and through the swamps , pocosins , and creeks of Robeson County was " the damnedest marching I ever saw . " Thereafter , his troops did little damage to the civilian infrastructure , as North Carolina , unlike its southern neighbor , was regarded by his men as a reluctant Confederate state , having been the last to secede from the Union . Sherman 's final significant military engagement was a victory over Johnston 's troops at the Battle of Bentonville , March 19 – 21 . He soon rendezvoused at Goldsborough , North Carolina , with Union troops awaiting him there after the capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington .
In late March , Sherman briefly left his forces and traveled to City Point , Virginia , to consult with Grant . Lincoln happened to be at City Point at the same time , allowing the only three @-@ way meetings of Lincoln , Grant , and Sherman during the war .
= = = Confederate surrender = = =
Following Lee 's surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House and the assassination of President Lincoln , Sherman met with Johnston at Bennett Place in Durham , North Carolina , to negotiate a Confederate surrender . At the insistence of Johnston and of Confederate President Jefferson Davis , Sherman conditionally agreed to generous terms that dealt with both political and military issues . Sherman thought that those terms were consistent with the views Lincoln had expressed at City Point , but the general had not been given the authority , by General Grant , the newly installed President Andrew Johnson , or the Cabinet , to offer those terms .
The government in Washington , D.C. , refused to approve Sherman 's terms and the Secretary of War , Edwin M. Stanton , denounced Sherman publicly , precipitating a long @-@ lasting feud between the two men . Confusion over this issue lasted until April 26 , 1865 , when Johnston , ignoring instructions from President Davis , agreed to purely military terms and formally surrendered his army and all the Confederate forces in the Carolinas , Georgia , and Florida , in what was the largest single capitulation of the war . Sherman proceeded with 60 @,@ 000 of his troops to Washington , D.C. , where they marched in the Grand Review of the Armies , on May 24 , 1865 , and were then disbanded . Having become the second most important general in the Union army , he thus had come full circle to the city where he started his war @-@ time service as colonel of a non @-@ existent infantry regiment .
= = Slavery and emancipation = =
Sherman was not an abolitionist before the war and , like others of his time and background , he did not believe in " Negro equality . " Before the war , Sherman at times even expressed some sympathy with the view of Southern whites that the black race was benefiting from slavery , although he opposed breaking up slave families and advocated teaching slaves to read and write . During the Civil War , Sherman declined to employ black troops in his armies .
Sherman 's military campaigns of 1864 and 1865 freed many slaves , who greeted him " as a second Moses or Aaron " and joined his marches through Georgia and the Carolinas by the tens of thousands . The fate of these refugees became a pressing military and political issue . Some abolitionists accused Sherman of doing little to alleviate the precarious living conditions of the freed slaves . To address this issue , on January 12 , 1865 , Sherman met in Savannah with Secretary of War Stanton and with twenty local black leaders . After Sherman 's departure , Garrison Frazier , a Baptist minister , declared in response to an inquiry about the feelings of the black community :
We looked upon General Sherman , prior to his arrival , as a man , in the providence of God , specially set apart to accomplish this work , and we unanimously felt inexpressible gratitude to him , looking upon him as a man that should be honored for the faithful performance of his duty . Some of us called upon him immediately upon his arrival , and it is probable he did not meet [ Secretary Stanton ] with more courtesy than he met us . His conduct and deportment toward us characterized him as a friend and a gentleman .
Four days later , Sherman issued his Special Field Orders , No. 15 . The orders provided for the settlement of 40 @,@ 000 freed slaves and black refugees on land expropriated from white landowners in South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida . Sherman appointed Brig. Gen. Rufus Saxton , an abolitionist from Massachusetts who had previously directed the recruitment of black soldiers , to implement that plan . Those orders , which became the basis of the claim that the Union government had promised freed slaves " 40 acres and a mule " , were revoked later that year by President Andrew Johnson .
Although the context is often overlooked , and the quotation usually chopped off , one of Sherman 's most famous statements about his hard @-@ war views arose in part from the racial attitudes summarized above . In his Memoirs , Sherman noted political pressures in 1864 – 1865 to encourage the escape of slaves , in part to avoid the possibility that " ' able @-@ bodied slaves will be called into the military service of the rebels . ' " Sherman thought concentration on such policies would have delayed the " successful end " of the war and the " liberat [ ion of ] all slaves . " He went on to summarize vividly his hard @-@ war philosophy and to add , in effect , that he really did not want the help of liberated slaves in subduing the South :
My aim then was to whip the rebels , to humble their pride , to follow them to their inmost recesses , and make them fear and dread us . " Fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom . " I did not want them to cast in our teeth what General Hood had once done at Atlanta , that we had to call on their slaves to help us to subdue them . But , as regards kindness to the race ... , I assert that no army ever did more for that race than the one I commanded at Savannah .
= = Strategies = =
Sherman 's record as a tactician was mixed , and his military legacy rests primarily on his command of logistics and on his brilliance as a strategist . The influential 20th @-@ century British military historian and theorist B. H. Liddell Hart ranked Sherman as one of the most important strategists in the annals of war , along with Scipio Africanus , Belisarius , Napoleon Bonaparte , T. E. Lawrence , and Erwin Rommel . Liddell Hart credited Sherman with mastery of maneuver warfare ( also known as the " indirect approach " ) , as demonstrated by his series of turning movements against Johnston during the Atlanta Campaign . Liddell Hart also stated that study of Sherman 's campaigns had contributed significantly to his own " theory of strategy and tactics in mechanized warfare " , which had in turn influenced Heinz Guderian 's doctrine of Blitzkrieg and Rommel 's use of tanks during the Second World War . Another World War II @-@ era student of Liddell Hart 's writings about Sherman was George S. Patton , who " ' spent a long vacation studying Sherman 's campaigns on the ground in Georgia and the Carolinas , with the aid of [ Liddell Hart 's ] book ' " and later " ' carried out his [ bold ] plans , in super @-@ Sherman style ' " .
Sherman 's greatest contribution to the war , the strategy of total warfare — endorsed by General Grant and President Lincoln — has been the subject of controversy . Sherman himself downplayed his role in conducting total war , often saying that he was simply carrying out orders as best he could in order to fulfill his part of Grant 's master plan for ending the war .
= = = Total warfare = = =
Like Grant , Sherman was convinced that the Confederacy 's strategic , economic , and psychological ability to wage further war needed to be definitively crushed if the fighting were to end . Therefore , he believed that the North had to conduct its campaign as a war of conquest and employ scorched earth tactics to break the backbone of the rebellion . He called this strategy " hard war . "
Sherman 's advance through Georgia and South Carolina was characterized by widespread destruction of civilian supplies and infrastructure . Although looting was officially forbidden , historians disagree on how well this regulation was enforced . Union soldiers who foraged from Southern homes became known as bummers . The speed and efficiency of the destruction by Sherman 's army was remarkable . The practice of heating rails and bending them around trees , leaving behind what came to be known as " Sherman 's neckties , " made repairs difficult . Accusations that civilians were targeted and war crimes were committed on the march have made Sherman a controversial figure to this day , particularly in the American South .
The damage done by Sherman was almost entirely limited to the destruction of property . Though exact figures are not available , the loss of civilian life appears to have been very small . Consuming supplies , wrecking infrastructure , and undermining morale were Sherman 's stated goals , and several of his Southern contemporaries noted this and commented on it . For instance , Alabama @-@ born Major Henry Hitchcock , who served in Sherman 's staff , declared that " it is a terrible thing to consume and destroy the sustenance of thousands of people , " but if the scorched earth strategy served " to paralyze their husbands and fathers who are fighting ... it is mercy in the end . "
The severity of the destructive acts by Union troops was significantly greater in South Carolina than in Georgia or North Carolina . This appears to have been a consequence of the animosity among both Union soldiers and officers to the state that they regarded as the " cockpit of secession . " One of the most serious accusations against Sherman was that he allowed his troops to burn the city of Columbia . In 1867 , Gen. O. O. Howard , commander of Sherman 's 15th Corps , reportedly said , " It is useless to deny that our troops burnt Columbia , for I saw them in the act . " However , Sherman himself stated that " [ i ] f I had made up my mind to burn Columbia I would have burnt it with no more feeling than I would a common prairie dog village ; but I did not do it ... " Sherman 's official report on the burning placed the blame on Confederate Lt. Gen. Wade Hampton III , who Sherman said had ordered the burning of cotton in the streets . In his memoirs , Sherman said , " In my official report of this conflagration I distinctly charged it to General Wade Hampton , and confess I did so pointedly to shake the faith of his people in him , for he was in my opinion a braggart and professed to be the special champion of South Carolina
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1 crosses the Canada – US border into British Columbia as Highway 41 ( BC 41 ) . BC 41 continues 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 7 mi ) north to end at BC 3 southwest of Grand Forks , BC .
= = History = =
SR 21 originated as the Marble Mount Road that extended from the north end of the Keller Ferry to Republic and was established in 1899 . The Marble Mount Road was later numbered State Road 4 in 1905 and renamed to the Sans Poil @-@ Loomis Road in 1907 . An extension of State Road 4 from Republic to the Canada – US border existed from 1915 until 1923 . When the Primary and secondary highway system was established in 1937 , Primary State Highway 4 ( PSH 4 ) replaced State Road 4 and was extended south from the Keller Ferry to Wilbur . The Canada – US border branch of State Road 4 that was deleted in 1923 was re @-@ added as Secondary State Highway 4A ( SSH 4A ) and a highway extending south from Wilbur to Lind became SSH 2B . All three roadways were later combined as SR 21 in a highway renumbering in 1964 . In 1983 , SR 21 was extended south to SR 260 in Kahlotus . Since 1983 , the road has not been realigned with the exception of the U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) interchange in Lind . The speed limit between Curlew Lake State Park and the community of the same name was temporarily lowered on March 9 , 2009 to 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) due to cracks in the pavement . The speed limit was restored to 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) on March 9 .
= = = Keller Ferry history = = =
The Keller Ferry connects SR 21 between Lincoln and Ferry counties , which are separated by Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake . The ferry originated as an oar @-@ propelled canoe that was used by Native Americans prior to the late 19th century . In the early 1890s a four @-@ car cable ferry , owned and operated by Todd Clark and William Robertson , was established . After the town of Keller was established north / upriver on the Sanpoil River in 1898 , J.C. Keller , the founder of the town , purchased the cable ferry in 1899 . In 1925 , Lincoln and Ferry counties jointly purchased Keller 's ferry and in 1929 replaced the original ferry with an eight @-@ car cable ferry that was later named Keller of Seattle . The Department of Highways ( DoH ) , the predecessor to the modern @-@ day Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , purchased the ferry on September 1 , 1930 and ran it toll @-@ free as it is today . The original location of the ferry was flooded between 1939 and 1940 after the damming of the Grand Coulee Dam west / downriver on the Columbia River created Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake . In July 1939 , the L.A. McLeod was launched and replaced the earlier cable ferries . Between 1944 and 1948 , the Ann of Wilbur , a tug boat , tugged the Sanpoil barge that was used as a temporary replacement for the McLeod . On September 9 , 1948 , the Martha S. was launched and has been in continual operation since . Since the Martha S. is over seventy years old , the United States Coast Guard requires that the ferry undergo a full drydock inspection every five years . As of 2009 , WSDOT is $ 5 @.@ 5 million US $ short of being able to replace the ferry . Design work has already been completed , but the ferry is not expected to be replaced yet . The Keller Ferry was repaired on February 15 , 2007 to expand its lifespan ; WSDOT detoured traffic onto SR 174 . The Martha S. had a leak that was discovered in October 2009 and is suspended . Traffic has been detoured onto other highways . Ferry service resumed on October 19 , but one of the two engines overheated on October 26 , only one week later , needing to be replaced , thus shutting down the ferry a second time during the same month . Due to the prohibitive cost of having to specially manufacture many replacement parts , the Martha S was retired in July 2013 , and replaced shortly thereafter with the new M / V Sanpoil , which is now the vessel serving the Keller Ferry run .
= = Major intersections = =
= HMS Hero ( H99 ) =
HMS Hero was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of World War II , Hero searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and participated in the Second Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 before she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in May where she escorted a number of convoys to Malta . The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940 , Operation Abstention in February 1941 , and the evacuations of Greece and Crete in April – May 1941 .
The ship covered an amphibious landing during the Syria – Lebanon Campaign of June 1941 and began escorting supply convoys in June to Tobruk , Libya shortly afterwards . She was damaged by German dive bombers while rescuing survivors from the minelayer Latona in October 1941 and resumed escorting convoys to Malta . Hero participated in the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 and in Operation Vigorous in June . She sank two German submarines whilst stationed in the Mediterranean in 1942 , and was transferred back home late in the year to begin converting to an escort destroyer . The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in 1943 and renamed HMCS Chaudière . She became part of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in early 1944 until her transfer back to British coastal waters in May to protect the build @-@ up for Operation Overlord . Together with other ships , she sank three more German submarines during the year . Chaudière was refitting when the war ended in May 1945 and was in poor shape . The ship was paid off in August and later sold for scrap . The process of breaking her up , however , was not completed until 1950 .
= = Description and construction = =
Hero displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hero carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime . In Canadian service , the crew numbered 10 officers and 171 men .
The ship mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hero had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . By mid @-@ 1940 , this had increased to 44 depth charges .
Ordered on 13 December 1934 from Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company , Hero was subcontracted to Vickers @-@ Armstrongs and laid down by their High Walker Yard at Newcastle @-@ on @-@ Tyne , England , on 28 February 1935 . She was launched on 10 March 1936 and completed on 21 October 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 249 @,@ 858 .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Most ships of Hero 's class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940 , but it is not clear if she underwent this refurbishment as she was deployed in the Mediterranean until 1943 . Other changes made before her conversion to an escort destroyer in 1943 probably included exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship 's bridge . The ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge were most likely removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar during the conversion , as was the replacement of ' B ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , and the addition of a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar . Two QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were fitted on the wings of her bridge to deal with U @-@ boats at short ranges . The ship also received a HF / DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased . Late in the war , her Type 286 was replaced by a Type 291 radar .
= = Career = =
Hero was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . She patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Hyperion received a refit in June – July 1939 in the UK and rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet upon its completion . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until 5 October when she was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders . Hero returned to the UK in January 1940 and received a refit at Portsmouth from 15 February to 16 March . In the meantime , the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla had been assigned to Home Fleet and the ship rejoined them when her refit was finished .
On 5 April Hero escorted the battlecruiser Renown as she covered the minelayers preparing to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The ship and her sister Hyperion pretended to lay a minefield off Bud , Norway on 8 April and reported its location to the Norwegians . Hero and the destroyer Foxhound streamed their TSDS minesweeping gear in advance of the battleship Warspite and her escort as they steamed up the Vestfjord to engage the remaining German destroyers at Narvik on 13 April . The ship and four other British destroyers pursued the remaining German ships into the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where the lack of ammunition had forced the German ships to retreat . Most of the German destroyers had scuttled and beached themselves at the head of the fjord , but the scuttling charges on Z18 Hans Lüdemann had failed to detonate properly and she was boarded by a small party from Hero . They found nothing of any significance as she 'd been abandoned by her crew and the destroyer put a torpedo into her to prevent any salvage .
Hero was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet on 17 May as part of the reconstituted 2nd Destroyer Flotilla . During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July , the ship escorted Australian light cruiser Sydney and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni together with the other escorting destroyers . Hero , together with her sister , Hostile , and the destroyers Nubian and Mohawk , were ordered to Gibraltar on 22 August where they were to join Force H. Hostile struck a mine en route on the early morning of 23 August off Cap Bon that broke her back . The explosion killed five men and wounded three others . Mohawk took off the survivors while Hero fired two torpedoes to scuttle her . The ship participated in Operation Hats in September , before refitting in Malta during November . She sortied into the North Atlantic when Convoy WS @-@ 5A reported that it had been attacked by the German cruiser Admiral Hipper on 25 December to round up the scattered ships .
On 1 January 1941 , Hero was one of the ships that intercepted a Vichy French convoy off Mellila and seized all four merchant ships of the convoy . The ship participated in Operation Excess in early January 1941 and was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet . On 27 February , she evacuated a few surviving commandos from the island of Kastelorizo who had attacked the island in Operation Abstention . In mid @-@ April she escorted the fast transport Breconshire and three battleships from Alexandria to Malta before going on to escort the battleships as they bombarded Tripoli on 20 April . After refueling in Alexandria on 23 April , Hero sailed for Greece to begin evacuating British and Australian troops from the beaches . During the evacuation of Crete , Hero and the destroyer Decoy evacuated the King of Greece and his entourage on the night of 22 / 23 May .
Hero escorted the LSI ( L ) Glengyle as she conducted an amphibious landing in early June 1941 on the Lebanese coast during the opening stages of the Operation Exporter . She spent most of the rest of the year escorting convoys to Tobruk . Together with her sister Hotspur and the destroyer Encounter , the ship escorted Latona on 25 October whilst en route to Tobruk . They were attacked by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of I. / StG 1 that hit Latona and set her afire . Hero and Encounter came alongside and rescued the crew and passengers before Latona 's magazine exploded , but Hero was damaged by three near misses whilst alongside . The ship returned to Alexandria for repairs and escorted a convoy to Malta in January 1942 . She participated in the 2nd Battle of Sirte on 22 March whilst escorting a convoy to Malta . Together with the Hunt @-@ class destroyers Eridge and Hurworth on 29 May , she sank the German submarine U @-@ 568 north @-@ east of Tobruk , at 32 ° 42 ′ N 24 ° 53 ′ E , and rescued 42 survivors .
During Operation Vigorous in June , Hero formed part of the escort for the covering force of the Mediterranean Fleet for the Malta @-@ bound convoy . At time the ship still had not been fitted for radar . After Panzer Army Africa occupied Mersa Matruh in late June , the Admiralty ordered the submarine tenders Medway and the Greek Corinthia transferred to Haifa , but Medway was torpedoed and sunk en route despite the strong escort . Hero and the destroyer Zulu rescued 1105 survivors between them . On 17 August , the ship rescued some 1100 survivors of the torpedoed troopship Princess Marguerite . In conjunction with four other destroyers and a Wellesley light bomber of the Royal Air Force , Hero sank U @-@ 559 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) north @-@ east of Port Said on 30 October . The ship was ordered back to the United Kingdom , via the Cape of Good Hope , to be converted to an escort destroyer late in the year .
= = = Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy = = =
Her conversion at Portsmouth lasted from April to November 1943 and Hero was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy as a gift on 15 November 1943 and renamed HMCS Chaudière . After working up , the ship was assigned to the Escort Group C2 in February 1944 , based in Derry . On 6 March 1944 , whilst defending Convoy HX 228 west of Ireland , the escorts forced U @-@ 744 to the surface where she surrendered after a 32 @-@ hour hunt . The submarine could not be towed to port and was torpedoed by the British destroyer Icarus . The ship was reassigned to the 11th Escort Group in May 1944 in preparation for Operation Overlord . The group was tasked to protect Allied shipping in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay and , together with the destroyers Ottawa and Kootenay , the ship sank U @-@ 621 in the Bay of Biscay near La Rochelle on 18 August . Two days later , the same ships sank U @-@ 984 in the Bay of Biscay west of Brest . In November , Chaudière was sent to Sydney , Nova Scotia for a refit .
The refit did not begin until late January 1945 and was still in progress when the war ended in May . She was found to be in the worst shape of any Canadian destroyer when inspected and was declared surplus to requirements on 13 June . She was paid off on 17 August 1945 and later sold for scrap to the Dominion Steel Company . Her demolition , however , was not completed until 1950 .
= = Poetry = =
The ship 's completion on Tyneside in 1936 inspired the poet Michael Roberts to write a poem entitled " H.M.S. Hero " . The poem of twelve lines in three stanzas , begins ; " Pale grey , her guns hooded , decks clear of all impediment , / Easily , between the swart tugs , she glides in the pale October sunshine ... " .
= Laguna Madre ( United States ) =
The Laguna Madre is a long , shallow , hypersaline lagoon along the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico in Nueces , Kenedy , Kleberg , Willacy and Cameron Counties in Texas , United States . It is separated by the roughly 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) long Saltillo Flats land bridge into Upper and Lower lagoons . The two are joined by the Intracoastal Waterway , which has been dredged through the lagoon . Cumulatively , Laguna Madre is approximately 130 miles ( 209 km ) long , the length of Padre Island . The main extensions include Baffin Bay in Upper Laguna Madre , Red Fish Bay just below the Saltillo Flats , and South Bay near the Mexican border .
The lagoon 's ecosystem is protected by the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge and the Padre Island National Seashore , as well as the privately owned King Ranch . The human history predates the formation of the Laguna Madre , and settlements have been established at Port Isabel and Port Mansfield on the lagoon 's shores .
= = History = =
Laguna Madre was formed about 3 @,@ 000 years ago , after the stabilization of the sea level on the Texas Coast , culminating in the rise of Padre Island . The Baffin Bay extension is considerably older than Laguna Madre , and formed as a river valley during the Pleistocene epoch , over 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Early peoples obtained oysters from the bay , which were eliminated due to changes in salinity after the full formation of Laguna Madre . The first people to encounter the new lagoon were most likely the nomadic Karankawa and Coahuiltecan Indians . The Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda is believed to be the first European to come in contact with Laguna Madre in the early 16th century , and is credited with giving it the name , which is Spanish for " mother lagoon " .
Several land grants were handed out by the Spanish government for ranching near the lagoon . The first was believed to have been given to José Nicolás Cabazos in 1792 , which included 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) in the area south of Baffin Bay to the Rio Grande . Cabazos stocked the land with 900 cattle . American ranching settlements developed following the Mexican War , including the King Ranch , which was established in 1847 by Richard King . The area near present @-@ day Port Isabel was used as a resort for Spaniards after watersellers came ashore in the late 18th century looking for freshwater supplies . A settlement known as Point Isabel was established at the location in the 1830s , and in 1853 , the Point Isabel Lighthouse was constructed to overlook the lagoon . The city was named Port Isabel in 1928 , and in 1954 , the Queen Isabella Causeway , the longest bridge in Texas , was constructed across Laguna Madre to South Padre Island . A newer bridge was built in 1974 , but part of it collapsed on September 15 , 2001 after being hit by a barge , causing eight people to plunge to their deaths and significantly hindering the economy of South Texas . It was rebuilt and reopened in November of that year . Port Isabel had 4 @,@ 865 residents during the 2000 census . To the north , Port Mansfield was established in 1950 , at the old fishing community of Red Fish Landing . It was named after United States Congressman Joseph J. Mansfield ( D @-@ TX ) , who introduced the bill that extended the Intracoastal Waterway from Corpus Christi to Brownsville in the 1940s . The Port Mansfield Ship Channel was dredged in 1957 across Padre Island and redredged in 1962 after work was done to improve the jetties . The cut allows an influx of seawater into the Lower Laguna Madre to improve the fishing and shipping industry of Port Mansfield . The community had 415 residents in 2000 .
= = Features = =
Laguna Madre is found between the mainland of South Texas and Padre Island . At this location between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande , the climate is dry and it is sometimes referred to as the Wild Horse Desert . The western shore , a large part of which is included in the King Ranch , is usually marked by sand dunes , yucca , prickly pear , century plants and an occasional oak tree bent by the wind . The lagoon is split by a 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) expanse of sand flats , named the Saltillo Flats , which are located about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the northern extreme near the John F. Kennedy Memorial Causeway in Corpus Christi . This part of the lagoon is known as the Upper Laguna Madre and includes the extension of Baffin Bay near Kingsville , and Bird Island on the eastern Padre Island shore , northeast of the opening of Baffin Bay . The Lower Laguna Madre includes the area south of the Saltillo Flats to the extension of South Bay near Port Isabel , and is crossed by the Queen Isabella Causeway . Included in the Lower Laguna Madre is Red Fish Bay , which is found along the shoreline of the King Ranch , south to Port Mansfield .
The lagoon is shallow and narrow , averaging only 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) in depth and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) in width . The depth is only 0 @.@ 66 feet ( 20 cm ) to 1 @.@ 1 feet ( 34 cm ) in the areas not dredged to form the 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep , 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) wide Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , which runs the bay 's length and joins the upper and lower stretches . Two types of hard reef are found in the lagoon bed and on the shoreline , including beach rock reefs ( shell and sand bound by calcium carbonate cement ) common south of Baffin Bay due to the occasional shifts in the Laguna Madre coastal shoreline ; and Serpulid reefs , common in Baffin Bay , and elsewhere in the system , formed between 300 and 3 @,@ 000 years ago by the annelid 's calcareous tubes .
Laguna Madre has a salinity of 36 parts per thousand ( ppt ) , which is above the seawater average of 35 ppt . Because of the high salinity , it holds the distinction as one of the Earth 's six hypersaline lagoons / bays , the others being Sivash in Ukraine , Laguna Ojo de Liebre on the west coast of Baja California , Spencer Gulf and Shark Bay in Australia , and the Laguna Madre of Tamaulipas , which is sometimes grouped with the Laguna Madre of Texas as one system . The reasons for its hypersalinity include shallowness , the lack of a significant river source , dry climate , high evaporation and the isolation from other bodies of water . Its salinity was even greater before the Port Mansfield Gulf Channel was dredged on Padre Island , which allowed a larger amount of seawater exchange . However , very little water exchange occurs at all , every second only 25 cubic metres ( 6 @,@ 600 US gal ) of water flows into the lagoon . Rainwater from tropical storms and hurricanes is the only significant fresh water the bay receives . The salinity is greatest in the Lower Laguna Madre , where it averages around 45 ppt .
= = Ecosystem = =
The Laguna Madre is one of the most important and unspoiled lagoon ecosystems in Texas . It is also one of the most protected in the United States ; 75 % of its shores are protected by the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge to the west and the Padre Island National Seashore on the east . Fish , shrimp and crab , which feed the bird populations , depend on the lagoon and its plentiful beds of seagrass for survival . The seagrass of Laguna Madre accounts for 80 % of all seagrass found off the Texas Coast ; however , it is threatened by brown tides caused by poor circulation and dredging . An influx of seawater can sometimes replace the vital seagrass with oyster beds .
Laguna Madre is home to more finfish than anywhere else on the Texas coast , with such species as blue catfish , hardhead catfish , Atlantic croaker , black drum , red drum , southern flounder , alligator gar , houndfish , crevalle jack , southern kingfish , ladyfish , Atlantic midshipman , mojarras , striped mullet , pinfish , Florida pompano , smooth butterfly ray , spotted seatrout , blacktip shark , sheepshead , bigmouth sleeper , gray snapper , common snook , southern stargazer , southern stingray and tripletail . Many fowl migrate and live around the lagoon including 75 % of all redhead ducks . Other birds in the area include the peregrine falcon , piping plover , roseate spoonbill , long @-@ billed curlew , crane , egret and the brown pelican . Sea turtles and dolphins can be found in the bay , while cattle , white @-@ tailed deer , nilgai and bobcats can sometimes be seen near the shore .
= = Industry = =
The ports of Port Isabel and Port Mansfield rely on the fishing and shrimping industries . In the 1960s , Port Isabel averaged a catch of 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 long tons ; 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 short tons ) of shrimp annually , which accounted for 65 % of the entire production in Texas . In Port Mansfield , the fishing industry has greatly expanded with the opening of the Port Mansfield Channel , allowing a steady accumulation of red fish , brown shrimp , and flounder . Because of the bay 's environmental protections , very few manufacturing plants have been constructed in the area . Following an environmental campaign , the Valero Energy Corporation constructed an oil and gas pipeline from Corpus Christi to the Rio Grande Valley to decrease the shipment of oil and gas along the Intracoastal Waterway , greatly diminishing the chance of a spill . Activists have likewise railed against a proposed wind turbine farm off Baffin Bay , due to the potential harm to the scenic shores and the bird populations .
The tourism industry is also a mainstay for communities on the lagoon . Beach @-@ goers must pass the Laguna Madre to reach the prime beaching destination at both North and South Padre Islands . Fishing has drawn tourists to Port Isabel , where the Texas International Fishing Tournament has been held since 1934 . Visitors also flock to Bird Island off the western coast of Padre Island , for windsurfing , kayaking , and other water sports .
= Gotta Have It ( song ) =
" Gotta Have It " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . The song was produced by West and The Neptunes , and samples three original compositions by James Brown : " Don ’ t Tell a Lie About Me and I Won ’ t Tell the Truth About You " , " People Get Up and Drive Your Funky Soul " and " My Thang " . The song explores themes of wealth , decadence and the economic stature in the US . The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented the production and the clever wordplay of the two rappers .
The song was released as the sixth single from Watch the Throne on December 6 , 2011 . The song peaked at number 69 on the US Billboard Hot 100 entered the top 15 both the US Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The song has since been certified Gold for sales exceeding 500 @,@ 000 . Jay @-@ Z and West performed the song as part of the setlist of their Watch the Throne Tour and at the 2012 Radio 1 's Big Weekend musical festival .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are both American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together , such as singles like " Swagga Like Us " , " Run This Town " , and " Monster " . In 2010 , they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne . " Gotta Have It " was produced by West and the production duo The Neptunes , and incorporates chopped @-@ up James Brown vocal samples and Eastern flute melodies . The song samples three different song ; " Don ’ t Tell a Lie About Me and I Won ’ t Tell the Truth About You " , " People Get Up and Drive Your Funky Soul " and " My Thang " and was reportedly very expensive to produce . The track was released as the album 's sixth single in the US , and it impacted Urban radio on December 6 , 2011 , and Rhythmic radio on January 31 , 2012 . The track was performed by West and Jay on their Watch the Throne tour . During Jay @-@ Z 's setlist at the 2012 Radio 1 's Big Weekend festival , West joined Jay @-@ Z to perform " Gotta Have It " and other Watch the Throne hits like " Niggas in Paris " and " No Church in the Wild " .
= = Composition = =
" Gotta Have It " unites " Kanye and the Neptunes to crazily chop up James Brown vocal samples and Eastern flute melodies . " The song contains " haunting backing vocals and an accompanying tambourine " with the two rappers trading verses with the vocal riff playing over them . The song features " diced @-@ up vocal snippets and gut @-@ punching bass back aggressive rhymes " and includes a reference to the Yung Chris song " Racks " which is a " nod to the contemporary rap trends the track both embraces and outpaces . " While some tracks on Watch the Throne give the " star rappers turns at the mic , " " Gotta Have It " is " pure tag @-@ team hip @-@ hop , with the two trading off verses and finishing each other 's lines . " The song contains moments of the two rappers " finishing each others ' Ferris Bueller and Miami Heat jokes over a chopped @-@ up James Brown yelps " provided by The Neptunes .
= = Personnel = =
Produced by The Neptunes
Co @-@ produced by Kanye West
Mixed and recorded by Mike Dean and Noah Goldstein
Recorded at Tribeca Grand Hotel , NYC
Mixed at ( The Mercer ) Hotel
Additional vocals : Kid Cudi
= = Reception = =
" Gotta Have It " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher stated that " The Neptunes turn in their best beat in years on " Gotta Have It " , sampling James Brown in a realm completely removed from funk and soul . " Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole stated that " the duo volleys ball lines at each other on " Otis " and do call @-@ and @-@ response riffing on " Gotta Have It , " sounding like a pair of hustlers who can 't believe how much they 've gotten away with . The chemistry between the two friends and self @-@ described sibling rivals is conveyed perfectly on those two tracks . " David Amidon of PopMatters commented that several songs on the album are a " hirlwind of excitement , particularly “ Gotta Have It ” , which finds Kanye and Jay spitting such decadent , pro @-@ Black @-@ laden material as “ Maybachs on bachs on bachs on bachs on bachs / Who in that ? / Oh , shit , it ’ s just blacks on blacks on blacks " . Popdust 's Emily Exton reported that that " he two trade lines instead of verses in what results in a surefire example of what can happen when two pros team up . " The song peaked at number 69 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and at numbers 14 and 13 on the Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts respectively .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Certifications = =
= Body Talk Pt . 2 =
Body Talk Pt . 2 is the sixth studio album by Swedish recording artist Robyn . It was released on 6 September 2010 , by Konichiwa Records . The album is the second part of the Body Talk trilogy , which consists of three mini @-@ albums , all released during 2010 . Robyn started working on songs for the album when Body Talk Pt . 1 ( 2010 ) was still in development , and she collaborated with Klas Åhlund , Kleerup , Savage Skulls , Diplo , Snoop Dogg and Niggaracci . Musically , the songs on Body Talk Pt . 2 are upbeat and a mixture between electro , house , hip hop and disco .
Critical reception of the album was generally positive . Although critics felt that it lacked a classic single and considered it a minor letdown compared to Body Talk Pt . 1 , it received praise for being solid and club @-@ ready . In Sweden , the album reached the top of the Sverigetopplistan chart . It also reached number one in Denmark and number three in Norway . In the United States , it peaked at number forty @-@ one , becoming Robyn 's highest position on the chart .
" Hang with Me " was released as the album 's only single in August 2010 . An acoustic version of the song was featured on Body Talk Pt . 1 . The single reached the top ten in Sweden and Norway . The last track on the album , " Indestructible " , appears in acoustic form and was later remixed and served as the lead single for Body Talk , the final installment in the trilogy .
= = Background and development = =
In February 2010 , Robyn announced in an interview with Swedish magazine Bon that she would release three albums during 2010 . She noted that it had been five years since she released her last effort , Robyn ( 2005 ) , and that she had not been in the studio " properly " since then . She explained that she did not want to wait until all the songs had been recorded ; she rather wanted to split up the songs in three different releases . She chose to name the trilogy Body Talk after a gay club in London that a friend of hers owns , commenting that the title " tickles [ her ] imagination " . In June 2010 , the first in the trilogy , Body Talk Pt . 1 , was released , and was quickly followed by the announcement of Body Talk Pt . 2 . The album 's lead single , " Hang with Me " and the track " Indestructible " , were among the first songs to be recorded for the trilogy . Robyn said that " we saved them for later because I knew they would be singles , or could be singles , and I wanted them to get that chance . " " Hang with Me " was originally recorded in 2002 , by Klas Åhlund 's then @-@ wife , Paola Bruna , for her album Stockcity Girl .
The songs on the album were written at the same time as the songs on Body Talk Pt . 1 . In mid @-@ July 2010 , music magazine Billboard reported that the mixing of the songs had been completed . Robyn worked primary with Swedish producer and songwriter Klas Åhlund , who was heavily involved in the production of Body Talk Pt . 1 . Unlike the first installment , Body Talk Pt . 2 saw Robyn working with a few producers apart from Åhlund , such as Diplo , Kleerup , Niggaracci and electronic duo Savage Skulls . She also worked with American rapper Snoop Dogg on the song " U Should Know Better " . The two originally met when Robyn was asked to sing vocals on a remix of his single " Sexual Eruption " ( 2007 ) . Six months later , they met up once again to write and record " U Should Know Better . " While being interviewed by Billboard , Robyn spoke of the experience of working with the rapper , stating , " It was really cool to be able to be in the studio with him , first because I always was a fan but also because he was really creative and we had so much of an exchange in being there together , both as vocalists . I had an idea and he really got it and got into it , which was awesome . " She also worked with Savage Skulls on two songs on the album ; " Love Kills " and the iTunes exclusive " Bad Gal " . Robyn spoke of the duo , saying that " these really young guys who are part of a scene that I probably would 've gotten into if I wasn 't away so much when I was younger . "
= = Composition = =
According to Tom Ewing of The Guardian , Body Talk Pt . 2 is " faster , harder , [ and ] clubbier " than its predecessor . The writer described it as " the Body Talk for people who like their Robyn upbeat , fierce and dancefloor @-@ ready . " According to Adam Johns of Drowned in Sound , the album marks a departure from Robyn 's " formula of ' creative ' tracks sprinkled through with low @-@ key pop gems . " He recalled her previous work as " high @-@ tech " and said that the songs on Body Talk Pt . 2 are " sprinkled with italo @-@ sounding synths , arpreggios and minor @-@ key arrangements . " Joe Colly of Pitchfork noted that Robyn " primarily sticks with the quick @-@ moving , clubby synth @-@ pop that is her calling card . " Jaime Gill of BBC Music noted its " beats @-@ driven approach " and the mix between electro , house , hip hop , classic disco and " orchestral , tear @-@ teasing balladry . "
The opening track , " In My Eyes " utilizes tingling synths . Colly said that Robyn is " an encouraging den mother " on the song , singing " Little star , I got you . You 'll be okay . " Luke O 'Neill of The Boston Globe said that the song showcases " the tension @-@ and @-@ catharsis approach Robyn is capable of achieving with her vocals . " The second track , " Include Me Out " was referred to as " digitised stop @-@ start funk " . The song begins with the line , " It is really very simple , just a single pulse repeated at a regular interval " , which according to O 'Neill described " the main sonic trick employed on a lot of her dance @-@ ready songs . " On the song , Robyn plays a party @-@ starter that is " repping matriarchs and cross @-@ dressers alike " with the line " This one 's for the granny , take a bow ... Come on all you trannies , click your heels for me . " " Hang with Me " , carries a " fierce , club @-@ wrecking beat " , with " relentlessly energetic bass " and synth arpeggios . Lyrically , the song speaks of trust in a relationship , with lines such as " Just don 't fall recklessly , headlessly in love with me . " Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music said that the song views " the perspective of someone who 's a bit too tightly buttoned @-@ up to let her defences down . " The fourth track , " Love Kills " was described as a " discofied , sharp @-@ edged " song , with fierce vocals and " haunting Pet Shop Boys flourishes . " " We Dance to the Beat " is a techno song , with an " apocalyptic , big @-@ beat " . It features a " sort of spoken @-@ word hype @-@ up jam " that was compared to " Don 't Fucking Tell Me What to Do " . The song features lines such as " We dance to the beat of your brains not evolving fast enough " and " We dance to the beat of bad kissers clicking teeth . "
The sixth track , " Criminal Intent " features Robyn rapping , which was compared to the rapping style of musician Peaches . The song is about Robyn getting arrested for " freaky dancing " to her own song . Ben Norman of About.com called it " a darker version of [ Robyn 's ] previous rap songs " . Comparisons were also drawn towards " Fembot " from Body Talk Pt . 1 , and " Piece of Me " by Britney Spears . " U Should Know Better " featuring Snoop Dogg was called the album 's highlight by several critics . It features Snoop Dogg rapping over an electro beat and Robyn delivering " quotable , ridiculous lines " , such as " You know when in Rome I sat down with the Romans . Said we need a black Pope and she 'd better be a woman . " Jaime Gill of BBC Music said that the song features " the teen @-@ pop singer and hip hop outlaw swapping louche quips over a relentless , grimy electro stomp . " The acoustic " Indestructible " reflects " the downside of needing someone " . Norman said that it " is sweeping and symphonic and has so much vulnerability and strength in it that you believe she really will love as if she is indestructible . "
= = Critical reception = =
Body Talk Pt . 2 received mostly positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 76 , based on 23 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Jaime Gill of BBC Music called the album a " brief , brilliant record that leaves you panting , Body Talk , Part 2 is the latest evidence that Robyn is probably the best , most versatile pop star currently at work . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine referred to the album as " pretty fucking fantastic " , despite stating that it was " a minor letdown following the near @-@ perfection of its predecessor " . Tom Ewing of The Guardian said that " the second episode [ in the trilogy ] has a different flavour from the first . " Ewing named " U Should Know Better " the best song on the record , calling it the " unlikeliest success " . In contrast , he considered " Criminal Intent " the worst song , but said that " even that has a lovely , draggy vibe . " Dan Martin of the NME wrote that the album " doesn 't quite end with a severed hand , but it does swing a little lower with an awesomeness that tries less hard to be liked straight away . "
Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone wrote that the album " offers up another batch of great , club @-@ ready songs that are a touch too weird for American hit radio . Robyn sings and raps about standard diva themes ( dance @-@ floor ecstasy , self @-@ reliance ) , but the music is deliciously wacked @-@ out . " Pitchfork 's Joe Colly felt the album needed a " classic single on par with ' Dancing on My Own ' or ' [ With Every ] Heartbeat ' " , but concluded , " Minor quibbles and missteps aside , Body Talk Pt . 2 is a perfectly solid — and occasionally awesome — record . " Heather Phares of Allmusic wrote that through the album , Robyn proves " that stylish , cutting @-@ edge pop doesn 't have to be competitive or egotistical . " Adam Johns of Drowned in Sound was mixed in his review , writing that " While it 's a fairly remarkable piece of craft , her icy disco diversion here leaves me somewhat flat [ ... ] It should satisfy the listeners who primarily show up for Creative Robyn . " Luke Winkie of musicOMH wrote a mixed review as well , saying that " Pt 2 doesn 't have the same feel [ as Pt 1 ] ; it 's as if Robyn may have exhausted her supply of great songs too soon . It has its moments , but in general just doesn 't compare to Pt 1 . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Body Talk Pt . 2 debuted at number one on the Sverigetopplistan albums chart on the issue dated 17 September 2010 , two positions higher than its predecessor 's debut . In Denmark , it debuted atop the chart , with sales of 2 @,@ 500 units , of which digital sales accounted for 68 % . On the US Billboard 200 chart , the album debuted at number forty @-@ one on the issue dated 25 September 2010 , selling 8 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It also debuted on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart at number two , only behind Lady Gaga 's The Fame . In its second week on the Billboard 200 chart , the album fell to number 200 , making it Robyn 's first release since Robyn Is Here ( 1995 ) to spend more than one week on the chart . On the issue dated 25 September 2010 , the album debuted at number thirty @-@ eight on the UK Albums Chart , selling 3 @,@ 602 copies . In Norway , the album debuted at number three and spent seven weeks on the chart . The album also reached the top fifty in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Germany and Ireland .
= = Singles = =
" Hang with Me " was released as the first and only single from the album . An acoustic version of the song was previously featured on the preceding album , Body Talk Pt . 1 . The song was met with positive reviews , who compared it to her previous singles , " With Every Heartbeat " , " Be Mine ! " and " Dancing on My Own " . The song reached number two in Sweden and number seven in Norway . The accompanying music video shows scenes of Robyn 's everyday life and was shot over a two @-@ week period in London .
Following the release of the album , the tracks " Love Kills " , " In My Eyes " and the acoustic version of " Indestructible " charted in Sweden at number thirty @-@ five , fifty @-@ one and fifty @-@ four , respectively . " Indestructible " was later remixed and released as the lead single for Body Talk . Despite not being released as a single , a music video for the iTunes exclusive " Bad Gal " , featuring Savage Skulls and Douster , premiered in January 2011 . The clip was directed by Tim Erem .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to Body Talk Pt . 2 in order of appearance :
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Canadian horse =
The Canadian horse is a horse breed from Canada . It is a strong , well @-@ muscled breed of horse , usually dark in colour . The horses are generally used for riding and driving . Descended from draft and light riding horses imported to Canada in the late 1600s , it was later crossed with other British and American breeds . During the 18th century the Canadian horse spread throughout the northeastern US , where it contributed to the development of several horse breeds . During the peak popularity of the breed , three subtypes could be distinguished , a draft horse type , a trotting type and a pacing type . Thousands of horses were exported in the 19th century , many of whom were subsequently killed while acting as cavalry horses in the American Civil War . These exports decreased the purebred Canadian population almost to the point of extinction , prompting the formation of a studbook and the passage of a law against further export .
Experimental breeding programs in the early 20th century succeeded in re @-@ establishing the breed to some extent , but mechanization , combined with two world wars , again resulted in the breed almost becoming extinct . In the 1980s , concerned with the declining population numbers , interested breeders undertook a promotional program , which resulted in renewed interest in the breed . By the 1990s , population numbers were higher , and genetic studies in 1998 and 2012 found relatively high levels of genetic diversity for a small breed . However , livestock conservation organizations still consider the breed to be at risk , due to low population numbers .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Most Canadian Horses are dark coloured : black , bay , or brown . A few chestnuts are found , occasionally with flaxen manes and tails , and the cream gene appears in the breed as the result of the genetic influence of one stallion . While some sources state that the gene for gray is no longer found in the breed , after the genetic bottleneck of the late 20th century , the preservation society for the breed states that they can be " rarely grey " . Their height averages 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) and stallions average 1 @,@ 050 to 1 @,@ 350 pounds ( 480 to 610 kg ) in weight , while mares weigh 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 250 pounds ( 450 to 570 kg ) .
The Canadian horse has a rather short , high @-@ set head with a broad forehead . The neck is arched and graceful , and the chest , back and loins broad and strongly muscled . The shoulders and croup are sloping , with a relatively high @-@ set tail . Overall , the breed gives the impression of strength and agility . Their heavy and wavy mane and tail , arched necks and finely boned heads are all reminiscent of Andalusian and Barb ancestry . Their trot is described as flashy . They are hardy horses and easy keepers . Today , most Canadian horses are used as riding and driving horses , and are known for their jumping ability . They are seen in competition in almost every discipline , as well as for leisure riding . They can also be found in light draft work , trail riding , and working as a stock horse .
Unlike most breeds , there is a set naming system that is used to identify individuals based on the registration format employed by the Canadian Livestock Records Corporation . First comes the prefix , the farm or breeding establishment of which the foal was born into , followed by the sire 's name , and lastly the given name for the foal . Each year a different letter is assigned to begin the given name for the foal , and it is by the year 's letter that the foal is named . Some older horses do not fall under this naming strategy , but it is now mandatory in naming registered offspring coming from purebred Canadian lines . Originally , horses were tattooed with identification numbers , but now microchipping is the identification technology chosen by the breed registry .
= = History = =
The Canadian Horse descended from the French stock Louis XIV sent to Canada in the late 17th century . The initial shipment , in 1665 , consisted of two stallions and twenty mares from the Royal Stables in Normandy and Brittany , the center of French horse breeding . Only 12 of the 20 mares survived the trip . Two more shipments followed , one in 1667 of 14 horses ( mostly mares , but with at least one stallion ) , and one in 1670 of 11 mares and a stallion . The shipments included a mix of draft horses and light horses , the latter of which included both pacing and trotting horses . The exact origins of all the horses are unknown , although the shipments probably included Bretons , Normans , Arabians , Andalusians and Barbs .
The horses were leased to gentleman farmers or religious orders for money or in exchange for a foal , and they remained the property of the king for three years . Despite poor conditions and hard work , the horses thrived in Canada , and were given nicknames that included " the little iron horse " and " the horse of steel " . Population numbers rose quickly from the early stock , with 148 horses by 1679 , 218 horses by 1688 , 684 by 1698 , and by 1709 , enough that the government limited farmers to owning two horses and a foal , with additional horses to be slaughtered , although this law was a failure in terms of enforcement . During the 1700s , the " French Canadian Horse " spread through what is now eastern Michigan and Illinois in the United States , and lived a generally feral existence , with many escaping human control completely . During the Expulsion of the Acadians in the mid @-@ 18th century , the English seized the livestock of the Acadians , including horses . Some of these animals were transported to Sable Island , where their descendents became the Sable Island horse . In the late 18th century , imported horses from the US and the British Isles were crossbred with existing Canadian stock . By the 19th century , they were found performing light draft work , as well as riding and driving duties . Cornelius Krieghoff , a 19th @-@ century Canadian painter , was known for his works featuring the Canadian horse , who he usually showed in association with the French habitants , as opposed to the English settlers in the area . His paintings generally portrayed the Canadian horse in a utilitarian , workhorse role , often in winter scenes .
In 1849 , there were estimated to be more than 150 @,@ 000 Canadian horses , and many were exported from Canada annually . Some were shipped to the West Indies , where they possibly contributed to gaited breeds such as the Paso Fino . By the middle of the 19th century , Canadian horses had spread through the northeastern US , where they were used for racing , as roadsters , and , due to their stamina , to pull freight wagons and stagecoaches . Many played a role in the development of other breeds , including the Morgan horse , the American Saddlebred and the Standardbred . Although used extensively in the US , no efforts were made to establish a purebred population , studbook , or breed association in that country . Thousands of horses imported to the US from Canada were used as artillery and cavalry horses in the American Civil War , where many were killed . One equine historian states that " The Canadian horse played a major role in the history of that war ; it has even been said that the North won simply on the fact that its soldiers had the better horse – the Canadian . "
By 1880 , through exports and war casualties , Canadian horses had almost become extinct . In 1885 , the Canadian Horse Breeders Association was formed to inspect and approve breeding stock with the aim of creating a studbook for the breed , and in 1886 , further export from Canada was forbidden by Quebec law . In 1913 , an experimental breeding program was begun at Cap @-@ Rouge by the Canadian government . The program 's goal was to breed larger horses that retained the endurance and vitality for which the breed was known , and succeeded in increasing the size of stallions to 15 @.@ 2 to 16 hands ( 62 to 64 inches , 157 to 163 cm ) high and 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 540 to 680 kg ) in weight , with mares slightly smaller . However , mechanization , combined with World War I and World War II , ended the federal breeding program , and in 1940 all breeding stock was sold at auction . However , the province of Quebec re @-@ established the program at Deschambault . The program lasted there until 1979 , when the herd was again disbanded and sold at auction .
= = = 1970s to present = = =
By the 1970s , the popularity of the breed had decreased significantly , and there were approximately 400 Canadian horses worldwide , with only around five annual registrations between 1970 and 1974 . Several interested breeders began a campaign of preservation and promotion , which resulted in a Canadian team winning the 1987 North American Driving Championships . Popularity began to increase , and by the mid @-@ 1990s population numbers were between 2 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 , and The Livestock Conservancy , which had classified the breed as " critical " , changed its designation to " rare " . With the increase in popularity came pressure for the breed standard to change to meet modern show and market trends , by breeding for taller horses with more refinement . In 2002 , the Canadian Horse Heritage and Preservation Society was formed in response to these pressures , with a goal of preserving the original Canadian horse type . The Canadian Horse Breeders Association remains the official registering body for the Canadian horse , as governed by the Canadian federal Animal Pedigree Act , with the responsibility to " monitor registration , identification , and the keeping of the stud book for Canadian horses " . It is also responsible for inspecting breeding stock before they are registered with the studbook . The studbook is maintained by the Canadian Livestock Records Corporation . Since the beginning of the studbook , there have been over 13 @,@ 600 horses registered . In 2012 , 208 new horses were registered , mainly in Quebec . The Livestock Conservancy still considers the breed to be threatened , a designation given to breeds with a global population of less than 5 @,@ 000 and annual US registrations of fewer than 1 @,@ 000 . Rare Breeds Canada considers the breed to be at risk , with fewer than 500 annual registrations of female breeding stock .
In a study of mitochondrial DNA published in 2012 , the Canadian horse and the Newfoundland pony were found to be the most genetically diverse of the Canadian breeds studied , which also included the Sable Island horse and the Lac La Croix pony . The Canadian horse showed high haplotype diversity , sharing haplotypes with all Canadian populations , as well as draft breeds , Nordic pony breeds and British mountain and moorland pony breeds also tested in the study . The Canadian horse had been shown to be related to draft horse breeds , including the Percheron , Belgian and Clydesdale , in previous microsatellite loci studies . This relationship was supported by findings in the 2012 study . The high levels of diversity in the Canadian horse supported the conclusions of a 1998 study , which determined that the small population size and historical genetic bottlenecks had not resulted in a significant loss of genetic variation . The 1998 paper also stated that the Canadian horse did not show inbreeding any more significant than other , more popular , breeds .
The Canadian horse is a common animal symbol of Canada . In 1909 , the Canadian Parliament declared it the national breed of the country , and in 2002 was made an official animal symbol of Canada by Parliamentary Act . In 2010 , the provincial legislature of Quebec named it a heritage breed of the province .
= = Sub @-@ types = =
During the peak popularity of the breed , three main types could be distinguished . All three are now considered extinct , having disappeared or been merged back into the main Canadian horse population . The first , the Canadian Heavy Draft or St. Lawrence , which disappeared by the late 1700s , probably developed from Shire and Clydesdale crosses . They were probably a popular export to New England , which bred large numbers of horses for Caribbean plantations . The second , the Frencher , sometimes also called the St. Lawrence , was a trotting horse known for its power and speed , resulting from crosses with Thoroughbreds . Mixed with French trotting lines , they played a role in the development of the US trotting horses .
= = = Canadian Pacer = = =
The third type was the Canadian Pacer , which was historically better documented than the other two types . Canadian Pacers were likely the result of breeding pacing horses imported from France with Narragansett Pacers from New England . The resulting horses were known for their ability to race on ice . From there , they were exported to the United States , where North Carolina became a breeding center , later exporting them to Tennessee in the late 1700s . Pedigrees were not maintained , so early breeding histories are often impossible to trace . The Canadian Pacer influenced the Tennessee Walker , the American Saddlebred and the Standardbred .
Commonly called " Canucks " , the fastest members of the breed came from Quebec near the St. Lawrence River . Racing began in this area during the long , severe winters , when Sunday races after attending church for Mass became common . Eventually these races became large enough to endanger the church @-@ going populace , and races were banned within a certain distance of churches . They instead moved to local rivers , whose smooth , frozen surfaces provided useful raceways , and the resulting contests drew attention to the pacers from Quebec .
Several horses imported to the United States from Canada had a lasting impact on American horse breeding . In the early 1800s , a roan @-@ coloured stallion named Copperbottom was imported to Lexington , Kentucky from Quebec , through Michigan . He began to be offered for stud service in 1816 , and his progeny spread throughout the eastern US . Known mainly as saddle stock , they also included several pacing horses . Another roan stallion , Tom Hal , a successful pacer in his own right , founded an important family of pacers in the US . Appearing in Kentucky in 1824 , he was offered for stud , and his offspring ( many of whom carried on the family name , being differentiated only by the name of the owner ) began the family of Standardbreds that included Little Brown Jug , Brown Hal , Star Pointer , Adios and Good Time , all champion harness racing horses . Another pacing import to the US was a black stallion named Old Pilot , said to have been bred near Montreal , who originated the Pilot family of trotting horses . Old Pilot produced a son , also named Pilot , who was acclaimed as a sire of trotting horses , as well as being a successful harness horse himself .
= Key ( company ) =
Key is a Japanese visual novel studio which formed on July 21 , 1998 as a brand under the publisher VisualArt 's and is located in Kita , Osaka , Japan . Key released their debut visual novel Kanon in June 1999 , which combined an elaborate storyline , an up @-@ to @-@ date anime @-@ style drawing style , and a musical score which helped to set the mood for the game . Key 's second game Air released in September 2000 had a similar if not more complex storyline to Kanon and a more thorough gameplay . Both Kanon and Air were originally produced as adult games , but Key broke this trend with their third title Clannad which was released in April 2004 for all ages . Key has worked in the past with Interchannel and Prototype for the consumer port releases of the brand 's games . Key collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Angel Beats ! ( 2010 ) and Charlotte ( 2015 ) . The brand 's ninth game Rewrite was released in June 2011 , and a fan disc for the game titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! was released in July 2012 . The first volume in the six @-@ part Angel Beats ! episodic visual novel was released in June 2015 . Key will release the kinetic novel Harmonia in 2016 .
Co @-@ founder Jun Maeda is a prominent figure in the brand , having contributed to the planning , scenario , and music composition in the majority of Key 's visual novels . Itaru Hinoue , also a co @-@ founder , is Key 's main artist and was the art director for Key 's first three games . Na @-@ Ga , another prominent artist in the brand , mainly worked with background art in earlier games , but with Key 's sixth game Little Busters ! was given the position of co @-@ art director with Hinoue . Shinji Orito , Key 's main composer and another co @-@ founder , has composed music for the majority of Key 's titles . Yūto Tonokawa , a scenario writer , first worked on the scenario in Little Busters ! .
Key has been an active participant at the Comiket convention since Comiket 57 in December 1999 , where they sold Kanon @-@ related products ; Key 's latest appearance at Comiket was at Comiket 89 in December 2015 . In 2001 , VisualArt 's created the record label Key Sounds Label to release music albums and singles with music related to Key 's visual novels . Between December 2007 and August 2010 , Key produced an Internet radio show called Key Net Radio in regards to the brand .
= = History = =
Before forming Key , the founding members worked for another visual novel development company called Nexton under the brand Tactics . At the time of Dōsei 's production , Tactics ' first game , four of Key 's original staff worked on the game : Itaru Hinoue as art director , Shinji Orito as musical composer , and Miracle Mikipon and Shinory contributing to the computer graphics . After Dōsei , the rest of Key 's founding staff — Naoki Hisaya , Jun Maeda and OdiakeS — joined Tactics and contributed to two more games : Moon released on November 21 , 1997 , and One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e released on May 29 , 1998 . Due to differing opinions between Nexton and most of the production staff in Tactics on how to produce the brand 's next game , most of Tactics ' staff left Nexton to pursue work in another publishing company where they could have the freedom to produce their next game .
Itaru Hinoue , who had previously worked at VisualArt 's once before , introduced Key 's founding members to the president of VisualArt 's , Takahiro Baba . Baba gave the developers the freedom they desired , and they officially transferred to VisualArt 's where they formed Key on July 21 , 1998 . With the production of Key 's debut title Kanon still in its early stages , a brand name had still not been decided on by the developers . The tentative brand name was Azurite ( アズライト , Azuraito ) at first , but Jun Maeda was not pleased with this and wanted a name that would capture the image of the brand . Maeda came upon the name Key when he saw it on a sign for a musical instrument store he would always pass on his way to work and instantly liked the name . The name Key for the studio was ultimately decided by majority rule . Key released Kanon on June 4 , 1999 as an adult game , though the scenes containing adult content were kept to a minimum . This gave the player more of a focus on the characters ' stories and on the visuals and music , especially for a visual novel at the time of its release . A year later , on September 8 , 2000 , Key released their second game Air , which was also an adult game and similar in storytelling to Kanon .
Key 's third game Clannad is a visual novel similar to Key 's previous games , but contains no adult content . Clannad was meant to be released in 2002 , but was delayed , leading to the game finally being released on April 28 , 2004 . Seven months after Clannad 's release , Key released their shortest game , Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet , on November 29 , 2004 with a rating for all ages . Planetarian , in contrast to Key 's past games , is a linear visual novel that does not require the user to make choices during gameplay ; this is what is referred to as a kinetic novel . The brand 's fifth game is Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life , an adult game and spin @-@ off to Clannad released on November 25 , 2005 , which expanded on the scenario of the heroine Tomoyo Sakagami from Clannad . Key released their sixth game , Little Busters ! , on July 27 , 2007 with no adult content , but released another version of the game entitled Little Busters ! Ecstasy on July 25 , 2008 with added adult content , story , and visuals .
In commemoration of Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary , Key and VisualArt 's held a two @-@ day event between February 28 and March 1 , 2009 called " Key 10th Memorial Fes : Ano Hi kara Hajimatta Bokura no Toki o Kizamu Uta " ( ～ あの日から始まった僕らの時を刻む唄 ～ ) . Key collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Angel Beats ! that aired between April and June 2010 . Key 's eighth game Kud Wafter was released on June 25 , 2010 as an adult spin @-@ off of Little Busters ! , which expanded on the scenario of the heroine Kudryavka Noumi from Little Busters ! and Ecstasy . Key released their ninth game Rewrite on June 24 , 2011 with a rating for all ages , and an all ages fan disc to Rewrite titled Rewrite Harvest festa ! was released on July 27 , 2012 . In commemoration of Key 's 15 @-@ year anniversary , the first volume in the six @-@ part Angel Beats ! episodic visual novel , Angel Beats ! -1st beat- , was released on June 26 , 2015 . Key again collaborated with P.A. Works and Aniplex to produce the anime series Charlotte that aired between July and September 2015 . Key is aiming to release the kinetic novel Harmonia in 2016 , and it will be released on Steam in English before it is released in Japan .
= = = Key Sounds Label = = =
In 2001 , VisualArt 's created the record label Key Sounds Label ( KSL ) . The music albums and singles released by Key after this were put under this label , meaning that this does not include the first two albums and one single which were released before it was officially formed . The first album on this label was Humanity ... , though the only direct connection to Key 's works is that it contains a remixed version of the opening theme to Air . The albums under the label are mainly composed by Key 's signature composers : Jun Maeda , Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi . Three of the singles feature songs sung by Lia and one album , Love Song , features the singer Riya from Eufonius . Three drama CDs have been released as well .
To celebrate Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary , Key hosted a concert called KSL Live World 2008 : Way to the Little Busters ! EX on May 10 , 2008 in Tokyo , Japan , and again on May 17 , 2008 in Osaka , Japan . Each time , the concert lasted for two and a half hours and featured songs sung by Lia , Rita , Chata , and Tomoe Tamiyasu who have previously sung songs for singles and albums released under Key Sounds Label . Another concert called KSL Live World 2010 : Way to the Kud @-@ Wafter was held in Tokyo between May 21 – 22 , 2010 . A third content called KSL Live World 2013 : Way to the Little Busters ! Refrain was held in Koto , Tokyo on September 16 , 2013 . A fourth concert called KSL Live World : Way to the Angel Beats ! -1st- was held in Akihabara , Tokyo on April 11 and April 12 , 2015 . A fifth concert called KSL Live World 2016 : The Animation Charlotte & Rewrite was held in Toyosu , Tokyo on April 30 , 2016 .
= = = Key Net Radio = = =
Key produced 30 episodes of an Internet radio show called Key Net Radio ( Keyらじ , Key Raji ) in regards to the brand between December 13 , 2007 and August 30 , 2010 . It was hosted by Shinji Orito and Itaru Hinoue of Key , and another woman named Chiro who works for Pekoe , another visual novel studio under VisualArt 's . Listeners could submit thoughts about the show and any requests they may have for the show , along with submitting questions to the host trio . The broadcasts were available via download on Key 's official website and were available for download on the radio show 's official blog for the first nine broadcasts . The broadcasts could also be listened to on VisualArt 's ' YouTube channel named Visual Channel .
For the first six episodes , the show had five corners , or parts , which started with opening greetings from the hosts and went on to thoughts and impressions that listeners had about the show . This moved on to an informal talk between the hosts , followed by a section where entries previously submitted by listeners concerning their enthusiasm for Key were read by the hosts . The fourth corner concerned answering questions that had been submitted by listeners , and the final corner had Orito playing the flute ; listeners could submit suggestions for songs he was to play . Two more corners were added starting with the seventh broadcast . The first corner added concerns scary stories that the hosts can tell themselves , or read from submissions by listeners , and was added partly because Hinoue enjoys such stories . The second corner added deals with submissions by listeners describing a new fictional character , and Hinoue takes these submissions and forms a new fictional character out of combining elements from multiple submissions together . During the broadcasts , tracks from the soundtracks released under Key Sounds Label play in the background .
= = = Comiket involvement = = =
Comiket , short for Comic Market , is a large comic convention held twice a year in Tokyo , Japan during August and December , which are referred to as the summer and winter Comic Markets , respectively . Key has been an active participant in the convention since Comiket 57 in December 1999 , where they sold Kanon @-@ related products ( as Kanon was their only release at the time ) ; one such product was a Zippo lighter . The first Air @-@ related products Key sold at the convention were at Comiket 59 in December 2000 . Typical products include : postcards , telephone cards , calendars , posters , and albums . The products Key sells at Comiket are all related to the visual novels the brand produces .
Key , through VisualArt 's , generally participates at the winter Comiket in conjunction with other brands under VisualArt 's , but has been known to appear at the summer Comiket too , such as with Comiket 70 in August 2006 where they sold Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet related products . The combined total of the products Key sells at a given Comiket range in price between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 yen . This includes the selling of music albums released under Key 's record label Key Sounds Label which has been releasing albums since Comiket 60 in August 2001 with the release of the label 's first two albums , Humanity ... and " Natsukage / Nostalgia " . If there are any unsold products by the end of a given Comiket , VisualArt 's has been known to set up an online mail order to sell the remaining goods from all the brands under VisualArt 's that participated at Comiket . After Comiket 73 in December 2007 , VisualArt 's started taking mail orders on March 4 , 2008 , and only six days later on March 10 , 2008 , Key reported that all of Key 's goods sold at Comiket 73 were now sold out . At the end of the second day of Comiket 75 in December 2008 , all of Key 's goods at the convention were sold out .
= = Staff = =
= = = Main = = =
Key 's main staff members are attached to the visual novel studio , and therefore VisualArt 's . One of the founding members of Key , Jun Maeda , has worked on the planning for the individual projects and was one of the main scenario writers ; he has also composed music for the majority of Key 's games . Maeda stepped down as the main scenario writer after Little Busters ! Ecstasy , but continues to work on the music for Key 's games . Itaru Hinoue , another founding member , is Key 's main artist and was the sole art director and character designer for four of Key 's games . Na @-@ Ga , another prominent artist in the brand , mainly worked with background art in earlier games , but was first given the position of co @-@ art director with Hinoue with Little Busters ! . Further computer graphics have been provided in the past by Shinory and Mochisuke , two graphic artists in Key . Shinji Orito , another founding member and Key 's main composer , has composed music for the majority of Key 's games . With Maeda no longer contributing to the scenario , scenario writer Yūto Tonokawa joined Key and first worked on the scenario in Little Busters ! .
= = = Former and outsourced = = =
Many of Key 's staff have left the brand over time , or have been employed as outsourced contributors . Naoki Hisaya had worked as one of the main scenario writers for Kanon , but once the project was complete , he left the brand ; Hisaya later provided the original concept for Sola . Another member of the staff that made Kanon was OdiakeS , an outsourced composer who has since helped Key with two music albums , one each released for Air and Clannad , but has done nothing with Key since 2004 . Three staff members only worked with Key on Air : Takashi Ishikawa as one of the scenario writers , Kazuki Fujii as a scenario assistant , and Din as a background artist . Air and Clannad had Tōya Okano and Kai who contributed as scenario writers ; Kai later headed the planning and design of Kud Wafter . One of the original computer graphics artists , Miracle Mikipon , left after Clannad . Two other outsourced graphic artists , Minimo Tayama and Torino , have often contributed on Key 's games .
Scenario writer Yūichi Suzumoto worked with Key between Air and Planetarian . Eeji Komatsu worked as the art director for Planetarian , and another artist , Fumio , worked as the art director for Tomoyo After . Leo Kashida worked as an outsourced writer with Key on Tomoyo After and Little Busters ! . Chika Shirokiri , another outsourced writer who worked with Key on Little Busters ! , also wrote the scenario for Kud Wafter . Manack and members of PMMK composed music in Little Busters ! , and members of MintJam helped with arrangement . Magome Togoshi had been with Key since before Kanon 's release , working as one of the signature composers , but left the brand in October 2006 after contributing to the soundtrack of Little Busters ! . Jun 'ichi Shimizu composed all the music in Kud Wafter . Two outsourced writers worked on the scenario for Rewrite : Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion , and Romeo Tanaka . Rewrite also featured three outsourced musical composers : Maiko Iuchi of I 've Sound , Sōshi Hosoi , and Ryō Mizutsuki .
= = Impact = =
According to Satoshi Todome 's work , A History of Adult Games , Key 's impact on the visual novel ( primarily the adult game variant ) world stems from before Key was formed and most of the founding members of Key worked for Tactics under Nexton . Due to an influence by Leaf 's visual novel To Heart released in 1997 , the developers at Tactics created a simple formula for a game : a comedic first half with a heart @-@ warming romantic middle followed by a tragic separation and finally an emotional reunion formed what is known as a " crying game " or " nakige " . The main purpose of such a game is to make the player feel for the characters and make them cry due to emotional scenarios which serves to leave a bigger impact on the player after the game is over . Tactics ' second title One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e was created based on this formula .
After One was complete , the development team quit Tactics to form Key where they developed their first title Kanon also based upon this formula . Kanon was " heavily hyped [ and ] had gamers impatient until its release . It was only one game released by Key so far , and yet [ it ] had already sent major shockwaves around the industry . And yet another game [ Air ] , two years later , sent even more shockwaves . Air was equally hyped and well received . " The success of One and Kanon on Key 's formula to create a " crying game " was later adopted by other visual novel developing companies which were influenced by this formula . Examples of this include : Kana : Little Sister by Digital Object , the Memories Off series by KID , D.C. : Da Capo by Circus , Snow by Studio Mebius ( also under VisualArt 's ) , and Wind : A Breath of Heart by Minori .
Ryukishi07 of 07th Expansion wrote in 2004 how he was influenced by Key 's works during the planning of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni . Ryukishi07 played Key 's games as a reference , among other visual novels , and analyzed them to figure out the reason why they were found to be so popular . He figured that the secret was due to how the stories would start with ordinary , enjoyable days , but then a sudden occurrence would happen leading the player to cry due to the shock value . He used a similar model for the basis of Higurashi but instead of leading the player to cry , Ryukishi07 wanted to scare the player with the addition of horror elements . In this way , Ryukishi07 wished to be in some way associated with Key who he described as a " masterpiece maker " .
Key is one of 17 brands under VisualArt 's with games included in the Lycèe Trading Card Game published by Broccoli . Characters from Key 's first five games through Tomoyo After were included in the first three out of four VisualArt 's card sets , and characters from Little Busters ! through Rewrite were featured in the fifth through seventh VisualArt 's card sets . There are also numerous rare promotional cards with characters from Key titles . Other big @-@ name visual novel companies included in the card game include : AliceSoft , August , Leaf , Navel , and Type @-@ Moon .
= = = Leaf , Key BBS = = =
A bulletin board system ( BBS ) based on the interface of the large Japanese Internet forum 2channel ( 2ch ) was formed on January 26 , 2000 named " Leaf , Key BBS " ( leaf , key掲示板 , leaf , key Keijiban ) , otherwise nicknamed as " Leaf @-@ Key Board " ( 葉鍵板 , Ha @-@ Kagi Ita ) . The board originated from 2ch 's video game discussion board due to a dispute involving the game Kizuato in December 1999 ; Kizuato was an early game of another visual novel producing brand named Leaf . Ultimately , fans of the game moved to 2ch 's adult game board , but there was not much resolution , and at the time Key fans on the board were being shunned for discussions on Kanon and , at the time , Key 's upcoming game Air . This resulted finally with the Leaf and Key fans moving away from 2ch and forming again on the PINKchannel Internet forum . The board serves as a discussion board for anything related to Leaf and Key . This includes the games the companies produce , but also the companies themselves and the staff that make up those companies . The BBS gets approximately 900 posts per day as of March 2010 . Like 2ch , the board has a default anonymous posting setting , and the default name is " Nanashi @-@ san Dayomon " ( 名無しさんだよもん , lit . " Mr. Nameless @-@ dayomon " ) , a reference to the heroine Mizuka Nagamori from One : Kagayaku Kisetsu e who uses the words " dayo " and " mon " frequently .
= Battle of Verrières Ridge =
The Battle of Verrières Ridge was a series of engagements fought as part of the Battle of Normandy , in western France , during the Second World War . The main combatants were two Canadian infantry divisions — with additional support from the Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade — against elements of three German SS Panzer divisions . The battle was part of the British and Canadian attempts to break out of Caen , and took place from 19 – 25 July 1944 , being part of both Operation Atlantic ( 18 – 21 July ) and Operation Spring ( 25 – 27 July ) .
The immediate Allied objective was Verrières Ridge , a belt of high ground which dominates the route from Caen to Falaise . The ridge was invested by battle @-@ hardened German veterans , who had fallen back from Caen and entrenched to form a strong defensive position . Over the course of six days , substantial Canadian and British forces made repeated attempts to capture the ridge . Strict German adherence to defensive doctrine , as well as strong and effective counterattacks by Panzer formations , resulted in heavy Allied casualties for little strategic gain .
From the perspective of the Canadian 1st Army , the battle is remembered for its tactical and strategic miscalculations — the most notable being a highly controversial attack by the Royal Highland Regiment ( Black Watch ) of Canada on 25 July . This attack — the costliest single day for a Canadian battalion since the 1942 Dieppe Raid — has become one of the most contentious and critically analysed events in Canadian military history .
= = Background = =
Verrières Ridge lies 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) south of the city of Caen , overlooking broad plains and dominating the countryside between Caen and Falaise . Although a major D @-@ Day objective for Commonwealth forces , the Allied push inland was halted short of Caen and positional warfare ensued until the first week of July . On 9 July , Operation Charnwood succeeded in taking the northern half of the city , but the I SS Panzer Corps — under the command of SS @-@ Oberstgruppenführer Josef Dietrich — thwarted British ambitions . A week later , Operation Goodwood renewed the British offensive , and Caen finally fell on 19 July , although by this time the city had been largely devastated . The next Anglo @-@ Canadian goal was the town of Falaise , but Verrières Ridge — now strongly defended by the I SS Panzer Corps — stood in their path . Elements of the British 2nd Army secured part of the adjacent Bourguébus Ridge and managed to gain a foothold on Verrières Ridge but were unable to dislodge its German defenders .
= = Forces involved = =
The Canadian II Corps — commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Guy Simonds — initially assigned two infantry divisions and one armoured brigade to the assault on the German positions around Verrières . The Canadian 3rd Infantry Division — having taken heavy casualties during the first six weeks of the Normandy campaign — was given a supporting role . The onus of the task therefore fell on the fresh , though relatively inexperienced , Canadian 2nd Infantry Division , along with the tanks of the Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade . Additional forces were later made available in the shape of three divisions from the British I Corps : the 51st ( Highland ) Division , the Guards Armoured Division , and the British 7th Armoured Division . Despite having significantly more combat experience than their Canadian counterparts , the British units played a minor part in the battle .
While British forces had been battling for Caen , elements of Dietrich ′ s I SS Panzer Corps — part of Generalfeldmarshall Günther von Kluge ′ s Army Group B — had turned Verrières Ridge into their main defensive position along the Anglo @-@ Canadian front . Although not particularly high , the ridge 's topography meant that advancing forces would be exposed to fire from German positions across the River Orne , from the ridge and from the nearby German @-@ held industrial hamlet of St. Martin . Two powerful formations — the 12th SS and 1st SS Panzer Divisions — held the ridge supported by artillery , dug @-@ in Tiger tanks and mortar emplacements . A third — the 9th SS Panzer Division — was held in reserve . Further support was available from the 272nd Grenadier Infantry Division ( a force composed mainly of Russian and Polish combatants that had been raised in 1943 ) , the 116th Panzer Division and a battalion of Tiger tanks .
= = Battle = =
= = = Attack of Calgary Highlanders = = =
In a follow @-@ up to Operation Goodwood on 19 July , the Calgary Highlanders attempted to take the northern spur of Verrières Ridge but German mortar fire limited their progress . Tanks from the Sherbrooke Fusiliers were sent to support the battalion and eliminated several machine @-@ gun positions on either side of Point 67 . The Highlanders eventually managed to dig in , despite accurate return fire . Over the next few hours , they strengthened their position and the 5th and 6th Canadian Infantry Brigades made repeated attempts to exploit the gains . Against a tenacious German defense and minor infantry and tank counterattacks , the Canadians were broadly repulsed with heavy casualties . Simonds rapidly prepared a new offensive for the following day , with the goals of capturing both the eastern side of the Orne river and the main slopes of Verrières Ridge .
= = = Operation Atlantic = = =
The next attack took place on 20 July as part of Operation Atlantic . It was led by the South Saskatchewan Regiment , with supporting units from the Cameron Highlanders . In the early hours of 20 July , the Highlanders secured a position in St André @-@ sur @-@ Orne but were quickly pinned down by German infantry and tanks . At the same time , the South Saskatchewan Regiment moved directly up the slopes of Verrières Ridge , supported by tanks and Hawker Typhoon ground attack aircraft . The Canadian attack faltered in torrential rain , which rendered air support useless and turned the ground into mud . Counterattacks by two Panzer divisions threw the South Saskatchewans back past their support lines and their supporting battalion — the Essex Scottish — came under attack . The Essex Scottish lost over 300 men as it tried to hold back the advance of the 12th SS Panzer Division , while to the east the remainder of I SS Panzer Corps engaged British forces in the Operation Goodwood , the largest armoured battle of the campaign . By the end of the day , the South Saskatchewans had taken 282 casualties and the ridge was still in enemy hands .
Despite these setbacks , Simonds was adamant that Verrières Ridge should be taken and sent in the Black Watch and the Calgary Highlanders to stabilise the precarious Allied position . Minor counterattacks by both battalions on 21 July managed to contain Dietrich 's armoured formations and by the time the operation was called off , Canadian forces held several footholds on the ridge , including a now secure position on Point 67 . Four German divisions still held the ridge . In all , the actions around Verrières Ridge during Operation Atlantic accounted for over 1 @,@ 300 Allied casualties .
= = = Operation Spring = = =
With the capture of Caen on 19 July , an Anglo @-@ Canadian breakout had become strategically feasible . In the American sector , Lieutenant General Omar Bradley — commander of the U.S. 1st Army — had been planning his own breakout ( codenamed Operation Cobra ) and Simonds too began preparing a new offensive , codenamed Operation Spring . Spring was originally conceived by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery as a " holding attack " , designed to tie down German forces while Cobra was under way . On 22 July , however , with Operation Atlantic having failed to achieve its aims , Simonds changed the objective of Operation Spring to a breakout offensive . With Verrières Ridge taken , Simonds could launch armour and artillery attacks from its southern flank to push the Germans further back . This would clear the Caen @-@ Falaise road , and his two British armoured divisions could then advance south to Falaise .
Operation Spring was scheduled in four tightly timed phases . The Calgary Highlanders would attack Bourguébus Ridge and May @-@ sur @-@ Orne to secure the flanks of the main thrust , which was to be a move on Verrières Ridge by the Black Watch , along with armoured support from the British 7th Armoured Division and the 4th Canadian ( Armoured ) Division . The plan called for the offensive to start on 23 July but poor weather led to a postponement for 48 hours . Taking advantage of this respite , the I SS Panzer Corps reinforced the ridge with an additional four battalions , 480 tanks and 500 guns . Allied Intelligence learned of this reinforcement through Ultra signals intercepts and advised Simonds 's headquarters .
On 25 July , two days later than originally planned , Operation Spring was launched . The Black Watch were scheduled to begin their attack at about 05 : 30 from an assembly area at St Martin , 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Caen . The Canadians ran into heavy German resistance on the St Martin road and did not arrive at their assembly area until close to 08 : 00 . By that time , the Black Watch 's two highest @-@ ranking officers had been killed and command fell to Major Phil Griffin . At 08 : 30 , he met with 5th Brigade commander , Brigadier General W. J. Megilland . Despite the non @-@ arrival of most of their promised armoured support , the decision was taken for the attack to proceed .
At 09 : 30 , as the Canadian infantry regiments advanced up the ridge , they were easy targets for the well @-@ entrenched German machine gun nests and mortar pits , supported by tanks , 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns , and Nebelwerfer rocket artillery . To make matters worse , the Black Watch communications were knocked out within minutes of the start of their assault . Very few members of the Black Watch Regiment managed to make it to the crest of the ridge and those who did were subjected to an even heavier bombardment as they ran into the counterattacking forces of the 272nd Infantry Division and the 9th SS Kampfgruppe Sterz . Of the 325 men that left the assembly area , 315 were killed , wounded or captured . The Black Watch lost all its senior commanders , including Major Phil Griffin , with two companies virtually annihilated . This marked the costliest day for a Canadian battalion since the Dieppe Raid of 1942 .
= = Aftermath = =
All of the gains made by the Black Watch and Calgary Highlanders were lost to German counterattacks , which inflicted heavy losses on the Highlanders and the previously unscathed Black Watch support company . The Black Watch had to be reformed after Verrières Ridge , having sustained more casualties than any Canadian infantry battalion since the disastrous raid on Dieppe .
The central area of the ridge near Verrières Village , was eventually taken and held by the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry . The east side was also taken , but subsequently lost , although two British armoured brigades were able to secure significant footholds near the positions of the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry .
The failure to capture the ridge had little effect on the overall Allied position , as the success of Operation Cobra was so overwhelming that the Germans diverted significant resources , including two Panzer divisions , from the ridge in their attempt to keep Bradley 's forces boxed in . With its defences weakened , subsequent Commonwealth attacks on the ridge were successful ; Operation Totalize finally managed to wrest the position from its SS defenders on 8 August .
= = = Casualties = = =
Allied casualty figures for the battle as a whole were not produced but can be inferred by examining the two operations . The accepted toll for Operation Atlantic is 1 @,@ 349 , with about 300 fatalities . Operation Spring 's losses were about 500 killed with a further 1 @,@ 000 captured or wounded . Working from these figures , historians estimate around 800 Canadian dead and 2 @,@ 000 wounded or captured . The Canadian dead are buried in Bretteville @-@ sur @-@ Laize Canadian War Cemetery , between Caen and Falaise .
The Canadian Official Historian Charles Stacey and military historian Michael Reynolds , wrote that German casualty figures for individual operations are difficult to determine ; Stacey attributes this to the gradual degradation of the German logistics chain leaving incomplete records and Reynolds wrote that units sometimes over @-@ reported their losses , in the hope of receiving more reinforcements . German losses for the battle were significantly fewer than those suffered by the Canadians . According to Reynolds , between 16 July and 1 August , the 1st SS Panzer Division lost 1 @,@ 092 men killed , wounded or captured — along with 11 Panzer IV tanks and 10 Sturmgeschütz III self @-@ propelled guns — in fighting across all its fronts including at Verrières . Over a similar period , he estimates the 12th SS Panzer Division — in all sectors — suffered only 134 casualties . Many of the German fallen are buried at La Cambe German war cemetery .
= = Historiography and controversy = =
The Battle of Verrières Ridge — although given no particular prominence in German military history — has earned the distinction of being one of the First Canadian Army 's most scrutinised actions . The matter was first brought to public attention by historian C.P. Stacey , who wrestled with the question of how to present the battle to the public in the Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War and was required to make minor changes to the narrative of the battle by Simonds . At the time Stacey was writing the history , as senior historian of the Historical Section of the Canadian Army , Simonds was the Chief of the General Staff of the Canadian Army , or in essence , his boss . The report on Operation Spring by Simonds was released after the war and blamed its failure on " 11th hour reinforcement " of German lines and " strategically unsound execution on the part of Major Phillip Griffin and the Black Watch " .
The battle was brought to greater public attention in 1992 by a CBC television docu @-@ drama , The Valour and the Horror , which made a number of controversial claims about senior leadership in the Second World War and devoted one of its three episodes to the Black Watch attack on Verrières Ridge . The episode raised a spirited debate among the historical and veterans ' communities and led to calls for apologies from the producers and an official investigation by the CBC Ombudsman into the veracity of the claims and the way in which they were presented .
Recently declassified wartime documents show that Simonds , along with several others in the Allied high command , had likely been notified on July 23 of a massive German buildup on the ridge . Some historians , including David O 'Keefe and David Bercuson , accused Simonds of being careless with the lives of his men . Terry Copp and John A. English , wrote that given the amount of pressure that all Allied commanders were under to break out from Normandy , Simonds probably had little choice in the decision he made .
Operation Spring succeeded in its later @-@ defined objective of a " holding attack " and aided the overwhelming success of Operation Cobra , by tying down powerful German formations that might otherwise have been in the American sector , thus precluding any immediate inquiry into its failure . The German commander of the Normandy Sector — Günther von Kluge — was at the Canadian front on 25 July , instead of the American front where the eventual breakout occurred . The Battle of Verrières Ridge had little overall effect on British attempts to break out of Caen , as significant resources were transferred to the American front in the aftermath of Cobra , to exploit Bradley 's success and the ridge eventually fell to the general Allied advance .
= Chrisye =
Chrismansyah Rahadi ( [ xrisˈmanʃah raˈhadi ] ; 16 September 1949 – 30 March 2007 ) , born Christian Rahadi but better known by his stage name of Chrisye ( [ xəˈriʃə ] ) , was an Indonesian progressive pop singer and songwriter . In his 40 @-@ year career he won many awards and accolades ; in 2011 Rolling Stone Indonesia declared him the third @-@ greatest Indonesian musician of all time .
Born in Jakarta of mixed Chinese @-@ Indonesian descent , Chrisye became interested in music at an early age . At high school he played bass guitar in a band he formed with his brother , Joris . In the late 1960s he joined Sabda Nada ( later Gipsy ) , a band led by his neighbours , the Nasutions . In 1973 , after a short hiatus , he rejoined the band to play in New York for a year . He briefly returned to Indonesia and then went back to New York with another band , the Pro 's . After once again returning to Indonesia , he collaborated with Gipsy and Guruh Sukarnoputra to record the 1976 indie album Guruh Gipsy .
Following the success of Guruh Gipsy , in 1977 Chrisye recorded two of his most critically acclaimed works : " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " by James F. Sundah , which eventually became his signature song , and the soundtrack album Badai Pasti Berlalu . Their success landed him a recording contract with Musica Studios , with whom he released his first solo album , Sabda Alam , in 1978 . Over his almost 25 @-@ year career with Musica he recorded a further eighteen albums , and in 1980 acted in a film , Seindah Rembulan . Chrisye died in his Jakarta home on 30 March 2007 after a long battle with lung cancer .
Known for his stiff stage persona and smooth vocals , Chrisye was critically acclaimed in Indonesia . Five albums to which he contributed were included in Rolling Stone Indonesia 's list of the 150 Best Indonesian Albums of All Time ; another four of his songs ( and a fifth to which he contributed ) were classified as some of the best Indonesian songs of all time in a later issue of the same magazine . Several of his albums received certification of silver or gold . He received two lifetime achievement awards , one in 1993 from the BASF Awards and another posthumously in 2007 from Indonesian television station SCTV .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Chrisye was born Christian Rahardi in Jakarta on 16 September 1949 to Laurens Rahadi , a Chinese @-@ Betawi entrepreneur , and Hanna Rahadi , a Chinese @-@ Sundanese housewife . He was the second of three sons born to the couple ; his brothers were Joris and Vicky . The family lived on Talang Street near Menteng , Central Jakarta , until 1954 , when they moved to Pegangsaan Street ( also in Menteng ) .
While attending GIKI Elementary School , Chrisye befriended the neighbouring Nasution family ; he became especially close to Bamid Gauri , with whom he played badminton and flew kites . He also began listening to his father 's record collection , singing along to songs by Bing Crosby , Frank Sinatra , Nat King Cole , and Dean Martin . After graduating from elementary school , Chrisye attended Christian Middle School III Diponegoro .
Beatlemania reached Indonesia while Chrisye was in Senior High School PSKD Menteng , and increased his interest in music . Responding to Chrisye 's desire to play an instrument , his father bought him a guitar ; Chrisye chose the bass guitar , as he considered it the easiest to master . As they could not read music , Chrisye and Joris learned to play by accompanying their father 's records and songs recorded from the radio . In time they began playing at school events , with vocals by Chrisye . During this period he began smoking in school ; when caught , he was punished by being forced to smoke eight cigarettes at once , in front of the assembled pupils . However , this failed to cure his habit and he eventually became a chain smoker .
= = = Band member and early projects ( 1968 – 1977 ) = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , the Nasution siblings formed a band ; Chrisye and Joris watched them play songs by Uriah Heep and Blood , Sweat & Tears . In 1968 Chrisye registered at the Christian University of Indonesia ( UKI ) to fulfill his father 's wish that he become an engineer . Around 1969 , however , Gauri invited him to join the Nasutions ' band , Sabda Nada , as a replacement for their bassist Eddi Odek who was ill . Pleased with his performance , the Nasutions asked him to stay as a permanent member . The group had a regular gig at Mini Disko on Juanda Street and freelanced at birthday and wedding parties . When Chrisye had a chance to sing while performing covers , he attempted to sound as much like the original artist as he could .
The group was renamed Gipsy in 1969 , which they considered more macho and Western @-@ sounding . The schedule for the band , which had no manager , became increasingly busy , since they had begun giving regular performances at Ismail Marzuki Park . As a result , Chrisye decided to drop out of UKI ; in 1970 he transferred to Trisakti Tourism Academy , where he considered the study schedule to be more flexible .
In 1972 Pontjo Nasution offered Chrisye the opportunity to play in New York . Although ecstatic , Chrisye was afraid of telling his father , who he thought would disapprove of the idea . He eventually fell ill for several months , during which time the rest of the band left for New York . After Chrisye discussed his fears with Joris and his mother , his father agreed that he could drop out of college to join Gipsy . After his health improved , in mid @-@ 1973 , he left with Pontjo to meet Gipsy in New York . That same year he dropped out of Trisakti .
While in New York , Gipsy performed at the Ramayana Restaurant , which was owned by the Indonesian gas company Pertamina . The band , housed in an apartment on Fifth Avenue , performed in New York for almost a year , providing Indonesian @-@ themed music and covering songs by Procol Harum , King Crimson , Emerson , Lake & Palmer , Genesis and Blood , Sweat & Tears . Although Chrisye became upset that he could not fully express himself through covers , he continued to work .
Upon returning to Indonesia at the end of 1973 Gauri and his brother Keenan introduced Chrisye to former president Sukarno 's son , the songwriter Guruh Sukarnoputra . As the Nasutions worked with Guruh to prepare for their next project , Chrisye began to write his own songs ; in doing so he noted that he had difficulty with lyrics that included hard consonants , and worked to avoid them . The following year , he went back to New York with another band , The Pro 's . In mid @-@ 1975 , with several weeks left on his contract , Chrisye 's parents called from Jakarta to tell him that his brother Vicky had died of a stomach infection . Unable to return home immediately , Chrisye became distracted by thoughts of his family and began to find playing difficult . As the band returned to Indonesia , Chrisye " cried for the duration of the flight " and sank into a depression .
Chrisye stopped playing altogether until the Nasutions invited him to rejoin Gipsy for their new project with Guruh , who offered Chrisye several songs in which he would be lead singer , with lyrics written especially for him . Overcoming his depression , he joined the group as they practised at Guruh 's house in Kebayoran Baru , South Jakarta . The band often rehearsed late into the night ; the indie project mixed Western rock and Balinese gamelan and was produced collaboratively . Recording took place in mid @-@ 1975 , with only four songs completed in the first several months . It was released to critical acclaim in 1976 , with a production of 5000 copies . The success of Guruh Gipsy convinced Chrisye that he could sing as a soloist .
In late 1976 Chrisye was approached by songwriter Jockie Soerjoprajogo and Imran Amir , head of Prambors Radio , who asked him to provide the vocals for the Prambors Radio Teenage Songwriting Competition ; Chrisye refused , as he did not want to sing an Indonesian pop song . Several days later Sys NS , an employee of Prambors , approached Chrisye while he was meeting with Guruh and Eros Djarot . Sys emphasised that Prambors needed Chrisye for " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " ( " Little Candles " ) , composed by James F. Sundah . After hearing the lyrics , Chrisye agreed . The song was recorded in Irama Mas Studio in Pluit , North Jakarta , and included on an album with the other contest winners . Originally the ninth track , " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " was placed in the lead position to increase the album 's marketability after the original format sold poorly . The song then took off , receiving much airplay ; the album was the best @-@ selling of the year .
After the success of " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " , in mid @-@ 1977 Pramaqua Records approached Chrisye and offered him a contract for an album , Jurang Pemisah ( Dividing Canyon ) . Working with Jockie , Ian Antono , and Teddy Sujaya , Chrisye recorded seven songs for the album ; Jockie did two more . Although he was pleased with the results and had high hopes for the album , Pramaqua decided it was not commercially viable and refused to promote it until Chrisye 's subsequent album Badai Pasti Berlalu took off . After his unsuccessful attempt to buy up all the stock , the album was released , but because the general public considered it a sequel to Badai Pasti Berlalu , the sales were poor . Although the cassettes reached radio stations throughout the country , Chrisye later described the album as selling " as warmly as chicken shit " .
That same year , Chrisye and several artists including Djarot and Jockie recorded the soundtrack for the film Badai Pasti Berlalu over two months . After the soundtrack won a Citra Award at the 1978 Indonesian Film Festival , Irama Mas studios approached the group to do a soundtrack album for a flat fee . With Chrisye and Berlian Hutauruk on vocals , the soundtrack was rerecorded in album form in Pluit over 21 days . It was released under the same name as the film , with a picture of actress Christine Hakim on the cover . The album included Chrisye 's first songwriting credit , " Merepih Alam " ( " Fragile Nature " ) , but sales were stagnant for the first week until radio stations began to play the singles .
= = = Early solo and film career ( 1978 – 1982 ) = = =
Chrisye 's tenor voice and performance on Badai Pasti Berlalu led Amin Widjaja of Musica Studios to ask him to sign with Musica ; Widjaja had been scouting him since the release of Guruh Gipsy . Chrisye agreed on condition that he be allowed creative freedom , to which Widjaja reluctantly agreed . In May 1978 Chrisye began work on his first album with Musica , Sabda Alam ( Nature 's Order ) , incorporating several songs by other artists and some written by himself , including the title song . He recorded it after locking himself in the studio with the sound engineer and arranger ; despite Amin 's wanting to monitor their progress , Chrisye refused to allow him access . The album , greatly influenced by Badai Pasti Berlalu and drawing on the double tracking technique pioneered by the Beatles ( in which the vocals are recorded twice to achieve fuller sound ) , was released in August that year . Heavily promoted in a campaign during which Chrisye was interviewed on the national television station TVRI and on radio , the album eventually sold 400 @,@ 000 copies .
The following year Chrisye recorded Percik Pesona ( Stain of Enchantment ) with Jockie . Produced after Amin 's death , the album featured songs written by Chrisye 's close friend Junaidi Salat , as well as Jockie and Guruh . The album 's title was chosen by vote ; the titular song was not released as a single . Percik Pesona , released in August 1979 , was a critical and commercial failure . After discussing the issue with other artists , Chrisye blamed the album 's failure on its similarity to Badai Pasti Berlalu . As a result , following a period of contemplation , he began branching out into different genres . That same year he was on the panel of the Prambors Teenage Songwriting Competition , held on 5 May .
After deciding that romantic pop songs influenced by easy listening would suit him best , Chrisye began recording his next album , Puspa Indah ( Beautiful Flower ) . All but one of the songs were composed by Guruh Sukarnoputra ; the album also featured the English @-@ language " To My Friends on Legian Beach " . Two of the songs , " Galih dan Ratna " ( " Galih and Ratna " ) and " Gita Cinta " ( " Love Song " ) , were used in the 1979 film Gita Cinta dari SMA ( Love Song from High School ) ; Chrisye played a minor part in the film 's sequel , Puspa Indah Taman Hati ( Beautiful Flower in the Heart 's Garden ) , as a singer . Due in part to the popularity of the film , Puspa Indah was well received and sold well ; " Galih dan Ratna " and " Gita Cinta " , released as singles , were also commercially successful .
In 1980 Chrisye appeared in the Indonesian film Seindah Rembulan ( As Beautiful as the Moon ) ; at first reluctant to accept the role , he was convinced by Sys NS that it would be fun . He later regretted the decision , considering the film crew unprofessional and often fighting with director Syamsul Fuad . The following year , he released Pantulan Cita ( Reflection of Dreams ) , a collaboration with Jockie . After the album flopped , Chrisye took a long sabbatical .
= = = Marriage and changing styles ( 1982 – 1993 ) = = =
Although popular with groupies , Chrisye had rarely dated . But in early 1981 he began courting Guruh Sukarnoputra 's secretary , Gusti Firoza Damayanti Noor ( Yanti ) . Yanti , of mixed Dayak and Minang ancestry , was a former singer and came from a musically inclined family ; she would often discuss music with Chrisye while he waited for Guruh , and he would also see her when visiting her brother Raidy , one of his friends . When she moved to Bali to work at a five @-@ star hotel there for several weeks , Chrisye followed her and told her that he would marry her when she returned to Jakarta ; although this was not a formal proposal , Yanti accepted . In 1982 Chrisye converted to Islam , as Islam does not permit interfaith marriages between Muslim women and non @-@ Muslim men , and changed his name to Chrismansyah Rahadi ; Chrisye at the time had been growing increasingly discontent and disillusioned with Christianity . On 12 December 1982 he married Yanti in a Padang @-@ style wedding .
Driven by his poor financial position and invigorated by Djarot 's return from Germany , Chrisye began work on his next album with Djarot and Jockie in early 1983 . Aciu Widjaja , the new manager of Musica , speculated that they required a new sound ; as such , Chrisye , Djarot , and Jockie mixed art rock with Chrisye 's standard romantic pop and drew influences from The Police . The resulting album , Resesi ( Recession ) , was released in 1983 . The album was well received , selling 350 @,@ 000 copies and being certified silver ; the singles " Lenny " , " Hening " ( " Silent " ) , and " Malam Pertama " ( " Wedding Night " ) received much airplay .
After Resesi , Chrisye collaborated with Djarot and Jockie on the 1983 album Metropolitan . The album , drawing on new wave influences and dealing mainly with issues facing youth , was well received , later going silver ; the single " Selamat Jalan Kekasih " ( " Goodbye Dear " ) also became a hit . That year , Chrisye and Yanti had their first daughter , Rizkia Nurannisa . The following year , Chrisye , Djarot , and Jockie collaborated again on Nona ( Miss ) , which featured social criticism ; the album spawned four singles and went on to be certified platinum . Despite Nona 's warm sales , after some influence from Aciu , Chrisye decided to look for a new sound and broke off his partnership with Djarot and Jockie in mid @-@ 1984 .
Chrisye approached Addie MS , a young composer , and asked him to help with the next album . Addie , despite feeling that he was not in the same class as Djarot and Jockie , accepted , and suggested using similar melodies as in " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " and Badai Pasti Berlalu . The resulting album , Sendiri ( Alone ) , with songs by Guruh and Junaidi Salat , included harps , oboes , cor anglais , and a string section . Spawning three singles , the album sold well and earned Chrisye his first BASF Award .
In late 1984 Chrisye approached another young composer , Adjie Soetama , to help him prepare his next album . Light beats and cheerful melodies were in vogue at the time ; therefore the two used a lighter style . Recording for the new album , titled Aku Cinta Dia ( I Love Her ) , began in 1985 , with additional songs from Guruh and Dadang S. Manaf . The titular song was chosen after Aciu heard a jam session led by Adjie and immediately decided that it would be the lead single . The album called for more emoting , which Chrisye – known as having a stiff stage persona – struggled to deliver , though Yanti prepared colourful costumes and Alex Hasyim trained him in choreography . Upon its release , Aku Cinta Dia sold hundreds of thousands of copies in the first week and was eventually certified gold . That same year , Chrisye and Adji Soetama released Hip Hip Hura ( Hip Hip Hurray ! ) , and another collaboration , Nona Lisa ( Miss Lisa ) , was released in 1986 ; the later two albums had similar beats and rhythms and sold well , although not as well as Aku Cinta Dia . On 2 March 1986 Chrisye and Yanti had their second daughter , Risty Nurraisa .
Despite the success of the trilogy , Chrisye and his family continued to struggle financially ; twice they had to sell their family car to raise cash . This led Chrisye to briefly consider quitting the music industry . In 1988 Chrisye recorded Jumpa Pertama ( First Meeting ) , and the following year he released Pergilah Kasih ( Go Away Dear ) . He later recalled that the album , with an arrangement by Younky Suwarno , had a " beautiful touch " . The title song , " Pergilah Kasih " , was written by Tito Sumarsono and used to make Chrisye 's first music video ; the video , directed by Jay Subyakto , was the first Indonesian song to be shown on MTV Southeast Asia .
On 27 February of the following year , Chrisye and Yanti had twin sons , Randa Pramasha and Rayinda Prashatya . In 1992 Chrisye recorded a cover single of Koes Plus ' song " Cintamu T 'lah Berlalu " ( " Your Love has Passed " ) with arrangement by Younky ; the music video was again broadcast on MTV Southeast Asia and became the first Indonesian music video to be broadcast on the American version of MTV . The following year , Chrisye paired up with Younky again to record Sendiri Lagi ( Alone Again ) , a project which required four months of planning and another four months of recording ; the music video for the title song was also circulated on MTV South @-@ East Asia .
= = = Concerts and collaborations with Erwin Gutawa ( 1994 – 2004 ) = = =
Although Sendiri Lagi did fairly well , in the beginning of the 1990s Chrisye began to feel pressure from the increasingly visual @-@ oriented music industry and growing amount of young talent . He again began considering leaving the music industry , feeling as if he had already " reached the finish line " . Despite reassurances from Yanti that many singers continue to perform into their sixties , Chrisye observed that increasing numbers of established acts were being pushed aside by newcomers . While in this state of despair , Chrisye was approached by Jay Subyakto and Gauri Nasution , who offered him a solo concert at the Plenary Hall of the Jakarta Convention Centre , which had never before hosted a solo concert by an Indonesian artist . Unconvinced he had sufficient fans to fill the hall , Chrisye initially refused .
Gauri tried for several weeks to persuade Chrisye to commit to the concert , and following Chrisye 's introduction to Erwin Gutawa , who was scheduled to handle the arrangements , Jay Subyakto succeeded in convincing him that it might be the last chance to revive his career . Lacking the necessary funding , they approached RCTI in search of sponsorship but were refused , and laughingly told that they should try holding a concert at the National Monument . Undeterred , Chrisye , Subaktyo , and Gutawa put together a group of artists and began rehearsals . Around the time of RCTI 's fourth anniversary , the television station relented and agreed to fund the concert as part of their celebrations ; the thousands of tickets available sold out within a week .
The concert , entitled Sendiri to demonstrate that " 100 % Indonesian " concerts could be successful , was held on 19 August 1994 . Chrisye performed a set that included his greatest hits and several duets , among them " Malam Pertama " with Ruth Sahanaya , in front of a full orchestra conducted by Gutawa . Chrisye recalled later that the audience – children and adults – had memorised the lyrics to his songs , classics and recent releases ; he said that this gesture made him feel incredibly small . Invigorated by the concert 's success , Chrisye went on tour to Surabaya , Surakarta , and Bandung , using a convoy of 24 trucks and buses to transport the necessary equipment ; those concerts also sold out .
Following the success of his Sendiri tour , Chrisye began to explore the possibility of producing an album of his early hits , remastered by Gutawa . On the condition that they use an Australian orchestra to provide backing music , Gutawa agreed to an acoustic @-@ flavoured album . Aciu also agreed , despite the expected cost of Rp 600 million ( US $ 70 @,@ 000 ) . After basic recording in Jakarta , Chrisye , Gutawa , and sound engineer Dany Lisapali spent two weeks in Studio 301 in Sydney finishing off the album . The Philip Hartl Chamber Orchestra provided the music ; the mixing and mastering was also completed in Sydney . AkustiChrisye was released in 1996 and sold well .
After AkustiChrisye , Gutawa suggested that Chrisye try a new style , with more serious songs . The two soon began collaborating on Kala Cinta Menggoda , again using an Australian orchestra . Chrisye , however , found himself unable to record one of the songs , " Ketika Tangan dan Kaki Berkata " ( " When Hands and Feet Speak " ) , written by poet Taufiq Ismail and based on verse 65 of the Qu 'ranic sura Ya Sin ; he would break into tears after singing only a couple of verses . Eventually , the day before he was to leave for Australia , he completed the song with Yanti 's support . On 11 October Chrisye performed " Indonesia Perkasa " ( " Powerful Indonesia " ) at the opening ceremony of the 1997 Southeast Asian Games ; the song was written for the event . The following month he released Kala Cinta Menggoda . The music video for the titular song , directed by Dimas Djayadiningrat , won the MTV Video Music Award for South @-@ East Asia on 10 September 1998 ; Chrisye went to Los Angeles to accept the award at the Universal Amphitheatre .
Chrisye began work on a rearrangement of Badai Pasti Berlalu in 1999 at the request of Musica Studios – although he felt that the original album was fine – and once again teamed up with Gutawa . The new album , which retained the title Badai Pasti Berlalu , cost Rp.800 million ( US $ 95 @,@ 000 ) to produce and promote , in part owing to the cost of employing an Australian orchestra , the Victorian Philharmonic Orchestra . After its release , the album sold well , breaking even within three months and selling 350 @,@ 000 copies . The album led to Chrisye 's second sold @-@ out solo concert at the Plenary Hall of Jakarta Convention Centre , known as the Badai concert , and he received numerous offers to perform at venues throughout the country . He later told Kompas that he felt as if he had reached a dead end , having tried all genres available . He continued performing , singing " Indonesia Perkasa " at the opening ceremony of the 15th National Games on 19 June 2000 in Sidoarjo , East Java .
In 2001 Chrisye released the studio album Konser Tur 2001 ( Concert Tour 2001 ) , which included two new songs and several old ones . The music video for one of the new songs , " Setia " ( " Loyal " ) , was controversial owing to its portrayal of a woman in tight clothing . Soon afterwards , Chrisye decided to cover some of what he considered the most important Indonesian songs since the country 's independence in 1945 , ranging from songs from the 1940s like Ismail Marzuki 's " Kr . Pasar Gambir & Stambul Anak Jampang " ( " Kroncong of Gambir Market and Stambul of the Cowlicked Child " ) , to the late 1990s such as Ahmad Dhani 's " Kangen " ( " Longing " ) . It also featured a song written exclusively for the album by Pongky of Jikustik and two duets with Sophia Latjuba . The album , Dekade ( Decade ) , was released in 2002 ; by October 2003 it had sold 350 @,@ 000 copies . On 15 December 2002 Chrisye participated in the Bali for the World – Voices of Stars concert at Kartika Beach Plaza to raise funds for the victims of the bombings on 12 October ; other acts involved included Melly Goeslaw , Gigi , Slank , and Superman is Dead . On 12 July 2004 Chrisye held a third concert , Dekade , at Plenary Hall . The concert , with a set that contained numerous classics included in Dekade , featured duets with Sophia Latjuba and several of the original performers , such as Fariz RM with " Sakura " and A. Rafiq with " Pengalaman Pertama " ( " First Experience " ) ; Gutawa 's orchestra again provided the music .
Chrisye then began work on his last studio album , Senyawa ( One Soul ) . In collaboration with other Indonesian artists including Project Pop , Ungu , and Peterpan , he also produced the album , replacing Gutawa . The song " Bur @-@ Kat " ( " Say It Quickly " ) , with Project Pop , marked his first attempt at rap . Released in November 2004 , the album was well received by the market , but Sony Music Entertainment Indonesia complained that the names of their artists were featured on the cover . As a result , the album was withdrawn , and re @-@ released without the offending names .
= = = Illness and death ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
In July 2005 Chrisye was admitted to Pondok Indah Hospital , complaining of breathing difficulties . After 13 days of treatment he was moved to the Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore , where he was diagnosed with lung cancer . Although concerned about losing his hair , which he considered part of his image , he underwent the first of six rounds of chemotherapy on 2 August 2005 .
Chrisye 's health improved in 2006 and in May and November he undertook long interview sessions with his biographer Alberthiene Endah . He also released two compilation albums , Chrisye by Request and Chrisye Duets ; however , he reportedly did not feel well enough to release new songs . By February 2007 his health was again in decline .
Chrisye died on 30 March 2007 at his home in Cipete , South Jakarta . He was buried in Jeruk Purut Public Cemetery , South Jakarta . His funeral was attended by hundreds , including Indonesian celebrities such as his collaborator Erwin Gutawa and singers Titiek Puspa , Ahmad Albar , Sophia Latjuba , and Ikang Fawzi .
One hundred days after Chrisye 's death Musica released two compilation albums . Entitled Chrisye in Memoriam – Greatest Hits and Chrisye in Memoriam – Everlasting Hits , they contained fourteen hits from albums ranging from Sabda Alam to Senyawa . On 1 August 2008 Chrisye 's last single " Lirih " ( " Gentle Voice " ) , written by Aryono Huboyo Djati , was released . The song 's existence had been kept secret , and the recording date is unknown ; Djati has said that it was recorded " for fun " . A music video directed by Vicky Sianipar and featuring Ariel Peterpan , Giring from Nidji , and Chrisye 's widow was released later .
= = Style = =
According to Jockie , one of the main reasons that Chrisye was chosen
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to record " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " was that he had a unique voice with a soft timbre , which went well with the keyboards used ; Jockie , however , felt that Chrisye 's voice lost its dynamics when mixed with mellow music , which led him to give their collaboration Jurang Pemisah more of a rock feel . Gutawa compared Chrisye 's voice to a blank sheet of paper , able to be applied to anything . Sys NS wrote in 2007 that he had been looking for " someone with the voice of an angel " to sing " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " , and in his opinion Chrisye fitted the role perfectly .
A writer for the Indonesian magazine Gatra described Chrisye 's on @-@ stage persona as " stiff " , with very little movement . Alex Hasyim , who did the choreography for Aku Cinta Dia and Hip Hip Hura , recalled that Chrisye was in a cold sweat on their first day of practise and eventually created his own dancing style as he could not follow Hasyim 's instructions .
Chrisye chose his own costumes and at times experimented with different colours and designs . In all his music videos he preferred to wear the same style of shirt , quipping in an interview with Kompas that he would only wear a different one if he had fallen into a ditch .
= = Legacy = =
Chrisye has been described as " legendary " by several journalists . In their 2007 list of the 150 Best Indonesian Albums of All Time , Rolling Stone Indonesia ranked Badai Pasti Berlalu first . Three of Chrisye 's solo albums were also on the list : Sabda Alam at 51 , Puspa Indah at 57 , and Resesi at 82 . Guruh Gipsy was selected as the second @-@ best album of all time . This was followed by the selection of four of his songs ( " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " at number 13 , " Merpati Putih " at number 43 , " Anak Jalanan " at number 72 , and " Merepih Alam " at number 90 ) as some of the best Indonesian songs of all time ; Guruh Gipsy 's song " Indonesia Maharddhika " placed at number 59 . In 2011 they listed Chrisye as the third @-@ greatest Indonesian musician of all time . Eros Djarot described him as having a great voice , but somewhat shy and generally unwilling to discuss social issues .
According to data from the Indonesian Recording Industry Association , the original Badai Pasti Berlalu is the second @-@ best @-@ selling Indonesian album of all time , with nine million copies sold between 1977 and 1993 . In 1990 the music video for " Pergilah Kasih " was the first Indonesian music video to be shown on MTV Hong Kong ; the video clip for " Sendiri Lagi " was voted the best Indonesian music video of all time in the fifth episode of Video Musik Indonesia .
In 2009 many Indonesian artists , including Vina Panduwinata , Ahmad Albar , D 'Cinnamons , and Sherina Munaf , performed 20 of Chrisye 's songs as a tribute in the " Chrisye : A Night to Remember " concert at the Ritz Carlton , Jakarta . The sold @-@ out concert also featured testimonials by his wife and children . Another concert , described as Chrisye 's fourth , rather than as a tribute concert , was held on 5 April 2012 . Entitled Kidung Abadi Chrisye ( Chrisye 's Eternal Ballad ) and held at Plenary Hall in the Jakarta Convention Centre , it featured a holographic representation of the singer performing with Sophia Latjuba , Once Mekel , Vina Panduwinata , and Gutawa 's daughter Gita . The concert included a new song , " Kidung Abadi " ( " Eternal Ballad " ) , written by Erwin and Gita Gutawa and made using 246 previously recorded syllables .
Alberthiene Endah has written two biographies of Chrisye . The first , Chrisye : Sebuah Memoar Musikal ( Chrisye : a Musical Memoir ) , was published in 2007 and details his childhood , career , and struggle with cancer . The second , The Last Words of Chrisye , was released in 2010 and covers the final years of his life . Another book , Chrisye , di Mata Media , Sahabat & Fans ( Chrisye , in the Eyes of the Media , Friends , & Fans ) was released in March 2012 .
= = Honours and awards = =
Chrisye received numerous awards during his career . In 1979 he was selected as the Favourite Singer of the Indonesian Armed Forces . His albums Sabda Alam and Aku Cinta Dia were certified gold , and the albums Hip Hip Hura , Resesi , Metropolitan , and Sendiri were certified silver .
Chrisye received three BASF Awards , sponsored by the BASF cassette production company , for best @-@ selling albums ; his first was in 1984 for Sendiri , followed by one in 1988 for Jumpa Pertama and one in 1989 for Pergilah Kasih . He received the BASF Lifetime Achievement Award in 1994 for his contributions to Indonesian music ; the same year he received the BASF Award for Best Recording Artist . In 1997 he received an Anugerah Musik Indonesia for Best Male Pop Singer . The following year Kala Cinta Menggoda won nine AMIs , including Best Album ; Chrisye himself received awards for Best Male Pop Singer , Best Recording Singer , and Best Graphic Designer ( shared with Gauri ) . In 2007 he posthumously received the first SCTV Lifetime Achievement Award , which was accepted by his daughter Risty .
= = Personal life = =
Aciu Widjaja , now President @-@ Director of Air Asia , described Chrisye as a simple man and said that one time , when he , Chrisye , and several others had gone overseas Chrisye was the only one who did not look for brand @-@ name clothing or world @-@ class restaurants ; instead he ate at a food court and bought what he felt was comfortable . In his biography , Chrisye noted that he enjoyed eating at roadside foodstalls well after his marriage and would be perplexed when people stared at him . Guruh recalled that Chrisye would sleep anywhere during extended planning sessions , including under the piano .
After his marriage to Yanti , she ended her singing career to become a housewife . When the couple had children , Chrisye often had little time to spend with them as he was busy performing or recording ; however , he attempted to spend as much time with them as possible . In a 1992 interview , he said that his children did not want to follow in their parents ' footsteps and become singers because they had seen the stresses it put on the family .
= = Partial discography = =
Chrisye released 31 albums during his lifetime , 1 with Guruh Gipsy , 21 studio albums , and 9 compilation albums . His solo albums after Sabda Alam all sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies . In a 1992 interview with Kompas , Chrisye said that he fell ill after recording each of his albums , blaming the pressure to promote them .
Chrisye also released many singles , several of which were used as theme songs for Indonesian soap operas : " Pengalaman Pertama " was used for the serial Ganteng @-@ Ganteng Kok Monyet ( Very Handsome , But Like a Monkey ! ) , " Cintaku " ( " My Love " ) from the remastered Badai Pasti Berlalu was used for Gadis Penakluk ( The Maiden Conqueror ) , and " Seperti Yang Kau Minta " was used for Disaksikan Bulan ( Witnessed by the Moon ) .
= = = With Guruh Gipsy = = =
1976 – Guruh Gipsy
= = = Studio albums = = =
1977 – Jurang Pemisah ( Dividing Canyon )
1978 – Sabda Alam ( Nature 's Order )
1979 – Percik Pesona ( Stain of Enchantment )
1980 – Puspa Indah ( Beautiful Flower )
1981 – Pantulan Cita ( Reflection of Dreams )
1983 – Resesi ( Recession )
1984 – Metropolitan
1984 – Nona ( Miss )
1984 – Sendiri ( Alone )
1985 – Aku Cinta Dia ( I Love Her )
1985 – Hip Hip Hura ( Hip Hip Hurray )
1986 – Nona Lisa ( Miss Lisa )
1988 – Jumpa Pertama ( First Meeting )
1989 – Pergilah Kasih ( Go Away Dear )
1993 – Sendiri Lagi ( Alone Again )
1996 – AkustiChrisye
1997 – Kala Cinta Menggoda ( When Love Tempts ' )
1999 – Badai Pasti Berlalu ( The Storm Will Surely Pass ; re @-@ recorded in collaboration with Erwin Gutawa )
2002 – Dekade ( Decade )
2004 – Senyawa ( One Soul )
= = = Soundtrack albums = = =
1977 – Badai Pasti Berlalu ( The Storm Will Surely Pass )
1980 – Seindah Rembulan ( As Beautiful as the Moon )
= = = Singles = = =
This section lists only singles that were not part of a studio album .
1977 – " Lilin @-@ Lilin Kecil " ( " Small Candles " )
1995 – " Asalkan Pilih Jalan Damai " ( " As Long as You Take the Peaceful Path " ; with Krisdayanti and Harvey Malaiholo )
2008 – " Lirih " ( " Softly " )
= Moon =
The Moon is Earth 's only permanent natural satellite . It is one of the largest natural satellites in the Solar System , and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits ( its primary ) . It is the second @-@ densest satellite among those whose densities are known ( after Jupiter 's satellite Io ) .
The Moon is thought to have formed approximately 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago , not long after Earth . There are several hypotheses for its origin ; the most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars @-@ sized body called Theia .
The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth , always showing the same face , with its near side marked by dark volcanic maria that fill the spaces between the bright ancient crustal highlands and the prominent impact craters . It is the second @-@ brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earth 's sky after the Sun , as measured by illuminance on Earth 's surface . Its surface is actually dark ( although it can appear a very bright white ) with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt . Its prominence in the sky and its regular cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language , calendars , art , and mythology .
The Moon 's gravitational influence produces the ocean tides , body tides , and the slight lengthening of the day . The Moon 's current orbital distance is about thirty times the diameter of Earth , with its apparent size in the sky almost the same as that of the Sun , resulting in the Moon covering the Sun nearly precisely in total solar eclipse . This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future . The Moon 's linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3 @.@ 82 ± 0 @.@ 07 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 504 ± 0 @.@ 028 in ) per year , but this rate is not constant .
The Soviet Union 's Luna programme was the first to reach the Moon with unmanned spacecraft in 1959 ; the United States ' NASA Apollo program achieved the only manned missions to date , beginning with the first manned lunar orbiting mission by Apollo 8 in 1968 , and six manned lunar landings between 1969 and 1972 , with the first being Apollo 11 . These missions returned over 380 kg ( 840 lb ) of lunar rocks , which have been used to develop a geological understanding of the Moon 's origin , the formation of its internal structure , and its subsequent history . After the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 , the Moon has been visited only by unmanned spacecraft .
= = Name and etymology = =
The usual English proper name for Earth 's natural satellite is " the Moon " . The noun moon is derived from moone ( around 1380 ) , which developed from mone ( 1135 ) , which is derived from Old English mōna ( dating from before 725 ) , which ultimately stems from Proto @-@ Germanic * mǣnōn , like all Germanic language cognates . Occasionally , the name " Luna " is used , in poetry for a personified Moon , or in science fiction to distinguish it from other moons .
The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar , derived from the Latin Luna . A less common adjective is selenic , derived from the Ancient Greek Selene ( Σελήνη ) , from which is derived the prefix " seleno- " ( as in selenography ) . Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia . The names Luna , Cynthia , and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune , pericynthion , and selenocentric . The name Diana is connected to dies meaning ' day ' .
= = Formation = =
Several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moon 's formation 4 @.@ 527 ± 0 @.@ 010 billion years ago , some 30 – 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System . Recent research presented by Rick Carlson indicates a slightly lower age of between 4 @.@ 40 and 4 @.@ 45 billion years . These mechanisms included the fission of the Moon from Earth 's crust through centrifugal force ( which would require too great an initial spin of Earth ) , the gravitational capture of a pre @-@ formed Moon ( which would require an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon ) , and the co @-@ formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk ( which does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon ) . These hypotheses also cannot account for the high angular momentum of the Earth – Moon system .
The prevailing hypothesis today is that the Earth – Moon system formed as a result of a giant impact , where a Mars @-@ sized body ( named Theia ) collided with the newly formed proto @-@ Earth , blasting material into orbit around it that accreted to form the Moon .
This hypothesis perhaps best explains the evidence , although not perfectly . Eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins , Bill Hartmann , Roger Phillips , and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists : " You have eighteen months . Go back to your Apollo data , go back to your computer , do whatever you have to , but make up your mind . Don 't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moon 's birth . " At the 1984 conference at Kona , Hawaii , the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular .
Before the conference , there were partisans of the three " traditional " theories , plus a few people who were starting to take the giant impact seriously , and there was a huge apathetic middle who didn ’ t think the debate would ever be resolved . Afterward there were essentially only two groups : the giant impact camp and the agnostics .
Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System . Computer simulations modelling a giant impact are consistent with measurements of the angular momentum of the Earth – Moon system and the small size of the lunar core . These simulations also show that most of the Moon came from the impactor , not from the proto @-@ Earth . However , more @-@ recent tests suggest more of the Moon coalesced from Earth and not the impactor . Meteorites show that other inner Solar System bodies such as Mars and Vesta have very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions to Earth , whereas Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions . Post @-@ impact mixing of the vaporized material between the forming Earth and Moon could have equalized their isotopic compositions , although this is debated .
The large amount of energy released in the giant impact event and the subsequent re @-@ accretion of material in Earth orbit would have melted the outer shell of Earth , forming a magma ocean . The newly formed Moon would also have had its own lunar magma ocean ; estimates for its depth range from about 500 km ( 300 miles ) to the entire radius of the Moon ( 1 @,@ 737 km ( 1 @,@ 079 miles ) ) .
Despite its accuracy in explaining many lines of evidence , there are still some difficulties that are not fully explained by the giant impact hypothesis , most of them involving the Moon 's composition .
In 2001 , a team at the Carnegie Institute of Washington reported the most precise measurement of the isotopic signatures of lunar rocks . To their surprise , the team found that the rocks from the Apollo program carried an isotopic signature that was identical with rocks from Earth , and were different from almost all other bodies in the Solar System . Because most of the material that went into orbit to form the Moon was thought to come from Theia , this observation was unexpected . In 2007 , researchers from the California Institute of Technology announced that there was less than a 1 % chance that Theia and Earth had identical isotopic signatures . Published in 2012 , an analysis of titanium isotopes in Apollo lunar samples showed that the Moon has the same composition as Earth , which conflicts with what is expected if the Moon formed far from Earth 's orbit or from Theia . Variations on the giant impact hypothesis may explain this data .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Internal structure = = =
The Moon is a differentiated body : it has a geochemically distinct crust , mantle , and core . The Moon has a solid iron @-@ rich inner core with a radius of 240 km ( 150 mi ) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) . Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 km ( 310 mi ) . This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon 's formation 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago . Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine , clinopyroxene , and orthopyroxene ; after about three @-@ quarters of the magma ocean had crystallised , lower @-@ density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust on top . The final liquids to crystallise would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle , with a high abundance of incompatible and heat @-@ producing elements . Consistent with this , geochemical mapping from orbit shows the crust is mostly anorthosite , and moon rock samples of the flood lavas erupted on the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition , which is more iron rich than that of Earth . Geophysical techniques suggest that the crust is on average circa 50 km ( 31 mi ) thick .
The Moon is the second densest satellite in the Solar System after Io . However , the inner core of the Moon is small , with a radius of about 350 km ( 220 mi ) or less , around 20 % of the radius of the Moon . Its composition is not well constrained , but it is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel ; analyses of the Moon 's time @-@ variable rotation indicate that it is at least partly molten .
= = = Surface geology = = =
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis . The most visible topographic feature is the giant far @-@ side South Pole – Aitken basin , some 2 @,@ 240 km ( 1 @,@ 390 mi ) in diameter , the largest crater on the Moon and the second @-@ largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System . At 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) deep , its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon . The highest elevations on the surface of the Moon are located directly to the northeast , and it has been suggested that this area might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole – Aitken basin . Other large impact basins , such as Imbrium , Serenitatis , Crisium , Smythii , and Orientale , also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims . The lunar far side is on average about 1 @.@ 9 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) higher than the near side .
= = = = Volcanic features = = = =
The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains that can clearly be seen with the naked eye are called maria ( Latin for " seas " ; singular mare ) , because they were believed by ancient astronomers to be filled with water . They are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava . Although similar to terrestrial basalts , lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water . The majority of these lavas erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins . Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria .
Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon , covering 31 % of the surface on the near side , compared with a few scattered patches on the far side covering only 2 % . This is thought to be due to a concentration of heat @-@ producing elements under the crust on the near side , seen on geochemical maps obtained by Lunar Prospector 's gamma @-@ ray spectrometer , which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up , partially melt , rise to the surface and erupt . Most of the Moon 's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago , although some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4 @.@ 2 billion years . Until recently , the youngest eruptions , dated by crater counting , appeared to have been only 1 @.@ 2 billion years ago . In 2006 , a study of Ina , a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis , found jagged , relatively dust @-@ free features that , due to the lack of erosion by infalling debris , appeared to be only 2 million years old . Moonquakes and releases of gas also indicate some continued lunar activity . In 2014 NASA announced " widespread evidence of young lunar volcanism " at 70 irregular mare patches identified by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , some less than 50 million years old . This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed , at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer due to the greater concentration of radioactive elements . Just prior to this , evidence has been presented for 2 – 10 million years younger basaltic volcanism inside Lowell crater , Orientale basin , located in the transition zone between the near and far sides of the Moon . An initially hotter mantle and / or local enrichment of heat @-@ producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities also on the far side in the Orientale basin .
The lighter @-@ coloured regions of the Moon are called terrae , or more commonly highlands , because they are higher than most maria . They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4 @.@ 4 billion years ago , and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean . In contrast to Earth , no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events .
The concentration of maria on the Near Side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side , which may have formed in a slow @-@ velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after their formation .
= = = = Impact craters = = = =
The other major geologic process that has affected the Moon 's surface is impact cratering , with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface . There are estimated to be roughly 300 @,@ 000 craters wider than 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) on the Moon 's near side alone . Some of these are named for scholars , scientists , artists and explorers . The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events , including Nectaris , Imbrium , and Orientale , structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material , typically hundreds to thousands of kilometres in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon . The lack of an atmosphere , weather and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well @-@ preserved . Although only a few multi @-@ ring basins have been definitively dated , they are useful for assigning relative ages . Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate , counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface . The radiometric ages of impact @-@ melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 1 billion years old : this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment of impacts .
Blanketed on top of the Moon 's crust is a highly comminuted ( broken into ever smaller particles ) and impact gardened surface layer called regolith , formed by impact processes . The finer regolith , the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass , has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder . The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces : it varies in thickness from 10 – 20 km ( 6 @.@ 2 – 12 @.@ 4 mi ) in the highlands and 3 – 5 km ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 1 mi ) in the maria . Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith , a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometres thick .
= = = = Lunar swirls = = = =
Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon ’ s surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e. having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls .
= = = = Presence of water = = = =
Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface . When exposed to solar radiation , water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space . However , since the 1960s , scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen @-@ rich lunar rocks , and hydrogen from solar wind , leaving traces of water which could possibly survive in cold , permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon . Computer simulations suggest that up to 14 @,@ 000 km2 ( 5 @,@ 400 sq mi ) of the surface may be in permanent shadow . The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost @-@ effective plan ; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive .
In years since , signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface . In 1994 , the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft , indicated the existence of small , frozen pockets of water close to the surface . However , later radar observations by Arecibo , suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters . In 1998 , the neutron spectrometer located on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft , indicated that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions . In 2008 , an analysis of volcanic lava beads , brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15 , showed small amounts of water to exist in the interior of the beads .
The 2008 Chandrayaan @-@ 1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice , using the on @-@ board Moon Mineralogy Mapper . The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl , in reflected sunlight , providing evidence of large quantities of water ice , on the lunar surface . The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1 @,@ 000 ppm . In 2009 , LCROSS sent a 2 @,@ 300 kg ( 5 @,@ 100 lb ) impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater , and detected at least 100 kg ( 220 lb ) of water in a plume of ejected material . Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg ( 342 ± 26 lb ) .
In May 2011 , Erik Hauri et al. reported 615 – 1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 , the famous high @-@ titanium " orange glass soil " of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 . The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3 @.@ 7 billion years ago . This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth 's upper mantle . Although of considerable selenological interest , Hauri 's announcement affords little comfort to would @-@ be lunar colonists — the sample originated many kilometers below the surface , and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art ion microprobe instrument .
= = = Gravitational field = = =
The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft . The main lunar gravity features are mascons , large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins , partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill these basins . These anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon . There are some puzzles : lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature , and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
The Moon has an external magnetic field of about 1 – 100 nanoteslas , less than one @-@ hundredth that of Earth . It does not currently have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization , probably acquired early in lunar history when a dynamo was still operating . Alternatively , some of the remnant magnetization may be from transient magnetic fields generated during large impact events , through the expansion of an impact @-@ generated plasma cloud in the presence of an ambient magnetic field — this is supported by the apparent location of the largest crustal magnetizations near the antipodes of the giant impact basins .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum , with a total mass of less than 10 metric tons ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) . The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10 − 15 atm ( 0 @.@ 3 nPa ) ; it varies with the lunar day . Its sources include outgassing and sputtering , the release of atoms from the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions . Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium , produced by sputtering , which are also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io ; helium @-@ 4 and neon from the solar wind ; and argon @-@ 40 , radon @-@ 222 , and polonium @-@ 210 , outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle . The absence of such neutral species ( atoms or molecules ) as oxygen , nitrogen , carbon , hydrogen and magnesium , which are present in the regolith , is not understood . Water vapour has been detected by Chandrayaan @-@ 1 and found to vary with latitude , with a maximum at ~ 60 – 70 degrees ; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith . These gases can either return into the regolith due to the Moon 's gravity or be lost to space , either through solar radiation pressure or , if they are ionized , by being swept away by the solar wind 's magnetic field .
= = = = Dust = = = =
A permanent asymmetric moon dust cloud exists around the Moon , created by small particles from comets . Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon 's surface each 24 hours . The particles strike the Moon 's surface ejecting moon dust above the Moon . The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes , taking 5 minutes to rise , and 5 minutes to fall . On average , 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon , rising to 100 kilometers above the surface . The dust measurements were made by LADEE 's Lunar Dust EXperiment ( LDEX ) , between 20 and 100 kilometers above the surface , during a six @-@ month period . LDEX detected an average of one 0 @.@ 3 micrometer moon dust particle each minute . Dust particle counts peaked during the Geminid , Quadrantid , Northern Taurid , and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers , when the Earth , and Moon , pass through comet debris . The cloud is asymmetric , more dense near the boundary between the Moon 's dayside and nightside .
= = = Seasons = = =
The Moon 's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1 @.@ 5424 ° , much less than the 23 @.@ 44 ° of Earth . Because of this , the Moon 's solar illumination varies much less with season , and topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects . From images taken by Clementine in 1994 , it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary Crater at the Moon 's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day , creating peaks of eternal light . No such regions exist at the south pole . Similarly , there are places that remain in permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters , and these dark craters are extremely cold : Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K ( − 238 ° C ; − 397 ° F ) and just 26 K ( − 247 ° C ; − 413 ° F ) close to the winter solstice in north polar Hermite Crater . This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft , colder even than the surface of Pluto . Average temperatures of the Moon 's surface are reported , but temperatures of different areas will vary greatly depending upon whether a spot is in sunlight or in shadow .
= = Relationship to Earth = =
= = = Orbit = = =
The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars about once every 27 @.@ 3 days ( its sidereal period ) . However , because Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun at the same time , it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase to Earth , which is about 29 @.@ 5 days ( its synodic period ) . Unlike most satellites of other planets , the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet 's equatorial plane . The Moon 's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small , complex and interacting ways . For example , the plane of the Moon 's orbital motion gradually rotates , which affects other aspects of lunar motion . These follow @-@ on effects are mathematically described by Cassini 's laws .
= = = Relative size = = =
The Moon is exceptionally large relative to Earth : a quarter its diameter and 1 / 81 its mass . It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet , though Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto , at 1 / 9 Pluto 's mass . Earth and the Moon are nevertheless still considered a planet – satellite system , rather than a double planet , because their barycentre , the common centre of mass , is located 1 @,@ 700 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) ( about a quarter of Earth 's radius ) beneath Earth 's surface .
= = = Appearance from Earth = = =
The Moon is in synchronous rotation : it rotates about its axis in about the same time it takes to orbit Earth . This results in it nearly always keeping the same face turned towards Earth . The Moon used to rotate at a faster rate , but early in its history , its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth . The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side , and the opposite side the far side . The far side is often inaccurately called the " dark side " , but in fact , it is illuminated as often as the near side : once per lunar day , during the new moon phase we observe on Earth when the near side is dark . In 2016 , planetary scientists , using data collected on the much earlier Nasa Lunar Prospector mission , found two hydrogen @-@ rich areas on opposite sides of the Moon , probably in the form of water ice . It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago , before it was tidally locked to Earth .
The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo , giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt . Despite this , it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun . This is partly due to the brightness enhancement of the opposition effect ; at quarter phase , the Moon is only one @-@ tenth as bright , rather than half as bright , as at full moon .
Additionally , colour constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colours of an object and its surroundings , and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark , the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object . The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the centre , with no limb darkening , due to the reflective properties of lunar soil , which reflects more light back towards the Sun than in other directions . The Moon does appear larger when close to the horizon , but this is a purely psychological effect , known as the Moon illusion , first described in the 7th century BC . The full moon subtends an arc of about 0 @.@ 52 ° ( on average ) in the sky , roughly the same apparent size as the Sun ( see § Eclipses ) .
The highest altitude of the Moon in the sky varies with the lunar phase and the season of the year . The full moon is highest during winter . The 18 @.@ 6 @-@ year nodes cycle also has an influence : when the ascending node of the lunar orbit is in the vernal equinox , the lunar declination can go as far as 28 ° each month . This means the Moon can go overhead at latitudes up to 28 ° from the equator , instead of only 18 ° . The orientation of the Moon 's crescent also depends on the latitude of the observation site : close to the equator , an observer can see a smile @-@ shaped crescent moon .
The moon is visible for two weeks every 27 @.@ 3 days at the North and South Pole . The moon 's light is used by zooplankton in the Arctic when the sun is below the horizon for months on end .
The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356 @,@ 400 km ( 221 @,@ 500 mi ) to 406 @,@ 700 km ( 252 @,@ 700 mi ) at perigees ( closest ) and apogees ( farthest ) , respectively . On 19 March 2011 , it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1993 , 14 % closer than its farthest position in apogee . Reported as a " super moon " , this closest point coincides within an hour of a full moon , and it was 30 % more luminous than when at its greatest distance due to its angular diameter being 14 % greater , because <formula> . At lower levels , the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula :
<formula>
When the actual reduction is 1 @.@ 00 / 1 @.@ 30 , or about 0 @.@ 770 , the perceived reduction is about 0 @.@ 877 , or 1 @.@ 00 / 1 @.@ 14 . This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14 % between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase .
There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon 's surface change over time . Today , many of these claims are thought to be illusory , resulting from observation under different lighting conditions , poor astronomical seeing , or inadequate drawings . However , outgassing does occasionally occur , and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena . Recently , it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago . The Moon 's appearance , like that of the Sun , can be affected by Earth 's atmosphere : common effects are a 22 ° halo ring formed when the Moon 's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus cloud , and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds .
The illuminated area of the visible sphere ( degree of illumination ) is given by <formula> , where <formula> is the elongation ( i.e. the angle between Moon , the observer ( on Earth ) and the Sun ) .
= = = Tidal effects = = =
The tides on Earth are mostly generated by the gradient in intensity of the Moon 's gravitational pull from one side of Earth to the other , the tidal forces . This forms two tidal bulges on Earth , which are most clearly seen in elevated sea level as ocean tides . Because Earth spins about 27 times faster than the Moon moves around it , the bulges are dragged along with Earth 's surface faster than the Moon moves , rotating around Earth once a day as it spins on its axis . The ocean tides are magnified by other effects : frictional coupling of water to Earth 's rotation through the ocean floors , the inertia of water 's movement , ocean basins that get shallower near land , and oscillations between different ocean basins . The tidal effect of the Sun on Earth 's oceans is almost half that of the Moon , and their gravitational interplay is responsible for spring and neap tides .
Gravitational coupling between the Moon and the bulge nearest the Moon acts as a torque on Earth 's rotation , draining angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth 's spin . In turn , angular momentum is added to the Moon 's orbit in a process confusingly known as tidal acceleration , which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit with a lower orbital speed and a longer period . Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing , and Earth 's spin is slowing down . Measurements from lunar ranging experiments with laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions have found that the Moon 's distance to Earth increases by 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) per year ( roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow ) . Atomic clocks also show that Earth 's day lengthens by about 15 microseconds every year , slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds . Left to run its course , this tidal drag would continue until the spin of Earth and the orbital period of the Moon matched , creating mutual tidal locking between the two , as is already currently the case with Pluto and its moon Charon . However , the Sun will become a red giant long before that , engulfing Earth .
The lunar surface also experiences tides of around 10 cm ( 4 in ) amplitude over 27 days , with two components : a fixed one due to Earth , because they are in synchronous rotation , and a varying component from the Sun . The Earth @-@ induced component arises from libration , a result of the Moon 's orbital eccentricity ; if the Moon 's orbit were perfectly circular , there would only be solar tides . Libration also changes the angle from which the Moon is seen , allowing about 59 % of its surface to be seen from Earth ( but only half at any instant ) . The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes . Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than earthquakes , although they can last for up to an hour — a significantly longer time than terrestrial earthquakes — because of the absence of water to damp out the seismic vibrations . The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972 .
= = = Eclipses = = =
Eclipses can only occur when the Sun , Earth , and Moon are all in a straight line ( termed " syzygy " ) . Solar eclipses occur at new moon , when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth . In contrast , lunar eclipses occur at full moon , when Earth is between the Sun and Moon . The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun , with both being viewed at close to one @-@ half a degree wide . The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the precise vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth . The variations in apparent size , due to the non @-@ circular orbits , are nearly the same as well , though occurring in different cycles . This makes possible both total ( with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun ) and annular ( with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun ) solar eclipses . In a total eclipse , the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye . Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time , the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing . Also , as it evolves toward becoming a red giant , the size of the Sun , and its apparent diameter in the sky , are slowly increasing . The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago , the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses , and no annular eclipses were possible . Likewise , hundreds of millions of years in the future , the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely , and total solar eclipses will not occur .
Because the Moon 's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5 ° to the orbit of Earth around the Sun , eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon . For an eclipse to occur , the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes . The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon , and of the Moon by Earth , is described by the saros , which has a period of approximately 18 years .
Because the Moon is continuously blocking our view of a half @-@ degree @-@ wide circular area of the sky , the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted : hidden from view . In this way , a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun . Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth , occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet , nor at the same time . Because of the precession of the lunar orbit , each year different stars are occulted .
= = Observation and exploration = =
= = = Ancient and medieval studies = = =
Understanding of the Moon 's cycles was an early development of astronomy : by the 5th century BC , Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18 @-@ year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses , and Indian astronomers had described the Moon 's monthly elongation . The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen ( fl . 4th century BC ) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses . Later , the physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight became understood . The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras ( d . 428 BC ) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks , and that the latter reflected the light of the former . Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi , their ' radiating influence ' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun , and Jing Fang ( 78 – 37 BC ) noted the sphericity of the Moon . In the 2nd century AD Lucian wrote a novel where the heroes travel to the Moon , which is inhabited . In 499 AD , the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon . The astronomer and physicist Alhazen ( 965 – 1039 ) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror , but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon 's sunlit surface in all directions . Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that , when doused with white powder and viewed from the side , would appear to be a crescent .
In Aristotle 's ( 384 – 322 BC ) description of the universe , the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements ( earth , water , air and fire ) , and the imperishable stars of aether , an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries . However , in the 2nd century BC , Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon , and that their height depends on the Moon 's position relative to the Sun . In the same century , Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth , obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance . These figures were greatly improved by Ptolemy ( 90 – 168 AD ) : his values of a mean distance of 59 times Earth 's radius and a diameter of 0 @.@ 292 Earth diameters were close to the correct values of about 60 and 0 @.@ 273 respectively . Archimedes ( 287 – 212 BC ) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System .
During the Middle Ages , before the invention of the telescope , the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere , though many believed that it was " perfectly smooth " .
In 1609 , Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his book Sidereus Nuncius and noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters . Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed : later in the 17th century , the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today . The more exact 1834 – 36 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler , and their associated 1837 book Der Mond , the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features , included the heights of more than a thousand mountains , and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography . Lunar craters , first noted by Galileo , were thought to be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions . This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert , and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s , leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy , which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology .
= = = By spacecraft = = =
= = = = 20th century = = = =
= = = = = Soviet missions = = = = =
The Cold War @-@ inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon . Once launchers had the necessary capabilities , these nations sent unmanned probes on both flyby and impact / lander missions . Spacecraft from the Soviet Union 's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals : following three unnamed , failed missions in 1958 , the first human @-@ made object to escape Earth 's gravity and pass near the Moon was Luna 1 ; the first human @-@ made object to impact the lunar surface was Luna 2 , and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by Luna 3 , all in 1959 .
The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first unmanned vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10 , both in 1966 . Rock and soil samples were brought back to Earth by three Luna sample return missions ( Luna 16 in 1970 , Luna 20 in 1972 , and Luna 24 in 1976 ) , which returned 0 @.@ 3 kg total . Two pioneering robotic rovers landed on the Moon in 1970 and 1973 as a part of Soviet Lunokhod programme .
= = = = = United States missions = = = = =
The United States launched unmanned probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface for an eventual manned landing : the Jet Propulsion Laboratory 's Ranger program produced the first close @-@ up pictures ; the Lunar Orbiter program produced maps of the entire Moon ; the Surveyor program landed its first spacecraft four months after Luna 9 . NASA 's manned Apollo program was developed in parallel ; after a series of unmanned and manned tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit , and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar flight , in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first crewed mission to lunar orbit . The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of the Space Race .
Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American mission Apollo 11 by first setting foot on the Moon at 02 : 56 UTC on 21 July 1969 . An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera , the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time . The Apollo missions 11 to 17 ( except Apollo 13 , which aborted its planned lunar landing ) returned 380 @.@ 05 kilograms ( 837 @.@ 87 lb ) of lunar rock and soil in 2 @,@ 196 separate samples . The American Moon landing and return was enabled by considerable technological advances in the early 1960s , in domains such as ablation chemistry , software engineering and atmospheric re @-@ entry technology , and by highly competent management of the enormous technical undertaking .
Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings . Long @-@ lived instrument stations , including heat flow probes , seismometers , and magnetometers , were installed at the Apollo 12 , 14 , 15 , 16 , and 17 landing sites . Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 due to budgetary considerations , but as the stations ' lunar laser ranging corner @-@ cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments , they are still being used . Ranging to the stations is routinely performed from Earth @-@ based stations with an accuracy of a few centimetres , and data from this experiment are being used to place constraints on the size of the lunar core .
= = = = = 1980s – 2000 = = = = =
After the first moon race there were years of near quietude but starting in the 1990s , many more countries have become involved in direct exploration of the Moon . In 1990 , Japan became the third country to place a spacecraft into lunar orbit with its Hiten spacecraft . The spacecraft released a smaller probe , Hagoromo , in lunar orbit , but the transmitter failed , preventing further scientific use of the mission . In 1994 , the U.S. sent the joint Defense Department / NASA spacecraft Clementine to lunar orbit . This mission obtained the first near @-@ global topographic map of the Moon , and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface . This was followed in 1998 by the Lunar Prospector mission , whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles , which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters .
India , Japan , China , the United States , and the European Space Agency each sent lunar orbiters , especially ISRO 's Chandrayaan @-@ 1 has contributed to confirming the discovery of lunar water ice in permanently shadowed craters at the poles and bound into the lunar regolith . The post @-@ Apollo era has also seen two rover missions : the final Soviet Lunokhod mission in 1973 , and China 's ongoing Chang 'e 3 mission , which deployed its Yutu rover on 14 December 2013 . The Moon remains , under the Outer Space Treaty , free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes .
= = = = 21st century = = = =
The European spacecraft SMART @-@ 1 , the second ion @-@ propelled spacecraft , was in lunar orbit from 15 November 2004 until its lunar impact on 3 September 2006 , and made the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface .
China has pursued an ambitious program of lunar exploration , beginning with Chang 'e 1 , which successfully orbited the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009 . In its sixteen @-@ month mission , it obtained a full image map of the Moon . China followed up this success with Chang 'e 2 beginning in October 2010 , which reached the Moon over twice as fast as Chang 'e 1 , mapped the Moon at a higher resolution over an eight @-@ month period , then left lunar orbit in favor of an extended stay at the Earth – Sun L2 Lagrangian point , before finally performing a flyby of asteroid 4179 Toutatis on 13 December 2012 , and then heading off into deep space . On 14 December 2013 , Chang 'e 3 improved upon its orbital mission predecessors by landing a lunar lander onto the Moon 's surface , which in turn deployed a lunar rover , named Yutu ( Chinese : 玉兔 ; literally " Jade Rabbit " ) . In so doing , Chang 'e 3 made the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976 , and the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 in 1973 . China intends to launch another rover mission ( Chang 'e 4 ) before 2020 , followed by a sample return mission ( Chang 'e 5 ) soon after .
Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009 , the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 's Kaguya ( Selene ) mission , a lunar orbiter fitted with a high @-@ definition video camera , and two small radio @-@ transmitter satellites , obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high @-@ definition movies from beyond Earth orbit . India 's first lunar mission , Chandrayaan I , orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August 2009 , creating a high resolution chemical , mineralogical and photo @-@ geological map of the lunar surface , and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil . The Indian Space Research Organisation planned to launch Chandrayaan II in 2013 , which would have included a Russian robotic lunar rover . However , the failure of Russia 's Fobos @-@ Grunt mission has delayed this project .
The U.S. co @-@ launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) and the LCROSS impactor and follow @-@ up observation orbiter on 18 June 2009 ; LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus on 9 October 2009 , whereas LRO is currently in operation , obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high @-@ resolution imagery . In November 2011 , the LRO passed over the Aristarchus crater , which spans 40 km ( 25 mi ) and sinks more than 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) deep . The crater is one of the most visible ones from Earth . " The Aristarchus plateau is one of the most geologically diverse places on the Moon : a mysterious raised flat plateau , a giant rille carved by enormous outpourings of lava , fields of explosive volcanic ash , and all surrounded by massive flood basalts " , said Mark Robinson , principal investigator of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera at Arizona State University . NASA released photos of the crater on 25 December 2011 .
Two NASA GRAIL spacecraft began orbiting the Moon around 1 January 2012 , on a mission to learn more about the Moon 's internal structure . NASA 's LADEE probe , designed to study the lunar exosphere , achieved orbit on 6 October 2013 .
Upcoming lunar missions include Russia 's Luna @-@ Glob : an unmanned lander with a set of seismometers , and an orbiter based on its failed Martian Fobos @-@ Grunt mission . Privately funded lunar exploration has been promoted by the Google Lunar X Prize , announced 13 September 2007 , which offers US $ 20 million to anyone who can land a robotic rover on the Moon and meet other specified criteria . Shackleton Energy Company is building a program to establish operations on the south pole of the Moon to harvest water and supply their Propellant Depots .
NASA began to plan to resume manned missions following the call by U.S. President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 for a manned mission to the Moon by 2019 and the construction of a lunar base by 2024 . The Constellation program was funded and construction and testing begun on a manned spacecraft and launch vehicle , and design studies for a lunar base . However , that program has been cancelled in favor of a manned asteroid landing by 2025 and a manned Mars orbit by 2035 . India has also expressed its hope to send a manned mission to the Moon by 2020 .
= = Astronomy from the Moon = =
For many years , the Moon has been recognized as an excellent site for telescopes . It is relatively nearby ; astronomical seeing is not a concern ; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold , and thus especially useful for infrared telescopes ; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth . The lunar soil , although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes , can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter . A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with ionic liquid .
In April 1972 , the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera / Spectrograph .
= = Legal status = =
During the Cold War , the United States Army conducted a classified feasibility study in the late 1950s called Project Horizon , to construct a manned military outpost on the Moon , which would have been home to a bombing system targeted at rivals on Earth . The study included the possibility of conducting a lunar @-@ based nuclear test . The Air Force , which at the time was in competition with the Army for a leading role in the space program , developed its own , similar plan called Lunex . However , both these proposals were ultimately passed over as the space program was largely transferred from the military to the civilian agency NASA .
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon , and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts , no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon 's surface . Russia and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty , which defines the Moon and all outer space as the " province of all mankind " . This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes , explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction . The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon 's resources by any single nation , but as of 2014 , it has been signed and ratified by only 16 nations , none of which engages in self @-@ launched human space exploration or has plans to do so . Although several individuals have made claims to the Moon in whole or in part , none of these are considered credible .
= = In culture = =
The Moon 's regular phases make it a very convenient timepiece , and the periods of its waxing and waning form the basis of many of the oldest calendars . Tally sticks , notched bones dating as far back as 20 – 30 @,@ 000 years ago , are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon . The ~ 30 @-@ day month is an approximation of the lunar cycle . The English noun month and its cognates in other Germanic languages stem from Proto @-@ Germanic * mǣnṓth- , which is connected to the above @-@ mentioned Proto @-@ Germanic * mǣnōn , indicating the usage of a lunar calendar among the Germanic peoples ( Germanic calendar ) prior to the adoption of a solar calendar . The PIE root of moon , * méh1nōt , derives from the PIE verbal root * meh1- , " to measure " , " indicat [ ing ] a functional conception of the moon , i.e. marker of the month " ( cf. the English words measure and menstrual ) , and echoing the Moon 's importance to many ancient cultures in measuring time ( see Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς ( meis ) or μήν ( mēn ) , meaning " month " ) .
The Moon has been the subject of many works of art and literature and the inspiration for countless others . It is a motif in the visual arts , the performing arts , poetry , prose and music . A 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old rock carving at Knowth , Ireland , may represent the Moon , which would be the earliest depiction discovered . The contrast between the brighter highlands and the darker maria creates the patterns seen by different cultures as the Man in the Moon , the rabbit and the buffalo , among others . In many prehistoric and ancient cultures , the Moon was personified as a deity or other supernatural phenomenon , and astrological views of the Moon continue to be propagated today .
The Moon plays an important role in Islam ; the Islamic calendar is strictly lunar , and in many Muslim countries the months are determined by the visual sighting of the hilal , or earliest crescent moon , over the horizon . The splitting of the moon ( Arabic : انشقاق القمر ) was a miracle attributed to Muhammad .
The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality ; the words lunacy and lunatic ( popular shortening loony ) are derived from the Latin name for the Moon , Luna . Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals , believing that the brain , which is mostly water , must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides , but the Moon 's gravity is too slight to affect any single person . Even today , people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals , traffic accidents , homicides or suicides increase during a full moon , but dozens of studies invalidate these claims .
= = = Cartographic resources = = =
" Consolidated Lunar Atlas " . Lunar and Planetary Institute . Retrieved 26 February 2012 .
Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature ( USGS ) List of feature names .
" Clementine Lunar Image Browser " . U.S. Navy . 15 October 2003 . Retrieved 12 April 2007 .
3D zoomable globes :
" Google Moon " . Google . 2007 . Retrieved 12 April 2007 .
" Moon " . World Wind Central . NASA . 2007 . Retrieved 12 April 2007 .
Aeschliman , R. " Lunar Maps " . Planetary Cartography and Graphics . Retrieved 12 April 2007 . Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) Kaguya ( Selene ) images
Large image of the Moon 's north pole area
= = = Observation tools = = =
" NASA 's SKYCAL — Sky Events Calendar " . NASA Eclipse Home Page . Retrieved 27 August 2007 .
" Find moonrise , moonset and moonphase for a location " . 2008 . Retrieved 18 February 2008 .
" HMNAO 's Moon Watch " . 2005 . Retrieved 24 May 2009 . See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location .
= = = General = = =
Lunar shelter ( building a lunar base with 3D printing )
= Croatian National Guard =
The Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) was an armed force established by Croatia in April and May 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . Although it was established within the framework of the Ministry of the Interior for legal reasons , the ZNG was under the direct command of the Ministry of Defence . It was tasked with the protection of Croatia 's borders and territory , and with tasks normally associated with police forces . The ZNG was formed with the transfer of special police units to the ZNG , establishing four all @-@ professional brigades in May 1991 , and was presented to the public in a military parade in Zagreb on 28 May . It was commanded by Defence Minister General Martin Špegelj before his resignation in early August . Špegelj was replaced by General Anton Tus , who became the first head of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia ( established on 21 September ) .
During its development the ZNG experienced a number of problems , including shortages of weapons and ammunition , lack of uniforms , inadequate training and an overall deficiency in trained officers , and poor staff work and command structures ( preventing the effective coordination of multiple units ) . These problems were offset by good morale , clear objectives and high levels of mobilisation . After the Battle of the Barracks , the ZNG expanded significantly with arms captured from the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija ) . By the end of October 60 new brigades and independent battalions were established , and on 3 November the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska ) .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica , HDZ ) , ethnic tensions between Croats and Croatian Serbs worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslavenska narodna armija – JNA ) believed that Croatia would use the Croatian Territorial Defence Force 's ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) equipment to build its own army and confront the JNA . To minimize the expected resistance , the JNA confiscated the TO 's weapons . On 17 August tensions escalated into an open revolt by the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland near the southern town of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun and Banovina regions and eastern Croatia . They established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's policy of pursuing independence for Croatia . Milan Babić , a dentist from Knin , was elected president and Knin police chief Milan Martić established paramilitary militias . The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the SAO Krajina , a self @-@ declared state incorporating the Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia .
The JNA learned about Croatia 's intention to develop its own military force from JNA Captain Vladimir Jager , a double agent employed by Croatia and the JNA Counterintelligence Service ( KOS ) . The JNA devised Operation Shield ( Štit ) , aimed at disarming the Croatian forces and the arrest and trial of the Croatian leadership , in response . Although the operation was prepared by December 1990 , federal Defence Minister General Veljko Kadijević never sought authorisation to carry it out from the Yugoslav Presidency . Instead , he ordered the KOS to stand down on the morning the operation was scheduled to begin .
At the beginning of 1991 Croatia had no regular army , and to bolster its defence Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police , deployed in a military organisation of 12 battalions ; in addition , there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally @-@ organised reserve police officers . Although the reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , they lacked weapons ( which were needed to arm the troops ) .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Preparations for the ZNG began on 12 April 1991 . Its formation as a police force with military capability was considered necessary by Croatian authorities after March clashes in Pakrac and at Plitvice Lakes and the possibility of further confrontation with the JNA . Since it was illegal to establish a separate military in a constituent republic of Yugoslavia , the ZNG was planned as part of the police force under the Ministry of the Interior . Parliament amended the Internal Affairs Act on 18 April , and the ZNG was formally established five days later . It was tasked with the protection of the constitutional order , the maintenance of public order , anti @-@ terrorist operations , the protection of Croatia 's borders , territory , coast and territorial waters , valuable structures and high @-@ profile individuals . Although the ZNG was formally subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior , its founding legislation stipulated that it would be commanded by the Ministry of Defence .
On 5 May the number of ZNG troops and their composition was determined , followed by operational guidelines issued by Defence and Interior Ministers Martin Špegelj and Josip Boljkovac for the transfer of police personnel to the ZNG on 10 May . By 15 May several special police units ( SPUs ) transferred to the ZNG , forming four brigades . By July the ZNG had approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops and , unlike other Croatian forces , were fully equipped with small arms . The reserve police force , numbering about 39 @,@ 000 in April , was also transferred to reserve ZNG brigades and independent battalions . On 18 May the Zrinski Battalion was established as a special forces unit of the ZNG , its core consisting of 27 volunteers drawn from the Kumrovec SPU . Initially , it also relied on former French Foreign Legion troops . By July , the reserve force of 40 @,@ 000 ZNG troops was assigned to 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions ; however , they did not possess sufficient heavy or small arms for all their personnel . The Croatian police had approximately 15 @,@ 000 small arms , with less than 30 @,@ 000 additional weapons obtained from abroad by August .
On 28 May , the ZNG was presented to the public in a military parade at the Kranjčevićeva Street Stadium to boost morale . The parade featured approximately 800 soldiers , a dozen anti @-@ aircraft systems , armoured cars and several armoured personnel carriers ; the Presidential Guards and Alkars also participated .
= = = Development problems = = =
To command individual units , regional ZNG commands were established in eastern Slavonia , the Banovina – Kordun area , Lika , central and northern Dalmatia , southern Dalmatia and Zagreb in late July and August . Crisis headquarters , which also had command authority of ZNG units , were established down to the municipal level . The command structure was particularly poor , preventing effective coordination between units . Although the many crisis headquarters were entrusted with a high level of authority , they consisted of politicians with little ( if any ) military training other than JNA service . Multiple units deployed to a single area often had no authority coordinating their activities . TO command systems were reactivated in some places ( such as Zagreb ) , somewhat improving the situation .
Other problems faced by the ZNG included a shortage of trained officers , inadequate troop training , a shortage of weapons and especially a shortage of ammunition . Mobilisation proved particularly successful , however , and troops were plentiful ; in Zagreb , approximately 80 percent of those called up in September and October reported for service . The ZNG were short of uniforms ; 20 percent of those drafted in Zagreb during this period received uniforms , while the remainder fought in civilian clothes . The ZNG also relied on the civilian infrastructure for food , fuel and medical care .
Špegelj was replaced by Šime Đodan as Defence Minister in July . He remained in command of the ZNG until 3 August , when he resigned over Tuđman 's refusal to authorise attacks against JNA barracks . After Špegelj 's resignation , command of the ZNG was entrusted to General Anton Tus .
= = = Transition to the Croatian Army = = =
In mid @-@ September the regional commands were replaced by six operational zones , headquartered in Osijek , Bjelovar , Zagreb , Karlovac , Rijeka and Split . The zones possessed uneven strength ; those in Slavonia and Dalmatia were heavily equipped , and the Zagreb zone had twice the average troop strength . After capturing a stockpile of weapons during the Battle of the Barracks , the ZNG expanded to 60 reserve brigades and independent battalions by the end of October ( in addition to the four all @-@ professional guards brigades ) . Although each brigade was planned to have 1 @,@ 800 troops , in reality their size varied from 500 to 2 @,@ 500 . Three named special @-@ forces battalions were also established within the ZNG ( in addition to the Zrinski Battalion ) : the Frankopan , Kralj Tomislav and Matija Vlačić Battalions .
On 20 September Parliament enacted the Defence Act , specifying that the ZNG and the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) comprised the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia . At the same time , the armed forces were formally subordinated to the Ministry of Defence rather than the Ministry of the Interior . The legislation also designated the TO reserve units as a constituent part of the ZNG reserve force . The following day the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia was established , headed by Tus . On 8 October ( the day Croatia declared its independence ) the Defence Act was amended , with the ZNG redefined as a part of the HV . ZNG reserve units became the HV reserve , named the Home Guard ( Domobranstvo ) , leaving the ZNG an all @-@ professional force . The ZNG was renamed the HV on 3 November 1991 .
= = = Service = = =
ZNG units participated is a number of significant battles in the early part of the war , attempting to hold back Yugoslav forces . These include the battles of Gospić , Šibenik and Zadar , where the ZNG defended cities in Lika and along the Dalmatian coast against the JNA and its allies . The ZNG also took part in the battles of Vukovar and Osijek in eastern Slavonia , defended Dubrovnik and contributed to the capture of the JNA barracks and Operation Hurricane @-@ 91 ( an attempt to push the JNA out of western Slavonia .
= = Legacy = =
The HV continued to grow , numbering about 200 @,@ 000 troops by the end of 1991 . Although the force successfully countered the JNA that year , the HV was deficient in organisation , training and heavy @-@ weapons support . By the end of 1991 , the HV still lacked sufficient resources to push back the JNA and continued experiencing inadequate work by their staff . Nonetheless , like the ZNG it benefited from its troops ' high morale and the well @-@ defined purpose of its mission . The growth and systematic improvement of HV capability accelerated in 1992 , continuing throughout the Croatian War of Independence . The anniversary of the ZNG parade at the Kranjčevićeva Street Stadium is celebrated annually in Croatia as Armed Forces Day and Croatian Army Day .
= Marasmius rotula =
Marasmius rotula is a common species of agaric fungus in the family Marasmiaceae . Widespread in the Northern Hemisphere , it is commonly known variously as the pinwheel mushroom , the pinwheel marasmius , the little wheel , the collared parachute , or the horse hair fungus . The type species of the genus Marasmius , M. rotula was first described scientifically in 1772 by mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli and assigned its current name in 1838 by Elias Fries .
The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , of M. rotula are characterized by their whitish , thin , and membranous caps up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide that are sunken in the center , and pleated with scalloped margins . The slender and wiry black hollow stems measure up to 8 @.@ 0 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) thick . On the underside of the caps are widely spaced white gills that are attached to a collar encircling the stem . The mushrooms grow in groups or clusters on decaying wood such as fallen twigs and sticks , moss @-@ covered logs , and stumps .
Unlike other mushrooms known to release spores in response to a circadian rhythm , spore release in M. rotula is dependent upon sufficient moisture . Dried mushrooms may revive after rehydrating and continue to release spores for up to three weeks — a sustained spore production of markedly longer duration than other typical agarics . There are several species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused due to somewhat similar overall appearances , but differences in size , gill arrangement , and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish them . Although M. rotula mushrooms are not generally considered edible , they produce a unique peroxidase enzyme that is attracting research interest for possible use in bioengineering applications .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli as Agaricus rotula in 1772 . In 1821 Elias Magnus Fries redescribed the mushroom in Systema Mycologicum , and later transferred it to Marasmius in his 1838 Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici . Synonyms include names derived from generic transfers to Androsaceus by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887 , and to Chamaeceras by Otto Kuntze in 1898 ; both of these genera are now obsolete and have since been sunk back into Marasmius .
In his 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants , Samuel Frederick Gray introduced the generic name Micromphale , including the species Micromphale collariatum , which was based on William Withering 's 1796 Merulius collariatus . In 1946 Alexander H. Smith and Rolf Singer proposed to conserve the name Marasmius over Micromphale ; the latter had nomenclatorial priority as it was published first . The generic name Marasmius , with M. rotula as the lectotype species , was later conserved at the 1954 Paris Congress on Botanical Nomenclature . M. rotula is also the type species of section Marasmius within the genus . This grouping of species is characterized by inamyloid flesh , a cap cuticle with broom cells ( finger @-@ like projections common to Marasmius species ) ornamented with numerous warts , gills usually attached to a collar surrounding the stem , and the presence of black rhizomorphs on the stem .
Several varieties of M. rotula have been described . Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis named var. fuscus in 1869 for its brown cap . In 1887 Pier Andrea Saccardo described var. microcephalus from Italy , with caps half the normal size . It is now understood , however , that fruit body morphology is variable and dependent upon environmental conditions . Joseph Schröter described var. phyllophyla in 1889 , but that taxon is now treated as Marasmius bulliardii .
Marasmius rotula is commonly known as the " pinwheel mushroom " , the " pinwheel Marasmius " , the " collared parachute " , or the " horse hair fungus " . This latter name is shared with other Marasmius species , including M. androsaceus and M. crinis @-@ equi . Gray called it the " collared dimple @-@ stool " . The name " little wheel fungus " is suggestive of the collar to which the gills are attached like the spokes of a wheel , like the specific epithet , which is a diminutive of rota , the Latin word for " wheel " .
= = Description = =
The cap of the fruit body is thin and membranous , measuring 3 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . It has a convex shape slightly depressed in the center , conspicuous furrows in an outline of the gills , and scalloped edges . Young , unexpanded caps are yellowish brown ; as the cap expands , the color lightens to whitish or light pinkish @-@ white , often with a darker , sometimes brown center . The variety fusca has brown caps . The white or slightly yellowish flesh is very thin , reaching about 0 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 5 mm thick in the central part of the cap , and even thinner at the margin .
Gills are attached to a collar , never to the stem , although some specimens have the collar pressed close enough to it that this characteristic may be less obvious . Widely spaced , they have the same whitish to pale yellow color as the flesh , and typically number between 16 and 22 . They are initially narrow , but thicken downward to about 1 – 3 mm at the exposed edge . The stem is 1 @.@ 2 to 8 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and up to 0 @.@ 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) thick , with a smooth , sometimes shiny surface . It is tough , hollow , and either straight or with some curving . The color is blackish @-@ brown up to a lighter , almost translucent apex . The base of the stem may be connected to dark brown or black root @-@ like rhizomorphs 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 mm thick . Mature specimens display no veil .
Details of the fruit bodies ' appearance , color in particular , are somewhat variable and dependent on growing conditions . For example , specimens growing on logs in oak and hickory forests in the spring tend to have more yellowish @-@ white , depressed caps than those found in the same location in autumn , which are light yellow brown and more convex in shape . The fruit body development of M. rotula is hemiangiocarpous , with an hymenium that is only partially enclosed by basidiocarp tissues . Robert Kühner showed that a cortina @-@ like tissue covers the young gills before the expanding cap breaks away from the stem . In unfavorable weather conditions , however , the mushrooms may fail to develop normally and instead produce semi @-@ gasteroid basidiocarps .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Viewed in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores of Marasmius rotula appear white or pale yellow . Under an optical microscope , they are hyaline ( translucent ) , teardrop- or pip @-@ shaped , and have dimensions of 7 – 10 by 3 – 5 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ producing cells ) are four @-@ spored , club @-@ shaped or nearly so , and 21 – 21 by 4 – 17 µm . Along the edge of the gill , interspersed among the basidia , are non @-@ reproductive cells , the cheilocystidia ; these are club @-@ shaped with rough wart @-@ like protuberances on the surface . The gill edges further feature broom cells , which are variably shaped , thin @-@ walled , and measure 7 – 32 by 2 @.@ 5 – 20 µm . Their apical surfaces are covered with yellowish , blunt , and conical warts or incrustations 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 by 0 @.@ 1 – 1 µm .
= = Similar species = =
There are several less @-@ common species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused due to somewhat similar overall appearances , but differences in size , gill arrangement , and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish between them . For example , Marasmius capillaris has a pale tan cap with a white center , and grows on oak leaves without forming clusters . Furthermore , its cap is evenly rounded , unlike the pleated and furrowed cap of M. rotula , and its stem is somewhat thinner ( usually less than 0 @.@ 3 mm ) and slightly darker in color .
M. rotula is distinguished from M. bulliardii by its larger size , and greater number of gills . M. limosus is found in marshes , where it fruits on the dead stems of reeds and rushes . Tetrapyrgos nigripes ( formerly treated in Marasmius ) has white caps that are 5 to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , attached gills that are sometimes slightly decurrent , a dark stem covered with tiny white hairs that give it a powdered appearance , and triangular to star @-@ shaped spores . M. neorotula , described from Brazil , was considered by its discoverer Rolf Singer to be closely related to M. rotula . In addition to its tropical distribution , it can distinguished from M. rotula by its smaller size and more widely spaced gills . M. rotuloides , known only from montane forests of Trinidad , can only be reliably distinguished from M. rotula by microscopic characteristics : it has smaller , ovoid spores measuring 5 by 2 @.@ 5 µm .
Other Marasmius species with a pinwheel arrangement of gills are readily distinguished from M. rotula by differences in color , including the orange M. siccus , the pink M. pulcherripes , and the rust M. fulvoferrugineus . Mycena corticola is smaller than Marasmius rotula , has a pale pink @-@ brown cap , and is usually found growing singly or in small groups on bark near the base of living trees .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
Marasmius rotula is a saprobic species and as such obtains nutrients by decomposing dead organic matter . It grows in deciduous forests and fruits in groups or clusters on dead wood ( especially beech ) , woody debris such as twigs or sticks , and occasionally on rotting leaves . The fruit bodies , which are easily overlooked because of their diminutive size , are often present in abundance after rains . The species is relatively intolerant of low water potentials , and will grow poorly or not at all under water stress conditions . It is unable to degrade leaf litter until it becomes more fragmented and more compacted so that the water @-@ holding capacity increases in the deeper layers of the soil . The magnolia warbler has been noted to line its nests with the fruit bodies ' stems .
In 1975 American mycologist Martina S. Gilliam investigated the periodicity of spore release in M. rotula and concluded that spore discharge did not follow a regular circadian rhythm , as is typical of agaric and bolete mushrooms , but rather was dependent on rain . A threshold of rainfall is required to elicit a spore discharge response and the duration of peak spore discharge correlates with the amount of rainfall , rather than its duration . Furthermore , Gilliam noted that spore prints were more readily obtained if the stem ends were placed in water , suggesting that water must enter through the fruit body for discharge to occur .
Like those of many other species of Marasmius , the fruit bodies of M. rotula can desiccate and shrivel in dry periods , then revive when sufficient moisture is available again in the form of rain or high humidity . Gilliam 's study demonstrated that revived fruit bodies were capable of discharging spores over a period of at least three weeks , whereas previous studies using similar methods with other Agaricomycetes showed spore discharge occurred over a shorter period of up to six days after revival . The potential for sustained spore production and discharge may be due to the growth of new basidioles ( immature basidia ) during periods of growth , which then complete maturation when the mushroom revives . This may also explain why the gills become thicker as the mushroom matures .
The fungus is widespread and common in its preferred habitats in North America , Europe , and northern Asia . Although far less common in southerly locations , isolated collections have been reported from Africa ( Congo , Nigeria , Sierra Leone , and Tanzania ) and South Asia ( India ) . In North America M. rotula is most common in the eastern part of the continent .
= = Uses = =
Marasmius rotula is generally considered inedible , but not poisonous . The mushroom has no distinguishable odor , and its taste is mild or bitter . Louis Krieger , writing in National Geographic in the 1920s , noted that the mushroom was used as an addition to gravies and , when used to garnish venison , " adds the appropriate touch of the wild woodlands . " The fruit bodies will bioaccumulate cadmium : a study of the metal concentration of 15 wild mushroom species of India showed that M. rotula accumulated the highest concentration of that metal .
A peroxidase enzyme known as MroAPO ( Marasmius rotula aromatic peroxygenase ) is attracting research interest for possible applications in biocatalysis . In general , enzymes that catalyze oxygen @-@ transfer reactions are of great utility in chemical synthesis since they work selectively and under ambient conditions . Fungal peroxidases can catalyze oxidations that are difficult for the organic chemist , including those involving aromatic substrates such as aniline , 4 @-@ aminophenol , hydroquinone , resorcinol , catechol , and paracetamol . The M. rotula enzyme is the first fungal peroxygenase that can be produced in high yields . It is highly stable over a wide pH range , and in a variety of organic solvents . The enzyme has other potential for use as a biosensor for aromatic substances in environmental analysis and drug monitoring .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Gilliam MS. ( 1976 ) . " The genus Marasmius in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada " . Mycotaxon 4 ( 1 ) : 1 – 144 . ISSN 0093 @-@ 4666 .
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us when shelled and sunk 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Sapientza . Three days later , the British ship Cyfarthfa was torpedoed 32 nautical miles ( 59 km ; 37 mi ) from Cerigotto . The master of Cyfarthfa , which had been headed from Oran to Salonica , was taken prisoner by Wendlandt .
Wendlandt and UB @-@ 47 sank the Greek destroyer Doxa , a Niki @-@ class destroyer of 350 tonnes ( 340 long tons ) displacement , on 27 June . Although a part of the Royal Hellenic Navy , Doxa had been seized by the French in October 1916 and was operating as a French ship with an all @-@ French crew when torpedoed and sunk by UB @-@ 47 in the Straits of Messina ; 29 sailors died in the attack . Three days later , Wendlandt sank two Italian sailing ships of about 100 GRT each while east of Sicily . Five days later , UB @-@ 47 attacked the Japanese steamer Shinsan Maru , from Karachi with a cargo of wheat for delivery to Italy . Wendlandt torpedoed the 1898 ship between Crete and Sicily . Shinsan Maru was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 47 in her German service .
On 21 July , UB @-@ 47 was decommissioned at Pola and handed over to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . In her German Imperial Navy career of just over a year , UB @-@ 47 sank twenty merchant ships totaling 76 @,@ 195 GRT , damaged three ships of 16 @,@ 967 GRT , and sank two warships with a combined displacement of 11 @,@ 450 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 270 long tons ) .
= = Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy service = =
In November 1916 , the German Imperial Navy , having a hard time finding trained submarine crews , inquired to find out if its ally Austria @-@ Hungary was interested in purchasing some of its Mediterranean submarines . A general agreement led to protracted negotiations , which stalled over the outflow of Austro @-@ Hungarian gold reserves to Germany . But , with all of the details worked out , the two parties agreed on the sale of UB @-@ 47 and sister ship UB @-@ 43 to Austria @-@ Hungary in June 1917 .
When handed over by the Germans on 21 July , UB @-@ 47 was in a " worn out condition " . Despite the rough condition of the boat , the U @-@ boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 30 July 1917 as SM U @-@ 47 , dropping the B from the U @-@ boat 's former designation . Linienschiffsleutnant Otto Molitor was installed as the U @-@ boat 's new commander . U @-@ 47 's first success in Austro @-@ Hungarian service came nearly six months later when , on 12 January 1918 , Molitor torpedoed the French steamer Mica from Saigon just short of her destination of Milos .
In early April , Linienschiffsleutnant Freiherr Hugo von Seyffertitz replaced Molitor as commander of U @-@ 47 , and a month later , von Seyffertitz achieved his first success as U @-@ 47 's commander . The British steamer Itinda , a 5 @,@ 203 GRT ship built in 1900 , was sunk north of Susa , Libya , with one man killed . The next victory for von Seyffertitz and U @-@ 47 came in September . On the 20th U @-@ 47 launched a torpedo attack against the submarine Circé off Cattaro , sinking the French boat .
At the end of the war , U @-@ 47 was at Cattaro . In her Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy career , U @-@ 47 sank two merchant ships of 6 @,@ 467 gross register tons , and sank a single warship of 351 tonnes ( 345 long tons ) displacement . U @-@ 47 was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 , towed to Bizerta , and broken up there within a year .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= = = As the German UB @-@ 47 = = =
= = = As the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 47 = = =
= Education in Malta =
Education in Malta is compulsory through age sixteen and is offered through three different providers : the state , the church , and the private sector . The state is responsible for promoting education and instruction and ensuring universal access to education for all Maltese citizens the existence of a system of schools and institutions accessible to all Maltese citizens . The objectives of education in Malta include intellectual and moral development and the preparation of every citizen to contribute productively to the national economy . Although Maltese citizens had access to education during the Arab occupation of 870 to 1090 , the arrival of a number of religious orders in the following four centuries brought religious @-@ based education to the island for wealthy families . The arrival of the Knights Hospitaller saw the establishment of the University of Malta , around which a number of primary , secondary and post @-@ secondary institutions were established . Education in Malta has been universally available at the primary level since the ejection of the Knights Hospitaller by the French in 1798 , when state @-@ funded elementary schooling was established . In 1878 , English replaced Italian as the primary language of instruction , and education was made compulsory in 1946 in response to a number of children not attending school due to poverty between World Wars One and Two . The age at which education became compulsory was lowered to five years in 1988 .
Malta 's educational system is structured in four stages : pre @-@ primary ( ages 3 – 5 ) , primary ( ages 5 – 11 ) , secondary ( ages 11 – 16 ) and tertiary . Pre @-@ primary education is optional but fully funded by the state . In their last two years of primary education , students are placed on tracks based on educational attainment , and at the age of eleven , students sit an eleven plus examination to determine a student 's secondary schooling direction . Success in the eleven plus exam places a student in a junior lyceum - a prestigious secondary school - while mediocre performance or not sitting the examination places a student in a less competitive secondary school . Secondary Education Certificate ( SEC ) examinations are taken at age 16 , and matriculation examinations are taken at age 18 to determine university entrance eligibility . In 2008 , 26 @,@ 711 primary students , 25 @,@ 793 secondary students , 5 @,@ 719 post @-@ secondary students , 9 @,@ 472 tertiary students and 6 @,@ 268 vocational students were enrolled in educational courses in Malta . Approximately 30 per cent of Malta 's primary and secondary school students are enrolled in private schools , most of which are operated by the Catholic Church . Malta 's highest post @-@ secondary institution is the University of Malta , which has operated since 1592 .
= = History = =
While education in Malta dates back to the period of Arab occupation between 870 and 1090 through the introduction of Arabic numerals , the arrival of the Franciscans in 1350 , the Carmelites in 1418 , the Dominican Order in 1450 , the Augustinians in 1460 and the Friars Minor in 1492 brought religious @-@ based education to the island . Members of these groups were asked to serve as private tutors for the children of wealthy parents , and later moved to set up classes for instruction in Italian , Latin and numeracy . In 1592 , the Collegium Melitense ( what was to become the University of Malta ) was established by the Society of Jesus as a result of a direct order from Pope Clements VIII , and around this institution a number of others flourished , including a grammar school , a preparatory school and institutions for the study of cartography , naval architecture and navigation . In addition to public options , it was possible to hire private tutors in a number of different areas , including accounting , philosophy , navigation and languages . During this period , however , education for those without wealth was non @-@ existent . During the 16th century , philosophy , theology , grammar and the humanities were taught at the Collegium , and following Europe 's temporary recovery from the Black Death in 1675 , the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller appointed a new lecturer in anatomy and surgery at Sacra Infermeria , essentially establishing the University of Malta 's medical school .
The ejection of the Knights Hospitaller by the French Republic in 1798 brought a reformation of the educational system with it due to the disparity between the traditional ideals of the Knights and the revolutionary ideals of the French . Private schooling was banned , elementary schooling was introduced and funded by the state , and adult education was introduced . The gradual introduction of universal education for primary school students was an ideal born before and during the French Revolution , while private schools were abolished due to their traditional association with the Catholic Church , an institution rejected by those involved in the Revolution . In addition , Napoleon I abolished the University of Malta just five days after his ejection of the Knights , although this decision was reversed after the British ejected the French the following year . In 1799 , Malta fell under the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom , and attempts were made to adjust Malta 's institutions towards a British style .
On 1st Februaru 1846 education became effectively compulsory till the age of 14 . In 1847 , elementary schooling was changed to the British model , schools were opened in every village and education was made free of charge . In 1878 , the mode of language education delivery changed following the publication of two reports on the matter . Italian language education was replaced by instruction in the English language , and the use of Maltese was encouraged in the primary years . However , English was the language in which education was delivered at all stages of education following primary school . Debate continued until the 1930s over which language should be used in Maltese education - Italian or English .
During World War I , the interwar years and World War II , widespread poverty in Malta prevented the children of the lower classes from pursuing basic education in favor of staying home to assist parents with agricultural work and other income earning activities . To counteract this phenomenon , education was declared compulsory in 1946 . In 1964 , Malta became an independent nation , and in 1988 a new Education Act was passed , lowering the compulsory education age to five years , decentralising educational decision making and establishing a right for any person to apply for a licence to open a school . The Faculty of Arts , Sciences and Theology at the University of Malta was also reinstated .
= = Statistics = =
In 2008 , 26 @,@ 711 primary students , 25 @,@ 793 secondary students , 5 @,@ 719 post @-@ secondary students , 9 @,@ 472 tertiary students and 6 @,@ 268 vocational students were enrolled in educational courses in Malta . Approximately 30 per cent of students of school age attend private schools , most of which are operated by the Catholic Church . In 2009 , 34 @.@ 9 per cent of the population between 18 and 24 years of age had not completed secondary school , while in 2008 92 per cent of the population was considered literate . Malta ranks equal eleventh in the world on the national IQ scale .
The compulsory education period in Malta has been between five and 16 years of age since the introduction of the Education Act 1988 . This is an increase from up to 12 years of age in 1924 ( in this year , school attendance became compulsory for those already enrolled - the act of enrollment itself was not compulsory ) and 14 years of age in 1946 , when compulsory school attendance was introduced for all students , enrolled or otherwise . Compulsory schooling has always applied to both males and females during its existence .
= = Structure = =
= = = School education = = =
Schooling is compulsory from the age of five , although free @-@ of @-@ charge kindergarten is available to all students beginning at age three . Approximately 94 per cent of three- and four @-@ year @-@ olds attend kindergarten . A number of private operators exist , but free state @-@ run institutions are also popular . State @-@ run Maltese kindergartens are required to have one staff member present for every ten children present , while this ratio decreases to 1 : 20 for independently run institutions . During the kindergarten years , the focus is on play , not formal education . From kindergarten , students transition to primary school , which is compulsory from the age of five . Since 1980 , all state @-@ run primary schools have been co @-@ educational , with many independent schools following suit . However , church @-@ run primary schools are usually single @-@ sex . Classes usually have a limit of thirty students , and a minimum teacher to student ratio has been set at 1 : 19 in all schools , whether they be state @-@ run , church @-@ run or independent .
Formal end @-@ of @-@ year examinations commence starting in Year 4 to dictate class streaming arrangements for the following year . Students are examined in English , Maltese , mathematics , religion and social studies . Despite the fact that eleven @-@ plus examinations highlight inequality and failures , and are recognized as ineffective educational tools by experts , Malta still implements such exams . In Year 6 , when most pupils have turned eleven years of age , an eleven @-@ plus exam is given to students to determine which students attend which secondary schools . Students are tested in English language , Maltese language , mathematics , social studies and religion ; the latter is optional for those not adhering to the faith taught in schools . While 73 per cent of eleven @-@ year @-@ old students sat the eleven @-@ plus exam in 2001 , only about 54 percent pass it each year . Students achieving success in the eleven @-@ plus exam go on to attend prestigious ' junior lyceums ' during their secondary years , whilst those who do not attend ' area secondary schools ' . This is similar to the operation of the Tripartite System in the United Kingdom following World War II .
State @-@ run junior lyceums and area secondary schools are single @-@ sex . Junior lyceums are divided into two grade stages . The first stage is an introductory stage , and runs for the first two years of secondary schooling . Students study essentially the same subjects with very limited curriculum options in order to provide a good grounding for future studies . Following the two @-@ year introductory cycle , a three @-@ year specialist stage occurs during which students study a common core curriculum as well as a number of elective subjects . This orientation is similar at area secondary schools , although the introductory period is longer , at three years in duration , and the final specialist period is shorter , at two years . The staff @-@ student ratio is set at 1 : 11 , and the school leaving age is 16 .
Examinations in Maltese secondary schools are taken at both age 16 and 18 , with the latter being a final optional set of matriculation examinations . The examinations taken at age 16 are the Secondary Education Certificate ( SEC ) exams , which have operated since 1994 , before which the GCE Ordinary Level was used as a secondary certificate examination . The examinations taken at 18 , those enabling entry into university , are the Matriculation Certificate examinations , based on the International Baccalaureate . These examinations replaced the GCE Advanced Levels .
= = = Day @-@ to @-@ day operation = = =
A number of students travel to school using the nation 's bus network , which is free for state school students to use . Schools in Malta generally begin their school day at 8 : 30am and finish at 2 : 40pm . The 2010 @-@ 11 school year commenced on September 27 , 2010 , and will conclude on June 28 , 2011 . Students receive three days of holidays in November 15 days of holidays over Christmas , two days of holidays in March and eight days of holidays in April , in addition to public holidays . Maltese school students receive the highest number of days off of all school students in Europe , with 90 days during the 2010 @-@ 11 academic year being non @-@ school days . This is 14 days more than the European average of 76 . Virtually all Maltese state schools run tuck shops , while some secondary schools are home to cafeterias .
State schools provide textbooks free of charge to their students , while private schools generally require their students to pay for their textbooks , enabling the latter to change their textbooks and textbook editions more frequently . All primary schools have at least four computers , one printer , a large monitor and a teacher 's laptop computer in their classrooms , while many secondary schools have specialised rooms necessary to teach subjects such as Home Economics and Food Technology . An average of 22 @.@ 5 students are enrolled per primary school class , with the average rising to 24 @.@ 3 in secondary school classes . Primary school teachers are expected to dedicate five hours per week to each of Maltese , English and mathematics , one hour per week to science , two hours per weeks to arts and crafts , two hours per week to social studies , one hour and 15 minutes per week to social studies , and two and a half hours per week to physical education and religion . State school syllabi at the secondary level are set by the local examination bodies .
= = = Tertiary education = = =
Under the Education Act of 1988 , the Government of Malta is obligated to provide free university education to eligible residents with sufficient qualifications for entry . However , due to funding constraints , the University of Malta offers some courses only every other year in order to maximise course offerings with optimum funding usage . 10 @,@ 000 students currently study at the University . Most Bachelor degree courses run for three years , including law , which in other common law countries is often lengthier .
= = Educational management = =
= = = Administration = = =
State @-@ run education in Malta is administered at the national level of government , with the Minister for Education empowered to make orders , or ' Legal Notices ' , relating to the administration of education throughout the country . The Minister for Education is appointed by the President on advice of the Prime Minister and is responsible for a number of education @-@ related government functions ( such as the operation of schools and libraries ) as well as tertiary education in the country . The Ministry of Education , the national government department responsible for education in Malta , is headed by a Permanent Secretary . The Education Division of the Ministry is responsible for setting a number of annual nationwide examinations , managing human resources in Malta 's educational system , selecting school textbook lists , allocating students to schools based on area , managing the Ministry 's educational finances and promoting a number of cultural , sporting and social activities . Malta 's Ministry of Education is currently being decentralised with the aim of having schools managed at the local level .
With the exception of the currently occurring educational management decentralisation process , regional administration of education in Malta is limited . However , the island of Gozo does maintain a form of regional educational administration through the Ministry for Gozo . Although the Ministry for Education manages education throughout Malta , the Ministry for Gozo is responsible for the remuneration of the island 's teaching staff . Local authorities such as Malta 's numerous Local Councils have no official ties to Malta 's educational system but often donate to local schools and maintain preschool building structures .
= = = Teacher development = = =
Primary and secondary school teachers begin their teacher education at the University of Malta by gaining a Bachelor of Education ( Honours ) , which typically takes four years of study to achieve . To gain entry into the University to study primary or secondary education , students must not only meet the University 's general entry requirements but also a number of other special course requirements . University students seeking to enter the teaching profession may also become qualified by gaining a postgraduate certificate in education . Two years of professional teaching practice is also generally required . The Minister for Education may also grant a temporary warrant to teach , valid for one year , to any person the Minister believes has the ability to teach in the country .
In 2007 , teachers entering the workforce were paid a minimum of € 14 @,@ 291 per year , with the most experienced teachers being paid € 19 @,@ 371 per year . Heads of School received a minimum of € 17 @,@ 242 per year . In 2003 @-@ 04 , there were 8 @,@ 964 teaching staff in Malta , of which 6 @,@ 630 worked at state schools .
= Alfred Döblin =
Bruno Alfred Döblin ( August 10 , 1878 – June 26 , 1957 ) was a German novelist , essayist , and doctor , best known for his novel Berlin Alexanderplatz ( 1929 ) . A prolific writer whose œuvre spans more than half a century and a wide variety of literary movements and styles , Döblin is one of the most important figures of German literary modernism . His complete works comprise over a dozen novels ranging in genre from historical novels to science fiction to novels about the modern metropolis ; several dramas , radio plays , and screenplays ; a true crime story ; a travel account ; two book @-@ length philosophical treatises ; scores of essays on politics , religion , art , and society ; and numerous letters — his complete works , republished by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag and Fischer Verlag , span more than thirty volumes . His first published novel , Die drei Sprünge des Wang @-@ lung ( The Three Leaps of Wang Lun ) , appeared in 1915 and his final novel , Hamlet oder Die lange Nacht nimmt ein Ende ( Tales of a Long Night ) was published in 1956 , one year before his death .
Born in Stettin , Germany ( now Szczecin , Poland ) , to assimilated Jews , Döblin moved with his mother and siblings to Berlin when he was ten years old after his father had abandoned them . Döblin would live in Berlin for the almost all of the next forty @-@ five years , engaging with such key figures of the prewar and Weimar @-@ era German cultural scene as Herwarth Walden and the circle of Expressionists , Bertolt Brecht , and Thomas Mann . Only a few years after his rise to literary celebrity with the 1929 publication of Berlin Alexanderplatz , Döblin was forced into exile by the rise of the Nazi dictatorship . He spent 1933 – 1940 in France and then was forced to flee again at the start of the Second World War . Like many other German émigrés he spent the war years in Los Angeles , where he converted to Catholicism . He moved to West Germany after the war but did not feel at home in postwar Germany 's conservative cultural climate and returned to France . His final years were marked by poor health and financial difficulties , and his literary work was met with relative neglect .
Despite the canonic status of Berlin Alexanderplatz , Döblin is often characterized as an under @-@ recognized or even as a forgotten author ; while his work has received increasing critical attention ( mostly in German ) over the last few decades , he is much less well known by the reading public than other representatives of German modernism such as Thomas Mann , Bertolt Brecht , or Franz Kafka .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Bruno Alfred Döblin was born on 10 August 1878 at the house at Bollwerk 37 in Stettin ( Szczecin ) , a port city in what was then the Province of Pomerania . He was the fourth of five children born to Max Döblin ( 1846 – 1921 ) , a master tailor from Posen ( Poznań ) , and Sophie Döblin ( 1844 – 1920 ) , née Freudenheim , the daughter of a merchant . Their marriage was characterized by a tension between Max 's multifaceted artistic interests — to which Döblin would later attribute his and his siblings ' artistic inclinations — and Sophie 's cool pragmatism . The Döblins were assimilated Jews , and Alfred became aware of a broad , societal anti @-@ Semitism early on .
His parents ' marriage dissolved in July 1888 , when Max Döblin eloped with Henriette Zander , a seamstress twenty years his junior , and moved to America to start a new life . The catastrophic loss of his father was a central event in Döblin 's childhood and would be formative for his later life . Shortly thereafter , in October 1888 , Sophie and the five children moved to Berlin and took up residence in a small shabby apartment on the Blumenstraße in Berlin 's working @-@ class east . Döblin 's parents briefly reconciled in 1889 , when Max returned penniless from America ; the family moved to Hamburg in April 1889 , but when it came to light that Max had brought his lover back with him and was leading a double life , Sophie and the children returned to Berlin in September 1889 .
The sense of being déclassé , along with rocky experiences at school , made this a difficult time for Döblin . Although he had early been a good student , starting in his fourth year of Gymnasium his performance tended toward the mediocre . Furthermore , his oppositional tendencies against the stern conventionality of the partriarchal , militaristic Wilhelminian educational system , which stood in contrast to his artistic inclinations and his free thought , earned him the status of a rebel among his teachers . Despite his hatred for school , Döblin early became a passionate writer and reader , counting Spinoza , Schopenhauer , and Nietzsche , as well as Heinrich von Kleist , Friedrich Hölderlin , and Fyodor Dostoyevsky among his most important early influences . He wrote his first novel , Jagende Rosse ( Rushing Steeds ) , before completing school and dedicated it to the " Manes of Hölderlin " . He sent a copy to the prominent critic and philosopher Fritz Mauthner who returned it a few days later . However , wishing to hide his artistic inclinations from his mother , Döblin had sent the manuscript under a false name , and was not able to retrieve it at the post office ; he thus had to rewrite it entirely .
= = = 1900 – 1914 : University years and early career = = =
After receiving his Abitur in 1900 , Döblin enrolled at Friedrich Wilhelm University ( now Humboldt University of Berlin ) and began studying general medicine . In May 1904 he moved to Freiburg im Breisgau to continue his studies , concentrating on neurology and psychiatry . He began his dissertation ( " Disturbances of memory in Korsakoff 's Psychosis " ) in the winter semester of 1904 – 1905 at the Freiburg psychiatric clinic . His dissertation , completed in April 1905 , was published that year by Berlin 's Klett Verlag . He applied for assistantships in Berlin and in Stettin , where he was apparently turned down on account of his Jewish origins , before taking a short @-@ lived position as assistant doctor at a regional asylum in Regensburg . On 15 October 1906 he took up a position at the Berlin psychiatric clinic in Buch where he worked as an assistant doctor for nearly two years . He then transferred to the city hospital " Am Urban , " where he dedicated himself to internal medicine with a renewed interest . He opened his first private practice in October 1911 at Blücherstrasse 18 in Berlin 's Kreuzberg neighborhood , before moving the practice to Frankfurter Allee 184 in Berlin 's working @-@ class east .
While working in Buch he met Friede Kunke , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old nurse from a Protestant background with whom he became romantically involved . In the spring of 1909 he began seeing the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Erna Reiss , a medical student and daughter of a wealthy Jewish factory owner . Despite his continued involvement with Kunke , at the urging of his family he was reluctantly engaged to Reiss on 13 February 1911 and married her on 23 January 1912 ; his younger brother Hugo and Herwarth Walden served as best men . During the early part of his engagement to Reiss , he had been unaware that Kunke was pregnant : their son Bodo was born on 14 October 1911 and was raised by his grandmother , Elise Kunke , in Schleswig @-@ Holstein following Friede 's death from tuberculosis in 1918 . Until the end of his life , Döblin maintained loose contact with Bodo , and his treatment of Friede became a lasting source of guilt . Döblin 's first son with Erna Reiss , Peter Döblin , was born on 27 October 1912 , and was baptized a Protestant .
During his studies in Berlin , Döblin had written his second novel , Der Schwarze Vorhang ( The Black Curtain ) . The novel portrays the developing sexuality of its protagonist , Johannes , and explores the themes of love , hate , and sadism ; in its use of literary montage , The Black Curtain already presages the radical techniques that Döblin would later pioneer in Berlin Alexanderplatz . Introduced by a mutual acquaintance , Döblin met Georg Lewin , a music student better known as Herwarth Walden , who founded the Expressionist journal Der Sturm in 1910 . Der Sturm , modeled after Karl Kraus 's newspaper Die Fackel ( The Torch ) , would soon count Döblin among its most involved contributors , and provided him with a venue for the publication of numerous literary and essayistic contributions . Through Walden Döblin made the acquaintance of poet Else Lasker @-@ Schüler . At regular meetings at the Café des Westens on Kurfürstendamm or at the wine bar Dalbelli , Döblin got to know the circle of artists and intellectuals that would become central to the Expressionist movement in Berlin , including Peter Hille , Richard Dehmel , Erich Mühsam , Paul Scheerbart , and Frank Wedekind , among others . In October 1911 he met the painter Ernst Ludwig Kirchner , who painted several portraits of Döblin between 1912 and 1914 and illustrated some of Döblin 's literary works . Döblin 's early novel Der Schwarze Vorhang was published in Der Sturm , and in November 1912 the Munich publishing house Georg Müller published his collection of novellas under the title Die Ermordung einer Butterblume und andere Erzählungen . In May 1913 he completed his third novel The Three Leaps of Wang Lun ( Die drei Sprünge des Wang @-@ lun ) . Published in 1916 , this historical novel about political uprising in 18th @-@ century China was a literary breakthrough for Döblin , earning him literary acclaim , public recognition , and the prestigious Fontane Prize . He began writing Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine ( Wadzek 's Struggle with the Steam Turbine ) the following year , completing it by December 1914 although it was not published until 1918 .
= = = 1915 – 1933 : The First World War and the Weimar years = = =
To avoid conscription , Döblin volunteered in December 1914 and was posted to Saargemünd ( Sarreguemines ) as a doctor . Despite sharing in the widespread early enthusiasm for the war among German intellectuals , he soon developed a pacifist disposition . His son Wolfgang was born on 17 March 1915 , followed by the births of Klaus on 20 May 1917 and Stefan on 7 December 1926 . In Saargemünd the family lived in a small apartment at Neunkircherstraße 19 ; due to their financial situation they had to give up their Berlin apartment at the end of February 1915 .
At the end of August , 1916 , Döblin was awarded the Fontane Prize ( including a monetary award of 600 Marks ) for The Three Leaps of Wang Lun ( Die drei Sprünge des Wang @-@ lun ) , which tells the story of political upheaval in 18th century China . Following this recognition , Döblin set himself to work on his historical novel Wallenstein , set during the Thirty Years ' War . Döblin had to interrupt work on the novel in March 1917 because he had caught typhus , but was able to use the university library at Heidelberg during his convalescence in April and May to continue researching the Thirty Years ' War . Back in Saargemünd he came into conflict with his superiors due to the poor treatment of the patients ; on 2 August 1917 he was transferred to Hagenau ( Haguenau ) in Alsace , where the library of nearby Strassbourg helped complete Wallenstein by the beginning of 1919 .
At the beginning of 1919 Döblin moved into his new apartment and medical practice at Frankfurter Allee 340 in Berlin . The immediate postwar period was a turbulent time for him — his financial situation was dire , and the death of his sister Meta on 12 March 1919 as the result of an injury sustained during skirmishes between the Spartacists and nationalist troops in Berlin showed how volatile the situation in Germany was in the aftermath of the November Revolution . The years during and immediately after the war also marked Döblin 's growing politicization ; although he never joined a party he identified with the political left . During this time Döblin wrote a number of satirical and polemical political essays under the pseudonym " Linke Poot , " a dialectical variation of " Linke Pfote " ( Left Paw ) , eleven of which were published in 1921 in a volume called Der deutsche Maskenball ( The German Masked Ball ) .
In February 1921 he met the 21 @-@ year @-@ old photographer Charlotte ( " Yolla " ) Niclas ; the close romantic relationship between the two was to last many years , despite their age difference . The same year , following a family vacation to the Baltic coast , he began preparatory work on his science fiction novel Berge Meere und Giganten ( Mountains Seas and Giants ) , which would be published in 1924 . In 1920 Döblin joined the Association of German Writers ( Schutzverband Deutscher Schriftsteller ) , and in 1924 he became its president . In November 1921 he began reviewing plays for the Prager Tagblatt , and in 1925 joined the Gruppe 1925 , a discussion circle of progressive and communist intellectuals including Bertolt Brecht , Johannes R. Becher , Ernst Bloch , Hermann Kasack , Rudolf Leonhard , Walter Mehring , Robert Musil , Joseph Roth , Ernst Toller , Kurt Tucholsky , and Ernst Weiß , among others . It was likely Brecht , who counted Döblin among his significant influences , who introduced him to Erwin Piscator in 1928 .
At the end of September 1924 , he set out on a two @-@ month trip through Poland , subsidized by the Fischer Verlag and prompted in part by the anti @-@ Semitic pogroms in Berlin 's Scheunenviertel of 1923 , an event that awakened Döblin 's interest in Judaism . His description of his travels to Warsaw , Vilnius , Lviv , and Kraków , among other cities , was published in November 1925 under the title Reise in Polen ( Journey to Poland ) . From 1926 to 1927 Döblin worked on his free verse epic Manas , about a figure from Indian mythology , which was published in May 1927 . Manas , like his philosophical tract Das Ich über der Natur published the same year , proved to be a failure with the public . Thus despite his continued rise to prominence within the intellectual world of the Weimar Republic — in 1928 , for example , he was elected to the prestigious Prussian Academy of Arts with the persistent support of Thomas Mann — literary and economic success continued to elude Döblin .
This changed with the October 1929 publication of his novel Berlin Alexanderplatz which earned him national and global fame . One of the best known appraisals of the novel is Walter Benjamin 's essay , " Die Krisis des Romans " ( " The Crisis of the Novel " ) which sees in Berlin Alexanderplatz 's radical use of montage a solution to the impasses of the traditional novel . Döblin soon began transforming Berlin Alexanderplatz into a radio play and agreed to cowrite the screenplay for the film version that premiered on 8 October 1931 . The early 1930s marked the high point of Döblin 's fame . During this time he busied himself with lectures , readings , and the effort to contribute to a collective intellectual response to the growing power of the National Socialists . Just over a month after Hitler 's ascension to power , Döblin left Germany , crossing into Switzerland on 2 March 1933 .
= = = 1933 – 1957 : Exile and later life = = =
After a brief stay in Zürich , the family moved to Paris . Döblin 's closest acquaintances during this time were Claire and Yvan Goll , Hermann Kesten , Arthur Koestler , Joseph Roth , Hans Sahl , and Manès Sperber . Here he also saw Robert Musil , with whom he had kept up a sporadic relationship for over a decade , for the last time . Döblin finished his novel Babylonische Wandrung at the end of 1933 . In 1935 he began work on his Amazon Trilogy , which narrates the colonization and Christianization of South America and was published in 1937 – 1938 . During this time he also began work on his four @-@ part novel project November 1918 about the revolution in Germany at the end of the First World War . He acquired French nationality in October 1936 . In May 1939 he briefly visited the United States to take part in a PEN congress in New York . With other writers , he met with Roosevelt at the White House , and saw his old Berlin acquaintance Ernst Toller again , who was suffering from severe depression and killed himself shortly thereafter .
After the start of the Second World War the family fled Paris ; Döblin 's manuscripts were able to be brought into safekeeping in the basement of the Sorbonne . Between the start of the war in 1939 and the German occupation of France in 1940 , Döblin worked for the French ministry of information , writing counter @-@ propaganda texts against Nazi Germany with a group of French Germanists and journalists , as well as artists like Frans Masereel .
In 1940 , aged 62 , he was again uprooted by the German invasion of France , and spent weeks in a refugee camp in Mende . During this time he began attending mass at the cathedral in Mende , a turn towards Christianity that would culminate in his religious conversion the following year . On 3 September 1940 Alfred , Erna , and Stefan boarded the Nea Hellas in Lisbon , reaching New York six days later ; in October they moved to Los Angeles . Döblin worked briefly for Metro Goldwyn Mayer writing screenplays for 100 dollars a week , but his contract expired in October 1941 and was not renewed , despite the interventions of Thomas Mann and others . Alfred , Erna , and Stefan were baptized as Roman Catholics in Hollywood 's Blessed Sacrament Church on 30 November 1941 .
Döblin completed work on November 1918 in the spring of 1943 , but was unable to find a publisher . The only work of his that was published in German during his American exile was a private printing of 250 copies of the Nocturno episode from November 1918 . Döblin was embittered by his isolation and setbacks in exile , drawing a strong distinction between his own situation and that of more successful writers less oppressed by material concerns , such as Lion Feuchtwanger and Thomas Mann . In honor of his 65th birthday , Helene Weigel organized a party on 14 August 1943 in Santa Monica . In attendance were Thomas Mann , Franz Werfel , Lion Feuchtwanger , and Bertolt Brecht , among others . Heinrich Mann gave a speech , Fritz Kortner , Peter Lorre , and Alexander Granach read aloud from Döblin 's works , and he was presented with notes of congratulation and praise from Brecht , Max Horkheimer , and Alfred Polgar , among others . Compositions by Hanns Eisler were performed , and Blandine Ebinger sang Berlin chansons . Yet the festivities were dampened when Döblin gave a speech in which he mentioned his conversion to Catholicism ; the religious , moral tone proved alienating , and fell on unsympathetic ears .
In 1945 Döblin 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Stefan was called up for military service in the French army . That spring had brought the good news that Klaus was alive and in Switzerland after a period working for the French resistance , and the grim tidings that Wolfgang was dead , having committed suicide five years earlier . In October 1945 Alfred and Erna arrived in New York , sailing aboard the Argentine back to Europe . They first settled in Baden @-@ Baden where Döblin worked for the French military government as official representative for the office of public education ; he was tasked with approving manuscripts for publication , and vehemently opposed the approval of any texts by authors who had sympathized with National Socialism , such as Ernst Jünger or Gottfried Benn . In postwar Germany 's conservative cultural climate , Döblin was unable to draw on his earlier success as an author , yet continued his literary engagement with a series of publications and journals that aimed to rebuild Germany 's intellectual and cultural life , reintroducing the literature banned by the Nazis and fostering the growth of younger writers . Despite these efforts , Döblin was disappointed by the apparent continuity between the Nazi years and the postwar climate . His growing pessimism was fueled by his sense of isolation and marginalization within the postwar German literary scene . In 1953 Alfred and Erna returned to Paris despite the invitation by Brecht and Johannes R. Becher to settle in East Berlin .
His last novel , Hamlet oder Die lange Nacht nimmt ein Ende ( Tales of a Long Night ) , was published in 1956 , and was favorably received . Döblin 's remaining years were marked by poor health ( he had Parkinson 's disease ) and lengthy stays in multiple clinics and hospitals , including his alma mater , Freiburg University . Through the intervention of Theodor Heuss and Joachim Tiburtius , he was able to receive more money from the Berlin office in charge of compensating victims of Nazi persecution ; this , and a literary prize from the Mainz Academy in the sum of 10 @,@ 000 DM helped finance his growing medical expenses .
Alfred Döblin died in the hospital in Emmendingen on 26 June 1957 and was buried two days later in the village cemetery at Housseras next to his son Wolfgang . Erna took her life on 15 September and was buried next to Alfred .
= = Major works = =
= = = The Three Leaps of Wang Lun = = =
Die drei Sprünge des Wang @-@ lun ( The Three Leaps of Wang Lun ) was Döblin 's third novel ( although it was the first to be published as a book ) , and garnered him the Fontane Prize . Published in 1916 , ( although back @-@ dated to 1915 ) , this epic historical novel narrates upheaval and revolution in 18th @-@ century China , and was favorably received by critics , who praised its detailed and exotic depictions of China . Wang Lun also had an influence on younger German writers , including Lion Feuchtwanger , Anna Seghers , and Bertolt Brecht ; for the latter , Wang Lun provided an impulse for the development of the theory of epic theatre . In commercial sales , it is Döblin 's most successful novel after Berlin Alexanderplatz .
= = = Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine = = =
Döblin 's 1918 comic novel has been seen , in its experimental narrative technique , its refusal to psychologize its characters , and its depictions of Berlin as modern metropolis , as a precursor to Döblin 's better @-@ known Berlin Alexanderplatz . Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfturbine ( Wadzek 's Battle with the Steam Turbine ) tells the story of Wadzek , a factory owner locked in a losing battle with a more powerful competitor . His futile and increasingly delusional countermeasures culminate in the fortification and quixotic defense of his family 's garden house in suburban Reinickendorf . Following the dissipation of this endeavor , he suffers a breakdown and finally flees the country , eloping aboard a steamship bound for America that is powered by the steam turbines of his victorious competitor . Döblin wrote the novel in the fall of 1914 , submitting it to extensive stylistic revisions while serving as a doctor on the Western front ; it was published in May 1918 by the Fischer Verlag . In its stringent refusal of a tragic tone , the book earned the praise of a young Bertolt Brecht .
= = = Wallenstein = = =
Although Döblin 's 1920 epic about the Thirty Years ' War was in general favorably received by critics , he was disappointed with the reception because he felt he had created in Wallenstein a peerless work ; as a consequence , he wrote a scathing critique of critics which he published in 1921 under the title Der Epiker , sein Stoff und die Kritik ( The Epic Poet , his Material , and Critique ) . The novel centers on the tension between Ferdinand II , Holy Roman Emperor and his general , Albrecht von Wallenstein ; Wallenstein represents a new type of warfare characterized by ruthless Realpolitik and capitalist expansion while Ferdinand becomes increasingly overwhelmed by the course of events and gradually retreats from politics altogether . Döblin 's approach to narrating the war differed from prevailing historiography in that , rather than interpreting the Thirty Years ' War primarily as a religious conflict , he portrays it critically as the absurd consequence of a combination of national @-@ political , financial , and individual psychological factors . Döblin saw a strong similarity between the Thirty Years ' War and the First World War , during which he wrote Wallenstein . The novel is counted among the most innovative and significant historical novels in the German literary tradition .
= = = Berge Meere und Giganten = = =
Döblin 's 1924 science fiction novel recounts the course of human history from the 20th to the 27th century , portraying it as a catastrophic global struggle between technological mania , natural forces , and competing political visions . Berge Meere und Giganten ( Mountains Seas and Giants ) presciently invokes such topics as urbanization , the alienation from nature , ecological devastation , mechanization , the dehumanization of the modern world , as well as mass migration , globalization , totalitarianism , fanaticism , terrorism , state surveillance , genetic engineering , synthetic food , the breeding of humans , biochemical warfare , and others . Stylistically and structurally experimental , it was regarded as a difficult work when it first came out and has often polarized critics . Among others , Günter Grass has praised the novel 's continued relevance and insight .
= = = Berlin Alexanderplatz = = =
Generally considered Döblin 's masterpiece , Berlin Alexanderplatz has become an iconic text of the Weimar Republic . Published in 1929 , its innovative use of literary montage as well as its panoramic portrayal of a modern metropolis have earned it a place among the key works of literary modernism . Berlin Alexanderplatz tells the story of Franz Biberkopf , who as the novel opens has just been released from prison for killing his lover . Although he seeks to become respectable , he is quickly drawn into a struggle " with something that comes from without , that is unpredictable and looks like a destiny . " Biberkopf suffers a series of setbacks and catastrophes , including the murder of his lover and the loss of an arm . The novel earned Döblin global recognition and literary celebrity , and has been filmed twice , once in the 1931 Berlin @-@ Alexanderplatz , directed by Phil Jutzi and starring Heinrich George as Biberkopf , and then again in Rainer Werner Fassbinder 's 1980 14 @-@ part television film . In a 2002 poll of 100 noted writers from around the world , Berlin Alexanderplatz was named among the top 100 books of all time .
= = = November 1918 : A German Revolution = = =
November 1918 : A German Revolution ( November 1918 , eine deutsche Revolution ) is a novel tetralogy about the German Revolution of 1918 – 1919 . The four volumes — Vol . I : Bürger und Soldaten ( Citizens and Soldiers ) , Vol . II Verratenes Volk ( A People Betrayed ) , Vol . III , Heimkehr der Fronttruppen ( Return of the Frontline Troops ) , and Vol . IV , Karl und Rosa ( Karl and Rosa ) — together comprise the most significant work from Döblin 's period of exile ( 1933 – 1945 ) . The work was highly praised by figures such as Bertolt Brecht , and critic Gabriele Sander has described November 1918 as representing the culmination of Döblin 's work in the genre of the historical novel .
= = = Tales of a Long Night = = =
Hamlet oder Die lange Nacht nimmt ein Ende ( Tales of a Long Night ) ( 1956 ) was Döblin 's last novel . Set in England immediately after the Second World War , the novel narrates the story of Edward Allison , an English soldier who had been badly wounded during the war . Back among his family , Edward must deal with his war trauma , long buried family conflicts , and his destabilized sense of self . The novel treats such themes as the search for the self , guilt and responsibility , the struggle between the sexes , war and violence , and religion , among others . Döblin wrote the novel between August 1945 and October 1946 , although it was not published until a decade later . Upon its 1956 release by the East Berlin publishing house Rütten & Loening , the novel was well received . The reference to Hamlet in the German title was likely motivated by Döblin 's reading of Sigmund Freud 's interpretation of Shakespeare 's Hamlet .
= = Legacy = =
Döblin is generally considered one of the most important German writers of the twentieth century ; yet popular perception of his work rests almost exclusively on Berlin Alexanderplatz , considered the canonical German novel of the modern metropolis ( " Großstadtroman " ) . His writing is characterized by an innovative use of montage and perspectival play , as well as what he dubbed in 1913 a " fantasy of fact " ( " Tatsachenphantasie " ) — an interdisciplinary poetics that draws on modern discourses ranging from the psychiatric to the anthropological to the theological , in order to " register and articulate sensory experience and to open up his prose to new areas of knowledge . " His engagement with such key movements of the European avant @-@ garde as futurism , expressionism , dadaism , and Neue Sachlichkeit has led critic Sabina Becker to call him " perhaps the most significant representative of literary modernism in Berlin . "
In a 1967 essay , Günter Grass declared : " Without the Futurist elements of Döblin 's work from Wang Lun to Berlin Alexanderplatz , my prose is inconceivable . " Döblin was also an influence on writers such as W.G. Sebald and Bertolt Brecht ; as Brecht wrote in 1943 , " I learned more about the essence of the epic from Döblin than from anyone else . His epic writing and even his theory about the epic strongly influenced my own dramatic art . "
Modern , well @-@ edited , critical volumes of almost the complete œuvre have been appearing in German since the 1980s , published by Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag and , since 2008 , by the Fischer Verlag ; and the Internationale Alfred @-@ Döblin Kolloquien have been held every two years since the early 1980s . But only a handful of other works of fiction have ever appeared in English translations : The Three Leaps of Wang Lun ( trans . C. D. Godwin , Chinese University Press , Hong Kong , 1991 ) , and the November 1918 trilogy : A People Betrayed ( which also includes The Troops Return ) and Karl and Rosa ( trans . John E. Woods , Fromm International , 1983 and 1987 ) ; Tales of a Long Night ( trans John E Woods , From International , 1987 ; and the lesser @-@ known big @-@ city novel Men without Mercy ( trans . Trevor and Phyllis Blewitt , Howard Fertig , 1976 ) . Two works of autobiography have also been translated : Destiny 's Journey ( trans . Edna McCown , Paragon House , 1992 ) , the harrowing account of Döblin 's flight and exile in the 1940s ; and the account of his mid @-@ 1920s Journey to Poland ( trans J. Neugroschel , I. B. Tauris , 1991 ) .
Döblin 's papers and manuscripts are housed at the German Literature Archive in Marbach am Neckar .
= = Selected bibliography of works by Döblin = =
= Es ist euch gut , daß ich hingehe , BWV 108 =
Es ist euch gut , daß ich hingehe ( It is good for you that I leave ) , BWV 108 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig for Cantate Sunday , the fourth Sunday after Easter , and first performed it on 29 April 1725 .
It is the second of nine cantatas on texts by Christiana Mariana von Ziegler , with whom he collaborated at the end of his second cantata cycle . She used two quotations from the prescribed gospel from the Farewell discourses and closed the cantata with a stanza Paul Gerhardt 's " Gott Vater , sende deinen Geist " . The topic is the prediction of Jesus of his parting and the coming of the Spirit as a comforter . The first announcement is sung by the bass as the vox Christi , the second , in the centre of the work , by the chorus in three fugues combined in motet style but unified by similar themes . Bach scored the cantata for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo . He used elements of word @-@ painting , such as very long notes to illustrate firm belief , and sigh motifs interrupted by rests to illustrate the desiring heart .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his second year in Leipzig for the fourth Sunday after Easter , called Cantate . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle of James , " Every good gift comes from the Father of lights " ( James 1 : 17 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of John , Jesus announcing the Comforter in his Farewell discourses ( John 16 : 5 – 15 ) . In his second year Bach had composed chorale cantatas between the first Sunday after Trinity and Palm Sunday , but for Easter returned to cantatas on more varied texts , possibly because he lost his librettist .
Between Easter and Pentecost Bach ´ s congregation heard a series of nine cantatas with texts by a new librettist , Christiana Mariana von Ziegler . As the average interval between the performances was less than a week ( they were not only for Sundays ; there were additional ones for Ascension Day and Pentecost ) , Bach may have been composed at a correspondingly intense rate , although it is not known when he began work on them . The first of the series was Ihr werdet weinen und heulen , BWV 103 , followed a week later by Es ist euch gut , daß ich hingehe . It begins with a bass solo as the vox Christi delivering a quotation from the gospel ( John 16 : 7 ) ; a second quotation appears in movement 4 ( John 16 : 13 ) . Movements 2 and 3 deal with the hope for salvation ; movement 5 is a prayer for guidance until death . The poet used as the closing chorale the tenth stanza of Paul Gerhardt 's hymn " Gott Vater , sende deinen Geist " ( 1653 ) , expressing faith in God 's guidance .
= = = Publication = = =
The cantata text was published in 1728 in Ziegler 's first collection , Versuch in gebundener Schreibart . The version set by Bach was slightly different , as he shortened the text here as in other cantatas by the same librettist . The music survived in a holograph manuscript , but was not published until 1876 when the cantata appeared in the Bach Gesellschaft ´ s first complete edition of Bach ´ s work .
= = Music = =
= = = Structure and scoring = = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements , beginning with a biblical quotation for the vox Christi , Jesus speaking . A set of aria and recitative is followed by a chorus on another biblical quotation from the gospel , while an aria leads to the closing chorale . Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . The duration of the cantata is given as 20 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = = Movements = = =
The cantata presents similarities to the one Bach wrote the previous year for the same occasion , Wo gehest du hin ? BWV 166 .
= = = = 1 = = = =
The similarities begin with the first movement , which like that of the previous year ´ s cantata , is given to the bass as the vox Christi . The movement is the quotation of verse 7 from the gospel , beginning : " Es ist euch gut , daß ich hingehe ; denn so ich nicht hingehe , kömmt der Tröster nicht zu euch . " ( It is good for you that I leave ; for if I did not go , the Comforter would not come to you . ) It is between aria and arioso . An oboe d 'amore as the obbligato instrument plays extended melodies . Voice and oboe share the musical material , conveying " the mood of grieving at parting " .
= = = = 2 = = = =
The following aria , " Mich kann kein Zweifel stören " ( No doubt can disturb me ) , is dominated by a virtuoso solo violin . The words " Ich glaube " ( I believe ) are illustrated by very long notes in the voice , while an ostinato bass line renders " steadfastness " in a different way . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that Bach uses the key F @-@ sharp minor selectively , " often for slowish movements of great expressive force " , for example for the alto aria Buß und Reu from his St Matthew Passion .
= = = = 3 = = = =
A short secco recitative expresses " Dein Geist wird mich also regieren , Daß ich auf rechter Bahne geh " ( Thus Your Spirit will guide me , so that I walk on the right path ) .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The next biblical quotation , verse 13 of the gospel , " Wenn aber jener , der Geist der Wahrheit , kommen wird , der wird euch in alle Wahrheit leiten . " ( But when that one , the Spirit of Truth , shall come , He shall lead you into all truth . ) is rendered by the choir . It is divided in three sections , similar to a da capo form . All three parts are fugues , combined in motet style , the instruments playing mostly colla parte with the voices . The second section begins " Denn er wird nicht vom ihm selber reden " ( For He will not speak of His own accord ) ; the third section expresses " und was zukünftig ist , wird er verkündigen " ( and what is to come , He will foretell ) , on a fugue subject similar to the first , giving the movement a " feeling of unity " .
= = = = 5 = = = =
The last aria , " Was mein Herz von dir begehrt " ( What my heart desires from You ) , is accompanied by the strings , dominated by the first violin . The word " Herz " ( heart ) is rendered in sighing motifs , intensified by following rests .
= = = = 6 = = = =
The closing chorale , " Dein Geist , den Gott vom Himmel gibt , der leitet alles , was ihn liebt " ( Your Spirit , which God sends from heaven , leads everything that loves Him ) , is a four @-@ part setting on the melody of " Kommt her zu mir , spricht Gottes Sohn " . The bass line is pacing forward constantly .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; vocal ensembles with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green .
= Far Eastern Party =
The Far Eastern Party was a sledging component of the 1911 – 14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition , which investigated the previously unexplored coastal regions of Antarctica west of Cape Adare . Led by expedition commander Douglas Mawson , the party aimed to explore the area far to the east of their main base in Adélie Land , pushing about 500 miles ( 800 km ) towards Victoria Land . Accompanying Mawson were Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers , and the Swiss ski expert Xavier Mertz ; the party used sledge dogs to increase their speed across the ice . Initially they made good progress , crossing two huge glaciers on their route south @-@ east .
On 14 December 1912 , with the party more than 311 miles ( 501 km ) from the safety of the main base at Cape Denison , Ninnis and the sledge he was walking beside broke through the snow lid of a crevasse and were lost . Their supplies now severely compromised , Mawson and Mertz turned back west , gradually shooting the remaining sledge dogs for food to supplement their scarce rations . As they crossed the first glacier on their return journey Mertz became sick , making progress difficult . After almost a week of making very little headway Mertz died , leaving Mawson to carry on alone .
For almost a month he pulled his sledge across the Antarctic , crossing the second glacier , despite an illness that increasingly weakened him . Mawson reached the comparative safety of Aladdin 's Cave — a food depot 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) from the main base — on 1 February 1913 , only to be trapped there for a week while a blizzard raged outside . As a result , he missed the ship back to Australia ; the SY Aurora had sailed on 8 February , just hours before his return to Cape Denison , after waiting for more than three weeks . With a relief party , Mawson remained at Cape Denison until the Aurora returned the following summer in December 1913 .
The causes of Mertz 's death and Mawson 's related illness remain uncertain ; a 1969 study suggested hypervitaminosis A , presumably caused by the men eating the livers of their Greenland Huskies , which are now known to be unusually high in vitamin A. While this is considered the most likely theory , dissenting opinions suggest prolonged cold exposure or psychological stresses . In 1976 explorer and mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary described Mawson 's month @-@ long journey as " probably the greatest story of lone survival in Polar exploration " .
= = Background = =
The Australasian Antarctic Expedition , commanded by Douglas Mawson , explored part of East Antarctica between 1911 and 1914 . The expedition 's main base was established in January 1912 at Cape Denison in Commonwealth Bay , Adélie Land . This was much farther west than originally intended ; dense pack ice had prevented the expedition ship SY Aurora from landing closer to Cape Adare , the original eastern limit . Only after the Aurora — heading west — had rounded the ice tongue of the Mertz Glacier was a landing made .
Battling katabatic winds that swept down from the Antarctic Plateau , the shore party erected their hut and began preparations for the following summer 's sledging expeditions . The men readied clothing , sledges , tents and rations , conducted limited survey parties , and deployed several caches of supplies . The most notable of these depots was Aladdin 's Cave , excavated from the ice on the slope 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) to the south of the main hut .
On 27 October 1912 Mawson outlined the summer sledging program . Of the seven sledging parties that would depart from Cape Denison , three would head east . The Eastern Coastal Party , led by the geologist Cecil Madigan , was charged with exploring beyond the Mertz Glacier tongue ; they would initially be supported by the Near Eastern Party led by Frank Stillwell , which would then turn to mapping the area between Cape Denison and the glacier .
The final party , led by Mawson , would push rapidly inland to the south of the Coastal Party towards Victoria Land , an area he had explored during Ernest Shackleton 's British Antarctic Expedition in 1908 – 09 . He hoped to travel about 500 miles ( 800 km ) east , collecting geological data and specimens , mapping the coast , and claiming territory for the crown .
Assisting him on this Far Eastern Party would be Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers , and the Swiss ski expert Xavier Mertz . They were in charge of the expedition 's sledge dogs — Greenland Huskies — who would be crucial if the party was to cover the distance at the speed Mawson intended . Ninnis and Mertz had spent the winter preparing the dogs for the journey , sewing harnesses and teaching them to run in teams with the sledges . Each of the parties was required to return to Cape Denison by 15 January 1913 , to allow time for the Aurora to collect them and escape Antarctic waters unencumbered by the winter sea ice .
= = Journey eastwards = =
Blizzards prevented the parties from leaving Cape Denison until 10 November 1912 , four days after the scheduled start date . In his diary , Mertz recorded the clearing weather as " definitely a good omen " . Mawson wrote a short letter to his fiancée , Paquita Delprat :
The weather is fine this morning though the wind still blows . We shall get away in an hour 's time . I have two good companions , Dr Mertz and Lieut . Ninnis . It is unlikely that any harm will happen to us , but should I not return to you in Australia , please know that I truly loved you . I must be closing now as the others are waiting .
Allowing Madigan and Stillwell 's parties a head @-@ start , Mawson , Ninnis , Mertz and the seventeen dogs left Cape Denison early in the afternoon , reaching Aladdin 's Cave four hours later . Stopping for the night , they took on extra supplies and rearranged the sledges . The first team of dogs would haul a train of two sledges , which collectively carried half the weight of the party 's supplies . The remaining supplies were put on the third sledge , towed by the second dog team .
Heading south the following day to avoid crevasses to the east , they travelled about 8 miles ( 13 km ) before poor weather forced them to stop and camp . Strong winds confined them to the tent until 13 November , and they were able to travel just a short distance before the weather picked up again . For three more days they remained in their tent , unable even to light the stove . When the weather cleared on 16 November , Madigan and Stillwell 's parties joined them . The three parties travelled together for much of the following day , before Mawson 's party separated and pushed on ahead in the late afternoon .
= = = Mertz and Ninnis Glaciers = = =
Heading south @-@ east towards the Mertz Glacier , with Mertz skiing ahead and Mawson and Ninnis driving the dogs , the party covered 15 miles ( 24 km ) on 18 November . This was despite encountering sastrugi — ridges in the ice caused by wind — as high as 3 feet ( 91 cm ) , that caused the dogs to slip and the sledges to roll . During the day they passed two peaks , which Mawson named Madigan Nunatak and Aurora Peak , after the leader of the Eastern Coastal Party and the expedition 's ship . The following day they began the steep descent to the Mertz Glacier . After the sledges several times overtook the dogs , the huskies were allowed to run free down the slope .
Following a particularly steep descent the following day , half of Mawson 's team of dogs — reattached to his sledges — were almost lost when they fell into a crevasse . They were hauled out , but Mawson decided to camp when one of the dogs , Ginger Bitch , gave birth to the first in a litter of fourteen pups .
Over the next several days , the party continued across the glacier . They developed a method of crossing the many crevasses ; the forerunner , on skis , would cross the snow covering the hole ( the lid ) , and once across the first of the two dog teams would follow . Only after the first dog team was across would the second follow , " otherwise " , wrote Mawson , " the dogs in the rear would make a course direct for wherever the front dogs happened to be , cutting across corners and probably dragging their sledge sideways into a crevasse " . But despite their precautions Ninnis fell down and was rescued from three crevasses , once when they found they had pitched their tent on its lip .
After Mawson slipped into a crevasse , they began to tie themselves to their sledges as a precaution . Ninnis developed photokeratitis ( snow @-@ blindness ) , which Mawson treated with zinc sulfate and cocaine hydrochloride . They were also losing dogs ; one broke his leg and was shot , another fell ill , and a third was lost down a crevasse . On 24 November , the party reached the eastern side of the glacier and ascended to the plateau .
On level ground again , they began to make quick progress . They awoke on the morning of 27 November to find another glacier ( later known as the Ninnis Glacier ) far larger than the first . As with the first glacier , they had to unhitch the dogs from the sledges and slowly make the treacherous descent . Once at the bottom of the glacier they spent four days crossing fields of crevasses , battling strong winds and poor light that made navigation difficult .
In the harsh conditions , the dogs began to grow restless ; one of them , Shackleton , tore open the men 's food bag and devoured a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) pack of butter , crucial for their nourishment to supplement the hoosh . On 30 November , the party reached the eastern limit of the glacier and began the ascent to the plateau beyond , only to find themselves confronted at the top by sastrugi so sharp @-@ edged the dogs were useless . Worse still , temperatures rose to 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) , melting the snow and making pulling difficult ; the party switched to travelling at night to avoid the worst of the conditions .
From atop the ridge on the eastern side of the Ninnis Glacier , Mawson began to doubt the accuracy of the reports of land to the east by Charles Wilkes during the 1838 – 42 United States Exploring Expedition . By Wilkes ' reckoning , Mawson recorded in his diary , " We now appear to be off the real continent edge . " Concerned about overlap with Madigan 's party to the north , he turned his party south . They made good progress initially , but beginning on 6 December a blizzard confined them to their tent for three days . On 9 December , they set off again , but Ninnis was struggling . He had developed neuralgia on the left side of his face and a whitlow on one of his fingers . The latter was making sleep difficult for him , and on 13 December Mawson lanced the finger .
= = = Death of Ninnis = = =
On the evening of 13 December Mawson and Mertz rearranged the sledges . The rear @-@ most sledge , which had carried the most weight , was well @-@ worn , and they decided to abandon it . The remaining supplies were re @-@ distributed between the remaining two sledges . Most of the important supplies — the tent and most of the food — were stored on the new rear sledge ; if they were to lose a sledge down a crevasse , they reasoned , it would be the front , less @-@ vital sledge . As the rear sledge was heavier , the strongest of remaining dogs were assigned to pull it . At the camp they left a small amount of supplies , including the abandoned sledge and a tent cover , without the floor or poles .
By noon the next day they had covered 311 miles ( 501 km ) from the Cape Denison hut . Mertz was ahead on skis , breaking trail . Mawson sat on the first sledge ; Ninnis walked beside the second . In his diary that night , Mertz recounted :
Around 1 pm , I crossed a crevasse , similar to the hundred previous ones we had passed during the last weeks . I cried out " crevasse ! " , moved at right angle , and went forward . Around five minutes later , I looked behind . Mawson was following , looking at his sledge in front of him . I couldn 't see Ninnis , so I stopped to have a better look . Mawson turned round to know the reason I was looking behind me . He immediately jumped out of his sledge , and rushed back . When he nodded his head , I followed him , driving back his sledge .
Ninnis , his sledge and dog team had fallen through a crevasse 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide with straight , ice walls . On a ledge deep in the hole , Mawson and Mertz could see the bodies of two dogs — one still alive , but seriously injured — and the remains of Ninnis ' sledge . There was no sign of their companion . They measured the distance to the ledge as 150 feet ( 46 m ) , too far for their ropes to reach . " Dog ceased to moan shortly " , wrote Mawson in his diary that night . " We called and sounded for three hours , then went a few miles to a hill and took position observations . Came back , called & sounded for an hour . Read the burial service . "
= = Return = =
Along with the heavy @-@ weather tent , most of their own food and all of the dogs ' food , they had lost the pickaxe , the shovel , and Mertz 's waterproof overpants and helmet . On Mawson 's sledge they had their stove , fuel , sleeping bags , and ten days ' worth of food . Their best immediate hope was to reach the camp of two days earlier where they had left the abandoned sledge and supplies , 15 miles ( 24 km ) west . They reached it in five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hours , where Mertz used the tent cover , with the runners from the abandoned sledge and a ski as poles , to erect a shelter .
They were faced with two possible routes back to Cape Denison . The first option was to make for the coast , where they could supplement their meagre supplies with seal meat , and hope to meet with Madigan 's party ; that would considerably lengthen the journey , and the sea ice in summer could not be relied on . Or , pushing slightly to the south of their outward route , they could hope to avoid the worst of the crevasses and aim for speed . Mawson chose the inland route , which meant that in the absence of fresh seal meat they would have to resort to eating their remaining dogs . The first dog — George — was killed the following morning , and of his meat some was fried for the men and the rest fed to the now starving dogs . " On the whole it was voted good " wrote Mawson of the meat , " though it had a strong , musty taste and was so stringy that it could not be properly chewed " .
Before setting off again they raised the flag — which they had forgotten to do at their furthest point — and claimed the land for the crown . With the temperature rising , they switched to travelling at night to take advantage of the harder surface the cold provided . With the five remaining dogs , Mawson and Mertz pushed on . Starving , the dogs began to struggle ; two more — Johnson and Mary — were shot and divided between men and dogs over the following days . Mawson and Mertz found most of the meat tough , but enjoyed the liver ; it , at least , was tender . With the pulling power of the dogs now severely depleted , Mertz stopped making trail and instead helped Mawson to pull the sledge . Despite the challenges , they made good progress ; in the first four nights they travelled 60 miles ( 97 km ) . As they approached the Ninnis Glacier on 21 December , Haldane — once the largest and strongest of the dogs — was shot .
= = = Death of Mertz = = =
Both men were suffering , but Mertz in particular started to feel ill . He complained of stomach pains , and this began to slow them down . Pavlova was killed , leaving only one remaining dog . Mawson decided to lighten their sledge , and much of the equipment — including the camera , photographic films , and all of the scientific equipment save the theodolite — was abandoned . On 29 December , the day they cleared the Ninnis Glacier , the last dog was killed . Mawson recorded : " Had a great breakfast off Ginger 's skull — thyroids and brain " . Two days later Mawson recorded that Mertz was " off colour " ; Mertz wrote that he was " really tired [ and ] shall write no more " .
They made 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) on 31 December , no progress for the following two days , and 5 miles more on 3 January . " [ The ] cold wind frost @-@ bit Mertz 's fingers " recorded Mawson , " and he is generally in a very bad condition . Skin coming off legs , etc — so had to camp though going was good . " Not until 6 January did they make any more progress ; they went 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before Mertz collapsed . The following day Mawson placed Mertz onto the sledge in his sleeping bag and continued , but was forced to stop and camp when Mertz 's condition again deteriorated . Mawson recorded :
He is very weak , becomes more and more delirious , rarely being able to speak coherently . He will eat or drink nothing . At 8 pm he raves & breaks a tent pole . Continues to rave & call ' Oh Veh , Oh Veh ' [ O weh ! , ' Oh dear ! ' ] for hours . I hold him down , then he becomes more peaceful & I put him quietly in the bag . He dies peacefully at about 2 am on morning of 8th .
Strong winds prevented Mawson from continuing for two days . Instead , he prepared for travelling alone , removing the rearmost half from the sledge , and rearranging its cargo . To save having to carry excess kerosene for the stove , he boiled the remainder of the dog meat . Dragging Mertz 's body in the sleeping bag from the tent , Mawson constructed a rough cairn from snow blocks to cover it , and used two spare beams from the sledge to form a cross , which he placed on the top . The following day he read the burial service .
= = = Alone = = =
As the weather cleared on 11 January , Mawson continued west , estimating the distance back to Cape Denison at 100 miles ( 160 km ) . He travelled 2 miles before pain in his feet forced him to stop ; he found that the soles of his feet had separated as a complete layer . Applying lanolin to his feet and wrapping them in several pairs of socks under his boots , he continued . " My whole body is apparently rotting from lack of nourishment " he recorded , " frost @-@ bitten fingertips festering , mucous membrane of nose gone , saliva glands of mouth refusing duty , skin coming off whole body " . Averaging around 5 miles a day , he began to cross the Mertz Glacier . On 17 January he broke through the lid of a crevasse , but the rope around his waist held him to the sledge and halted his fall .
I had time to say to myself " So this is the end " [ Mawson recorded ] , expecting every moment the sledge to crash on my head and both of us to go to the bottom unseen below . Then I thought of the food left uneaten in the sledge — and , as the sledge stopped without coming down , I thought of Providence again giving me a chance . The chance looked very small as the rope had sawed into the overhanging lid , my finger ends all damaged , myself weak ... With the feeling that Providence was helping me I made a great struggle , half getting out , then slipping back again several times , but at last just did it . Then I felt grateful to Providence ... who has so many times already helped me .
To save himself from future crevasses , Mawson constructed a rope ladder , which he carried over his shoulder and was attached to the sledge . It paid off almost immediately , and twice in the following days it allowed him to climb from crevasses . Once out of the Mertz Glacier his mileage increased , and on 28 January Madigan Nunatak came into view . The following day , after travelling 5 miles , a cairn covered with black cloth appeared about 300 yards ( 270 m ) to his right . In it he found food and a note from Archibald Lang McLean , who along with Frank Hurley and Alfred Hodgeman had been sent out by Aurora 's captain John King Davis to search for the Far Eastern Party .
From the note , Mawson learned he was 21 miles ( 34 km ) south @-@ east of Aladdin 's Cave , and near two further food depots . The note also reported on the other parties of the expedition — all had returned to the hut safely — and on Roald Amundsen 's attainment of the South Pole in December 1911 . The cairn had been left there just six hours before , when the three men had returned to the hut . Struggling on his injured feet and lacking crampons ( he had thrown his away after he crossed the Mertz Glacier ) , Mawson took three days to reach Aladdin 's Cave .
Although supplies had been left in Aladdin 's Cave — including fresh fruit — there were not the spare crampons he had expected . Without them he could not hope to descend the steep ice slope to the hut , and so he began to fashion his own , collecting nails from every available source and hammering them into wood from spare packing cases . Even when completed , a blizzard confined him to the cave , and only on 8 February was he able to begin the descent . Nearing the hut , he was spotted by three men working outside , who rushed up the hill to meet him .
= = Aftermath = =
The Aurora arrived at Cape Denison on 13 January 1913 . When Mawson 's party failed to return , Davis sailed her east along the coast as far as the Mertz Glacier tongue , searching for the party . Finding no sign and reaching the end of the navigable ice @-@ free water , they returned to Cape Denison . The oncoming winter concerned Davis , and on 8 February — just hours before Mawson 's return to the hut — the ship departed Commonwealth Bay , leaving six men behind as a relief party . Upon Mawson 's return , the Aurora was recalled by wireless radio , but powerful katabatic winds sweeping down from the plateau prevented the ship 's boat from reaching the shore to collect the men .
The Aurora returned to Cape Denison the following summer , in mid @-@ December , to take the men home . The delay may have saved Mawson 's life ; he later told Phillip Law , then @-@ director of Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions ( ANARE ) , that he did not believe he could have survived the sea journey so soon after his ordeal .
The cause of Mawson and Mertz 's illnesses remains in part a mystery . At the time , McLean — the expedition 's chief surgeon and one of the men who had remained at Cape Denison — attributed their sickness to colitis ; Mawson wrote in The Home of the Blizzard , his official account of the expedition , that Mertz died of fever and appendicitis . A 1969 study by Sir John Cleland and R. V. Southcott of the University of Adelaide concluded that the symptoms Mawson described — hair , skin and weight loss , depression , dysentery and persistent skin infections — indicated the men had suffered hypervitaminosis A , an excessive intake of vitamin A. This is found in unusually high quantities in the livers of Greenland Huskies , of which both Mertz and Mawson consumed large amounts .
While hypervitaminosis A is the generally accepted medical diagnosis for Mertz 's death and Mawson 's illness , the theory has its detractors . Law believed it was " completely unproven ... The symptoms that were described are exactly the ones you get from cold exposure . You don 't have to predicate a theory of this sort to explain the soles coming off your feet . " A 2005 article in The Medical Journal of Australia by Denise Carrington @-@ Smith suggested it may have been " the psychological stresses related to the death of a close friend and the deaths of the dogs he had cared for " , and a switch from a predominately vegetarian diet that killed Mertz , not hypervitaminosis A.
Suggestions of cannibalism — that Mawson may have eaten Mertz after his death — surfaced during Mawson 's lecture tour of the United States following the expedition . Several reports in American newspapers quoted Mawson as saying he considered eating Mertz , but these claims were denied by Mawson , who labelled them " outrageous " and an " invention " . Mawson 's biographers believe the suggestion of cannibalism is probably wrong ; Beau Riffenburgh notes that Mawson nursed Mertz for days , even at the possible risk to his own life . Moreover , he notes , Mawson had no way of knowing why Mertz died ; eating his flesh could possibly have been very dangerous . These sentiments are echoed by Philip Ayres , who also notes that with Mertz 's death Mawson had sufficient rations without having to resort to cannibalism . Law , who knew Mawson well , believed " He was a man of very solid , conservative morals . It would have been impossible for him to have considered it . "
In November 1913 , shortly before the Aurora arrived to return them to Australia , the men remaining at Cape Denison erected a memorial cross for Mertz and Ninnis on Azimuth Hill to the north @-@ west of the main hut . The cross , constructed from pieces of a broken radio mast , was accompanied by a plaque cut from wood from Mertz 's bunk . The cross still stands , although the crossbar has required reattaching several times , and the plaque was replaced with a replica in 1986 . The two glaciers the Far Eastern Party crossed — previously unnamed — were named by Mawson for Mertz and Ninnis . At a celebration in the centre of Adelaide on his return from Antarctica , Mawson praised his dead companions : " The survivors might have an opportunity of doing something more , but these men had done their all " .
Mawson 's return was celebrated at the Adelaide Town Hall , in an event attended by the Governor @-@ General , Lord Denman . A typical speaker stated that " Mawson has returned from a journey that was absolutely unparalleled in the history of exploration — one of the greatest illustrations of how the sternest affairs of Nature were overcome by the superb courage , power and resolve of man " . Including the Far Eastern Party , sledging parties from the Cape Denison base covered over 2 @,@ 600 miles ( 4 @,@ 200 km ) of previously unexplored land ; the expedition 's Western Base Party on the Shackleton Ice Shelf , under Frank Wild , covered a further 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) .
The expedition was the first to use wireless radio in the Antarctic — transmitting back to Australia via a relay station established on Macquarie Island — and made several important scientific discoveries . First published in 1915 , Mawson 's account of the expedition , The Home of the Blizzard , devotes two chapters to the Far Eastern Party ; one contemporary reviewer commented that " undoubtedly to the general public the interest of the book centres in [ this ] moving account " .
A later analysis by J. Gordon Hayes , while commending most of the expedition , was critical of Mawson 's decision not to use skis , but Fred Jacka , writing in the Australian Dictionary of Biography , suggests that " for Mawson and Ninnis , who were manoeuvring heavy sledges , this would have been difficult much of the time " . In his 1976 foreword to Lennard Bickel 's book on the Australasian Antarctic Expedition , explorer and mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary described Mawson 's journey as " probably the greatest story of lone survival in Polar exploration " .
= USS Louisiana ( BB @-@ 19 ) =
USS Louisiana ( BB @-@ 19 ) was a Connecticut @-@ class battleship of the United States Navy . She was the second member of the class of six pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , and the third ship to carry her name . Louisiana was laid down in February 1903 , launched in August 1904 , and commissioned in June 1906 . She was a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) battleship capable of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Her main armament consisted of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns supported by a mixed secondary battery of 7 in ( 178 mm ) and 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns .
Louisiana primarily operated along the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean during her career . In 1908 – 09 , she took part in the world cruise of the Great White Fleet . A pair of trips to European waters took place in 1910 and 1911 . From 1913 , she began to become involved in the Mexican Revolution , as the US Navy began to send ships to protect American interests in the country . This activity culminated in the US occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 . During World War I , Louisiana was employed as a training ship before serving as a convoy escort in late 1918 . After the war ended that year , she was used to ferry American soldiers back from France . With this work completed , she was decommissioned in October 1920 and broken up for scrap at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1923 .
= = Design = =
Louisiana was 456 @.@ 3 ft ( 139 @.@ 1 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 @.@ 9 ft ( 23 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 24 @.@ 5 ft ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 666 long tons ( 17 @,@ 949 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 827 officers and enlisted men , though this increased to 881 and later to 896 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets amidships and the 7 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twenty 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . She also carried four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Louisiana carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
Louisiana 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The secondary turrets had 7 in ( 180 mm ) of frontal armor . The conning tower had 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Louisiana was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in Newport News , Virginia on 7 February 1903 . Her completed hull was launched on 27 August 1904 , and she was commissioned into the fleet on 2 June 1906 . The ship then conducted a shakedown cruise off the coast of New England before being ordered to Cuba . She left the United States on 15 September with Secretary of War William Howard Taft and Assistant Secretary of State Robert Bacon aboard ; they were requested as a peace commission by Cuban President Tomás Estrada Palma to suppress an insurrection in the country . Taft and Bacon helped to create a provisional government , during which time Louisiana remained in Cuba . After their work was completed , Taft and Bacon returned to the ship , which took them back to Fortress Monroe , Virginia .
On 8 November , Louisiana carried President Theodore Roosevelt from Piney Point , Maryland to Panama , where the Panama Canal was being built . After inspecting the progress of construction , Roosevelt boarded Louisiana and made a visit to Puerto Rico to examine the new government building there before continuing on to Piney Point , arriving on 26 November . Over the course of the following year , the ship made a series of cruises to American ports , including New Orleans and Norfolk , and visits to Havana and Guantanamo Bay in Cuba . During this period , she also took part in training exercises off New England .
Louisiana joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907 , when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe . The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland .
After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt .
Louisiana underwent an extensive overhaul after returning from the voyage , after which she conducted training maneuvers in the Atlantic . Captain Washington Irving Chambers took command of the ship on 1 June . On 1 November 1910 , she was assigned to the 2nd Division of the Atlantic Fleet , which crossed the Atlantic to visit British and French cities . A second trip to Europe followed in 1911 , this time to the Baltic Sea . There , the ships stopped in Copenhagen , Denmark , Trälhavet , Sweden , Kronstadt , Russia , and Kiel , Germany . They were inspected by the monarchs of each country . The worsening unrest of the Mexican Revolution led the United States to begin intervening in the conflict to protect American interests ; in support of these interventions , Louisiana made three trips to Mexico between July 1913 and September 1915 . The first lasted from 6 July to 29 December 1913 . The second , from 14 April to 8 August 1914 , supported the United States occupation of Veracruz . The third deployment lasted from 17 August to 24 September 1915 .
After returning from the last operation , Louisiana was reduced to reserve status at Norfolk and employed as a training ship for midshipmen and naval militia units . Following the United States ' declaration of war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , Louisiana was used to train gunners and engine room personnel . During this period , she was involved in a gunnery accident . During training on 1 June 1918 , the crews for three of the 7 @-@ inch guns aboard the battleship New Hampshire accidentally began firing at one of the submarine chasers present ; they fired several salvos before they received the order to cease fire . One of the shells struck Louisiana , killing one man and wounding several more . The ship was thereafter used to examine one of Arthur Pollen 's Argo Clocks , a fire control system that incorporated the first mechanical analog computer . The system was installed starting on 19 June , with work being completed by 1 July .
In September 1918 , she was reassigned as a convoy escort ; her first operation covered a convoy to Halifax on the 25th of the month . This duty did not last long , as the Germans signed the Armistice that ended the war on 11 November . Louisiana was then used to transport American soldiers back from France , starting on 24 December . The first trip was made in company with New Hampshire , and arrived in Brest , France on 5 January 1919 . Between the two of them , they carried 2 @,@ 169 men back to the United States . She made three additional trips to Brest in this role . After this task ended , she was transferred to the Philadelphia Navy Yard , where she was decommissioned on 20 October 1920 . The ship was eventually sold for scrap on 1 November 1923 .
= Hurricane Roslyn ( 1986 ) =
Hurricane Roslyn was the strongest hurricane in the 1986 Pacific hurricane season . The 17th and final named storm of the season , Roslyn developed on October 15 to the south of Mexico . Its movement was initially guided by a ridge to its north , and it became a tropical storm on October 16 and a hurricane a day later . The hurricane reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on October 19 before weakening and turning to the northeast . Roslyn ultimately moved ashore near Mazatlán , Sinaloa as a minimal hurricane , where it caused minimal damage due to the light population affected . It rapidly dissipated , although the remnants brought precipitation to Texas and other portions of the central and southern United States . There were no fatalities , and reported damage was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
The final named storm of the season originated from a tropical disturbance that crossed Nicaragua into the eastern Pacific Ocean . With warm waters and increasing cyclonic organization , it developed into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Four on October 15 offshore Guatemala . The system moved quickly west @-@ northwestward under the influence of a ridge over Mexico . Quickly intensifying , the depression attained tropical storm status early on October 16 ; it was given the name Roslyn by the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center . An eye became visible on satellite imagery , and by October 17 the storm reached hurricane status , while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) south of Acapulco , Guerrero .
As water temperatures remained very warm along its path , the hurricane was able to intensify quickly . Roslyn reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) 48 hours after attaining hurricane status , while located about 550 miles ( 890 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima ; that made it the strongest hurricane of the season . Roslyn maintained peak intensity for about 18 hours , during which it turned more to the northwest in response to a powerful advancing cold front . On October 20 , the hurricane curved northeastward as steady weakening ensued . After bypassing southeast of the Baja California Peninsula , Hurricane Roslyn moved ashore on October 22 at Mazatlán , Sinaloa with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The low @-@ level center rapidly dissipated , although the upper @-@ level circulation continued northeastward along the advancing cold front . A frontal low developed in the western Gulf of Mexico , which moved over southeastern Texas and later through the Mississippi Valley . The original upper @-@ level circulation maintained its northeast movement , bringing rainfall to the southeastern United States .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to the hurricane 's landfall in Mexico , officials in Mazatlán executed the evacuation of over 2 @,@ 000 people in vulnerable coastal areas ; such preparations prevented any deaths or injuries . Additionally , the owners of fishing vessels were advised to secure their properties by moving them to a safer area . As a result , only one yacht was sunk during the hurricane , and no major damage was reported by the fishing industry . Prior to moving ashore , Roslyn dropped light rainfall in extreme southern Baja California Sur . On the mainland , precipitation extended to the southeast and northwest of where the hurricane moved ashore ; the peak total was 13 @.@ 11 inches ( 33 @.@ 30 cm ) to the southeast of Mazatlán . The brunt of the storm missed Mazatlán , instead affecting a sparsely @-@ populated area . The highest reported winds from a land station were 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) , with gusts to 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Roslyn produced some flooding , but no serious damage . Impact was limited to flooded homes and factories , as well as some crop damage and beach erosion .
The remnants of Hurricane Roslyn produced heavy rainfall across the central and southern United States . In Matagorda , Texas , a total of 13 @.@ 8 inches ( 35 @.@ 05 cm ) was reported , which was the highest rainfall total anywhere along Roslyn 's path . The system dropped upwards of 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 70 cm ) in isolated locations of Alabama , Arkansas , Alabama , Georgia , and the Carolinas . The outskirts of the remnants of Roslyn brought rainfall to areas still recovering from significant flooding , partially caused by the earlier Hurricane Paine . Clouds from Roslyn began affecting the southern United States a day before it made its original landfall . The storm prompted flash flood watches in southeastern Texas , and the resulting rainfall flooded roadways and streams .
= Mercury ( element ) =
Mercury is a chemical element with symbol Hg and atomic number 80 . It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum ( / haɪˈdrɑːrdʒərəm / ) . A heavy , silvery d @-@ block element , mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure ; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine , though metals such as caesium , gallium , and rubidium melt just above room temperature .
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar ( mercuric sulfide ) . The red pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide .
Mercury is used in thermometers , barometers , manometers , sphygmomanometers , float valves , mercury switches , mercury relays , fluorescent lamps and other devices , though concerns about the element 's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favor of alternatives such as alcohol- or galinstan @-@ filled glass thermometers and thermistor- or infrared @-@ based electronic instruments . Likewise , mechanical pressure gauges and electronic strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury sphygmomanometers . Mercury remains in use in scientific research applications and in amalgam for dental restoration in some locales . It is used in fluorescent lighting . Electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short @-@ wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce , making visible light .
Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water @-@ soluble forms of mercury ( such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury ) , by inhalation of mercury vapor , or by ingesting any form of mercury .
= = Properties = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Mercury is a heavy , silvery @-@ white liquid metal . Compared to other metals , it is a poor conductor of heat , but a fair conductor of electricity .
It has a freezing point of − 38 @.@ 83 ° C and a boiling point of 356 @.@ 73 ° C , both exceptionally low for a metal . In addition , mercury 's boiling point of 629 @.@ 88 K ( 356 @.@ 73 ° C ) is the lowest of any metal . Upon freezing , the volume of mercury decreases by 3 @.@ 59 % and its density changes from 13 @.@ 69 g / cm3 when liquid to 14 @.@ 184 g / cm3 when solid . The coefficient of volume expansion is 181 @.@ 59 × 10 − 6 at 0 ° C , 181 @.@ 71 × 10 − 6 at 20 ° C and 182 @.@ 50 × 10 − 6 at 100 ° C ( per ° C ) . Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife .
A complete explanation of mercury 's extreme volatility delves deep into the realm of quantum physics , but it can be summarized as follows : mercury has a unique electron configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 3d , 4s , 4p , 4d , 4f , 5s , 5p , 5d , and 6s subshells . Because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron , mercury behaves similarly to noble gases , which form weak bonds and hence melt at low temperatures .
The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell . An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus ( see lanthanide contraction ) . The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for the somewhat higher melting temperature of cadmium and zinc , although both these metals still melt easily and , in addition , have unusually low boiling points .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Mercury does not react with most acids , such as dilute sulfuric acid , although oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate , nitrate , and chloride . Like silver , mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide . Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes , which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury ( spill kits also use activated carbon and powdered zinc ) .
= = = = Amalgams = = = =
Mercury dissolves many other metals such as gold and silver to form amalgams . Iron is an exception , and iron flasks have traditionally been used to trade mercury . Several other first row transition metals with the exception of manganese , copper and zinc are reluctant to form amalgams . Other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum . Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis , and is also used in high @-@ pressure sodium lamps .
Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury @-@ aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact . Since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in @-@ depth ( as in iron rusting ) , even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium . For this reason , mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft .
Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement .
= = = Isotopes = = =
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with 202Hg being the most abundant ( 29 @.@ 86 % ) . The longest @-@ lived radioisotopes are 194Hg with a half @-@ life of 444 years , and 203Hg with a half @-@ life of 46 @.@ 612 days . Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than a day . 199Hg and 201Hg are the most often studied NMR @-@ active nuclei , having spins of 1 ⁄ 2 and 3 ⁄ 2 respectively .
= = Etymology = =
Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury . It comes from hydrargyrum , a Latinized form of the Greek word ὑδράργυρος ( hydrargyros ) , which is a compound word meaning " water @-@ silver " ( from ὑδρ- hydr- , the root of ὕδωρ , " water , " and ἄργυρος argyros " silver " ) – since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver . The element was named after the Roman god Mercury , known for his speed and mobility . It is associated with the planet Mercury ; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal ; the Sanskrit word for alchemy is Rasavātam which means " the way of mercury " . Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name .
= = History = =
Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC .
In China and Tibet , mercury use was thought to prolong life , heal fractures , and maintain generally good health , although it is now known that exposure to mercury vapor leads to serious adverse health effects . The first emperor of China , Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì — allegedly buried in a tomb — the " Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor " — that contained rivers of flowing mercury on a model of the land he ruled , representative of the rivers of China — was killed by drinking a mercury and powdered jade mixture formulated by Qin alchemists ( causing liver failure , mercury poisoning , and brain death ) who intended to give him eternal life . Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun , the second Tulunid ruler of Egypt ( r . 884 – 896 ) , known for his extravagance and profligacy , reportedly built a basin filled with mercury , on which he would lie on top of air @-@ filled cushions and be rocked to sleep .
In November 2014 " large quantities " of mercury were discovered in a chamber 60 feet below the 1800 @-@ year @-@ old pyramid known as the " Temple of the Feathered Serpent , " " the third largest pyramid of Teotihuacan , " Mexico along with " jade statues , jaguar remains , a box filled with carved shells and rubber balls . "
The ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments ; the ancient Egyptians and the Romans used it in cosmetics . In Lamanai , once a major city of the Maya civilization , a pool of mercury was found under a marker in a Mesoamerican ballcourt . By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams ( Medieval Latin amalgama , " alloy of mercury " ) with other metals .
Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed . They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury . The purest of these was gold , and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base ( or impure ) metals into gold , which was the goal of many alchemists .
The mines in Almadén ( Spain ) , Monte Amiata ( Italy ) , and Idrija ( now Slovenia ) dominated mercury production from the opening of the mine in Almadén 2500 years ago , until new deposits were found at the end of the 19th century .
= = Occurrence = =
Mercury is an extremely rare element in Earth 's crust , having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0 @.@ 08 parts per million ( ppm ) . Because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass , mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element 's abundance in ordinary rock . The richest mercury ores contain up to 2 @.@ 5 % mercury by mass , and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0 @.@ 1 % mercury ( 12 @,@ 000 times average crustal abundance ) . It is found either as a native metal ( rare ) or in cinnabar , corderoite , livingstonite and other minerals , with cinnabar ( HgS ) being the most common ore . Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where rocks of high density are forced to the crust of Earth , often in hot springs or other volcanic regions .
Beginning in 1558 , with the invention of the patio process to extract silver from ore using mercury , mercury became an essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American colonies . Mercury was used to extract silver from the lucrative mines in New Spain and Peru . Initially , the Spanish Crown 's mines in Almadén in Southern Spain supplied all the mercury for the colonies . Mercury deposits were discovered in the New World , and more than 100 @,@ 000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of Huancavelica , Peru , over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563 . The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury to treat silver ores until the late 19th century .
Former mines in Italy , the United States and Mexico , which once produced a large proportion of the world supply , have now been completely mined out or , in the case of Slovenia ( Idrija ) and Spain ( Almadén ) , shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury . Nevada 's McDermitt Mine , the last mercury mine in the United States , closed in 1992 . The price of mercury has been highly volatile over the years and in 2006 was $ 650 per 76 @-@ pound ( 34 @.@ 46 kg ) flask .
Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor . The equation for this extraction is
HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2
In 2005 , China was the top producer of mercury with almost two @-@ thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan . Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents .
Because of the high toxicity of mercury , both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning . In China , prison labor was used by a private mining company as recently as the 1950s to create new cinnabar mines . Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo Xi mining company to establish new tunnels . Worker health in functioning mines is at high risk .
The European Union directive calling for compact fluorescent bulbs to be made mandatory by 2012 has encouraged China to re @-@ open cinnabar mines to obtain the mercury required for CFL bulb manufacture . Environmental dangers have been a concern , particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and Guangzhou , and in Guizhou province in the southwest .
Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain very hazardous waste piles of roasted cinnabar calcines . Water run @-@ off from such sites is a recognized source of ecological damage . Former mercury mines may be suited for constructive re @-@ use . For example , in 1976 Santa Clara County , California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site , after conducting extensive safety and environmental analysis of the property .
= = Chemistry = =
Mercury exists in two main oxidation states , I and II . Higher oxidation states are rare ( e.g. , mercury ( IV ) fluoride , HgF
4 ) , but have been detected under extraordinary conditions .
= = = Compounds of mercury ( I ) = = =
Unlike its lighter neighbors , cadmium and zinc , mercury usually forms simple stable compounds with metal @-@ metal bonds . Most mercury ( I ) compounds are diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation , Hg2 +
2 . Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate . Treatment of Hg ( I ) compounds complexation with strong ligands such as sulfide , cyanide , etc. induces disproportionation to Hg2 + and elemental mercury . Mercury ( I ) chloride , a colorless solid also known as calomel , is really the compound with the formula Hg2Cl2 , with the connectivity Cl @-@ Hg @-@ Hg @-@ Cl . It is a standard in electrochemistry . It reacts with chlorine to give mercuric chloride , which resists further oxidation . Mercury ( I ) hydride , a colorless gas , has the formula HgH , containing no Hg @-@ Hg bond .
Indicative of its tendency to bond to itself , mercury forms mercury polycations , which consist of linear chains of mercury centers , capped with a positive charge . One example is Hg2 +
3 ( AsF −
6 )
2 .
= = = Compounds of mercury ( II ) = = =
Mercury ( II ) is the most common oxidation state and is the main one in nature as well . All four mercuric halides are known . They form tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides adopt linear coordination geometry , somewhat like Ag + does . Best known is mercury ( II ) chloride , an easily sublimating white solid . HgCl2 forms coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral , e.g. HgCl2 −
4 .
Mercury ( II ) oxide , the main oxide of mercury , arises when the metal is exposed to air for long periods at elevated temperatures . It reverts to the elements upon heating near 400 ° C , as was demonstrated by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen . Hydroxides of mercury are poorly characterized , as they are for its neighbors gold and silver .
Being a soft metal , mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens . Preeminent is mercury ( II ) sulfide , HgS , which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment vermillion . Like ZnS , HgS crystallizes in two forms , the reddish cubic form and the black zinc blende form . Mercury ( II ) selenide ( HgSe ) and mercury ( II ) telluride ( HgTe ) are also known , these as well as various derivatives , e.g. mercury cadmium telluride and mercury zinc telluride being semiconductors useful as infrared detector materials .
Mercury ( II ) salts form a variety of complex derivatives with ammonia . These include Millon 's base ( Hg2N + ) , the one @-@ dimensional polymer ( salts of HgNH +
2 )
n ) , and " fusible white precipitate " or [ Hg ( NH3 ) 2 ] Cl2 . Known as Nessler 's reagent , potassium tetraiodomercurate ( II ) ( HgI2 −
4 ) is still occasionally used to test for ammonia owing to its tendency to form the deeply colored iodide salt of Millon 's base .
Mercury fulminate is a detonator widely used in explosives .
= = = Higher oxidation states = = =
Oxidation states above + 2 in a non @-@ charged species are extremely rare , although a cyclic mercurinium ( IV ) cation , with three substituents , may be an intermediate in oxymercuration reactions . In 2007 , a report of synthesis of a mercury ( IV ) compound , mercury ( IV ) fluoride , was published . In the 1970s , there was a claim on synthesis of a mercury ( III ) compound , but it is now thought to be false .
= = = Organomercury compounds = = =
Organic mercury compounds are historically important but are of little industrial value in the western world . Mercury ( II ) salts are a rare example of simple metal complexes that react directly with aromatic rings . Organomercury compounds are always divalent and usually two @-@ coordinate and linear geometry . Unlike organocadmium and organozinc compounds , organomercury compounds do not react with water . They usually have the formula HgR2 , which are often volatile , or HgRX , which are often solids , where R is aryl or alkyl and X is usually halide or acetate . Methylmercury , a generic term for compounds with the formula CH3HgX , is a dangerous family of compounds that are often found in polluted water . They arise by a process known as biomethylation .
= = Applications = =
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications . It is used in some thermometers , especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures . A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps , while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy .
= = = Medicine = = =
Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine , although they are much less common today than they once were , now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood . The first edition of the Merck 's Manual featured many mercuric compounds such as :
Mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams . Thiomersal ( called Thimerosal in the United States ) is an organic compound used as a preservative in vaccines , though this use is in decline . Thiomersal is metabolized to ethyl mercury . Although it was widely speculated that this mercury @-@ based preservative could cause or trigger autism in children , scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link . Nevertheless , thiomersal has been removed from , or reduced to trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years of age and under , with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine .
Another mercury compound , merbromin ( Mercurochrome ) , is a topical antiseptic used for minor cuts and scrapes that is still in use in some countries .
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores , cinnabar , is used in various traditional medicines , especially in traditional Chinese medicine . Review of its safety has found that cinnabar can lead to significant mercury intoxication when heated , consumed in overdose , or taken long term , and can have adverse effects at therapeutic doses , though effects from therapeutic doses are typically reversible . Although this form of mercury appears to be less toxic than other forms , its use in traditional Chinese medicine has not yet been justified , as the therapeutic basis for the use of cinnabar is not clear .
Today , the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects , especially in developed countries . Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries , respectively . In the early 21st century , their use is declining and has been banned in some countries , states and medical institutions . In 2002 , the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of non @-@ prescription mercury thermometers . In 2003 , Washington and Maine became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices . Mercury compounds are found in some over @-@ the @-@ counter drugs , including topical antiseptics , stimulant laxatives , diaper @-@ rash ointment , eye drops , and nasal sprays . The FDA has " inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness " of the mercury ingredients in these products . Mercury is still used in some diuretics although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses .
= = = Production of chlorine and caustic soda = = =
Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride ( common salt , NaCl ) using electrolysis to separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas . Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine . By @-@ products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen ( H2 ) and sodium hydroxide ( NaOH ) , which is commonly called caustic soda or lye . By far the largest use of mercury in the late 20th century was in the mercury cell process ( also called the Castner @-@ Kellner process ) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury ; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium hydroxide . Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 20th century came from this process , although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard . After about 1985 , all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine .
= = = Laboratory uses = = =
Some medical thermometers , especially those for high temperatures , are filled with mercury ; they are gradually disappearing . In the United States , non @-@ prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been banned since 2003 .
Mercury is also found in liquid mirror telescopes .
Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a flat and absolutely horizontal mirror , useful in determining an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference . Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors may be formed by rotating liquid mercury on a disk , the parabolic form of the liquid thus formed reflecting and focusing incident light . Such telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100 , but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points straight up .
Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary reference electrode ( called the calomel electrode ) in electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode . The calomel electrode is used to work out the electrode potential of half cells . Last , but not least , the triple point of mercury , − 38 @.@ 8344 ° C , is a fixed point used as a temperature standard for the International Temperature Scale ( ITS @-@ 90 ) .
In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode and the hanging mercury drop electrode use elemental mercury . This use allows a new uncontaminated electrode to be available for each measurement or each new experiment .
= = = Niche uses = = =
Gaseous mercury is used in mercury @-@ vapor lamps and some " neon sign " type advertising signs and fluorescent lamps . Those low @-@ pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines , which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position . Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose ; reflecting a fluorescent ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice . Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes , including ignitrons , thyratrons , and mercury arc rectifiers . It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and disinfection . Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon @-@ filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical conductivity . An argon @-@ filled lamp without mercury will have dull spots and will fail to light correctly . Lighting containing mercury can be bombarded / oven pumped only once . When added to neon filled tubes the light produced will be inconsistent red / blue spots until the initial burning @-@ in process is completed ; eventually it will light a consistent dull off @-@ blue color .
= = = = Cosmetics = = = =
Mercury , as thiomersal , is widely used in the manufacture of mascara . In 2008 , Minnesota became the first state in the United States to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics , giving it a tougher standard than the federal government .
A study in geometric mean urine mercury concentration identified a previously unrecognized source of exposure ( skin care products ) to inorganic mercury among New York City residents . Population @-@ based biomonitoring also showed that mercury concentration levels are higher in consumers of seafood and fish meals .
= = = Firearms = = =
A mercury compound called " Mercury ( II ) fulminate " is a primary explosive which is mainly used as a primer of a cartridge in firearms .
= = = Historic uses = = =
Many historic applications made use of the peculiar physical properties of mercury , especially as a dense liquid and a liquid metal :
Quantities of liquid mercury ranging from 90 to 600 grams ( 3 @.@ 2 to 21 @.@ 2 oz ) have been recovered from elite Maya tombs ( 100 @-@ 700AD ) or ritual caches at six sites . This mercury may have been used in bowls as mirrors for divinatory purposes . Five of these date to the Classic Period of Maya civilization ( c . 250 – 900 ) but one example predated this .
In Islamic Spain , it was used for filling decorative pools . Later , the American artist Alexander Calder built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris . The fountain is now on display at the Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona .
Mercury was used inside wobbler lures . Its heavy , liquid form made it useful since the lures made an attractive irregular movement when the mercury moved inside the plug . Such use was stopped due to environmental concerns , but illegal preparation of modern fishing plugs has occurred .
The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to float and rotate in a bath of mercury which acted like a bearing .
Mercury sphygmomanometers ( blood pressure meter ) , barometers , diffusion pumps , coulometers , and many other laboratory instruments . As an opaque liquid with a high density and a nearly linear thermal expansion , it is ideal for this role .
As an electrically conductive liquid , it was used in mercury switches ( including home mercury light switches installed prior to 1970 ) , tilt switches used in old fire detectors , and tilt switches in some home thermostats .
Owing to its acoustic properties , mercury was used as the propagation medium in delay line memory devices used in early digital computers of the mid @-@ 20th century .
Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed to increase the efficiency of fossil @-@ fuel electrical power plants . The South Meadow power plant in Hartford , CT employed mercury as its working fluid , in a binary configuration with a secondary water circuit , for a number of years starting in the late 1920s in a drive to improve plant efficiency . Several other plants were built , including the Schiller Station in Portsmouth , NH , which went online in 1950 . The idea did not catch on industry @-@ wide due to the weight and toxicity of mercury , as well as the advent of supercritical steam plants in later years .
Similarly , liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors ; however , sodium is proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal , because the high density of mercury requires much more energy to circulate as coolant .
Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in electric space propulsion systems . Advantages were mercury 's high molecular weight , low ionization energy , low dual @-@ ionization energy , high liquid density and liquid storability at room temperature . Disadvantages were concerns regarding environmental impact associated with ground testing and concerns about eventual cooling and condensation of some of the propellant on the spacecraft in long @-@ duration operations . The first spaceflight to use electric propulsion was a mercury @-@ fueled ion thruster developed by NASA Lewis and flown on the Space Electric Rocket Test " SERT @-@ 1 " spacecraft launched by NASA at its Wallops Flight Facility in 1964 . The SERT @-@ 1 flight was followed up by the SERT @-@ 2 flight in 1970 . Mercury and caesium were preferred propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Laboratory performed studies finding xenon gas to be a suitable replacement . Xenon is now the preferred propellant for ion engines as it has a high molecular weight , little or no reactivity due to its noble gas nature , and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage .
Others applications made use of the chemical properties of mercury :
The mercury battery is a non @-@ rechargeable electrochemical battery , a primary cell , that was common in the middle of the 20th century . It was used in a wide variety of applications and was available in various sizes , particularly button sizes . Its constant voltage output and long shelf life gave it a niche use for camera light meters and hearing aids . The mercury cell was effectively banned in most countries in the 1990s due to concerns about the mercury contaminating landfills .
Mercury was used for preserving wood , developing daguerreotypes , silvering mirrors , anti @-@ fouling paints ( discontinued in 1990 ) , herbicides ( discontinued in 1995 ) , handheld maze games , cleaning , and road leveling devices in cars . Mercury compounds have been used in antiseptics , laxatives , antidepressants , and in antisyphilitics .
It was allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage Luftwaffe planes : a mercury paste was applied to bare aluminium , causing the metal to rapidly corrode ; this would cause structural failures .
Chloralkali process : The largest industrial use of mercury during the 20th century was in electrolysis for separating chlorine and sodium from brine ; mercury being the anode of the Castner @-@ Kellner process . The chlorine was used for bleaching paper ( hence the location of many of these plants near paper mills ) while the sodium was used to make sodium hydroxide for soaps and other cleaning products . This usage has largely been discontinued , replaced with other technologies that utilize membrane cells .
As electrodes in some types of electrolysis , batteries ( mercury cells ) , sodium hydroxide and chlorine production , handheld games , catalysts , insecticides .
Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore cleaner .
From the mid @-@ 18th to the mid @-@ 19th centuries , a process called " carroting " was used in the making of felt hats . Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution ( the term " carroting " arose from this color ) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate , Hg ( NO3 ) 2 · 2H2O . This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together . This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic . The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941 . The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning inspired the phrase " mad as a hatter " . Lewis Carroll 's " Mad Hatter "
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= = = = In = = = =
= = = = Out = = = =
= = Pre @-@ season and friendles = =
= = FA Charity Shield = =
Arsenal started the season with a 3 – 0 win in the Charity Shield against last season 's Premier League runners @-@ up Manchester United . Goals came from Overmars in the first half , Christopher Wreh after 61 minutes and Nicolas Anelka 11 minutes after . The result was the first time that a club from Southern England had won the Shield outright since Tottenham Hotspur in 1962 .
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began their defence of the league title against newly promoted team Nottingham Forest on 17 August 1998 . A goal by Overmars , eleven minutes from the end gave Arsenal the win ; Geoff Thomas equalised for Nottingham Forest after Petit headed in the opening goal . A goalless draw against Liverpool was followed by successive 0 – 0 draws , at home to Charlton Athletic and away to Chelsea . Stephen Hughes scored a last minute equaliser at Filbert Street on 12 September 1998 to deny Leicester City a win . After the match , Wenger admitted the club were looking for a new striker to replace Ian Wright , being impressed with Leicester City 's goalscorer Emile Heskey : " We will still be buying a striker but unfortunately Leicester do not want to sell Heskey so we will have to go somewhere else … I 'm impressed by Heskey . Today he did very well offensively and tried like crazy ; too much for me . " In Arsenal 's next match , at home to Manchester United , goals from Tony Adams , Anelka and Freddie Ljungberg helped the champions inflict a 3 – 0 defeat ; the result was Wenger 's third consecutive win over rival manager Alex Ferguson . However , in the following match , Arsenal lost for the first time in the season , against Sheffield Wednesday . Substitute Lee Briscoe scored in the 89th minute , lobbing the ball precisely over goalkeeper Alex Manninger after Sheffield Wednesday striker Paolo Di Canio was sent off for pushing the referee .
On 4 October 1998 , Arsenal hosted Newcastle United at Highbury ; Dennis Bergkamp scored his first league goal of the season in a 3 – 0 win . The team failed to convert several chances against Southampton , with the match ending in a 1 – 1 draw ; Anelka and Petit did however score against Blackburn Rovers the following game , thus putting pressure on opposing manager Roy Hodgson as Blackburn remained in the bottom four . The month ended with a 1 – 0 win away to Coventry City ; Anelka scored his fifth league goal of the season , tapping the ball in the net after a counterattack started by Overmars .
= = = November – February = = =
Another 1 – 0 win , this time at home to Everton was followed by a goalless draw against rivals Tottenham Hotspur . After defeat midweek in the Champions League , Arsenal played Wimbledon at Selhurst Park . Striker Efan Ekoku scored the winning goal to condemn Arsenal to a second successive loss ; Patrick Vieira sustained a hamstring injury in the match . Two more draws , against Middlesbrough and Derby County left Arsenal in fourth position but Wenger took comfort in the latter match , praising Steve Bould and David Seaman : " the real symbols of spirit . " They faced league leaders Aston Villa on 13 December 1998 , and having taken a 2 – 0 lead , through two goals scored by Bergkamp , had in unprecedented circumstances conceded three goals in the second half to lose the match . Arsenal responded to their third defeat of the season by putting a run together of three consecutive wins during the Christmas period – starting against Leeds United , followed by West Ham United and finally Charlton Athletic . The team ended the calendar year in fourth position , two points behind Chelsea .
On 9 January 1999 , Arsenal were held to a stalemate by Liverpool ; Wenger , commenting on the performance was disappointed about Liverpool 's approach , adding : " Usually we create chances and don 't score , but today we just didn 't create chances . " A headed goal by Martin Keown , from a Petit corner earned Arsenal a 1 – 0 win the following week , away to Nottingham Forest . Against Chelsea on the final day of January , Arsenal won 1 – 0 at Highbury to end the visitors 21 @-@ game unbeaten run in the Premier League . Wenger hailed the performance , saying " I knew my players were ready . After a few years you just know . It 's like working for the weather forecast : you have a feeling whether it will rain or not . "
An inspired performance by Bergkamp helped Arsenal win 0 – 4 at West Ham United in the first weekend of February . He , however missed the following match , away to Manchester United , due to suspension along with Petit ; Keown was absent due to a hamstring injury . Arsenal conceded a first half penalty when Ray Parlour brought down Ronny Johnsen . Dwight Yorke missed , chipping the ball wide of the right @-@ hand post , and was made to pay early in the second half as new signing Nwankwo Kanu 's through ball found striker Anelka , who scored . Andy Cole equalised moments after – Arsenal 's first goal conceded in two months , and with both teams spurring chances to win the match , it ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Three days after , Anelka scored his first career hat @-@ trick against Leicester City . Bergkamp after the match felt Arsenal were now equipped to push on for a title challenge , like last season : " It 's all coming back . I feel it , for myself and for the team . " A draw at Newcastle left the team three points behind Chelsea , in third position .
= = = March – May = = =
Arsenal moved into second place with a 3 – 0 win over Sheffield Wednesday on 9 March 1999 . A brace from Bergkamp and a debut goal scored by Kanu – dumming the goalkeeper inside the penalty box and shooting past the middle of the net , meant the club now picked up 27 points out of a possible last 33 . A 2 – 0 win against Everton was followed by another 2 – 0 win , at home to Coventry City . Arsenal drew 0 – 0 with Southampton on 3 April 1999 , which left the team four points behind league leaders Manchester United . A 1 – 0 victory against Blackburn Rovers three days later , helped them move a point behind first position . The team scored five goals against Wimbledon and hit Middlesbrough for six the following week ; Kanu 's first goal , Arsenal 's third was described as an " illustration of the African 's deceptive subtlety , " side @-@ stepping defender Dean Gordon before stroking the ball past the net . The result moved Arsenal to the top of the table for the first time in the season , albeit having played a match more than Manchester United .
In May Arsenal beat Derby County 1 – 0 to return to first spot , after Manchester United recorded three points against Aston Villa . A 1 – 3 away win against Tottenham Hotspur moved them three points clear after Paul Ince scored a late equaliser for Liverpool against Manchester United . Wenger was adamant that Ferguson 's team were marginal favourites , but it was evident the title race would be decided on the final day , akin to 1995 . Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink 's late winner for Leeds United against Arsenal two days later all but ended their chances of retaining the league championship . Although Manchester United drew their penultimate match away to Blackburn Rovers , they eventually secured the title with a 2 – 1 victory at home to Tottenham Hotspur ; a second half goal scored by Kanu against Aston Villa on the final day ensured Arsenal finished a point behind , in second place .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
Source :
Source : Ground : A
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
As holders and participants of the top division , Arsenal entered the FA Cup in the third round , in which they were drawn to play Preston North End of the Second Division . Despite being 2 – 0 down in the first half , Arsenal came back to win the match 4 – 2 at Deepdale . In the fourth round , Arsenal played Wolverhampton Wanderers – a repeat of last year 's semi @-@ final . Goals from Overmars and Bergkamp helped Arsenal win 2 – 1 ; the match was overshadowed by the sending off of midfielder Petit . A fifth round tie against Sheffield United was replayed on 23 February 1999 at the suggestion of Wenger . The winning goal , scored by Overmars came from failure to return the ball to the opposition , in order to get defender Lee Morris off the pitch . Arsenal went on to win the replay 2 – 1 and a 1 – 0 victory against Derby County meant the team reached the semi @-@ finals for the second consecutive season .
Arsenal played league challengers Manchester United on 11 April 1999 . Neither team was able to score even after extra time had been played , therefore the match was decided in a replay four days later . David Beckham opened the scoring for United from a long range shot , but Bergkamp equalised with a shot that deflected off United 's centre back Jaap Stam . United captain Roy Keane was red @-@ carded for two bookable offences , with his team playing the last thirty minutes of normal time a man down . In injury time , Phil Neville fouled Parlour in the penalty area , conceding a penalty . Peter Schmeichel parried away Bergkamp 's resultant spot kick and the game went into extra time . Giggs scored partway through the second half of extra time . Picking up possession on the halfway line after a loose pass from Patrick Vieira , he dribbled past the entire Arsenal back line before shooting just under Seaman 's bar . Giggs ran celebrating towards the United fans , and the team held on win 2 – 1 . The goal was the last ever scored in a FA Cup semi @-@ final replay ; it was to be abolished from the following season .
= = League Cup = =
In the third round of the League Cup , Arsenal faced Derby County at Pride Park . Wenger made several first team changes to give his younger players playing time ; Arsenal ran out 2 – 1 winners , a performance where " every touch by a Derby player was greeted with ironic cheers . " However , the team were beaten comprehensively in the next round to Chelsea at Highbury , losing 0 – 5 . The result inflicted Arsenal 's biggest defeat in over eight years and Wenger defended his team selection , virtually a ' second team ' : " I knew before the game that this kind of thing might happen . You only had to look at the team sheets . If we had won I would still have gone on playing the same side because the players need the experience . " Bergkamp , who was rested for the match , echoed his manager 's comments : " We had a lot of young players on the field against Chelsea and , although they were feeling very down after losing like that , they will learn from it . To be honest , the scoreline doesn 't mean anything , whether it was 1 – 0 or 5 – 0 . The supporters will feel bad but I hope they understand Saturday will be a different game [ at home to Tottenham Hotspur ] . "
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Winning the Premier League the previous season ensured Arsenal 's qualification into the UEFA Champions League . They last participated in Europe 's premier competition seven years ago , losing to Portuguese club Benfica , in the second round ; the competition since was rebranded . In order to boost attendance figures , Arsenal was granted permission by UEFA and the Football Association to host their home Champions League matches at Wembley Stadium . A Wembley spokesman added " We would be delighted for Arsenal to use the stadium . It makes financial sense . "
The club were drawn in Group B , along with French champions Lens , Ukraine 's Dynamo Kiev and Panathinaikos of Greece . In the opening match against Lens , Arsenal conceded a late equaliser having dominating possession and chances . A win against Panathinaikos was followed by a draw at home to Dynamo Kyiv ; Serhiy Rebrov scoring the equaliser in stoppage time . In the reverse fixture , Arsenal – depleted due to injuries , lost 3 – 1 and a further defeat , at home to Lens meant the team effectively were out of the competition . An understrength Arsenal team won their final group game away to Panathinaikos but finished third in Group B ; Wenger asserted after the match that his main aim was to retain the Premier League , going further to describe the group as " very average " .
= = Player statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 30 players during the 1998 – 99 season and there were 14 different goalscorers . There were also three squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . Overmars featured in 49 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign . Vivas made the most appearances as a substitute with 18 .
The team scored a total of 82 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Anelka , with 19 goals , followed by Bergkamp who scored 16 goals . Three Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Dixon , Keown and Petit ( twice ) .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Source :
= Ten Sessions =
" Ten Sessions " is the 13th episode of the third season of How I Met Your Mother , and the 57th episode overall of the series . It originally aired on March 24 , 2008 on CBS . The episode was written by series co @-@ creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas , and directed by Pamela Fryman . In the episode , Ted is repeatedly rejected by his dermatologist Stella for a date , so Stella 's receptionist , Abby , becomes interested in him .
In March 2008 , it was announced that American recording artist Britney Spears would make a guest appearance on the show as Abby . Alongside Spears , " Ten Sessions " featured guest appearances from Sarah Chalke and Marshall Manesh . Television critics reacted positively to the episode , who praised the storyline and Spears ' performance . According to the Nielsen ratings , " Ten Sessions " was watched by 10 @.@ 62 million viewers , which was the show 's highest rating for the third season of the series .
= = Plot = =
Ted ( Josh Radnor ) is at the clinic to remove his tattoo , where he is attracted to his doctor , Stella ( Sarah Chalke ) . They agree to go to a movie , Plan 9 from Outer Space , but Ted does not realize Stella had brought her friends along with her , and it was not a date . At the next session , Ted suggests waiting till his ten sessions are over before asking her out , but Stella tells him she will still say no . Ted still feels that over ten weeks , she will start to like him , so decides to keep trying . Even though the first five sessions go well , Stella confirms her answer is still no . Ted decides that being nice to the receptionist , Abby ( Britney Spears ) , would be a good way to let Stella see his good side , but instead , Abby starts to show interest in him . Upset that this didn 't work , Ted tries using a self @-@ help book he saw in Stella 's clinic . When he tries talking to her about this , she reveals it isn 't her book , and she detests it , while Abby confirms that Ted was reading the book in the reception .
Robin ( Cobie Smulders ) suggests Ted give up on Stella and instead focus on Abby . Barney ( Neil Patrick Harris ) agrees , as he made an appointment with Stella to check what she was like , and discovered she had a condition where she is only attracted to men with mustaches . Although Ted does not believe him , he still tries to grow a mustache , which Stella laughs at ( a year earlier , Barney had made a ten @-@ dollar bet with Ted that he could get him to grow a mustache ) . Upset , Ted says he gives up , but Lily ( Alyson Hannigan ) tells him to try again , as Stella is interested in him , though she says she has not been to see her . It is then revealed that Marshall ( Jason Segel ) had gone to see Stella to talk up Ted , and found out Stella had a crush on him . Happy that Stella is interested in him , Ted asks her out after his last session , but she says she does not have time for dating because she has a daughter .
After a while , Ted realizes she didn 't actually say the word ' no ' , just that she didn 't have time , and so decides to take her out on a " two @-@ minute date " - to dinner at a table at the café next door to her practice and " the important parts " of Manos : The Hands of Fate at the electronics store two doors down , with help from Ranjit ( Marshall Manesh ) . The date goes well , and Stella promises to call if she ever has time . Finally , Abby sees Ted outside the clinic holding flowers he tried to give to Stella , and chases him down the street . She is then seen at the reception telling Barney about how he toyed with her emotions , after which they go out to have sex .
= = Production = =
" Ten Sessions " was written by series co @-@ creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas , and directed by Pamela Fryman . In early March 2008 , it was confirmed that singer Britney Spears would guest star on the show . Neil Patrick Harris was " shocked " that Spears was willing to " come and do some acting " , noting that she had not acted in a while . Spears 's last acting role was on Will & Grace in 2006 . Harris told Entertainment Tonight that the paparazzi would not be a problem , since the show is shot on the Fox secure lot . Before Sarah Chalke was given the role as Stella , Alicia Silverstone was originally set to guest star , but dropped out when her representatives feared she would be " overshadowed " by Spears . Co @-@ creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas " love " Silverstone and hoped she would eventually guest star on the show , although she never did .
Alyson Hannigan said that Spears " was so funny " and that she had " no idea she [ Spears ] had such great comic timing " . According to Jason Segel , Spears improvised a few lines that were " really good " and set " everyone laughing " . Spears was nominated for a People 's Choice Award in the Favorite Scene @-@ Stealing Guest Star category for her performance in the episode . " Ten Sessions " first aired on CBS in the United States on March 24 , 2008 . Spears 's wardrobe in the episode was put up for an online auction to benefit the Natural Resources Defense Council . The auction began just after the episode aired and would be going on for a week . The yellow Nanette Lepore lace dress Spears wore in the episode was sold for US $ 1 @,@ 525 , and the embroidered rust dress was sold for US $ 1 @,@ 925 .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast in the United States , " Ten Sessions " was watched by 10 @.@ 62 million viewers according to the Nielsen ratings . It attracted 1 million more viewers than the previous episode , and 2 @.@ 4 million more than the show 's average before the writer 's strike . The episode achieved a 4 @.@ 5 / 12 rating in the key 18 – 49 demographic among adults , and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show of the evening ; it subsequently achieved the show 's highest rating ever in the 18 – 49 demographic . Show co @-@ creator Bays later said that Britney Spears ' appearance greatly benefited ratings : " And by golly she put our show on the map . It can 't be overstated . Britney Spears rescued us from ever being on the bubble again . Thanks Britney ! "
Spears ' appearance was critically acclaimed by most critics . Linda Stasi of the New York Post asserted that Spears looked " slim [ ... ] trim and gorgeous " and that " her acting was nothing short of adorably believable " . Stasi concluded that Spears ' cameo was the highlight of " Ten Sessions " . David Hinckley of New York Daily News echoed similar sentiments , avouching that she " proved [ that ] she can act every bit as well as she can sing " . Michelle Zoromski of IGN argued however that while Spears ' appearance was a " nice change of pace from her latest public appearances " , it was nonetheless a " bit clunky and not as seamless as other guest roles have been on the show " . Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club was also less enthusiastic about the singer 's performance . Bowman opined : " The Big Britney Episode , as it will henceforth be known , wasn 't really much to get all huffy over . You can say this for the [ How I Met Your Mother ] team : They tend to minimize the annoyance factor of their special guest stars . Britney was a sideshow , and she got her couple of laughs , but she didn 't hog the screen time . "
Similarly , " Ten Sessions " as a whole was well received by television critics . Bowman gave the episode a ' B ' grade , and was more critical of " Ten Sessions " . She expressed : " the timing wasn 't spot @-@ on all the way through ' Ten Sessions ' . The episode was slow starting , and as with many of the series ' ' Ted is a master of romance ' attempts , the two @-@ minute date seemed as likely to be annoying @-@ quirky as endearing @-@ quirky , if you were the one being wooed . I wanted to like it more than I did . Maybe it almost works because Elliot on Scrubs would have really liked it , ditzy romantic that she is . But no — it 's just an ounce heavy on the trying @-@ too @-@ hard scale . " In contrast , Zoromski gave the episode an 8 @.@ 9 out of ten , signifying a " great " rating . He thought that the episode was superior to the previous episode , adding that the show returned to full form .
= Vegetable chips =
Vegetable chips ( also referred to as veggie chips ) are chips or crisps that are prepared using vegetables . Vegetable chips may be fried , deep @-@ fried , dehydrated , dried or baked . Many various root vegetables or leaf vegetables are used . Cassava chips are a common food product in several areas of the world . Vegetable chips may be eaten as a snack food , and may accompany other foods such as dips , or be used as a topping on dishes . In the United States , vegetable chips are mass @-@ produced by some companies , and several brands are marketed to consumers .
= = Preparation and ingredients = =
Vegetable chips may be prepared with sliced vegetables that are fried , deep @-@ fried , baked , dehydrated , or simply dried . Vegetable chips may be produced from a variety of root vegetables and leaf vegetables , such as carrot , turnip , parsnip , beet , radish , taro root , sweet potato , garlic , zucchini , cassava , kale , spinach , fennel and jicama , among others . Some baked versions utilize vegetables that are sliced , lightly tossed in oil , and then oven @-@ baked until crisp . Vegetable chips prepared using this method have been described as more healthful compared to deep fried chips , particularly when prepared using " heart @-@ healthy " olive oil .
Simple versions are prepared by slicing vegetables and drying them , without any cooking involved . Sometimes a mandoline is used to slice vegetables for vegetable chips , which can accommodate thin slicing and enhance size consistency . Vegetable chips may be flavored with spices such as salt , sea salt , pepper , cajun spice , curry , allspice , chipotle powder , sweet or smoked paprika , adobo seasoning , dried chives and many others . Mass @-@ produced varieties may contain food preservatives or monosodium glutamate . Vegetable chips can be homemade using various recipes and preparation processes .
Vegetable chips
= = = Carrot chips = = =
Carrot chips are carrots that have been fried or dehydrated , and are very similar to vegetable chips in preparation . Some U.S. companies mass produce and purvey carrot chips to consumers , such as Connecticut Country Fair Snacks , Ltd. and Caroff Foods Corporation , among others .
= = = Cassava chips = = =
Cassava chips are a common food in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Ghana and other countries of Africa such as Malawi . In Ghana , cassava chips are called konkonte . Dried cassava chips are also used to supplement the carbohydrate content of livestock feed in Ghana . In Malawi , cassava chips are prepared by soaking cassava , slicing it , and then letting it dry . This is the primary means by which cassava is transported to markets from production areas .
In addition to prepared cassava chips from thinly sliced raw cassava root that is then immediately fried or deep @-@ fried , chips may be prepared in a multi @-@ stage process , starting with a dough made from cassava flour . The dough is steamed , thinly sliced , dried , and then fried in oil . This style of cassava flour chips are a popular food in India , Indonesia , Malaysia and the Philippines .
= = Consumption and uses = =
Vegetable chips may be consumed as a snack food , and may be accompanied with various dips such as salsa , guacamole , and bean dips . They are also used as a topping for soups , salads and other dishes .
= = Mass production = =
In the United States , varieties of vegetable chips are mass @-@ produced and purveyed in supermarkets .
= = = Potato chips and crisps = = =
Potato chips are a type of vegetable chip , and began to be mass @-@ produced and individually packaged for consumer purchase in the early 20th century . Some mass @-@ produced vegetable chips in the U.S. are prepared from a blend of potato flakes , potato flour and potato starch which is mixed with ingredients such as spinach powder , tomato puree and colored with ingredients such as beet root powder and turmeric . In 2012 , the U.S. consumption of potato chips exceeded 1 @.@ 5 billion pounds , an average of approximately 6 pounds per person .
= = = Brands and companies = = =
Brands of vegetable chips include Calbee , Beanitos , Terra , Food Should Taste Good , JicaChips , Sensible Portions , and Uprooted , among others . As of February 2016 , Kettle Foods produces the Uprooted brand of vegetable chips in a Sweet potatoes variety and a Sweet potatoes , beets and parsnips variety . The product is " lightly seasoned with oil and sea salt " . Marketing of the product to consumers began circa February 2016 .
= Roberto Orci =
Roberto Gaston Orci ( born July 20 , 1973 ) is a Mexican @-@ American film and television screenwriter and producer . He began his longtime collaboration with Alex Kurtzman while at school in California . Together they have been employed on television series such as Hercules : The Legendary Journeys and Xena : Warrior Princess . In 2008 , together with J. J. Abrams , they created Fringe . In 2013 , they created Sleepy Hollow alongside Phillip Iscove . Orci and Kurtzman 's first film project was Michael Bay 's The Island , and due to that partnership they went on to write the scripts for the first three films of the Transformers film series . Orci first became a film producer with 2008 's Eagle Eye and again with 2009 's The Proposal .
He and Kurtzman since returned to working with Abrams on Mission : Impossible III and both Star Trek and Star Trek Into Darkness . Between 2005 and 2011 , Kurtzman and Orci 's film projects took revenues of more than $ 3 billion . In April 2014 , Orci and Kurtzman announced that they would only collaborate in television projects , and Orci worked on the third Star Trek film , Star Trek Beyond , until being replaced the following December . Orci created the television series Matador for the El Rey Network , but after this was initially renewed , it was cancelled at the end of the first season . Both Kurtzman and Orci continue to work as producers on the television series Limitless and Scorpion . Orci was awarded the Norman Lear Writer 's Award and the Raul Julia Award for Excellence , in addition to shared awards and nominations including The George Pal Memorial Award .
= = Early life = =
Orci was born in Mexico City on July 20 , 1973 , to a Mexican father and a Cuban mother . His mother immigrated to the United States with her parents after Fidel Castro came to power . Orci grew up in Mexico , and moved with his family to the United States at the age of 10 . He was raised in Texas , Los Angeles and Canada . He is the older brother of screenwriter @-@ producer J. R. Orci .
He met his longtime friend and collaborator Alex Kurtzman when both were 17 @-@ year @-@ old students at Crossroads , a privately funded school in Santa Monica , California . The first time they came across each other was in a film class , where they discovered each other 's love for movies and in particular the Steven Soderbergh film Sex , Lies , and Videotape . The duo found that they had a number of things in common , as Kurtzman had previously lived in Mexico City and the two could relate . Orci later called him a " honorary Hispanic " . Orci went on to attend the University of Texas at Austin . The duo got together once again , and began to write scripts . These included one called Misfortune Cookies which Orci described as " loosely autobiographical " , and Last Kiss , which Kurtzman said was their version of The Breakfast Club but was set in a lunatic asylum .
The duo modeled their relationship on writers Billy Wilder and I. A. L. Diamond , but were much closer friends rather than just writing partners . They took the approach that they were in a band together and purposely studied teams to discover why they break up . Kurtzman later explained in 2009 that " One big thing that makes the wheels start to wobble is when someone feels that the contribution isn 't 50 @-@ 50 . We make sure we live up to the partnership . If we didn 't , we wouldn 't have lasted this long . "
= = Career = =
= = = Television and film screenwriting = = =
Orci and Kurtzman began their writing collaboration on the television series Hercules : The Legendary Journeys , after being hired by Sam Raimi . After actor Kevin Sorbo suffered a stroke , the duo were required to come up with inventive ideas to minimize his appearances on screen . Due to this work , they became show runners at the age of 24 . They were also involved in the sister @-@ series to Hercules , Xena : Warrior Princess . They sought to move to writing for a network @-@ based television series , but found this difficult . After receiving a series of negative responses , they met with J. J. Abrams who was starting work on Alias at the time . The meeting went well , and resulted in them working on the series . They would go on to work together again on the Fox science fiction series Fringe where all three were listed as co @-@ creators .
Orci and Kurtzman received their break in writing for films in 2004 , with the Michael Bay film The Island , for which they developed the spec script by Caspian Tredwell @-@ Owen . When Kurtzman and Orci first met Bay , he asked the pair " Why should I trust you ? " , to which Orci replied " You shouldn 't yet . Let 's see what happens . " While the film was not an overwhelming success , they were brought back for Bay 's following film , Transformers , after producer Steven Spielberg asked them to come in for a meeting . The movie took in $ 710 million at the box office .
Following their work on that film , the duo were brought in to revise the script for Zack Snyder 's Watchmen , in an uncredited capacity . They worked once more with Abrams , on Mission : Impossible III . When they collaborated once more with Bay for Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen , they were under significant time pressures due to the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike . Kurtzman and Orci had two weeks to outline the film , and after the strike Bay had them moved into the Hotel Casa del Mar. The hotel was six blocks away from his office , enabling Bay to conduct surprise inspections .
In the period between 2005 and 2011 , the films written by Kurtzman and Orci grossed more than $ 3 billion , leading to Forbes describing them as " Hollywood 's secret weapons " . The busyness of their screenwriting careers required them to collaborate with other writers due to the number of projects they were involved in . For example , on Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen , they teamed up with Ehren Kruger , who took over from them on the writing duties for the Transfomers franchise from Transformers : Dark of the Moon onwards .
= = = Becoming a producer = = =
Orci 's first credit solely as a producer came with the film Eagle Eye , where he worked once again alongside Kurtzman . He said in an interview with the magazine Extra that he had previously been involved in productions where the producers had writing backgrounds and had looked to them for help , and he was happy to provide that same support to the writers on Eagle Eye . The director of the film , D. J. Caruso , praised the duo saying that " What 's unusually cool about them is that they have maintained the producer @-@ writer power that they earned in television and carried that over into the feature film area , and that is extremely rare . " Following their work on Eagle Eye , they were executive producers on the Sandra Bullock film , The Proposal .
Despite their film careers , Orci and Kurtzman continued to create television series . These included Sleepy Hollow , which they developed alongside Phillip Iscove . They pitched the series to a number of networks , and it was picked up by Fox . Orci took five years to bring the series Matador to television , with it originating from a conversation with his cousin Andrew . It was created for Robert Rodriguez 's El Rey Network , and Rodriguez 's one demand of the show was that he could direct the pilot episode . Orci later explained in an interview that it was an easy decision , and he needed to pretend to consider it .
Orci and Kurtzman also worked together as executive producers on the animated television series , Transformers : Prime , due to their involvement with the live action movies . Following the end of the series they were hopeful to be involved in a future animated series based on the premise , which Orci saw less like a reboot of the show and more of a continuation in a different guise . He felt that while Prime was sophisticated , there were concerns that it was leaving younger viewers behind because of its complexity and intensity .
= = = Star Trek reboot = = =
Orci and Kurtzman were asked to write the script for a new Star Trek film , but initially turned it down despite Orci being a fan of the series . Orci suggested rebooting the timeline as seen previously in the films and television series , and adding the return of Leonard Nimoy as Spock from Star Trek : The Original Series . He considered the first two films in the reboot series to be the origin story for the crew , and that the third film would start where the crew was at the beginning of Star Trek : The Original Series . Orci felt that the relationship between the James T. Kirk and the younger Spock was reflective of the partnership of himself and Kurtzman , he said that " We didn 't even realize we were writing about ourselves until we were halfway through the script , that was a little embarrassing .
Star Trek was the series ' biggest grossing film at the domestic box @-@ office in the United States , resulting in a sequel being greenlit by the studio and Kurtzman and Orci being asked to write it . The studio set aside a larger budget for the sequel , which was revealed by Orci in an interview with TrekMovie.com. Orci ruled out the " hero quitting " staple of a second movie , which had featured in the Transformers sequel , saying that the crew of the Enterprise were committed and that type of story does not have to apply to all sequels . During the buildup to the film , called Star Trek Into Darkness , Orci was one of the production team who didn 't give much away about the villain in the film and denied that Benedict Cumberbatch was to play Khan Noonian Singh .
The criticism of the sequel resulted in Orci posting controversial comments on a Star Trek fan site . In response to a fan upset over Into Darkness , Orci called him a " shitty fan " . He later apologized and deactivated his Twitter account .
= = = Breakup of the partnership = = =
In April 2014 , Orci and Kurtzman confirmed to Variety that they are no longer going to work together on film projects but will still collaborate together on television . Kurtzman wanted to work on the Spider @-@ Man film franchise , while Orci was linked to the directorial role for Star Trek 3 . Orci confirmed later that year in July that he was not involved in the production of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 3 alongside Kurtzman . Orci and Kurtzman 's K / O Paper Products continues to operate as a production company within CBS Television Studios , and has created the series Scorpion inspired by the life of Walter O 'Brien for the 2014 @-@ 15 season and Limitless was created for the 2015 @-@ 16 season from the 2011 film .
Prior to the split of Kurtzman and Orci , the duo were lined up to write the third film in the new Star Trek series . In May 2014 , Skydance and Paramount Pictures announced that Orci was to direct the third installment of the Star Trek reboot franchise , after Abrams moved on to direct Star Wars : The Force Awakens . This would have marked Orci 's directorial debut , and he was to write the script alongside co @-@ writers JD Payne and Patrick McKay . Due to his commitment to Star Trek 3 , he dropped out of a new Power Rangers film , for which he would have been executive producer . But on December 5 , it was announced he would no longer be directing the Star Trek film . He remains credited as a producer on the film , and was replaced by Doug Jung and cast member Simon Pegg as the script writers after Orci 's initial script was dropped . Orci was replaced as director by Justin Lin , who had previously directed films in The Fast and the Furious franchise .
Orci created Matador with the idea that the main character would be a " soccer player by day who is a spy by night " , and called him a " Latin James Bond " . The series was broadcast on the El Rey Network created by Robert Rodriguez . It was renewed for a second season shortly before the pilot was broadcast , which had been directed by Rodriguez . But following the production of the first season , the series was cancelled despite the earlier renewal . This decision was blamed on poor international sales .
= = Awards and accolades = =
The Hollywood Reporter listed Orci as one of the 50 most powerful Latinos in Hollywood of 2007 . His first solo accolade was the Norman Lear Writer 's Award at the Imagen Awards in 2009 . He described the experience of receiving an award without Kurtzman as " bizarre " . Orci has also been awarded the Raul Julia Award for Excellence by the National Hispanic Foundation for the Arts . Together with Kurtzman , Orci won The George Pal Memorial Award at the 2010 Saturn Awards .
Orci and Kurtzman were both honored by the nonprofit organization Chrysalis , alongside Josh Lieberman and Katherine Pope at the Butterfly Ball on June 8 , 2013 . The organization raises money for homeless people and low @-@ income families , Orci said that " When you hear the life stories from people right here in our own community , who are clients at Chrysalis , and when you come to learn of their lowest moments and how Chrysalis has led to their proudest triumphs , it 's easy to see why this local organization is so impactful . "
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television credits = = =
= Werner Hartenstein =
Gustav Julius Werner Hartenstein ( 27 February 1908 – 8 March 1943 ) commanded the U @-@ boat U @-@ 156 in Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , a decoration awarded to recognise extreme battlefield bravery or outstanding military leadership . Korvettenkapitän ( corvette captain ) Hartenstein is credited with the sinking of 20 ships for a total of 97 @,@ 504 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and with damaging three ships and a destroyer .
Born in Plauen , Hartenstein joined the Reichsmarine ( navy of the Weimar Republic ) in 1928 . After a period of training on surface vessels and service on various torpedo boats during the Spanish Civil War and the first year of World War II , he transferred to the U @-@ boat service in 1941 . In September 1942 , Hartenstein torpedoed and sank the RMS Laconia , then attempted to rescue the survivors . He was forced to abort the rescue when his U @-@ boat came under attack by a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber of the United States Army Air Forces . The event became known as the " Laconia incident " and resulted in the " Laconia Order " , an order from the Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote to the entire German U @-@ boat force that forbade rescuing the survivors of sunken ships . Hartenstein and the entire crew of U @-@ 156 were killed in action by depth charges from a US PBY Catalina aircraft on 8 March 1943 .
= = Early life and pre @-@ war service = =
Hartenstein was born in Plauen in the Vogtland of the Kingdom of Saxony , then a federated state of the German Empire , on 27 February 1908 . He was the second child of William Karl Adolf Hartenstein , an export merchant , and Selma Emma Hartenstein , née Schlingensiepen . Hartenstein had one older sister , Thea Irena , and a younger sister , Charlotte . He celebrated his confirmation in 1923 and graduated from a humanities @-@ oriented secondary school in Plauen with his diploma ( Abitur ) in 1926 . After graduation in 1926 he applied for a naval officer cadetship but was rejected at first , and instead studied two semesters of jurisprudence . He matriculated at the University of Freiburg ( Albert @-@ Ludwigs @-@ Universität Freiburg ) in Freiburg im Breisgau on 29 April 1927 .
Aged 20 , Hartenstein re @-@ applied for the cadetship , was accepted and began his naval career with the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1928 as a member of " Crew 28 " ( the incoming class of 1928 ) . He underwent basic military training in the 2nd department of the standing ship division of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund ( 1 April 1928 – 30 June 1928 ) . Hartenstein was then transferred to the training ship Niobe ( 1 July 1928 – 15 October 1928 ) , attaining the rank of Seekadett ( midshipman ) on 11 October 1928 . Following a 14 @-@ month stay on board the cruiser Emden ( 16 October 1928 – 3 January 1930 ) he advanced in rank to Fähnrich zur See ( officer cadet ) on 1 January 1930 . Emden at the time was under the command of Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière , a U @-@ boat commander during World War I. Hartenstein then underwent a number of officer training courses at the Naval Academy at Mürwik , including navigational training cruises on the survey vessel Meteor , before transferring to the light cruiser Köln ( 1 October 1931 – 23 September 1934 ) . His stay on Köln was occasionally interrupted to attend further training courses at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel @-@ Wik . During this assignment on 30 January 1933 , the Nazi Party , under the leadership of Adolf Hitler , came to power in Germany , and began to rearm the navy . In 1935 , the Reichsmarine was renamed the Kriegsmarine .
Hartenstein served as first watch officer on the torpedo boat Greif from 30 September 1936 to 13 November 1938 . He was promoted to Kapitänleutnant ( captain lieutenant ) on 1 June 1937 . Hartenstein participated in several patrols in 1937 and 1938 on board Greif in Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War . For these services he was awarded the Spanish Cross in Bronze on 6 June 1936 .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of World War II , Hartenstein continued to serve on torpedo boats . In this position , he completed 65 patrols in the North Sea , Norwegian waters , the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel in the first one and a half years of the war . Hartenstein took command of torpedo boat Seeadler on 20 November 1938 . In October 1939 Hartenstein transferred and switched command of torpedo boat Jaguar with Kapitänleutnant Franz Kohlauf who took over command of Seeadler . On 30 March 1941 , command of Jaguar was given to Kapitänleutnant Friedrich @-@ Karl Paul and Hartenstein transferred to the U @-@ boat force , and on 4 September 1941 was given command of U @-@ 156 , a Type IXC U @-@ boat . For his service on torpedo boats , Hartenstein was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 2 February 1942 . Karl Dönitz personally pinned the award on Harteinstein 's leather jacket on 17 March 1942 . U @-@ 156 was first assigned to the 4th U @-@ boat Flotilla at Stettin as a training boat , then was transferred to the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla at Lorient , France , on 31 December 1941 .
= = = First patrol = = =
Hartenstein 's first patrol ( 24 December 1941 – 10 January 1942 ) was an uneventful transfer patrol taking U @-@ 156 from Kiel to Lorient . U @-@ 156 , together with U @-@ 87 and U @-@ 753 , transited through the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , passing Brunsbüttel where they joined up with a pathfinder and U @-@ 135 . The convoy received aerial protection from Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter aircraft and split up once they reached Cuxhaven . Passing south of the Shetland Islands , bypassing the Hebrides , U @-@ 156 slowly approached Rockall , where two weather buoys were released : " WFB 33 " on 7 January 1942 at 51 ° 04 @.@ 3 ′ N 11 ° 04 ′ W , and " WFB 32 " on 8 January 1942 at 02 : 44 at 53 ° 24 ′ N 13 ° 32 ′ W in the Porcupine Bank . U @-@ 156 received a radio message on the evening of 8 January ordering Hartenstein to proceed at high speed to Lorient , where it arrived on 10 January 1942 .
= = = Second patrol = = =
On his second patrol ( 19 January 1942 – 17 March 1942 ) Hartenstein commanded a wolfpack of U @-@ boats ( Gruppe Neuland — Group New Land ) during the Attack on Aruba in February 1942 , attacking an oil refinery . U @-@ 156 along with U @-@ 67 under the command of Günther Müller @-@ Stöckheim and U @-@ 502 under the command of Jürgen von Rosenstiel departed from Lorient under the protection of a pathfinder in the early morning of 19 January 1942 . Hartenstein 's orders were to conduct a simultaneous surprise attack of the Gruppe Neuland against the shipping traffic off Aruba and Curaçao . Besides U @-@ 156 , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 502 , Gruppe Neuland also included the submarines U @-@ 129 under the command of Nicolai Clausen and U @-@ 161 under the command of Albrecht Achilles .
On 16 February , after observing the area for a few days , U @-@ 156 came around to the refineries . There in front of her target were two Lago Company flat @-@ bottom steamers , SS Pedernales and Oranjestad , both British @-@ owned oilers . At 01 : 31 , U @-@ 156 surfaced in San Nicolaas Harbour some 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 81 nmi ; 0 @.@ 93 mi ) offshore and attacked the two British tankers at anchor . Hartenstein fired one torpedo from his bow tubes at Pedernales . The torpedo attack was successful and Pedernales was hit amidships . Loaded with crude oil , the steamer immediately burst into flames , killing eight of her 26 crewmen and wounding her captain Herbert McCall . Oranjestad then began to lift anchor and steam away but she was too late and was hit by a second torpedo fired from U @-@ 156 . She too burst into flames and sunk an hour later in about 70 m ( 230 ft ) of water . Fifteen of her 22 crewmen were killed .
At 03 : 13 , U @-@ 156 attacked the Texaco @-@ owned tanker SS Arkansas which was berthed at Eagle Beach next to the Arend / Eagle Refinery . Just one of the torpedoes struck Arkansas and partially sank her but the damage was moderate and caused no casualties . Commander Hartenstein then steamed further around Aruba and directed his men to take to the deck guns and prepare for a naval bombardment of the large oil tank of the Lago Oil and Transport Company The crew of the 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 naval gun forgot to remove the tampion from the barrel , so when Hartenstein ordered them to fire , the gun blew up . Gunnery Officer Dietrich von dem Borne was wounded badly , one foot having been severed . His comrade and trigger man Heinrich Büssinger was badly wounded as well and died several hours after the attack . Hartenstein ordered the 3 @.@ 7 cm flak gun to continue the attack , causing only superficial damage .
= = = Third patrol = = =
On Hartenstein 's third patrol ( 22 April 1942 – 7 July 1942 ) , U @-@ 156 sank 12 ships and damaged a further two , including the USS Blakeley on 25 May 1942 . This achievement earned Hartenstein a reference on 6 June 1942 in the Wehrmachtbericht ( armed forces report ) , an information bulletin issued by the headquarters of the Wehrmacht . To be singled out individually in this way was an honour ( equivalent to " Mentioned in Despatches " in the United Kingdom military ) and was entered in the Orders and Decorations ' section of a soldier 's Service Record Book .
U @-@ 156 along with U @-@ 502 again departed from Lorient under the protection of a pathfinder on 22 April 1942 destined for the Caribbean Sea . Prior to the departure Dietrich von dem Borne , who had been severely wounded on the second patrol , was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See of the Reserve Gert Mannesmann . Chief engineer Wilhelm Polchau reported to Hartenstein on 6 May that the diesel compressor had malfunctioned . Hartenstein radioed U @-@ 66 under the command of Robert @-@ Richard Zapp to assist . On 10 May U @-@ 156 and U @-@ 66 rendezvoused and exchanged 5 cubic metres ( 6 @.@ 5 cu yd ) of fuel oil for the necessary spare parts , and the fuel compressor was repaired . U @-@ 156 sighted the first steamer in the early afternoon on 12 May , the first of twelve ships — eleven merchantmen and one warship — attacked on this patrol , ten of which were sunk .
U @-@ 156 , positioned near Fort @-@ de @-@ France , was ordered to observe the traffic to and from Martinique . At roughly 11 nautical miles ( 20 km ; 13 mi ) offshore , the hydrophones detected a ship . Hartenstein attacked from a submerged position firing two torpedoes . One torpedo struck the bow of the Blakeley after a 25 @-@ second run @-@ time . Hartenstein observed that the bow was completely blown away , but its engines kept running . The waters around Martinique were extremely shallow and Hartenstein decided not to pursue the destroyer . On 1 June 1942 , Hartenstein was promoted to Korvettenkapitän ( corvette captain ) . The first watch officer , Paul Just , left U @-@ 156 after returning from the third patrol . Just was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Leopold Schumacher as new first watch officer . Just later became commander of U @-@ 6 , U @-@ 151 and U @-@ 546 .
Hartenstein and the entire crew of U @-@ 156 received a hero 's welcome by the people of Plauen on 20 July 1942 . The people lined the streets as the whole crew marched from the railway station to the City Hall for the official welcome reception .
= = = Fourth patrol and Laconia incident = = =
On U @-@ 156 's fourth patrol ( 20 August 1942 – 16 November 1942 ) , Hartenstein sank and then organised the rescue of the survivors of RMS Laconia , resulting in the " Laconia incident " and " Laconia order " .
U @-@ 156 together with U @-@ 68 under the command of Karl @-@ Friedrich Merten departed from Lorient on 20 August 1942 heading for the Bay of Biscay . Hartenstein received the order to operate against Convoy SL @-@ 119 on 25 August . After a two @-@ day pursuit , U @-@ 156 found a straggler , the SS Clan Macwhirter , west of Casablanca . Hartenstein attacked from a submerged position to avoid detection under the bright moonlight . Clan Macwhirter was hit by two torpedoes and sank , killing nine members of the crew and two gunners ; 79 sailors survived the sinking . Two later sightings on 2 and 6 September did not lead to favourable attack positions .
On 12 September 1942 U @-@ 156 was patrolling off the coast of West Africa midway between Liberia and Ascension Island roughly 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ; 690 mi ) south of Cape Palmas . At 11 : 37 the aft port lookout sighted a smoke stack at 230 degrees . Hartenstein followed the target , which was zigzagging at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , until the general direction of the large ocean liner became evident . U @-@ 156 was running at 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) into a favourable attack position , and Hartenstein ordered the attack at 21 : 07 . He slowed speed at 22 : 00 and ordered surfaced deflection shots from torpedo tubes I and III . After three minutes and six seconds the first torpedo detonated , then the second . He had hoped to capture the ship 's senior officers , but to his surprise , Hartenstein saw over two thousand people struggling in the water . Hartenstein immediately began rescue operations . Laconia sank at 23 : 23 .
At 01 : 25 on 13 September 1942 Hartenstein radioed the Befehlshaber der U @-@ Boote ( BdU — commander of U @-@ boats ) requesting guidance and confirmation on how to proceed . The BdU responded at 03 : 45 ordering Wolf pack Eisbär , consisting of U @-@ 507 under the command of Harro Schacht , U @-@ 506 under the command of Erich Würdemann and U @-@ 459 under the command of Georg von Wilamowitz @-@ Moellendorf , to assist Hartenstein immediately . At 06 : 00 Hartenstein ordered that the following message be sent on the 25m wavelength :
" If any ship will assist the ship @-@ wrecked Laconia crew , I will not attack providing I am not being attacked by ship or air forces . I picked up 193 men . 4 ° 53 South / 11 ° 26 West – German submarine "
The message was repeated twice on the international 600m wavelength . The BdU later changed the order slightly and U @-@ 506 , U @-@ 507 and the Italian submarine Capellini were dispatched . In parallel U @-@ 156 was assisting and supplying the survivors in the numerous lifeboats that kept arriving or were picked up . U @-@ 506 arrived at 11 : 32 on 14 September 1942 , followed by U @-@ 507 in the afternoon of 15 September . Heading to a rendezvous with Vichy French ships under Red Cross banners , the U @-@ boats were attacked by a U.S. Army B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber ( 343d Bomb Squadron ; Lieutenant James D. Harden ) at 12 : 32 on 16 September 1942 . The attack ordered by Captain Robert C. Richardson III , which killed a number of people in the lifeboats and damaged U @-@ 156 , forced Hartenstein to abandon the rescue operations . A majority of survivors were later rescued by British merchant ships and two Vichy French warships , the cruiser Gloire and the sloop Annamite , out of Dakar , Africa .
This event later became known as the " Laconia incident " and led BdU Admiral Karl Dönitz to issue the " Laconia order " to his U @-@ boat commanders that stated in part " No attempt of any kind must be made at rescuing members of ships sunk ... " At the end of the war , the Laconia Order was unsuccessfully used against Admiral Dönitz in his war crime trial . The prosecution failed when Fleet Admiral Nimitz testified that in the war with Japan the United States Navy had followed the same general policy as was set forth in the German admiral 's directive .
U @-@ 156 received a radio message on 17 September 1942 indicating that Werner Hartenstein had become the 63rd member of the U @-@ boat service and the 125th of the Kriegsmarine to be awarded Germany 's highest military honour , the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . Hartenstein issued a bottle of beer to each member of the crew and held a speech honouring the achievements of everyone on board , and telling them that he would wear the decoration in their name .
On 19 September 1942 , U @-@ 156 was roughly 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) south of Freetown and the crew was still repairing minor damage , when the lookout spotted a ship at 04 : 30 . The target was the British ship Quebec City , en route from Cape Town to Freetown . Hartenstein attacked from a submerged position and hit Quebec City with one torpedo fired from tube VI . Hartenstein surfaced and approached the lifeboats and asked the survivors for the ship 's name . Quebec City did not sink easily and U @-@ 156 fired 58 rounds from the 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) flak gun and seven further shots from the 10 @.@ 5 cm gun before Hartenstein ordered a cease fire . After a direct hit in the ship 's stern ammunition magazine and an explosion , Quebec City slowly sank . According to William Clark , a member of Quebec City 's crew , Hartenstein made sure that the survivors had enough water and provisions and that Captain William Thomas had the exact coordinates . This account of that attack and the impression that the humanitarian actions of Hartenstein made is documented in the book by David Cledlyn Jones , The Enemy We Killed , My Friend . Jones himself disagrees , stating that Hartenstein was concerned about the survivors ’ well @-@ being but did not inquire about provisions , nor did he offer additional food or water . Hartenstein did express that it would have been his wish to tow them at least some distance to the African coast , but explained that he was not able to do so as he recently had been attacked while attempting to aid survivors .
= = = Fifth patrol and death = = =
During his fifth patrol ( 16 January 1943 – 8 March 1943 ) , on 8 March 1943 , Hartenstein and the entire crew of U @-@ 156 were killed in action by depth charges from a US PBY Catalina aircraft ( VP @-@ 53 / P @-@ 1 ; Lieutenant E. Dryden ) , east of Barbados . The Catalina dropped four Mark 44 Torpex water @-@ bombs at 13 : 15 from an altitude of 75 feet ( 23 m ) to 100 feet ( 30 m ) which straddled U @-@ 156 . Two bombs were observed to hit the water 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) starboard and just aft of U @-@ 156 , lifting it and breaking it in two , followed by an explosion . At least eleven survivors were seen swimming in the water . The Americans dropped two rubber rafts and rations , and five men were seen to reach one of the rafts . The USS Barney was dispatched from Trinidad to rescue the survivors . The search was abandoned on 12 March 1943 . Korvettenkapitän Ernst Kals , chief of the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla at Lorient , sent a letter to Hartenstein 's parents on 23 April 1943 indicating that their son had been posted as missing in action as of 12 March 1943 . US officials announced the destruction of the U @-@ boat on 10 May 1943 .
Ten months after his death a service of remembrance was held in Plauen on 15 January 1944 . The service was attended by his parents , his sisters and other members of the family , the mayor of Plauen , Eugen Wörner , senior officials and councillors . The local press reported that " His parents have accepted that their loving son will not return home but is resting in peace with his Lord . " Werner Hartenstein was portrayed by German actor Ken Duken in the 2011 TV mini @-@ series The Sinking of the Laconia .
= = Summary of career = =
= = = Ships attacked = = =
As a U @-@ boat commander of U @-@ 156 Werner Hartenstein is credited with the sinking of 20 ships ( including the motor boat Letitia Porter on board Koenjit ) for a total of 97 @,@ 504 gross register tons ( GRT ) , further damaging three ships of 18 @,@ 811 GRT and damaging one warship , USS Blakeley , of 1 @,@ 190 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 170 long tons ; 1 @,@ 310 short tons ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Spanish Cross in Bronze ( 6 June 1939 )
The Return of Memel Commemorative Medal ( 26 October 1939 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 16 November 1939 )
1st Class ( 27 April 1940 )
The Return of Sudetenland Commemorative Medal of 1 October 1938 ( 6 November 1940 )
Destroyer War Badge ( 24 December 1940 )
German Cross in Gold on 2 February 1942 as Kapitänleutnant on torpedo boat Jaguar / 6 . Torbedoboots @-@ Flottille
U @-@ boat War Badge ( 1939 ) ( 17 March 1942 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 17 September 1942 as Korvettenkapitän and commander of U @-@ 156
Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht on 6 June 1942
= = = Promotions = = =
= = Translation notes = =
= Flying the Flag ( For You ) =
" Flying the Flag ( For You ) " is a song performed by British pop / bubblegum dance group Scooch .
The song was entered and won the British national selection competition for the Eurovision Song Contest , Eurovision : Making Your Mind Up in 2007 , and subsequently represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki , Finland . The song came joint 22nd with a total of 19 points , the same score as France .
= = Song information = =
Scooch had reformed in hope of performing at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 , and the song was specifically written for the Contest ; Eurovision rules state that the song must be an original composition and released no more than seven months before the contest . Russ , as the captain , opens and closes the song with captain 's announcements . Natalie and Caroline sing the vocals of the song , as David offers passengers confectioneries . The lyrics are heavily based on actual experiences of flying . The song contains a liberal amount of sexual innuendo , the most overt being " ... and blow into the mouthpiece " and " Would you like something to suck on for landing , sir ? " ( the latter was omitted or changed for some tea @-@ time television performances ) . The camp style was both praised and criticised - The Guardian noted that the song was , in terms of Eurovision , outdated and similar to Buck 's Fizz 's winning entry in 1981 , while Tim Moore called the song " a fine song in Eurovision tradition " .
= = Music video = =
The original music video was their final performance on Eurovision : Making Your Mind Up ; Scooch recorded a new version once their contract with Warner Bros. had been signed . Following the lyrics , the second video starts with the quartet in the front of the aeroplane , with Spencer as the captain . The video continues with all of the members as stewards walking up and down the plane , with a cameo appearance from Sister Mary McArthur , who was invited to take part after the band saw her lip sync video . Later in the video each member of the band is seen dancing in front of the flags of selected countries that are all participating in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 , in addition to the flag of the European Union .
= = " Flying the Flag " in Helsinki = =
" Flying the Flag ( for You ) " was the nineteenth song to be sung during the Eurovision Song Contest . The song scored only nineteen points : twelve from Malta , and seven from Ireland , two nations known for awarding points to the United Kingdom - although according to the Head of the Maltese Delegation , Malta voted twelve partly in protest to regional block voting which , had made the Contest " not about the songs any more " , an opinion shared by " five or six other countries " . Due to the low score that Scooch had received — only Ireland were lower on the scoreboard — the song received negative press by newspapers - in particular , The Sunday Mirror were reported by the BBC to have stated that the song made the United Kingdom " the laughing stock of Europe " , The Sunday Times , according to the BBC , referred to the song , " It wasn 't a disaster - more of a crash landing " .
= = International promotion = =
On 18 April 2007 it was announced that Scooch had been signed to the Warner Bros. label . This would help them to promote and release their single to a broader range of fans in the United Kingdom and abroad . As part of the contract , Scooch recorded certain phrases of the song in French , German , Spanish , Bulgarian , and Danish .
= = Track listings and formats = =
CD
" Flying The Flag ( For You ) " [ Eurovision 2007 Version ] ( 3 : 04 )
" Flying The Flag ( For You ) " [ Karaoke Version ] ( 3 : 04 )
DVD
" Flying the Flag ( For You ) " [ Video ]
" How To " Special Scooch Dance Feature [ Video ]
" Flying the Flag ( For You ) " [ Karaoke Version ] [ Video ]
" Flying the Flag ( For You ) " [ Audio ]
= = Chart positions = =
The official single version was available from 30 April 2007 and was released as a physical CD single in the following week , on 7 May 2007 .
The song debuted in the UK Top 40 at No. 5 and peaked at this position .
= Saint Kitts and Nevis at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The Saint Kitts and Nevis National Olympic Committee sent four athletes to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . All four participated in the track and field competitions across four different events . Three women ( Tiandra Ponteen , Virgil Hodge , and Meritzer Williams ) and one man ( Kim Collins ) comprised the Kittitian delegation . Williams and Ponteen did not advance past Qualifications in their events ; Hodge reached quarterfinals in both the 100m and 200m sprints ; and Collins , who participated in two events , reached the Semifinal round in the 100m sprint , and ranked sixth in the finals in the 200m sprint . Saint Kitts and Nevis did not win any medals during the Beijing Olympics . The flag bearer for the team at the opening ceremony was first @-@ time Olympian Virgil Hodge .
= = Background = =
The appearance of Saint Kitts and Nevis at the Beijing Summer Olympics marked its fourth consecutive summer appearance since it first entered the Games during the 1996 Summer Olympics . Saint Kitts ' and Nevis ' delegation to the 2008 Olympics included four athletes : Kim Collins , Virgil Hodge , Tiandra Ponteen , and Meritzer Williams . All four participated in track and field @-@ related events . Of the four , two ( Ponteen and Collins ) represented the country previously in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . The 2008 Games marked Williams as the youngest Kittitian yet to participate on behalf of her country , and Collins the oldest . Virgil Hodge was Saint Kitts ' and Nevis ' flagbearer . As a result of Collins ' achievements in his events , the Kim Collins Pavilion was christened for him in the then newly created Silver Jubilee Athletic Stadium .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's 100m sprint = = =
Kim Collins was the only Kittitian participant in the men 's 100m sprint , which began its Qualifications round on 14 August . Collins , who was placed in heat two , ranked second in the event with a time of 10 @.@ 17 seconds . Collins was 0 @.@ 01 seconds slower than Asafa Powell of Jamaica , who was the fastest in Collins ' heat . Overall , Kim Collins ranked fourth out of 80 athletes and was 0 @.@ 04 seconds slower than Tyrone Edgar of the United Kingdom , who ranked first in qualifications overall .
In the 15 August Quarterfinals , Collins was placed in heat three and , with a time of 10 @.@ 07 , ranked second in his heat behind Marc Burns of Trinidad and Tobago . Burns was 0 @.@ 02 seconds faster than Collins during Quarterfinals . Overall , Collins ranked 7th out of 40 athletes . His time was within 0 @.@ 15 seconds of Jamaica 's Usain Bolt , who held the fastest time during quarterfinals . Collins progressed to semifinals .
Kim Collins ran the 100 meter sprint during Quarterfinals in 10 @.@ 05 seconds . Participating in heat one , Collins ranked fifth . Overall , Collins tied American sprinter Tyson Gay for ninth place out of 16 , and did not progress to finals .
= = = Men 's 200m sprint = = =
Kim Collins participated in the men 's 200m dash . During the 17 August qualifications , Collins raced in heat three , placing second out of eight people . With a time of 20 @.@ 55 seconds , Collins fell 0 @.@ 06 seconds short of the United Kingdom 's Marlon Devonish , who was the fastest in his heat ; and was 0 @.@ 3 seconds faster than Jamaica 's Marvin Anderson , who took third place in the heat . Overall , Collins ranked seventh out of 62 athletes during the qualification round , falling 0 @.@ 11 seconds short of American finalist Wallace Spearmon , who ranked third overall , and 0 @.@ 3 seconds short of Zimbabwean finalist Brian Dzingai , who ranked first overall . Collins continued to quarterfinals .
During the 18 August quarterfinals , Collins raced American Shawn Crawford and Jamaican Usain Bolt , among others , in heat one . He placed third , after the two athletes , with a time of 20 @.@ 43 seconds , tying with Devonish . Collins ranked 12th out of 31 athletes , ranking immediately behind Churandy Martina of the Netherlands Antilles . Collins qualified for semifinals .
During semifinals , Collins was placed in heat two . With a time of 20 @.@ 25 , he ranked fourth out of seven in his heat , defeating Devonish ; Mauritius ' Stephan Buckland ; and Antigua and Barbuda 's Brendan Christian . He was slower than Spearmon , Crawford , and Bolt . Collins ranked seventh overall , tying with Christian Malcolm of the United Kingdom , and moved on to finals .
Kim Collins finished eighth in the Finals , but his position was shifted up to sixth place after the disqualifications of Martina and Spearmon , who would have respectively taken the silver and bronze medals . Collins ranked immediately behind Christian Malcolm .
= = = Women 's 100m sprint = = =
Virgil Hodge was the only Kittitian to participate in the women 's 100m sprint . She was placed in heat three during the qualification round on 15 August . Hodge was the fourth fastest person in her heat , completing the sprint in 11 @.@ 48 seconds . She fell 0 @.@ 04 seconds short of Uzbekistan 's Guzel Khubbieva , who ranked third in the heat ; and 0 @.@ 15 seconds short of the United States ' Muna Lee , who ranked first in the her heat during the qualification round . Overall in the event , Virgil Hodge tied Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson for 28th place out of 85 sprinters , and progressed to the next round .
Hodge competed during quarterfinals , in which she was placed in Heat 1 . Hodge , again , ranked fourth in her heat of eight people , completing the sprint in 11 @.@ 45 seconds . Hodge was 0 @.@ 13 seconds slower than Jeanette Kwakye of the United Kingdom , who ranked third place in the heat , and 0 @.@ 39 seconds slower than Shelly @-@ Ann Frazer of Jamaica , who was the fastest in the heat ; she was also 0 @.@ 23 seconds faster than Jade Latoya Bailey of Barbados , who was the slowest runner in her heat . Overall , Hodge tied Norwegian sprinter Ezinne Okparaebo for 23rd place out of 40 sprinters . She did not progress to semifinals .
= = = Women 's 200m sprint = = =
Meritzer Williams and Virgil Hodge participated in the women 's 200 meters sprint . During the 18 August Qualifications , Hodge was placed in heat one , and Williams in heat three . Hodge ranked third in her heat , earning a time of 23 @.@ 14 seconds , falling behind Susanthika Jayasinghe of Sri Lanka and Allyson Felix of the United States . Felix , who ranked first and later became silver medalist , was 0 @.@ 12 seconds faster than Hodge in this round . Meritzer Williams earned a time of 23 @.@ 83 seconds in her round , ranking seventh of eight in her heat , just ahead of eighth @-@ place runner Benin 's Fabienne Fereaz . American runner Marshevet Hooker , who ranked first in Williams ' heat and later took fifth place in finals , was 0 @.@ 76 seconds faster than Meritzer Williams .
Overall in the first qualifying round , Virgil Hodge ranked 18th out of 46 . Meritzer Williams ranked 38th . Meritzer Williams did not advance to quarterfinals , but Hodge did .
Virgil Hodge was placed in heat four , competing against athletes like Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson and the United States ' Muna Lee . She ran her event in 23 @.@ 17 seconds , earning fifth of eight in her heat and falling 0 @.@ 02 seconds behind Bulgaria 's Ivet Lalova . Overall , however , Hodge raked 19th out of 31 . Hodge fell short of Simpson , who ranked first in quarterfinals , by 0 @.@ 57 seconds .
= = = Women 's 400m sprint = = =
Tiandra " Angie " Ponteen participated in the women 's 400m sprint . She was the only Kittitian to participate in the event at the Beijing Olympics . Ponteen was placed in the first heat of the her qualifying round , which took place on 16 August . She ran the 400 meters in 52 @.@ 41 seconds , a full second behind American runner Deedee Trotter , finishing fifth out of seven in her heat . Overall , Tiandra Ponteen ranked 27th out of 50 runners . She did not progress to further rounds . Ponteen was 1 @.@ 87 seconds slower than bronze medalist Sanya Richards of the United States , who ranked first in the 16 August Round 1 qualifying round .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= Spanish conquest of Yucatán =
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities in the Yucatán Peninsula , a vast limestone plain covering south @-@ eastern Mexico , northern Guatemala , and all of Belize . The Spanish conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula was hindered by its politically fragmented state . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Among the Maya , ambush was a favoured tactic . Spanish weaponry included broadswords , rapiers , lances , pikes , halberds , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Maya warriors fought with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows and stones , and wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . The Spanish introduced a number of Old World diseases previously unknown in the Americas , initiating devastating plagues that swept through the native populations .
The first encounter with the Yucatán Maya occurred in 1502 , when the fourth voyage of Christopher Columbus came across a large Maya trading canoe off Honduras . In 1517 , Francisco Hernández de Córdoba made landfall on the tip of the peninsula . His expedition continued along the coast and suffered heavy losses in a pitched battle at Champotón , forcing a retreat to Cuba . Juan de Grijalva explored the coast in 1518 , and heard tales of the wealthy Aztec Empire further west . As a result of these rumours , Hernán Cortés set sail with another fleet . From Cozumel he continued around the peninsula to Tabasco where he fought a battle at Potonchán ; from there Cortés continued onward to conquer the Aztec Empire . In 1524 , Cortés led a sizeable expedition to Honduras , cutting across southern Campeche , and through Petén in what is now northern Guatemala . In 1527 Francisco de Montejo set sail from Spain with a small fleet . He left garrisons on the east coast , and subjugated the northeast of the peninsula . Montejo then returned to the east to find his garrisons had almost been eliminated ; he used a supply ship to explore southwards before looping back around the entire peninsula to central Mexico . Montejo pacified Tabasco with the aid of his son , also named Francisco de Montejo .
In 1531 the Spanish moved their base of operations to Campeche , where they repulsed a significant Maya attack . After this battle , the Spanish founded a town at Chichen Itza in the north . Montejo carved up the province amongst his soldiers . In mid @-@ 1533 the local Maya rebelled and laid siege to the small Spanish garrison , which was forced to flee . Towards the end of 1534 , or the beginning of 1535 , the Spanish retreated from Campeche to Veracruz . In 1535 , peaceful attempts by the Franciscan Order to incorporate Yucatán into the Spanish Empire failed after a renewed Spanish military presence at Champotón forced the friars out . Champotón was by now the last Spanish outpost in Yucatán , isolated among a hostile population . In 1541 – 42 the first permanent Spanish town councils in the entire peninsula were founded at Campeche and Mérida . When the powerful lord of Mani converted to the Roman Catholic religion , his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity encouraged the lords of the western provinces to accept Spanish rule . In late 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched an unsuccessful uprising against the Spanish . The eastern Maya were defeated in a single battle , which marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula .
The polities of Petén in the south remained independent and received many refugees fleeing from Spanish jurisdiction . In 1618 and in 1619 two unsuccessful Franciscan missions attempted the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza . In 1622 the Itza slaughtered two Spanish parties trying to reach their capital Nojpetén . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . Over the course of 1695 and 1696 a number of Spanish expeditions attempted to reach Nojpetén from the mutually independent Spanish colonies in Yucatán and Guatemala . In early 1695 the Spanish began to build a road from Campeche south towards Petén and activity intensified , sometimes with significant losses on the part of the Spanish . Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi , governor of Yucatán , launched an assault upon Nojpetén in March 1697 ; the city fell after a brief battle . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the Spanish .
= = Geography = =
The Yucatán Peninsula is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and by the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west . It can be delimited by a line running from the Laguna de Términos on the Gulf coast through to the Gulf of Honduras on the Caribbean coast . It incorporates the modern Mexican states of Yucatán , Quintana Roo and Campeche , the eastern portion of the state of Tabasco , most of the Guatemalan department of Petén , and all of Belize . Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline . A 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) stretch of high , rocky coast runs south from the city of Campeche on the Gulf Coast . A number of bays are situated along the east coast of the peninsula , from north to south they are Ascensión Bay , Espíritu Santo Bay , Chetumal Bay and Amatique Bay . The north coast features a wide , sandy littoral zone . The extreme north of the peninsula , roughly corresponding to Yucatán State , has underlying bedrock consisting of flat Cenozoic limestone . To the south of this the limestone rises to form the low chain of Puuc Hills , with a steep initial scarp running 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) east from the Gulf coast near Champotón , terminating some 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from the Caribbean coast near the border of Quintana Roo . The hills reach a maximum altitude of 170 metres ( 560 ft ) .
The northwestern and northern portions of the Yucatán Peninsula experience lower rainfall than the rest of the peninsula ; these regions feature highly porous limestone bedrock resulting in less surface water . This limestone geology results in most rainwater filtering directly through the bedrock to the phreatic zone , from whence it slowly flows to the coasts to form large submarine springs . Various freshwater springs rise along the coast to form watering holes . The filtering of rainwater through the limestone has caused the formation of extensive cave systems . These cave rooves are subject to collapse forming deep sinkholes ; if the bottom of the cave is deeper than the groundwater level then a cenote is formed .
In contrast , the northeastern portion of the peninsula is characterised by forested swamplands . The northern portion of the peninsula lacks rivers , except for the Champotón River – all other rivers are located in the south . The Sibun River flows from west to east from south central Quintana Roo to Lake Bacalar on the Caribbean Coast ; the Río Hondo flows northwards from Belize to empty into the same lake . Bacalar Lake empties into Chetumal Bay . The Río Nuevo flows from Lamanai Lake in Belize northwards to Chetumal Bay . The Mopan River and the Macal River flow through Belize and join to form the Belize River , which empties into the Caribbean Sea . In the southwest of the peninsula , the San Pedro River , the Candelaría River and the Mamantel River , which all form a part of the Gulf of Mexico drainage .
The Petén region consists of densely forested low @-@ lying limestone plain featuring karstic topography . The area is crossed by low east – west oriented ridges of Cenozoic limestone and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types ; water sources include generally small rivers and low @-@ lying seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén ; during the rainy season some of these lakes become interconnected . This drainage area measures approximately 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) east – west by 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north – south . The largest lake is Lake Petén Itza , near the centre of the drainage basin ; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes . To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent , interspersed with forest . In the far north of Petén the Mirador Basin forms another interior drainage region . To the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands . The canopy height of the forest gradually decreases from Petén northwards , averaging from 25 to 35 metres ( 82 to 115 ft ) . This dense forest covers northern Petén and Belize , most of Quinatana Roo , southern Campeche and a portion of the south of Yucatán State . Further north , the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate becomes progressively drier towards the north of the peninsula . In the north , the annual mean temperature is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in Mérida . Average temperature in the peninsula varies from 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in January to 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) in July . The lowest temperature on record is 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . For the peninsula as a whole , the mean annual precipitation is 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) . The rainy season lasts from June to September , while the dry season runs from October to May . During the dry season , rainfall averages 300 millimetres ( 12 in ) ; in the wet season this increases to an average 800 to 900 millimetres ( 31 to 35 in ) . The prevailing winds are easterly and have created an east @-@ west precipitation gradient with average rainfall in the east exceeding 1 @,@ 400 millimetres ( 55 in ) and the north and northwestern portions of the peninsula receiving a maximum of 800 millimetres ( 31 in ) . The southeastern portion of the peninsula has a tropical rainy climate with a short dry season in winter .
Petén has a hot climate and receives the highest rainfall in all Mesoamerica . The climate is divided into wet and dry seasons , with the rainy season lasting from June to December , although these seasons are not clearly defined in the south ; with rain occurring through most of the year . The climate of Petén varies from tropical in the south to semitropical in the north ; temperature varies between 12 and 40 ° C ( 54 and 104 ° F ) , although it does not usually drop beneath 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . Mean temperature varies from 24 @.@ 3 ° C ( 75 @.@ 7 ° F ) in the southeast to 26 @.@ 9 ° C ( 80 @.@ 4 ° F ) in the northeast . Highest temperatures are reached from April to June , while January is the coldest month ; all Petén experiences a hot dry period in late August . Annual precipitation is high , varying from a mean of 1 @,@ 198 millimetres ( 47 @.@ 2 in ) in the northeast to 2 @,@ 007 millimetres ( 79 @.@ 0 in ) in central Petén .
= = Yucatán before the conquest = =
The first large Maya cities developed in the Petén Basin in the far south of the Yucatán Peninsula as far back as the Middle Preclassic ( c . 600 – 350 BC ) , and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 900 ) . The 16th century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the Maya Classic period . From the mid @-@ 13th century AD through to the mid @-@ 15th century , the League of Mayapán united several of the northern provinces ; for a time they shared a joint form of government . The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse . A significant Maya presence remained in Petén into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources .
In the early 16th century , when the Spanish discovered the Yucatán Peninsula , the region was still dominated by the Maya civilization . It was divided into a number of independent provinces referred to as kuchkabal ( plural kuchkabaloob ) in the Yucatec Maya language . The various provinces shared a common culture but the internal sociopolitical organisation varied from one province to the next , as did access to important resources . These differences in political and economic makeup often led to hostilities between the provinces . The politically fragmented state of the Yucatán Peninsula at the time of conquest hindered the Spanish invasion , since there was no central political authority to be overthrown . However , the Spanish were also able to exploit this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre @-@ existing rivalries between polities . Estimates of the number of kuchkabal in the northern Yucatán vary from sixteen to twenty @-@ four . The boundaries between polities were not stable , being subject to the effects of alliances and wars ; those kuchkabaloob with more centralised forms of government were likely to have had more stable boundaries than those of loose confederations of provinces . When the Spanish discovered Yucatán , the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important polities in the region . They were mutually hostile ; the Xiu Maya of Mani allied themselves with the Spanish , while the Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the implacable enemies of the European colonisers .
At the time of conquest , polities in the north included Mani , Cehpech and Chakan . Chakan was largely landlocked with a small stretch of coast on the north of the peninsula . Cehpech was a coastal province to its east ; further east along the north coast were Ah Kin Chel , Cupul , and Chikinchel . The modern city of Valladolid is situated upon the site of the former capital of Cupul . Cupul and Chinkinchel are known to have been mutually hostile , and to have engaged in wars to control the salt beds of the north coast . Tases was a small landlocked province south of Chikinchel . Ecab was a large province in the east . Uaymil was in the southeast , and Chetumal was to the south of it ; all three bordered on the Caribbean Sea . Cochuah was also in the eastern half of the peninsula ; it was southwest of Ecab and northwest of Uaymil . Its borders are poorly understood and it may have been landlocked , or have extended to occupy a portion of the Caribbean coast between the latter two kuchkabaloob . The capital of Cochuah was Tihosuco . Hocaba and Sotuta were landlocked provinces north of Mani and southwest of Ah Kin Chel and Cupul . Ah Canul was the northernmost province on the Gulf coast of the peninsula . Canpech ( modern Campeche ) was to the south of it , followed by Chanputun ( modern Champotón ) . South of Chanputun , and extending west along the Gulf coast was Acalan . This Chontal Maya @-@ speaking province extended east of the Usumacinta River in Tabasco , as far as what is now the southern portion of Campeche state , where their capital was located . In the southern portion of the peninsula , a number of polities occupied the Petén Basin . The Kejache occupied a territory to the north of the Itza and east of Acalan , between the Petén lakes and what is now Campeche , and to the west of Chetumal . The Cholan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in Guatemala and eastern Chiapas . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation amongst the Spanish .
Although there is insufficient data to accurately estimate population sizes at the time of contact with the Spanish , early Spanish reports suggest that sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén , particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers . Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize . The Itza were warlike , and their martial prowess impressed both neighbouring Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies . Their capital was Nojpetén , an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá ; it has developed into the modern town of Flores , which is the capital of the Petén department of Guatemala . The Itza spoke a variety of Yucatecan Maya . The Kowoj were the second in importance ; they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours . The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza , around the eastern Petén lakes : Lake Salpetén , Lake Macanché , Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab . The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén , alongside the Itza and the Kowoj . The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize . In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché . At the time of Spanish contact the Yalain were allied with the Itza , an alliance cemented by intermarriage between the elites of both groups . In the late 17th century , Spanish colonial records document hostilities between Maya groups in the lakes region , with the incursion of the Kowoj into former Yalain sites including Zacpeten on Lake Macanché and Ixlu on Lake Salpetén . Other groups in Petén are less well known , and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Icaiche , the Kejache , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Manche Ch 'ol , and the Mopan .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . The European diseases that ravaged the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas also severely affected the various Maya groups of the entire Yucatán Peninsula . Modern estimates of native population decline vary from 75 % to 90 % mortality . The terrible plagues that swept the peninsula were recorded in Yucatec Maya written histories , which combined with those of neighbouring Maya peoples in the Guatemalan Highlands , suggest that smallpox was rapidly transmitted throughout the Maya area the same year that it arrived in central Mexico with the forces under the command of Pánfilo Narváez . Old World diseases are often mentioned only briefly in indigenous accounts , making it difficult to identify the exact culprit . Among the most deadly were the aforementioned smallpox , influenza , measles and a number of pulmonary diseases , including tuberculosis ; the latter disease was attributed to the arrival of the Spanish by the Maya inhabitants of Yucatán .
These diseases swept through Yucatán in the 1520s and 1530s , with periodic recurrences throughout the 16th century . By the late 16th century , the reports of high fevers suggest the arrival of malaria in the region , and yellow fever was first reported in the mid @-@ 17th century , with a terse mention in the Chilam Balam of Chumayel for 1648 . That particular outbreak was traced back to the island of Guadaloupe in the Caribbean , from whence it was introduced to the port city of Campeche , and from there was transmitted to Mérida . Mortality was high , with approximately 50 % of the population of some Yucatec Maya settlements being wiped out . Sixteen Franciscan friars are reported to have died in Mérida , probably the majority of the Franciscans based there at the time , and who had probably numbered not much more than twenty before the outbreak . Those areas of the peninsula that experience damper conditions , particularly those possessing swamplands , became rapidly depopulated after the conquest with the introduction of malaria and other waterborne parasites . An example was the one @-@ time well @-@ populated province of Ecab occupying the northeastern portion of the peninsula . In 1528 , when Francisco de Montejo occupied the town of Conil for two months , the Spanish recorded approximately 5 @,@ 000 houses in the town ; the adult male population at the time has been conservatively estimated as 3 @,@ 000 . By 1549 , Spanish records show that only 80 tributaries were registered to be taxed , indicating a population drop in Conil of more than 90 % in 21 years . The native population of the northeastern portion of the peninsula was almost completely eliminated within fifty years of the conquest .
In the south , conditions conducive to the spread of malaria existed throughout Petén and Belize . At the time of the fall of Nojpetén in 1697 , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war . Likewise , in Tabasco the population of approximately 30 @,@ 000 was reduced by an estimated 90 % , with measles , smallpox , catarrhs , dysentery and fevers being the main culprits .
= = Weaponry , strategies and tactics = =
The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases . An example of the effect on populations of this strategy is the province of Acalan , which occupied an area spanning southern Campeche and eastern Tabasco . When Hernán Cortés passed through Acalan in 1525 he estimated the population size as at least 10 @,@ 000 . In 1553 the population was recorded at around 4 @,@ 000 . In 1557 the population was forcibly moved to Tixchel on the Gulf coast , so as to be more easily accessible to the Spanish authorities . In 1561 the Spanish recorded only 250 tribute @-@ paying inhabitants of Tixchel , which probably had a total population of about 1 @,@ 100 . This indicates a 90 % drop in population over a 36 @-@ year span . Some of the inhabitants had fled Tixchel for the forest , while others had succumbed to disease , malnutrition and inadequate housing in the Spanish reducción . Coastal reducciones , while convenient for Spanish administration , were vulnerable to pirate attacks ; in the case of Tixchel , pirate attacks and contagious European diseases led to the eradication of the reducción town and the extinction of the Chontal Maya of Campeche . Among the Maya , ambush was a favoured tactic .
= = = Spanish weaponry and armour = = =
The 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistadors were armed with broadswords , rapiers , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Mounted conquistadors were armed with a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) lance , that also served as a pike for infantrymen . A variety of halberds and bills were also employed . As well as the one @-@ handed broadsword , a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 5 @.@ 5 ft ) long two @-@ handed version was also used . Crossbows had 0 @.@ 61 @-@ metre ( 2 ft ) arms stiffened with hardwoods , horn , bone and cane , and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley . Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks , especially in the humid tropical climate of the Caribbean region that included much of the Yucatán Peninsula .
= = = Native weaponry and armour = = =
Maya warriors entered battle against the Spanish with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows and stones . They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . Members of the Maya aristocracy wore quilted cotton armour , and some warriors of lesser rank wore twisted rolls of cotton wrapped around their bodies . Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins .
= = First encounters : 1502 and 1511 = =
On 30 July 1502 , during his fourth voyage , Christopher Columbus arrived at Guanaja , one of the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras . He sent his brother Bartholomew to scout the island . As Bartholomew explored the island with two boats , a large canoe approached from the west , apparently en route to the island . The canoe was carved from one large tree trunk and was powered by twenty @-@ five naked rowers . Curious as to the visitors , Bartholomew Columbus seized and boarded it . He found it was a Maya trading canoe from Yucatán , carrying well @-@ dressed Maya and a rich cargo that included ceramics , cotton textiles , yellow stone axes , flint @-@ studded war clubs , copper axes and bells , and cacao . Also among the cargo were a small number of women and children , probably destined to be sold as slaves , as were a number of the rowers . The Europeans looted whatever took their interest from amongst the cargo and seized the elderly Maya captain to serve as an interpreter ; the canoe was then allowed to continue on its way . This was the first recorded contact between Europeans and the Maya . It is likely that news of the piratical strangers in the Caribbean passed along the Maya trade routes – the first prophecies of bearded invaders sent by Kukulkan , the northern Maya feathered serpent god , were probably recorded around this time , and in due course passed into the books of Chilam Balam .
In 1511 the Spanish caravel Santa María de la Barca set sail along the Central American coast under the command of Pedro de Valdivia . The ship was sailing to Santo Domingo from Darién to inform the colonial authorities there of ongoing conflict between conquistadors Diego de Nicuesa and Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in Darién . The ship foundered upon a reef known as Las Víboras ( " The Vipers " ) or , alternatively , Los Alacranes ( " The Scorpions " ) , somewhere off Jamaica . There were just twenty survivors from the wreck , including Captain Valdivia , Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero . They set themselves adrift in one of the ship 's boats , with bad oars and no sail ; after thirteen days during which half of the survivors died , they made landfall upon the coast of Yucatán . There they were seized by Halach Uinik , a Maya lord . Captain Vildivia was sacrificed with four of his companions , and their flesh was served at a feast . Aguilar and Guerrero were held prisoner and fattened for killing , together with five or six of their shipmates . Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape their captors and fled to a neighbouring lord who was an enemy of Halach Uinik ; he took them prisoner and kept them as slaves . After a time , Gonzalo Guerrero was passed as a slave to the lord Nachan Can of Chetumal . Guerrero became completely Mayanised and served his new lord with such loyalty that he was married to one of Nachan Chan 's daughters , Zazil Ha , by whom he had three children . By 1514 , Guerrero had achieved the rank of nacom , a war leader who served against Nachan Chan 's enemies .
= = Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , 1517 = =
In 1517 , Francisco Hernández de Córdoba set sail from Cuba with a small fleet , consisting of two caravels and a brigantine , with the dual intention of exploration and of rounding up slaves . The experienced Antón de Alaminos served as pilot ; he had previously served as pilot under Christopher Columbus on his final voyage . Also among the approximately 100 @-@ strong expedition members was Bernal Díaz del Castillo . The expedition sailed west from Cuba for three weeks , and weathered a two @-@ day storm a week before sighting the coast of the northeastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . The ships could not put in close to the shore due to the shallowness of the coastal waters . However , they could see a Maya city some two leagues inland , upon a low hill . The Spanish called it Gran Cairo ( literally " Great Cairo " ) due to its size and its pyramids . Although the location is not now known with certainty , it is believed that this first sighting of Yucatán was at Isla Mujeres .
The following morning , the Spanish sent the two ships with a shallower draught to find a safe approach through the shallows . The caravels anchored about one league from the shore . Ten large canoes powered by both sails and oars rowed out to meet the Spanish ships . Over thirty Maya boarded the vessels and mixed freely with the Spaniards . The Maya visitors accepted gifts of beads , and the leader indicated with signs that they would return to take the Spanish ashore the following day .
The Maya leader returned the following day with twelve canoes , as promised . The Spanish could see from afar that the shore was packed with natives . The conquistadors put ashore in the brigantine and the ships ' boats ; a few of the more daring Spaniards boarded the native canoes . The Spanish named the headland Cape Catoche , after some words spoken by the Maya leader , which sounded to the Spanish like cones catoche . Once ashore , the Spaniards clustered loosely together and advanced towards the city along a path among low , scrub @-@ covered hillocks . At this point the Maya leader gave a shout and the Spanish party was ambushed by Maya warriors armed with spears , bows and arrows , and stones . Thirteen Spaniards were injured by arrows in the first assault , but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed the Maya attack . They advanced to a small plaza bordered by temples upon the outskirts of the city . When the Spaniards ransacked the temples they found a number of low @-@ grade gold items , which filled them with enthusiasm . The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ships . Over the following days the Spanish discovered that although the Maya arrows had struck with little force , the flint arrowheads tended to shatter on impact , causing infected wounds and a slow death ; two of the wounded Spaniards died from the arrow @-@ wounds inflicted in the ambush .
Over the next fifteen days the fleet slowly followed the coastline west , and then south . The casks brought from Cuba were leaking and the expedition was now running dangerously low on fresh water ; the hunt for more became an overriding priority as the expedition advanced , and shore parties searching for water were left dangerously exposed because the ships could not pull close to the shore due to the shallows . On 23 February 1517 , the day of Saint Lazarus , another city was spotted and named San Lázaro by the Spanish – it is now known by its original Maya name , Campeche . A large contingent put ashore in the brigantine and the ships ' boats to fill their water casks in a freshwater pool . They were approached by about fifty finely dressed and unarmed Indians while the water was being loaded into the boats ; they questioned the Spaniards as to their purpose by means of signs . The Spanish party then accepted an invitation to enter the city . They were led amongst large buildings until they stood before a blood @-@ caked altar , where many of the city 's inhabitants crowded around . The Indians piled reeds before the visitors ; this act was followed by a procession of armed Maya warriors in full war paint , followed by ten Maya priests . The Maya set fire to the reeds and indicated that the Spanish would be killed if they were not gone by the time the reeds had been consumed . The Spanish party withdrew in defensive formation to the shore and rapidly boarded their boats to retreat to the safety of the ships .
The small fleet continued for six more days in fine weather , followed by four stormy days . By this time water was once again dangerously short . The ships spotted an inlet close to another city , Champotón , and a landing party discovered fresh water . Armed Maya warriors approached from the city while the water casks were being filled . Communication was once again attempted with signs . Night fell by the time the water casks had been filled and the attempts at communication concluded . In the darkness the Spaniards could hear the movements of large numbers of Maya warriors . They decided that a night @-@ time retreat would be too risky ; instead , they posted guards and waited for dawn . At sunrise , the Spanish saw that they had been surrounded by a sizeable army . The massed Maya warriors launched an assault with missiles , including arrows , darts and stones ; they then charged into hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with spears and clubs . Eighty of the defenders were wounded in the initial barrage of missiles , and two Spaniards were captured in the frantic mêlée that followed . All of the Spanish party received wounds , including Hernández de Córdoba . The Spanish regrouped in a defensive formation and forced passage to the shore , where their discipline collapsed and a frantic scramble for the boats ensued , leaving the Spanish vulnerable to the pursuing Maya warriors who waded into the sea behind them . Most of the precious water casks were abandoned on the beach . When the surviving Spanish reached the safety of the ships , they realised that they had lost over fifty men , more than half their number . Five men died from their wounds in the following days . The battle had lasted only an hour , and the Spanish named the locale as the Coast of the Disastrous Battle . They were now far from help and low on supplies ; too many men had been lost and injured to sail all three ships back to Cuba . They decided to abandon their smallest ship , the brigantine , although it was purchased on credit from Governor Velásquez of Cuba .
The few men who had not been wounded because they were manning the ships during the battle were reinforced with three men who had suffered relatively minor wounds ; they put ashore at a remote beach to dig for water . They found some and brought it back to the ships , although it sickened those who drank it . The two ships sailed through a storm for two days and nights ; Alaminos , the pilot , then steered a course for Florida , where they found good drinking water , although they lost one man to the local Indians and another drank so much water that he died . The ships finally made port in Cuba , where Hernández de Cordóba wrote a report to Governor Velázquez describing the voyage , the cities , the plantations , and , most importantly , the discovery of gold . Hernández died soon after from his wounds . The two captured Maya survived the voyage to Cuba and were interrogated ; they swore that there was abundant gold in Yucatán .
Based upon Hernández de Córdoba 's report and the testimony of the interrogated Indian prisoners , Governor Velázquez wrote to the Council of the Indies notifying it of " his " discovery .
= = Juan de Grijalva , 1518 = =
Diego Velázquez , the governor of Cuba , was enthused by Hernández de Córdoba 's report of gold in Yucatán . He organised a new expedition consisting of four ships and 260 men . He placed his nephew Juan de Grijalva in command . Francisco de Montejo , who would eventually conquer much of the peninsula , was captain of one of the ships , ; Pedro de Alvarado and Alonso d 'Avila captained the other ships . Bernal Díaz del Castillo served on the crew ; he was able to secure a place on the expedition as a favour from the governor , who was his kinsman . Antón de Alaminos once again served as pilot . Governor Velázquez provided all four ships , in an attempt to protect his claim over the peninsula . The small fleet was stocked with crossbows , muskets , barter goods , salted pork and cassava bread . Grijalva also took one of the captured Indians from the Hernández expedition .
The fleet left Cuba in April 1518 , and made its first landfall upon the island of Cozumel , off the east coast of Yucatán . The Maya inhabitants of Cozumel fled the Spanish and would not respond to Grijalva 's friendly overtures . The fleet sailed south from Cozumel , along the east coast of the peninsula . The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast , one of which was probably Tulum . On Ascension Thursday the fleet discovered a large bay , which the Spanish named Bahía de la Ascensión . Grijalva did not land at any of these cities and turned back north from Ascensión Bay . He looped around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula to sail down the west coast . At Campeche the Spanish tried to barter for water but the Maya refused , so Grijalva opened fire against the city with small cannon ; the inhabitants fled , allowing the Spanish to take the abandoned city . Messages were sent with a few Maya who had been too slow to escape but the Maya remained hidden in the forest . The Spanish boarded their ships and continued along the coast .
At Champotón , where the inhabitants had routed Hernández and his men , the fleet was approached by a small number of large war canoes , but the ships ' cannon soon put them to flight . At the mouth of the Tabasco River the Spanish sighted massed warriors and canoes but the natives did not approach . By means of interpreters , Grijalva indicated that he wished to trade and bartered wine and beads in exchange for food and other supplies . From the natives they received a few gold trinkets and news of the riches of the Aztec Empire to the west . The expedition continued far enough to confirm the reality of the gold @-@ rich empire , sailing as far north as Pánuco River . As the fleet returned to Cuba , the Spanish attacked Champotón to avenge the previous year 's defeat of the Spanish expedition led by Hernández . One Spaniard was killed and fifty were wounded in the ensuing battle , including Grijalva . Grijalva put into the port of Havana five months after he had left .
= = Hernán Cortés , 1519 = =
Grijalva 's return aroused great interest in Cuba , and Yucatán was believed to be a land of riches waiting to be plundered . A new expedition was organised , with a fleet of eleven ships carrying 500 men and some horses . Hernán Cortés was placed in command , and his crew included officers that would become famous conquistadors , including Pedro de Alvarado , Cristóbal de Olid , Gonzalo de Sandoval and Diego de Ordaz . Also aboard were the Francisco de Montejo and Bernal Díaz del Castillo , veterans of the Grijalva expedition .
The fleet made its first landfall at Cozumel , and Cortés remained there for several days . Maya temples were cast down and a Christian cross was put up on one of them . At Cozumel Cortés heard rumours of bearded men on the Yucatán mainland , who he presumed were Europeans . Cortés sent out messengers to them and was able to rescue the shipwrecked Gerónimo de Aguilar , who had been enslaved by a Maya lord . Aguilar had learnt the Yucatec Maya language and became Cortés ' interpreter .
From Cozumel , the fleet looped around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula and followed the coast to the Tabasco River , which Cortés renamed as the Grijalva River in honour of the Spanish captain who had discovered it . In Tabasco , Cortés anchored his ships at Potonchán , a Chontal Maya town . The Maya prepared for battle but the Spanish horses and firearms quickly decided the outcome . The defeated Chontal Maya lords offered gold , food , clothing and a group of young women in tribute to the victors . Among these women was a young Maya noblewoman called Malintzin , who was given the Spanish name Marina . She spoke Maya and Nahuatl and became the means be which Cortés was able to communicate with the Aztecs . Marina became Cortés ' consort and eventually bore him a son . From Tabasco , Cortés continued to Cempoala in Veracruz , a subject city of the Aztec Empire , and from there went on to conquer the Aztecs .
In 1519 Cortés sent the veteran Francisco de Montejo back to Spain with treasure for the king . While he was in Spain he pleaded Cortés ' cause against the supporters of Diego de Velasquez . Montejo remained in Spain for seven years , and eventually succeeded in acquiring the hereditary military title of adelantado .
= = Hernán Cortés in the Maya lowlands , 1524 – 25 = =
In 1524 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across Acalan in southern Campeche and the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras ; Olid had , however , set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés left Tenochtitlan on 12 October 1524 with 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him the captured Aztec emperor Cuauhtemoc , and Cohuanacox and Tetlepanquetzal , the captive Aztec lords of Texcoco and Tlacopan . Cortés marched into Maya territory in Tabasco ; the army crossed the Usumacinta River near Tenosique and crossed into the Chontal Maya province of Acalan , where he recruited 600 Chontal Maya carriers . In Acalan , Cortés believed that the captive Aztec lords were plotting against him and he ordered Cuauhtemoc and Tetlepanquetzal to be hanged . Cortés and his army left Acalan on 5 March 1525 .
The expedition passed onwards through Kejache territory and reported that the Kejache towns were situated in easily defensible locations and were often fortified . One of these was built on a rocky outcrop near a lake and a river that fed into it . The town was fortified with a wooden palisade and was surrounded by a moat . Cortés reported that the town of Tiac was even larger and was fortified with walls , watchtowers and earthworks ; the town itself was divided into three individually fortified districts . Tiac was said to have been at war with the unnamed smaller town . The Kejache claimed that their towns were fortified against the attacks of their aggressive Itza neighbours .
They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 . The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols . Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ek ' to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity , attempting to feed it poultry , meat and flowers , but the animal soon died . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén .
From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .
On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = Francisco de Montejo , 1527 – 28 = =
The richer lands of Mexico engaged the main attention of the Conquistadors for some years , then in 1526 Francisco de Montejo ( a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions ) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for the right to conquer Yucatán . On 8 December of that year he was issued with the hereditary military title of adelantado and permission to colonise the Yucatán Peninsula . In 1527 he left Spain with 400 men in four ships , with horses , small arms , cannon and provisions . He set sail for Santo Domingo , where more supplies and horses were collected , allowing Montejo to increase his cavalry to fifty . One of the ships was left at Santo Domingo as a supply ship to provide later support ; the other ships set sail and reached Cozumel , an island off the east coast of Yucatán , in the second half of September 1527 . Montejo was received in peace by the lord of Cozumel , Aj Naum Pat , but the ships only stopped briefly before making for the Yucatán coast . The expedition made landfall somewhere near Xelha in the Maya province of Ekab , in what is now Mexico 's Quintana Roo state .
Montejo garrisoned Xelha with 40 soldiers under his second @-@ in @-@ command , Alonso d 'Avila , and posted 20 more at nearby Pole . Xelha was renamed Salamanca de Xelha and became the first Spanish settlement in the peninsula . The provisions were soon exhausted and additional food was seized from the local Maya villagers ; this too was soon consumed . Many local Maya fled into the forest and Spanish raiding parties scoured the surrounding area for food , finding little . With discontent growing among his men , Montejo took the drastic step of burning his ships ; this strengthened the resolve of his troops , who gradually acclimatised to the harsh conditions of Yucatán . Montejo was able to get more food from the still @-@ friendly Aj Nuam Pat , when the latter made a visit to the mainland . Montejo took 125 men and set out on an expedition to explore the north @-@ eastern portion of the Yucatán peninsula . His expedition passed through the towns of Xamanha , Mochis and Belma , none of which survives today . At Belma , Montejo gathered the leaders of the nearby Maya towns and ordered them to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After this , Montejo led his men to Conil , a town in Ekab that was described as having 5 @,@ 000 houses , where the Spanish party halted for two months .
In the spring of 1528 , Montejo left Conil for the city of Chauaca , which was abandoned by its Maya inhabitants under cover of darkness . The following morning the inhabitants attacked the Spanish party but were defeated . The Spanish then continued to Ake , some 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Tizimín , where they engaged in a major battle against the Maya , which killed more than 1 @,@ 200 Maya . After this Spanish victory , the neighbouring Maya leaders all surrendered . Montejo 's party then continued to Sisia and Loche before heading back to Xelha . Montejo arrived at Xelha with only 60 of his party , and found that only 12 of his 40 @-@ man garrison survived , while the garrison at Pole had been entirely wiped out .
The support ship eventually arrived from Santo Domingo , and Montejo used it to sail south along the coast , while he sent D 'Avila via land . Montejo discovered the thriving port city of Chaktumal ( modern Chetumal ) . At Chaktumal , Montejo learnt that shipwrecked Spanish sailor Gonzalo de Guerrero was in the region , and Montejo sent messages to him , inviting him to return to join his compatriots , but Guerrero declined .
The Maya at Chaktumal fed false information to the Spanish , and Montejo was unable to find d 'Avila and link up with him . D 'Avila returned overland to Xelha , and transferred the fledgling Spanish colony to nearby Xamanha , modern Playa del Carmen , which Montejo considered to be a better port . After waiting for d 'Avila without result , Montejo sailed south as far as the Ulúa River in Honduras before turning around and heading back up the coast to finally meet up with his lieutenant at Xamanha . Late in 1528 , Montejo left d 'Avila to oversee Xamanha and sailed north to loop around the Yucatán Peninsula and head for the Spanish colony of New Spain in central Mexico .
= = Francisco de Montejo and Alonso d 'Avila , 1531 – 35 = =
Montejo was appointed alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) of Tabasco in 1529 , and pacified that province with the aid of his son , also named Francisco de Montejo . D 'Avila was sent from eastern Yucatán to conquer Acalan , which extended southeast of the Laguna de Terminos . Montejo the Younger founded Salamanca de Xicalango as a base of operations . In 1530 D 'Avila established Salamanca de Acalán as a base from which to launch new attempts to conquer Yucatán . Salamanca de Acalán proved a disappointment , with no gold for the taking and with lower levels of population than had been hoped . D 'Avila soon abandoned the new settlement and set off across the lands of the Kejache to Champotón , arriving there towards the end of 1530 . During a colonial power struggle in Tabasco , the elder Montejo was imprisoned for a time . Upon his release he met up with his son in Xicalango , Tabasco , and they then both rejoined d 'Avila at Champotón .
In 1531 Montejo moved his base of operations to Campeche . Alonso d 'Avila was sent overland to Chauaca in the east of the peninsula , passing through Maní where he was well received by the Xiu Maya . D 'Avila continued southeast to Chetumal where he founded the Spanish town of Villa Real ( " Royal Town " ) . The local Maya fiercely resisted the placement of the new Spanish colony and d 'Avila and his men were forced to abandon Villa Real and make for Honduras in canoes .
At Campeche , the Maya amassed a strong force and attacked the city ; the Spanish were able to fight them off , although the elder Montejo was almost killed . Aj Canul , the lord of the attacking Maya , surrendered to the Spanish . After this battle , the younger Francisco de Montejo was despatched to the northern Cupul province , where the lord Naabon Cupul reluctantly allowed him to found the Spanish town of Ciudad Real at Chichen Itza . Montejo carved up the province amongst his soldiers and gave each of his men two to three thousand Maya in encomienda . After six months of Spanish rule , Cupul dissatisfaction could no longer be contained and Naabon Cupul was killed during a failed attempt to kill Montejo the Younger . The death of their lord only served to inflame Cupul anger and , in mid 1533 , they laid siege to the small Spanish garrison at Chichen Itza . Montejo the Younger abandoned Ciudad Real by night after arranging a distraction for their attackers , and he and his men fled west , where the Chel , Pech and Xiu provinces remained obedient to Spanish rule . Montejo the Younger was received in friendship by Namux Chel , the lord of the Chel province , at Dzilam . In the spring of 1534 he rejoined his father in the Chakan province at Dzikabal , near T 'ho ( the modern city of Mérida ) .
While his son had been attempting to consolidate the Spanish control of Cupul , Francisco de Montejo the Elder had met the Xiu ruler at Maní . The Xiu Maya maintained their friendship with the Spanish throughout the conquest and Spanish authority was eventually established over Yucatán in large part due to Xiu support . The Montejos , after reuniting at Dzikabal , founded a new Spanish town at Dzilam , although the Spanish suffered hardships there . Montejo the Elder returned to Campeche , where he was received with friendship by the local Maya . He was accompanied by the friendly Chel lord Namux Chel , who travelled on horseback , and two of the lord 's cousins , who were taken in chains . Montejo the Younger remained behind in Dzilam to continue his attempts at conquest of the region but , finding the situation too difficult , he soon retreated to Campeche to rejoin his father and Alonso d 'Avila , who had returned to Campeche shortly before Montejo the Younger . Around this time the news began to arrive of Francisco Pizarro 's conquests in Peru and the rich plunder that his soldiers were taking there , undermining the morale of Montejo 's already disenchanted band of followers . Montejo 's soldiers began to abandon him to seek their fortune elsewhere ; in seven years of attempted conquest in the northern provinces of the Yucatán Peninsula , very little gold had been found . Towards the end of 1534 or the beginning of the next year , Montejo the Elder and his son retreated from Campeche to Veracruz , taking their remaining soldiers with them .
Montejo the Elder became embroiled in colonial infighting over the right to rule Honduras , a claim that put him in conflict with Pedro de Alvarado , captain general of Guatemala , who also claimed Honduras as part of his jurisdiction . Alvarado was ultimately to prove successful . In Montejo the Elder 's absence , first in central Mexico , and then in Honduras , Montejo the Younger acted as lieutenant governor and captain general in Tabasco .
= = = Conflict at Champoton = = =
The Franciscan friar Jacobo de Testera arrived in Champoton in 1535 to attempt the peaceful incorporation of Yucatán into the Spanish Empire . Testera had been assured by the Spanish authorities that no military activity would be undertaken in Yucatán while he was attempting its conversion to the Roman Catholic faith , and that no soldiers would be permitted to enter the peninsula . His initial efforts were proving successful when Captain Lorenzo de Godoy arrived in Champoton at the command of soldiers despatched there by Montejo the Younger . Godoy and Testera were soon in conflict and the friar was forced to abandon Champoton and return to central Mexico .
Godoy 's attempt to subdue the Maya around Champoton was unsuccessful and the local Kowoj Maya resisted his attempts to assert Spanish dominance of the region . This resistance was sufficiently tenacious that Montejo the Younger sent his cousin from Tabasco to Champoton to take command . His diplomatic overtures to the Champoton Kowoj were successful and they submitted to Spanish rule . Champoton was the last Spanish outpost in the Yucatán Peninsula ; it was increasingly isolated and the situation there became difficult .
= = Conquest and settlement in northern Yucatán , 1540 – 46 = =
In 1540 Montejo the Elder , who was now in his late 60s , turned his royal rights to colonise Yucatán over to his son , Francisco Montejo the Younger . In early 1541 Montejo the Younger joined his cousin in Champton ; he did not remain there long , and quickly moved his forces to Campeche . Once there Montejo the Younger , commanding between three and four hundred Spanish soldiers , established the first permanent Spanish town council in the Yucatán Peninsula . Shortly after establishing the Spanish presence in Campeche , Montejo the Younger summoned the local Maya lords and commanded them to submit to the Spanish Crown . A number of lords submitted peacefully , including the ruler of the Xiu Maya . The lord of the Canul Maya refused to submit and Montejo the Younger sent his cousin against them ; Montejo himself remained in Campeche awaiting reinforcements .
Montejo the Younger 's cousin met the Canul Maya at Chakan , not far from T 'ho . On 6 January 1542 he founded the second permanent town council , calling the new colonial town Mérida . On 23 January , Tutul Xiu , the lord of Mani , approached the Spanish encampment at Mérida in peace , bearing sorely needed food supplies . He expressed interest in the Spanish religion and witnessed a Roman Catholic mass celebrated for his benefit . Tutul Xiu was greatly impressed and converted to the new religion ; he was baptised as Melchor and stayed with the Spanish at Mérida for two months , receiving instruction in the Catholic faith . Tutul Xiu was the ruler of the most powerful province of northern Yucatán and his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity had repercussions throughout the peninsula , and encouraged the lords of the western provinces of the peninsula to accept Spanish rule . The eastern provinces continued to resist Spanish overtures .
Montejo the Younger then sent his cousin to Chauaca where most of the eastern lords greeted him in peace .
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The Cochua Maya resisted fiercely but were soon defeated by the Spanish . The Cupul Maya also rose up against the newly imposed Spanish domination , but their opposition was quickly put down . Montejo continued to the eastern Ekab province , reaching the east coast at Pole . Stormy weather prevented the Spanish from crossing to Cozumel , and nine Spaniards were drowned in the attempted crossing . A further Spaniard was killed by hostile Maya . Rumours of this setback grew in the telling and both the Cupul and Cochua provinces once again rose up against their would @-@ be European overlords . The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent , including Chetumal , Cochua , Cupul , Sotuta and the Tazes .
On 8 November 1546 and alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish . The provinces of Cupul , Cochua , Sotuta , Tazes , Uaymil , Chetumal and Chikinchel united in a concerted effort to drive the invaders from the peninsula ; the uprising lasted four months . Eighteen Spaniards were surprised in the eastern towns , and were sacrificed . A contemporary account described the slaughter of over 400 allied Maya , as well as livestock . Mérida and Campeche were forewarned of the impending attack ; Montejo the Younger and his cousin were in Campeche . Montejo the Elder arrived in Mérida from Chiapas in December 1546 , with reinforcements gathered from Champoton and Campeche . The rebellious eastern Maya were finally defeated in a single battle , in which twenty Spaniards and several hundred allied Maya were killed . This battle marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . As a result of the uprising and the Spanish response , many of the Maya inhabitants of the eastern and southern territories fled to the still unconquered Petén Basin , in the extreme south . The Spanish only achieved dominance in the north and the polities of Petén remained independent and continued to receive many refugees from the north .
= = Petén Basin , 1618 – 97 = =
The Petén Basin covers an area that is now part of Guatemala ; in colonial times it originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Yucatán , before being transferred to the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala in 1703 . The Itza kingdom centred upon Lake Petén Itzá had been visited by Hernán Cortés on his march to Honduras in 1525 .
= = = Early 17th century = = =
Following Cortés ' visit , no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years . In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still @-@ pagan Itza in central Petén . Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya . After an arduous six @-@ month journey the travellers were well received at Nojpetén by the current Kan Ek ' . They stayed for some days in an attempt to evangelise the Itza , but the Aj Kan Ek ' refused to renounce his Maya religion , although he showed interest in the masses held by the Catholic missionaries . Attempts to convert the Itza failed , and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with Kan Ek ' . The friars returned in October 1619 , and again Kan Ek ' welcomed them in a friendly manner , but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and the missionaries were expelled without food or water , but survived the journey back to Mérida .
In March 1622 , the governor of Yucatán , Diego de Cardenas , ordered Captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano to launch an assault upon the Itza ; he set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas from Yucatán . His expedition was later joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado . In May the expedition advanced to Sakalum , southwest of Bacalar , where there was a lengthy delay while they waited for reinforcements . En route to Nojpetén , Delgado believed that the soldiers ' treatment of the Maya was excessively cruel , and he left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize . In the meantime the Itza had learnt of the approaching military expedition and had become hardened against further Spanish missionary attempts . When Mirones learnt of Delgado 's departure , he sent 13 soldiers to persuade him to return or continue as his escort should he refuse . The soldiers caught up with him just before Tipuj , but he was determined to reach Nojpetén . From Tipuj , Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ek ' , asking permission to travel to Nojpetén ; the Itza king replied with a promise of safe passage for the missionary and his companions . The party was initially received in peace at the Itza capital , but as soon as the Spanish soldiers let their guard down , the Itza seized and bound the new arrivals . The soldiers were sacrificed to the Maya gods . After their sacrifice , the Itza took Delgado , cut his heart out and dismembered him ; they displayed his head on a stake with the others . The fortune of the leader of Delgado 's Maya companions was no better . With no word from Delgado 's escort , Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers with a Maya scout to learn their fate . When they arrived upon the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , the Itza took them across to their island capital and imprisoned them . Bernardino Ek , the scout , escaped and returned to Mirones with the news . Soon afterwards , on 27 January 1624 , an Itza war party led by AjK 'in P 'ol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum , and killed them all . Spanish reinforcements arrived too late . A number of local Maya men and women were killed by Spanish attackers , who also burned the town .
Following these killings , Spanish garrisons were stationed in several towns in southern Yucatán , and rewards were offered for the whereabouts of AjK 'in P 'ol . The Maya governor of Oxkutzcab , Fernando Kamal , set out with 150 Maya archers to track the warleader down ; they succeeded in capturing the Itza captain and his followers , together with silverware from the looted Sakalum church and items belonging to Mirones . The prisoners were taken back to the Spanish Captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo , interrogated under torture , tried , and condemned to be hanged , drawn and quartered . They were decapitated , and the heads were displayed in the plazas of towns throughout the colonial Partido de la Sierra in what is now Mexico 's Yucatán state . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands ; the Spanish Crown lacked the time , money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades .
= = = Late 17th century = = =
In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony , in the process " reducing " any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones ; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River . The original plan was for the province of Yucatán to build the northern section and for Guatemala to build the southern portion , with both meeting somewhere in Ch 'ol territory ; the plan was later modified to pass further east , through the kingdom of the Itza .
The governor of Yucatán , Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi , began to build the road from Campeche south towards Petén . At the beginning of March 1695 , Captain Alonso García de Paredes led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by native guides , muleteers and labourers . The expedition advanced south into Kejache territory , which began at Chunpich , about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the modern border between Mexico and Guatemala . He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements , but met with armed Kejache resistance . García decided to retreat around the middle of April .
In March 1695 , Captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz , Guatemala , with 70 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz , native muleteers , and four Dominican friars . The Spanish pressed ahead to Lake Petén Itzá and engaged in a series of fierce skirmishes with Itza hunting parties . At the lakeshore , within sight of Nojpetén , the Spanish encountered such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south , back to their main camp . Interrogation of an Itza prisoner revealed that the Itza kingdom was in a state of high alert to repel the Spanish ; the expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón .
In mid @-@ May 1695 García again marched southwards from Campeche , with 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers , plus Maya labourers and muleteers ; the final tally was more than 400 people , which was regarded as a considerable army in the impoverished Yucatán province . Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers from Tek 'ax and Oxk 'utzkab ' to join the expedition at B 'olonch 'en Kawich , some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) southeast of the city of Campeche . At the end of May three friars were assigned to join the Spanish force , accompanied by a lay brother . A second group of Franciscans would continue onwards independently to Nojpetén to make contact with the Itzas ; it was led by friar Andrés de Avendaño , who was accompanied by another friar and a lay brother . García ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki , some 25 leagues ( approximately 65 miles or 105 km ) north of Lake Petén Itzá , which would serve as the main military base for the Camino Real ( " Royal Road " ) project .
The Sajkab 'chen company of native musketeers pushed ahead with the road builders from Tzuktzok ' to the first Kejache town at Chunpich , which the Kejache had fled . The company 's officers sent for reinforcements from García at Tzuktok ' but before any could arrive some 25 Kejache returned to Chunpich with baskets to collect their abandoned food . The nervous Sajkab 'chen sentries feared that the residents were returning en masse and discharged their muskets at them , with both groups then retreating . The musketeer company then arrived to reinforce their sentries and charged into battle against approaching Kejache archers . Several musketeers were injured in the ensuing skirmish and , the Kejache retreated along a forest path without injury . The Sajkab 'chen company followed the path and found two more deserted settlements with large amounts of abandoned food . They seized the food and retreated back along the path .
Around 3 August García moved his entire army forward to Chunpich , and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the San Pedro River . By November Tzuktok ' was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki . In December 1695 the main force was reinforced with 250 soldiers , of which 150 were Spanish and pardo and 100 were Maya , together with labourers and muleteers .
= = = = Avendaño 's expedition , June 1695 = = = =
In May 1695 Antonio de Silva had appointed two groups of Franciscans to head for Petén ; the first group was to join up with García 's military expedition . The second group was to head for Lake Petén Itza independently . This second group was headed by friar Andrés de Avendaño . Avendaño was accompanied by another friar , a lay brother , and six Christian Maya . This latter group left Mérida on 2 June 1695 . Avendaño continued south along the course of the new road , finding increasing evidence of Spanish military activity . The Franciscans overtook García at B 'uk 'te , about 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) before Tzuktok ' . On 3 August García advanced to Chunpich but tried to persuade Avendaño to stay behind to minister to the prisoners from B 'uk 'te . Avendaño instead split his group and left in secret with just four Christian Maya companions , seeking the Chunpich Kejache that had attacked one of García 's advance companies and had now retreated into the forest . He was unable to find the Kejache but did manage to get information regarding a path that led southwards to the Itza kingdom . Avendaño returned to Tzuktok ' and reconsidered his plans ; the Franciscans were short of supplies , and the forcefully congregated Maya that they were charged with converting were disappearing back into the forest daily . Antonio de Silva ordered Avendaño to return to Mérida , and he arrived there on 17 September 1695 . Meanwhile , the other group of Franciscans , led by Juan de San Buenaventura Chávez , continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory , through IxB 'am , B 'atkab ' and Chuntuki ( modern Chuntunqui near Carmelita , Petén ) .
= = = = San Buenaventura among the Kejache , September – November 1695 = = = =
Juan de San Buenaventura 's small group of Franciscans arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695 , and found that the army had opened the road southwards for another seventeen leagues ( approximately 44 @.@ 2 miles or 71 @.@ 1 km ) , almost half way to Lake Petén Itzá , but returned to Chuntuki due to the seasonal rains . San Buenaventura was accompanied by two friars and a lay brother . With Avendaño 's return to Mérida , provincial superior Antonio de Silva despatched two additional friars to join San Buenaventura 's group . One of these was to convert the Kejache in Tzuktok ' , and the other was to do the same at Chuntuki . On 24 October San Buenaventura wrote to the provincial superior reporting that the warlike Kejache were now pacified and that they had told him that the Itza were ready to receive the Spanish in friendship . On that day 62 Kejache men had voluntarily come to Chuntuki from Pak 'ek 'em , where another 300 Kejache resided . In early November 1695 , friar Tomás de Alcoser and brother Lucas de San Francisco were sent to establish a mission at Pak 'ek 'em , where they were well received by the cacique ( native chief ) and his pagan priest . Pak 'ek 'em was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference , and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory . A second church was built at B 'atkab ' to attend to over 100 K 'ejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of a Spanish friar ; a further church was established at Tzuktok ' , overseen by another friar .
= = = = Avendaño 's expedition , December 1695 – January 1696 = = = =
Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on 13 December 1695 , and arrived in Nojpetén around 14 January 1696 , accompanied by four companions . From Chuntuki they followed an Indian trail that led them past the source of the San Pedro River and across steep karst hills to a watering hole by some ruins . From there they followed the small Acté River to a Chak 'an Itza town called Saklemakal . They arrived at the western end of Lake Petén Itzá to an enthusiastic welcome by the local Itza . The following day , the current Aj Kan Ek ' travelled across the lake with eighty canoes to greet the visitors at the Chak 'an Itza port town of Nich , on the west shore of Lake Petén Itza . The Franciscans returned to Nojpetén with Kan Ek ' and baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days . Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ek ' to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish Crown , without success . The king of the Itza , cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right .
On 19 January AjKowoj , the king of the Kowoj , arrived at Nojpetén and spoke with Avendaño , arguing against the acceptance of Christianity and Spanish rule . The discussions between Avendaño , Kan Ek ' and AjKowoj exposed deep divisions among the Itza . Kan Ek ' learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans , and the Itza king advised them to return to Mérida via Tipuj . The Spanish friars became lost and suffered great hardships , including the death of one of Avendaño 's companions , but after a month wandering in the forest found their way back to Chuntuki , and from there returned to Mérida .
= = = = Battle at Ch 'ich ' , 2 February 1696 = = = =
By mid @-@ January Captain García de Paredes had arrived at the advance portion of the Camino Real at Chuntuki . By now he only had 90 soldiers plus labourers and porters . Captain Pedro de Zubiaur , García ’ s senior officer , arrived at Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers , two Franciscans , and allied Yucatec Maya warriors . They were also accompanied by about 40 Maya porters . They were approached by about 300 canoes carrying approximately 2 @,@ 000 Itza warriors . The warriors began to mingle freely with the Spanish party and a scuffle then broke out ; a dozen of the Spanish party were forced into canoes , and three of them were killed . At this point the Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets , and the Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners , who included the two Franciscans . The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by thousands of Itza warriors . Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas . Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered , the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki , abandoning their captured companions to their fate .
Martín de Ursúa was now convinced that Kan Ek ' would not surrender peacefully , and he began to organise an all @-@ out assault on Nojpetén . Work on the road was redoubled and about a month after the battle at Ch 'ich ' the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore , now supported by artillery . Again a large number of canoes gathered , and the nervous Spanish soldiers opened fire with cannons and muskets ; no casualties were reported among the Itza , who retreated and raised a white flag from a safe distance .
= = = = Expedition from Verapaz , February – March 1696 = = = =
Oidor Bartolomé de Amésqueta led the next Guatemalan expedition against the Itza . He marched his men from Cahabón to Mopán , arriving on 25 February 1696 . On 7 March , Captain Díaz de Velasco led a party ahead to the lake ; he was accompanied by two Dominican friars and by AjK 'ixaw , an Itza nobleman who had been taken prisoner on Díaz 's previous expedition . When they drew close to the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , AjK 'ixaw was sent ahead as an emissary to Nojpetén . Díaz 's party was lured into an Itza trap and the expedition members were killed to a man . The two friars were captured and sacrificed . The Itza killed a total of 87 expedition members , including 50 soldiers , two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers .
Amésqueta left Mopán three days after Díaz and followed Díaz ’ s trail to the lakeshore . He arrived at the lake over a week later with 36 men . As they scouted along the south shore near Nojpetén they were shadowed by about 30 Itza canoes and more Itzas approached by land but kept a safe distance . Amésqueta was extremely suspicious of the small canoes being offered by the Itza to transport his party across to Nojpetén ; as nightfall approached Amésqueta retreated from the lakeshore and his men took up positions on a small hill nearby . In the early hours of the morning he ordered a retreat by moonlight . At San Pedro Martír he received news of an Itza embassy to Mérida in December 1695 , and an apparent formal surrender of the Itza to Spanish authority . Unable to reconcile the news with the loss of his men , and with appalling conditions in San Pedro Mártir , Amésqueta abandoned his unfinished fort and retreated to Guatemala .
= = = = Assault on Nojpetén = = = =
The Itzas ' continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities , and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all . Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of Lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers on 26 February 1697 , and once there built the heavily armed galeota attack boat . The galeota carried 114 men and at least five artillery pieces . The piragua longboat used to cross the San Pedro River was also transported to the lake to be used in the attack on the Itza capital .
On 10 March a number of Itza and Yalain emissaries arrived at Ch 'ich ' to negotiate with Ursúa . Kan Ek ' then sent a canoe with a white flag raised bearing emissaries , who offered peaceful surrender . Ursúa received the embassy in peace and invited Kan Ek ' to visit his encampment three days later . On the appointed day Kan Ek ' failed to arrive ; instead Maya warriors amassed both along the shore and in canoes upon the lake .
A waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek 's capital on the morning of 13 March . Ursúa boarded the galeota with 108 soldiers , two secular priests , five personal servants , the baptised Itza emissary AjChan and his brother @-@ in @-@ law and an Itza prisoner from Nojpetén . The attack boat was rowed east towards the Itza capital ; half way across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes spread in an arc across the approach to Nojpetén – Ursúa simply gave the order to row through them . A large quantity of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city . Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders from the canoes . Ursúa ordered his men not to return fire but arrows wounded a number of his soldiers ; one of the wounded soldiers discharged his musket and at that point the officers lost control of their men . The defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire .
The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died ; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties . The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island ; the surviving Itza abandoned their capital and swam across to the mainland with many dying in the water . After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town . Martín de Ursúa planted his standard upon the highest point of the island and renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . The Itza nobility fled , dispersing to Maya settlements throughout Petén ; in response the Spanish scoured the region with search parties . Kan Ek ' was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu ; The Kowoj king ( Aj Kowoj ) was also soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers .
= Gilberto Gil =
Gilberto Passos Gil Moreira ( born 26 June 1942 ) , better known as Gilberto Gil ( Brazilian Portuguese : [ ʒiɫˈbɛxtu ʒiɫ ] or [ ʒiu ̯ ˈbɛɾtʊ ʒiu ̯ ] ) , is a Brazilian singer , guitarist , and songwriter , known for both his musical innovation and political commitment . From 2003 to 2008 , he served as Brazil 's Minister of Culture in the administration of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva . Gil 's musical style incorporates an eclectic range of influences , including Rock music , Brazilian genres including samba , African music , and reggae .
Gil started to play music as a child and was still a teenager when he joined his first band . He began his career as a bossa nova musician , and then grew to write songs that reflected a focus on political awareness and social activism . He was a key figure in the Música popular brasileira and tropicália movements of the 1960s , alongside artists such as longtime collaborator Caetano Veloso . The Brazilian military regime that took power in 1964 saw both Gil and Veloso as a threat , and the two were held for nine months in 1969 before they were told to leave the country . Gil moved to London , but returned to Bahia in 1972 and continued his musical career , as well as working as a politician and environmental advocate .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years ( 1942 – 1963 ) = = =
Gil was born in Salvador , an industrial city in the northeast of Brazil , though he spent much of his childhood in nearby Ituaçu . Ituaçu was a small town of fewer than a thousand , located in the sertão , or countryside , of Bahia . His father , José Gil Moreira , was a doctor ; his mother , Claudina Passos Gil Moreira , an elementary school teacher . As a young boy , he attended a Marist Brothers school . Gil remained in Ituaçu until he was nine years old , returning to Salvador for secondary school .
Gil 's interest in music was precocious : " When I was only two or two and a half , " he recalled , " I told my mother I was going to become a musician or a president of my country . " He grew up listening to the forró music of his native northeast , and took an interest in the street performers of Salvador . Early on , he began to play the drums and the trumpet , through listening to Bob Nelson on the radio . Gil 's mother was the " chief supporter " in his musical ambitions ; she bought him an accordion and , when he was ten years old , sent him to music school in Salvador which he attended for four years . As an accordionist , Gil first played classical music , but grew more interested in the folk and popular music of Brazil . He was particularly influenced by singer and accordion player Luiz Gonzaga ; he began to sing and play the accordion in an emulation of Gonzaga 's recordings . Gil has noted that he grew to identify with Gonzaga " because he sang about the world around [ him ] , the world that [ he ] encountered . "
During his years in Salvador , Gil also encountered the music of songwriter Dorival Caymmi , who he says represented to him the " beach @-@ oriented " samba music of Salvador . Gonzaga and Caymmi were Gil 's formative influences . While in Salvador , Gil was introduced to many other styles of music , including American big band jazz and tango . In 1950 Gil moved back to Salvador with his family . It was there , while still in high school , that he joined his first band , Os Desafinados ( The Out of Tunes ) , in which he played accordion and vibraphone and sang . Os Desafinados was influenced by American rock and roll musicians like Elvis Presley , as well as singing groups from Rio de Janeiro . The band was active for two to three years . Soon afterwards , inspired by Brazilian star João Gilberto , he settled on the guitar as his primary instrument and began to play bossa nova .
= = = Musical career ( 1963 – present ) = = =
Gil met guitarist and singer Caetano Veloso at the Universidade Federal da Bahia ( Federal University of Bahia ) in 1963 . The two immediately began collaborating and performing together , releasing a single and EP soon afterwards . Along with Maria Bethânia ( Veloso 's sister ) , Gal Costa , and Tom Zé , Gil and Veloso performed bossa nova and traditional Brazilian songs at the Vila Velha Theatre 's opening night in July 1964 , a show entitled Nós , por Exemplo ( Us , for Example ) . Gil and the group continued to perform at the venue and he eventually became a musical director of the concert series . Gil collaborated again with members of this collective on the landmark 1968 album Tropicália : ou Panis et Circenses , whose style was influenced by The Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , an album Gil listened to constantly . Gil describes Tropicália : ou Panis et Circenses as the birth of the tropicália movement . As Gil describes it , tropicália ( or Tropicalismo ) was a conflation of musical and cultural developments that had occurred in Brazil during the 1950s and 1960s — primarily bossa nova and the Jovem Guarda ( Young Wave ) collective — with rock and roll music from the United States and Europe , a movement deemed threatening by the Brazilian government of the time .
Early on in the 1960s , Gil earned income primarily from selling bananas in a shopping mall and composing jingles for television advertisements ; he was also briefly employed by the Brazilian division of Unilever , Gessy @-@ Lever . He moved to São Paulo in 1965 and had a hit single when his song " Louvação " ( which later appeared on the album of the same name ) was released by Elis Regina . However , his first hit as a solo artist was the 1969 song " Aquele Abraço " . Gil also performed in several television programs throughout the 1960s , which often included other " tropicalistas " , members of the Tropicalismo movement . One of these programs , Divino Maravilhoso , which featured Veloso , gained attention from government television censors after it aired a satirical version of the national anthem in December 1968 .
In February 1969 Gil and Veloso were arrested by the Brazilian military government , brought from São Paulo to Rio de Janeiro , and spent three months in prison and another four under house arrest , before being freed on the condition that they leave the country . Veloso was the first to be arrested ; the police moved to Gil 's home soon afterward . Veloso had directed his then @-@ wife Andréa Gadelha to warn Gil about the possibility of arrest , but Gil was eventually brought into the police van along with Veloso . They were given no reason or charge for their arrest . Gil believes that the government felt his actions " represent [ ed ] a threat [ to them ] , something new , something that can 't quite be understood , something that doesn 't fit into any of the clear compartments of existing cultural practices , and that won 't do . That is dangerous . " During his prison sentence , Gil began to meditate , follow a macrobiotic diet , and read about Eastern philosophy . He composed four songs during his imprisonment , among them " Cérebro Electrônico " ( Electronic Brain ) , which first appeared on his 1969 album Gilberto Gil 1969 , and later on his 2006 album Gil Luminoso . Thereafter , Gil and Veloso were exiled to London , England after being offered to leave Brazil . The two played a last Brazilian concert together in Salvador in July 1969 , then left to Portugal , Paris , and finally London . He and Veloso took a house in Chelsea , sharing it with their manager and wives . Gil was involved in the organisation of the 1971 Glastonbury Free Festival and was exposed to reggae while living in London ; he recalls listening to Bob Marley ( whose songs he later covered ) , Jimmy Cliff , and Burning Spear . He was heavily influenced by and involved with the city 's rock scene as well , performing with Yes , Pink Floyd , and the Incredible String Band . However , he also performed solo , recording Gilberto Gil ( Nêga ) while in London . In addition to involvement in the reggae and rock scenes , Gil attended performances by jazz artists , including Miles Davis and Sun Ra .
When he went back to Bahia in 1972 , Gil focused on his musical career and environmental advocacy work . He released Expresso 2222 the same year , from which two popular singles were released . Gil toured the United States and recorded an English @-@ language album as well , continuing to release a steady stream of albums throughout the 1970s , including Realce and Refazenda . In the early 1970s Gil participated in a resurgence of the Afro @-@ Brazilian afoxé tradition in Carnaval , joining the Filhos de Gandhi ( Sons of Gandhi ) performance group , which only allowed black Brazilians to join . Gil also recorded a song titled " Patuscada de Gandhi " written about the Filhos de Gandhi that appeared on his 1977 album Refavela . Greater attention was paid to afoxé groups in Carnaval because of the publicity that Gil had provided to them through his involvement ; the groups increased in size as well . In the late 1970s he left Brazil for Africa and visited Senegal , Ivory Coast , and Nigeria . He also worked with Jimmy Cliff and released a cover of " No Woman , No Cry " with him in 1980 , a number one hit that introduced reggae to Brazil .
In 1996 , Gil contributed " Refazenda " to the AIDS @-@ Benefit Album Red Hot + Rio produced by the Red Hot Organization .
In 1998 the live version of his album Quanta won Gil the Grammy Award for Best World Music Album . In 2005 he won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary World Music Album for Eletracústico . In May 2005 he was awarded the Polar Music Prize by Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden in Stockholm , the prize 's first Latin American recipient . On October 16 of the same year he received the Légion d 'honneur from the French government , coinciding with the Année du Brésil en France ( Brazil 's Year in France ) .
In 2010 he released the album Fé Na Festa , a record devoted to forró , a style of music from Brazil 's northeast . His tour to promote this album received some negative feedback from fans who were expecting to hear a set featuring his hits . In 2013 , Gilberto Gil plays his own role as a singer and promoter of cultural diversity in a long feature documentary shot around the southern hemisphere by Swiss filmmaker Pierre @-@ Yves Borgeaud , Viramundo : a musical journey with Gilberto Gil , distributed worldwide . The film also inaugurates the T.I.D.E. experiment for pan @-@ European and multi @-@ support releases .
= = = Political career ( 1987 – present ) = = =
Gil describes his attitude towards politics thus : " I 'd rather see my position in the government as that of an administrator or manager . But politics is a necessary ingredient . " His political career began in 1987 , when he was elected to a local post in Bahia and became the Salvador secretary of culture . In 1988 , he was elected to the city council and subsequently became city commissioner for environmental protection . However , he left the office after one term and declined to run for the National Congress of Brazil . In 1990 , Gil left the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party and joined the Green Party . During this period , Gil founded the environmental protection organization Onda Azul ( Blue Wave ) , which worked to protect Brazilian waters . He maintained a full @-@ time musical career at the same time , and withdrew temporarily from politics in 1992 , following the release Parabolicamará , considered to be one of his most successful efforts . On October 16 , 2001 Gil accepted his nomination to be a Goodwill Ambassador for the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) of the United Nations , having promoted the organization before his appointment .
When President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva took office in January 2003 , he chose Gil as Brazil 's new Minister of Culture , only the second black person to serve in the country 's cabinet . The appointment was controversial among political and artistic figures and the Brazilian press ; a remark Gil made about difficulties with his salary received particular criticism . Gil is not a member of Lula 's Workers ' Party and did not participate in creating its cultural program . Shortly after becoming Minister , Gil began a partnership between Brazil and Creative Commons . As Minister , he has sponsored a program called Culture Points , which gives grants to provide music technology and education to people living in poor areas of the country 's cities . Gil has since asserted that " You 've now got young people who are becoming designers , who are making it into media and being used more and more by television and samba schools and revitalizing degraded neighborhoods . It 's a different vision of the role of government , a new role . " Gil has also expressed interest in a program that will establish an Internet repository of freely downloadable Brazilian music . Since Gil 's appointment , the department 's expenditures have increased by over 50 percent . In November 2007 Gil announced his intention to resign from his post due to a vocal cord polyp . Lula rejected Gil 's first two attempts to resign , but accepted another request in July 2008 . Lula said on this occasion that Gil was " going back to being a great artist , going back to giving priority to what is most important " to him .
= = = Personal life = = =
Gil has been married four times . His fourth wife is Flora Nair Giordano Gil Moreira . The couple has five children , four of whom are still living . The fifth child – Pedro Gil , Egotrip 's drummer – died in a car accident in 1990 . Preta Gil , an actress and singer , is his daughter .
Gil 's religious beliefs have changed significantly over his lifetime . Originally , he was a Christian , but was later influenced by Eastern philosophy and religion , and , later still , explored African spirituality . He is now an agnostic . He practices yoga and is a vegetarian .
Gil has been open about the fact that he has smoked marijuana for much of his life . He has said he believes " that drugs should be treated like pharmaceuticals , legalized , although under the same regulations and monitoring as medicines " .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Gil is a tenor , but he sings in the baritone or falsetto register , with lyrics and / or scat syllables . His lyrics are on subjects that range from philosophy to religion , folktales , and word play . Gil 's musical style incorporates a broad range of influences . The first music he was exposed to included The Beatles and street performers in various metropolitan areas of Bahia . During his first years as a musician , Gil performed primarily in a blend of traditional Brazilian styles with two @-@ step rhythms , such as baião and samba . He states that " My first phase was one of traditional forms . Nothing experimental at all . Caetano [ Veloso ] and I followed in the tradition of Luiz Gonzaga and Jackson do Pandeiro , combining samba with northeastern music . "
As one of the pioneers of tropicália , influences from genres such as rock and punk have been pervasive in his recordings , as they have been in those of other stars of the period , including Caetano Veloso and Tom Zé . Gil 's interest in the blues @-@ based music of rock pioneer Jimi Hendrix , in particular , has been described by Veloso as having " extremely important consequences for Brazilian music " . Veloso also noted the influence of Brazilian guitarist and singer Jorge Ben on Gil 's musical style , coupled with that of traditional music . After the height of tropicália in the 1960s , Gil became increasingly interested in black culture , particularly in the Jamaican musical genre of reggae . He described the genre as " a form of democratizing , internationalizing , speaking a new language , a Heideggerian form of passing along fundamental messages " .
Visiting Lagos , Nigeria , in 1976 for the Festival of African Culture ( FESTAC ) , Gil met fellow musicians Fela Kuti and Stevie Wonder . He became inspired by African music and later integrated some of the styles he had heard in Africa , such as juju and highlife , into his own recordings . One of the most famous of these African @-@ influenced records was the 1977 album Refavela , which included " No Norte da Saudade " ( To the North of Sadness ) , a song heavily influenced by reggae . When Gil returned to Brazil after the visit , he focused on Afro @-@ Brazilian culture , becoming a member of the Carnaval afoxé group Filhos de Gandhi .
Conversely , his 1980s musical repertoire presented an increased development of dance trends , such as disco and soul , as well as the previous incorporation of rock and punk . However , Gil says that his 1994 album Acoustic was not such a new direction , as he had previously performed unplugged with Caetano Veloso . He describes the method of playing as easier than other types of performance , as the energy of acoustic playing is simple and influenced by its roots . Gil has been criticized for a conflicting involvement in both authentic Brazilian music and the worldwide musical arena . He has had to walk a fine line , simultaneously remaining true to traditional Bahian styles and engaging with commercial markets . Listeners in Bahia have been much more accepting of his blend of music styles , while those in southeast Brazil felt at odds with it .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards , nominations , and positions = =
= Shapley – Folkman lemma =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma is a result in convex geometry with applications in mathematical economics that describes the Minkowski addition of sets in a vector space . Minkowski addition is defined as the addition of the sets ' members : for example , adding the set consisting of the integers zero and one to itself yields the set consisting of zero , one , and two :
{ 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 }
= { 0 + 0 , 0 + 1 , 1 + 0 , 1 + 1 } =
{ 0 , 1 , 2 } .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma and related results provide an affirmative answer to the question , " Is the sum of many sets close to being convex ? " A set is defined to be convex if every line segment joining two of its points is a subset in the set : For example , the solid disk <formula> is a convex set but the circle <formula> is not , because the line segment joining two distinct points <formula> is not a subset of the circle . The Shapley – Folkman lemma suggests that if the number of summed sets exceeds the dimension of the vector space , then their Minkowski sum is approximately convex .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma was introduced as a step in the proof of the Shapley – Folkman theorem , which states an upper bound on the distance between the Minkowski sum and its convex hull . The convex hull of a set Q is the smallest convex set that contains Q. This distance is zero if and only if the sum is convex . The theorem 's bound on the distance depends on the dimension D and on the shapes of the summand @-@ sets , but not on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D. The shapes of a subcollection of only D summand @-@ sets determine the bound on the distance between the Minkowski average of N sets
1 ⁄ N ( Q1 + Q2 + ... + QN )
and its convex hull . As N increases to infinity , the bound decreases to zero ( for summand @-@ sets of uniformly bounded size ) . The Shapley – Folkman theorem 's upper bound was decreased by Starr 's corollary ( alternatively , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr theorem ) .
The lemma of Lloyd Shapley and Jon Folkman was first published by the economist Ross M. Starr , who was investigating the existence of economic equilibria while studying with Kenneth Arrow . In his paper , Starr studied a convexified economy , in which non @-@ convex sets were replaced by their convex hulls ; Starr proved that the convexified economy has equilibria that are closely approximated by " quasi @-@ equilibria " of the original economy ; moreover , he proved that every quasi @-@ equilibrium has many of the optimal properties of true equilibria , which are proved to exist for convex economies . Following Starr 's 1969 paper , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used to show that central results of ( convex ) economic theory are good approximations to large economies with non @-@ convexities ; for example , quasi @-@ equilibria closely approximate equilibria of a convexified economy . " The derivation of these results in general form has been one of the major achievements of postwar economic theory " , wrote Roger Guesnerie . The topic of non @-@ convex sets in economics has been studied by many Nobel laureates , besides Lloyd Shapley who won the prize in 2012 : Arrow ( 1972 ) , Robert Aumann ( 2005 ) , Gérard Debreu ( 1983 ) , Tjalling Koopmans ( 1975 ) , Paul Krugman ( 2008 ) , and Paul Samuelson ( 1970 ) ; the complementary topic of convex sets in economics has been emphasized by these laureates , along with Leonid Hurwicz , Leonid Kantorovich ( 1975 ) , and Robert Solow ( 1987 ) .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma has applications also in optimization and probability theory . In optimization theory , the Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to explain the successful solution of minimization problems that are sums of many functions . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has also been used in proofs of the " law of averages " for random sets , a theorem that had been proved for only convex sets .
= = Introductory example = =
For example , the subset of the integers { 0 , 1 , 2 } is contained in the interval of real numbers [ 0 , 2 ] , which is convex . The Shapley – Folkman lemma implies that every point in [ 0 , 2 ] is the sum of an integer from { 0 , 1 } and a real number from [ 0 , 1 ] .
The distance between the convex interval [ 0 , 2 ] and the non @-@ convex set { 0 , 1 , 2 } equals one @-@ half
1 / 2
= | 1 − 1 / 2 | =
| 0 − 1 / 2 |
= | 2 − 3 / 2 | =
| 1 − 3 / 2 | .
However , the distance between the average Minkowski sum
1 / 2 ( { 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } ) = { 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 }
and its convex hull [ 0 , 1 ] is only 1 / 4 , which is half the distance ( 1 / 2 ) between its summand { 0 , 1 } and [ 0 , 1 ] . As more sets are added together , the average of their sum " fills out " its convex hull : The maximum distance between the average and its convex hull approaches zero as the average includes more summands .
= = Preliminaries = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma depends upon the following definitions and results from convex geometry .
= = = Real vector spaces = = =
A real vector space of two dimensions can be given a Cartesian coordinate system in which every point is identified by an ordered pair of real numbers , called " coordinates " , which are conventionally denoted by x and y . Two points in the Cartesian plane can be added coordinate @-@ wise
( x1 , y1 ) + ( x2 , y2 )
= ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ;
further , a point can be multiplied by each real number λ coordinate @-@ wise
λ ( x , y ) =
( λx , λy ) .
More generally , any real vector space of ( finite ) dimension D can be viewed as the set of all D @-@ tuples of D real numbers { ( v1 , v2 , . . . , vD ) } on which two operations are defined : vector addition and multiplication by a real number . For finite @-@ dimensional vector spaces , the operations of vector addition and real @-@ number multiplication can each be defined coordinate @-@ wise , following the example of the Cartesian plane .
= = = Convex sets = = =
In a real vector space , a non @-@ empty set Q is defined to be convex if , for each pair of its points , every point on the line segment that joins them is a subset of Q. For example , a solid disk <formula> is convex but a circle <formula> is not , because it does not contain a line segment joining its points <formula> ; the non @-@ convex set of three integers { 0 , 1 , 2 } is contained in the interval [ 0 , 2 ] , which is convex . For example , a solid cube is convex ; however , anything that is hollow or dented , for example , a crescent shape , is non @-@ convex . The empty set is convex , either by definition or vacuously , depending on the author .
More formally , a set Q is convex if , for all points v0 and v1 in Q and for every real number λ in the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , the point
( 1 − λ ) v0 + λv1
is a member of Q.
By mathematical induction , a set Q is convex if and only if every convex combination of members of Q also belongs to Q. By definition , a convex combination of an indexed subset { v0 , v1 , . . . , vD } of a vector space is any weighted average λ0v0 + λ1v1 + . . . + λDvD , for some indexed set of non @-@ negative real numbers { λd } satisfying the equation λ0 + λ1 + . . . + λD = 1 .
The definition of a convex set implies that the intersection of two convex sets is a convex set . More generally , the intersection of a family of convex sets is a convex set . In particular , the intersection of two disjoint sets is the empty set , which is convex .
= = = Convex hull = = =
For every subset Q of a real vector space , its convex hull Conv ( Q ) is the minimal convex set that contains Q. Thus Conv ( Q ) is the intersection of all the convex sets that cover Q. The convex hull of a set can be equivalently defined to be the set of all convex combinations of points in Q. For example , the convex hull of the set of integers { 0 @,@ 1 } is the closed interval of real numbers [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , which contains the integer end @-@ points . The convex hull of the unit circle is the closed unit disk , which contains the unit circle .
= = = Minkowski addition = = =
In a real vector space , the Minkowski sum of two ( non @-@ empty ) sets Q1 and Q2 is defined to be the set Q1 + Q2 formed by the addition of vectors element @-@ wise from the summand sets
Q1 + Q2
= { q1 + q2 : q1 ∈ Q1 and q2 ∈ Q2 } .
For example
{ 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } =
{ 0 + 0 , 0 + 1 , 1 + 0 , 1 + 1 }
= { 0 , 1 , 2 } .
By the principle of mathematical induction , the Minkowski sum of a finite family of ( non @-@ empty ) sets
{ Qn : Qn ≠ Ø and 1 ≤ n ≤ N }
is the set formed by element @-@ wise addition of vectors
∑ Qn =
{ ∑ qn : qn ∈ Qn } .
= = = Convex hulls of Minkowski sums = = =
Minkowski addition behaves well with respect to " convexification " — the operation of taking convex hulls . Specifically , for all subsets Q1 and Q2 of a real vector space , the convex hull of their Minkowski sum is the Minkowski sum of their convex hulls . That is ,
Conv ( Q1 + Q2 )
= Conv ( Q1 ) + Conv ( Q2 ) .
This result holds more generally , as a consequence of the principle of mathematical induction . For each finite collection of sets ,
Conv ( ∑ Qn ) =
∑ Conv ( Qn ) .
= = Statements = =
The preceding identity Conv ( ∑ Qn )
= ∑ Conv ( Qn ) implies that if a point x lies in the convex hull of the Minkowski sum of N sets
x ∈ Conv ( ∑ Qn )
then x lies in the sum of the convex hulls of the summand @-@ sets
x ∈ ∑ Conv ( Qn ) .
By the definition of Minkowski addition , this last expression means that x =
∑ qn for some selection of points qn in the convex hulls of the summand @-@ sets , that is , where each qn ∈ Conv ( Qn ) . In this representation , the selection of the summand @-@ points qn depends on the chosen sum @-@ point x .
= = = Lemma of Shapley and Folkman = = =
For this representation of the point x , the Shapley – Folkman lemma states that if the dimension D is less than the number of summands
D < N
then convexification is needed for only D summand @-@ sets , whose choice depends on x : The point has a representation
<formula>
where qd belongs to the convex hull of Qd for D ( or fewer ) summand @-@ sets and qn belongs to Qn itself for the remaining sets . That is ,
<formula>
for some re @-@ indexing of the summand sets ; this re @-@ indexing depends on the particular point x being represented .
The Shapley – Folkman lemma implies , for example , that every point in [ 0 , 2 ] is the sum of an integer from { 0 , 1 } and a real number from [ 0 , 1 ] .
= = = = Dimension of a real vector space = = = =
Conversely , the Shapley – Folkman lemma characterizes the dimension of finite @-@ dimensional , real vector spaces . That is , if a vector space obeys the Shapley – Folkman lemma for a natural number D , and for no number less than D , then its dimension is exactly D ; the Shapley – Folkman lemma holds for only finite @-@ dimensional vector spaces .
= = = Shapley – Folkman theorem and Starr 's corollary = = =
Shapley and Folkman used their lemma to prove their theorem , which bounds the distance between a Minkowski sum and its convex hull , the " convexified " sum :
The Shapley – Folkman theorem states that the squared Euclidean distance from any point in the convexified sum Conv ( ∑ Qn ) to the original ( unconvexified ) sum ∑ Qn is bounded by the sum of the squares of the D largest circumradii of the sets Qn ( the radii of the smallest spheres enclosing these sets ) . This bound is independent of the number of summand @-@ sets N ( if N > D ) .
The Shapley – Folkman theorem states a bound on the distance between the Minkowski sum and its convex hull ; this distance is zero if and only if the sum is convex . Their bound on the distance depends on the dimension D and on the shapes of the summand @-@ sets , but not on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D.
The circumradius often exceeds ( and cannot be less than ) the inner radius :
The inner radius of a set Qn is defined to be the smallest number r such that , for any point q in the convex hull of Qn , there is a sphere of radius r that contains a subset of Qn whose convex hull contains q .
Starr used the inner radius to reduce the upper bound stated in the Shapley – Folkman theorem :
Starr 's corollary to the Shapley – Folkman theorem states that the squared Euclidean distance from any point x in the convexified sum Conv ( ∑ Qn ) to the original ( unconvexified ) sum ∑ Qn is bounded by the sum of the squares of the D largest inner @-@ radii of the sets Qn .
Starr 's corollary states an upper bound on the Euclidean distance between the Minkowski sum of N sets and the convex hull of the Minkowski sum ; this distance between the sum and its convex hull is a measurement of the non @-@ convexity of the set . For simplicity , this distance is called the " non @-@ convexity " of the set ( with respect to Starr 's measurement ) . Thus , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of the sum depends on only the D largest inner radii of the summand @-@ sets ; however , Starr 's bound does not depend on the number of summand @-@ sets N , when N > D. For example , the distance between the convex interval [ 0 , 2 ] and the non @-@ convex set { 0 , 1 , 2 } equals one @-@ half
1 / 2
= | 1 − 1 / 2 | =
| 0 − 1 / 2 |
= | 2 − 3 / 2 | =
| 1 − 3 / 2 | .
Thus , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of the average
1 ⁄ N ∑ Qn
decreases as the number of summands N increases . For example , the distance between the averaged set
1 / 2 ( { 0 , 1 } + { 0 , 1 } ) = { 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 }
and its convex hull [ 0 , 1 ] is only 1 / 4 , which is half the distance ( 1 / 2 ) between its summand { 0 , 1 } and [ 0 , 1 ] . The shapes of a subcollection of only D summand @-@ sets determine the bound on the distance between the average set and its convex hull ; thus , as the number of summands increases to infinity , the bound decreases to zero ( for summand @-@ sets of uniformly bounded size ) . In fact , Starr 's bound on the non @-@ convexity of this average set decreases to zero as the number of summands N increases to infinity ( when the inner radii of all the summands are bounded by the same number ) .
= = = Proofs and computations = = =
The original proof of the Shapley – Folkman lemma established only the existence of the representation , but did not provide an algorithm for computing the representation : Similar proofs have been given by Arrow and Hahn , Cassels , and Schneider , among others . An abstract and elegant proof by Ekeland has been extended by Artstein . Different proofs have appeared in unpublished papers , also . In 1981 , Starr published an iterative method for computing a representation of a given sum @-@ point ; however , his computational proof provides a weaker bound than does the original result . An elementary proof of the Shapley – Folkman lemma in finite @-@ dimensional space can be found in the book by Bertsekas together with applications in estimating the duality gap in separable optimization problems and zero @-@ sum games .
= = Applications = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma enables researchers to extend results for Minkowski sums of convex sets to sums of general sets , which need not be convex . Such sums of sets arise in economics , in mathematical optimization , and in probability theory ; in each of these three mathematical sciences , non @-@ convexity is an important feature of applications .
= = = Economics = = =
In economics , a consumer 's preferences are defined over all " baskets " of goods . Each basket is represented as a non @-@ negative vector , whose coordinates represent the quantities of the goods . On this set of baskets , an indifference curve is defined for each consumer ; a consumer 's indifference curve contains all the baskets of commodities that the consumer regards as equivalent : That is , for every pair of baskets on the same indifference curve , the consumer does not prefer one basket over another . Through each basket of commodities passes one indifference curve . A consumer 's preference set ( relative to an indifference curve ) is the union of the indifference curve and all the commodity baskets that the consumer prefers over the indifference curve . A consumer 's preferences are convex if all such preference sets are convex .
An optimal basket of goods occurs where the budget @-@ line supports a consumer 's preference set , as shown in the diagram . This means that an optimal basket is on the highest possible indifference curve given the budget @-@ line , which is defined in terms of a price vector and the consumer 's income ( endowment vector ) . Thus , the set of optimal baskets is a function of the prices , and this function is called the consumer 's demand . If the preference set is convex , then at every price the consumer 's demand is a convex set , for example , a unique optimal basket or a line @-@ segment of baskets .
= = = = Non @-@ convex preferences = = = =
However , if a preference set is non @-@ convex , then some prices determine a budget @-@ line that supports two separate optimal @-@ baskets . For example , we can imagine that , for zoos , a lion costs as much as an eagle , and further that a zoo 's budget suffices for one eagle or one lion . We can suppose also that a zoo @-@ keeper views either animal as equally valuable . In this case , the zoo would purchase either one lion or one eagle . Of course , a contemporary zoo @-@ keeper does not want to purchase half of an eagle and half of a lion ( or a griffin ) ! Thus , the zoo @-@ keeper 's preferences are non @-@ convex : The zoo @-@ keeper prefers having either animal to having any strictly convex combination of both .
When the consumer 's preference set is non @-@ convex , then ( for some prices ) the consumer 's demand is not connected ; a disconnected demand implies some discontinuous behavior by the consumer , as discussed by Harold Hotelling :
If indifference curves for purchases be thought of as possessing a wavy character , convex to the origin in some regions and concave in others , we are forced to the conclusion that it is only the portions convex to the origin that can be regarded as possessing any importance , since the others are essentially unobservable . They can be detected only by the discontinuities that may occur in demand with variation in price @-@ ratios , leading to an abrupt jumping of a point of tangency across a chasm when the straight line is rotated . But , while such discontinuities may reveal the existence of chasms , they can never measure their depth . The concave portions of the indifference curves and their many @-@ dimensional generalizations , if they exist , must forever remain in unmeasurable obscurity .
The difficulties of studying non @-@ convex preferences were emphasized by Herman Wold and again by Paul Samuelson , who wrote that non @-@ convexities are " shrouded in eternal darkness ... " , according to Diewert .
Nonetheless , non @-@ convex preferences were illuminated from 1959 to 1961 by a sequence of papers in The Journal of Political Economy ( JPE ) . The main contributors were Farrell , Bator , Koopmans , and Rothenberg . In particular , Rothenberg 's paper discussed the approximate convexity of sums of non @-@ convex sets . These JPE @-@ papers stimulated a paper by Lloyd Shapley and Martin Shubik , which considered convexified consumer @-@ preferences and introduced the concept of an " approximate equilibrium " . The JPE @-@ papers and the Shapley – Shubik paper influenced another notion of " quasi @-@ equilibria " , due to Robert Aumann .
= = = = Starr 's 1969 paper and contemporary economics = = = =
Previous publications on non @-@ convexity and economics were collected in an annotated bibliography by Kenneth Arrow . He gave the bibliography to Starr , who was then an undergraduate enrolled in Arrow 's ( graduate ) advanced mathematical @-@ economics course . In his term @-@ paper , Starr studied the general equilibria of an artificial economy in which non @-@ convex preferences were replaced by their convex hulls . In the convexified economy , at each price , the aggregate demand was the sum of convex hulls of the consumers ' demands . Starr 's ideas interested the mathematicians Lloyd Shapley and Jon Folkman , who proved their eponymous lemma and theorem in " private correspondence " , which was reported by Starr 's published paper of 1969 .
In his 1969 publication , Starr applied the Shapley – Folkman – Starr theorem . Starr proved that the " convexified " economy has general equilibria that can be closely approximated by " quasi @-@ equilibria " of the original economy , when the number of agents exceeds the dimension of the goods : Concretely , Starr proved that there exists at least one quasi @-@ equilibrium of prices popt with the following properties :
For each quasi @-@ equilibrium 's prices popt , all consumers can choose optimal baskets ( maximally preferred and meeting their budget constraints ) .
At quasi @-@ equilibrium prices popt in the convexified economy , every good 's market is in equilibrium : Its supply equals its demand .
For each quasi @-@ equilibrium , the prices " nearly clear " the markets for the original economy : an upper bound on the distance between the set of equilibria of the " convexified " economy and the set of quasi @-@ equilibria of the original economy followed from Starr 's corollary to the Shapley – Folkman theorem .
Starr established that
" in the aggregate , the discrepancy between an allocation in the fictitious economy generated by [ taking the convex hulls of all of the consumption and production sets ] and some allocation in the real economy is bounded in a way that is independent of the number of economic agents . Therefore , the average agent experiences a deviation from intended actions that vanishes in significance as the number of agents goes to infinity " .
Following Starr 's 1969 paper , the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used in economic theory . Roger Guesnerie summarized their economic implications : " Some key results obtained under the convexity assumption remain ( approximately ) relevant in circumstances where convexity fails . For example , in economies with a large consumption side , preference nonconvexities do not destroy the standard results " . " The derivation of these results in general form has been one of the major achievements of postwar economic theory " , wrote Guesnerie . The topic of non @-@ convex sets in economics has been studied by many Nobel laureates : Arrow ( 1972 ) , Robert Aumann ( 2005 ) , Gérard Debreu ( 1983 ) , Tjalling Koopmans ( 1975 ) , Paul Krugman ( 2008 ) , and Paul Samuelson ( 1970 ) ; the complementary topic of convex sets in economics has been emphasized by these laureates , along with Leonid Hurwicz , Leonid Kantorovich ( 1975 ) , and Robert Solow ( 1987 ) . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been featured in the economics literature : in microeconomics , in general @-@ equilibrium theory , in public economics ( including market failures ) , as well as in game theory , in mathematical economics , and in applied mathematics ( for economists ) . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have also influenced economics research using measure and integration theory .
= = = Mathematical optimization = = =
The Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to explain why large minimization problems with non @-@ convexities can be nearly solved ( with iterative methods whose convergence proofs are stated for only convex problems ) . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has encouraged the use of methods of convex minimization on other applications with sums of many functions .
= = = = Preliminaries of optimization theory = = = =
Nonlinear optimization relies on the following definitions for functions :
The graph of a function f is the set of the pairs of arguments x and function evaluations f ( x )
Graph ( f )
= { ( x , f ( x ) ) }
The epigraph of a real @-@ valued function f is the set of points above the graph
Epi ( f ) =
{ ( x , u ) : f ( x ) ≤ u } .
A real @-@ valued function is defined to be a convex function if its epigraph is a convex set .
For example , the quadratic function f ( x )
= x2 is convex , as is the absolute value function g ( x ) =
| x | . However , the sine function ( pictured ) is non @-@ convex on the interval ( 0 , π ) .
= = = = Additive optimization problems = = = =
In many optimization problems , the objective function f is separable : that is , f is the sum of many summand @-@ functions , each of which has its own argument :
f ( x )
= f ( ( x1 , ... , xN ) ) =
∑ fn ( xn ) .
For example , problems of linear optimization are separable . Given a separable problem with an optimal solution , we fix an optimal solution
xmin = ( x1 , ... , xN ) min
with the minimum value f ( xmin ) . For this separable problem , we also consider an optimal solution ( xmin , f ( xmin ) ) to the " convexified problem " , where convex hulls are taken of the graphs of the summand functions . Such an optimal solution is the limit of a sequence of points in the convexified problem
( xj , f ( xj ) ) ∈ ∑ Conv ( Graph ( fn ) ) .
Of course , the given optimal @-@ point is a sum of points in the graphs of the original summands and of a small number of convexified summands , by the Shapley – Folkman lemma .
This analysis was published by Ivar Ekeland in 1974 to explain the apparent convexity of separable problems with many summands , despite the non @-@ convexity of the summand problems . In 1973 , the young mathematician Claude Lemaréchal was surprised by his success with convex minimization methods on problems that were known to be non @-@ convex ; for minimizing nonlinear problems , a solution of the dual problem problem need not provide useful information for solving the primal problem , unless the primal problem be convex and satisfy a constraint qualification . Lemaréchal 's problem was additively separable , and each summand function was non @-@ convex ; nonetheless , a solution to the dual problem provided a close approximation to the primal problem 's optimal value . Ekeland 's analysis explained the success of methods of convex minimization on large and separable problems , despite the non @-@ convexities of the summand functions . Ekeland and later authors argued that additive separability produced an approximately convex aggregate problem , even though the summand functions were non @-@ convex . The crucial step in these publications is the use of the Shapley – Folkman lemma . The Shapley – Folkman lemma has encouraged the use of methods of convex minimization on other applications with sums of many functions .
= = = Probability and measure theory = = =
Convex sets are often studied with probability theory . Each point in the convex hull of a ( non @-@ empty ) subset Q of a finite @-@ dimensional space is the expected value of a simple random vector that takes its values in Q , as a consequence of Carathéodory 's lemma . Thus , for a non @-@ empty set Q , the collection of the expected values of the simple , Q @-@ valued random vectors equals Q 's convex hull ; this equality implies that the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results are useful in probability theory . In the other direction , probability theory provides tools to examine convex sets generally and the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results specifically . The Shapley – Folkman – Starr results have been widely used in the probabilistic theory of random sets , for example , to prove a law of large numbers , a central limit theorem , and a large @-@ deviations principle . These proofs of probabilistic limit theorems used the Shapley – Folkman – Starr results to avoid the assumption that all the random sets be convex .
A probability measure is a finite measure , and the Shapley – Folkman lemma has applications in non @-@ probabilistic measure theory , such as the theories of volume and of vector measures . The Shapley – Folkman lemma enables a refinement of the Brunn – Minkowski inequality , which bounds the volume of sums in terms of the volumes of their summand @-@ sets . The volume of a set is defined in terms of the Lebesgue measure , which is defined on subsets of Euclidean space . In advanced measure @-@ theory , the Shapley – Folkman lemma has been used to prove Lyapunov 's theorem , which states that the range of a vector measure is convex . Here , the traditional term " range " ( alternatively , " image " ) is the set of values produced by the function . A vector measure is a vector @-@ valued generalization of a measure ; for example , if p1 and p2 are probability measures defined on the same measurable space , then the product function p1 p2 is a vector measure , where p1 p2 is defined for every event ω by
( p1 p2 ) ( ω ) = ( p1 ( ω ) , p2 ( ω ) ) .
Lyapunov 's theorem has been used in economics , in ( " bang @-@ bang " ) control theory , and in statistical theory . Lyapunov 's theorem has been called a continuous counterpart of the Shapley – Folkman lemma , which has itself been called a discrete analogue of Lyapunov 's theorem .
= Kerry slug =
The Kerry slug or Kerry spotted slug , scientific name Geomalacus maculosus , is a rare species of medium @-@ sized to large air @-@ breathing land slug . It is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Arionidae , the roundback slugs .
An adult Kerry slug generally measures 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 2 in ) in length and is dark grey or brownish in colour , with yellowish spots . The internal anatomy of the slug shows some unusual features , and some characteristic differences from the genus Arion , which is the type genus of the family Arionidae . The Kerry slug was described in 1843 , rather late compared to many other relatively large land gastropods that form a part of the fauna of the British Isles ; this is one indication of this slug 's rarity and its secretive habits .
Although the distribution of this slug species does include some wild habitats in southwestern Ireland ( e.g. in County Kerry ) , the species is more widespread in north @-@ west Spain and from central to northern Portugal . However , it is not found anywhere between Ireland and Spain . The species appears to require environments that have high humidity and acidic soil ( soil with no calcium carbonate in it ) . The slug is mostly nocturnal or crepuscular , although in Ireland it is active on overcast days . It feeds on lichens , liverworts , mosses and fungi , which grow either on boulders or on tree trunks .
This rare species is officially protected by conservation laws in each of the three countries in which it occurs . However , the survival of the Kerry slug is nonetheless threatened because it lives only in completely wild , unspoiled habitat of a particular type : acidic woodlands and moorlands that support the species of lower plants on which the slug relies for food . This habitat type is itself at risk from a number of different factors , ranging from climate change to the construction of roads . Attempts have been made to establish breeding populations in captivity , to help ensure the survival of this slug species , but with only limited success .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Kerry slug is a gastropod , as are all other snails and slugs , including slugs and snails that live in saltwater , those that live in freshwater , and those that live on the land . This is a land slug which breathes air , a pulmonate . It is in the clade Stylommatophora , which means that its primitive eyes or eye spots are carried on the tips of its two upper tentacles . Despite superficial similarities , not all land slugs are in the same family or superfamily . The Kerry slug is an arionid , or round @-@ backed slug ; it has no keel on its back , in contrast to the land slugs in the family Limacidae and Agriolimacidae . It also shares numerous internal anatomical features with slug species in other genera within the family Arionidae , including the Arion slugs , which are most typical of the family .
The Kerry slug 's scientific name or binomial name is Geomalacus maculosus . It is in the genus Geomalacus , a name which literally means " earth mollusc " . Its specific name maculosus means " spotted " , from the Latin word macula " spot " . The English language vernacular name ( or common name ) is derived from the name of County Kerry , which is the county in the southwest of Ireland where this species was first collected , and which is also the type locality , as mentioned in the original description .
The scientific name of the species is also sometimes written as Geomalacus ( Geomalacus ) maculosus . This is because the genus Geomalacus contains two subgenera : the nominate subgenus ( subgenus of the same name ) Geomalacus and a second subgenus Arrudia Pollonera , 1890 . The subgenus Geomalacus contains only one species , the Kerry slug . The subgenus Arrudia includes three species .
This slug species was originally described and named from specimens collected in Ireland . In 1842 , an Irish naturalist named William Andrews ( 1802 – 1880 ) sent material that he had found at Caragh Lake in County Kerry to the Irish naturalist George James Allman , who then introduced the slug to science as a new species .
The Kerry slug has been included in molecular phylogenetic studies since 2001 .
= = Description = =
The body length of adult slugs of this species is 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 2 in ) . However it is difficult to measure these slugs accurately because of their unusual startle response ( see the section entitled behaviour ) . Kerry slugs can also elongate themselves within crevices up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) . " Official " measurements of this species vary ; for example , Kerney et al . ( 1983 ) give a range of measurements for the species : 6 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 6 in ) . The body of a fixed ( preserved ) adult specimen was 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long with a mantle length of 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) .
The body of these slugs is glossy , and is covered on the left and right sides with about 25 longitudinal rows of polygonal granulations ( very small knobs with outlines like polygons ) . These slugs are usually blackish or dark @-@ grey in colour , sometimes with indistinct darker bands . On each side of the body there can be two bands : one band just below the summit of the back , and the other band further down the side of the body . When these bands are present they usually extend the whole length of the body of the slug , and are overspread by numerous , somewhat oval , yellowish spots . These yellow spots are distributed more or less in five longitudinal zones .
Behind the animal 's head , the " shield " ( the shield @-@ shaped outer surface of the mantle ) is about a third of the length of the body when the slug is actively crawling and thus extended , but only about half of that when the slug is motionless and contracted . The shield is rounded in front , and bluntly pointed behind . The texture of the surface of this area resembles the underside of undyed leather . It is spotted with pale buff or whitish spots which are similar to those on the body , but more uniformly distributed .
The foot @-@ fringe ( a band of tissue around the edge of the foot ) is not very distinctly separated : it is very pale and somewhat expanded , with indistinct lines on it . The sole ( the underside ) of the foot is a pale grayish @-@ yellow in colour , and is divided into three indistinct bands , with the mid @-@ area being somewhat darker and more transparent than the side bands . There is a caudal mucous pit situated between the foot and the body on the upper surface of the tip of the tail . The pit ( which collects extra mucus ) is not very conspicuous , but it is triangular in shape and opens transversely ( i.e. from side to side ) . The mucous pit often carries a transparent yellowish ball of slime ( mucus ) .
The upper tentacles are smoky @-@ black or grey , short and thick , with oval ends , and have the usual eye spots at their tips . The genital pore ( or opening ) lies behind and below the right eye @-@ tentacle . The lower tentacles are pale translucent grey . The skin mucus is usually pale yellow , and varies in its degree of viscosity ( stickiness ) . The locomotory @-@ mucus ( mucus for crawling on ) is tenacious and usually colourless , but it can be yellowish because of having mixed with the body slime .
= = = Internal anatomy = = =
= = = = Shell = = = =
Most land slugs have , within the mantle , the remnants or residue of what was , in the evolutionary past , a larger external shell . In most slugs , this remnant takes the form either of a small internal shell ( a thin shelly plate ) , or a collection of calcareous ( chalky ) granules . In this species there is an internal shell or shell plate which resembles that found in land slugs of the genus Limax . In other words , the shell plate in this species is oval in shape , solid , and chalky , with a transparent conchiolin ( horny ) base . The shell plate is usually somewhat convex above and concave beneath , with a few indistinct concentric lines of growth , and is covered outwardly with a very thin transparent periostracum ( a protein layer ) , and with the nucleus ( the oldest growth part ) situated near the front . In young Kerry slugs the shell is very thin and convex , abruptly cut off behind , and with an extremely thin layer that projects in front and contains minute granules .
The shell plate has been drawn differently by authors , but do at least show that it is a solid plate :
= = = = Various organ systems = = = =
The circulatory and excretory system are closely related , in that the heart is surrounded by the triangular kidney . The kidney has a lamellate ( layered ) structure and it has two ureters . In this slug species , the ventricle of the heart is directed towards , and is very close to , the anal and respiratory openings . The ventricle of the heart is further away and further back than it is in species of the related genus Arion , the type genus of the family Arionidae .
The gland above the foot , the suprapedal gland , is deeply imbedded in the tissues , and reaches far back . The cephalic ( head ) gland known as the Semper 's organ is well developed , and shows as a pair of strong flattened lobes . The salivary and digestive glands are the same as those found in Arion species , but the vestigial osphradium ( kidney @-@ like structure ) within the mantle chamber is more distinct than it is in Arion species .
= = = = Muscles = = = =
As for the various muscles within the slug , the cephalic retractors ( muscles for pulling in the head ) are very much the same as they are in Arion species . The right and left tentacular muscles , which pull in all four of the tentacles , divide early for the upper and lower tentacles , but only the muscles of the ommatophores ( the muscles of the two upper tentacles , which have eye spots ) are darkly pigmented . The right and left muscles that pull in the eyespot tentacles are attached at the base to the back edge of the mantle , on the right and left respectively . The pharyngeal ( throat ) retractor muscle is , as usual , furcate ( split ) for attachment to the back of the buccal bulb ( mouth bulb ) , and the root of this muscle is fixed on the right side of the body , just behind where the right tentacular muscle is attached .
= = = = Reproductive system = = = =
Kerry slug is hermaphrodite as all other pulmonates . Its reproductive system is diagnostic feature . The genus Geomalacus has a special feature : the atrium has a diverticulum . This atrial diverticulum is an elongated part of the atrium . The penis in the genus Geomalacus is reduced and lost as well its penial retractor muscle . The atrial diverticulum is a secondary penial structure and with its spermatheca retractor muscle acts as a copulatory organ instead . The other end of the spermatheca retractor muscle extends to the posterior end of the body . The atrial diverticulum has been proposed to be the morphological equivalent ( analogy , homoplasy ) of a penis .
Geomalacus maculosus has an atrial diverticulum longer than the spermatheca duct , while Geomalacus anguiformis has an atrial diverticulum shorter than the spermatheca duct .
Various authors have depicted the reproductive system of Kerry slug : Godwin @-@ Austen ( 1882 ) , Sharff ( 1891 ) , Simroth ( 1891 , 1894 ) , Taylor ( 1907 ) , Germain ( 1930 ) , Quick ( 1960 ) and Platts & Speight ( 1988 ) . Platts & Speight ( 1988 ) consider from previous authors depiction by Godwin @-@ Austen ( 1882 ) to be the most accurate , because other authors depicted atrium too short .
The Kerry slug 's reproductive organs are as follows : there is a small , compact , and darkly pigmented ovotestis ( a combination of ovary and testis ) . There is a hermaphroditic duct ( male and female duct ) which is very long and greatly convoluted , and ends in a small spherical vesicula seminalis ( seminal vesicle ) . The albumen gland ( which creates albumen for the eggs ) is elongated and shaped like a tongue . The ovispermatoduct ( a duct that carries both eggs and sperm ) is very much twisted . The free oviduct ( duct that carries eggs only ) is rather long and thin , but without any enlargement .
The vas deferens ( carries sperm ) is very long , complexly twisted , and rolled up in the form of a bundle . The spermatheca ( for storing sperm ) is globular , with a short stem , but is quite distant from the genital pore ( where the whole elaborate system opens to the outside world ) . The spermatheca is distant from this opening because of the remarkable elongation of the atrium or vestibule ( a common area which is usually just inside the genital pore , the atrium is an area where both the male and the female systems open ) . There is a long retractor muscle from the vesicle , and its stem is fixed internally to the back of the slug in the median line ( midline of the body ) near the caudal end ( tail end ) of the body . The vas deferens and the spermatheca open nearly together into the far extremity of the atrium , which is prolonged in an attenuate form ( drawn out in length ) to an enormous extent . The very thin free oviduct ( egg @-@ carrying duct ) opens into the atrium much nearer the near end , where the muscular vestibule is greatly but irregularly enlarged , and connected to the oviduct by a number of muscular fibres .
Within the vagina ( the female organ which receives the copulatory organ during copulation ) there is a curious series of flattened folds , the central part has a pointed end which is situated close to the genital pore , and this pointed end may possibly be a sarcobelum ( a very much reduced version of an organ that makes love darts ) and thus may be the homologue ( a similar structure because of shared ancestry ) of the love dart in the Helicidae .
= = = = Apparatus for feeding = = = =
= = = = = Radula = = = = =
The radula is a feeding structure found only in molluscs . Typically it is a small but strong ribbon @-@ like structure with numerous complex rows of tiny teeth across it . The radula is situated inside the mouth .
In this species of slug , the radula is 8 mm ( 5 / 16 in ) long and 2 mm ( 1 / 16 in ) wide , and has 240 slightly curved transverse ( crosswise ) rows of denticles ( tiny teeth ) . Each row of teeth is composed of one median tooth and 10 lateral and marginal teeth on each side . The median teeth are small , and are clearly unicuspid ( having one cusp ) , though they are slightly shouldered . The lateral teeth are bicuspid ( having two cusps ) but the admedian ( next to the middle ) teeth are noticeably larger than the median row , and the mesocone ( an extra protrusion in the middle of the tooth ) is well developed . There is however , no distinction between the lateral and marginal series except that the ectocone ( extra little side protrusion ) present on the admedian teeth recedes in position and slightly diminishes in size in the succeeding teeth up to about the twentieth row on the radula , but in the marginal series , the ectocone gradually grows in size and importance as the margin is approached , while the mesocone becomes almost correspondingly diminished , the outermost teeth showing a more embryonic ( more like that of an embryo ) character .
= = = = = Jaw = = = = =
The jaw measures about 1 mm ( 1 / 32 in ) from side to side , and is distinctly arcuate ( arched ) from front to rear , lunate ( crescent @-@ moon shaped ) in shape , but very wide , with broad and slightly rounded ends . The jaw is solid , dark @-@ brown and has about 10 broad flat ribs only in the middle part of the jaw . These ribs are absent or scarcely discernible on the side areas . Where the ribs meet the upper edge they sometimes form crenulations ( a scalloped effect ) and may also produce the same effect on the lower edge of the jaw . In other individuals the ribs extend all the way across the jaw , making both the upper and the cutting edges of the jaw clearly denticulate ( noticeably toothed in outline ) .
The alimentary canal of the digestive system forms two loops , as is true of all species within the family Arionidae .
= = Distribution = =
Geomalacus maculosus has what is known as a disjunct distribution ( in other words , it occurs in discontinuous locations ) . This slug is found only in southwestern Ireland , north @-@ west Spain , and from central Portugal to northern Portugal . The presence of this slug in southwest Ireland might seem anomalous , but similar distribution patterns have been observed in a few other species of animals and plants . This particular disjunct distribution ( in Iberia and in Ireland without any intermediate localities ) is known as " Lusitanian " .
There has been speculation that the G. maculosus was introduced to Ireland from Iberia by prehistoric humans , as appears to have happened in the case of the Eurasian Pygmy Shrew . In support of this , the genetic diversity of the slug in Ireland was found to be greatly reduced compared with the Iberian populations .
= = = Ireland = = =
Within Ireland , this species of slug is known from areas with sandstone geology in West Cork and County Kerry , a total area of around 5 @,@ 800 km2 ( 2 @,@ 200 sq mi ) . In 2010 , a previously unknown population of the Kerry Slug was recorded in a third county , Co . Galway .
= = = = Protected sites = = = =
A significant proportion of the Kerry slug 's range in Ireland is protected by being included in Special Areas of Conservation ( SACs ) . Ireland 's response to the European environmental legislation concerning the slug is discussed in greater detail in the Conservation Measures section below .
A total of seven Special Areas of Conservation have been designated with the slug as a " selection feature " :
Glengarriff Harbour and Woodland
Caha Mountains
Sheep 's Head
Killarney National Park , Macgillycuddy 's Reeks and Caragh River Catchment
Lough Yganavan and Lough Nambrackdarrig
Cloonee and Inchiquin Loughs , Uragh Wood
Blackwater River ( Kerry ) .
In addition , St. Gobnet 's Wood SAC ( which was designated in relation to other selection criteria ) was expanded in 2008 to protect Cascade Wood , a small area of woodland which is inhabited by the slug .
The species has also been recorded at other SACs where it is not a selection feature , for example Derryclogher Bog in County Cork .
= = = Iberia : Spain and Portugal = = =
Despite its first " discovery " at Caragh Lake , and its English common name of " Kerry slug " , Ireland is not at the centre of this slug species ' distribution ; instead the distribution of this slug is centred in continental Iberia . This slug has been known from northern Spain since 1868 , and from northern Portugal since 1873 . It was once reported as occurring in France , but this was never confirmed , and so that record is considered suspect .
= = = = Portugal = = = =
The southernmost locality where this species is found is the mountain range Serra da Estrela in Portugal . Other Portuguese localities include the provinces Beira Alta , Douro Litoral , Minho , Trás @-@ os @-@ Montes e Alto Douro and the Peneda @-@ Gerês National Park , a protected area .
= = = = Spain = = = =
The distribution of this species in Spain includes coastal locations in Galicia , and extends through the Cantabrian Mountains as far east as Mount Ganekogorta in the Basque Country . The localities in question fall within the boundaries of various autonomous communities : Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , Castile and León ( provinces of León , Palencia and Zamora ) , and the Basque Country ( provinces of Biscay and Álava ) . There have been unconfirmed findings of this slug reported from Navarra .
= = = = = Protected sites = = = = =
Natura 2000 sites for this species in Spain include 48 localities ( listed below , grouped by region ) :
Asturias
Muniellos ; Ponga — Amieva ; Redes ;
Cantabria
Camesa river ; Liebana ( Special Area of Conservation ; Liébana ( Special Protection Area ) ; " Upper valleys of the Nansa and Saja and Alto Campoo " ) ;
Castile and León
Hoces de Vegacervera ; Lake Sanabria and its vicinities ; Montes Aquilanos ( Site of Community Importance ) ; Montes Aquilanos y Sierra de Teleno ( Special Protection Area ) ;
Natural Park of Fuentes Carrionas and Fuente Cobre @-@ Montaña Palentina ; Sierra de la Cabrera - two sites of the same name , one a Site of Community Importance , and the other a Special Protection Area .
Galicia
A Marronda ; Anllóns river ; Baixa Limia ; Baixa Limia - Serra do Xurés ; Baixo Miño ; Bidueiral de Montederramo ; Carballido , a yew wood in A Fonsagrada ; Carnota - Monte Pindo ; Cíes Islands ; Costa Ártabra ; Costa da Morte - two areas , Costa da Morte and Costa da Morte ( Northern ) ; Cruzul @-@ Agüeira ; Encoro de Abegondo @-@ Cecebre ; Eo river ( included among the Galician sites although the estuary forms the boundary with Asturias ) ; Costa de Ferrolterra @-@ Valdoviño ; Fragas do Eume ; Macizo Central , Ourense ( province ) ; Monte Aloia ; Monte Maior ; Negueira ; Pena Trevinca ; Pena Veidosa ; Serra do Candán ; Serra do Cando ; Serra do Xistral ; Sil river canyon ; Sobreirais do Arnego ; Tambre - two areas , the river and its estuary ; Támega river ; Ulla @-@ Deza river system
More than one region
Ancares - This district is divided between Galicia and Castile and León . Sierra de los Ancares is a mountain range which forms the boundary between the two autonomous communities , and which gives its name to a Natura 2000 site in the province of León . On the Galician side of the sierra are two relevant sites - Ancares ( protected under the Birds Directive ) and Ancares @-@ Courel ( protected under the Habitats Directive ) .
Picos de Europa - This mountain range is divided between three autonomous communities . The three sites listed ( Picos de Europa , Picos de Europa ( Asturias ) , Picos de Europa en Castilla y León ) include protected areas in the Picos de Europa National Park , and a regional park in Castile and Leon which is also called Picos de Europa .
= = Behaviour = =
This species of slug is primarily nocturnal , in other words it is usually only active at night . During the daylight hours , these slugs are usually hidden in crevices of rocks and under loose bark on trees . In Iberia , juvenile slugs of this species become active during twilight , and adults become active at night , especially on rainy or very humid nights . Ireland however is much further north , so the temperatures there are considerably cooler , there is more rain , and the air is often quite damp ; in Ireland this slug is sometimes active in the daytime as long as the weather is humid and overcast .
The Kerry slug has a defensive behavior that is very unusual in slugs . When attacked , most land slugs will simply retract the head and contract the body , but stay firmly attached to the substrate . In contrast , when this slug is threatened , it retracts its head , lets go of the substrate , rolls up completely , and stays contracted in a ball @-@ like shape . This is a unique feature among all the Arionidae , and among all slugs in Ireland .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
Geomalacus maculosus lives only in wild habitats and thus it is never an agricultural pest , unlike some other slugs in the family Arionidae .
In Ireland this slug inhabits wild woodland with oak trees , and oligotrophic open moorlands , as long as there are boulders covered with lichens and mosses in these habitats . In Spain it usually occurs in granite mountains .
The Kerry slug usually prefers acidic soil and high humidity environments , living on moss and lichen @-@ covered rocks and trees ( mainly the chestnut Castanea sativa and some species of oak ) , under fallen wood and under bark of rotten wood . It may also occur in open areas , such as hydrophilic pastures near oligotrophic water bodies .
= = = Feeding = = =
The food of Geomalacus maculosus includes lichens , liverworts , mosses , fungi ( Fistulina hepatica ) and bacteria that grow on boulders and on tree trunks .
In captivity , this species has been fed on porridge , bread , dandelion leaves , lichen Cladonia fimbriata and various vegetables : ( carrot , cabbage , cucumber , lettuce ) . It can be also carnivorous in captivity , and has been documented as devouring the snail Vitrina pellucida .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The mating of this species is in head @-@ to @-@ head position with genital openings facing each other . Atria are shaped as a funnel with fluted edges after mating . As in Arion , sperm is transferred in a spermatophore . Eggs are laid in July to October in the wild , and from February to October in captivity . Self @-@ fertilisation is also possible in this species . The eggs are laid in clusters of 18 to 30 , and held together by a film of mucus . The egg masses are about 3 @.@ 5 × 2 cm in overall size .
The eggs are very large compared with the size of the animal , but vary within certain limits . The largest eggs are more elongate , being 8 @.@ 5 × 4 @.@ 25 mm ; the smallest eggs are more regularly oval , and are only 6 × 3 mm . All are semitranslucent milky @-@ white or opalescent when fresh , although some of the larger and more elongate ones show a somewhat transparent area at the smaller end . The opalescent ( the color changes with the light direction like an opal ) lustre becomes lost in a few days , and the eggs turn yellowish , and later brown , or black .
The young appear to hatch in from 6 to 8 weeks , at which period the spots on the body of the animal are barely present . However , the lateral bands are distinct and black , much more conspicuous than they are in mature slugs of this species . In juveniles the shield shows lyre @-@ shaped markings , as is the case in slugs of the genus Arion . However these lyre @-@ shaped markings become indistinct as the slugs grow larger . The slugs probably pass the winter in the sexually immature stage . The body of preserved juvenile specimens is up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long with a mantle length of 10 mm . Juveniles reach maturity in 2 years , at a length about 2 @.@ 6 cm . The life span of Geomalacus maculosus in the wild is up to seven years , but the lifespan in captivity is rarely over three years . In numerous different localities in Spain , it was consistently found to be the case that no more than a very few individuals of the species were observed at any one time .
There were not known natural enemies of Geomalacus maculosus up to 2014 . Predators of Geomalacus maculosus include larvae of the third instar of the fly Tetanocera elata .
= = Threats to the survival of the species = =
The most serious threat to the species is probably modification of the habitat , which reduces its lichen and moss food sources . This can lead to the local disappearance of the species , which was documented in Spain . Other threats include : intensification of land use ( land reclamation , using of pesticides , overgrazing by sheep , removing of shrubs , building gardens , burning , and building roads and highways ) , tourism , general development pressure , coniferous forest plantations , the spread of invasive species of plants such as Rhododendron ponticum and habitat fragmentation ( see also Moorkens 2006 ) .
Other potential dangers to the species include climate change and air pollution , because these negatively affect the lichens which are a food source for the slug . Climate change will probably affect the Iberian populations more seriously , because the climate there is already on the hot and dry side relative to Ireland , which is generally rather cool and damp .
= = Conservation measures = =
= = = International protection = = =
Because of its perceived rarity and its restricted distribution , Geomalacus maculosus is protected under the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ( Bern Convention ) , EIS Bern Invertebrates Project . This decision was backed by studies of its distribution and ecology in Ireland which concluded that evidence of a decline in Iberia , plus uncertainty over its status in Ireland , tended to support its inclusion in the Convention . Since 2006 , Geomalacus maculosus has been considered a least concern species in the IUCN Red List , however , during 1994 to 2006 the slug was rated as vulnerable .
Geomalacus maculosus is also protected by the European Union 's Habitats Directive ( which was a response to the Bern Convention ) and has been listed as an Annex II and Annex IV species since 1992 . There are two principal mechanisms used by the Directive to protect habitats and species – the creation of Special Areas of Conservation ( SACs ) and the protection of species independently of their habitats by other means . It is probably in areas not specifically protected as SACs that threats to the Kerry slug will be greatest . Seven SACs have been designated for this species in Ireland and 49 SCIs in Spain . The Habitats Directive protects the Kerry slug outside the SACs by Article 12 ( 1 ) , which obliges European Union member states to :
establish ‘ a system of strict protection ’ for listed species
prohibit deliberate capture or killing
prohibit ‘ deliberate disturbance … particularly during the period of breeding , rearing , hibernation and migration ’
prohibit ‘ deliberate destruction or taking of eggs from the wild ’
prohibit the deliberate or non @-@ deliberate ‘ deterioration or destruction of breeding sites or resting places ’ .
= = = Protection in Iberia = = =
Conservation status reports from Portugal and from Spain were not yet available in August 2009 .
Its conservation status in Spain for the IUCN criteria is vulnerable .
= = = Protection in Ireland = = =
In 1988 Platts and Speight noted that only three of the Irish sites where the slug occurred were protected : Glengariff Forest , West Cork ; Uragh Wood Nature Reserve , South Kerry ; and Killarney National Park , North Kerry . They concluded that the species could not be adequately safeguarded with only three sites , and therefore they supported its inclusion in the Bern list , to which the Irish government is a signatory .
The Habitats Directive was transposed into Irish law by :
The EC ( Natural Habitats ) Regulations 1997 . This was the principal legislation transposing the Habitats Directive and upgraded the protection of the Kerry slug 's habitat by the designation of Special Areas of Conservation ( as listed in the distribution section above ) .
Adapting existing legislation . The Kerry slug has been protected since 1990 under the Irish Wildlife Act of 1976 ; it was added to the list of protected species by Statutory Instrument 112 / 1990 , and was the only gastropod so protected . The treatment of the Kerry Slug has been cited in the media as an example of hyper @-@ protectionism . However , The Wildlife Act does not protect the slug from authorised or unauthorised indirect damage , but only from wilful direct damage such as collecting .
The Irish National Parks and Wildlife Service published a Species Action Plan for the Kerry slug in January 2008 . Efforts were made to protect the slug from indirect damage arising , for example , from commercial forestry . However , following a legal challenge to Ireland 's transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive , the Action Plan was superseded in May 2010 by a Threat Response Plan . The Threat Response Plan addressed issues which arose when the European Court of Justice held that Ireland was not protecting the species with the strictness that the directive required .
= = = = Monitoring = = = =
In a report to the European Commission covering 1988 – 2007 , the conservation status of the species in Ireland was declared " favourable ( FV ) " in all evaluated criteria ( range , population , habitat and future prospects ) . However , the validity of this assessment was put into question by the European Court of Justice ruling discussed above , which held that Ireland was not monitoring the slug properly .
The need to improve monitoring was discussed by the NPWS Threat Response Plan of 2010 , which recognised that population statistics were still deficient , particularly outside the SACs . As the Threat Response Plan noted , species monitoring is a process in which distribution and status of the subject are evaluated systematically over time . Under this definition no monitoring of the Kerry Slug had yet been undertaken in Ireland as of May 2010 . In order to take matters forward , the Kerry Slug Survey of Ireland , a collaboration between the National Parks and Wildlife Service and the Applied Ecology Unit at the National University of Ireland , Galway , researched a " suitable monitoring protocol " for the species . The Kerry Slug Survey 's investigations resulted in the publication of a guide to the population dynamics of the Kerry slug ; this guide was published as part of the Irish Wildlife Manual series in 2011 .
= = = Captive breeding = = =
Since 1990 , the species has been successfully bred in captivity . The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust , a British conservation organisation , operates a captive breeding programme in terraria at its " Endangered Species Breeding Unit " . The project is located not within the species ' normal range , but in England at the Martin Mere Wetland Centre . During the 1990s , slugs from the breeding programme were given out to a number of different zoos and individuals in order to set up their own breeding programmes , but unfortunately only a very few of those breeding groups survived .
= Michigan State Trunkline Highway System =
The State Trunkline Highway System consists of all the state highways in Michigan , including those designated as Interstate , United States Numbered ( US Highways ) , or State Trunkline highways . In their abbreviated format , these classifications are applied to highway numbers with an I- , US , or M- prefix , respectively . The system is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) and comprises 9 @,@ 669 miles ( 15 @,@ 561 km ) of trunklines in all 83 counties of the state on both the Upper and Lower peninsulas ( UP , LP ) , which are linked by the Mackinac Bridge . Components of the system range in scale from 10 @-@ lane urban freeways with local @-@ express lanes to two @-@ lane rural undivided highways to a non @-@ motorized highway on Mackinac Island where cars are forbidden . The longest highway is nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) long , while the shortest is about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( about 1 @.@ 2 km ) . Some roads are unsigned highways , lacking signage to indicate their maintenance by MDOT ; these may be remnants of highways that are still under state control whose designations were decommissioned or roadway segments left over from realignment projects .
Predecessors to today 's modern highways include the foot trails used by Native Americans in the time before European settlement . Shortly after the creation of the Michigan Territory in 1805 , the new government established the first road districts . The federal government aided in the construction of roads to connect population centers in the territory . At the time , road construction was under the control of the township and county governments . The state government was briefly involved in roads until prohibited by a new constitution in 1850 . Private companies constructed plank roads and charged tolls . Local township roads were financed and constructed through a statute labor system that required landowners to make improvements in lieu of taxes . Countywide coordination of road planning , construction and maintenance was enacted in the late 19th century .
In the early 20th century , the constitutional prohibition on state involvement in roads was removed . The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) was created in 1905 , and the department paid counties and townships to improve roads to state standards . On May 13 , 1913 , the State Reward Trunk Line Highways Act was passed , creating the State Trunkline Highway System . The MSHD assigned internal highway numbers to roads in the system , and in 1919 , the numbers were signposted along the roads and marked on maps . The US Highway System was created in 1926 , and highways in Michigan were renumbered to account for the new designations . Legislation in the 1930s consolidated control of the state trunklines in the state highway department . During the 1940s , the first freeways were built in Michigan . With the introduction of the Interstate Highway system in the 1950s , the state aborted an effort to build the Michigan Turnpike , a tolled freeway in the southeast corner of the LP . Construction on Michigan 's Interstates started in the latter part of that decade and continued until 1992 . During that period , several freeways were canceled in the 1960s and 1970s , while others were delayed or modified over environmental and political concerns . Since 1992 , few additional freeways have been built , and in the early years of the 21st century , projects are underway to bypass cities with new highways .
= = Numbering = =
= = = Usage = = =
The letter M in the state highway numbers is an integral part of the designation and included on the diamond @-@ shaped reassurance markers posted alongside the highways . The state 's highways are referred to using an M @-@ n syntax as opposed to Route n or Highway n , which are common elsewhere . This usage dates from 1919 , when Michigan 's state trunklines were first signed along the roadways , and continues to this day in official and unofficial contexts . Michigan is one of only two states following this syntax , the other one being Kansas .
Although M @-@ n outside of Michigan could conceivably refer to other state , provincial , local , or national highways , local usage in those areas does not mimic the Michigan usage in most cases . In countries like the United Kingdom , M refers to motorways , analogous to freeways in the United States , whereas M @-@ numbered designations in Michigan simply indicate state trunklines in general and may exist on any type of highway . M @-@ numbered trunklines are designated along a variety of roads , including eight @-@ lane freeways in urban areas , four @-@ lane rural freeways and expressways , principal arterial highways , and two @-@ lane highways in remote rural areas . The system also includes M @-@ 185 on Mackinac Island , a non @-@ motorized road restricted to bicycles , horse @-@ drawn carriages and pedestrians .
The highest numbers used for highway designations include M @-@ 553 in the UP and Interstate 696 ( I @-@ 696 ) running along the northern Detroit suburbs . The lowest numbers in use are M @-@ 1 along Woodward Avenue in the Detroit area and US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) across the UP . Most M @-@ numbered trunkline designations are in the low 200s or under , but some have been designated in the low 300s . MDOT has not assigned a designation outside the Interstate System in the 400s at this time . No discernible pattern exists in Michigan 's numbering system , although most of the M @-@ numbered routes lower than 15 are typically located in or around the major cities of Detroit and Grand Rapids .
= = = Numerical duplication = = =
Unlike some other states , there are no formal rules prohibiting the usage of the same route number under different systems . Motorists using Michigan 's highways may encounter I @-@ 75 and M @-@ 75 , as well as both US 8 and M @-@ 8 . Many of the state 's US Highways were assigned numbers duplicating those of state trunklines when the US Highway System was created in 1926 . The introduction of the Interstate Highway System in the late 1950s further complicated the situation , as each mainline Interstate designation has an unrelated M @-@ n trunkline counterpart elsewhere in the state .
Many former US Highways in Michigan have left an M @-@ numbered highway with the same number as a relic of their existence . For example , M @-@ 27 runs along a portion of former US 27 . In addition , there are two occurrences of original M @-@ numbered state routes which became US Highways with the same designations : all of M @-@ 16 became US 16 and most of M @-@ 10 from Detroit to Saginaw was assumed into the route of US 10 in 1926 . In fact , each iteration of M @-@ 10 has existed in whole or part along a former or future alignment of US 10 .
There are also instances of M @-@ numbered state highways that once existed as extensions of US Highways . M @-@ 25 was originally an extension of US 25 before the latter was decommissioned in Michigan , and M @-@ 24 was once an extension of US 24 before routing changes separated the two highways . M @-@ 131 was an extension of US 131 until US 131 was routed onto the former M @-@ 131 . There was also once an M @-@ 112 that served as an alternate routing for US 112 ( both have since been changed to I @-@ 94 and US 12 , respectively ) .
= = Highway systems = =
There are four types of highways maintained by MDOT as part of the overall State Trunkline Highway System . In addition , there are systems of roads maintained by the federal government and local counties . There are frequent overlaps between designations when different types of highways share the same stretch of pavement in concurrencies . As just one example of the phenomenon , the freeway between Flint and Standish carries both the I @-@ 75 and US 23 designations for around 75 miles ( 121 km ) .
= = = State Trunkline Highways = = =
The State Trunkline Highway System comprises four types of highways : Michigan 's portions of the Interstate Highway System and United States Numbered Highway System ( US Highways ) , and the regular state trunklines ; the fourth type , special routes , are variations of the other three types of highway , and are distinguished by special plates placed above the route marker . The plates indicate the routes as business or connector routes . Business loops and spurs of the Interstate Highway System use a special green version of the standard Interstate marker which places the word " Business " at the top where " Interstate " would otherwise appears . These business loops and spurs connect downtown districts to main highways after realignments and bypasses have routed the main highway out of the downtown area . Another category , connector routes , serve to connect two highways as their names suggest ; most of these connectors are unsigned . The highways names for special routes are formulated by prefacing the parent highway with the type of special route . The full names are commonly abbreviated
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introduced the Alaska Mental Health Bill ( H.R. 6376 ) in the House of Representatives . The bill had been written by Bob Bartlett , the Congressional Delegate from the Alaska Territory who later became a U.S. Senator . Senator Richard L. Neuberger ( D @-@ Oregon ) sponsored an equivalent bill , S. 2518 , in the Senate .
= = Details of the bill = =
The Alaska Mental Health Bill 's stated purpose was to " transfer from the Federal Government to the Territory of Alaska basic responsibility for the hospitalization , care and treatment of the mentally ill of Alaska . " In connection with this goal , it aimed :
to modernize procedures for such hospitalization ( including commitment ) , care , and treatment and to authorize the Territory to modify or supersede such procedures ;
to assist in providing for the Territory necessary facilities for a comprehensive mental @-@ health program in Alaska , including inpatient and outpatient facilities ;
to provide for a land grant to the Territory to assist in placing the program on a firm long @-@ term basis ; and
to provide for a ten @-@ year program , of grants @-@ in @-@ aid to the Territory to enable the Territory gradually to assume the full operating costs of the program .
The bill provided for a cash grant of $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 94 million at 2007 prices ) to be disbursed to the Alaskan government in a number of phases , to fund the construction of mental health facilities in the territory . To meet the ongoing costs of the program , the bill transferred one million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) of federally owned land in Alaska to the ownership of the proposed new Alaska Mental Health Trust as a grant @-@ in @-@ aid — the federal government owned about 99 % of the land of Alaska at the time . The trust would then be able to use the assets of the transferred land ( principally mineral and forestry rights ) to obtain an ongoing revenue stream to fund the Alaskan mental health program . Similar provisions had applied in other US territories to support the provision of public facilities prior to the achievement of statehood .
In addition , the bill granted the Governor of Alaska authority to enter into reciprocal mental health treatment agreements with the governors of other states . Alaskans who became mentally ill in the lower 48 states would be properly treated locally until they could be returned to Alaska ; likewise , citizens of the lower 48 who fell mentally ill in Alaska would receive care there , before being returned to their home states .
The bill was seen as entirely innocuous when it was introduced on January 16 , 1956 . It enjoyed bipartisan support , and on January 18 it was passed unanimously by the House of Representatives . It then fell to the Senate to consider the equivalent bill in the upper chamber , S. 2518 , which was expected to have an equally untroubled passage following hearings scheduled to begin on February 20 .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Initial opposition = = =
In December 1955 , a small anti @-@ communist women 's group in Southern California , the American Public Relations Forum ( APRF ) , issued an urgent call to arms in its monthly bulletin . It highlighted the proposed text of the Alaska Mental Health Bill , calling it " one that tops all of them " . The bulletin writers commented : " We could not help remembering that Siberia is very near Alaska and since it is obvious no one needs such a large land grant , we were wondering if it could be an American Siberia . " They said that the bill " takes away all of the rights of the American citizen to ask for a jury trial and protect him [ self ] from being railroaded to an asylum by a greedy relative or ' friend ' or , as the Alaska bill states , ' an interested party ' . "
The APRF had a history of opposing mental health legislation ; earlier in 1955 , it had played a key role in stalling the passage of three mental health bills in the California Assembly . It was part of a wider network of far @-@ right organizations which opposed psychiatry and psychology as being pro @-@ communist , anti @-@ American , anti @-@ Christian and pro @-@ Jewish . The Keep America Committee , another Californian " superpatriot " group , summed up the anti @-@ mental health mood on the far right in a pamphlet issued in May 1955 . Calling " mental hygiene " part of the " unholy three " of the " Communistic World Government " , it declared : " Mental Hygiene is a subtle and diabolical plan of the enemy to transform a free and intelligent people into a cringing horde of zombies " .
The APRF 's membership overlapped with that of the much larger Minute Women of the U.S.A. , a nationwide organization of militant anti @-@ communist housewives which claimed up to 50 @,@ 000 members across the United States . In mid @-@ January 1956 , Minute Woman Leigh F. Burkeland of Van Nuys , California issued a bulletin protesting against the bill . It was mimeographed by the California State Chapter of the Minute Women and mailed across the nation . On January 24 , 1956 , the strongly anti @-@ Statist Santa Ana Register newspaper reprinted Burkeland 's statement under the headline , " Now — Siberia , U.S.A. " Burkeland issued a lurid warning of what the future might hold if the Alaska Mental Health Bill was passed by the Senate :
Is it the purpose of H.R. 6376 to establish a concentration camp for political prisoners under the guise of treatment of mental cases ? The answer , based on a study of the bill , indicates that it is entirely within the realm of possibility that we may be establishing in Alaska our own version of the Siberia slave camps run by the Russian government . …
This legislation , say its opponents , will place every resident of the United States at the mercy of the whims and fancies of any person with whom they might have a disagreement , causing a charge of ' mental illness ' to be placed against them , with immediate deportation to SIBERIA , U.S.A !
= = = Further opposition = = =
After the Santa Ana Register published its article , a nationwide network of activists began a vociferous campaign to torpedo the Alaska Mental Health Bill . The campaigners included , among other groups and individuals , the white supremacist Rev. Gerald L. K. Smith ; Women for God and Country ; the For America League ; the Minute Women of the U.S.A. ; the right @-@ wing agitator Dan Smoot ; the anti @-@ Catholic former US Army Brigadier General Herbert C. Holdridge ; and L. Ron Hubbard 's Church of Scientology , which had been founded only two years earlier .
Increasingly strong statements were made by the bill 's opponents through the course of the spring and summer of 1956 . In his February 17 bulletin , Dan Smoot told his subscribers : " I do not doubt that the Alaska Mental Health Act was written by sincere , well @-@ intentioned men . Nonetheless , it fits into a sinister pattern which has been forming ever since the United Nations was organized . " Dr. George A. Snyder of Hollywood sent a letter to all members of Congress in which he demanded an investigation of the Alaska Mental Health Bill 's proponents for " elements of treason against the American people behind the front of the mental health program " . The Keep America Committee of Los Angeles similarly called the proponents of the bill a " conspiratorial gang " that ought to be " investigated , impeached , or at least removed from office " for treason . Retired brigadier general Herbert C. Holdridge sent a public letter to President Dwight Eisenhower on March 12 , in which he called the bill " a dastardly attempt to establish a concentration camp in the Alaskan wastes " . He went on :
This bill establishes a weapon of violence against our citizenry far more wicked than anything ever known in recorded history — far worse than the Siberian prison camps of the Czars or the Communists , or the violence of the Spanish Inquisition … The plot of wickedness revealed in this bill fairly reeks of the evil odor of the black forces of the Jesuits who dominate the Vatican , and , through officiates in our Government , dominate our politics .
For their part , America 's professional health associations ( notably the American Medical Association and American Psychiatric Association ) came out in favour of the bill . There was some initial opposition from the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons , a small and extremely conservative body which opposed socialized medicine ; Dr. L. S. Sprague of Tucson , Arizona said in its March 1956 newsletter that the bill widened the definition of mental health to cover " everything from falling hair to ingrown toenails " . However , the association modified its position after it became clear that the AMA took the opposite view .
By March 1956 , it was being said in Washington , D.C. that the amount of correspondence on the bill exceeded anything seen since the previous high @-@ water mark of public controversy , the Lend @-@ Lease Act of 1941 . Numerous letter @-@ writers protested to their Congressional representatives that the bill was " anti @-@ religious " or that the land to be transferred to the Alaska Mental Health Trust would be fenced off and used as a concentration camp for the political enemies of various state governors . The well @-@ known broadcaster Fulton Lewis described how he had " received , literally , hundreds of letters protesting bitterly against the bill . I have had telephone calls to the same effect from California , Texas and other parts of the country . Members of Congress report identical reactions . " A letter printed in the Daily Oklahoman newspaper in May 1956 summed up many of the arguments made by opponents of the bill :
The advocates of world government , who regard patriotism as the symptom of a diseased mind , took a step closer to their goal of compulsory asylum ' cure ' for opponents of UNESCO , when , on January 18 , the U.S. House of Representatives passed the Alaska Mental Health Act .
The Act was prepared by the U.S. Department of Justice , Department of the Interior and the socialist @-@ oriented Department of Health , Education and Welfare . It closely follows the Model Code , drafted by the American Psychiatric association , which has been working with the World Health Organization , a specialized agency of the United Nations …
All of you who don 't want members of your family railroaded to an asylum had better start writing your senator , now .
During February and March 1956 , hearings were held before the Senate Subcommittee on Territories and Insular Affairs . Proponents and opponents of the bill faced off in a series of tense exchanges , with strong accusations being made against the people and groups involved in the bill 's introduction . Stephanie Williams of the American Public Relations Forum said that the bill would enable Russia to reclaim its former Alaskan territory : " [ It ] contains nothing to prevent Russia from buying the entire million acres — they already say Alaska belongs to them . "
Mrs. Ernest W. Howard of the Women 's Patriotic Committee on National Defense castigated the slackness of Congress for not picking up on the bill 's perceived dangers : " Those of us who have been in the study and research work of the United Nations , we feel that we are experts in this ... you as Senators with all the many commitments and the many requirements , are not able to go into all these things . " John Kaspar , a White Citizens ' Council organizer who had achieved notoriety for starting a race riot in Clinton , Tennessee , declared that " almost one hundred percent of all psychiatric therapy is Jewish and about eighty percent of psychiatrists are Jewish ... one particular race is administering this particular thing . " He argued that Jews were nationalists of another country who were attempting to " usurp American nationality " .
= = = Passing the bill = = =
The arguments of the bill 's opponents attracted little support in the Senate . The Eisenhower administration , the Alaska territorial government and mainstream religious groups were all in favor of the bill . The Alaska Presbyterian Church gave the bill its unanimous support , issuing a statement declaring : " As Christian citizens of Alaska we believe this is a progressive measure for the care and treatment of the mentally ill of Alaska . We deplore the present antiquated methods of handling our mentally ill . " It also urged the National Council of Churches to mobilize support for the bill . An overwhelming majority of senators of both parties were also supportive . The bill 's original author , Alaska Delegate Bob Bartlett , spoke for many of the bill 's proponents when he expressed his bafflement at the response that it had received :
I am completely at a loss in attempting to fathom the reasons why certain individuals and certain groups have now started a letter @-@ writing campaign … to defeat the act . I am sure that if the letter writers would consult the facts , they would join with all others not only in hoping this act would become law but in working for its speedy passage and approval .
Other senators expressed similar mystification at the agitation against the bill . Senator Henry M. Jackson of Washington stated that he was " at a loss " to see how the bill affected religion , as its opponents said . Senator Alan Bible of Nevada , the acting chairman of the Subcommittee on Territories and Insular Affairs , told the bill 's opponents that nothing in the proposed legislation would permit the removal of any non @-@ Alaskan to the territory for confinement .
Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona proposed an amended bill that removed the commitment procedures in title I of the House bill and stated that " Nothing in this title shall be construed to authorize the transfer to Alaska , pursuant to any agreement or otherwise , of any mentally ill person who is not a resident of Alaska . " In effect , this eliminated the bill 's most controversial element — the provision for the transfer of mental patients from the lower 48 states to Alaska . The final recommendation of the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs followed Goldwater 's lead that the bill be amended to strike all the controversial " detailed provisions for commitment , hospitalization , and care of the mentally ill of Alaska " included in title I of the original House bill . This amended proposal left only the transfer of responsibility for mental health care to the territory of Alaska and the establishment of land grants to support this care . The committee stressed that they were not invalidating the title I provisions of the original bill but that they had been misunderstood , a recurrent theme in supporters of the bill :
However , the proposed provisions were misunderstood by many persons in parts of the country other than Alaska . Partly as a result of this misunderstanding , but more because the members of the committee are convinced that the people of Alaska are fully capable of drafting their own laws for a mental health program for Alaska , the committee concluded that authority should be vested in them in this field comparable to that of the States and other Territories .
Thus amended , the Senate bill ( S. 2973 ) was passed unanimously by the Senate on July 20 , after only ten minutes of debate .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the passage of the act , an Alaska Mental Health Trust was set up to administer the land and grants appropriated to fund the Alaskan mental health program . During the 1970s , the issue of the trust 's land became increasingly controversial , with the state coming under increasing pressure to develop the land for private and recreational use . In 1978 , the Alaska Legislature passed a law to abolish the trust and transfer the most valuable parcels of lands to private individuals and the government . By 1982 , 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km2 ) had been conveyed to municipalities , 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) transferred to individuals , and slightly over 350 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 400 km2 ) designated as forests , parks or wildlife areas . Around 35 percent of the land trust remained unencumbered and in state ownership .
In 1982 , Alaska resident Vern Weiss filed a lawsuit on behalf of his son , who required mental health services that were not available in Alaska . The case of Weiss v State of Alaska eventually became a class action lawsuit involving a range of mental health care groups . The Alaska Supreme Court ruled in 1985 that the abolition of the trust had been illegal and ordered it to be reconstituted . However , as much of the original land had been transferred away , the parties had to undergo a long and complex series of negotiations to resolve the situation . A final settlement was reached in 1994 in which the trust was reconstituted with 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) of original trust land , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) of replacement land , and $ 200 million to replace lost income and assets .
= = Scientology and the Alaska Mental Health Bill = =
The Alaska Mental Health Bill plays a major part in the Church of Scientology 's account of its campaign against psychiatry . The Church participated in the campaign against the Bill and still refers to it as the " Siberia Bill " . Scientology may also have provided an important piece of the " evidence " which the anti @-@ bill campaigners used — a booklet titled Brain @-@ Washing : A Synthesis of the Russian Textbook on Psychopolitics , which has been widely attributed to the anonymous authorship of L. Ron Hubbard ( see Brainwashing Manual ) .
= = = Scientology position = = =
The church 's official website asserts that the bill was " psychiatry 's attempt to establish a million @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) Siberia @-@ type camp for mental health patients in Alaska , far from the prying eyes of civil libertarians " which " presumably ... was far enough away from the well @-@ traveled roads of the world to allow psychiatrists to conduct their mind control and other experiments on a captive population , unhindered by the glare of publicity . " It would give psychiatrists the power to ensure that " Any man , woman or child could be seized and sent without trial to Alaska , deprived of human and civil rights and detained forever , all without trial or examination . " According to the Church 's Freedom Magazine :
the bill came to the attention of Scientologists in 1956 , only two years after the Church of Scientology had been established . … Scientologists responded with a campaign to inform the public of the very real threat to personal liberties and freedom of speech posed by the measure . If passed , it would have created a potential " gulag " where political undesirables could be dumped and simply forgotten .
The hope of creating this psychiatric slave state was shattered by Scientologists . Refusing to allow vested interests to destroy the right of every citizen to freely speak his opinions without fear of retaliation they instituted a huge grassroots letter campaign . This alerted the Senate to public opposition and testimony was presented at Senate Committee hearings on the bill . Ultimately , except for granting a small amount of money for Alaska to continue " treating " its few existing mental patients , the Senate rejected the Siberia bill and it was never heard of again .
Church officials have stated their belief that the American Psychiatric Association intensified its " interest in destroying Dianetics and Scientology organizations ... when the Church of Scientology actively opposed a bill whose introduction in Congress had been secure by the APA . ... The APA was well aware of who was behind the massive response that defeated the legislation , and they never forgot , as can be seen from some of the attacks its members generated . "
= = = Miscavige on Nightline = = =
Similarly , David Miscavige , the church 's leader , in 1992 told Ted Koppel in an interview on the Nightline program :
I don 't know if you 're aware that there was a plan in 1955 in this country , Ted , to repeat what was done in Russia . There was going to be a Siberia , U.S.A. set up on a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) in Alaska to send mental patients . They were going to lessen the commitment laws , you could basically get into an argument with somebody and be sent up there . This sounds very odd . Nobody 's ever heard about it . That 's in no small part thanks to the Church of Scientology . I must say , though , that when that bill was killed in Congress , the war was on with psychiatry where they declared war on us …
It was a major , major , major flap for the psychiatrists when it got voted down , because then the slogan around the country began , ' Siberia U.S.A. , ' and it was really the first time that psychiatry had been denigrated publicly , that they weren 't the science that they had been promoting themselves to be . And they took it upon themselves then to start dealing with anybody who would oppose them .
= = = Conspiracy theories = = =
In Ron 's Journal 67 , Hubbard identified " the people behind the Siberia Bill " , who he asserted were
less than twelve men . They are members of the Bank of England and other higher financial circles . They own and control newspaper chains , and they are , oddly enough , directors in all the mental health groups in the world which have sprung up . Now these chaps are very interesting fellows : They have fantastically corrupt backgrounds ; illegitimate children ; government graft ; a very unsavory lot . And they apparently , sometime in the rather distant past , had determined on a course of action . Being in control of most of the gold supplies of the planet , they entered upon a program of bringing every government to bankruptcy and under their thumb , so that no government would be able to act politically without their permission .
According to David Miscavige , the bill was the product of a conspiracy by the American Psychiatric Association . In a public address in 1995 , he told Scientologists that it was " in 1955 that the agents for the American Psychiatric Association met on Capitol Hill to ram home the infamous Siberia Bill , calling for a secret concentration camp in the wastes of Alaska . " It was " here that Mr. Hubbard , as the leader of a new and dynamic religious movement , knocked that Siberia Bill right out of the ring — inflicting a blow they would never forget . " The assertion that Scientologists defeated the bill is made frequently in Scientology literature . In fact , the original version of the bill with the offending Title I commitment provisions only passed the House of Representatives ; it was subsequently amended in conference to strike the commitment portion and retain the transfer of responsibility for mental health care . The revised bill passed easily without further changes .
= = = Contemporary publications = = =
Contemporary Church publications suggest that although Hubbard was tracking progress of the bill at least as early as February 1956 , Scientology did not become involved in the controversy until the start of March 1956 , over two months after the American Public Relations Forum had first publicized the bill . A March " Professional Auditor 's Bulletin " issued by Hubbard , who was staying in Dublin at the time , includes a telegram from his Washington @-@ based son L. Ron Hubbard , Jr. and two other Scientologists alerting him to the upcoming February Senate hearings :
HOUSE BILL 6376 PASSED JANUARY 18TH STOP GOES SENATE NEXT WEEK STOP BILL PERMITS ADMISSION OF PERSON TO MENTAL INSTITUTION BY WRITTEN APPLICATION OF INTERESTED PERSON BEFORE JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS ARE HELD STOP DISPENSES WITH REQUIREMENT THAT PATIENT BE PRESENT AT HEARING STOP ANYONE CAN BE EXCLUDED FROM HEARING STOP BILL PERTAINS TO ALASKA AT MOMENT STOP BILL SETS UP ONE MILLION ACRES SIBERIAL [ sic ] IN ALASKA FOR INSTITUTIONS STOP LETTER AND BILL FOLLOW STOP WHAT ACTION YOU WANT TAKEN .
Although the church says that Scientologists led the opposition to the bill , the Congressional Record 's account of the Senate hearings into the bill does not mention the church . A contemporary review of the opposition to the bill likewise attributes the lead role elsewhere and to right @-@ wing groups , rather than the " civil liberties " organizations cited by the church :
Only a few organized groups got behind the hue and cry . Most influential was the libertarian Association of Physicians and Surgeons , and Dan Smoot 's newsletter . Right @-@ wing groups bombarded Congress with protests and demands for hearings .
= The Girl Strike Leader =
The Girl Strike Leader is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film deals with labor relations when Hal Stephens disguises himself and works in a factory he was given by his father . As a laborer , he falls in love with a young working girl named Lou and protects her against a manager . Lou leads a strike when wages are ordered to be cut by 10 % , but the strikers return to work on the verge of starvation . Lou , who resists , is saved by Hal who assumes control , restores the wages and removes the previous manager .
The film may have been inspired by the real 1909 strike of the New York City shirtwaist makers , but the strike ended without settlement . The scenario is bears the hallmarks of the successful dime novels with an improbable resolution . Released on July 8 , 1910 , the film has received attention for presenting labor issues , but the film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 9 , 1910 . It states : " Hal Stephens , a wealthy young man , devotes all his time to enjoying himself , thereby earns the disapproval of his staid old father . The elder Stephen sees the young man start off on an auto trip with some gay friends , and decides to call a halt . He notifies his son by telegram that it is time he went to work , and presents him with the factory . This arouses the merriment of his friends , but Hal declares that he will buckle down and go to work . He tells his father , however , that he desires to start incognito , and the father consents . Hal enters the factory and goes to work as an ordinary laborer , his identity being unknown to all . He meets Lou , a young working girl , and falls in love with her . The manager of the place , one Conners , tries to make love to Lou , and Hal protects her . There is an order put up reducing salaries 10 % , and Lou induces the others to strike rather than to submit . The strikers , starved out , finally return to work , with the exception of Lou , who is defiant to the end . Hal finds her weeping on the steps of her home and tells her of his love . She agrees to marry him . After she has accepted him , he leads her to the factory , announces his identity , assumes possession , and restores wages to the old scale , after having discharged the rogue Conners . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . Michael S. Shull , author of Radicalism in American Silent Films , 1909 @-@ 1929 : A Filmography and History , believes the scenario was inspired by a New York City shirtwaist makers strike that began in the winter of 1909 . The strike would end without settlement , but it would be dramatized by Theresa Malkiel , a labor activist . The fictional autobiography written by Malkiel , The Diary of a Shirtwaist Striker , was serialized in New York Caller a socialist paper . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only credit known for the cast is that of Mrs. George W. Walters in the role of a poor factory worker . Other members cast may have included the other leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximate 1000 feet long , was released on July 8 , 1910 . Theaters in Indiana and Pennsylvania were among those which advertised the film , one specifically focusing on the film having dealing with " the labor question " . A review in The Moving Picture News was contained detailed praise of the film 's relevance and success in portraying the subject . The reviewer states , " This film strikes home . ... The situation has been lived in New York City . The strike and its miseries are not forgotten . Whoever arranged the story had a big , tender heart and knew what appeals to the masses . The glee with which the superintendent 's discomfiture was hailed by the audience spoke volumes . We wish some of the pictures were not quite so vividly black and white . Mayhap the tenseness of the situation hit the cameraman . Be that as it may , one thing is certain - there is no melodrama , but scenes out of real life . " While the reviewer in this case refers to the scenario being drawn from real life , the happy ending is termed as a fantasy by reviewer in The Moving Picture World who states , " [ It is one ] of those pictures which thrill one despite their improbability . It may go in stories but never in fact , that an owner of a factory marries one of his girl employees , and a strike leader at that ... "
Nan Enstad , author of Ladies of Labor , Girls of Adventure : Working Women , Popular Culture , and Labor Politics at the Turn of the Twentieth Century says that the film relied on the dime novel formula as much as the labor @-@ capital conventions to depict its story . Kay Sloan , author of The Loud Silents : Origins of the Social Problem Film , confirms that the simplified plot of the film is of the dime novel order . Barbara Antoniazzi , author of The Wayward Woman : Progressivism , Prostitution , and Performance in the United States , 1888 – 1917 , highlights that the girls are striking against the actions of Connor instead of the owner and that Lou is portrayed as attractive , defiant and virtuous . Steven J. Ross would cite this film as the first in a list of films that would progressively depict female labor activists as the agent of justice in contrast to the gender biases of film makers .
= Vampire folklore by region =
Legends of vampires have existed for millennia ; cultures such as the Mesopotamians , Hebrews , Ancient Greeks , and Romans had tales of demonic entities and blood @-@ drinking spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires . Despite the occurrence of vampire @-@ like creatures in these ancient civilizations , the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early 18th @-@ century Southeastern Europe , particularly Transylvania as verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published . In most cases , vampires are revenants of evil beings , suicide victims , or witches , but can also be created by a malevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire itself . Belief in such legends became so rife that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires .
= = Ancient beliefs = =
Tales of the undead consuming the blood or flesh of living beings have been found in nearly every culture around the world for many centuries . Today we know these entities predominantly as vampires , but in ancient times , the term vampire did not exist ; blood drinking and similar activities were attributed to demons or spirits who would eat flesh and drink blood ; even the devil was considered synonymous with the vampire . Almost every nation has associated blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon , from the ghouls of Arabia to the goddess Sekhmet of Egypt . Indeed , some of these legends could have given rise to the European folklore , though they are not strictly considered vampires by historians when using today 's definitions .
= = = Mesopotamia = = =
Mesopotamia was an area rampant with superstition of blood @-@ drinking demons . The Persians were one of the first civilizations thought to have tales of blood @-@ drinking demons : creatures attempting to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated pottery shards . Ancient Babylonia had tales of the mythical Lilitu , synonymous with and giving rise to Lilith ( Hebrew לילית ) and her daughters the Lilu from Hebrew demonology . Lilith was considered a demon and was often depicted as subsisting on the blood of babies . The legend of Lilith was originally included in some traditional Jewish texts : according to the medieval folk traditions , she was considered to be Adam 's first wife before Eve . In these texts , Lilith left Adam to become the queen of the demons ( she actually refused to be Adam 's subordinate and thus was banished from Eden by God himself ) and , much like the Greek striges , would prey on young babies and their mothers at night , as well as males . Because Hebrew law absolutely forbade the eating of human flesh or the drinking of any type of blood , Lilith 's blood drinking was described as exceptionally evil . To ward off attacks from Lilith , parents used to hang amulets around their child 's cradle .
An alternate version states the legend of Lilith / Lilitu ( and a type of spirit of the same name ) originally arose from Sumer , where she was described as an infertile " beautiful maiden " and was believed to be a harlot and vampire who , after having chosen a lover , would never let him go . Lilitu ( or the Lilitu spirits ) was considered to be an anthropomorphic bird @-@ footed , wind or night demon and was often described as a sexual predator who subsisted on the blood of babies and their mothers . Other Mesopotamian demons such as the Babylonian goddess Lamashtu , ( Sumer 's Dimme ) and Gallu of the Uttuke group are mentioned as having vampiric natures .
Lamashtu is a historically older image that left a mark on the figure of Lilith . Many incantations invoke her as a malicious " Daughter of Heaven " or of Anu , and she is often depicted as a terrifying blood @-@ sucking creature with a lion 's head and the body of a donkey . Akin to Lilitu , Lamashtu primarily preyed on newborns and their mothers . She was said to watch pregnant women vigilantly , particularly when they went into labor . Afterwards , she would snatch the newborn from the mother to drink its blood and eat its flesh . In the Labartu texts she is described ; " Wherever she comes , wherever she appears , she brings evil and destruction . Men , beasts , trees , rivers , roads , buildings , she brings harm to them all . A flesh @-@ eating , bloodsucking monster is she . " Gallu was a demon closely associated with Lilith , though the word ( like " Utukku " ) is also used as a general term for demons , and these are " evil Uttuke " or " evil Galli " . One incantation tells of them as spirits that threaten every house , rage at people , eat their flesh , and as they let their blood flow like rain , they never stop drinking blood . Lamashtu , Lilitu , and Gallu are invoked in different amulet texts , with Gallu showing up in Graeco @-@ Byzantine myth as Gello , Gylo , or Gyllo . There she appears as a child @-@ stealing and child @-@ killing female demon , in the manner of Lamia and Lilith .
= = = Ancient Greece = = =
Ancient Greek mythology contains several precursors to modern vampires , though none were considered undead ; these included the Empusa , Lamia , and striges ( the strix of Ancient Roman mythology ) . Over time the first two terms became general words to describe witches and demons respectively . Empusa was the daughter of the goddess Hecate and was described as a demonic , bronze @-@ footed creature . She feasted on blood by transforming into a young woman and seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood . Lamia was the daughter of King Belus and a secret lover of Zeus . However Zeus ' wife Hera discovered this infidelity and killed all Lamia 's offspring ; Lamia swore vengeance and preyed on young children in their beds at night , sucking their blood . Like Lamia , the striges feasted on children , but also preyed on young men . They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general , and were later incorporated into Roman mythology as strix , a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood . The Romanian vampire breed named Strigoï has no direct relation to the Greek striges , but was derived from the Roman term strix , as is the name of the Albanian Shtriga and the Slavic Strzyga , though myths about these creatures are more similar to their Slavic equivalents . Greek vampiric entities are seen once again in Homer 's epic Odyssey . In Homer 's tale , the undead are too insubstantial to be heard by the living and cannot communicate with them without drinking blood first . In the epic , when Odysseus journeyed into Hades , he was made to sacrifice a black ram and a black ewe so that the shades there could drink its blood and communicate .
= = = Ancient India = = =
In India , tales of vetalas , ghoul @-@ like beings that inhabit corpses , are found in old Sanskrit folklore . Although most vetala legends have been compiled in the Baital Pachisi , a prominent story in the Kathasaritsagara tells of King Vikramāditya and his nightly quests to capture an elusive one . The vetala is described as an undead creature who , like the bat associated with modern @-@ day vampirism , hangs upside down on trees found on cremation grounds and cemeteries . Pishacha , the returned spirits of evil @-@ doers or those who died insane , also bear vampiric attributes .
= = Medieval and early modern Europe = =
The 12th @-@ century English historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants , though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant . These tales are similar to the later folklore widely reported from Transylvania in the 18th century , which were the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England , where they were subsequently embellished and popularised .
During this time in the 18th century , there was a frenzy of vampire sightings in Transylvania , with frequent stakings and grave diggings taking place to identify and kill the potential revenants ; even government officials were compelled into the hunting and staking of vampires . Despite being called the Age of Enlightenment , during which most folkloric legends were quelled , the belief in vampires increased dramatically , resulting in what could only be called a mass hysteria throughout most of Europe . The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in East Prussia in 1721 and in the Habsburg Monarchy from 1725 to 1734 , which spread to other localities . Two famous vampire cases , which were the first to be officially recorded , involved the corpses of Petar Blagojevich and Arnold Paole from Serbia . Blagojevich was reported to have died at the age of 62 , but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food . When the son refused , he was found dead the following day . Blagojevich soon supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood . In the second case , Arnold Paole , an ex @-@ soldier turned farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before , died while haying . After his death , people began to die in the surrounding area and it was widely believed that Paole had returned to prey on the neighbours .
The two incidents were well @-@ documented : government officials examined the bodies , wrote case reports , and published books throughout Europe . The hysteria , which is commonly referred to as the " 18th @-@ Century Vampire Controversy " , raged for a generation . The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so @-@ claimed vampire attacks , undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities , with locals digging up bodies and in some cases , staking them . Although many scholars reported during this period that vampires did not exist , and attributed reports to premature burial or rabies , superstitious belief continued to increase . Dom Augustine Calmet , a well @-@ respected French theologian and scholar , put together a comprehensive treatise in 1746 , which was ambiguous concerning the existence of vampires . Calmet amassed reports of vampire incidents ; numerous readers , including both a critical Voltaire and supportive demonologists , interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed . In his Philosophical Dictionary , Voltaire wrote :
These vampires were corpses , who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living , either at their throats or stomachs , after which they returned to their cemeteries . The persons so sucked waned , grew pale , and fell into consumption ; while the sucking corpses grew fat , got rosy , and enjoyed an excellent appetite . It was in Poland , Hungary , Silesia , Moravia , Austria , and Lorraine , that the dead made this good cheer .
The controversy only ceased when Empress Maria Theresa of Austria sent her personal physician , Gerhard van Swieten , to investigate the claims of vampiric entities . He concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and desecration of bodies , sounding the end of the vampire epidemics . Despite this condemnation , the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local superstition .
= = = Albania = = =
There are some vampire creatures in Albanian mythology . They include shtriga and dhampir . Shtriga is a vampiric witch in traditional Albanian folklore that sucks the blood of infants at night while they sleep , and then turns into a flying insect ( traditionally a moth , fly or bee ) . Only the shtriga herself could cure those she had drained . The shtriga is often pictured as a woman with a hateful stare ( sometimes wearing a cape ) and a horribly disfigured face . The male noun for shtriga is shtrigu or shtrigan . Edith Durham recorded several methods traditionally considered effective for defending oneself from shtriga . A cross made of pig bone could be placed at the entrance of a church on Easter Sunday , rendering any shtriga inside unable to leave . They could then be captured and killed at the threshold as they vainly attempted to pass . She further recorded the story that after draining blood from a victim , the shtriga would generally go off into the woods and regurgitate it . If a silver coin were to be soaked in that blood and wrapped in cloth , it would become an amulet offering permanent protection from any shtriga .
= = = Greece = = =
Bearing little resemblance to its Ancient Greek precursors , the modern Greek vrykolakas ( from a Slavic word meaning " werewolf " ) has much in common with the European vampire . Belief in vampires commonly called βρυκόλακας , vrykolakas , though also referred to as καταχανάδες , katakhanades , on Crete persisted throughout Greek history and became so widespread in the 18th and 19th centuries that many practices were enforced to both prevent and combat vampirism . The deceased were often exhumed from their graves after three years of death and the remains placed in a box by relatives ; wine was poured over them while a priest would read from scriptures . However , if the body had not sufficiently decayed , the corpse would be labeled a vrykolakas and dealt with appropriately .
In Greek folklore , vampirism could occur through various means : being excommunicated , desecrating a religious day , committing a great crime , or dying alone . Other causes included having a cat jump across one 's grave , eating meat from a sheep killed by a wolf , and being cursed . Vrykolakas were usually thought to be indistinguishable from living people , giving rise to many folk tales with this theme . Crosses and antidoron ( blessed bread ) from the church were used as wards in different places . To prevent vampires from rising from the dead , their hearts were pierced with iron nails while resting in their graves , or their bodies burned and the ashes scattered . Because the Church opposed burning people who had received the myron of chrismation in the baptism ritual , cremation was considered a last resort .
= = = Hungary = = =
In Hungary , the belief in vampires has existed since the Middle Ages , and bloodthirsty creatures are mentioned all over the Inquisition 's notes . In the 12th century , Hungarian inquisitors interrogated a pagan shaman during a trial in the city of Sárospatak , who claimed the existence of a demon , which was called " izcacus " ( which means blood drinker ) . That demon was described as a wild entity that could eventually be called to destroy the enemies of the pagans . The Hungarian experts estimate that this word 's origin dates back to the period before the Hungarians ' arrival in Europe in 895 . The word has its roots in the ancient Turkish language , with which the Hungarians made contact during the late 8th century in the regions between Asia and Europe .
= = = Iceland = = =
The Icelandic Draugur ( plural draugar ) , is usually translated as " ghost " but unlike mainland ghosts Icelandic undead were believed to be corporeal . Icelandic scholars such as Úlfhildur Dagsdóttir and Ármann Jakobsson have argued that the Icelandic draugur draugur has more in common with the eastern @-@ European vampire than it has with most beings categorized as ghosts . According to Ármann medieval Icelandic undead can be put into two categories . The first being " Varðmenn " or guardians , which are undead that stay in a certain place , usually their burial mound or home , and protect it and their treasures from thieves and trespassers . These draugar are depicted as being driven by greed and unwillingness to part with their worldy belongings and are in many way similar to dragons . The second category are " tilberadraugar " ( A tilberi is a type of undead in Icelandic folklore , a human rib given life by drinking the blood of a witch and then sent out to steal milk and money . ) , parasitic ghosts who roam the earth and harass the living and try to drive them mad or even kill them , often by dragging them into their graves , and thereby turn their victims into more draugar . This comparison of Icelandic draugar to vampires is not entirely new as it was also made by Andrew Lang in 1897 when he called the draugur Glámr in Grettir 's Saga a vampire . There is also some similarity in the methods used to destroy draugar as those used against alleged vampires . Decapitation of the suspected corpse was common as was driving nails or sharp stakes into the body to pin it down or into the grave .
= = = Jewish traditions = = =
The Hebrew word " Aluka " ( literal translation is " leech " ) is synonymous with vampirism or vampires , as is " Motetz Dam " ( literally , " blood sucker " ) . Later vampire traditions appear among the European Jews of medieval Rhineland , in particular the medieval interpretation of Lilith . In common with vampires , this version of Lilith was held to be able to transform herself into an animal , usually a cat , and charm her victims into believing that she is benevolent or irresistible . However , she and her daughters usually strangle rather than drain victims , and in the Kabbalah , she retains many attributes found in vampires . A late 17th- or early 18th @-@ century Kabbalah document was found in one of the Ritman library 's copies of Jean de Pauly 's translation of the Zohar . The text contains two amulets , one for male ( lazakhar ) , the other for female ( lanekevah ) . The invocations on the amulets mention Adam , Eve , and Lilith , Chavah Rishonah and the angels — Sanoy , Sansinoy , Smangeluf , Shmari 'el , and Hasdi 'el . A few lines in Yiddish are shown as dialog between the prophet Elijah and Lilith , in which she has come with a host of demons to kill the mother , take her newborn and " to drink her blood , suck her bones and eat her flesh " . She informs Elijah that she will lose power if someone uses her secret names , which she reveals at the end .
Other Jewish stories depict vampires in a more traditional way . In " The Kiss of Death " , the daughter of the demon king Ashmodai snatches the breath of a man who has betrayed her , strongly reminiscent of a fatal kiss of a vampire . A rare story found in Sefer Hasidim # 1465 tells of an old vampire named Astryiah who uses her hair to drain the blood from her victims . A similar tale from the same book describes staking a witch through the heart to ensure she does not come back from the dead to haunt her enemies .
= = = Romania = = =
Romanian vampires were known as moroi ( from the Romanian word " mort " meaning " dead " or the Slavic word meaning " nightmare " ) and strigoi , with the latter classified as either living or dead . Live strigoi were described as living witches with two hearts or souls , sometimes both . Strigoi were said to have the ability to send out their souls at night to meet with other strigoi and consume the blood of livestock and neighbours . Similarly , dead strigoi were described as reanimated corpses that also sucked blood and attacked their living family . Live strigoi became revenants after their death , but there were also many other ways of a person becoming a vampire . A person born with a caul , an extra nipple , a tail , or extra hair was doomed to become a vampire . The same fate applied to the seventh child in any family if all of his or her previous siblings were of the same sex , as well as someone born too early or someone whose mother had encountered a black cat crossing her path . If a pregnant woman did not eat salt or was looked upon by a vampire or a witch , her child would also become a vampire . So too would a child born out of wedlock . Others who were at risk of becoming vampires were those who died an unnatural death or before baptism . Finally , a person with red hair and blue eyes was seen as a potential strigoi .
Another type of Romanian vampire is pricolici . These types are humans born with a tail , and they can shape shift like a werewolf but they have control over their transformation . Their entire power is kept in their tail . In undeath , the pricolici remain in their wolf form .
Romanian vampires were said to bite their victims over the heart or between the eyes , and sudden deaths could indicate the presence of a vampire . Graves were often opened five or seven years after burial and the corpse checked for vampirism , before being washed and reburied .
= = = Romani culture = = =
Among the Romani people , mullo ( literally one who is dead ) are believed to return from the dead and cause malicious acts as well as drink human blood , most often that of a relative or the person who had caused their death . Other potential victims were those who did not properly observe the burial ceremonies or kept the deceased 's possessions instead of properly destroying them . Female vampires could return , lead a normal life and even marry but would eventually exhaust the husband with their sexual appetite . Similar to other European beliefs , male vampires could father children , known as dhampirs , who could be hired to detect and get rid of vampires .
Anyone who had a horrible appearance , was missing a finger , or had appendages similar to those of an animal was believed to be a vampire . A person who died alone and unseen would become a vampire , likewise if a corpse swelled or turned black before burial . Dogs , cats , plants or even agricultural tools could become vampires ; pumpkins or melons kept in the house too long would start to move , make noises or show blood . According to the late Serbian ethnologist Tatomir Vukanović , Roma people in Kosovo believed that vampires were invisible to most people , but could be seen by a twin brother and sister born on a Saturday who wore their clothes inside out . Likewise , a settlement could be protected by finding twins who could also see the vampire outdoors at night , who would have to flee immediately after they spotted it .
= = = Celtic ( Gaelic ) Nations = = =
The malign and succubus @-@ like Baobhan sith from the Scottish Highlands and the Lhiannan Shee of the Isle of Man , Scotland and Ireland are two fairy spirits with decidedly vampiric tendencies . Further Irish myths , alone or in combination , may have contributed to the storylines of Irish authors Sheridan Le Fanu and Bram Stoker :
The Dearg @-@ due ( literally " Red Blood Sucker " in Gaelic ) - a beautiful young woman who commits suicide when forced into a marriage and then rises from her grave to seek revenge by killing her father and husband . The Bruxas of Portugal , which take the form of a bird at night and assail travellers , are other female vampiric spirits hostile to humans .
The legend of Droch @-@ fhola ( literally evil @-@ blood , and pronounced droc @-@ ola ) , and the Castle of Droch @-@ fhola ( Dún Droch @-@ fhola ) which guarded the MacGillicuddy Reeks Mountains of County Kerry
The legend of Abhartach - an evil tyrant who repeatedly escapes his grave to spread terror ( and in some accounts to drink the blood of his subjects , to be one of the neamh @-@ mairbh ( un @-@ dead ) , and to be killed only by with a sword of yew wood and to be buried upside @-@ down ) .
= = = Slavic Europe = = =
Some of the more common causes of vampirism in Slavic folklore include being a magician or an immoral person ; suffering an " unnatural " or untimely death such as suicide ; excommunication ; improper burial rituals ; an animal jumping or a bird flying over the corpse or the empty grave ( in Serbian folk belief ) ; and even being born with a caul , teeth , or tail , or being conceived on certain days . In southern Russia , people who were known to talk to themselves were believed to be at risk of becoming vampires . Slavic vampires were able to appear as butterflies , echoing an earlier belief of the butterfly symbolizing a departed soul . Some traditions spoke of " living vampires " or " people with two souls " , a kind of witch capable of leaving its body and engaging in harmful and vampiric activity while sleeping .
Among the beliefs of the East Slavs , those of the northern regions ( i.e. most of Russia ) are unique in that their undead , while having many of the features of the vampires of other Slavic peoples , do not drink blood and do not bear a name derived from the common Slavic root for " vampire " . Ukrainian and Belarusian legends are more " conventional " , although in Ukraine the vampires may sometimes not be described as dead at all , or may be seen as engaging in vampirism long before death . Ukrainian folklore also described vampires as having red faces and tiny tails . During cholera epidemics in the 19th century , there were cases of people being burned alive by their neighbours on charges of being vampires .
In South Slavic folklore , a vampire was believed to pass through several distinct stages in its development . The first 40 days were considered decisive for the making of a vampire ; it started out as an invisible shadow and then gradually gained strength from the blood it had sucked , forming a ( typically invisible ) jelly @-@ like , boneless mass , and eventually building up a human @-@ like body nearly identical to the one the person had had in life . This development allowed the creature to ultimately leave its grave and begin a new life as a human . The vampire , who was usually male , was also sexually active and could have children , either with his widow or a new wife . These could become vampires themselves , but could also have a special ability to see and kill vampires , allowing them to become vampire hunters . The same talent was believed to be found in persons born on Saturday . In the Dalmatian region of Croatia , there is a female vampire called a Mora or Morana , who drinks the blood of men , and also the kuzlac / kozlak who are the recent @-@ dead " who have not lived piously . " They can be men or women who show themselves at crossroads , bridges , caves , and graveyards and frighten the locals by terrorizing their homes and drinking their blood . To be killed , a wooden stake must be thrust through them . In Croatia , Slovenia , the Czech Republic , and Slovakia , a type of vampire called pijavica , which literally translates to " drinker " , is used to describe a vampire who has led an evil and sinful life as a human and in turn , becomes a powerfully strong , cold @-@ blooded killer . Incest , especially between mother and son , is one of the ways in which a pijavica can be created , and then it usually comes back to victimize its former family , who can only protect their homes by placing mashed garlic and wine at their windows and thresholds to keep it from entering . It can only be killed by fire while awake and by using the Rite of Exorcism if found in its grave during the day . In Bulgaria from the Middle Ages through to the beginning of the 20th Century , it was a common practice to pin corpses through the heart with an iron stake to prevent their return as a vampire .
To ward off the threat of vampires and disease , twin brothers would yoke twin oxen to a plow and make a furrow with it around their village . An egg would be broken and a nail driven into the floor beneath the bier of the house of a recently deceased person . Two or three elderly women would attend the cemetery the evening after the funeral and stick five hawthorn pegs or old knives into the grave : one at the position of the deceased 's chest , and the other four at the positions of his arms and legs . Other texts maintain that running backwards uphill with a lit candle and a turtle would ward off a stalking vampire . Alternately , they may surround the grave with a red woolen thread , ignite the thread , and wait until it was burnt up . If a noise was heard at night and suspected to be made by a vampire sneaking around someone 's house , one would shout " Come tomorrow , and I will give you some salt , " or " Go , pal , get some fish , and come back . "
One of the earliest recordings of vampire activity came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia , in 1672 . Local reports cited the local vampire Giure Grando of the village Khring near Tinjan as the cause of panic among the villagers . A former peasant , Guire died in 1656 ; however , local villagers claimed he returned from the dead and began drinking blood from the people and sexually harassing his widow . The village leader ordered a stake to be driven through his heart , but when the method failed to kill him , he was subsequently beheaded with better results .
= = = Spain = = =
In Spain there are several traditions about beings with vampiric tendencies . In Asturias highlights the Guaxa , which is described as an old vampire who sticks his single tooth and sucks the blood of its victims . Cantabria equivalent exists in the name Guajona . Catalonia is the legend of the Dip , an evil vampire dog .
In the Canary Islands there was also a belief in vampiric beings , here in the form of blood @-@ sucking witch . One such example is provided by the legend of the Witches of Anaga in Tenerife .
= = Africa = =
Various regions of Africa have folkloric tales of beings with vampiric abilities : in West Africa the Ashanti people tell of the iron @-@ toothed and tree @-@ dwelling asanbosam , and the Ewe people of the adze , which can take the form of a firefly and hunts children . The Eastern Cape region of South Africa has the impundulu , which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning , and the Betsileo people of Madagascar tell of the ramanga , an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles .
= = The Americas = =
Female vampire @-@ like monsters are the Soucouyant of Trinidad , and the Tunda and Patasola of Colombian folklore , while the Mapuche of southern Chile have the bloodsucking snake known as the Peuchen . Aloe vera hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American superstition . Aztec mythology described tales of the Cihuateteo , skeletal @-@ faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living , driving them mad .
The Loogaroo is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs , here a mixture of French and African Vodu or voodoo . The term Loogaroo possibly comes from the French loup @-@ garou ( meaning ' werewolf ' ) and is common in the culture of Mauritius . However , the stories of the Loogaroo are widespread through the Caribbean Islands and Louisiana in the United States . During the late 18th and 19th centuries , there was a widespread belief in vampires in parts of New England , particularly in Rhode Island and Eastern Connecticut . There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family , although the term " vampire " was never actually used to describe the deceased . The deadly disease tuberculosis , or " consumption " as it was known at the time , was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves . The most famous , and most recently recorded , case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Mercy Brown , who died in Exeter , Rhode Island in 1892 . Her father , assisted by the family physician , removed her from her tomb two months after her death and her heart was cut out and burnt to ashes .
Among the Wyandots was the legend of the hooh @-@ strah @-@ dooh . A cross between what current fiction / legends portray as zombies and vampires , the hooh @-@ strah @-@ dooh was an evil spirit that inhabited recently dead bodies and caused the corpse to rise and devour the living . The redbud was believed to be an effective ward .
= = Asia = =
Rooted in older folklore , the modern belief in vampires spread throughout Asia with tales of ghoulish entities from the mainland , to vampiric beings from the islands of Southeast Asia . India also developed other vampiric legends . The Bhūta or Prét is the soul of a man who died an untimely death . It wanders around animating dead bodies at night , attacking the living much like a ghoul . In northern India , there is the BrahmarākŞhasa , a vampire @-@ like creature with a head encircled by intestines and a skull from which it drank blood . Japan has no native legends about vampires . Japanese vampires made their first appearances in the Cinema of Japan during the late 1950s .
Legends of female vampire @-@ like beings who can detach parts of their upper body occur in the Philippines , Malaysia , Cambodia and Indonesia . There are two main vampire @-@ like creatures in the Philippines : the Tagalog mandurugo ( " blood @-@ sucker " ) and the Visayan manananggal ( " self @-@ segmenter " ) . The mandurugo is a variety of the aswang that takes the form of an attractive girl by day , and develops wings and a long , hollow , thread @-@ like tongue by night . They use an elongated proboscis @-@ like tongue to suck fetuses off pregnant women . They also prefer to eat entrails ( specifically the heart and the liver ) and the phlegm of sick people . The manananggal is described as being an older , beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge bat @-@ like wings and prey on unsuspecting , sleeping pregnant women in their homes . The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim .
The Malaysian Penanggalan may be either a beautiful old or young woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of black magic or other unnatural means , and is most commonly described in local folklores to be dark or demonic in nature . She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood , typically from pregnant women . Malaysians would hang jeruju ( thistles ) around the doors and windows of houses , hoping the Penanggalan would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns . The Leyak is a similar being from Balinese folklore . A Pontianak , Kuntilanak or Matianak in Indonesia , or Langsuir in Malaysia , is a woman who died during childbirth and became undead , seeking revenge and terrorizing villages . She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered a hole in the back of her neck , which she sucked the blood of children with . Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off . Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads , eggs under each armpit , and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming langsuir .
In Cambodia , the Ab ( Khmer : អ ឵ ប ) , similar to the Penanggalan is either a young or an old woman which detaches her head at night through windows of houses looking for lungs , hearts and blood of dead or alive animals and returns to her body in the day . Married Abs go to bed quickly and starts detaching their heads . Most of them do not allow anyone to go into the room and their husbands are afraid of them , some might even run away from the house . In movies , women turn into abs through a special holy water but according to local legends it is passed through heredity . Abs are considered to be afraid of humans but will run after them if they are afraid of her . She might get her intestines stuck into thorns . The Abs like a river go along a certain path and remembers it very carefully .
Jiangshi , sometimes called " Chinese vampires " by Westerners , are corpses that are usually reanimated due to magical reasons . In ancient China , people always had the preference of being buried in their hometowns , and when a person dies in a land that is not their hometown , their family members hire a sorcerer to bring back their deceased family member . The family commissions the sorcerer in their village to travel to the place of the person 's death , locate the corpse , and to write a spell and stick it upon the corpses 's face , in which the spell @-@ paper contains their name , birthdate , and some other words to reanimate the corpse . Once the paper is stuck upon the corpses 's face , the newly created jiangshi would follow the sorcerer by hopping around , in which the sorcerer would lead it back to its hometown for burial ( this was often a last @-@ resort choice used by families with not enough money to hire a cart to carry the corpse back ) . Usually , the sorcerer would travel by night , and would at least have around three jiangshi traveling with it . But when the written spell @-@ paper falls or is pulled off of the jiangshi ( in the case the sorcerer is not paid the agreed amount for his doings , he might rip off the jiangshi 's spell @-@ paper ) , it gains its own consciousness , and all the power that the sorcerer formerly had over it would be lost . Instead of being an obedient corpse that followed the sorcerer , the jiangshi would be rampant and dangerous . The freed jiangshi would begin killing living creatures to absorb life essence ( qì ) from their victims . They are said to be created when a person 's soul ( 魄 pò ) fails to leave the deceased 's body .
Some unusual features of the Chinese vampire include its long , curved fingernails , perhaps derived from the appearance of growing fingernails on corpses due to flesh recession , and its greenish @-@ white furry skin , perhaps derived from fungus or mould growing on corpses . Jiangshi legends have inspired a genre of jiangshi films and literature in Hong Kong and East Asia . Films like Encounters of the Spooky Kind and Mr. Vampire were released during the jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s .
In Sri Lanka the belief of Riri Yaka ( Blood Demon ) can be found . According to mythology , he tore his mother 's breast and emerged into the human world as a demon killing her . The demon is said to give a primary form and eight other manifestations . In most cases he is said to be a giant who towers over his human victims . In the primary form , his face is blue and splotched with blood . Red rays radiate from his bloodshot eyes . Blood pours from his nostrils and smoke billows from his ears . His mouth is filled with decomposing human flesh and his breath is foul . His entire body is coloured scarlet with dripping blood . He is closely associated with Mara , the demon king of death .
= Implosion of Radio Network House =
The implosion of Radio Network House on 5 August 2012 was New Zealand 's first ever controlled building demolition by explosives . Like most other buildings in the Christchurch Central City , Radio Network House was damaged beyond repair in the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake , and the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority ( CERA ) added it to the demolition list in August 2011 . In July 2012 , it was announced that the building was going to be imploded , involving a specialist company from America with a large track record for this type of work . The right to push the button for the implosion was put up for auction on the TradeMe website , and became the auction with the third highest page views ever . The winning bid of NZ $ 26 @,@ 000 was made by a consortium of demolition contractors , who allowed the Child Cancer Foundation to nominate a six @-@ year @-@ old boy from Queenstown to trigger the event . The implosion , which was carefully monitored to assess the suitability of this approach for potential future applications , went without any problems and it is anticipated that this will have paved the way for many more implosions in New Zealand in general , and in Christchurch in particular .
= = Background = =
Radio Network House was a 14 @-@ storey office tower constructed in 1986 . The building was located at 155 Worcester Street , on the north side of the street and in the block between Manchester Street and Latimer Square . For its last twelve years Radio Network House was owned by Greg Hedges through his company Nor West Arch No.4 Ltd .
The building was first operated as the Christchurch studio for Television New Zealand ( TVNZ ) , who displayed their logo on the building . Shows such as What Now , After School , Simon Barnett 's quiz show Face the Music and later The Son of a Gunn Show were filmed in the tower block . TVNZ vacated the building in late 1998 following a decision to move all of their Christchurch @-@ produced shows to Wellington . In the late 1990s , Telstra New Zealand , the telecommunications company of Telstra in New Zealand , owned the naming rights to the building . After Clear Communications was acquired in December 2001 to form TelstraClear , the Clear logo was prominently displayed on the building . The building 's naming rights were sold to The Radio Network and it was renamed to Radio Network House during the ownership of Nor West Arch No.4 Ltd . At the time of demolition the logo of Newstalk ZB , a subsidiary of The Radio Network , was displayed on the building .
The Canterbury region was hit by a series of earthquakes , and the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake damaged the office building beyond repair . About 400 people worked in the building before the earthquakes . Following the earthquakes , the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority ( CERA ) was set up to manage the recovery process .
= = Preparation = =
On 30 August 2011 , CERA added Radio Network House to the list of buildings to be demolished . On 17 July 2012 , the local Canterbury newspaper The Press reported that implosion of Radio Network House had been approved by CERA . The same day , a press conference was held , where representatives of the demolition companies involved and of CERA addressed the media . The main contractor for the demolition was Naylor Love , who engaged Ceres New Zealand for the implosion . Ceres in turn partnered with Controlled Demolition , Inc . , an American company based in Phoenix , Maryland , that has a track record of 9 @,@ 000 implosions and is considered a world leader in the field . The implosion of Radio Network House was a test case , as the technique had not been applied in New Zealand before , and there are still many more tall buildings to be demolished in Christchurch . The implosion was challenging for Controlled Demolition , Inc . , as New Zealand buildings are designed to withstand earthquake loading and thus have much more reinforcing in them than the buildings they usually deal with .
Before demolition , buildings are stripped of their contents , including internal plasterboard linings . As the fees for dumping demolition waste have risen since the earthquakes , it is more economical for demolition contractors to produce ' clean ' demolition material . Holes were drilled into support columns of the building and filled with a total of some 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) of explosives , which when set off , would destroy the support structure and cause the collapse of the building . A challenge for the demolition contractor was that explosives available in New Zealand are low @-@ velocity and low @-@ energy .
A representative from Ceres stated that the implosion would shorten the demolition process by some six weeks and would save money . Costs were around NZ $ 1m for the implosion , compared to some NZ $ 1.2m for a conventional demolition , with the owner 's building insurance covering the costs . The owner of the building , however , stated that the implosion was not a cheaper option for his company than a conventional demolition , but it " would save others thousands " . He likened the consent process to Christopher Columbus wanting to sail to America , with everybody telling him that it could not be done .
The owner of the Westende building , on the corner of Manchester and Worcester Street and some 80 metres ( 260 ft ) away from Radio Network House , threatened to seek a court injunction against the implosion . He raised concerns about potential seismic activity , possible damage to his new building , and noxious contaminants transferred by dust . The original Westende building had been destroyed in the first earthquake in 2010 and was one of the very few new buildings in the centre of Christchurch to have been rebuilt already . The concerns were dismissed by the demolition contractors and the threatened court action did not eventuate .
= = Auction = =
Soon after the announcement was made that the implosion had been approved , it was reported that the demolition contractors considered putting the right to push the button for the implosion up for auction , with the proceeds going to charity . " I 've seen them go for $ 6 @,@ 000 " is how one of the company representatives was quoted , but the issue of liability needed to be worked through . The auction was set up on the internet auction website TradeMe and went live on Tuesday , 24 July , at 11 am . It was set up with a $ 1 reserve ( meaning that theoretically , the right to push the button could have been sold for just $ 1 ) . The auction was hugely popular and within one hour , bidding had reached $ 6 @,@ 000 . Bidding reached $ 30 @,@ 000 , but some bids were considered illegitimate and TradeMe staff removed them , and in other cases , bidders themselves requested to be removed .
When the auction closed , it had received the third highest number of viewers of TradeMe auctions ever , at 459 @,@ 420 views . The winning bid was $ 26 @,@ 000 , placed by a consortium of seven demolition contractors who currently undertake demolitions in the Christchurch Central City ( D Construction , Dormer Construction , Jurgens Demolition , March Construction , Pro Tranz Contracting and Clampet Developments , Shilton and Brown Demolition , and Ward 's Demolition ) . They gave the right to choose a person to push the button to the Child Cancer Foundation , who nominated a six @-@ year @-@ old boy from Queenstown .
The charity chosen to receive the proceeds of the auction was the Canterbury Earthquake Heritage Buildings Fund , who passed the funds to the Isaac Theatre Royal in Gloucester Street , a heritage building registered as Category I by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust . The Government of New Zealand pledged to match donations towards the restoration of heritage buildings dollar for dollar , so the final amount received by the Isaac Theatre Royal was NZ $ 52 @,@ 000 .
= = Implosion = =
The demolition companies involved appealed to the public on the day prior to the implosion to stay away for health and safety reasons , and watch the proceedings on TV or the internet . Several television stations had live streams of the event , and The Press announced that they would post a video on their website shortly after the implosion . An exclusion zone was put in place to ensure that nobody would be within approximately 200 metres ( 660 ft ) of the building .
Despite the appeal , thousands of onlookers filled the street on Sunday morning of 5 August . Punctually at 8 am , a series of short explosions were heard , followed by another series a couple of seconds later . The building collapsed towards the north as planned , and the implosion manager from Controlled Demolition , Inc. was quoted as saying that " it went a bit further than I had hoped so I am lucky " . The explosions were heard around Christchurch .
One of CERA 's objectives in approving the implosion was to find out how the soil behaved , as Radio Network House was built on one of the worst soils in Christchurch . Seismograph readings showed ground velocity of 12 mm / s , which is comparable to a large truck slowly driving across the demolition site . With any residual concerns about the performance of poor soils during building implosions removed , it will be much easier for other building owners to obtain consent from CERA . Further implosions are likely , with a representative from Controlled Demolition , Inc. describing the Christchurch market as a " target @-@ rich environment " . The Christchurch Central Police Station is the second building earmarked for implosion in early 2015 .
The implosion attracted global attention , with media in Australia , Canada , Ireland , South Africa and the United States covering the event .
= Emilia Plater =
Countess Emilia Plater ( Broel @-@ Plater , Lithuanian : Emilija Pliaterytė ) ( 13 November 1806 – 23 December 1831 ) was a Polish noblewoman and revolutionary from the lands of the partitioned Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . Raised in a patriotic Polish tradition , she fought in the November 1830 Uprising , during which she raised a small unit , participated in several engagements , and received the rank of captain in the Polish insurgent forces . Near the end of the Uprising , she fell ill and died .
Though she did not participate in any major engagement , her story became widely publicized and inspired a number of works of art and literature . She is a national heroine in Poland and Lithuania , all formerly parts of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . She has been venerated by Polish artists and by the nation at large as a symbol of women fighting for the national cause .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Emilia Plater was born in Vilnius ( Wilno ) into a noble Polish – Lithuanian Plater family . Her family , of the Plater coat of arms , traced its roots to Westphalia , but was thoroughly Polonized . Much of the family relocated to Livonia during the 15th century and later to Lithuania , of which Vilnius is the capital . She is described as either Polish , Polish @-@ Lithuanian or Lithuanian .
Her parents , Franciszek Ksawery Plater and Anna von der Mohl ( Anna z Mohlów ) , divorced when she was nine years old , in 1815 . She was brought up by distant relatives , Michał Plater @-@ Zyberk and Izabela Helena Syberg zu Wischling , in their family 's manor Līksna near Daugavpils ( Dźwina ) , then Inflanty ( now Latvia ) . Well @-@ educated , Plater was brought up to appreciate the efforts of Tadeusz Kościuszko and the Prince Józef Poniatowski . She was fascinated by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller , who she could read in the original German language . She was raised in an environment that valued the history of Poland , and her literary heroes included Princess Wanda and Adam Mickiewicz 's Grażyna . She also admired Bouboulina , a woman who became one of the icons of the Greek uprising against the Ottomans , a Polish fighter Anna Dorota Chrzanowska , as well as Joan of Arc . These pursuits were accompanied by an early interest in equestrianism and marksmanship , quite uncommon for early 19th @-@ century girls from aristocratic families . She was also deeply interested in the Ruthenian and Belarusian folk culture . She had contacts and friends in the Filaret Association .
In 1823 , one of her cousins was forcibly conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army as a punishment for celebrating the Constitution of 3 May ; this incident is said to be one of the key events in her life , and one that galvanized her pro @-@ Polish and anti @-@ Russian attitude . In 1829 , Plater began a grand tour throughout the historical Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , visiting Warsaw and Kraków , and the battlefield of Raszyn . Her mother died a year later ; her father remarried and refused to even meet his daughter . After the outbreak of the November Uprising against Imperial Russia , she became a vocal supporter of the anti @-@ Tsarist sentiments in the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania . She became one of a dozen or so females to join the Uprising , and the most famous of them all .
= = = Uprising = = =
A document from 25 March contains her note that joining the uprising was her sole idea , and that she had hoped that such a moment would come her entire life . She cut her hair , prepared a uniform for herself and organized and equipped a group of volunteers , speaking passionately after a mass on 29 March . On 4 April she signed a declaratory document marking her access to the local uprising forces . Her unit was composed of roughly 280 infantry , 60 cavalry and several hundred peasants armed with war scythes .
From the area of Daugavpils she entered Lithuania , where in April 1831 her unit is rumored to have seized the town of Zarasai ( Jeziorosy ) , although the historians are not sure this event really occurred . She planned to take Daugavpils , but after a reconnaissance mission discovered that the city was defended by a strong garrison and was impregnable to attack by such a small force as her own unit , that plan was abandoned . She then returned to Samogitia and headed for Panevėžys ( Poniewież ) , where on 30 April she joined forces with the unit commanded by Karol Załuski . On May 4 , she fought at the battle of Prastavoniai ( Prestowiany ) ; shortly afterwards , with Konstanty Parczewski , she fought at Maišiagala ( Mejszagoła ) . On 5 May , she witnessed General Dezydery Chłapowski entering the area with a large force and taking command over all units fighting in the former Grand Duchy .
Chłapowski advised Plater to stand down and return home . She allegedly replied that she had no intention of taking off her uniform until her fatherland was fully liberated . Her decision was accepted and she was made a commanding officer of the 1st company of the Polish – Lithuanian 25th Infantry Regiment . She was promoted to the rank of captain , the highest rank awarded to a woman at that time . She spent some time in Kaunas ( Kowno ) , before the insurgents were forced to retreat in late June .
After the Polish units were defeated by the Russians at Šiauliai ( Szawle ) , Gen. Chłapowski decided to cross the border into Prussia and become interned there . Plater vocally criticized that decision , refused to follow orders and instead decided to try to break through to Warsaw and continue the struggle . However , soon after separating from the main force , accompanied by only two others , including her cousin ( or uncle , sources vary ) , Cezary Plater , she became seriously ill . She never recovered , and she died in a manor of the Abłamowicz family in Justinavas ( Justianowo ) on 23 December 1831 . She was buried in the small village of Kapčiamiestis ( Kopciowo ) near Lazdijai ( Łoździeje ) . After the defeat of the uprising , her estate was confiscated by the Russian authorities .
Stefan Kieniewicz , in a more critical treatment in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , notes that a lot of her exploits are poorly documented , and it is not always possible to separate legend from facts . He notes it is not certain she ever commanded any unit , and that her role as the commander of the 25th Regiment was more honorary than real ; he also notes that she is known to have fainted on the battlefield , distracting her comrades , and in at least one instance ( at the battle of Šiauliai ) , she was purposefully held behind front lines , as her comrades tried to ensure she would not endanger herself .
= = Legacy = =
Her death was widely publicised shortly afterwards by the Polish press , which contributed to her growing fame . Plater became one of the symbols of the uprising . The symbol of the fighting girl became quite widespread both in Poland , Lithuania and abroad . Mickiewicz immortalized her in his poem , Śmierć pułkownika ( Death of a Colonel ) , although the description of her death is a pure poetical fiction and was only loosely based on her real life . Mickiewicz has also idealized her personality and skills , portraying her as the ideal commander , worshiped by her soldiers . That poem has entered the elementary curriculum in the independent Poland .
Other literary works based on her life were published , mostly abroad , both by Polish emigres and by foreigners . Among them were Georg Büchner , Konstanty Gaszyński , Wacław Gąsiorowski , Tadeusz Korczyński , Antoni Edward Odyniec and Władysław Buchner . Józef Straszewicz published three successive versions of her biography in French .
She also became the theme of paintings by several artists of the epoch , among them Hyppolyte Bellange , Achille Deveria , Philipp Veit , Francois de Villain and Wojciech Kossak . In 1842 , J. K. Salomoński published a short biography of Plater in New York , under the title of Emily Plater , The Polish Heroine ; Life of the Countess Emily Plater . A lithograph by F. De Villaine , based on Deveria 's work , became one of the most recognizable portraits of her , popularizing her image as a delicate and noble female warrior .
She was depicted on the Second Polish Republic 's 20 złoty note . During World War II , a Polish female support unit , Emilia Plater 1st Independent Women 's Battalion ( 1 Samodzielny Battalion Kobiecy im . Emilii Plater ) , a part of the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division was named in her honor ; its former members founded a village of Platerówka in Lower Silesia . Several streets in Poland are named after her , including one in Warsaw . In 1959 , the MS Emilia Plater , a Polish Merchant Navy bulk carrier , was named after her .
Her life has also been a subject to studies from a feminist perspective , by scholars to point out the significance of her participation in the military conflict as a female going against the stereotype that only males can fight .
= Thomas Brassey =
Thomas Brassey ( 7 November 1805 – 8 December 1870 ) was an English civil engineering contractor and manufacturer of building materials who was responsible for building much of the world 's railways in the 19th century . By 1847 , he had built about one @-@ third of the railways in Britain , and by time of his death in 1870 he had built one in every twenty miles of railway in the world . This included three @-@ quarters of the lines in France , major lines in many other European countries and in Canada , Australia , South America and India . He also built the structures associated with those railways , including docks , bridges , viaducts , stations , tunnels and drainage works .
As well as railway engineering , Brassey was active in the development of steamships , mines , locomotive factories , marine telegraphy , and water supply and sewage systems . He built part of the London sewerage system , still in operation today , and was a major shareholder in Brunel 's The Great Eastern , the only ship large enough at the time to lay the first transatlantic telegraph cable across the North Atlantic , in 1864 .
= = Background = =
The Brassey family traced themselves back to a Norman ancestor from the town of Brécey in Lower Normandy who crossed to England with William the Conqueror in 1066 . Initially their home was at Bulkeley , near Malpas in Cheshire , where they lived for nearly 600 years . At some time , and certainly by 1663 , the family moved to Manor Farm in Buerton , a small settlement in the parish of Aldford , 6 miles ( 10 km ) south of Chester . Thomas Brassey was the eldest son of John Brassey , a prosperous farmer , and his wife Elizabeth .
= = Early years = =
Thomas Brassey was educated at home until the age of 12 , when he was sent to The King 's School in Chester . Aged 16 , he became an articled apprentice to a land surveyor and agent , William Lawton . Lawton was the agent of Francis Richard Price of Overton , Flintshire . During the time Brassey was an apprentice he helped to survey the new Shrewsbury to Holyhead road ( this is now the A5 ) , assisting the surveyor of the road . While he was engaged in this work he met the engineer for the road , Thomas Telford . When his apprenticeship ended at the age of 21 , Brassey was taken into partnership by Lawton , forming the firm of " Lawton and Brassey " . Brassey moved to Birkenhead where their business was established . Birkenhead at that time was a very small place ; in 1818 it consisted of only four houses . The business flourished and grew , extending into areas beyond land surveying . At the Birkenhead site a brickworks and lime kilns were built . The business either owned or managed sand and stone quarries in Wirral . Amongst other ventures , the firm supplied the bricks for building the custom house for the port which was developing in the town . Many of the bricks needed for the growing city of Liverpool were supplied by the brickworks and Brassey devised new methods of transporting his materials , including a system similar to the modern method of palletting , and using a gravity train to take materials from the quarry to the port . When Lawton died , Brassey became sole manager of the company and sole agent and representative for Francis Price . It was during these years that he gained the basic experience for his future career .
= = Early contracts in Britain = =
Brassey 's first experiences of civil engineering were the construction of 4 miles ( 6 km ) of the New Chester Road at Bromborough , and the building of a bridge at Saughall Massie , on the Wirral . During that time he met George Stephenson , who needed stone to build the Sankey Viaduct on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Stephenson and Brassey visited a quarry in Storeton , a village near Birkenhead , following which Stephenson advised Brassey to become involved in building railways . Brassey 's first venture into railways was to submit a tender for building the Dutton Viaduct on the Grand Junction Railway , but he lost the contract to William Mackenzie , who had submitted a lower bid . In 1835 Brassey submitted a tender for building the Penkridge Viaduct , further south on the same railway , between Stafford and Wolverhampton , together with 10 miles ( 16 km ) of track . The tender was accepted , the work was successfully completed , and the viaduct opened in 1837 . Initially the engineer for the line was George Stephenson , but he was replaced by Joseph Locke , Stephenson 's pupil and assistant . During this time Brassey moved to Stafford . Penkridge viaduct still stands and carries trains on the West Coast Main Line .
On completion of the Grand Junction Railway , Locke moved on to design part of the London and Southampton Railway and encouraged Brassey to submit a tender , which was accepted . Brassey undertook work on the section of the railway between Basingstoke and Winchester , and on other parts of the line . The following year Brassey won contracts to build the Chester and Crewe Railway with Robert Stephenson as engineer and , with Locke as the engineer , the Glasgow , Paisley and Greenock Railway and the Sheffield and Manchester Railway .
= = Early contracts in France = =
Following the success of the early railways in Britain , the French were encouraged to develop a railway network , in the first place to link with the railway system in Britain . To this end the Paris and Rouen Railway Company was established , and Locke was appointed as its engineer . He considered that the tenders submitted by French contractors were too expensive , and suggested that British contractors should be invited to tender . In the event only two British contractors took the offer seriously , Brassey and William Mackenzie . Instead of trying to outbid each other they tendered jointly , and their tender was accepted in 1841 . This set a pattern for Brassey , who from then on worked in partnership with other contractors in most of his ventures . Between 1841 and 1844 Brassey and Mackenzie won contracts to build four French railways , with a total mileage of 437 miles ( 703 km ) , the longest of which was the 294 @-@ mile ( 473 km ) Orléans and Bordeaux Railway . Following the French revolution of 1848 there was a financial crisis in the country and investment in the railways almost ceased . This meant that Brassey had to seek foreign contracts elsewhere .
= = = The collapse of the Barentin viaduct = = =
In January 1846 , during the building of the 58 @-@ mile ( 93 km ) long Rouen and Le Havre line , one of the few major structural disasters of Brassey 's career occurred , the collapse of the Barentin Viaduct . The viaduct was built of brick at a cost of about £ 50 @,@ 000 and was 100 feet ( 30 m ) high . The reason for the collapse was never established , but a possible cause was the nature of the lime used to make the mortar . The contract stipulated that this had to be obtained locally , and the collapse occurred after a few days of heavy rain . Brassey rebuilt the viaduct at his own expense , this time using lime of his own choice . The rebuilt viaduct still stands and is in use today .
= = " Railway mania " = =
During the time Brassey was building the early French railways , Britain was experiencing what was known as the " railway mania " , when there was massive investment in the railways . Large numbers of lines were being built , but not all of them were built to Brassey 's high standards . Brassey was involved in this expansion but was careful to choose his contracts and investors so that he could maintain his standards . During the one year of 1845 he agreed no less than nine contracts in England , Scotland and Wales , with a mileage totalling over 340 miles ( 547 km ) . In 1844 Brassey and Locke began building the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway of 70 miles ( 113 km ) , which was considered to be one of their greatest lines . It passed through the Lune Valley and then over Shap Fell . Its summit was 916 feet ( 279 m ) high and the line had steep gradients , the maximum being 1 in 75 . To the south the line linked by way of the Preston – Lancaster line to the Grand Junction Railway . Two important contracts undertaken in 1845 were the Trent Valley Railway of 50 miles ( 80 km ) and the Chester and Holyhead line of 84 miles ( 135 km ) . The former line joined the London and Birmingham Railway at Rugby to the Grand Junction Railway south of Stafford providing a line from London to Scotland which bypassed Birmingham . The latter line provided a link between London and the ferries sailing from Holyhead to Ireland and included Robert Stephenson 's tubular Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait . Also in 1845 Brassey received contracts for the Caledonian Railway which linked the railway at Carlisle with Glasgow and Edinburgh , covering a total distance of 125 miles ( 201 km ) and passing over Beattock Summit . His engineer on this project was George Heald . That same year he also began contracts for other railways in Scotland , and in 1846 he started building parts of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway between Hull and Liverpool , across the Pennines .
A contract for the Great Northern Railway was agreed in 1847 , with William Cubitt as engineer @-@ in @-@ chief , although much of the work was done by William 's son Joseph , who was the resident engineer . Brassey was the sole contractor for the line of 75 @.@ 5 miles ( 122 km ) . A particular problem was met in the marshy country of The Fens in providing a firm foundation for the railway and associated structures . Brassey was assisted in solving the problem by one of his agents , Stephen Ballard . Rafts or platforms were made of layers of faggot @-@ wood and peat sods . As these sank , they dispersed the water and so a firm foundation was made . This line is still in use and forms part of the East Coast Main Line . Also in 1847 Brassey began to build the North Staffordshire Railway . By this time the " railway mania " was coming to an end and contracts in Britain were becoming increasingly more difficult to find . By the end of the " railway mania " , Brassey had built one @-@ third of all the railways in Britain .
= = Expansion in Europe = =
Following the end of the " railway mania " and the drying up of contracts in France , Brassey could have retired as a rich man . Instead he decided to expand his interests , initially in other European countries . His first venture in Spain was the Barcelona and Mataró Railway of 18 miles ( 29 km ) in 1848 . In 1850 he undertook his first contract in the Italian States , a short railway of 10 miles ( 16 km ) , the Prato and Pistoia Railway . This was to lead to bigger contracts in Italy , the next being the Turin – Novara line of 60 miles ( 97 km ) in 1853 , followed by the Central Italian Railway of 52 miles ( 84 km ) . In Norway , with Sir Morton Peto and Edward Betts , Brassey built the Oslo to Bergen Railway of 56 miles ( 90 km ) which passes through inhospitable terrain and rises to nearly 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 829 m ) . In 1852 he resumed work in France with the Mantes and Caen Railway of 133 miles ( 214 km ) and , in 1854 , the Caen and Cherbourg Railway of 94 miles ( 151 km ) . The Dutch were relatively slow to start building railways but in 1852 with Locke as engineer , Brassey built the Dutch Rhenish Railway of 43 miles ( 69 km ) . Meanwhile , he continued to build lines in England , including the Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway of 51 miles ( 82 km ) , the Hereford , Ross and Gloucester Railway of 50 miles ( 80 km ) , the London , Tilbury and Southend Railway of 50 miles ( 80 km ) and the North Devon Railway from Minehead to Barnstaple of 47 miles ( 76 km ) .
= = The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada = =
In 1852 Brassey took out the largest contract of his career , which was to build the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada . This line passed from Quebec , along the valley of the Saint Lawrence River , and then to the north of Lake Ontario to Toronto . The line totalled 539 miles ( 867 km ) in length . The consulting engineer for the project was Robert Stephenson and the company 's engineer for the whole undertaking was Alexander Ross . Brassey worked in partnership with Peto , Betts and Sir William Jackson . The line crossed the river at Montreal by the Victoria Bridge . This was a tubular bridge designed by Robert Stephenson and was the longest bridge in the world at the time , measuring some 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 3 km ) . The bridge opened in 1859 and the formal opening ceremony was carried out the following year by the Prince of Wales . The construction of the line caused considerable problems . The main problem was the raising of the necessary finance and at one stage Brassey travelled to Canada to appeal personally for assistance . Other difficulties arose from the severity of the Canadian winter , the waterways being frozen for around six months each year , and resistance from Canadian businessmen . The line was an engineering success but a financial failure , with the contractors losing £ 1 million .
= = = The Canada Works = = =
The contract for the Grand Trunk Railway included all the materials required for building the bridge and the railway , including the rolling stock . To manufacture the metallic components , Brassey built a new factory in Birkenhead which he called The Canada Works . A suitable site was found by George Harrison , Brassey 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , and the factory was built with a quay alongside to take ocean @-@ going ships . The works was managed by George Harrison with a Mr. Alexander and William Heap as assistants . The machine shop was 900 feet ( 274 m ) in length and included a blacksmiths ' shop with 40 furnaces , anvils and steam hammers , a coppersmiths ' shop , and fabrication , woodwork and pattern shops . There was also a well @-@ stocked library and a reading room for all the workforce .
The fitting shop was designed to manufacture 40 locomotives a year and a total of 300 were produced in the next eight years . The first locomotive , given its trial in May 1854 , was named Lady Elgin , after the wife of the Governor General of Canada of the time , the Earl of Elgin . For the bridge hundreds of thousands of components were required and all were manufactured in Birkenhead or in other English factories to Brassey 's specifications . These were all stamped and coded , loaded into ships to be taken to Quebec and then by rail to the site of the bridge for assembly . The central tube of the bridge contained over 10 @,@ 000 pieces of iron , perforated by holes for half a million rivets , and when it was assembled every piece and hole was true .
= = The Grand Crimean Central Railway = =
Brassey played a part in helping the English forces to success in the Crimean War . The Black Sea port of Sevastopol was held by the Russians . The British government , in alliance with the French and the Turks , sent an army of 30 @,@ 000 to Balaclava , another port in a neighbouring bay of the Black Sea , from which to attack Sevastopol . Sevastopol was besieged in September 1854 by the British and allied forces . It was hoped that the siege would be short but with the coming of winter the conditions were appalling and it was proving difficult to transport clothing , food , medical supplies and weaponry from Balaclava to the front . When news of the problem arrived in Britain , Brassey joined with Peto and Betts in offering to build a railway at cost to transport these necessary supplies . They shipped out the equipment and materials for building the railway , which had been intended for other undertakings , together with an army of navvies to carry out the work . Within seven weeks , in severe winter conditions , the railway from Balaclava to the troops besieging Sevastopol was completed . It then became possible to move supplies easily to the front and Sevastopol was finally taken in September 1855 .
= = Worldwide expansion = =
In addition to building more railways in Britain and in other European countries , Brassey undertook contracts in other continents . In South America his railways totalled 250 miles ( 402 km ) , in Australia 132 miles ( 21
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a biographer available today . There is no private correspondence , there are no diaries and none of his personal reminiscences .
Judging by his achievements alone , he must have been a remarkable man . He had enormous drive , an ability to remain calm despite enormous pressures , and extreme skill in organisation . He was a man of honour who always kept his word and his promise . He had no interest in public honours and refused invitations to stand for Parliament . Although he accepted honours from France and Austria , he mislaid the medals and had to request duplicates to please his wife . His great @-@ great @-@ grandson considers that he was successful because he inspired people rather than drove them .
Walker , in his 1969 biography , tried to make an accurate assessment of Brassey using Helps and other sources . He found it difficult to discover anyone who had a bad word to say about him , either during his life or since . Brassey expected a high standard of work from his employees ; Cooke states that his " standards of quality were fastidious in the extreme " . There can be no doubt about some of his qualities . He was exceptionally hardworking , and had an excellent memory and ability to perform mental arithmetic . He was a good judge of men , which enabled him to select the best people to be his agents . He was scrupulously fair with his subcontractors and kind to his navvies , supporting them financially at their times of need . He would at times undertake contracts of little benefit to himself to provide work for his navvies . The only faults which his eldest son could identify were a tendency to praise traits and actions of other people he would condemn in his own family , and an inability to refuse a request . No criticism of him could be found from the engineers with whom he worked , his business associates , his agents or his navvies . He paid his men fairly and generously .
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography states " His greatest achievement was to raise the status of the civil engineering contractor to the eminence already attained in the mid @-@ nineteenth century by the engineer " . Walker regards him as " one of the giants of the nineteenth century " .
= = Commemorations = =
None of his three sons became involved in their father 's work and the business was wound up by administrators . The sons created a memorial to their parents in St Erasmus ' Chapel in Chester cathedral . This consists of a backcloth to the altar inscribed to their parents ' memory , and a bust of their father to the north of the altar . The memorial is by Sir Arthur Blomfield and the bust by M. Wagmiller . There is also a bust of Thomas in Chester 's Grosvenor Museum and plaques to his memory in Chester station . Streets named after him in Chester are Brassey Street and Thomas Brassey Close ( which is off Lightfoot Street ) .
In November 2005 , Penkridge celebrated the bicentenary of Brassey 's birth and a special commemorative train was run from Chester to Holyhead . In January 2007 , children from Overchurch Junior School in Upton , Wirral celebrated the life of Brassey . In April 2007 a plaque was placed on Brassey 's first bridge at Saughall Massie . In the village of Bulkeley , near Malpas , Cheshire , is a tree called the ' Brassey Oak ' on land once owned by the Brassey family . This was planted to celebrate Thomas ' 40th birthday in 1845 . It was surrounded by four inscribed sandstone pillars tied together by iron rails but due to the growth of the tree these burst and the stones fell . They were recovered and in 2007 were replaced in a more accessible place with an information board .
= = Further bibliography = =
= Hasaan Ibn Ali =
Hasaan Ibn Ali ( born William Henry Langford , Jr . ; May 6 , 1931 – 1980 ) was an American jazz pianist and composer .
Ibn Ali was strongly influenced by Elmo Hope , and his playing was rapid and intense , retaining a sense of rhythm even when his style became increasingly unconventional . Several recordings of his playing may exist , but only one – The Max Roach Trio Featuring the Legendary Hasaan – has been released . Ibn Ali built a reputation in Philadelphia , where he influenced musicians including John Coltrane , but he remained little known elsewhere .
= = Life and career = =
Hasaan Ibn Ali was born William Henry Langford , Jr. in Philadelphia on May 6 , 1931 . In 1946 ( aged 15 ) he toured with trumpeter Joe Morris 's rhythm and blues band . In 1950 he played locally with Clifford Brown , Miles Davis , J. J. Johnson , Max Roach , and others . Based in Philadelphia , Ibn Ali did freelance work and built a reputation locally as " an original composer and theorist " , in musicologist Lewis Porter 's words . The pianist played with Horace Arnold in New York City in 1959 , and again in 1961 – 62 , this time in a trio with Henry Grimes . According to Roach , on visits to New York , Ibn Ali went from club to club to play , and sometimes went to the drummer 's home in the middle of the night to continue playing , alone , on the piano there .
Ibn Ali remained an obscure figure until his only released recording , The Max Roach Trio Featuring the Legendary Hasaan , which was recorded on December 4 and 7 , 1964 , and released six months later . The trio contained Roach and bassist Art Davis , and the album consisted of seven tracks , all written by Ibn Ali . The recording opportunity was initiated by Roach , who used his influence with the owner of Atlantic Records to secure the session for Ibn Ali . Alan Sukoenig , in his liner notes to the album , wrote " For a while it appeared that it was Hasaan Ibn Ali 's destiny to be known – to those who had heard of him at all – as the extraordinary jazz pianist from Philadelphia who had never made a record . " After the album , Ibn Ali returned to obscurity .
According to music journalist Tom Moon , Ibn Ali was " Described by ( usually tolerant ) jazz musicians as eccentric and / or unstable " . Saxophonist Odean Pope , who was mentored by Ibn Ali , stated that the pianist " was so advanced that musicians shied away from him . [ ... ] He was very dedicated , very sincere , but also very outspoken [ ... ] If he were in a club , and the pianist wasn 't making it , Hasaan would push him right off the bench and start playing himself . "
Ibn Ali had further studio sessions , with Pope , Art Davis and drummer Khalil Madi , on August 23 and September 7 , 1965 . However , the master tapes of the unreleased recordings were said to have been destroyed in a fire at the record label 's warehouse in 1976 . The Library of Congress has a 1964 recording of an Ibn Ali solo improvisation , recorded at Roach 's home . John Murph in JazzTimes described it in 2014 as " Thoroughly modern with a whimsical rhythmic undertow and wayward melodic passages , it sounds like a new Jason Moran composition . "
" Reckless with his health , Hasaan died young " , commented writer Geoffrey Haydon in 2002 . The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz states that Ibn Ali died in Philadelphia in 1980 ( aged 48 or 49 ) .
= = Playing style and influences = =
A contemporary reviewer for The Glasgow Herald commented on Ibn Ali 's playing on the Atlantic album with Roach that " One 's first reaction is astonishment at the blazing finger technique , [ ... ] and the complete individuality of his harmonics [ sic ] " . AllMusic reviewer Scott Yanow described Ibn Ali 's playing on the album as " intense , somewhat virtuosic and rhythmic , yet often melodic in a quirky way " .
Drummer Sherman Ferguson said of Ibn Ali , " he was a prime example of somebody that was very avant @-@ garde in some ways , but he was always musical . So people of all ages liked his music , even when he played out . [ ... He ] had that thing , where he had a natural feeling . He got to the thing where it swung no matter what he was doing . " Saxophonist Benny Golson commented that Ibn Ali " became very skilled at the modern sounds , and then went right past them into something very esoteric . He went way out there . I guess you could say his brakes didn 't work . "
Jazz critic Kenny Mathieson described Ibn Ali as " An Elmo Hope acolyte with a rhythmic quirkiness that had him compared with [ Thelonious ] Monk and [ Herbie ] Nichols " . Ibn Ali himself credited Hope with being his main inspiration : " by meeting Mr Hope it was like talking to and having acquaintance with the mystery of music , who explained not by the ruler or lip but with music . So from him I heard how to learn . "
= = Legacy = =
Pope credits Ibn Ali with influencing saxophonist John Coltrane 's sheets of sound approach . Ibn Ali examined the possibilities of playing fourths , and of using " chord progressions that moved by seconds or thirds instead of fifths , in playing a variety of scales and arpeggios against each chord " – features later used extensively in Coltrane 's playing . A home recording of Ibn Ali playing with Coltrane and others in 1952 may exist .
Pope also commented that " every important musician who came out of this area [ Philadelphia ] in the fifties and sixties , including McCoy Tyner , learned from him . "
= Shifang protest =
The Shifang protest was a large @-@ scale environmental protest in the southwestern Chinese city of Shifang , Sichuan province , against a copper plant that residents feared posed environmental and public health risks . The protests spanned 1 – 3 July 2012 , and drew thousands of participants . Police were dispatched to break up the demonstrations , and reportedly shot tear gas and stun grenades into the crowd . Chinese authorities said some protesters has stormed a government building and smashed vehicles . Images and video of the protest circulated on the microblogs and social networking websites throughout China , some showing the protesters — many of them students — badly beaten . The protests ended late on 3 July when the local government announced that it had terminated construction of the metals plant and released all but six protesters who had been taken into custody .
The protest was notable for its size and the composition of its participants , as well as for its success in derailing the copper plant project . It was one of a growing number of large @-@ scale environmental protests in China that achieved success .
= = Background = =
The Shifang city area was among the most severely impacted by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake , suffering heavy loss of life and major damage to infrastructure . The centerpiece of the city 's economic revitalization efforts was to be the Sichuan Hongda Co . ' s copper smelting plant . The plant was to be one of the largest in the world , and its construction was intended to spur economic growth through the creation of thousands of jobs . China 's Ministry of Environmental Protection said the $ 1 @.@ 7 billion plant would refine 40 @,@ 000 tons of molybdenum and 400 @,@ 000 tons of copper annually .
Copper smelting and refining processes can produce a variety of toxic byproducts , including mercury , sulphur dioxide , and arsenic . Residents feared these pollutants would seep into the city 's air and water supply . Critics further charged that the government had not been transparent in reviewing or disclosing information on the plant 's potential environmental impact . Ma Jun , director of the Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs , told The Guardian that the government " only released the short version of the plant 's environmental report , which did not have information about the solid waste and waste water . " Ma added : " Heavy metal projects are always highly polluting . Of course the public has concerns about this . " Residents of the city had reportedly filed petitions against the project , but authorities took no action . Reuters reported that although many local residents supported the efforts to create jobs , they were upset by the government 's lack of consultation with the public and failure to adequately address environmental concerns .
= = Protests = =
Construction on the Sichuan Hongda copper refinery began on 29 June with the company laying the foundation for the plant . Two days later , on 1 July , hundreds of student protesters assembled in front of municipal government buildings to protest the project . Protests grew on 2 and 3 July as thousands more citizens — including students from nearby Guanghan city — demonstrated on the streets and in front of government offices demanding the suspension of the project . Protesters carried banners with slogans such as " Unite to protect the environment for the next generation " and " Safeguard our hometown , oppose the chemical factory 's construction . " The South China Morning Post reported that the protest swelled to have tens of thousands of participants .
Authorities and state @-@ run media reported that the protests turned violent , with demonstrators overturning police vehicles and throwing bricks at government buildings . Police were dispatched to quell the protests , firing tear gas and stun grenades into the crowd , and detaining 27 protesters . Images and video circulated online showing protesters bloodied and beaten , and police carrying batons and lobbing tear gas into the crowds . Witnesses told the South China Morning Post that about 8 @,@ 000 police were stationed along major roads , and that the security officers had used force to disperse the protests .
The local government announced on the morning of 3 July that the copper plant construction would be suspended . Protests continued into the evening , with demonstrators demanding the release of the detained protesters , most of whom were students . Late in the evening of 3 July , authorities released 21 of the 27 detained protesters . Protests subsided , though six remained in custody facing criminal and administrative charges for their role in the demonstrations .
Public demonstrations were briefly revived on 9 July amidst unverified rumors that a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl had been beaten to death during the protests . However , authorities consistently refuted reports of casualties or mass bloodshed , saying that only a few residents and police officers were injured . Local authorities also said that police had " exercised great restraint " in their handling of the protest .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Two months after the protests in Shifang , residents told the New York Times that there were no signs that the Sichuan Hongda project was being resuscitated , and that the city had been quiet since the demonstrations concluded . An executive with Sichuan Hongda told Caijing magazine on July 9 that it was unclear whether the construction for copper plant would go forward in the future , and whether it would be located in Sichuan province .
After the demonstrations , authorities were left to grapple with providing housing and compensation to approximately 2 @,@ 300 villagers whose land had been requisitioned to make room for the copper plant . Villagers from Hongmiao and Jinguang , Shifang , reportedly received eviction notices in November 2011 and saw their homes demolished the following month . As of July 2012 , they had yet to receive promised compensation from the government .
During a Communist Party committee meeting on 25 October 2012 , authorities in Shifang decided to replace the local party secretary , Li Chengjin . His position was assumed by former mayor Li Zhuo .
= = Significance = =
= = = Role of students = = =
The Shifang protests were notable in part due to the composition of the demonstration , which was largely led and organized by young students . Although China experiences tens of thousands of large @-@ scale protests annually , student involvement in anti @-@ government protests has been rare since the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests . Leslie Hook of the Financial Times wrote that the protests " revealed a potentially important shift in the country 's politics : youth were at the forefront of the three @-@ day demonstration , exposing a new vein of activism in a generation seen by many as apathetic . " Environmental causes and land rights issues seemed particularly attractive to the " post 90s " generation , she wrote . Stanley Lubman wrote for the Wall Street Journal that " the protests may augur both a growing public anger over environmental degradation and a rise of political activism among China 's younger generation – trends that could lead in turn to an increase in legal challenges to the arbitrary behavior of local governments . " Chinese blogger Michael Anti explained the shift by saying that the generation born after 1990 is " the generation of social media so they embrace freedom of speech as their birthright . "
Alarmed by the participation of students in the demonstration , the state @-@ run Global Times newspaper ran an editorial on 6 July titled " Do not foment youngsters to protest . " The editorial exhorted young people to stay out of mass protests and political conflicts , and chastised adults who encouraged such behavior : " In every normal peaceful country , high school students should focus on school work . It is a revolutionary instinct to urge young students to join a mass protest ... It is immoral for adults to exploit the young for political ends . " The editorial was met with some derision on Chinese social media websites ; one netizen responded by drawing attention to images of young school children being organized to participate in political rallies supporting the ruling Communist Party .
= = = Importance of social media = = =
As the Shifang protest unfolded , government @-@ run media outlets were largely silent in covering developments in the city . On 3 July , for instance , the official media outlets People 's Daily and Xinhua News Agency carried minimal reports on either the protests or the local government 's promise to halt construction of the copper smelting plant . Social media platforms and text messaging thus became the primary means by which information on the protests were shared . According to the University of Hong Kong 's China Media Project , between 1 and 4 July , " there were around 5 @.@ 25 million posts on Sina Weibo containing ' Shifang ' . Of these about 400 @,@ 000 included images and close to 10 @,@ 000 included video . "
The protests gave rise a popular internet meme based on a photograph of a shield and baton @-@ wielding police officer , identified as Liu Bo , chasing a group of young protesters . Liu 's image was photoshopped into other scenes , depicting him chasing after actor Mark Wahlberg and Olympic hurdler Liu Xiang , or appearing in the background of Edvard Munch 's The Scream . The Atlantic 's Jessica Levine wrote that the image was " representative of a growing resentment toward alleged abuses by the People 's Armed Police , " noting that such memes can serve as a barometer of culture in an environment where freedom of speech is limited . " Because of the strictures on speech in China , memes tend to be a really effective way to spread a political message , " said Chinese social media expert and blogger An Xiao Mina . " If you use off @-@ the @-@ cuff , remixed humor , it 's a little easier to talk about such critical topics . "
= Gettysburg Address =
The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln , one of the best @-@ known in American history . It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War , on the afternoon of Thursday , November 19 , 1863 , at the dedication of the Soldiers ' National Cemetery in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania , four and a half months after the Union armies defeated those of the Confederacy at the Battle of Gettysburg .
Abraham Lincoln 's carefully crafted address , secondary to other presentations that day , was one of the greatest and most influential statements of national purpose . In just over two minutes , Lincoln reiterated the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed the Civil War as a struggle for the preservation of the Union sundered by the secession crisis , with " a new birth of freedom " that would bring true equality to all of its citizens . Lincoln also redefined the Civil War as a struggle not just for the Union , but also for the principle of human equality .
Beginning with the now @-@ iconic phrase " Four score and seven years ago " — referring to the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 — Lincoln examined the founding principles of the United States as stated in the Declaration of Independence . In the context of the Civil War , Lincoln also memorialized the sacrifices of those who gave their lives at Gettysburg and extolled virtues for the listeners ( and the nation ) to ensure the survival of America 's representative democracy : that " government of the people , by the people , for the people , shall not perish from the earth . "
Despite the speech 's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States , the exact wording and location of the speech are disputed . The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address in Lincoln 's hand differ in a number of details , and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech . Modern scholarship locates the speakers ' platform 40 yards ( or more ) away from the Traditional Site within Soldiers ' National Cemetery at the Soldiers ' National Monument and entirely within private , adjacent Evergreen Cemetery .
= = Background = =
Following the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1 – 3 , 1863 , reburial of Union soldiers from the Gettysburg Battlefield graves began on October 17 . David Wills , of the committee for the November 19 Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg , invited President Lincoln : " It is the desire that , after the Oration , you , as Chief Executive of the nation , formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks . " Lincoln 's address followed the oration by Edward Everett , who subsequently included a copy of the Gettysburg Address in his 1864 book about the event ( Address of the Hon. Edward Everett At the Consecration of the National Cemetery At Gettysburg , 19th November 1863 , with the Dedicatory Speech of President Lincoln , and the Other Exercises of the Occasion ; Accompanied by An Account of the Origin of the Undertaking and of the Arrangement of the Cemetery Grounds , and by a Map of the Battle @-@ field and a Plan of the Cemetery ) .
During the train trip from Washington , D.C. , to Gettysburg on November 18 , Lincoln remarked to John Hay that he felt weak . On the morning of November 19 , Lincoln mentioned to John Nicolay that he was dizzy . In the railroad car the President rode with his secretary , John G. Nicolay , his assistant secretary , John Hay , the three members of his Cabinet who accompanied him , William Seward , John Usher and Montgomery Blair , several foreign officials and others . Hay noted that during the speech Lincoln 's face had ' a ghastly color ' and that he was ' sad , mournful , almost haggard . ' After the speech , when Lincoln boarded the 6 : 30 pm train for Washington , D.C. , he was feverish and weak , with a severe headache . A protracted illness followed , which included a vesicular rash and was diagnosed as a mild case of smallpox . It thus seems highly likely that Lincoln was in the prodromal period of smallpox when he delivered the Gettysburg address .
= = Program and Everett 's " Gettysburg Oration " = =
The program organized for that day by Wills and his committee included :
Music , by Birgfeld 's Band ( " Homage d 'uns Heros " by Adolph Birgfeld )
Prayer , by Reverend T. H. Stockton , D.D.
Music , by the Marine Band ( " Old Hundred " ) , directed by Francis Scala
Oration , by Hon. Edward Everett ( " The Battles of Gettysburg " )
Music , Hymn ( " Consecration Chant " ) by B. B. French , Esq . , music by Wilson G Horner , sung by Baltimore Glee Club
Dedicatory Remarks , by the President of the United States
Dirge ( " Oh ! It is Great for Our Country to Die " , words by James G. Percival , music by Alfred Delaney ) , sung by Choir selected for the occasion
Benediction , by Reverend H. L. Baugher , D.D.
While it is Lincoln 's short speech that has gone down in history as one of the finest examples of English public oratory , it was Everett 's two @-@ hour oration that was slated to be the " Gettysburg address " that day . His now seldom @-@ read 13 @,@ 607 @-@ word oration began :
Standing beneath this serene sky , overlooking these broad fields now reposing from the labors of the waning year , the mighty Alleghenies dimly towering before us , the graves of our brethren beneath our feet , it is with hesitation that I raise my poor voice to break the eloquent silence of God and Nature . But the duty to which you have called me must be performed ; — grant me , I pray you , your indulgence and your sympathy .
And ended two hours later with :
But they , I am sure , will join us in saying , as we bid farewell to the dust of these martyr @-@ heroes , that wheresoever throughout the civilized world the accounts of this great warfare are read , and down to the latest period of recorded time , in the glorious annals of our common country , there will be no brighter page than that which relates the Battles of Gettysburg .
Lengthy dedication addresses like Everett 's were common at cemeteries in this era . The tradition began in 1831 when Justice Joseph Story delivered the dedication address at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Those addresses often linked cemeteries to the mission of Union .
= = Text of Gettysburg Address = =
Shortly after Everett 's well @-@ received remarks , Lincoln spoke for only a few minutes . With a " few appropriate remarks " , he was able to summarize his view of the war in just ten sentences .
Despite the historical significance of Lincoln 's speech , modern scholars disagree as to its exact wording , and contemporary transcriptions published in newspaper accounts of the event and even handwritten copies by Lincoln himself differ in their wording , punctuation , and structure . Of these versions , the Bliss version , written well after the speech as a favor for a friend , is viewed by many as the standard text . Its text differs , however , from the written versions prepared by Lincoln before and after his speech . It is the only version to which Lincoln affixed his signature , and the last he is known to have written .
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation , conceived in liberty , and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal .
Now we are engaged in a great civil war , testing whether that nation , or any nation so conceived and so dedicated , can long endure . We are met on a great battlefield of that war . We have come to dedicate a portion of that field , as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live . It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this .
But , in a larger sense , we can not dedicate , we can not consecrate , we can not hallow this ground . The brave men , living and dead , who struggled here , have consecrated it , far above our poor power to add or detract . The world will little note , nor long remember what we say here , but it can never forget what they did here . It is for us the living , rather , to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced . It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation , under God , shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people , by the people , for the people , shall not perish from the earth .
= = Lincoln 's sources = =
In Lincoln at Gettysburg , Garry Wills notes the parallels between Lincoln 's speech and Pericles 's Funeral Oration during the Peloponnesian War as described by Thucydides . ( James McPherson notes this connection in his review of Wills 's book . Gore Vidal also draws attention to this link in a BBC documentary about oration . ) Pericles ' speech , like Lincoln 's , begins with an acknowledgment of revered predecessors : " I shall begin with our ancestors : it is both just and proper that they should have the honor of the first mention on an occasion like the present " ; then praises the uniqueness of the State 's commitment to democracy : " If we look to the laws , they afford equal justice to all in their private differences " ; honors the sacrifice of the slain , " Thus choosing to die resisting , rather than to live submitting , they fled only from dishonor , but met danger face to face " ; and exhorts the living to continue the struggle : " You , their survivors , must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field , though you may pray that it may have a happier issue . " In contrast , writer Adam Gopnik , in The New Yorker , notes that while Everett 's Oration was explicitly neoclassical , referring directly to Marathon and Pericles , " Lincoln 's rhetoric is , instead , deliberately Biblical . ( It is difficult to find a single obviously classical reference in any of his speeches . ) Lincoln had mastered the sound of the King James Bible so completely that he could recast abstract issues of constitutional law in Biblical terms , making the proposition that Texas and New Hampshire should be forever bound by a single post office sound like something right out of Genesis . "
Several theories have been advanced by Lincoln scholars to explain the provenance of Lincoln 's famous phrase " government of the people , by the people , for the people " . The Prologue to John Wycliffe 's first English translation of the Bible , which first appeared in 1384 , includes the phrase :
This Bible is for the government of the people , for the people and by the people .
In a discussion " A more probable origin of a famous Lincoln phrase " , in The American Monthly Review of Reviews , Albert Shaw credits a correspondent with pointing out the writings of William Herndon , Lincoln 's law partner , who wrote in the 1888 work Abraham Lincoln : The True Story of A Great Life that he had brought to Lincoln some of the sermons of abolitionist minister Theodore Parker , of Massachusetts , and that Lincoln was moved by Parker 's use of this idea :
I brought with me additional sermons and lectures of Theodore Parker , who was warm in his commendation of Lincoln . One of these was a lecture on ' The Effect of Slavery on the American People ' ... which I gave to Lincoln , who read and returned it . He liked especially the following expression , which he marked with a pencil , and which he in substance afterwards used in his Gettysburg Address : ' Democracy is direct self @-@ government , over all the people , for all the people , by all the people.'
Craig R. Smith , in " Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity " , suggested Lincoln 's view of the government as expressed in the Gettysburg Address was influenced by the noted speech of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster , the " Second Reply to Hayne " , in which Webster famously thundered " Liberty and Union , now and forever , one and inseparable ! " Specifically , in this speech on January 26 , 1830 , before the United States Senate , Webster described the federal government as : " made for the people , made by the people , and answerable to the people " , foreshadowing Lincoln 's " government of the people , by the people , for the people " . Webster also noted , " This government , Sir , is the independent offspring of the popular will . It is not the creature of State legislatures ; nay , more , if the whole truth must be told , the people brought it into existence , established it , and have hitherto supported it , for the very purpose , amongst others , of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties . "
A source predating these others with which Lincoln was certainly familiar was Chief Justice John Marshall 's opinion in McCulloch v. Maryland ( 1819 ) , a case asserting federal authority to create a national bank and to be free from the State 's powers to tax . In asserting the superiority of federal power over the states , Chief Justice Marshall stated : " The government of the Union , then ( whatever may be the influence of this fact on the case ) , is , emphatically and truly , a government of the people . In form , and in substance , it emanates from them . Its powers are granted by them , and are to be exercised directly on them , and for their benefit . " Lincoln , a lawyer and President engaged in the greatest struggle of federalism , was ( more eloquently ) echoing the preeminent case that had solidified federal power over the States .
Wills observed Lincoln 's usage of the imagery of birth , life , and death in reference to a nation " brought forth " , " conceived " , and that shall not " perish " . Others , including Allen C. Guelzo , the director of Civil War Era studies at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania , suggested that Lincoln 's formulation " four score and seven " was an allusion to the King James Version of the Bible 's Psalms 90 : 10 , in which man 's lifespan is given as " threescore years and ten ; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years " .
= = Five manuscripts = =
Each of the five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address is named for the person who received it from Lincoln . Lincoln gave copies to his private secretaries , John Nicolay and John Hay . Both of these drafts were written around the time of his November 19 address , while the other three copies of the address , the Everett , Bancroft , and Bliss copies , were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes well after November 19 . In part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated the Bliss copy , it has become the standard text of Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address .
Nicolay and Hay were appointed custodians of Lincoln 's papers by Lincoln 's son Robert Todd Lincoln in 1874 . After appearing in facsimile in an article written by John Nicolay in 1894 , the Nicolay copy was presumably among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay 's daughter Helen upon Nicolay 's death in 1901 . Robert Lincoln began a search for the original copy in 1908 , which resulted in the discovery of a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the bound papers of John Hay — a copy now known as the " Hay copy " or " Hay draft " .
The Hay draft differed from the version of the Gettysburg Address published by John Nicolay in 1894 in a number of significant ways : it was written on a different type of paper , had a different number of words per line and number of lines , and contained editorial revisions in Lincoln 's hand .
Both the Hay and Nicolay copies of the Address are within the Library of Congress , encased in specially designed , temperature @-@ controlled , sealed containers with argon gas in order to protect the documents from oxidation and continued deterioration .
= = = Nicolay copy = = =
The Nicolay copy is often called the " first draft " because it is believed to be the earliest copy that exists . Scholars disagree over whether the Nicolay copy was actually the reading copy Lincoln held at Gettysburg on November 19 . In an 1894 article that included a facsimile of this copy , Nicolay , who had become the custodian of Lincoln 's papers , wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink on Executive Mansion stationery , and that he had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before the dedication on November 19 . Matching folds are still evident on the two pages , suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony . Others believe that the delivery text has been lost , because some of the words and phrases of the Nicolay copy do not match contemporary transcriptions of Lincoln 's original speech . The words " under God " , for example , are missing in this copy from the phrase " that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom ... " In order for the Nicolay draft to have been the reading copy , either the contemporary transcriptions were inaccurate , or Lincoln would have had to depart from his written text in several instances . This copy of the Gettysburg Address apparently remained in John Nicolay 's possession until his death in 1901 , when it passed to his friend and colleague John Hay . It used to be on display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington , D.C.
= = = Hay copy = = =
The existence of the Hay copy was first announced to the public in 1906 , after the search for the " original manuscript " of the Address among the papers of John Hay brought it to light . Significantly , it differs somewhat from the manuscript of the Address described by John Nicolay in his article , and contains numerous omissions and inserts in Lincoln 's own hand , including omissions critical to the basic meaning of the sentence , not simply words that would be added by Lincoln to strengthen or clarify their meaning . In this copy , as in the Nicolay copy , the words " under God " are not present .
This version has been described as " the most inexplicable " of the drafts and is sometimes referred to as the " second draft " . The " Hay copy " was made either on the morning of the delivery of the Address , or shortly after Lincoln 's return to Washington . Those who believe that it was completed on the morning of his address point to the fact that it contains certain phrases that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address as delivered and in subsequent copies made by Lincoln . It is probable , they conclude , that , as stated in the explanatory note accompanying the original copies of the first and second drafts in the Library of Congress , Lincoln held this second draft when he delivered the address . Lincoln eventually gave this copy to his other personal secretary , John Hay , whose descendants donated both it and the Nicolay copy to the Library of Congress in 1916 .
= = = Everett copy = = =
The Everett copy , also known as the " Everett @-@ Keyes copy " , was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864 , at Everett 's request . Everett was collecting the speeches at the Gettysburg dedication into one bound volume to sell for the benefit of stricken soldiers at New York 's Sanitary Commission Fair . The draft Lincoln sent became the third autograph copy , and is now in the possession of the Illinois State Historical Library in Springfield , Illinois , where it is currently on display in the Treasures Gallery of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum .
= = = Bancroft copy = = =
The Bancroft copy of the Gettysburg Address was written out by President Lincoln in February 1864 at the request of George Bancroft , the famed historian and former Secretary of the Navy , whose comprehensive ten @-@ volume History of the United States later led him to be known as the " father of American History " . Bancroft planned to include this copy in Autograph Leaves of Our Country 's Authors , which he planned to sell at a Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Sanitary Fair in Baltimore . As this fourth copy was written on both sides of the paper , it proved unusable for this purpose , and Bancroft was allowed to keep it . This manuscript is the only one accompanied both by a letter from Lincoln transmitting the manuscript and by the original envelope addressed and franked by Lincoln . This copy remained in the Bancroft family for many years , was sold to various dealers and purchased by Nicholas and Marguerite Lilly Noyes , who donated the manuscript to Cornell in 1949 . It is now held by the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections in the Carl A. Kroch Library at Cornell University . It is the only one of the five copies to be privately owned .
= = = Bliss copy = = =
Discovering that his fourth written copy could not be used , Lincoln then wrote a fifth draft , which was accepted for the purpose requested . The Bliss copy , named for Colonel Alexander Bliss , Bancroft 's stepson and publisher of Autograph Leaves , is the only draft to which Lincoln affixed his signature . Lincoln is not known to have made any further copies of the Gettysburg Address . Because of the apparent care in its preparation , and in part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated this copy , it has become the standard version of the address and the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address . It is the version that is inscribed on the South wall of the Lincoln Memorial .
This draft is now displayed in the Lincoln Room of the White House , a gift of Oscar B. Cintas , former Cuban Ambassador to the United States . Cintas , a wealthy collector of art and manuscripts , purchased the Bliss copy at a public auction in 1949 for $ 54 @,@ 000 ( $ 537 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , at that time the highest price ever paid for a document at public auction . Cintas ' properties were claimed by the Castro government after the Cuban Revolution in 1959 , but Cintas , who died in 1957 , willed the Gettysburg Address to the American people , provided it would be kept at the White House , where it was transferred in 1959 .
Garry Wills concluded the Bliss copy " is stylistically preferable to others in one significant way : Lincoln removed ' here ' from ' that cause for which they ( here ) gave ... ' The seventh ' here ' is in all other versions of the speech . " Wills noted the fact that Lincoln " was still making such improvements " , suggesting Lincoln was more concerned with a perfected text than with an ' original ' one .
From November 21 , 2008 , to January 1 , 2009 , the Albert H. Small Documents Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History hosted a limited public viewing of the Bliss copy , with the support of then @-@ First Lady Laura Bush . The Museum also launched an online exhibition and interactive gallery to enable visitors to look more closely at the document .
= = = Others = = =
Another contemporary source of the text is the Associated Press dispatch , transcribed from the shorthand notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert . It also differs from the drafted text in a number of minor ways .
= = Contemporary sources and reaction = =
Eyewitness reports vary as to their view of Lincoln 's performance . In 1931 , the printed recollections of 87 @-@ year @-@ old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers , who was 19 when she attended the ceremony , suggest a dignified silence followed Lincoln 's speech : " I was close to the President and heard all of the Address , but it seemed short . Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen Friends Meeting . There was no applause when he stopped speaking . " According to historian Shelby Foote , after Lincoln 's presentation , the applause was delayed , scattered , and " barely polite " . In contrast , Pennsylvania Governor Curtin maintained , " He pronounced that speech in a voice that all the multitude heard . The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before them ... It was so Impressive ! It was the common remark of everybody . Such a speech , as they said it was ! " Reinterment of soldiers ' remains from field graves into the cemetery , which had begun within months of the battle , was less than half complete on the day of the ceremony .
In an oft @-@ repeated legend , Lincoln is said to have turned to his bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon and remarked that his speech , like a bad plow , " won 't scour " . According to Garry Wills , this statement has no basis in fact and largely originates from the unreliable recollections of Lamon . In Garry Wills 's view , " [ Lincoln ] had done what he wanted to do [ at Gettysburg ] " .
In a letter to Lincoln written the following day , Everett praised the President for his eloquent and concise speech , saying , " I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion , in two hours , as you did in two minutes . " Lincoln replied that he was glad to know the speech was not a " total failure " .
Other public reaction to the speech was divided along partisan lines . The Democratic @-@ leaning Chicago Times observed , " The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly , flat and dishwatery utterances of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States . " In contrast , the Republican @-@ leaning New York Times was complimentary and printed the speech . In Massachusetts , the Springfield Republican also printed the entire speech , calling it " a perfect gem " that was " deep in feeling , compact in thought and expression , and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma " . The Republican predicted that Lincoln 's brief remarks would " repay further study as the model speech " . On the sesquicentennial of the address , The Patriot @-@ News of Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , formerly the Patriot & Union , retracted its original reaction ( " silly remarks " deserving " the veil of oblivion " ) stating : " Seven score and ten years ago , the forefathers of this media institution brought forth to its audience a judgment so flawed , so tainted by hubris , so lacking in the perspective history would bring , that it cannot remain unaddressed in our archives . ... the Patriot & Union failed to recognize [ the speech 's ] momentous importance , timeless eloquence , and lasting significance . The Patriot @-@ News regrets the error . "
Foreign newspapers also criticized Lincoln 's remarks . The Times of London commented : " The ceremony [ at Gettysburg ] was rendered ludicrous by some of the luckless sallies of that poor President Lincoln . "
Congressman Joseph A. Goulden , then an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old school teacher , was present and heard the speech . He served in the United States Marine Corps during the war , and later had a successful career in insurance in Pennsylvania and New York City before entering Congress as a Democrat . In his later life , Goulden was often asked about the speech , since the passage of time made him one of a dwindling number of individuals who had been present for it . He commented on the event and Lincoln 's speech in favorable terms , naming Lincoln 's address as one of the inspirations for him to enter military service . Goulden 's recollections included remarks to the House of Representatives in 1914 .
= = = Audio recollections = = =
William R. Rathvon is the only known eyewitness of both Lincoln 's arrival at Gettysburg and the address itself to have left an audio recording of his recollections . One year before his death in 1939 , Rathvon 's reminiscences were recorded on February 12 , 1938 , at the Boston studios of radio station WRUL , including his reading the address , itself , and a 78 rpm record was pressed . The title of the 78 record was " I Heard Lincoln That Day – William R. Rathvon , TR Productions " . A copy wound up at National Public Radio ( NPR ) during a " Quest for Sound " project in 1999 . NPR continues to air it around Lincoln 's birthday .
Like most people who came to Gettysburg , the Rathvon family was aware that Lincoln was going to make some remarks . The family went to the town square where the procession was to form to go out to the cemetery that had not been completed yet . At the head of the procession rode Lincoln on a gray horse preceded by a military band that was the first the young boy had ever seen . Rathvon describes Lincoln as so tall and with such long legs that they went almost to the ground ; he also mentions the long eloquent speech given by Edward Everett of Massachusetts whom Rathvon accurately described as the " most finished orator of the day " . Rathvon then goes on to describe how Lincoln stepped forward and " with a manner serious almost to sadness , gave his brief address " . During the delivery , along with some other boys , young Rathvon wiggled his way forward through the crowd until he stood within 15 feet of Mr. Lincoln and looked up into what he described as Lincoln 's " serious face " . Rathvon recalls candidly that , although he listened " intently to every word the president uttered and heard it clearly " , he explains , " boylike , I could not recall any of it afterwards " . But he explains that if anyone said anything disparaging about " honest Abe " , there would have been a " junior battle of Gettysburg " . In the recording Rathvon speaks of Lincoln 's speech allegorically " echoing through the hills " .
= = = Photographs = = =
The only known and confirmed photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg , taken by photographer David Bachrach was identified in the Mathew Brady collection of photographic plates in the National Archives and Records Administration in 1952 . While Lincoln 's speech was short and may have precluded multiple pictures of him while speaking , he and the other dignitaries sat for hours during the rest of the program . Given the length of Everett 's speech and the length of time it took for 19th @-@ century photographers to get " set up " before taking a picture , it is quite plausible that the photographers were ill @-@ prepared for the brevity of Lincoln 's remarks .
= = = Usage of " under God " = = =
The words " under God " do not appear in the Nicolay and Hay drafts but are included in the three later copies ( Everett , Bancroft , and Bliss ) . Accordingly , some skeptics maintain that Lincoln did not utter the words " under God " at Gettysburg . However , at least three reporters telegraphed the text of Lincoln 's speech on the day the Address was given with the words " under God " included . Historian William E. Barton argues that :
Every stenographic report , good , bad and indifferent , says ' that the nation shall , under God , have a new birth of freedom . ' There was no common source from which all the reporters could have obtained those words but from Lincoln 's own lips at the time of delivery . It will not do to say that [ Secretary of War ] Stanton suggested those words after Lincoln 's return to Washington , for the words were telegraphed by at least three reporters on the afternoon of the delivery .
The reporters present included Joseph Gilbert , from the Associated Press ; Charles Hale , from the Boston Advertiser ; John R. Young ( who later became the Librarian of Congress ) , from the Philadelphia Press ; and reporters from the Cincinnati Commercial , New York Tribune , and The New York Times . Charles Hale " had notebook and pencil in hand , [ and ] took down the slow @-@ spoken words of the President " . " He took down what he declared was the exact language of Lincoln 's address , and his declaration was as good as the oath of a court stenographer . His associates confirmed his testimony , which was received , as it deserved to be , at its face value . " One explanation is that Lincoln deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he spoke . Ronald C. White , visiting professor of history at the University of California – Los Angeles and professor of American religious history emeritus at the San Francisco Theological Seminary , wrote in this context of Lincoln 's insertion and usage of " under God " :
It was an uncharacteristically spontaneous revision for a speaker who did not trust extemporaneous speech . Lincoln had added impromptu words in several earlier speeches , but always offered a subsequent apology for the change . In this instance , he did not . And Lincoln included " under God " in all three copies of the address he prepared at later dates . " Under God " pointed backward and forward : back to " this nation " , which drew its breath from both political and religious sources , but also forward to a " new birth " . Lincoln had come to see the Civil War as a ritual of purification . The old Union had to die . The old man had to die . Death became a transition to a new Union and a new humanity .
The phrase " under God " was used frequently in works published before 1860 , usually with the meaning " with God 's help " .
= = Platform location = =
Outside the Cemetery and within sight of the cross @-@ walk , a historical marker proclaims :
Nearby , Nov. 19 , 1863 , in dedicating the National Cemetery , Abraham Lincoln gave the address which he had written in Washington and revised after his arrival at Gettysburg the evening of November 18 .
Directly inside the Taneytown Road entrance are located the Rostrum and the Lincoln Address Memorial . Neither of these is located within 300 yards of any of the five ( or more ) claimed locations for the dedicatory platform .
= = = Pre @-@ modern = = =
Colonel W. Yates Selleck was a marshal in the parade on Consecration Day and was seated on the platform when Lincoln made the address . Selleck marked a map with the position of the platform and described it as " 350 feet almost due north of Soldiers ' National Monument , 40 feet from a point in the outer circle of lots where [ the ] Michigan and New York [ burial sections ] are separated by a path " . A location which approximates this description is 39 ° 49 @.@ 243 ′ N , 77 ° 13 @.@ 869 ′ W.
As pointed out in 1973 by retired park historian Frederick Tilberg , the Selleck Site is 25 feet lower than the crest of Cemetery Hill , and only the crest presents a panoramic view of the battlefield . A spectacular view from the location of the speech was noted by many eyewitnesses , is consistent with the Traditional Site at the Soldiers ' National Monument ( and other sites on the crest ) but is inconsistent with the Selleck Site .
The Kentucky Memorial was erected in 1975 , is located directly adjacent to the Soldiers ' National Monument , and states , " Kentucky honors her son , Abraham Lincoln , who delivered his immortal address at the site now marked by the soldiers ' monument . " With its position at the center of the concentric rings of soldiers ' graves and the continuing endorsement of Lincoln 's native state the Soldiers ' National Monument persists as a credible location for the speech .
Writing a physical description of the layout for the Gettysburg National Cemetery under construction in November 1863 , the correspondent from the Cincinnati Daily Commercial described the dividing lines between the state grave plots as " the radii of a common center , where a flag pole is now raised , but where it is proposed to erect a national monument " . With the inclusion of this quotation Tilberg inadvertently verifies a central principle of future photographic analyses — a flagpole , rather than the speakers ' platform , occupied the central point of the soldiers ' graves . In fact , the precision of the photo @-@ analyses relies upon the coincidence of position between this temporary flag pole and the future monument .
Confusing to today 's tourist , the Kentucky Memorial is contradicted by a newer marker which was erected nearby by the Gettysburg National Military Park and locates the speakers ' platform inside Evergreen Cemetery . Similarly , outdated National Park Service documents which pinpoint the location at the Soldiers ' National Monument have not been systematically revised since the placement of the newer marker . Miscellaneous web pages perpetuate the Traditional Site .
= = = Photo analysis = = =
= = = = 2 @-@ D and optical stereoscopy = = = =
Based upon photographic analysis , the Gettysburg National Military Park ( G.N.M.P. ) placed a marker ( near 39 ° 49 @.@ 199 ′ N 77 ° 13 @.@ 840 ′ W ) which states , " The speakers ' platform was located in Evergreen Cemetery to your left . " The observer of this marker stands facing the fence which separates the two cemeteries ( one public and one private ) .
In 1982 , Senior Park Historian Kathleen Georg Harrison first analyzed photographs and proposed a location in Evergreen Cemetery but has not published her analysis . Speaking for Harrison without revealing details , two sources characterize her proposed location as " on or near [ the ] Brown family vault " in Evergreen Cemetery .
William A. Frassanito , a former military intelligence analyst , documented a comprehensive photographic analysis in 1995 , and it associates the location of the platform with the position of specific modern headstones in Evergreen Cemetery . According to Frassanito , the extant graves of Israel Yount ( died 1892 ) ( 39 ° 49 @.@ 180 ′ N 77 ° 13 @.@ 845 ′ W ) , John Koch ( died 1913 ) ( 39 ° 49 @.@ 184 ′ N 77 ° 13 @.@ 847 ′ W ) , and George E. Kitzmiller ( died 1874 ) ( 39 ° 49 @.@ 182 ′ N 77 ° 13 @.@ 841 ′ W ) are among those which occupy the location of the 1863 speaker 's stand .
= = = = 3 @-@ D photo @-@ rendering and -animation = = = =
Assistant Professor of New Media at the University of North Carolina at Asheville , Christopher Oakley and his students are " working to produce a lifelike virtual 3 @-@ D re @-@ creation of Lincoln delivering the Gettysburg Address " as part of the Virtual Lincoln Project . After taking precise measurements , some using lasers , and countless photographs on Cemetery Hill in 2013 , Oakley 's team used 3 @-@ D animation software Maya to estimate locations for the platform and the photographers who recorded its occupants . This work remains under development .
= = = Resolution = = =
The GNMP marker , Wills ' interpretation of Harrison 's analysis , and the Frassanito analysis concur that the platform was located in private Evergreen Cemetery , rather than public Soldiers ' National Cemetery . The National Park Service 's National Cemetery Walking Tour brochure is one NPS document which agrees :
The Soldiers ' National Monument , long misidentified as the spot from which Lincoln spoke , honors the fallen soldiers . [ The location of the speech ] was actually on the crown of this hill , a short distance on the other side of the iron fence and inside the Evergreen Cemetery , where President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address to a crowd of some 15 @,@ 000 people .
While the GNMP marker is unspecific , providing only " to your left " , the locations determined by the Harrison / Wills analysis and the Frassanito analysis differ by 40 yards . Frassanito has documented 1 ) his own conclusion , 2 ) his own methods and 3 ) a refutation of the Harrison site , but neither the GNMP nor Harrison has provided any documentation . Each of the three points to a location in Evergreen Cemetery , as do modern NPS publications .
Although Lincoln dedicated the Gettysburg National Cemetery , the monument at the Cemetery 's center actually has nothing to do with Lincoln or his famous speech . Intended to symbolize Columbia paying tribute to her fallen sons , its appreciation has been commandeered by the thirst for a tidy home for the speech . Freeing the Cemetery and Monument to serve their original purpose , honoring of Union departed , is as unlikely as a resolution to the location controversy and the erection of a public monument to the speech in the exclusively private Evergreen Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
The importance of the Gettysburg Address in the history of the United States is underscored by its enduring presence in American culture . In addition to its prominent place carved into a stone cella on the south wall of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington , D.C. , the Gettysburg Address is frequently referred to in works of popular culture , with the implicit expectation that contemporary audiences will be familiar with Lincoln 's words .
In the many generations that have passed since the Address , it has remained among the most famous speeches in American history , and is often taught in classes about history or civics . Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address is itself referenced in another of those famed orations , Martin Luther King , Jr . ' s " I Have a Dream " speech . Standing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in August 1963 , King began with a reference , by the style of his opening phrase , to President Lincoln and his enduring words : " Five score years ago , a great American , in whose symbolic shadow we stand today , signed the Emancipation Proclamation . This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice . "
Phrases from the Address are often used or referenced in other works . The current Constitution of France states that the principle of the Republic of France is " gouvernement du peuple , par le peuple et pour le peuple " ( " government of the people , by the people , and for the people " ) , a literal translation of Lincoln 's words . Sun Yat @-@ Sen 's " Three Principles of the People " were inspired from that phrase as well . The aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln has as its ship 's motto the phrase " shall not perish " .
U.S. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts wrote of the address and its enduring presence in American culture after Lincoln 's assassination in April 1865 : " That speech , uttered at the field of Gettysburg ... and now sanctified by the martyrdom of its author , is a monumental act . In the modesty of his nature he said ' the world will little note , nor long remember what we say here ; but it can never forget what they did here . ' He was mistaken . The world at once noted what he said , and will never cease to remember it . "
U.S. President John F. Kennedy stated in July 1963 about the battle and Lincoln 's speech : " Five score years ago the ground on which we here stand shuddered under the clash of arms and was consecrated for all time by the blood of American manhood . Abraham Lincoln , in dedicating this great battlefield , has expressed , in words too eloquent for paraphrase or summary , why this sacrifice was necessary . " Sadly , Kennedy would meet the same fate as Abraham Lincoln only three days after the Gettysburg Address centennial .
In 2015 , the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library Foundation compiled Gettysburg Replies : The World Responds to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address . The work challenges leaders to craft 272 word responses to celebrate Abraham Lincoln , the Gettysburg Address , or a related topic . One of the replies was by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson in which he made the point that one of Lincoln 's greatest legacies was establishing , in the same year of the Gettysburg Address , the National Academy of Sciences , which had the longterm effect of " setting our Nation on a course of scientifically enlightened governance , without which we all may perish from this Earth " .
= Hurricane Ileana ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Ileana was the fourth of six major hurricanes in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . Forming from a tropical wave on August 21 , Ileana tracked northwestward off the coast of Mexico throughout its duration . With favorable conditions for intensification , Ileana reached peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) within 48 hours of forming . Near peak intensity it passed near Socorro Island , and subsequently began to weaken due to cooler waters . On August 27 Ileana weakened to a remnant low , which dissipated two days later . The hurricane produced heavy rainfall along the Mexican coastline , causing flooding , and one person was killed due to strong waves .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 8 , which subsequently tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with minimal convection . The wave crossed into the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 16 , at which time convection increased along the wave axis . Three days later , a weak low pressure area formed along the wave , and early on August 20 some broad cyclonic turning was evident within the cloud pattern . Gradually , banding features developed around the area of deep convection , and the system was expect to develop further as it moved into an increasingly favorable environment . Convection increased late on August 20 , although it initially remained disorganized ; however , the thunderstorms consolidated near the low , and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression by 1200 UTC on August 21 , about 350 mi ( 560 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico .
A mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico caused the cyclone to track steadily northwestward . With warm water temperatures and low vertical wind shear , the depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Ileana . Convection developed and organized into a central dense overcast , and with abundant low @-@ level moisture , rapid deepening was expected . An eye formed in the center of the convection , and Ileana attained hurricane status late on August 22 . On August 23 , about 48 hours after forming , Ileana reached major hurricane status and a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) about 60 mi ( 100 km ) southeast of Socorro Island . It also attained an atmospheric pressure of 955 mbar , as well as an eye diameter of 23 mi ( 37 km ) .
Initially , Ileana was forecast to intensify further to reach Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . After passing south of Socorro Island , the hurricane began a slow weakening trend due to cooler waters ; as the winds decreased , the eye expanded and the thunderstorms waned . The ridge to its north weakened , causing the storm to slow and turn more to the west @-@ northwest . Early on August 26 , Ileana weakened to tropical storm status . Later that day , convection decreased markedly , and early on August 27 it deteriorated to tropical depression status . By late on August 27 , Ileana had been without deep convection for about 18 hours , and so degenerated into a broad remnant low . It continued slowly westward , dissipating on August 29 about 830 mi ( 1340 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cabo San Lucas .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Hurricane Ileana never significantly impacted land , and no tropical cyclone warnings or watches for the storm . While near peak intensity , it passed 60 mi ( 100 km ) south of the unpopulated Socorro Island ; a station on the island recorded sustained winds of 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) , with gusts to 77 mph ( 125 km / h ) . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along the Mexican coastline , causing flooding in Nayarit , Jalisco , Colima , Michoacán , and Baja California Sur . High surf from Ileana reached the coast , killing one man near Cabo San Lucas despite warnings not to swim in the ocean .
= Pink Floyd : Live at Pompeii =
Pink Floyd : Live at Pompeii is a 1972 concert documentary film featuring the English psychedelic rock group Pink Floyd performing at the ancient Roman amphitheatre in Pompeii , Italy , directed by Adrian Maben . Although the band perform a typical live set from the era , the film is notable for having no audience .
The main footage in and around the amphitheatre was filmed over four days in October 1971 , using the band 's regular touring equipment , including studio @-@ quality 24 @-@ track tape recorders . Additional footage filmed in a Paris television studio the following December was added for the original 1972 release . The film was then re @-@ released in 1974 with additional studio material of the band working on The Dark Side of the Moon , and interviews at Abbey Road Studios .
The film has subsequently been released on video numerous times , and in 2003 a " Director 's Cut " DVD appeared which combines the original footage from 1971 with more contemporary shots of space and the area around Pompeii , assembled by Maben . A number of notable bands have taken inspiration from the film in creating their own videos , or filming concerts without an audience .
= = Background = =
Pink Floyd had already experimented with filming outside the context of a standard rock concert , most notably an hour @-@ long performance in KQED TV studios in April 1970 . Adrian Maben had become interested in combining art with Pink Floyd 's music , and during 1971 , he attempted to contact the band 's manager , Steve O 'Rourke , to discuss the possibilities of making a film to achieve this aim . After his original plan of mixing the band with assorted paintings had been rejected , Maben went on holiday to Naples in the early summer .
During a visit to Pompeii , he lost his passport , and went back to the amphitheatre he had visited earlier in the day in order to find it . Walking around the deserted ruins , he thought the silence and natural ambient sounds present would make a good backdrop for the music . He also felt that filming the band without an audience would be a good reaction to earlier films such as Woodstock and Gimme Shelter , where the films paid equal attention to performers and audiences . Through his contacts at the University of Naples , Maben managed to persuade the local authorities to close the amphitheatre for six days that October for filming .
= = Filming = =
= = = Pompeii = = =
The performances of " Echoes " , " A Saucerful of Secrets " , and " One of These Days " were filmed from 4 to 7 October 1971 . O 'Rourke delivered a demo to Maben in order for him to prepare for the various shots required , which he finally managed to do the night before filming started . The choice of material was primarily the band 's , but while Maben realised it was important to include material from the band 's new album Meddle , he was also keen to include " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " and " A Saucerful of Secrets " , as he felt they would be good numbers to film . " Intro Song " was an early version of " Speak to Me " , which later appeared on The Dark Side of the Moon .
The band insisted on playing live , and brought their regular touring gear with them . Their roadie , Peter Watts , suggested that their 24 @-@ track recorder would produce a sound tantamount to that of a studio recording . In addition , it transpired that the natural echo of the amphitheatre provided good acoustics for the recording . The equipment was carried by truck from London , and took three days to reach Pompeii . When it arrived , it was discovered there was insufficient power to drive the equipment correctly , which blew every time it was plugged in . This issue plagued filming for several days , and was finally resolved by running a lengthy cable from the local town hall .
The first section of footage to be filmed were montage shots of the band walking around Boscoreale , mixed with shots of mud , which can be seen at various points in " Echoes " and " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " . For the live performances , the band recorded portions of the songs in sections , which were later spliced together . After each take , they listened to the playback on headphones . Maben closed all the entrances to the amphitheatre , but a few children managed to sneak in , and were allowed to watch the filming quietly from a distance .
= = = Paris = = =
The remaining songs were filmed in Studio Europasonor , Paris , from 13 – 20 December and can be distinguished by the absence of Richard Wright 's beard . To fit in with the theme of the earlier work in Pompeii , the filming around Boscoreale , along with stock footage of waterfalls and lava and various shots of Roman mosaics and drawings from the Naples National Archaeological Museum were added into the Paris footage . Maben also filmed additional front projection footage for insertion into the Pompeii performances . While both the director and the band were disappointed with this footage , due to a lack of time and money , there was no alternative left but to use it .
During the filming in Paris , the band spontaneously suggested they would like to film a short blues with a howling dog , in the style of " Seamus " from Meddle . Maben knew Madonna Bouglione , daughter of circus director Joseph Bouglione , who was known to walk about Paris with a dog called Nobs . Accordingly , Nobs was invited into the studio , where the footage was filmed .
Maben subsequently did some of the editing of the final cut at home , due to financial constraints . He regretted doing this , as he felt it was important to separate his work and home life , but , at the time , he had no choice .
= = Release history = =
The original release , running for one hour , only featured the live footage . The film was scheduled for a special premiere at London 's Rainbow Theatre , on 25 November 1972 . It was cancelled at the last minute by the theatre 's owner , Rank Strand as they didn 't have a certificate from the British Board of Film Censors and the theatre could be seen to be in competition with established cinemas .
Maben was concerned that one of the problems with the film was that it was too short . In early 1973 , Maben was fly fishing with Waters , and suggested the possibility of improving the film by watching them at work in a recording studio . Subsequently , Maben was invited with a small crew using a single 35 mm camera to Abbey Road Studios to film supposed recording sessions of The Dark Side of the Moon , as well as interviews conducted off @-@ camera by Maben , and footage of the band eating and talking at the studio cafeteria . Maben was particularly happy about this footage , feeling it captured the spontaneous humour of the band . This version premiered on 21 August 1974 , and ran for 80 minutes . The recording sessions were actually staged for the film , as the recording of the album had been completed when these sessions were filmed in January 1973 and the band was mixing the album at the time .
The film wasn 't financially successful according to Mason , though Maben disagrees , and suffered particularly from being overshadowed by the release of The Dark Side of the Moon not long after the original theatrical showing . It was released on various home video formats several times .
In 2003 , the director 's cut version of the film was released , running for 92 minutes . In addition to the concert and interview footage , it includes more overlaid imagery including footage from the Apollo space program and computer @-@ generated images of space and Pompeii , and overall has a busier , " updated " feel . The original 1 @.@ 37 : 1 aspect footage is cropped to 1 @.@ 78 : 1 in this version . The DVD also contains the original one @-@ hour cut in its original aspect ratio as a bonus , a collection of black @-@ and @-@ white footage of the band in Paris filmed by Maben in 1972 , and an extensive interview with the director .
= = Reception = =
Maben was particularly pleased with positive reviews that came out of the film 's showing at the Edinburgh International Film Festival , but was disappointed to hear one New York critic describe it " like the size of an ant crawling around the great treasures of Pompeii . "
Billboard magazine was not enthusiastic about the 1974 re @-@ release , thinking it looked dated , and stated that the film was " dull , unimaginative and hokey , and does not do justice to the Pink Floyd Vision " . However , more recent reviews have been favourable . Billboard reviewed a video release in 1984 , and on this occasion , Faye Zuckerman , while not particularly keen on the footage in the Abbey Road canteen , stated it was " vastly superior to most other concert movies " . Reviewing the Director 's Cut DVD , Richie Unterberger said the film had " first @-@ rate cinematography " and was " undeniably impressive " , while Peter Marsh , reviewing for the BBC , stated it was " my favourite concert film of all time " , though his opinions of the new computer generated imagery were mixed .
= = Outtakes = =
Due to the lack of time in filming , no tracks were filmed that were unreleased , but several alternative shots and outtakes were held in the Archives du Film du Bois D 'Arcy near Paris . At some point , an employee of the owners , MHF Productions , decided this footage was of no value and incinerated all 548 cans of the original 35 mm negatives . Maben was particularly frustrated about the lack of additional shots for " One of These Days , " which is primarily a Mason solo @-@ piece in the released version . Mason recalls the reason for that is that the reel of film featuring the other members was lost attempting to assemble the original cut .
= = Track listing = =
= = = 1972 original film = = =
" Intro Song "
" Echoes , Part 1 " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Careful with That Axe , Eugene " ( from Point Me At The Sky , B @-@ side , 1968 )
" A Saucerful of Secrets " ( from A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 )
" One of These Days " ( from Meddle , 1971 )
" Set
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ilian reptile endemic to the southeastern United States . It is one of two living species in the genus Alligator within the family Alligatoridae ; it is larger than the other extant alligator species , the Chinese alligator . Adult male American alligators measure 3 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 6 m ( 11 to 15 ft ) in length , and can weigh up to 453 kg ( 999 lb ) . Females are smaller , measuring around 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The American alligator inhabits freshwater wetlands , such as marshes and cypress swamps from Texas to North Carolina . It is distinguished from the sympatric American crocodile by its broader snout , with overlapping jaws and darker coloration , and is less tolerant of saltwater but more tolerant of cooler climates than the American crocodile , which is found only in tropical climates .
Alligators are apex predators and consume fish , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . Hatchlings feed mostly on invertebrates . They play an important role as ecosystem engineers in wetland ecosystems through the creation of alligator holes , which provide both wet and dry habitats for other organisms . Throughout the year , but particularly during the breeding season , alligators bellow to declare territory and locate suitable mates . Male alligators use infrasound to attract females . Eggs are laid in a nest of vegetation , sticks , leaves , and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water . Young are born with yellow bands around their bodies and are protected by their mother for up to one year .
The American alligator is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Historically , hunting had decimated their population , and the American alligator was listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of 1973 . Subsequent conservation efforts have allowed their numbers to increase and the species was removed from the list in 1987 . Alligators are now harvested for their skins and meat . The species is the official state reptile of three states : Florida , Louisiana , and Mississippi .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The American alligator was first classified by French zoologist François Marie Daudin as Crocodilus mississipiensis in 1801 . In 1807 Georges Cuvier created the genus Alligator ; the American alligator shares this genus with the Chinese alligator . They are grouped in the family Alligatoridae with the caimans . The superfamily Alligatoroidea includes all crocodilians ( fossil and extant ) that are more closely related to the American alligator than to either the Nile crocodile or the gharial .
Members of this superfamily first arose in the late Cretaceous . Leidyosuchus of Alberta is the earliest known genus . Fossil alligatoroids have been found throughout Eurasia as land bridges across both the North Atlantic and the Bering Strait have connected North America to Eurasia during the Cretaceous , Paleogene , and Neogene periods . Alligators and caimans split in North America during the late Cretaceous and the latter reached South America by the Paleogene , before the closure of the Isthmus of Panama during the Neogene period . The Chinese alligator likely descended from a lineage that crossed the Bering land bridge during the Neogene . The modern American alligator is well represented in the fossil record of the Pleistocene . The alligator 's full mitochondrial genome was sequenced in the 1990s and it suggests the animal evolved at a rate similar to mammals and greater than birds and most cold @-@ blooded vertebrates . However , the full genome , published in 2014 , suggests that the alligator evolved much more slowly than mammals and birds .
= = Characteristics = =
Domestic alligators vary from long and slender to short and robust , possibly due to variations in factors such as growth rate , diet , and climate . Alligators have broad snouts , especially in captive individuals . When the jaws are closed , the edges of the upper jaws cover the lower teeth which fit into the jaws ' hollows . Like the spectacled caiman , this species has a bony nasal ridge , though it is less prominent . The teeth number from 74 – 80 . Dorsally , adult alligators may be olive , brown , gray , or black in color , while their undersides are cream @-@ colored .
Some alligators are missing an inhibited gene for melanin , which makes them albino . These alligators are extremely rare and almost impossible to find in the wild . They could only survive in captivity , as they are very vulnerable to the sun and predators .
= = = Size = = =
The American alligator is a fairly large species of crocodilian . On average it is the second largest species in the Alligatoridae family , behind only the black caiman . As with all crocodilians , and as opposed to many mammals where size eventually diminishes with old age , healthy alligators continue to expand throughout their lives and the oldest specimens are the largest . Very old , large male alligators reach an expected maximum size of up to 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) in length , weighing up to 453 kg ( 999 lb ) , while females reach a maximum of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . On rare occasions , a large , old male may grow to an even greater length . During the 19th and 20th centuries , larger males reaching 5 to 6 m ( 16 to 20 ft ) have been reported . The largest reported individual size was a male killed in 1890 on Marsh Island , Louisiana , and reportedly measured at 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft ) in length , but no voucher specimen was available , since the alligator was left on a muddy bank after having been measured due to having been too massive to relocate . If the size of this animal were correct , it would have weighed approximately 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . Large adult alligators tend to be relatively robust and bulky compared to other similarly length crocodilians , for example captive males measuring 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) were found to weigh 200 to 350 kg ( 440 to 770 lb ) ( although captive specimens may outweigh wild specimens due to lack of hunting behavior and other stressors ) . The largest alligator ever killed in Florida was 5 @.@ 31 m ( 17 @.@ 4 ft ) , as reported by the Everglades National Park . The largest alligator scientifically verified in Florida for the period from 1977 to 1993 was reportedly 4 @.@ 23 m ( 13 @.@ 9 ft ) and weighed 473 kg ( 1 @,@ 043 lb ) , although another specimen ( size estimated from skull ) may have measured 4 @.@ 54 m ( 14 @.@ 9 ft ) .
However , American alligators do not normally reach such extreme sizes . In mature males , most specimens grow up to about 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) in length , and will weigh up to 227 kg ( 500 lb ) , while in females , the mature size is normally around 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) , with a body weight of up to 91 kg ( 201 lb ) . In Newnans Lake , Florida , adult males averaged 73 @.@ 2 kg ( 161 lb ) in mass and measured 2 @.@ 47 m ( 8 @.@ 1 ft ) in length while adult females averaged 55 @.@ 1 kg ( 121 lb ) and measured 2 @.@ 22 m ( 7 @.@ 3 ft ) . In Lake Griffin State Park , Florida , adults weighed on average 57 @.@ 9 kg ( 128 lb ) . Weight at sexual maturity per one study was stated as averaging 30 kg ( 66 lb ) while adult weight was claimed as 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . While noticeably sexual dimorphic in size in very mature specimens , the sexual dimorphism of this species is relatively modest amongst crocodilians . In the saltwater crocodile , for example , the females are only slightly larger at average ( 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) in the alligator , 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) in the crocodile ) than female American alligators , but the mature males , at 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 2 m ( 14 to 17 ft ) on average as opposed to 2 @.@ 4 to 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) expected in mature male alligators , are considerably bigger than male American alligators and at median are nearly twice as long as and at least four times as heavy as the female crocodiles of the same species . Given that female alligators have relatively higher survival rates at an early age and a large percentage of given populations are comprised by immature or young breeding alligators , relatively few large mature males of the expected mature length of 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) or more are typically seen . Weight varies considerably depending on length , age , health , season and available food sources . Similar to many other reptiles than range expansively into temperate zones , American alligators from the northern end of their range , such as southern Arkansas , Alabama , and northern North Carolina , tend to reach smaller sizes . The largest alligator caught in Alabama was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) in length , weighing 459 kg ( 1 @,@ 012 lb ) . In Arkansas a man killed an alligator that was 4 @.@ 04 m ( 13 @.@ 3 ft ) and 626 kg ( 1 @,@ 380 lb ) .
= = = Physiology = = =
When on land , an alligator moves either by sprawling or walking , the latter involving the reptile lifting its belly off the ground . The sprawling of alligators and other crocodilians is not similar to that of salamanders and lizards , being similar to walking . Therefore , the two forms of territorial locomotion can be termed the " low walk " and the " high walk " . Unlike most other land vertebrates , alligators increase their speed through the distal rather than proximal ends of their limbs . In the water , alligators swim like fish , moving their pelvic regions and tails from side to side . American alligators held the record as having the strongest laboratory @-@ measured bite of any living animal , measured at up to 9 @,@ 452 newtons ( 2 @,@ 125 lbf ) . It should be noted that this experiment had not been , at the time of the paper published , replicated in any other crocodilians , and the same laboratory was able to measure a greater bite force in saltwater crocodiles ; notwithstanding this very high biting force , the muscles opening the alligator 's jaw are quite weak , and the jaws can be held closed by hand or tape when an alligator is captured . During respiration , air flow is unidirectional , looping through the lungs during inhalation and exhalation ; the alligator 's abdominal muscles can alter the position of the lungs within the torso , thus shifting the center of buoyancy , which allows the alligator to dive , rise , and roll within the water .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
American alligators are found in the wild in the southeastern United States , from the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina , south to Everglades National Park in Florida , and west to the southern tip of Texas . They are found in North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , Florida , Louisiana , Alabama , Mississippi , Arkansas , Oklahoma , and Texas . They inhabit swamps , streams , rivers , ponds , and lakes . Females and juveniles are also found in Carolina Bays and other seasonal wetlands . While they prefer fresh water , alligators may sometimes wander into brackish water , but are less tolerant of salt water than crocodiles , as the salt glands on their tongues do not function . One study of alligators in north @-@ central Florida found the males preferred open lake water during the spring , while females used both swampy and open water areas . During summer , males still preferred open water , while females remained in the swamps to construct their nests and lay their eggs . Both sexes may den underneath banks or clumps of trees during the winter .
American alligators are less vulnerable to cold than American crocodiles . Unlike a crocodile , which would immediately succumb to the cold and drown in water of 45 ° F ( 7 @.@ 2 ° C ) , an alligator can survive in such temperatures for some time without displaying any signs of discomfort . This adaptiveness is thought to be the reason why American alligators are widespread further north than the American crocodile . In fact , the American alligator is found farther from the equator and is more equipped to handle cooler conditions than any other crocodilian . When the water begins to freeze , alligators stick their snouts through the surface which allows them to breathe above the ice .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Alligators modify wetland habitats , most dramatically in flat areas such as the Everglades , by constructing small ponds known as alligator holes . This behavior has qualified the American alligator to be considered a keystone species . Alligator holes retain water during the dry season and provide a refuge for aquatic organisms . Aquatic organisms that survive the dry season by seeking refuge in alligator holes are a source of future populations . The construction of nests along the periphery of alligator holes , as well as a buildup of soils during the excavation process , provide drier areas for other reptiles to nest and a place for plants that are intolerant of inundation to colonize . Alligator holes are an oasis during the Everglades dry season , so are consequently important foraging sites for other organisms . In the limestone depressions of cypress swamps , alligator holes tend to be large and deep , while those in marl prairies and rocky glades are usually small and shallow , and those in peat depressions of ridge and slough wetlands are more variable .
Alligators play an important role in the restoration of the Everglades as biological indicators of restoration success . Alligators are highly sensitive to changes in the hydrology , salinity , and productivity of their ecosystems ; all are factors that are expected to change with Everglades restoration . Alligators also may control the long @-@ term vegetation dynamics in wetlands by reducing the population of small mammals , particularly coypu , which may otherwise overgraze marsh vegetation . In this way , the vital ecological service they provide may be important in reducing rates of coastal wetland losses in Louisiana . They may provide a protection service for water birds nesting on islands in freshwater wetlands . Alligators prevent predatory mammals from reaching island @-@ based rookeries and in return eat spilled food and birds that fall from their nests . Wading birds appear to be attracted to areas with alligators and have been known to nest at heavily trafficked tourist attractions with large numbers of alligators , such as the St. Augustine Alligator Farm in St. Augustine , Florida . In addition to basking on shore , American alligators can and will climb trees to bask in if no shoreline is available . However , this is not often seen as the alligators will retreat back into the water by jumping from their perch .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
The American alligator is considered an apex predator throughout its range . They are opportunists and their diet is determined largely by both the size and age of the alligator and the size and availability of prey . Most alligators will eat a wide variety of animals , including invertebrates , fish , birds , turtles , snakes , amphibians , and mammals . Hatchlings mostly feed on invertebrates such as insects , insect larvae , snails , spiders , and worms . As they grow , alligators gradually expand to larger prey . Once an alligator reaches adulthood , any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey , due to the size and power of the alligator . However , most animals captured by alligators are considerably smaller than the alligator itself . Stomach contents show , among native mammals , muskrats and raccoons are some of the most commonly eaten species . In Louisiana , where introduced coypu are common , they are perhaps the most regular prey for adult alligators , although only larger adult alligators commonly eat this species . Other animals may occasionally be eaten , even large deer or feral wild boars , but these are not normally part of the diet . Occasionally , domestic animals , including dogs , cats , and calves , are taken as available , but are secondary to wild and feral prey . Other prey , including snakes , lizards , and various invertebrates , are eaten occasionally by adults . Water birds , such as herons and egrets , storks , waterfowl and large dabbling rails such as gallinules or coots , are taken when possible . Occasionally , unwary adult birds are grabbed and eaten by alligators , but most predation on bird species occur with unsteady fledgling birds in late summer as the prey of alligators , as fledgling birds attempt to make their first flights near the water 's edge .
The diet of adult alligators from central Florida lakes was dominated by fish , highly opportunistically based upon local availability . In Lake Griffin , fish made up 54 % of the diet by weight , with catfish being most commonly consumed while in Lake Apopka , fish made up 90 % of the food and mostly shad were taken and in Lake Woodruff the diet was 84 % fish and largely consists of bass and sunfish . Unusually in this regions , reptiles and amphibians were the most important non @-@ piscivore prey , mostly comprised by turtles and water snakes . In southern Louisiana , crustacean ( largely crayfish and crabs ) were found to be present in the southeastern alligators but largely absent in the southwestern alligator which consumed a relatively high proportion of reptiles , although fish were the most recorded prey for adult alligators and adult males consumed a large portion of mammals . In East Texas , diets were diverse and adult alligators took mammals , reptiles and amphibians and invertebrates ( i.e. snails ) in often equal measure as they did fish .
Fish and other aquatic prey taken in the water or at the water 's edge form the major part of alligator 's diet and may be eaten at any time of the day or night . Adult alligators also spend considerable time hunting on land , up to 50 m ( 170 ft ) from water , ambushing terrestrial animals on trailsides and road shoulders . Usually , terrestrial hunting occurs on nights with warm temperatures . When hunting terrestrial prey , alligators may also ambush them from the edge of the water by grabbing them and pulling the prey into the water , the preferred method of predation of larger crocodiles . The teeth of the alligator are designed to grip prey , but can not rip or chew flesh like teeth of some other predators ( such as canids and felids ) . The alligator is capable of biting though a turtle 's shell or a moderately sized mammal bone .
Alligators will occasionally prey on large mammals , such as deer , but will usually do so when fish and smaller prey levels go down . Rarely , alligators have been observed killing and eating bobcats , but such events are not common and have little effect on bobcat populations . Alligator predation on Florida panthers is rare , but has been documented . Such incidents usually involve a panther trying to cross a waterway or coming down to a swamp or river to get a drink . The American alligator is the only known natural predator of the panther . Alligator predation on black bears has also been recorded , although it is unknown if the bears taken were full grown adults . Although alligators have been listed as predators of manatees , very little evidence exists of such predation . In the 2000s , when invasive Burmese pythons occupied the Everglades , alligators have been recorded preying on them , possibly controlling populations , thus preventing the invasive species to spread up north .
In 2013 , alligators and other crocodilians were reported to also eat fruit . Such behavior has been witnessed , as well as documented from stomach contents , with the alligators eating such fruit as wild grapes , elderberries , and citrus fruits directly from the trees . The discovery of this unexpected part of the alligator diet further reveals that alligators may be responsible for spreading seeds from the fruit it digests across its habitat .
= = = = Tool use = = = =
American alligators have been documented using lures to hunt prey such as birds . This means they are among the first reptiles recorded to use tools . By balancing sticks and branches on their heads , American alligators are able to lure birds looking for suitable nesting material to kill and consume . This strategy , which is shared by the mugger crocodile , is particularly effective during the nesting season , in which birds are more likely to gather appropriate nesting materials .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Crocodilians are the most vocal of all reptiles and have a variety of different calls depending on the age , size , and sex of the animal . The American alligator can perform specific vocalizations to declare territory , signal distress , threaten competitors , and locate suitable mates . Juvenile alligators can perform a high @-@ pitched hatchling call ( a " yelping " trait common to many crocodilian species ' hatchling young ) to alert their mothers when they are ready to emerge from the nest . Juveniles also make a distress call to alert their mothers if they are being threatened . Although alligators have vocal cords , they function differently than mammals . Both males and females bellow loudly to attract mates and declare territory by sucking air into their lungs and blowing it out in intermittent , deep @-@ toned roars . The bellowing of the American alligator is distinct from the loud roaring of most crocodilians , and is considered unique . Male alligators are known to use infrasound during mating bellows . Bellowing is performed in a " head oblique , tail arched " posture . Infrasonic waves from a bellowing male alligator can cause the surface of the water directly over and to either side of its back to literally " sprinkle " in what is commonly called the " water dance " . Large bellowing " choruses " of alligators during the breeding season are commonly initiated by females and perpetuated by males . Observers of large bellowing choruses have noted they are often felt more than they are heard due to the intense infrasound emitted by males . Alligators bellow in B flat , and bellowing choruses can be induced by tuba players , sonic booms , and large aircraft . In addition to bellowing , alligators can growl , hiss , or cough to threaten others and declare territory .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The breeding season begins in the spring . On spring nights , alligators gather in large numbers for group courtship , in the aforementioned " alligator dances " . The female builds a nest of vegetation , sticks , leaves , and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water . After she lays her 20 to 50 white eggs , about the size of a goose egg , she covers them with more vegetation , which heats as it decays , helping to keep the eggs warm . This differs from Nile crocodiles , which lay their eggs in pits .
The temperature at which alligator eggs develop determines their sex ( see temperature @-@ dependent sex determination ) . Those eggs which are hatched at a temperature of 34 ° C ( 93 ° F ) or more become males , while those at a temperature of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) or lower become female . The nests built on levees are warmer and thus produce males , while the cooler nests of wet marsh produce females . The female remains near the nest throughout the 65 @-@ day incubation period , protecting it from intruders . When the young begin to hatch — their " yelping " calls can sometimes even be heard just before hatching commences — the mother quickly digs them out and carries them to the water in her mouth , as some other crocodilian species are known to do .
The young are tiny replicas of adult alligators with a series of yellow bands around their bodies that serve as camouflage . Hatchlings gather into pods and are guarded by their mother and keep in contact with her through their " yelping " vocalizations . Young alligators eat small fish , frogs , crayfish , and insects . They are preyed on by large fish , birds , raccoons , and adult alligators . Mother alligators eventually become more aggressive towards their young , which encourages them to disperse . Young alligators grow 3 – 8 in ( 7 @.@ 6 – 20 @.@ 3 cm ) a year and reach adulthood at 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . An alligator can live up to 50 years .
= = = Interactions with exotic species = = =
Nutria were introduced into coastal marshes from South America in the mid @-@ 1900s , and their population has since exploded into the millions . They cause serious damage to coastal marshes and may dig burrows in levees . Hence , Louisiana has had a bounty to try to reduce nutria numbers . Large alligators , however , feed heavily on nutria , so alligators may not only control nutria populations in Louisiana , but also prevent them spreading east into the Everglades . Since hunting and trapping preferentially take the large alligators that are the most important in eating nutria , some changes in harvesting may be needed to capitalize on their ability to control nutria .
Recently , a population of Burmese pythons became established in Everglades National Park . Substantial alligator populations in the Everglades may be a contributing factor in keeping the python populations low , preventing the spread of the species up north . While events of predation by Burmese pythons on young alligators have been observed , no evidence of a net negative effect has been seen on overall alligator populations .
= = Conservation status = =
Historically , hunting and habitat loss have severely impacted alligator populations throughout their range , and whether the species would survive was in doubt . In 1967 , the alligator was listed as an endangered species ( under a law that was the precursor Endangered Species Act of 1973 ) , since it was believed to be in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range .
Both the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) and state wildlife agencies in the South contributed to the American alligator 's recovery . Protection under the Endangered Species Act allowed the species to recuperate in many areas where it had been depleted . States began monitoring their alligator populations to ensure that they would continue to grow . In 1987 , the USFWS removed the animal from the endangered species list , as it was considered to be fully recovered . The USFWS still regulates the legal trade in alligators and their products to protect still endangered crocodilians that may be passed off as alligators during trafficking .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = Attacks on humans = = =
Alligators are capable of killing humans . Mistaken identity leading to an attack is always possible , especially in or near cloudy waters . Alligators are often less aggressive towards humans than larger crocodile species , a few of which ( mainly the Nile and Saltwater crocodiles ) may prey on humans with some regularity . Alligator bites are serious injuries due to the reptile 's sheer bite force and risk of infection . Even with medical treatment , an alligator bite may still result in a fatal infection .
As human populations increase , and as they build houses in low @-@ lying areas or fish or hunt near water , incidents are inevitable where alligators intrude , or at least appear to intrude , on human life . Since 1948 , 257 documented attacks on humans in Florida ( about five incidents per year ) have been reported , of which an estimated 23 resulted in death . Only nine fatal attacks occurred in the United States throughout the 1970s – 1990s , but alligators killed 12 people between 2001 and 2007 . In May 2006 , alligators killed three Floridians in less than a week . There have been at least 28 fatal attacks by alligators in the United States since 1970 .
= = = Alligator wrestling = = =
Since the late 1880s , alligator wrestling has been a source of entertainment for some . Created by the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes prior to the arrival of Europeans , this tourism tradition continues to persist despite criticism from animal rights activists .
= = = Alligator farming = = =
Today , alligator farming is a large , growing industry in Georgia , Florida , Texas , and Louisiana . These states produce a combined annual total of some 45 @,@ 000 alligator hides . Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6 to 7 @-@ ft range have sold for $ 300 each . The market for alligator meat is growing , and about 300 @,@ 000 pounds ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) of meat is produced annually . According to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services , raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 Calories ( 840 kJ ) per 3 @-@ oz ( 85 @-@ g ) serving , of which 27 Calories ( 130 kJ ) come from fat .
= = = Symbol = = =
The American alligator is the official state reptile of Florida , Louisiana , and Mississippi . Several organizations and products from Florida have been named after the animal .
" Gators " has been the nickname of the University of Florida 's sports teams since 1911 . In that year , a printer made a spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment decision to print an alligator emblem on a shipment of the school 's football pennants . The mascot stuck , perhaps because the team captain 's nickname was Gator .
The Gator Bowl is a college football game held in Jacksonville annually since 1946 , with Gator Bowl Stadium hosting the event until the 1993 edition . The Gatornationals is a NHRA drag race held at the Gainesville Raceway in Gainesville since 1970 .
= Callisto ( moon ) =
Callisto / kəˈlɪstoʊ / ( Jupiter IV ) is the second @-@ largest moon of Jupiter , after Ganymede . It is the third @-@ largest moon in the Solar System and the largest object in the Solar System not to be properly differentiated . Callisto was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei . At 4821 km in diameter , Callisto has about 99 % the diameter of the planet Mercury but only about a third of its mass . It is the fourth Galilean moon of Jupiter by distance , with an orbital radius of about 1883000 km . It is not in an orbital resonance like the three other Galilean satellites — Io , Europa , and Ganymede — and is thus not appreciably tidally heated . Callisto 's rotation is tidally locked to its orbit around Jupiter , so that the same hemisphere always faces inward ; Jupiter appears to stand nearly still in Callisto 's sky . It is less affected by Jupiter 's magnetosphere than the other inner satellites because of its more remote orbit , located just outside Jupiter 's main radiation belt .
Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices , with a mean density of about 1 @.@ 83 g / cm3 , the lowest density and surface gravity of Jupiter 's major moons . Compounds detected spectroscopically on the surface include water ice , carbon dioxide , silicates , and organic compounds . Investigation by the Galileo spacecraft revealed that Callisto may have a small silicate core and possibly a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths greater than 100 km .
The surface of Callisto is the oldest and most heavily cratered in the Solar System . It does not show any signatures of subsurface processes such as plate tectonics or volcanism , with no signs that geological activity in general has ever occurred , and is thought to have evolved predominantly under the influence of impacts . Prominent surface features include multi @-@ ring structures , variously shaped impact craters , and chains of craters ( catenae ) and associated scarps , ridges and deposits . At a small scale , the surface is varied and made up of small , sparkly frost deposits at the tips of high spots , surrounded by a low @-@ lying , smooth blanket of dark material . This is thought to result from the sublimation @-@ driven degradation of small landforms , which is supported by the general deficit of small impact craters and the presence of numerous small knobs , considered to be their remnants . The absolute ages of the landforms are not known .
Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen , as well as by a rather intense ionosphere . Callisto is thought to have formed by slow accretion from the disk of the gas and dust that surrounded Jupiter after its formation . Callisto 's gradual accretion and the lack of tidal heating meant that not enough heat was available for rapid differentiation . The slow convection in the interior of Callisto , which commenced soon after formation , led to partial differentiation and possibly to the formation of a subsurface ocean at a depth of 100 – 150 km and a small , rocky core .
The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto leaves open the possibility that it could harbor life . However , conditions are thought to be less favorable than on nearby Europa . Various space probes from Pioneers 10 and 11 to Galileo and Cassini have studied Callisto . Because of its low radiation levels , Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the Jovian system .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Callisto was discovered by Galileo in January 1610 , along with three other large Jovian moons — Ganymede , Io , and Europa .
= = = Name = = =
Callisto is named after one of Zeus 's many lovers in Greek mythology . Callisto was a nymph ( or , according to some sources , the daughter of Lycaon ) who was associated with the goddess of the hunt , Artemis . The name was suggested by Simon Marius soon after Callisto 's discovery . Marius attributed the suggestion to Johannes Kepler . However , the names of the Galilean satellites fell into disfavor for a considerable time , and were not revived in common use until the mid @-@ 20th century . In much of the earlier astronomical literature , Callisto is referred to by its Roman numeral designation , a system introduced by Galileo , as Jupiter IV or as " the fourth satellite of Jupiter " . In scientific writing , the adjectival form of the name is Callistoan , pronounced / ˌkælᵻˈstoʊ.ən / , or Callistan .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Callisto is the outermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter . It orbits at a distance of approximately 1 880 000 km ( 26 @.@ 3 times the 71 492 km radius of Jupiter itself ) . This is significantly larger than the orbital radius — 1 070 000 km — of the next @-@ closest Galilean satellite , Ganymede . As a result of this relatively distant orbit , Callisto does not participate in the mean @-@ motion resonance — in which the three inner Galilean satellites are locked — and probably never has .
Like most other regular planetary moons , Callisto 's rotation is locked to be synchronous with its orbit . The length of Callisto 's day , simultaneously its orbital period , is about 16 @.@ 7 Earth days . Its orbit is very slightly eccentric and inclined to the Jovian equator , with the eccentricity and inclination changing quasi @-@ periodically due to solar and planetary gravitational perturbations on a timescale of centuries . The ranges of change are 0 @.@ 0072 – 0 @.@ 0076 and 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 60 ° , respectively . These orbital variations cause the axial tilt ( the angle between rotational and orbital axes ) to vary between 0 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 6 ° .
The dynamical isolation of Callisto means that it has never been appreciably tidally heated , which has important consequences for its internal structure and evolution . Its distance from Jupiter also means that the charged @-@ particle flux from Jupiter 's magnetosphere at its surface is relatively low — about 300 times lower than , for example , that at Europa . Hence , unlike the other Galilean moons , charged @-@ particle irradiation has had a relatively minor effect on Callisto 's surface . The radiation level at Callisto 's surface is equivalent to a dose of about 0 @.@ 01 rem ( 0 @.@ 1 mSv ) per day , which is seven times less than Earth receives .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Composition = = =
The average density of Callisto , 1 @.@ 83 g / cm3 , suggests a composition of approximately equal parts of rocky material and water ice , with some additional volatile ices such as ammonia . The mass fraction of ices is 49 – 55 % . The exact composition of Callisto 's rock component is not known , but is probably close to the composition of L / LL type ordinary chondrites , which are characterized by less total iron , less metallic iron and more iron oxide than H chondrites . The weight ratio of iron to silicon is 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 3 in Callisto , whereas the solar ratio is around 1 : 8 .
Callisto 's surface has an albedo of about 20 % . Its surface composition is thought to be broadly similar to its composition as a whole . Near @-@ infrared spectroscopy has revealed the presence of water ice absorption bands at wavelengths of 1 @.@ 04 , 1 @.@ 25 , 1 @.@ 5 , 2 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 0 micrometers . Water ice seems to be ubiquitous on the surface of Callisto , with a mass fraction of 25 – 50 % . The analysis of high @-@ resolution , near @-@ infrared and UV spectra obtained by the Galileo spacecraft and from the ground has revealed various non @-@ ice materials : magnesium- and iron @-@ bearing hydrated silicates , carbon dioxide , sulfur dioxide , and possibly ammonia and various organic compounds . Spectral data indicate that Callisto 's surface is extremely heterogeneous at the small scale . Small , bright patches of pure water ice are intermixed with patches of a rock – ice mixture and extended dark areas made of a non @-@ ice material .
The Callistoan surface is asymmetric : the leading hemisphere is darker than the trailing one . This is different from other Galilean satellites , where the reverse is true . The trailing hemisphere of Callisto appears to be enriched in carbon dioxide , whereas the leading hemisphere has more sulfur dioxide . Many fresh impact craters like Lofn also show enrichment in carbon dioxide . Overall , the chemical composition of the surface , especially in the dark areas , may be close to that seen on D @-@ type asteroids , whose surfaces are made of carbonaceous material .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Callisto 's battered surface lies on top of a cold , stiff , and icy lithosphere that is between 80 and 150 km thick . A salty ocean 50 – 200 km deep may lie beneath the crust , indicated by studies of the magnetic fields around Jupiter and its moons . It was found that Callisto responds to Jupiter 's varying background magnetic field like a perfectly conducting sphere ; that is , the field cannot penetrate inside Callisto , suggesting a layer of highly conductive fluid within it with a thickness of at least 10 km . The existence of an ocean is more likely if water contains a small amount of ammonia or other antifreeze , up to 5 % by weight . In this case the water + ice layer can be as thick as 250 – 300 km . Failing an ocean , the icy lithosphere may be somewhat thicker , up to about 300 km .
Beneath the lithosphere and putative ocean , Callisto 's interior appears to be neither entirely uniform nor particularly variable . Galileo orbiter data ( especially the dimensionless moment of inertia — 0 @.@ 3549 ± 0 @.@ 0042 — determined during close flybys ) suggest that its interior is composed of compressed rocks and ices , with the amount of rock increasing with depth due to partial settling of its constituents . In other words , Callisto is only partially differentiated . The density and moment of inertia are compatible with the existence of a small silicate core in the center of Callisto . The radius of any such core cannot exceed 600 km , and the density may lie between 3 @.@ 1 and 3 @.@ 6 g / cm3 . Callisto 's interior is in stark contrast to that of Ganymede , which appears to be fully differentiated .
= = = Surface features = = =
The ancient surface of Callisto is one of the most heavily cratered in the Solar System . In fact , the crater density is close to saturation : any new crater will tend to erase an older one . The large @-@ scale geology is relatively simple ; there are no large mountains on Callisto , volcanoes or other endogenic tectonic features . The impact craters and multi @-@ ring structures — together with associated fractures , scarps and deposits — are the only large features to be found on the surface .
Callisto 's surface can be divided into several geologically different parts : cratered plains , light plains , bright and dark smooth plains , and various units associated with particular multi @-@ ring structures and impact craters . The cratered plains constitute most of the surface area and represent the ancient lithosphere , a mixture of ice and rocky material . The light plains include bright impact craters like Burr and Lofn , as well as the effaced remnants of old large craters called palimpsests , the central parts of multi @-@ ring structures , and isolated patches in the cratered plains . These light plains are thought to be icy impact deposits . The bright , smooth plains constitute a small fraction of Callisto 's surface and are found in the ridge and trough zones of the Valhalla and Asgard formations and as isolated spots in the cratered plains . They were thought to be connected with endogenic activity , but the high @-@ resolution Galileo images showed that the bright , smooth plains correlate with heavily fractured and knobby terrain and do not show any signs of resurfacing . The Galileo images also revealed small , dark , smooth areas with overall coverage less than 10 @,@ 000 km2 , which appear to embay the surrounding terrain . They are possible cryovolcanic deposits . Both the light and the various smooth plains are somewhat younger and less cratered than the background cratered plains .
Impact crater diameters seen range from 0 @.@ 1 km — a limit defined by the imaging resolution — to over 100 km , not counting the multi @-@ ring structures . Small craters , with diameters less than 5 km , have simple bowl or flat @-@ floored shapes . Those 5 – 40 km across usually have a central peak . Larger impact features , with diameters in the range 25 – 100 km , have central pits instead of peaks , such as Tindr crater . The largest craters with diameters over 60 km can have central domes , which are thought to result from central tectonic uplift after an impact ; examples include Doh and Hár craters . A small number of very large — more 100 km in diameter — and bright impact craters show anomalous dome geometry . These are unusually shallow and may be a transitional landform to the multi @-@ ring structures , as with the Lofn impact feature . Callisto 's craters are generally shallower than those on the Moon .
The largest impact features on Callisto 's surface are multi @-@ ring basins . Two are enormous . Valhalla is the largest , with a bright central region 600 kilometers in diameter , and rings extending as far as 1 @,@ 800 kilometers from the center ( see figure ) . The second largest is Asgard , measuring about 1 @,@ 600 kilometers in diameter . Multi @-@ ring structures probably originated as a result of a post @-@ impact concentric fracturing of the lithosphere lying on a layer of soft or liquid material , possibly an ocean . The catenae — for example Gomul Catena — are long chains of impact craters lined up in straight lines across the surface . They were probably created by objects that were tidally disrupted as they passed close to Jupiter prior to the impact on Callisto , or by very oblique impacts . A historical example of a disruption was Comet Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 .
As mentioned above , small patches of pure water ice with an albedo as high as 80 % are found on the surface of Callisto , surrounded by much darker material . High @-@ resolution Galileo images showed the bright patches to be predominately located on elevated surface features : crater rims , scarps , ridges and knobs . They are likely to be thin water frost deposits . Dark material usually lies in the lowlands surrounding and mantling bright features and appears to be smooth . It often forms patches up to 5 km across within the crater floors and in the intercrater depressions .
On a sub @-@ kilometer scale the surface of Callisto is more degraded than the surfaces of other icy Galilean moons . Typically there is a deficit of small impact craters with diameters less than 1 km as compared with , for instance , the dark plains on Ganymede . Instead of small craters , the almost ubiquitous surface features are small knobs and pits . The knobs are thought to represent remnants of crater rims degraded by an as @-@ yet uncertain process . The most likely candidate process is the slow sublimation of ice , which is enabled by a temperature of up to 165 K , reached at a subsolar point . Such sublimation of water or other volatiles from the dirty ice that is the bedrock causes its decomposition . The non @-@ ice remnants form debris avalanches descending from the slopes of the crater walls . Such avalanches are often observed near and inside impact craters and termed " debris aprons " . Sometimes crater walls are cut by sinuous valley @-@ like incisions called " gullies " , which resemble certain Martian surface features . In the ice sublimation hypothesis , the low @-@ lying dark material is interpreted as a blanket of primarily non @-@ ice debris , which originated from the degraded rims of craters and has covered a predominantly icy bedrock .
The relative ages of the different surface units on Callisto can be determined from the density of impact craters on them . The older the surface , the denser the crater population . Absolute dating has not been carried out , but based on theoretical considerations , the cratered plains are thought to be ~ 4 @.@ 5 billion years old , dating back almost to the formation of the Solar System . The ages of multi @-@ ring structures and impact craters depend on chosen background cratering rates and are estimated by different authors to vary between 1 and 4 billion years .
= = = Atmosphere and ionosphere = = =
Callisto has a very tenuous atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide . It was detected by the Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer ( NIMS ) from its absorption feature near the wavelength 4 @.@ 2 micrometers . The surface pressure is estimated to be 7 @.@ 5 × 10 − 12 bar ( 0 @.@ 75 µPa ) and particle density 4 × 108 cm − 3 . Because such a thin atmosphere would be lost in only about 4 days ( see atmospheric escape ) , it must be constantly replenished , possibly by slow sublimation of carbon dioxide ice from Callisto 's icy crust , which would be compatible with the sublimation – degradation hypothesis for the formation of the surface knobs .
Callisto 's ionosphere was first detected during Galileo flybys ; its high electron density of 7 – 17 × 104 cm − 3 cannot be explained by the photoionization of the atmospheric carbon dioxide alone . Hence , it is suspected that the atmosphere of Callisto is actually dominated by molecular oxygen ( in amounts 10 – 100 times greater than CO
2 ) . However , oxygen has not yet been directly detected in the atmosphere of Callisto . Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) placed an upper limit on its possible concentration in the atmosphere , based on lack of detection , which is still compatible with the ionospheric measurements . At the same time HST was able to detect condensed oxygen trapped on the surface of Callisto .
= = Origin and evolution = =
The partial differentiation of Callisto ( inferred e.g. from moment of inertia measurements ) means that it has never been heated enough to melt its ice component . Therefore , the most favorable model of its formation is a slow accretion in the low @-@ density Jovian subnebula — a disk of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after its formation . Such a prolonged accretion stage would allow cooling to largely keep up with the heat accumulation caused by impacts , radioactive decay and contraction , thereby preventing melting and fast differentiation . The allowable timescale of formation of Callisto lies then in the range 0 @.@ 1 million – 10 million years .
The further evolution of Callisto after accretion was determined by the balance of the radioactive heating , cooling through thermal conduction near the surface , and solid state or subsolidus convection in the interior . Details of the subsolidus convection in the ice is the main source of uncertainty in the models of all icy moons . It is known to develop when the temperature is sufficiently close to the melting point , due to the temperature dependence of ice viscosity . Subsolidus convection in icy bodies is a slow process with ice motions of the order of 1 centimeter per year , but is , in fact , a very effective cooling mechanism on long timescales . It is thought to proceed in the so @-@ called stagnant lid regime , where a stiff , cold outer layer of Callisto conducts heat without convection , whereas the ice beneath it convects in the subsolidus regime . For Callisto , the outer conductive layer corresponds to the cold and rigid lithosphere with a thickness of about 100 km . Its presence would explain the lack of any signs of the endogenic activity on the Callistoan surface . The convection in the interior parts of Callisto may be layered , because under the high pressures found there , water ice exists in different crystalline phases beginning from the ice I on the surface to ice VII in the center . The early onset of subsolidus convection in the Callistoan interior could have prevented large @-@ scale ice melting and any resulting differentiation that would have otherwise formed a large rocky core and icy mantle . Due to the convection process , however , very slow and partial separation and differentiation of rocks and ices inside Callisto has been proceeding on timescales of billions of years and may be continuing to this day .
The current understanding of the evolution of Callisto allows for the existence of a layer or " ocean " of liquid water in its interior . This is connected with the anomalous behavior of ice I phase 's melting temperature , which decreases with pressure , achieving temperatures as low as 251 K at 2 @,@ 070 bar ( 207 MPa ) . In all realistic models of Callisto the temperature in the layer between 100 and 200 km in depth is very close to , or exceeds slightly , this anomalous melting temperature . The presence of even small amounts of ammonia — about 1 – 2 % by weight — almost guarantees the liquid 's existence because ammonia would lower the melting temperature even further .
Although Callisto is very similar in bulk properties to Ganymede , it apparently had a much simpler geological history . The surface appears to have been shaped mainly by impacts and other exogenic forces . Unlike neighboring Ganymede with its grooved terrain , there is little evidence of tectonic activity . Explanations that have been proposed for the contrasts in internal heating and consequent differentiation and geologic activity between Callisto and Ganymede include differences in formation conditions , the greater tidal heating experienced by Ganymede , and the more numerous and energetic impacts that would have been suffered by Ganymede during the Late Heavy Bombardment . The relatively simple geological history of Callisto provides planetary scientists with a reference point for comparison with other more active and complex worlds .
= = Potential habitability = =
It is speculated that there could be life in Callisto 's subsurface ocean . Like Europa and Ganymede , as well as Saturn 's moons Enceladus , Mimas , Dione and Titan , a possible subsurface ocean might be composed of salt water .
It is possible that halophiles could thrive in the ocean . As with Europa and Ganymede , the idea has been raised that habitable conditions and even extraterrestrial microbial life may exist in the salty ocean under the Callistoan surface . However , the environmental conditions necessary for life appear to be less favorable on Callisto than on Europa . The principal reasons are the lack of contact with rocky material and the lower heat flux from the interior of Callisto . Scientist Torrence Johnson said the following about comparing the odds of life on Callisto with the odds on other Galilean moons :
The basic ingredients for life — what we call ' pre @-@ biotic chemistry ' — are abundant in many solar system objects , such as comets , asteroids and icy moons . Biologists believe liquid water and energy are then needed to actually support life , so it 's exciting to find another place where we might have liquid water . But , energy is another matter , and currently , Callisto 's ocean is only being heated by radioactive elements , whereas Europa has tidal energy as well , from its greater proximity to Jupiter .
Based on the considerations mentioned above and on other scientific observations , it is thought that of all of Jupiter 's moons , Europa has the greatest chance of supporting microbial life .
= = Exploration = =
The Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounters in the early 1970s contributed little new information about Callisto in comparison with what was already known from Earth @-@ based observations . The real breakthrough happened later with the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flybys in 1979 . They imaged more than half of the Callistoan surface with a resolution of 1 – 2 km , and precisely measured its temperature , mass and shape . A second round of exploration lasted from 1994 to 2003 , when the Galileo spacecraft had eight close encounters with Callisto , the last flyby during the C30 orbit in 2001 came as close as 138 km to the surface . The Galileo orbiter completed the global imaging of the surface and delivered a number of pictures with a resolution as high as 15 meters of selected areas of Callisto . In 2000 , the Cassini spacecraft en route to Saturn acquired high @-@ quality infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites including Callisto . In February – March 2007 , the New Horizons probe on its way to Pluto obtained new images and spectra of Callisto .
The next planned mission to the Jovian system is the European Space Agency 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) , due to launch in 2022 . Several close flybys of Callisto are planned during the mission .
= = = Old proposals = = =
Formerly proposed for a launch in 2020 , the Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter 's moons . In February 2009 it was announced that ESA / NASA had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission . ESA 's contribution still faced funding competition from other ESA projects . EJSM consisted of the NASA @-@ led Jupiter Europa Orbiter , the ESA @-@ led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter , and possibly a JAXA @-@ led Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter .
= = Potential colonization = =
In 2003 NASA conducted a conceptual study called Human Outer Planets Exploration ( HOPE ) regarding the future human exploration of the outer Solar System . The target chosen to consider in detail was Callisto .
The study proposed a possible surface base on Callisto that would produce rocket propellant for further exploration of the Solar System . Advantages of a base on Callisto include low radiation ( due to its distance from Jupiter ) and geological stability . Such a base could facilitate remote exploration of Europa , or be an ideal location for a Jovian system waystation servicing spacecraft heading farther into the outer Solar System , using a gravity assist from a close flyby of Jupiter after departing Callisto .
In December 2003 , NASA reported that a manned mission to Callisto may be possible in the 2040s .
= Cleveland Centennial half dollar =
The Cleveland Centennial half dollar is a commemorative United States half dollar struck at the Philadelphia Mint in 1936 and 1937 , though all bear the earlier date . Sometimes known as the Cleveland Centennial Great Lakes Exposition half dollar , it was issued to mark the 100th anniversary of Cleveland , Ohio as an incorporated city , and in commemoration of the Great Lakes Exposition , held in Cleveland in 1936 .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , commemorative coins were quickly increasing in value , and Cincinnati businessman Thomas G. Melish , a coin collector , sought to get Congress to authorize several new issues , of which he would be the sole distributor . He was successful with the Cincinnati Musical Center half dollar , from which he profited greatly , and with the Cleveland piece . Brenda Putnam designed the coin , which was approved by the Commission of Fine Arts after suggestions by sculptor Lee Lawrie .
Melish distributed the Cleveland coins via sales at the exposition , at local banks , and by mail order from his office in Cincinnati . Sales were good , and the full authorized mintage of 50 @,@ 000 was struck . Congress had inserted safeguards in the legislation to prevent repetition of past abuses , and though some of the coins were minted in 1937 , there was no change of date , meaning collectors would only have to purchase one piece to have a complete set . Thousands remained in dealer inventories for years , and the coins remain inexpensive by the standards of commemorative coins of the era .
= = Background = =
The area known as the Western Reserve , now in eastern Ohio , was the subject of dispute among the states after the American Revolutionary War , several of which claimed it as part of their territory . Although political rights to the area were given up to the federal government , Connecticut kept land ownership , and used part of its holdings to resettle those whose homes had been destroyed by the British during the war . The remainder was sold to the Connecticut Land Company in 1795 . Moses Cleaveland was a surveyor , a lawyer , and one of the company 's directors . In 1796 , he set out a townsite along Lake Erie , that came to bear his name . In 1830 , a newspaper , to be called the Cleaveland Advertiser , was begun . The editor found the name one character too long to fit in the printing form , and dropped the first " a " in Cleaveland — a change that was adopted by the public . The town of Cleveland became a city in 1836 .
Thomas G. Melish was a prominent Cincinnati businessman , who had inherited the Bromwell Wire Company . Melish was also a coin collector , who came up with an idea for a commemorative coin that he would control . At the time , commemoratives were not sold by the government — Congress , in authorizing legislation , designated an organization which had the exclusive right to purchase the coins at face value and vend them to the public at a premium . The result was the 1936 Cincinnati Music Center half dollar , an issue controlled by Melish and issued to commemorate an anniversary that did not exist . Melish sold only a few coins at the issue price , which was high , keeping back most for later sale once scarcity drove the price higher . By 1936 , the market for U.S. commemorative coins had become , according to Q. David Bowers , " as hot as a volcano " and " Congress gave [ Melish ] permission to have his own commemorative coins minted and to charge the public whatever he liked for them ! " Melish , who had friends in Congress , had in early 1936 also tried to get lawmakers to authorize other commemorative issues that he would control . The only one of these that came to fruition was the Cleveland Centennial half dollar .
= = Legislation = =
A bill for a Cleveland Centennial half dollar was introduced into the United States Senate by Ohio 's Robert J. Bulkley on March 23 , 1936 , and it was referred to the Committee on Banking and Currency . The bill was to honor the 100th anniversary of Cleveland 's incorporation as a city , and the Great Lakes Exposition , to be held there in 1936 . The original bill would have provided for 50 @,@ 000 pieces , which could be purchased from the United States Bureau of the Mint at any time , and could be struck by any or all of the three mints then in operation . The bill was reported out of committee by chairman Alva B. Adams of Colorado on March 26 , drastically amended .
Adams had held hearings on other commemorative coins on March 11 , 1936 , and had heard of the abuses as issuers sought to get collectors to buy their coins . These included getting additional designs authorized ( as in the case of the Arkansas Centennial half dollar ) and having the coins struck at all three mints . As the law required coins to bear the year of striking , minting them in successive years at multiple mints created more varieties that coin enthusiasts would have to buy to keep their collections complete . The committee heard of the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar , authorized in 1926 and still being struck in 1936 , and of commemorative coins created with intentionally low mintages as a way of inflating prices . When legislation for a Cleveland half dollar came before his committee , Adams struck the entire bill , after the enacting clause , and substituted a new version . The original legislation had given the Cleveland Centennial Commemorative Coin Committee , controlled by Melich , discretion to have the new piece struck at any of the mints , at any time even over the course of years , in any amount up to the authorized limit of 50 @,@ 000 . Adams 's new text kept the total limit , but set a minimum of 25 @,@ 000 that had to be issued . Adams 's amendment required that all the coins be of a single design , be struck at a single mint ( to be selected by the Director of the Mint ) . It provided that all the coins be dated 1936 even if struck later , and that the Cleveland committee could purchase no less than 5 @,@ 000 at a time . In a separate report , Senator Adams noted that Bulkley 's original bill " contains certain provisions which the committee recommends be eliminated not only from such bill but also from all subsequent bills relating to the issuance of commemorative coins . "
The bill , as amended , passed the Senate without recorded vote on March 27 , 1936 . The House of Representatives received the bill on April 1 , and referred it to the Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures . It was reported back to the House on April 16 , having been amended to require the Cleveland committee to purchase not less than 25 @,@ 000 coins at one time , eliminating the possibility that the committee could order an initial 5 @,@ 000 and then fail to purchase any more . The full House considered the bill on April 23 , 1936 , with the bill reported by John Joseph Cochran of Missouri as an emergency measure . When he asked for unanimous consent to pass the amended bill , Pennsylvania 's Robert F. Rich asked how many coinage bills were going to be considered and if it would not be possible to consolidate a dozen of them into one bill . Cochran replied that he had consulted with Ohio 's Robert Crosser and been informed that " if we do not get the authority to print the coins now it will be useless " . The following day , Bulkley moved that the Senate concur in the House amendments , which it did , and the bill was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on May 5 , 1936 .
= = Preparation = =
Brenda Putnam , a well @-@ known sculptor , was engaged to design the coin . On May 1 , even before Roosevelt signed the legislation , the Director of the Mint , Nellie Tayloe Ross , sent sketches that had been submitted by Putnam to the Commission of Fine Arts . That commission had been charged by a 1921 executive order by President Warren G. Harding with rendering advisory opinions on the designs of public artworks , including coins . On May 2 , commission chairman Charles Moore responded to Ross , giving preliminary approval , and stating that one of its members would work with Putnam as she prepared the necessary plaster models . That representative was Lee Lawrie , who suggested to Putnam that she use stars to represent the cities of the Great Lakes region . Putnam had placed , on the map on the reverse , sketches of buildings to represent the sites of Chicago , Detroit , Cleveland , Buffalo , and Toronto . When Lawrie wrote to Moore to report this and other progress , Moore joked about the coin having an enlarged star for Cleveland ,
At funerals I hear read the Scriptures to the effect that " one star differeth from another in glory " . So I suppose Miss Putnam 's big star for Cleveland refers to the glory rather than the size of the city . Well , as a voter in Detroit I don 't mind , and probably no Chicago person will ever see one of the coins . I am convinced that the whole movement is a coin @-@ collector 's racket that is going on all over the country .
Putnam 's models were approved by the commission on June 2 , 1936 . The Medallic Art Company of New York reduced the models to half @-@ dollar sized hubs from which coinage dies could be prepared .
= = Design = =
Putnam 's obverse features Moses Cleaveland , in a depiction based on the only known portrait of him , by an unknown artist . Surrounding Cleaveland are two lines of inscription , UNITED STATES OF AMERICA * HALF DOLLAR and MOSES CLEAVELAND * LIBERTY . The designer 's initials , " PB " are beneath Cleaveland 's head . The reverse shows a map of the Great Lakes region with nine stars to represent its cities : Cleveland , Buffalo , Chicago , Detroit , Duluth , Milwaukee , Rochester , Toledo and Toronto . Cleveland gets the largest star , which is transfixed by a compass . Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their book on commemoratives , stated that " we have not found documentation , but we suspect that the compass was intended to show Cleveland as the center of industry within a radius of approximately 900 miles " , thus encompassing , the authors suggested , not only the Great Lakes cities represented , but New York , Boston , Washington , and St. Louis . The other inscriptions required by law appear in the upper right of the reverse , and 1836 GREAT LAKES EXPOSITION 1936 CLEVELAND CENTENNIAL surround the map
Numismatist David Bullowa , in his early work on commemoratives , stated , " the design of this issue is pleasing ... the obverse and reverse alike are sharply defined , interesting and not crowded " . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his work on U.S. coins and medals , wrote that the half dollar " manages to combine most of the faults found in the better designs of the 1920 's and 1930 's . " After complaining about the flat design and the large amount of lettering on both sides , Vermeule critiqued , " the bust of Moses Cleaveland can only be described as commonplace , and the view of the Great Lakes , bisected by a large compass , is nothing short of incomprehensible . " Nevertheless , Vermeule suggested that Putnam did the best she could to squeeze the required text onto a half dollar , and she might have done better with fewer words to place .
= = Production , distribution , and collecting = =
Melish , in his capacity as treasurer of the Cleveland committee , ordered 25 @,@ 000 pieces in July 1936 . They were shipped from the Philadelphia Mint , where they were struck , on July 20 . In addition to those pieces , 15 coins were struck and set aside for inspection and testing at the 1937 meeting of the annual Assay Commission . Melish had arranged for the Philadelphia Mint to place the first 201 struck into individual numbered envelopes ; these were later placed in special cardboard holders , the first by itself and each two thereafter together , with a notarized statement from Melish .
The Cleveland Centennial and Great Lakes Exposition opened on June 27 , 1936 , and before it closed on October 4 , some four million people passed through its gates . Located on a 150 @-@ acre ( 61 ha ) site by the shores of Lake Erie , there were artistic and industrial exhibits , as well as the usual amusements . The half dollars were sold at the fairgrounds , at Ohio banks , and by mail order from Melish 's office in Cincinnati . Editor Lee Hewitt commented in the Numismatic Scrapbook , " it seems strange that Mr. Melish , living in Cincinnati , should be the distributor of the Cleveland issue . " The Cincinnati Musical Center coin had quickly sold out , the pieces Melish allowed on the market many times oversubscribed , but for the Cleveland piece , " Melish 's sales strategy had to be very different ; the coins would have to be aimed at the Exposition visitors and the general public at $ 1 @.@ 50 each , not at his own coterie of greedy speculators " .
Melish sent form letters to collectors warning that his committee had received offers from speculators to buy the entire issue and suggesting they act quickly to get their orders in . By the end of July , Melish wrote that 24 @,@ 000 pieces had been distributed and that the remaining thousand soon would be . Sales were good enough that in February 1937 , Melish ordered the 25 @,@ 000 pieces which remained from the authorized quantity . In addition to those 25 @,@ 000 coins , 15 more pieces were struck , intended for the 1938 Assay Commission . Because of the legislation , the new pieces resembled the old exactly , including bearing the date " 1936 " . So many were produced that thousands were hoarded by coin dealers . In 1942 , Melish offered 16 @,@ 000 Cleveland Centennial half dollars to prominent dealer Abe Kosoff for any advance on face value . Kosoff , who would , after Melish 's death , auction his coin collection , declined .
In 1941 , the Western Reserve Coin Club of Cleveland celebrated its 20th anniversary by countermarking 100 Cleveland Centennial half dollars with a special design . The Secret Service objected , and many were destroyed . The club made similar markings for its 50th and 75th anniversaries , without government interference . The Cleveland Centennial coin is the most common commemorative of the many different designs struck in 1936 . R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , published in 2015 , lists the issue at between $ 215 and $ 300 , depending on condition . An exceptional specimen sold at auction in 2014 for $ 4 @,@ 700 .
= Richard Roma =
Richard Roma is a fictional character from David Mamet 's 1982 play Glengarry Glen Ross and its 1992 film adaptation . Roma has been portrayed by a range of actors , including Joe Mantegna , Al Pacino and Liev Schreiber , although the role was originated by Jack Shepherd .
Actors portraying Roma have seen multiple stage award wins and nominations — both Mantegna and Schreiber received a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play for their depictions , while Shepherd earned a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor for his portrayal . In film , Pacino received nominations for both the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor In A Supporting Role in a Motion Picture .
= = Conceptual history = =
Roma , along with the rest of the salesmen in Glengarry Glen Ross , was written based on playwright David Mamet 's previous experiences selling " worthless " Arizona real estate from an office in Chicago . Mamet described the colorful dialogue used by the character — which has also been described as " following in the steps of " Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman — as having been influenced by overheard conversations and street slang .
= = Plot = =
Richard Roma is a cut @-@ throat and successful real estate salesman , who derives his success from eloquent and convincing pitches , preying on insecure clients with illusions of power and machismo . During the events of Glengarry Glen Ross , Roma is in contention for a prize to be awarded to the top " closer " at his firm , having just closed a large sale with a man called Lingk . Overnight , the firm 's office is burgled , and lucrative leads for top real estate are stolen . Lingk arrives at the office during the investigation , eager to cancel his purchase during his cooling @-@ off period . Roma attempts to distract Lingk from doing so in the hope that this period will pass , trapping Lingk in the sale , but well @-@ intentioned comments by the firm 's manager , trying to play along , catch Roma in a lie , and Lingk demands a refund on his purchase .
= = Reception = =
= = = Character = = =
Writing for The New York Times , Mickey Rapkin considered Roma to be the central character of the play , describing him as " the salesman ’ s salesman , a shark in a sharkskin suit " . Mantegna has stated that he feels Roma is not a " sleazy " character , but simply a man who can convince customers to follow through on their dreams . Reviewing a 2012 revival at the La Jolla Playhouse , Charles McNulty of the Los Angeles Times compared Roma to a Giacomo Casanova @-@ type figure , adding that " when Roma puts the moves on a prospective buyer , it 's as though he 's making love to them " . While interviewing actor Aidan Gillen , The Guardian 's Mark Lawson felt that Roma was an amoral character , considering him a " super @-@ schmoozer " . Gillen , then portraying the character in the Apollo Theatre in London , described him as a " cunt with a romantic , poetic streak " .
= = = Depictions = = =
Portrayals of Roma have often been received positively by critics . Schreiber 's portrayal in the 2005 Broadway revival was praised as that of " a most crafty spider indeed " , with the actor 's grasp of the character 's Chicago accent praised for its subtlety . Gillen 's 2007 turn as Roma has been described as " sweaty and aggressive with a hard , rodent @-@ like quality " , with reviewer Lyn Gardner of The Guardian finding the performance excellent . Manu Narayan 's 2012 depiction was described as " adding velocity " to a " high testosterone " production , coming across as rhythmic and an effective focal point in the piece . Reviewing the 1992 film version , Roger Ebert praised Pacino 's acting , writing " any kid can play a war hero . But it takes a real man to play a busted @-@ down real estate salesman " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Shepherd 's original performance as Roma earned the actor a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in 1983 . On Broadway , both Mantegna and Schreiber have won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play while portraying Roma — Mantegna at the 38th Tony Awards in 1984 , and Schreiber at the 59th Tony Awards in 2005 . Pacino 's role in the film adaptation earned him several unsuccessful nominations , including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor In A Supporting Role in a Motion Picture , both times losing out to Gene Hackman in Unforgiven
= Poliomyelitis =
Poliomyelitis , often called polio or infantile paralysis , is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus . In about 0 @.@ 5 % of cases there is muscle weakness resulting in an inability to move . This can occur over a few hours to few days . The weakness most often involves the legs but may less commonly involve the muscles of the head , neck and diaphragm . Many but not all people fully recover . In those with muscle weakness about 2 % to 5 % of children and 15 % to 30 % of adults die . Another 25 % of people have minor symptoms such as fever and a sore throat and up to 5 % have headache , neck stiffness and pains in the arms and legs . These people are usually back to normal within one or two weeks . In up to 70 % of infections there are no symptoms . Years after recovery post @-@ polio syndrome may occur , with a slow development of muscle weakness similar to that which the person had during the initial infection .
Poliovirus is usually spread from person to person through infected fecal matter entering the mouth . It may also be spread by food or water containing human feces and less commonly from infected saliva . Those who are infected may spread the disease for up to six weeks even if no symptoms are present . The disease may be diagnosed by finding the virus in the feces or detecting antibodies against it in the blood . The disease only occurs naturally in humans .
The disease is preventable with the polio vaccine ; however , a number of doses are required for it to be effective . The United States Center for Disease Control recommends polio vaccination boosters for travelers and those who live in countries where the disease is occurring . Once infected there is no specific treatment . In 2015 polio affected less than 100 people down from 350 @,@ 000 cases in 1988 . In 2014 the disease was only spreading between people in Afghanistan , Nigeria , and Pakistan . In 2015 Nigeria had stopped the spread of wild poliovirus .
Poliomyelitis has existed for thousands of years , with depictions of the disease in ancient art . The disease was first recognized as a distinct condition by Michael Underwood in 1789 and the virus that causes it was first identified in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner . Major outbreaks started to occur in the late 19th century in Europe and the United States . In the 20th century it became one of the most worrying childhood diseases in these areas . The first polio vaccine was developed in the 1950s by Jonas Salk . It is hoped that vaccination efforts and early detection of cases will result in global eradication of the disease by 2018 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The term " poliomyelitis " is used to identify the disease caused by any of the three serotypes of poliovirus . Two basic patterns of polio infection are described : a minor illness which does not involve the central nervous system ( CNS ) , sometimes called abortive poliomyelitis , and a major illness involving the CNS , which may be paralytic or nonparalytic . In most people with a normal immune system , a poliovirus infection is asymptomatic . Rarely , the infection produces minor symptoms ; these may include upper respiratory tract infection ( sore throat and fever ) , gastrointestinal disturbances ( nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , constipation or , rarely , diarrhea ) , and influenza @-@ like illness .
The virus enters the central nervous system in about 1 % of infections . Most patients with CNS involvement develop nonparalytic aseptic meningitis , with symptoms of headache , neck , back , abdominal and extremity pain , fever , vomiting , lethargy , and irritability . About one to five in 1000 cases progress to paralytic disease , in which the muscles become weak , floppy and poorly controlled , and , finally , completely paralyzed ; this condition is known as acute flaccid paralysis . Depending on the site of paralysis , paralytic poliomyelitis is classified as spinal , bulbar , or bulbospinal . Encephalitis , an infection of the brain tissue itself , can occur in rare cases , and is usually restricted to infants . It is characterized by confusion , changes in mental status , headaches , fever , and , less commonly , seizures and spastic paralysis .
= = Cause = =
Poliomyelitis is caused by infection with a member of the genus Enterovirus known as poliovirus ( PV ) . This group of RNA viruses colonize the gastrointestinal tract — specifically the oropharynx and the intestine . The incubation time ( to the first signs and symptoms ) ranges from three to 35 days , with a more common span of six to 20 days . PV infects and causes disease in humans alone . Its structure is very simple , composed of a single ( + ) sense RNA genome enclosed in a protein shell called a capsid . In addition to protecting the virus ’ s genetic material , the capsid proteins enable poliovirus to infect certain types of cells . Three serotypes of poliovirus have been identified — poliovirus type 1 ( PV1 ) , type 2 ( PV2 ) , and type 3 ( PV3 ) — each with a slightly different capsid protein . All three are extremely virulent and produce the same disease symptoms . PV1 is the most commonly encountered form , and the one most closely associated with paralysis .
Individuals who are exposed to the virus , either through infection or by immunization with polio vaccine , develop immunity . In immune individuals , IgA antibodies against poliovirus are present in the tonsils and gastrointestinal tract , and are able to block virus replication ; IgG and IgM antibodies against PV can prevent the spread of the virus to motor neurons of the central nervous system . Infection or vaccination with one serotype of poliovirus does not provide immunity against the other serotypes , and full immunity requires exposure to each serotype .
A rare condition with a similar presentation , nonpoliovirus poliomyelitis , may result from infections with nonpoliovirus enteroviruses .
= = = Transmission = = =
Poliomyelitis is highly contagious via the fecal @-@ oral ( intestinal source ) and the oral @-@ oral ( oropharyngeal source ) routes . In endemic areas , wild polioviruses can infect virtually the entire human population . It is seasonal in temperate climates , with peak transmission occurring in summer and autumn . These seasonal differences are far less pronounced in tropical areas . The time between first exposure and first symptoms , known as the incubation period , is usually 6 to 20 days , with a maximum range of three to 35 days . Virus particles are excreted in the feces for several weeks following initial infection . The disease is transmitted primarily via the fecal @-@ oral route , by ingesting contaminated food or water . It is occasionally transmitted via the oral @-@ oral route , a mode especially visible in areas with good sanitation and hygiene . Polio is most infectious between seven and 10 days before and after the appearance of symptoms , but transmission is possible as long as the virus remains in the saliva or feces .
Factors that increase the risk of polio infection or affect the severity of the disease include immune deficiency , malnutrition , physical activity immediately following the onset of paralysis , skeletal muscle injury due to injection of vaccines or therapeutic agents , and pregnancy . Although the virus can cross the maternal @-@ fetal barrier during pregnancy , the fetus does not appear to be affected by either maternal infection or polio vaccination . Maternal antibodies also cross the placenta , providing passive immunity that protects the infant from polio infection during the first few months of life .
As a precaution against infection , public swimming pools were often closed in affected areas during poliomyelitis epidemics .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Poliovirus enters the body through the mouth , infecting the first cells with which it comes in contact — the pharynx and intestinal mucosa . It gains entry by binding to an immunoglobulin @-@ like receptor , known as the poliovirus receptor or CD155 , on the cell membrane . The virus then hijacks the host cell 's own machinery , and begins to replicate . Poliovirus divides within gastrointestinal cells for about a week , from where it spreads to the tonsils ( specifically the follicular dendritic cells residing within the tonsilar germinal centers ) , the intestinal lymphoid tissue including the M cells of Peyer 's patches , and the deep cervical and mesenteric lymph nodes , where it multiplies abundantly . The virus is subsequently absorbed into the bloodstream .
Known as viremia , the presence of a virus in the bloodstream enables it to be widely distributed throughout the body . Poliovirus can survive and multiply within the blood and lymphatics for long periods of time , sometimes as long as 17 weeks . In a small percentage of cases , it can spread and replicate in other sites , such as brown fat , the reticuloendothelial tissues , and muscle . This sustained replication causes a major viremia , and leads to the development of minor influenza @-@ like symptoms . Rarely , this may progress and the virus may invade the central nervous system , provoking a local inflammatory response . In most cases , this causes a self @-@ limiting inflammation of the meninges , the layers of tissue surrounding the brain , which is known as nonparalytic aseptic meningitis . Penetration of the CNS provides no known benefit to the virus , and is quite possibly an incidental deviation of a normal gastrointestinal infection . The mechanisms by which poliovirus spreads to the CNS are poorly understood , but it appears to be primarily a chance event — largely independent of the age , gender , or socioeconomic position of the individual .
= = = Paralytic polio = = =
In around 1 % of infections , poliovirus spreads along certain nerve fiber pathways , preferentially replicating in and destroying motor neurons within the spinal cord , brain stem , or motor cortex . This leads to the development of paralytic poliomyelitis , the various forms of which ( spinal , bulbar , and bulbospinal ) vary only with the amount of neuronal damage and inflammation that occurs , and the region of the CNS affected .
The destruction of neuronal cells produces lesions within the spinal ganglia ; these may also occur in the reticular formation , vestibular nuclei , cerebellar vermis , and deep cerebellar nuclei . Inflammation associated with nerve cell destruction often alters the color and appearance of the gray matter in the spinal column , causing it to appear reddish and swollen . Other destructive changes associated with paralytic disease occur in the forebrain region , specifically the hypothalamus and thalamus . The molecular mechanisms by which poliovirus causes paralytic disease are poorly understood .
Early symptoms of paralytic polio include high fever , headache , stiffness in the back and neck , asymmetrical weakness of various muscles , sensitivity to touch , difficulty swallowing , muscle pain , loss of superficial and deep reflexes , paresthesia ( pins and needles ) , irritability , constipation , or difficulty urinating . Paralysis generally develops one to ten days after early symptoms begin , progresses for two to three days , and is usually complete by the time the fever breaks .
The likelihood of developing paralytic polio increases with age , as does the extent of paralysis . In children , nonparalytic meningitis is the most likely consequence of CNS involvement , and paralysis occurs in only one in 1000 cases . In adults , paralysis occurs in one in 75 cases . In children under five years of age , paralysis of one leg is most common ; in adults , extensive paralysis of the chest and abdomen also affecting all four limbs — quadriplegia — is more likely . Paralysis rates also vary depending on the serotype of the infecting poliovirus ; the highest rates of paralysis ( one in 200 ) are associated with poliovirus type 1 , the lowest rates ( one in 2 @,@ 000 ) are associated with type 2 .
= = = = Spinal polio = = = =
Spinal polio , the most common form of paralytic poliomyelitis , results from viral invasion of the motor neurons of the anterior horn cells , or the ventral ( front ) grey matter section in the spinal column , which are responsible for movement of the muscles , including those of the trunk , limbs , and the intercostal muscles . Virus invasion causes inflammation of the nerve cells , leading to damage or destruction of motor neuron ganglia . When spinal neurons die , Wallerian degeneration takes place , leading to weakness of those muscles formerly innervated by the now @-@ dead neurons . With the destruction of nerve cells , the muscles no longer receive signals from the brain or spinal cord ; without nerve stimulation , the muscles atrophy , becoming weak , floppy and poorly controlled , and finally completely paralyzed . Maximum paralysis progresses rapidly ( two to four days ) , and usually involves fever and muscle pain . Deep tendon reflexes are also affected , and are typically absent or diminished ; sensation ( the ability to feel ) in the paralyzed limbs , however , is not affected .
The extent of spinal paralysis depends on the region of the cord affected , which may be cervical , thoracic , or lumbar . The virus may affect muscles on both sides of the body , but more often the paralysis is asymmetrical . Any limb or combination of limbs may be affected — one leg , one arm , or both legs and both arms . Paralysis is often more severe proximally ( where the limb joins the body ) than distally ( the fingertips and toes ) .
= = = = Bulbar polio = = = =
Making up about 2 % of cases of paralytic polio , bulbar polio occurs when poliovirus invades and destroys nerves within the bulbar region of the brain stem . The bulbar region is a white matter pathway that connects the cerebral cortex to the brain stem . The destruction of these nerves weakens the muscles supplied by the cranial nerves , producing symptoms of encephalitis , and causes difficulty breathing , speaking and swallowing . Critical nerves affected are the glossopharyngeal nerve ( which partially controls swallowing and functions in the throat , tongue movement , and taste ) , the vagus nerve ( which sends signals to the heart , intestines , and lungs ) , and the accessory nerve ( which controls upper neck movement ) . Due to the effect on swallowing , secretions of mucus may build up in the airway , causing suffocation . Other signs and symptoms include facial weakness ( caused by destruction of the trigeminal nerve and facial nerve , which innervate the cheeks , tear ducts , gums , and muscles of the face , among other structures ) , double vision , difficulty in chewing , and abnormal respiratory rate , depth , and rhythm ( which may lead to respiratory arrest ) . Pulmonary edema and shock are also possible and may be fatal .
= = = = Bulbospinal polio = = = =
Approximately 19 % of all paralytic polio cases have both bulbar and spinal symptoms ; this subtype is called respiratory or bulbospinal polio . Here , the virus affects the upper part of the cervical spinal cord ( cervical vertebrae C3 through C5 ) , and paralysis of the diaphragm occurs . The critical nerves affected are the phrenic nerve ( which drives the diaphragm to inflate the lungs ) and those that drive the muscles needed for swallowing . By destroying these nerves , this form of polio affects breathing , making it difficult or impossible for the patient to breathe without the support of a ventilator . It can lead to paralysis of the arms and legs and may also affect swallowing and heart functions .
= = Diagnosis = =
Paralytic poliomyelitis may be clinically suspected in individuals experiencing acute onset of flaccid paralysis in one or more limbs with decreased or absent tendon reflexes in the affected limbs that cannot be attributed to another apparent cause , and without sensory or cognitive loss .
A laboratory diagnosis is usually made based on recovery of poliovirus from a stool sample or a swab of the pharynx . Antibodies to poliovirus can be diagnostic , and are generally detected in the blood of infected patients early in the course of infection . Analysis of the patient 's cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) , which is collected by a lumbar puncture ( " spinal tap " ) , reveals an increased number of white blood cells ( primarily lymphocytes ) and a mildly elevated protein level . Detection of virus in the CSF is diagnostic of paralytic polio , but rarely occurs .
If poliovirus is isolated from a patient experiencing acute flaccid paralysis , it is further tested through oligonucleotide mapping ( genetic fingerprinting ) , or more recently by PCR amplification , to determine whether it is " wild type " ( that is , the virus encountered in nature ) or " vaccine type " ( derived from a strain of poliovirus used to produce polio vaccine ) . It is important to determine the source of the virus because for each reported case of paralytic polio caused by wild poliovirus , an estimated 200 to 3 @,@ 000 other contagious asymptomatic carriers exist .
= = Prevention = =
= = = Passive immunization = = =
In 1950 , William Hammon at the University of Pittsburgh purified the gamma globulin component of the blood plasma of polio survivors . Hammon proposed the gamma globulin , which contained antibodies to poliovirus , could be used to halt poliovirus infection , prevent disease , and reduce the severity of disease in other patients who had contracted polio . The results of a large clinical trial were promising ; the gamma globulin was shown to be about 80 % effective in preventing the development of paralytic poliomyelitis . It was also shown to reduce the severity of the disease in patients who developed polio . Due to the limited supply of blood plasma gamma globulin was later deemed impractical for widespread use and the medical community focused on the development of a polio vaccine .
= = = Vaccine = = =
Two types of vaccine are used throughout the world to combat polio . Both types induce immunity to polio , efficiently blocking person @-@ to @-@ person transmission of wild poliovirus , thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community ( so @-@ called herd immunity ) .
The first candidate polio vaccine , based on one serotype of a live but attenuated ( weakened ) virus , was developed by the virologist Hilary Koprowski . Koprowski 's prototype vaccine was given to an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy on 27 February 1950 . Koprowski continued to work on the vaccine throughout the 1950s , leading to large @-@ scale trials in the then Belgian Congo and the vaccination of seven million children in Poland against serotypes PV1 and PV3 between 1958 and 1960 .
The second inactivated virus vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk at the University of Pittsburgh , and announced to the world on 12 April 1955 . The Salk vaccine , or inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( IPV ) , is based on poliovirus grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue culture ( vero cell line ) , which is chemically inactivated with formalin . After two doses of IPV ( given by injection ) , 90 % or more of individuals develop protective antibody to all three serotypes of poliovirus , and at least 99 % are immune to poliovirus following three doses .
Subsequently , Albert Sabin developed another live , oral polio vaccine ( OPV ) . It was produced by the repeated passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at subphysiological temperatures . The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates very efficiently in the gut , the primary site of wild poliovirus infection and replication , but the vaccine strain is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue . A single dose of Sabin 's oral polio vaccine produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in about 50 % of recipients . Three doses of live @-@ attenuated OPV produce protective antibody to all three poliovirus types in more than 95 % of recipients . Human trials of Sabin 's vaccine began in 1957 , and in 1958 it was selected , in competition with the live vaccines of Koprowski and other researchers , by the US National Institutes of Health . Licensed in 1962 , it rapidly became the only polio vaccine used worldwide .
Because OPV is inexpensive , easy to administer , and produces excellent immunity in the intestine ( which helps prevent infection with wild virus in areas where it is endemic ) , it has been the vaccine of choice for controlling poliomyelitis in many countries . On very rare occasions ( about one case per 750 @,@ 000 vaccine recipients ) , the attenuated virus in OPV reverts into a form that can paralyze . Most industrialized countries have switched to IPV , which cannot revert , either as the sole vaccine against poliomyelitis or in combination with oral polio vaccine .
= = Treatment = =
There is no cure for polio . The focus of modern treatment has been on providing relief of symptoms , speeding recovery and preventing complications . Supportive measures include antibiotics to prevent infections in weakened muscles , analgesics for pain , moderate exercise and a nutritious diet . Treatment of polio often requires long @-@ term rehabilitation , including occupational therapy , physical therapy , braces , corrective shoes and , in some cases , orthopedic surgery .
Portable ventilators may be required to support breathing . Historically , a noninvasive , negative @-@ pressure ventilator , more commonly called an iron lung , was used to artificially maintain respiration during an acute polio infection until a person could breathe independently ( generally about one to two weeks ) . Today , many polio survivors with permanent respiratory paralysis use modern jacket @-@ type negative @-@ pressure ventilators worn over the chest and abdomen .
Other historical treatments for polio include hydrotherapy , electrotherapy , massage and passive motion exercises , and surgical treatments , such as tendon lengthening and nerve grafting .
= = Prognosis = =
Patients with abortive polio infections recover completely . In those who develop only aseptic meningitis , the symptoms can be expected to persist for two to ten days , followed by complete recovery . In cases of spinal polio , if the affected nerve cells are completely destroyed , paralysis will be permanent ; cells that are not destroyed , but lose function temporarily , may recover within four to six weeks after onset . Half the patients with spinal polio recover fully ; one @-@ quarter recover with mild disability , and the remaining quarter are left with severe disability . The degree of both acute paralysis and residual paralysis is likely to be proportional to the degree of viremia , and inversely proportional to the degree of immunity . Spinal polio is rarely fatal .
Without respiratory support , consequences of poliomyelitis with respiratory involvement include suffocation or pneumonia from aspiration of secretions . Overall , 5 – 10 % of patients with paralytic polio die due to the paralysis of muscles used for breathing . The case fatality rate ( CFR ) varies by age : 2 – 5 % of children and up to 15 – 30 % of adults die . Bulbar polio often causes death if respiratory support is not provided ; with support , its CFR ranges from 25 to 75 % , depending on the age of the patient . When intermittent positive pressure ventilation is available , the fatalities can be reduced to 15 % .
= = = Recovery = = =
Many cases of poliomyelitis result in only temporary paralysis . Nerve impulses return to the formerly paralyzed muscle within a month , and recovery is usually complete in six to eight months . The neurophysiological processes involved in recovery following acute paralytic poliomyelitis are quite effective ; muscles are able to retain normal strength even if half the original motor neurons have been lost . Paralysis remaining after one year is likely to be permanent , although modest recoveries of muscle strength are possible 12 to 18 months after infection .
One mechanism involved in recovery is nerve terminal sprouting , in which remaining brainstem and spinal cord motor neurons develop new branches , or axonal sprouts . These sprouts can reinnervate orphaned muscle fibers that have been denervated by acute polio infection , restoring the fibers ' capacity to contract and improving strength . Terminal sprouting may generate a few significantly enlarged motor neurons doing work previously performed by as many as four or five units : a single motor neuron that once controlled 200 muscle cells might control 800 to 1000 cells . Other mechanisms that occur during the rehabilitation phase , and contribute to muscle strength restoration , include myofiber hypertrophy — enlargement of muscle fibers through exercise and activity — and transformation of type II muscle fibers to type I muscle fibers .
In addition to these physiological processes , the body possesses a number of compensatory mechanisms to maintain function in the presence of residual paralysis . These include the use of weaker muscles at a higher than usual intensity relative to the muscle 's maximal capacity , enhancing athletic development of previously little @-@ used muscles , and using ligaments for stability , which enables greater mobility .
= = = Complications = = =
Residual complications of paralytic polio often occur following the initial recovery process . Muscle paresis and paralysis can sometimes result in skeletal deformities , tightening of the joints and movement disability . Once the muscles in the limb become flaccid , they may interfere with the function of other muscles . A typical manifestation of this problem is equinus foot ( similar to club foot ) . This deformity develops when the muscles that pull the toes downward are working , but those that pull it upward are not , and the foot naturally tends to drop toward the ground . If the problem is left untreated , the Achilles tendons at the back of the foot retract and the foot cannot take on a normal position . Polio victims that develop equinus foot cannot walk properly because they cannot put their heel on the ground . A similar situation can develop if the arms become paralyzed . In some cases the growth of an affected leg is slowed by polio , while the other leg continues to grow normally . The result is that one leg is shorter than the other and the person limps and leans to one side , in turn leading to deformities of the spine ( such as scoliosis ) . Osteoporosis and increased likelihood of bone fractures may occur . An intervention to prevent or lessen length disparity can be to perform an epiphysiodesis on the distal femoral and proximal tibial / fibular condyles , so that limb 's growth is artificially stunted , and by the time of epiphyseal ( growth ) plate closure , the legs are more equal in length . Alternatively , a person can be fitted with custom made footwear which corrects the difference in leg lengths . Other surgery to re @-@ balance muscular agonist / antagonist imbalances may also be helpful . Extended use of braces or wheelchairs may cause compression neuropathy , as well as a loss of proper function of the veins in the legs , due to pooling of blood in paralyzed lower limbs . Complications from prolonged immobility involving the lungs , kidneys and heart include pulmonary edema , aspiration pneumonia , urinary tract infections , kidney stones , paralytic ileus , myocarditis and cor pulmonale .
= = = Post @-@ polio syndrome = = =
Between 25 % and 50 % of individuals who have recovered from paralytic polio in childhood can develop additional symptoms decades after recovering from the acute infection , notably new muscle weakness and extreme fatigue . This condition is known as post @-@ polio syndrome ( PPS ) or post @-@ polio sequelae . The symptoms of PPS are thought to involve a failure of the oversized motor units created during the recovery phase of the paralytic disease . Contributing factors that increase the risk of PPS include aging with loss of neuron units , the presence of a permanent residual impairment after recovery from the acute illness , and both overuse and disuse of neurons . PPS is a slow , progressive disease , and there is no specific treatment for it . Post @-@ polio syndrome is not an infectious process , and persons experiencing the syndrome do not shed poliovirus .
= = Epidemiology = =
Following the widespread use of poliovirus vaccine in the mid @-@ 1950s , the incidence of poliomyelitis declined dramatically in many industrialized countries . A global effort to eradicate polio began in 1988 , led by the World Health Organization , UNICEF , and The Rotary Foundation . These efforts have reduced the number of annual diagnosed cases by 99 @.@ 9 % ; from an estimated 350 @,@ 000 cases in 1988 to a low of 483 cases in 2001 , after which it remained at a level of about 1 @,@ 000 - 2000 cases per year for a number of years . In 2015 , cases decreased to 98 . Polio is one of only two diseases currently the subject of a global eradication program , the other being Guinea worm disease . So far , the only diseases completely eradicated by humankind are smallpox , declared so , in 1980 , and rinderpest , likewise , in 2011 . A number of eradication milestones have already been reached , and several regions of the world have been certified polio @-@ free .
A concern is the presence of circulating vaccine @-@ derived polioviruses ( cVDPV ) . The OPV is not perfect : while the genetic characteristics are carefully balanced to maximize efficacy and minimize virulence , it is possible for the OPV to mutate . As a result , persons given the OPV can acquire acute or chronic infections ; or can transmit ( circulate ) mutated OPV to other people . It is likely that cVDPV cases will exceed wild cases in the near future , making it desirable to discontinue use of the OPV as soon as safely possible .
= = = Emergency declaration = = =
In April 2012 , the World Health Assembly declared the completion of polio eradication a programmatic emergency for global public health .
= = = Americas = = =
The Americas were declared polio @-@ free in 1994 .
= = = Western Pacific = = =
In 2000 polio was declared to have been officially eliminated in 37 Western Pacific countries , including China and Australia .
Despite eradication ten years prior , an outbreak was confirmed in China in September 2011 involving a strain prevalent in neighboring Pakistan .
= = = Europe = = =
Europe was declared polio @-@ free in 2002 . On 1 September , 2015 WHO confirmed 2 cases of circulating vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus type 1 in Ukraine .
= = = South @-@ East Asia = = =
The last case of polio in the region was in India in January 2011 . Since January 2011 , there have been no reported cases of the wild polio infections in India , and in February 2012 the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries . It was reported that if there are no cases of wild polio in the country for two more years , it would be declared as a polio @-@ free country .
On March 27 , 2014 the WHO announced the eradication of poliomyelitis in the South @-@ East Asia Region , which includes eleven countries : Bangladesh , Bhutan , North Korea , India , Indonesia , Maldives , Myanmar , Nepal , Sri Lanka , Thailand and Timor @-@ Leste . With the addition of this region , 80 per cent of the world population lives in polio @-@ free regions .
= = = Syria = = =
In 2015 , polio was believed to remain naturally spreading in only two countries : Pakistan , and Afghanistan , although it continued to cause epidemics in other nearby countries due to hidden or reestablished transmission .
In Syria difficulties in executing immunization programs in the ongoing civil war led to a return of polio , probably in 2012 , acknowledged by the WHO in 2013 . 15 cases were confirmed among children in Syria between October and November 2013 in Deir Ezzor . Later , two more cases , each one in rural Damascus and Aleppo , were identified . It was the first outbreak in Syria since 1999 . Doctors and international public health agencies report more than 90 cases of polio in Syria , with fears of contagion in rebel areas from lack of sanitation and safe @-@ water services . In May 2014 , the World Health Organization declared polio 's renewed spread a world health emergency .
A vaccination campaign in Syria operated literally under fire and lead to the deaths of several vaccinators , but returned vaccination coverage to pre @-@ war levels . No new cases have been reported since January 2014 ; vaccination continues , and Iraq is also being closely monitored .
= = = Africa = = =
In 2003 in northern Nigeria — a country which at that time was considered provisionally polio free — a fatwa was issued declaring that the polio vaccine was designed to render children sterile . Subsequently , polio reappeared in Nigeria and spread from there to several other countries . In 2013 , nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano , but this was the first and last attack . Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to revive the campaign , and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24 , 2014 . In September 2015 , Nigeria is removed from polio @-@ endemic list . If no new cases appear , it will be declared polio @-@ free in 2017 .
In 2013 the Center for Disease Control received reports of 183 cases of polio in Somalia , 14 in Kenya and 8 cases in the Somali Region of Ethiopia , but Africa had no confirmed cases of wild poliovirus ( WPV ) in 2015 . A case of circulating vaccine @-@ derived poliovirus ( cVDPV ) type 2 was detected in Siguiri in Guinea 's Kankan region , in August 2014 . In September 2015 , a case of cVDPV in Mali was confirmed by the WHO .
= = = Afghanistan and Pakistan = = =
This is the last remaining region with wild polio cases . Both major sides of the Afghan civil war support polio vaccination and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan , with only 19 cases in 2015 .
In Pakistan there were 53 cases in 2015 , the highest number for any country . Vaccination in Pakistan is hindered by conflict and organizational problems . The militant Pakistani Taliban claims vaccination is a Western plot to sterilise local children . 66 vaccinators were killed in 2013 and 2014 . Cases have dropped by 70 % in 2015 ; reasons include Dh440 million support from the United Arab Emirates to vaccinate more than ten million children , changes in the military situation , and arrests of some of those who attacked polio workers .
= = History = =
The effects of polio have been known since prehistory ; Egyptian paintings and carvings depict otherwise healthy people with withered limbs , and children walking with canes at a young age . The first clinical description was provided by the English physician Michael Underwood in 1789 , where he refers to polio as " a debility of the lower extremities " . The work of physicians Jakob Heine in 1840 and Karl Oskar Medin in 1890 led to it being known as Heine – Medin disease . The disease was later called infantile paralysis , based on its propensity to affect children .
Before the 20th century , polio infections were rarely seen in infants before six months of age , most cases occurring in children six months to four years of age . Poorer sanitation of the time resulted in a constant exposure to the virus , which enhanced a natural immunity within the population . In developed countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , improvements were made in community sanitation , including better sewage disposal and clean water supplies . These changes drastically increased the proportion of children and adults at risk of paralytic polio infection , by reducing childhood exposure and immunity to the disease .
Small localized paralytic polio epidemics began to appear in Europe and the United States around 1900 . Outbreaks reached pandemic proportions in Europe , North America , Australia , and New Zealand during the first half of the 20th century . By 1950 the peak age incidence of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States had shifted from infants to children aged five to nine years , when the risk of paralysis is greater ; about one @-@ third of the cases were reported in persons over 15 years of age . Accordingly , the rate of paralysis and death due to polio infection also increased during this time . In the United States , the 1952 polio epidemic became the worst outbreak in the nation 's history . Of nearly 58 @,@ 000 cases reported that year 3 @,@ 145 died and 21 @,@ 269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis . Intensive care medicine has its origin in the fight against polio . Most hospitals in the 1950s had limited access to iron lungs for patients unable to breathe without mechanical assistance . Respiratory centers designed to assist the most severe polio patients , first established in 1952 at the Blegdam Hospital of Copenhagen by Danish anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen , were the harbingers of subsequent intensive care units ( ICU ) . ( A year later , Ibsen would establish the world 's first dedicated ICU . )
The polio epidemics not only altered the lives of those who survived them , but also brought profound cultural changes , spurring grassroots fund @-@ raising campaigns that would revolutionize medical philanthropy , and giving rise to the modern field of rehabilitation therapy . As one of the largest disabled groups in the world , polio survivors also helped to advance the modern disability rights movement through campaigns for the social and civil rights of the disabled . The World Health Organization estimates that there are 10 to 20 million polio survivors worldwide . In 1977 there were 254 @,@ 000 persons living in the United States who had been paralyzed by polio . According to doctors and local polio support groups , some 40 @,@ 000 polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis live in Germany , 30 @,@ 000 in Japan , 24 @,@ 000 in France , 16 @,@ 000 in Australia , 12 @,@ 000 in Canada and 12 @,@ 000 in the United Kingdom . Many notable individuals have survived polio and often credit the prolonged immobility and residual paralysis associated with polio as a driving force in their lives and careers .
The disease was very well publicized during the polio epidemics of the 1950s , with extensive media coverage of any scientific advancements that might lead to a cure . Thus , the scientists working on polio became some of the most famous of the century . Fifteen scientists and two laymen who made important contributions to the knowledge and treatment of poliomyelitis are honored by the Polio Hall of Fame , which was dedicated in 1957 at the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation in Warm Springs , Georgia , US . In 2008 four organizations ( Rotary International , the World Health Organization , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and UNICEF ) were added to the Hall of Fame .
World Polio Day ( 24 October ) was established by Rotary International to commemorate the birth of Jonas Salk , who led the first team to develop a vaccine against poliomyelitis . Use of this inactivated poliovirus vaccine and subsequent widespread use of the oral poliovirus vaccine developed by Albert Sabin led to establishment of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative ( GPEI ) in 1988 . Since then , GPEI has reduced polio worldwide by 99 % .
= = = Etymology = = =
The term derives from the Ancient Greek poliós ( πολιός ) , meaning " grey " , myelós ( µυελός “ marrow ” ) , referring to the grey matter of the spinal cord , and the suffix -itis , which denotes inflammation . , i.e. , inflammation of the spinal cord ’ s grey matter , although a severe infection can extend into the brainstem and even higher structures , resulting in polioencephalitis , producing a lack of ability to breathe that requires mechanical assistance such as an iron lung .
= = Society and culture = =
= Padma Vibhushan =
The Padma Vibhushan is the second @-@ highest civilian award of the Republic of India , preceded by Bharat Ratna and followed by Padma Bhushan . Instituted on 2 January 1954 , the award is given for " exceptional and distinguished service " , without distinction of race , occupation , position , or sex . The award criteria include " service in any field including service rendered by Government servants " including doctors and scientists , but excludes those working with the public sector undertakings . As of 2016 , the award has been bestowed on 294 individuals , including 6 posthumous and 19 non @-@ citizen recipients .
During 1 May and 15 September of every year , the recommendations for the award are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee , constituted by the Prime Minister of India . The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments , the Ministries of the Government of India , the Bharat Ratna and previous Padma Vibhushan award recipients , the Institutes of Excellence , the Ministers , the Chief Ministers and the Governors of State , and the Members of Parliament including private individuals . The committee later submits their recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for the further approval . The award recipients are announced on Republic Day .
The first recipients of the award were Satyendra Nath Bose , Nand Lal Bose , Zakir Hussain , Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher , Jigme Dorji Wangchuk , and V. K. Krishna Menon , who were honoured in 1954 . The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute . The " Padma Vibhushan " , along with other personal civil honours , was briefly suspended twice , from July 1977 to January 1980 and from August 1992 to December 1995 . Some of the recipients have refused or returned their conferments . Vilayat Khan , Swami Ranganathananda , and Manikonda Chalapathi Rau refused the award , Lakshmi Chand Jain 's family declined the 2011 posthumous conferment , and Baba Amte returned his 1986 conferment in 1991 . On 25 January 2016 , the award was conferred upon ten recipients , including one non @-@ citizen recipient : V. K. Aatre , Girija Devi , Avinash Dixit , Jagmohan , Yamini Krishnamurthy , Rajinikanth , Ramoji Rao , V. Shanta , Sri Sri Ravi Shankar , and posthumously to Dhirubhai Ambani .
= = History = =
On 2 January 1954 , a press release was published from the office of the secretary to the President of India announcing the creation of two civilian awards — Bharat Ratna , the highest civilian award , and the three @-@ tier Padma Vibhushan , classified into " Pahela Warg " ( Class I ) , " Dusra Warg " ( Class II ) , and " Tisra Warg " ( Class III ) , which rank below the Bharat Ratna . On 15 January 1955 , the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards : the Padma Vibhushan , the highest of the three , followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri .
The award , along with other personal civilian honours , was briefly suspended twice in its history ; for the first time in July 1977 when Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India , for being " worthless and politicized " . The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister . The civilian awards were suspended again in mid @-@ 1992 , when two Public @-@ Interest Litigations were filed in the High Courts of India , one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court ( Indore Bench ) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand . Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being " titles " per an interpretation of Article 18 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of India . On 25 August 1992 , the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards . A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court of India was formed comprising five judges : A. M. Ahmadi C. J. , Kuldip Singh , B. P. Jeevan Reddy , N. P. Singh , and S. Saghir Ahmad . On 15 December 1995 , the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgment that the " Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution of India " .
= = Regulations = =
The award is conferred for " exceptional and distinguished service " , without distinction of race , occupation , position , or sex . The criteria include " service in any field including service rendered by Government servants " , but excludes those working with the public sector undertakings , with the exception of doctors and scientists . The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards , but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute ; Vikram Sarabhai became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1972 .
The recommendations are received from all state and union territory governments , the Ministries of the Government of India , the Bharat Ratna and previous Padma Vibhushan award recipients , the Institutes of Excellence , the Ministers , the Chief Ministers , the Governors of State , and the Members of Parliament , including private individuals . The recommendations received during 1 May and 15 September of every year are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee , convened by the Prime Minister of India . The Awards Committee later submits its recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for further approval .
The Padma Vibhushan award recipients are announced every year on Republic Day of India and registered in The Gazette of India — a publication released weekly by the Department of Publication , Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices . The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette . Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored , both of which actions require the authority of the President , are also registered in the Gazette and are required to surrender their medals when their names are struck from the register .
= = Specifications = =
The original 1954 specifications of the award called for a circle made of gold gilt 1 3 ⁄ 8 inches ( 35 mm ) in diameter , with rims on both sides . A centrally located lotus flower was embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text " Padma Vibhushan " written in Devanagari script was inscribed above the lotus along the upper edge of the medal . A floral wreath was embossed along the lower edge and a lotus wreath at the top along the upper edge . The Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the text " Desh Seva " in Devanagari Script on the lower edge . The medal was suspended by a pink riband 1 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 32 mm ) in width divided into two equal segments by a white vertical line .
A year later , the design was modified . The current decoration is a circular @-@ shaped bronze toned medallion 1 3 ⁄ 4 inches ( 44 mm ) in diameter and 1 ⁄ 8 inch ( 3 @.@ 2 mm ) thick . The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1 3 ⁄ 16 inches ( 30 mm ) side is embossed with a knob carved within each of the outer angles of the pattern . A raised circular space of 1 1 ⁄ 16 inches ( 27 mm ) in diameter is placed at the centre of the decoration . A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text " Padma " written in Devanagari script is placed above and the text " Vibhushan " is placed below the lotus . The Emblem of India is placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto of India , " Satyameva Jayate " ( Truth alone triumphs ) , in Devanagari Script , inscribed on the lower edge . The rim , the edges. and all embossing on either side is of white gold with the text " Padma Vibhushan " of silver gilt . The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 32 mm ) in width .
The medal is ranked fourth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations . The medals are produced at Alipore Mint , Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Bharat Ratna , Padma Bhushan , Padma Shri , and Param Veer Chakra .
= = Recipients = =
The first recipients of the Padma Vibhushan were Satyendra Nath Bose , Nandalal Bose , Zakir Husain , Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher , V. K. Krishna Menon , and Jigme Dorji Wangchuk , who were honoured in 1954 . As of 2016 , the award has been bestowed on 294 individuals , including 6 posthumous and 19 non @-@ citizen recipients .
Some of the conferments have been refused or returned by the recipients ; Vilayat Khan , Swami Ranganathananda , and Manikonda Chalapathi Rau refused the award ; Lakshmi Chand Jain 's family declined the 2011 posthumous conferment , and Baba Amte returned his 1986 conferment in 1991 .
On 25 January 2016 , the award was conferred upon ten recipients including one non @-@ citizen recipient ; V. K. Aatre , Girija Devi , Avinash Dixit , Jagmohan , Yamini Krishnamurthy , Rajinikanth , Ramoji Rao , V. Shanta , Sri Sri Ravi Shankar , and posthumously to Dhirubhai Ambani .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Janet Jackson =
Janet Damita Jo Jackson ( born May 16 , 1966 ) is an American singer , songwriter , dancer and actress . Known for a series of sonically innovative , socially conscious and sexually provocative records , as well as elaborate stage shows , television and film roles , she has been a prominent figure in popular culture for over 30 years . The youngest child of the Jackson family , she began her career with the variety television series The Jacksons in 1976 and went on to appear in other television shows throughout the 1970s and early 1980s , including Good Times and Fame .
After signing a recording contract with A & M Records in 1982 , she became a pop icon following the release of her third studio album Control ( 1986 ) . Her collaborations with record producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis incorporated elements of rhythm and blues , funk , disco , rap , and industrial beats , which led to crossover success in popular music . In addition to receiving recognition for the innovation in her records , choreography , music videos , and prominence on radio airplay and MTV , she was acknowledged as a role model for her socially conscious lyrics .
In 1991 she signed the first of two record @-@ breaking , multimillion @-@ dollar contracts with Virgin Records , establishing her as one of the highest paid artists in the industry . Her debut album under the label , Janet ( 1993 ) , saw her develop a public image as a sex symbol as she began to explore sexuality in her work . That same year , she appeared in her first starring film role in Poetic Justice ; since then she has continued to act in feature films . By the end of the 1990s , she was named the second most successful recording artist of the decade . The release of her seventh studio album All for You ( 2001 ) coincided with a celebration of her impact on popular music as the inaugural MTV Icon . After parting ways with Virgin she released her tenth studio album Discipline ( 2008 ) , her first and only album with Island Records . In 2015 she partnered with BMG Rights Management to launch her own record label , Rhythm Nation and released her first album in seven years Unbreakable ( 2015 ) .
Having sold over 100 million records , she is ranked as one of the best @-@ selling artists in the history of contemporary music . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) lists her as the eleventh best @-@ selling female artist in the United States , with 26 million certified albums . She has amassed an extensive catalog , with singles such as " Nasty " , " Rhythm Nation " , " That 's the Way Love Goes " , " Together Again " and " All for You " among her signature songs ; she holds the record for the most consecutive top 10 hits on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart by a female artist with 19 . In 2016 Billboard magazine released its list of the Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Artists , placing her at number seven , while in 2010 , ranking her fifth among the " Top 50 R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years " . Three of Jackson 's albums appeared in Billboard 's Top 200 Best @-@ Selling Albums of All @-@ Time list . One of the world 's most awarded artists , her longevity , records and achievements reflect her influence in shaping and redefining the scope of popular music . She has been cited as an inspiration among numerous performers .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1966 – 85 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Janet Jackson was born in Gary , Indiana , the youngest of ten children , to Katherine Esther ( née Scruse ) and Joseph Walter Jackson . The Jacksons were lower @-@ middle class and devout Jehovah 's Witnesses , although Jackson would later refrain from organized religion . At a young age , her brothers began performing as The Jackson 5 . In March 1969 , the group signed a record deal with Motown , and soon had their first number @-@ one hit . The family then moved to the Encino neighborhood of Los Angeles . Jackson had initially desired to become a horse racing jockey or entertainment lawyer , with plans to support herself through acting . Despite this , she was anticipated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . At age seven , Jackson performed at the Las Vegas Strip at the MGM Casino . A biography revealed her father , Joseph Jackson , was emotionally withdrawn , and told her to address him solely by his first name as a child . She began acting in the variety show The Jacksons in 1976 . In 1977 , she was selected to have a starring role as Penny Gordon Woods in the sitcom Good Times . She later starred in A New Kind of Family and later got a recurring role on Diff 'rent Strokes , portraying Charlene Duprey from Seasons 3 to 6 . Jackson also played the role of Cleo Hewitt during the fourth season of Fame , but expressed indifference towards the series .
When Jackson was sixteen , her father and manager Joseph Jackson , arranged her a contract with A & M Records . Her debut album , Janet Jackson , was released in 1982 . It was produced by Angela Winbush , René Moore , Bobby Watson of Rufus ( band ) and Leon F. Sylvers III , and overseen by her father Joseph . It peaked at number sixty @-@ three on the Billboard 200 , and number six on the publication 's R & B albums chart , receiving little promotion . Jackson 's second album , Dream Street , was released two years later . Dream Street reached one @-@ hundred forty @-@ seven on the Billboard 200 , and number nineteen on the R & B albums chart . The lead single " Don 't Stand Another Chance " peaked at number nine on Billboard 's R & B singles chart . Both albums consisted primarily of bubblegum pop music . Jackson eloped with singer James DeBarge in 1984 , divorcing shortly afterwards , with the marriage annulled the following year .
= = = 1986 – 88 : Control = = =
After her second album , Jackson terminated business affairs with her family , commenting " I just wanted to get out of the house , get out from under my father , which was one of the most difficult things that I had to do . " Attempting a third album , Jackson teamed with producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . They set out to achieve crossover pop appeal , while also creating a strong foundation within the urban market . Within six weeks , Jackson and the duo crafted her third studio album , Control , released in February 1986 . The album peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 , and was certified fivefold platinum by the RIAA , selling over fourteen million copies worldwide .
Control was declared " remarkably nervy and mature " for a teenage act , also considered " an alternative to the sentimental balladry " which permeated radio , likening Jackson to Donna Summer 's position of " unwilling to accept novelty status and taking her own steps to rise above it . " The album spawned five top five singles , " What Have You Done for Me Lately " , " Nasty " , " When I Think of You " , " Control " , and " Let 's Wait Awhile " , and a top fifteen hit with " The Pleasure Principle " . " When I Think of You " became her first number one hit on the Hot 100 . Control received six Billboard Awards , including " Top Pop Singles Artist " , and three Grammy nominations , most notably " Album of the Year " . It also won four American Music Awards from twelve nominations , an unbroken record . At this point , Jackson was successfully " shaking off the experience of being a shadow Jackson child " , becoming " an artist in her own right " .
The album 's lyrical content included several themes of empowerment , inspired by an incident of sexual harassment , with Jackson recalling " the danger hit home when a couple of guys started stalking me on the street ... Instead of running to Jimmy or Terry for protection , I took a stand . I backed them down . That 's how songs like ' Nasty ' and ' What Have You Done for Me Lately ' were born , out of a sense of self @-@ defense . " Its innovative fusion of dance @-@ pop and industrial music with hip @-@ hop and R & B undertones influenced the development of the new jack swing genre by bridging the gap between the latter two styles . The album 's music videos became infamous on MTV , also obtaining a then @-@ unknown Paula Abdul a recording contract for her choreography work with Jackson . Billboard stated " [ Jackson 's ] accessible sound and spectacularly choreographed videos were irresistible to MTV , and helped the channel evolve from rock programming to a broader , beat @-@ driven musical mix . "
= = = 1989 – 92 : Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 = = =
Jackson released her fourth album , Rhythm Nation 1814 , in September 1989 . Although her record label desired a direct sequel to Control , Jackson chose to include a socially conscious theme among various musical styles . She stated , " I know an album or a song can 't change the world . I just want my music and my dance to catch the audience 's attention , and to hold it long enough for them to listen to the lyrics . " The album 's central theme of unity was developed in response to various crimes and tragedies reported in the media .
Peaking at number one on the Billboard 200 , the album was certified sixfold platinum by the RIAA and sold over fourteen million copies internationally . Rolling Stone observed Jackson 's artistic growth shifted from " personal freedom to more universal concerns — injustice , illiteracy , crime , drugs — without missing a beat . " The album was also
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her 30 @-@ minute Rhythm Nation 1814 film , Jackson utilizes street dancing techniques in contrast to traditional choreography . The group dynamic visually embodies a gender neutral equality , with Jackson " performing asexually and anonymously in front of , but as one of the members of the group . " Her music videos have also contributed to a higher degree of sexual freedom among young women , as Jean M. Twenge , author of Generation Me : Why Today 's Young Americans are More Confident , Assertive , Entitled — and More Miserable Than Ever Before ( 2007 ) , wrote " [ m ] usic videos by female artists have contributed to the trend " of young women enganging in oral sex with Jackson " heavily implying male @-@ on @-@ female oral sex in music videos by pushing down on a man 's head until he 's in exactly the right position . " However , accusations of cosmetic surgery , skin lightening , and increasingly hypersexual imagery have led to her being viewed as conforming to a white , male @-@ dominated view of sexuality , rather than liberating herself or others . Jakcson received the MTV Video Vanguard Award for her contributions to the art form , and became the first recipient of the MTV Icon tribute , celebrating her impact on the music industry as a whole . In 2003 , Slant Magazine named " Rhythm Nation " and " Got ' til It 's Gone " among the 100 Greatest Music Videos of all time , ranked at number 87 and number 10 , respectively . In 2011 , " Rhythm Nation " was voted the tenth best music video of the 1980s by Billboard .
The Independent writer Nicholas Barber stated " Janet 's concerts are the pop equivalent of a summer blockbuster movie , with all the explosions , special effects , ersatz sentimentality , gratuitous cleavage and emphasis on spectacle over coherence that the term implies . " Jet magazine reported " Janet 's innovative stage performances during her world tours have won her a reputation as a world @-@ class performer . " Chris Willman of Los Angeles Times stated the " enthralling " choreography of Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 Tour " represents the pinnacle of what can be done in the popping ' n ' locking style — a rapid @-@ fire mixture of rigidly jerky and gracefully fluid movements . " When Jackson was asked " do you understand it when people talk about [ The Velvet Rope Tour ] in terms of Broadway ? " , she responded , " I 'm crazy about Broadway ... That 's what I grew up on . " Her " Number Ones : Up Close and Personal " tour deviated from the full @-@ scale theatrics found in her previous concert arena settings in favor of smaller venues . Critics noted being scaled down did not affect the impact of her showmanship , and in some cases , enhanced it . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune wrote , " In past tours , Jackson 's thin voice was often swallowed up by the sheer size of her production ... In the more scaled @-@ down setting , Jackson brought a warmth and a passion that wasn 't always evident in stadiums ... the best Janet Jackson performance I 've covered in 20 @-@ plus years . "
Thor Christensen of The Dallas Morning News reported Jackson often lip syncs in concert ; he wrote : " Janet Jackson — one of pop 's most notorious onstage lip @-@ syncers — conceded ... she uses ' some ' taped vocals to augment her live vocals . But she refused to say what percentage of her concert ' voice ' is taped and how much is live . " Michael MacCambridge of the Austin American @-@ Statesman , who reviewed Jackson 's Rhythm Nation World Tour , described lip @-@ syncing as a " moot point " , stating " Jackson was frequently singing along with her own pre @-@ recorded vocals , to achieve a sound closer to radio versions of singles . " MacCambridge also observed " it seemed unlikely that anyone — even a prized member of the First Family of Soul Music — could dance like she did for 90 minutes and still provide the sort of powerful vocals that the ' 90s super concerts are expected to achieve . " Similarly , Chris Willman commented , " even a classically trained vocalist would be hard @-@ pressed to maintain any sort of level of volume — or , more appropriately , ' Control ' — while bounding up and down stairs and whipping limbs in unnatural directions at impeccable , breakneck speed . " Critics observed that in the smaller scale of her " Number Ones : Up Close and Personal " tour , she forewent lip @-@ syncing . Chris Richards of The Washington Post stated " even at its breathiest , that delicate voice hasn 't lost the laserlike precision . "
= = = Influences = = =
Jackson describes Lena Horne as a profound inspiration , for entertainers of several generations as well as herself . Upon Horne 's death , she stated " [ Horne ] brought much joy into everyone 's lives — even the younger generations , younger than myself . She was such a great talent . She opened up such doors for artists like myself . " Similarly , she considers Dorothy Dandridge to be one of her idols . Jackson has declared herself " a very big Joni Mitchell fan " , explaining " As a kid I was drawn to Joni Mitchell records [ ... ] Joni 's songs spoke to me in an intimate , personal way . " She holds reference for Tina Turner , stating " Tina has become a heroic figure for many people , especially women , because of her tremendous strength . Personally , Tina doesn 't seem to have a beginning or an end in my life . I felt her music was always there , and I feel like it always will be . " She has also named other socially conscious acts , such as Tracy Chapman , Sly and the Family Stone , U2 , and Bob Dylan as sources of inspiration . In her early career , Jackson credited her brothers Michael and Jermaine as musical influences . According to Rolling Stone and MTV , other artists attributed as influences are The Ronettes , Dionne Warwick , Tammi Terrell , Diana Ross , Chaka Khan , Stevie Wonder , Teena Marie , Michael Jackson , Prince , and Tina Turner
= = Legacy = =
The youngest sister of the " precious Jackson clan " , Janet Jackson has striven to distance her professional career from that of her older brother Michael and the rest of the Jackson family . Steve Dollar of Newsday wrote that " [ s ] he projects that home girl @-@ next @-@ door quality that belies her place as the youngest sibling in a family whose inner and outer lives have been as poked at , gossiped about , docudramatized and hard @-@ copied as the Kennedys . " Phillip McCarthy of The Sydney Morning Herald noted that throughout her recording career , one of her common conditions for interviewers has been that there would be no mention of Michael . Joshua Klein wrote , " [ f ] or the first half of her recording career , Janet Jackson sounded like an artist with something to prove . Emerging in 1982 just as big brother Michael was casting his longest shadow , Jackson filled her albums not so much with songs as with declarations , from ' The Pleasure Principle ' to the radical @-@ sounding ' Rhythm Nation ' to the telling statement of purpose , ' Control ' . " Steve Huey of Allmusic asserted that despite being born into a family of entertainers , Janet Jackson has managed to emerge a " superstar " in her own right , rivaling not only several female recording artists including Madonna and Whitney Houston , but also her brother , while " successfully [ shifting ] her image from a strong , independent young woman to a sexy , mature adult . " By forging her own unique identity through her artistry and her business ventures , she has been esteemed as the " Queen of Pop " . Klein argued that " stardom was not too hard to predict , but few could have foreseen that Janet — Miss Jackson , if you 're nasty — would one day replace Michael as true heir to the Jackson family legacy . " .
Jackson has also been recognized for playing a pivotal role in crossing racial boundaries in the recording industry , where black artists were once considered to be substandard . In Right to Rock : The Black Rock Coalition and the Cultural Politics of Race ( 2004 ) , author Maureen Mahon states : " In the 1980s , Whitney Houston , Michael Jackson , Janet Jackson , and Prince were among the African American artists who crossed over ... When black artists cross over into pop success they cease to be black in the industry sense of the word . They get promoted from racialized black music to universal pop music in an economically driven process of racial transcendence . " Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women : Global Women 's Issues and Knowledge ( 2000 ) documented that Jackson , along with other prominent African @-@ American women , had achieved financial breakthroughs in mainstream popular music , receiving " superstar status " in the process . She , alongside her contemporaries " offered viable creative , intellectual , and business paths for establishing and maintaining agency , lyrical potency , marketing and ownership . " Her business savvy has been compared to that of Madonna , gaining a level of autonomy which enables " creative latitude and access to financial resources and mass @-@ market distribution . " A model of reinvention , author Jessie Carney Smith wrote that " Janet has continued to test the limits of her transformative power " , receiving accolades in music , film and concert tours throughout the course of her career .
Musicologist Richard J. Ripani identified Jackson as a leader in the development of contemporary R & B , as her music created a unique blend of genre and sound effects which ushered in the use of rap vocals into mainstream R & B. He also argues her signature song " Nasty " influenced the new jack swing genre developed by Teddy Riley . Leon McDermott of the Sunday Herald wrote : " Her million @-@ selling albums in the 1980s helped invent contemporary R & B through Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis 's muscular , lean production ; the sinuous grooves threaded through 1986 's Control and 1989 's Rhythm Nation 1814 are the foundation upon which today 's hot shot producers and singers rely . " In Bring the Noise : 20 Years of Writing About Hip Rock and Hip Hop ( 2011 ) , Simon Reynolds described Jackson 's collaborations with her record producers as a reinvention of the dance @-@ pop genre , introducing a new sonic palate . Den Berry , Virgin Records CEO and Chairman stated : " Janet is the very embodiment of a global superstar . Her artistic brilliance and personal appeal transcend geographic , cultural and generational boundaries . " In July 1999 , she placed at number 77 on VH1 's " 100 Greatest Women of Rock and Roll " . She also placed at number 134 on their list of the " 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons of All Time " , number seven on the " 100 Greatest Women In Music " , and at number two on the " 50 Greatest Women of the Video Era " , behind Madonna . In March 2008 , Business Wire reported " Janet Jackson is one of the top ten selling artists in the history of contemporary music ; ranked by Billboard magazine as the ninth most successful act in rock and roll history , and the second most successful female artist in pop music history . " She is the only female artist in the history of the Hot 100 to have 18 consecutive top ten hit singles , from " Miss You Much " ( 1989 ) to " I Get Lonely " ( 1998 ) . The magazine ranked her at number seven on their Hot 100 50th Anniversary " All @-@ Time Top Artists " , making her the third most successful female artist in the history of the chart , following Madonna and Mariah Carey . In November 2010 , Billboard released its " Top 50 R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years " list and ranked her at number five . She ranks as the top artist on the chart with 15 number ones in the past twenty @-@ five years , garnering 27 top ten hits between 1985 and 2001 , and 33 consecutive top 40 hits from 1985 through 2004 . The most awarded artist in the history of the Billboard Music Awards with 33 wins , she is one an elite group of musical acts , such as Madonna , Aerosmith , Garth Brooks and Eric Clapton , whom Billboard credits for " redefining the landscape of popular music . " In November 2014 , Jackson was voted ' Queen of Pop ' by a poll conducted online by VH1.com. In October , 2015 , she received a nomination to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
Jackson 's music and choreography have inspired numerous performers . Virgin Records executive Lee Trink expressed : " Janet is an icon and historic figure in our culture . She 's one of those gifted artists that people look up to , that people emulate , that people want to believe in ... there 's not that many superstars that stand the test of time . " Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald remarked : " For every hand @-@ fluttering , overwrought , melisma addict out there aping Mariah 's dog calls , there 's an equal number trying to match Jackson 's bubbling grooves and fancy footwork , including Britney , Aaliyah and Destiny 's Child . " Music critic Gene Stout commented she " has so broadly influenced a younger generation of performers , from Jennifer Lopez ... to Britney Spears , who has copied so many of Jackson 's dance moves . " ' N Sync and Usher have credited her for teaching them how to develop stage show into theatrical performance . Beyoncé Knowles , Toni Braxton , Aaliyah , Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , Crystal Kay , Kelly Rowland , Rihanna , and Brazilian singer Kelly Key have all named her as one of their biggest inspirations , while others such as Rozonda " Chilli " Thomas of TLC , Cassie , Nicki Minaj , Keri Hilson , and DJ / singer Havana Brown , have all expressed desire to emulate her . Elysa Gardner of USA Today wrote : " Jackson claims not to be bothered by the brigade of barely post @-@ adolescent baby divas who have been inspired by — and , in some cases , have flagrantly aped — the sharp , animated choreography and girlish but decidedly post @-@ feminist feistiness that have long been hallmarks of her performance style . " Those who are considered to have followed in her footsteps have been referred to as " Janet @-@ come @-@ lately 's . " Other artists who have drawn comparison to her include Mýa , Brandy , Tatyana Ali , Christina Milian , Lady Gaga , Namie Amuro , and BoA . Sociologist Shayne Lee commented that " [ a ] s Janet enters the twilight of her reign as erotic Queen of Pop , Beyoncé Knowles emerges as her likely successor . " Joan Morgan of Essence magazine remarked : " Jackson 's Control , Rhythm Nation 1814 and janet. established the singer @-@ dancer imprimatur standard in pop culture we now take for granted . So when you 're thinking of asking Miss Jackson , ' What have you done for me lately ? ' remember that Britney , Ciara and Beyoncé live in the house that Janet built . "
= = Discography = =
Janet Jackson ( 1982 )
Dream Street ( 1984 )
Control ( 1986 )
Janet Jackson 's Rhythm Nation 1814 ( 1989 )
janet . ( 1993 )
The Velvet Rope ( 1997 )
All for You ( 2001 )
Damita Jo ( 2004 )
20 Y.O. ( 2006 )
Discipline ( 2008 )
Unbreakable ( 2015 )
= = Filmography = =
Good Times ( 1977 – 79 )
Diff 'rent Strokes ( 1980 – 84 )
Fame ( 1984 – 85 )
Poetic Justice ( 1993 )
Nutty Professor II : The Klumps ( 2000 )
Why Did I Get Married ? ( 2007 )
Why Did I Get Married Too ? ( 2010 )
For Colored Girls ( 2010 )
= = Tours = =
Rhythm Nation World Tour ( 1990 )
Janet World Tour ( 1993 – 95 )
The Velvet Rope Tour ( 1998 – 99 )
All for You Tour ( 2001 – 02 )
Rock Witchu Tour ( 2008 )
Number Ones , Up Close and Personal World Tour ( 2011 )
Unbreakable World Tour ( 2015 – 16 )
= = Books = =
True You ( 2011 )
= German destroyer Z8 Bruno Heinemann =
Z8 Bruno Heinemann was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . After the start of World War II in September 1939 , she blockaded the Polish coast and searched neutral shipping for contraband . In late 1939 and early 1940 the ship made three successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed 17 merchant ships . Bruno Heinemann participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign by transporting troops to the Trondheim area in early April 1940 . The ship was transferred to France a year later to escort German ships that used the French ports on the Atlantic coast . She was returning to France in early 1942 when she struck two mines and sank off the coast of Belgium .
= = Design and description = =
Bruno Heinemann had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 485 kW ; 69 @,@ 042 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers with superheaters . Bruno Heinemann carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nmi ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Bruno Heinemann carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( German : Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 9 January 1935 and laid down at DeSchiMAG , Bremen on 14 January 1936 as yard number W902 . She was launched on 15 September 1936 and completed on 8 January 1937 . Bruno Heinemann and her sister Z5 Paul Jakobi sailed to Norway in April 1938 to test the new 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) TbtsK C / 36 gun planned for later classes of destroyers . Bruno Heinemann had been fitted with four of the new weapons and they were removed after gunnery trials off Ålesund were completed . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 6th Destroyer Division and the following fleet exercise . Early in 1939 , she spent several months in the Baltic Sea to evaluate whether reduced steam pressure would solve some of the problems of her high @-@ pressure steam plant .
When World War II began , Bruno Heinemann was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods and was also briefly refitted during this time . After completing her refit , Bruno Heinemann and Paul Jakobi were bound for the Baltic via the Kiel Canal when they were attacked by 11 Handley Page Hampden bombers of No. 144 Squadron RAF on 29 September . The British aircraft failed to damage the German ships and five were shot down by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters .
Although the other destroyers were busy escorting the German heavy ships and laying minefields off the British coast in October and November , Bruno Heinemann played no part of any of these operations until the night of 12 / 13 December . Under the command of Commodore Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , Friedrich Ihn , and Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) . While withdrawing at high speed Bruno Heinemann suffered a serious fire in one of her turbine rooms and was ordered to heave @-@ to while the fire was put out . The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Despite their escort , the submarine HMS Ursula managed to sneak inside the anti @-@ submarine screen and fired a salvo of six torpedoes at Leipzig in the Elbe estuary . Two of the torpedoes struck the destroyer escort F9 which sank three minutes later with heavy loss of life , but the other torpedoes missed . On the night of 10 / 11 January 1940 the ship laid a minefield off Cromer with her sisters Wolfgang Zenker and Erich Koellner . Three ships totaling 11 @,@ 155 GRT were sunk by this minefield . The same three ships made another sortie on the night of 9 / 10 February into the same area and laid 157 mines that claimed three more ships totaling 11 @,@ 855 GRT .
Bruno Heinemann was allocated to Group 2 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 138th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 138 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) to seize Trondheim together with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Bruno Heinemann and her sisters Paul Jakobi and Theodor Riedel each carried a company of mountain troops tasked to seize the forts defending the entrance to the Trondheimsfjord . After passing the surprised forts the ships were able to land their troops and capture the forts with little difficulty . All of the destroyers had suffered storm damage en route and were low on fuel because none of the oil tankers had arrived yet . Admiral Hipper was ordered home on 10 April . Fuel was transferred from Bruno Heinemann and Paul Jakobi to Friedrich Eckoldt sufficient to give the heavy cruiser some anti @-@ submarine protection . However , even this proved to be insufficient fuel , so the Friedrich Eckoldt was ordered to return later that night . Two days later enough fuel had been found in Trondheim to allow Friedrich Eckoldt and Bruno Heinemann to sail on 14 April ; they reached Germany the next day without incident . Sometime in 1939 – 41 the ship was fitted with a FuMO 21 or FuMO 24 radar set above the bridge .
The ship escorted a force of minelayers on the nights of 29 / 30 April and 9 / 10 May 1940 in the vicinity of the Great Fisherman 's Bank , but the second sortie turned back when British destroyers were spotted . Bruno Heinemann began a lengthy refit later that month and she was still not combat worthy in November . On 5 April 1941 , Bruno Heinemann left Germany for Occupied France and she was attacked by two torpedo bombers en route , but suffered no damage . The ship and the other destroyers present escorted commerce raiders , blockade runners and major warships as they used the French Atlantic coast ports until she was recalled on 6 September for another refit . Bruno Heinemann probably was fitted at this time with a four @-@ barrel 2 @-@ centimeter AA gun on her aft deckhouse that replaced the pair of 2 @-@ centimeter guns originally mounted there . She escorted the battleship Tirpitz in mid @-@ January 1942 as she sailed from the Baltic to Trondheim . Bruno Heinemann , together with the rest of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla , sailed from Kiel on 24 January for France as part of the preparations for the Channel Dash . On the evening of 25 January , she struck two mines laid by HMS Plover off the Belgian coast . The first detonated beneath the ship and knocked out Nos. 2 and 3 boiler rooms and the second blew the ship 's bow off shortly afterwards . 98 members of the ship 's crew lost their lives : 93 were lost at sea , while another five , who had originally been among the 234 men rescued , died of their wounds .
= Kreia =
Kreia is a fictional character and party member in Obsidian Entertainment 's Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II : The Sith Lords . She is a blind Force @-@ sensitive who forms a " bond " with the player character , the Jedi Exile , through the Force . Kreia sets herself up as the Exile 's mentor , and rejects the divide of the light and dark side of the Force , as well as the predestination the Force entails . By the game 's end , it is revealed she is the Sith Lord Darth Traya and is planning on destroying the Force , and she becomes the final boss of The Sith Lords . Kreia makes no more appearances in Star Wars fiction , though a miniature by Wizards of the Coast was released in August 2008 .
Written by Chris Avellone , the character was created as a sounding board for the game 's theme of the role of the Jedi and the nature of the Force , and was heavily influenced by Planescape : Torment 's Ravel Puzzlewell . She served both to test the player and to act as a mouthpiece for any questions Avellone thought should be asked about the Star Wars universe . Sara Kestelman voiced the character , with Kreia 's casting being considered the most important of all the characters . Her name references Princess Leia of the original Star Wars trilogy , while her character design draws both on Palpatine 's hood and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi 's robes .
She was positively received , and is often pointed as the highlight of The Sith Lords . Praise went to the questions and dialogue she provided , as well as her voice acting . The character has appeared in numerous " top lists " , often commending her as a Star Wars character . Attention was drawn to one moment where Kreia lectures about the dangers of charity . Despite this , Avellone felt he failed in creating a " sympathetic " Sith Lord , though has called her one of his favorite characters in the game .
= = Conception and creation = =
The first draft of the game placed a figurehead similar to Kreia as the leader of a matriarchs ruling the Handmaiden 's world , which the player was sent to free . This draft was made before Obsidian had played the first game , due to LucasArts needing Obsidian to sign a contract before giving them copies of Knights of the Old Republic , and after they had played it the draft was discarded . However , some of Kreia 's characteristics were salvaged , though little else was .
In the game proper , Kreia was written by Chris Avellone , who was also lead designer of The Sith Lords and created most of the party . Avellone was initially unsure about working on Star Wars but after beginning became more invested in and " excited " about it . Avellone decided to attempt to create a sympathetic Sith Lord . The character was highly influenced by Ravel Puzzlewell , a Planescape : Torment character which Avellone also wrote , and was intended to tell stories with her he had been unable to do in Torment . Avellone felt it would be " cool " to be in a party with Ravel . Despite Ravel 's influence , the Star Wars setting and its elements resulted in Kreia changing heavily .
A multi @-@ page biography was created for narrative reference , art and audio . When making characters , Avellone prefers to focus on : their role in the story , their name , their visual signature ( discussed with the concept artist ) , and in Kreia 's case the character 's ability to serve as his voice . Her name is inspired by Princess Leia of the original Star Wars films , and serves a similar role as ally , but Kreia has darker past demonstrated a harsher prefix . Her visuals , meanwhile , combine elements of both " the wise mentor " like Obi @-@ Wan 's robes and dark side elements like Palpatine 's hood . Brian Menze , lead concept artist and modeller for the characters , designed Kreia .
Narratively , Kreia had several roles in The Sith Lords , acting as a party member , a foil , and a " sounding board " for the theme of the game , which concerned the Jedi 's role and the Force 's nature in a living galaxy . As an extension of Avellone 's voice , Kreia became his way of expressing all his problems with the Force . Despite her view of the Force , it was important to avoid causing continuity problems with the rest of the Star Wars series , and her views were presented within the context of the original Force in the Star Wars world . Kreia is intended to test the player on the basic philosophical issues of the Star Wars universe . She is rude and dismissive to everyone but the player character , something intended to help make the player feel special .
English actress Sara Kestelman voiced the character in the game . In voice directors Will Beckman and Darragh O 'Farrell 's " Designer Diary " , the character was considered the most critical character to cast , though a challenging one as few games casted women of her age group . Obsidian worked hard in finding Kreia 's voice , which had to match with her model without being " witchy or grating " due to her lengthy amount of dialogue .
Developers tried to give each companion a unique ability to make them distinct from any other companion . Originally , throughout The Sith Lords Kreia would be seen through cutscenes recruiting certain characters such as Hanharr to side with her and seducing them to the dark side , though her exact purpose was not made overt . At the end of the game , they would then be used as " cannon fodder " before the fight with her began . Ultimately , this was cut .
= = Character = =
Kreia is shown as an elderly blind woman , whose eyes have atrophied from lack of use in preference of viewing things through the Force , viewing normal sight as a distraction . Dialogue in The Sith Lords establishes her past as a Jedi historian and one of the teachers of Revan , who became a Sith Lord and was the player character of the first game , and how her teachings were blamed for his fall . The Sith Lords reveals she as Sith trained two antagonists of the game , Darth Sion and Darth Nihilus , before they cast her out . She is initially depicted in earth @-@ brown hooded Jedi robes with empty white eyes , though after the revelation of her identity as Darth Traya , both a Sith and a being of betrayal , both her robes and eyes are changed to black , and she becomes more pale .
Kreia was the personification of Avellone 's frustrations with the concept of the Force . He called her " one redeeming feature " her love of the player character , and what they represent : a way of destroying the Force and its predestination in favor of giving freedom to the galaxy . She shuns the light @-@ side and the dark @-@ side divide of the Force , as well as blanket good and evil , favouring choices that grant the player control . The A.V. Club 's Jake Muncy described her philosophy as " a pessimistic and borderline @-@ Randian way of thinking focused on the importance of power and strife " .
She is initially presented as an ally and a teacher , and acts a mentor from the start of the game . Alexander Gambotto @-@ Burke of Eurogamer commented that she has a " genuine , albeit twisted maternal " love for the player , her student . In contrast to Darth Malak , the clear villain of the first game , Avellone called Kreia neither " necessarily good or evil " ; instead , she merely wants the Exile to grow as a person . Kreia is deliberately complicated in her goals and motivations , giving the character a feel of mystery . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein noted this mystery , commenting both on her seemingly dark motives and yet how she appears as the player 's " staunchest defender and a true protector " .
= = In The Sith Lords = =
The game was first released in December 2004 , on Xbox , marking the character 's debut . Kreia initially seems dead when introduced , but after the player character , an exile of the Jedi Order , enters the morgue of the mining station they 've woken in , she begins conversation . She informs the player that while they slept they both formed a Force bond , tying the Exile and Kreia together . It is revealed that Kreia and the Exile both came in aboard the Ebon Hawk after the Exile 's original ship was attacked by the Sith and the Exile rescued while unconscious . During their escape , Kreia encounters Darth Sion and loses her hand during the battle , which in turn causes the Exile tremendous pain due to their bond . After she rejoins the party and they escape the station on the Ebon Hawk , Kreia then appoints herself the Exile 's " teacher " .
Kreia serves as a party member throughout the game , and may interject at certain points of it to offer her perspective . Depending on each decision the player makes , Kreia may gain or lose " Influence " , which measures how much " trust , confidence , or control " the player has with a party member . Unlike other party members , Kreia 's alignment is not affected by the player 's Influence level with her and is instead set at neutral , though Influence will unlock new conversations with her . In gameplay , she may only equip one hand , and is a " Jedi Consular " , focused on using the game 's Force powers . Having her in the party grants the player extra experience , and any Force effects the player character or Kreia use on themself will also effect the other .
After the player either finds all the in @-@ hiding Jedi Masters to discuss the Sith threat or kills them for vengeance , Kreia will retake her mantle as a Sith Lord . If the player does not kill the Jedi , she will intervene when they attempt to cut the Exile off from the Force , draining the Jedi of the Force herself and killing them . If the player chooses to kill the Jedi , she will renounce the Exile . Either way , she will leave , and the player must hunt her down to Malachor V , a planet and a site of great atrocities and death during a previous war , causing a wound in the Force . Kreia seemingly plans on creating another wound in the Force there , deafening all to the Force and causing its " death " , as well as potentially killing all those touched by it . The player faces Kreia , now " Darth Traya " , as the final boss , and after she is defeated she offers to describe the future she foresees before dying .
= = Later appearances = =
The character would make no more future appearances in Star Wars fiction . However , Kreia is mentioned in several Star Wars reference books , such as Jedi vs. Sith : The Essential Guide to the Force and the second volume of The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia . In addition , Wizards of the Coast created a miniature for the character , along with other characters in the Knights of the Old Republic series , which was released August 19 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
Kreia has been positively received . Alexander Gambotto @-@ Burke , for Eurogamer , considered Kreia to be the greatest villain in video gaming , praising her dialogue , Kestelman 's " intelligent and subtle " voice @-@ acting , and the way she forced the player into making choices and considering their decisions . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein offered similar praise to her dialogue . When looking at morality in games , Gamasutra 's Katherine Cross noted how Kreia 's comments affected her more than many of the dark @-@ side / light @-@ side choices in the game . Her " practical " philosophy was also complimented by Kotaku 's Phil Owen , who noted its ties to reality over the traditional moral extremes of the Sith and the Jedi . Eurogamer 's Richard Cobbett considered her the most " famous " of The Sith Lords ' subversion of Star Wars and the first Knights of the Old Republic , commenting " Whether you agree or think she 's crazy , she 's a fresh breath of air for the series , and easily one of the best RPG characters ever . "
The character is often considered The Sith Lord 's greatest or most important character . Jake Muncy of The A.V. Club said she was the greatest part of the game and called her the game 's most " captivating " character , which he credited to her " cold charisma " . Muncy found himself genuinely changing his character based on her opinions , overly caring about how Kreia viewed his character . Similarly , PC Gamer credited Kreia with The Sith Lords 's success , calling her " clearly haunted , bitter , manipulative , and yet right in so many ways " . By looking at the Star Wars world through the view of her philosophy , they felt Obsidian made " the most thoughtful take on Star Wars we 'll ever get " . Robert Purchese , writing for Eurogamer , called her " the strongest and most memorable character " in the game , praising her writing and how she embodied The Sith Lords 's gray areas . Allen Rausch of GameSpy described her as the game 's most compelling character , commending Kreia for her challenges to his choices and noting how one example , concerning the importance of lightsabers , changed his view of the game .
The character has appeared in numerous lists , often reflecting her good reception as a Star Wars character . IGN placed her at 81 in " The Top 100 Star Wars Characters " , noting her crypticness . She , along with the other Sith Lords in the game , came second @-@ place in a modified list of the best Star Wars villains , based on reader requests for characters left out of the original list . The Lords of both the first and second Knights of the Old Republic were similarly grouped as some of gaming 's best Star Wars characters by Joe Juba of Game Informer , calling most of them " cooler and better developed " than the Sith Lords in the actual Star Wars films . The character was ranked seventh among Game Informer 's " Top Ten Female Villains in Video Games " by Liz Lanier , saying that " Kreia is one of the few female Sith Lords of the Star Wars universe , but she represents women of the dark side relatively ruthlessly . " The " struggle " against her was called one of " 25 greatest Star Wars moments in Xbox history " by Edwin Evans @-@ Thirlwell writing for GamesRadar , who called her reveal of her agenda " compelling " despite being exposition .
Not all reception of the character was positive . Adam Rosenburg of UGO Networks listed Kreia as one of the worst Star Wars expanded universe characters , considering her at the center of Knights of the Old Republic II 's " stupidity " and criticizing her Sith name . Gamasutra 's Christopher Buecheler , the " Resident Cynic " , found Kreia 's comments " a bit trite and condescending " . Buecheler also faulted how gaining Influence with Kreia was essential in understanding the main plot of the game .
In a moment described as " ( in ) famous " by Cross , on Nar Shaddaa the player may give a beggar money or leave him ; if he is given the money , Kreia shows how he is made a target of and attacked , and if he is refused Kreia reveals he attacks others . Owen called this moment the crystallization of the game 's gray areas . Anthony Brock of Gamers Hell noted how it led to him passionately arguing with a game character , complimenting Obsidian for how involved he felt . Cobbett similarly highlighted the moment when praising the character . Buecheler , however , criticized the scene for using an unlikely chance event to make its point .
Kreia won " Best Character " in GameSpy 's 2005 game of the year awards . They called her a " deeply unpleasant , highly disturbing , and incredibly hateful person " , but also " easily the most intriguing , complicated , enigmatic , well @-@ designed and nuanced character in a video game [ in 2005 ] " . She was also nominated for GameSpot 's 2004 " Best New Character " award , though lost to " The Boss " in Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater .
= = = Avellone retrospective = = =
Avellone has said he felt he failed in creating a sympathetic Sith Lord , recalling buglists by QA testers referring to her as " that crusty annoying lady , " and he considered the ending 's explanations of her motivations more " hamfisted " than sympathetic . However , in an interview with 1UP.com he called Kreia , along with the Handmaiden , his favorite character after T3 @-@ M4 , citing the mystery surrounding her . He called his favorite " unexpected turn " in the game the revelation of Kreia being neither fully good nor evil . In another interview , this time with Star Wars fansite EU Cantina , he called his favorite character either Kreia or T3 , and called her scene where she explains her relationship with the Force one of his favorites in the game .
= = Analysis = =
Alexander Gambotto @-@ Burke felt the character was a presentation of Avellone 's criticisms of the Star Wars mythos and the morality presented in most post @-@ Garriott video games , and called her " a tutorial , an incentive to explore moral avenues you might have otherwise ignored " . Gambotto @-@ Burke considered her not purely evil , and felt even at the end of the game " you can 't help but see her as a flawed visionary " . GameSpot considered it the point to be for the player to move on from her " self @-@ defeating " nihilism and realize " the act of choice is what gives form and pattern to the universe " .
In her piece analysing game morality , Katherine Cross highlighted the beggar scene on Nar Shaddaa . Cross noted how it illustrated Kreia 's morality , shed doubt on " tokenist " moral acts , and highlighted the player 's own powerlessness . Hilary Goldstein noted how her philosophical points questioned the roles of the Jedi and the Sith .
= East End of London =
The East End of London , also known simply as the East End , is an area of London , England , east of the Roman and medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames . Although not defined by universally accepted formal boundaries , the River Lea can be considered the eastern boundary . For the purposes of his book , East End Past , Richard Tames regards the area as coterminous with the London Borough of Tower Hamlets : however , he acknowledges that this narrow definition excludes parts of southern Hackney , such as Shoreditch and Hoxton , which many would regard as belonging to the East End . Others again , such as Alan Palmer , would extend the area across the Lea to include parts of the London Borough of Newham ; while parts of the London Borough of Waltham Forest and London Borough of Hackney are also sometimes included . It is universally agreed , however , that the East End is to be distinguished from East London , which covers a much wider area .
Use of the term East End in a pejorative sense began in the late 19th century , as the expansion of the population of London led to extreme overcrowding throughout the area and a concentration of poor people and immigrants . The problems were exacerbated with the construction of St Katharine Docks ( 1827 ) and the central London railway termini ( 1840 – 1875 ) that caused the clearance of former slums and rookeries , with many of the displaced people moving into the East End . Over the course of a century , the East End became synonymous with poverty , overcrowding , disease and criminality .
The East End developed rapidly during the 19th century . Originally it was an area characterised by villages clustered around the City walls or along the main roads , surrounded by farmland , with marshes and small communities by the River , serving the needs of shipping and the Royal Navy . Until the arrival of formal docks , shipping was required to land its goods in the Pool of London , but industries related to construction , repair , and victualling of ships flourished in the area from Tudor times . The area attracted large numbers of rural people looking for employment . Successive waves of foreign immigration began with Huguenot refugees creating a new extramural suburb in Spitalfields in the 17th century . They were followed by Irish weavers , Ashkenazi Jews and , in the 20th century , Bangladeshis . Many of these immigrants worked in the clothing industry . The abundance of semi- and unskilled labour led to low wages and poor conditions throughout the East End . This brought the attentions of social reformers during the mid @-@ 18th century and led to the formation of unions and workers associations at the end of the century . The radicalism of the East End contributed to the formation of the Labour Party , and Sylvia Pankhurst based campaigns for women 's votes in the area and organised the first Communist Party in England here .
Official attempts to address the overcrowded housing began at the beginning of the 20th century under the London County Council . The Second World War devastated much of the East End , with its docks , railways and industry forming a continual target for bombing , especially during the Blitz , leading to dispersal of the population to new suburbs and new housing being built in the 1950s . The closure of the last of the East End docks in the Port of London in 1980 created further challenges and led to attempts at regeneration and the formation of the London Docklands Development Corporation . The Canary Wharf development , improved infrastructure , and the Olympic Park mean that the East End is undergoing further change , but some parts continue to contain some of the worst poverty in Britain .
= = Origin and scope = =
The term ' East End ' was first applied to the districts immediately to the east of , and entirely outside , the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames ; these included Whitechapel and Stepney .
The East End began with the medieval growth of London beyond the walls , mainly along the Roman Roads leading from Bishopsgate and Aldgate .
Growth was much slower in the east , and the modest extensions on this side were separated from the much larger extensions in the west by the marshy open area of Moorfields adjacent to the wall on the north side which discouraged development in that direction .
Building accelerated in the 1500s and the area that would later become known East End began to take shape .
In 1720 John Strype gives us our first record of the East End as a distinct entity when he describes London as consisting of four parts : The City of London , Westminster , Southwark and " That Part Beyond the Tower " .
Moorfields wasn 't developed until 1777 @-@ 1812 and the longstanding presence of that open space separating the east and west urban expansions of London must have helped shape the varying economic character of the two parts and perceptions of their distinct identity ( see map below ) .
By the late 19th century , the East End roughly corresponded to the Tower division of Middlesex , which from 1900 formed the metropolitan boroughs of Stepney , Bethnal Green , Poplar and Shoreditch in the County of London . Today it corresponds to the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and the southern part of Hackney .
[ The ] invention about 1880 of the term ' East End ' was rapidly taken up by the new halfpenny press , and in the pulpit and the music hall ... A shabby man from Paddington , St Marylebone or Battersea might pass muster as one of the respectable poor . But the same man coming from Bethnal Green , Shadwell or Wapping was an ' East Ender ' , the box of Keating 's bug powder must be reached for , and the spoons locked up . In the long run this cruel stigma came to do good . It was a final incentive to the poorest to get out of the ' East End ' at all costs , and it became a concentrated reminder to the public conscience that nothing to be found in the ' East End ' should be tolerated in a Christian country .
Parts of the London boroughs of Newham and Waltham Forest , formerly in an area of Essex known as ' London over the border ' , are sometimes considered to be in the East End . However , the River Lea is usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the East End and this definition would exclude the boroughs , but place them in east London . This extension of the term further east is due to the ' diaspora ' of East Enders who moved to West Ham about 1886 and East Ham about 1894 to service the new docks and industries established there . In the inter @-@ war period , migration occurred to new estates built to alleviate conditions in the East End , in particular at Becontree and Harold Hill , or out of London entirely .
The extent of the East End has always been difficult to define . When Jack London came to London in 1902 his Hackney carriage driver did not know the way and he observed , " Thomas Cook and Son , path @-@ finders and trail @-@ clearers , living sign @-@ posts to all the World .... knew not the way to the East End " .
Many East Enders are ' Cockneys ' , although this term has both a geographic and a linguistic connotation . A traditional definition is that to be a Cockney , one had to be born within the sound of Bow Bells , situated in Cheapside . In general , the sound pattern would cover most of the City , and parts of the near East End such as Aldgate and Whitechapel , but it is unlikely that the bells would have been heard in the docklands . In practice , with Royal London the only maternal hospital nearby , today few would be born in the area .
Its linguistic use is more identifiable , with lexical borrowings from Yiddish , Romani , and costermonger slang , and a distinctive accent that features T @-@ glottalization , a loss of dental fricatives and diphthong alterations , amongst others . The accent is said to be a remnant of early English London speech , modified by the many immigrants to the area . The Cockney accent has suffered a long decline , beginning with the introduction in the 20th century of received pronunciation , and the more recent adoption of Estuary English , which itself contains many features of Cockney English .
= = History = =
The East End came into being as the separate villages east of London spread and the fields between them were built upon , a process that occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . From the beginning , the East End has always contained some of the poorest areas of London . The main reasons for this include the following :
the medieval system of copyhold , which prevailed throughout the East End , into the 19th century . Essentially , there was little point in developing land that was held on short leases .
the siting of noxious industries , such as tanning and fulling downwind outside the boundaries of the City , and therefore beyond complaints and official controls . The foul @-@ smelling industries partially preferred the East End because the prevailing winds in London traveled from west to east ( i.e. it was downwind from the rest of the city ) , meaning that most odors from their businesses would not go into the city but outside , and thereby reduced complaints .
the low paid employment in the docks and related industries , made worse by the trade practices of outwork , piecework and casual labour .
and the concentration of the ruling court and national political epicentre in Westminster , on the opposite western side of the City of London .
Historically , the East End is conterminous with the Manor of Stepney . This manor was held by the Bishop of London , in compensation for his duties in maintaining and garrisoning the Tower of London . Further ecclesiastic holdings came about from the need to enclose the marshes and create flood defences along the Thames . Edward VI passed the land to the Wentworth family , and thence to their descendants , the Earls of Cleveland . The ecclesiastic system of copyhold , whereby land was leased to tenants for terms as short as seven years , prevailed throughout the manor . This severely limited scope for improvement of the land and new building until the estate was broken up in the 19th century .
In medieval times trades were carried out in workshops in and around the owners ' premises in the City . By the time of the Great Fire these were becoming industries and some were particularly noisome , such as the processing of urine to perform tanning ; or required large amounts of space , such as drying clothes after process and dying in fields known as tentergrounds ; and rope making . Some were dangerous , such as the manufacture of gunpowder or the proving of guns . These activities came to be performed outside the City walls in the near suburbs of the East End . Later when lead making and bone processing for soap and china came to be established , they too located in the East End rather than the crowded streets of the City .
The lands to the east of the City had always been used as hunting grounds for bishops and royalty , with King John establishing a palace at Bow . The Cistercian Stratford Langthorne Abbey became the court of Henry III in 1267 for the visitation of the Papal legates , and it was here that he made peace with the barons under the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth . It became the fifth largest Abbey in the country , visited by monarchs and providing a popular retreat ( and final resting place ) for the nobility . The Palace of Placentia at Greenwich , to the south of the river , was built by the Regent to Henry V , Humphrey , Duke of Gloucester and Henry VIII established a hunting lodge at Bromley Hall . These Royal connections continued until after the Interregnum when the Court established itself in the Palace of Whitehall and the offices of politics congregated around them . The East End also lay on the main road to Barking Abbey , important as a religious centre since Norman times and where William the Conqueror had first established his English court .
= = = Politics and social reform = = =
At the end of the 17th century large numbers of Huguenot weavers arrived in the East End , settling to service an industry that grew up around the new estate at Spitalfields , where master weavers were based . They brought with them a tradition of ' reading clubs ' , where books were read , often in public houses . The authorities were suspicious of immigrants meeting and in some ways they were right to be as these grew into workers ' associations and political organisations . Towards the middle of the 18th century the silk industry fell into a decline – partly due to the introduction of printed calico cloth – and riots ensued . These ' Spitalfield Riots ' of 1769 were actually centred to the east and were put down with considerable force , culminating in two men being hanged in front of the Salmon and Ball public house at Bethnal Green . One was John Doyle ( an Irish weaver ) , the other John Valline ( of Huguenot descent ) .
In 1844 , " An Association for promoting Cleanliness among the Poor " was established , and it built a bath @-@ house and laundry in Glasshouse Yard , East Smithfield . This cost a single penny for bathing or washing and by June 1847 was receiving 4 @,@ 284 people a year . This led to an Act of Parliament to encourage other municipalities to build their own and the model spread quickly throughout the East End . Timbs noted that " ... so strong was the love of cleanliness thus encouraged that women often toiled to wash their own and their children 's clothing , who had been compelled to sell their hair to purchase food to satisfy the cravings of hunger " .
William Booth began his ' Christian Revival Society ' in 1865 , preaching the gospel in a tent erected in the ' Friends Burial Ground ' , Thomas Street , Whitechapel . Others joined his ' Christian Mission ' , and on 7 August 1878 the Salvation Army was formed at a meeting held at 272 Whitechapel Road . A statue commemorates both his mission and his work in helping the poor . Dubliner Thomas John Barnardo came to the London Hospital , Whitechapel to train for medical missionary work in China . Soon after his arrival in 1866 a cholera epidemic swept the East End killing 3 @,@ 000 people . Many families were left destitute , with thousands of children orphaned and forced to beg or find work in the factories . In 1867 , Barnardo set up a Ragged School to provide a basic education but was shown the many children sleeping rough . His first home for boys was established at 18 Stepney Causeway in 1870 . When a boy died after being turned away ( the home was full ) , the policy was instituted that ' No Destitute Child Ever Refused Admission ' .
In 1884 , the Settlement movement was founded , with settlements such as Toynbee Hall and Oxford House , to encourage university students to live and work in the slums , experience the conditions and try to alleviate some of the poverty and misery in the East End . Notable residents of Toynbee Hall included R. H. Tawney , Clement Attlee , Guglielmo Marconi , and William Beveridge . The Hall continues to exert considerable influence , with the Workers Educational Association ( 1903 ) , Citizens Advice Bureau ( 1949 ) and Child Poverty Action Group ( 1965 ) all being founded or influenced by it . In 1888 , the matchgirls of Bryant and May in Bow went on strike for better working conditions . This , combined with the many dock strikes in the same era , made the East End a key element in the foundation of modern socialist and trade union organisations , as well as the Suffragette movement .
Towards the end of the 19th century , a new wave of radicalism came to the East End , arriving both with Jewish émigrés fleeing from Eastern European persecution , and Russian and German radicals avoiding arrest . A German émigré anarchist , Rudolf Rocker , began writing in Yiddish for Arbayter Fraynd ( Workers ' Friend ) . By 1912 , he had organised a mass London garment workers ' strike for better conditions and an end to ' sweating ' . Amongst the Russians was fellow anarchist Peter Kropotkin who helped found the Freedom Press in Whitechapel . Afanasy Matushenko , one of the leaders of the Potemkin mutiny , fled the failure of the Russian Revolution of 1905 to seek sanctuary in Stepney Green . Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin attended meetings of the newspaper Iskra in 1903 @.@ in Whitechapel ; and in 1907 Lenin and Joseph Stalin attended the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party held in a Hoxton church . That congress consolidated the leadership of Lenin 's Bolshevik faction and debated strategy for the communist revolution in Russia . Trotsky noted , in his memoires , meeting Maxim Gorky and Rosa Luxemburg at the conference .
By the 1880s , the casual system caused Dock workers to unionise under Ben Tillett and John Burns . This led to a demand for ' 6d per hour ' ( The Docker 's Tanner ) , and an end to casual labour in the docks . Colonel G. R. Birt , the general manager at Millwall Docks , gave evidence to a Parliamentary committee , on the physical condition of the workers :
The poor fellows are miserably clad , scarcely with a boot on their foot , in a most miserable state .... These are men who come to work in our docks who come on without having a bit of food in their stomachs , perhaps since the previous day ; they have worked for an hour and have earned 5d . [ 2p ] ; their hunger will not allow them to continue : they take the 5d. in order that they may get food , perhaps the first food they have had for twenty @-@ four hours .
These conditions earned dockers much public sympathy , and after a bitter struggle , the London Dock Strike of 1889 was settled with victory for the strikers , and established a national movement for the unionisation of casual workers , as opposed to the craft unions that already existed .
The philanthropist Angela Burdett @-@ Coutts was active in the East End , alleviating poverty by founding a sewing school for ex @-@ weavers in Spitalfields and building the ornate Columbia Market in Bethnal Green . She helped to inaugurate the London Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children , was a keen supporter of the ' Ragged School Union ' , and operated housing schemes similar to those of the Model Dwellings Companies such as the East End Dwellings Company and the Four Per Cent Industrial Dwellings Company , where investors received a financial return on their philanthropy . Between the 1890s and 1903 , when the work was published , the social campaigner Charles Booth instigated an investigation into the life of London poor ( based at Toynbee Hall ) , much of which was centred on the poverty and conditions in the East End . Further investigations were instigated by the ' Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905 @-@ 09 ' , the Commission found it difficult to agree , beyond that change was necessary and produced separate minority and majority reports . The minority report was the work of Booth with the founders of the London School of Economics Sidney and Beatrice Webb . They advocated focusing on the causes of poverty and the radical notion of poverty being involuntary , rather than the result of innate indolence . At the time their work was rejected but was gradually adopted as policy by successive governments .
Sylvia Pankhurst became increasingly disillusioned with the suffragette movement 's inability to engage with the needs of working class women , so in 1912 she formed her own breakaway movement , the East London Federation of Suffragettes . She based it at a baker 's shop at Bow emblazoned with the slogan , " Votes for Women " , in large gold letters . The local Member of Parliament , George Lansbury , resigned his seat in the House of Commons to stand for election on a platform of women 's enfranchisement . Pankhurst supported him in this , and Bow Road became the campaign office , culminating in a huge rally in nearby Victoria Park . Lansbury was narrowly defeated in the election , however , and support for the project in the East End was withdrawn . Pankhurst refocused her efforts , and with the outbreak of the First World War , she began a nursery , clinic and cost price canteen for the poor at the bakery . A paper , the Women 's Dreadnought , was published to bring her campaign to a wider audience . Pankhurst spent twelve years in Bow fighting for women 's rights . During this time , she risked constant arrest and spent many months in Holloway Prison , often on hunger strike . She finally achieved her aim of full adult female suffrage in 1928 , and along the way she alleviated some of the poverty and misery , and improved social conditions for all in the East End .
The alleviation of widespread unemployment and hunger in Poplar had to be funded from money raised by the borough itself under the Poor Law . The poverty of the borough made this patently unfair and lead to the 1921 conflict between government and the local councillors known as the Poplar Rates Rebellion . Council meetings were for a time held in Brixton prison , and the councillors received wide support . Ultimately , this led to the abolition of the Poor Laws through the Local Government Act 1929 .
The General Strike had begun as a dispute between miners and their employers outside London in 1925 . On 1 May 1926 the Trades Union Congress called out workers all over the country , including the London dockers . The government had had over a year to prepare and deployed troops to break the dockers ' picket lines . Armed food convoys , accompanied by armoured cars drove down the East India Dock Road . By 10 May , a meeting was brokered at Toynbee Hall to end the strike . The TUC were forced into a humiliating climbdown and the general strike ended on 11 May , with the miners holding out until November .
= = = Industry and built environment = = =
Industries associated with the sea developed throughout the East End , including rope making and shipbuilding . The former location of roperies can still be identified from their long straight , narrow profile in the modern streets , for instance Ropery Street near Mile End . Shipbuilding was important from the time when Henry VIII caused ships to be built at Rotherhithe as a part of his expansion of the Royal Navy . On 31 January 1858 , the largest ship of that time , the SS Great Eastern , designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was launched from the yard of Messrs Scott Russell & Co , of Millwall . The 692 @-@ foot ( 211 m ) vessel was too long to fit across the river , and so the ship had to be launched sideways . Due to the technical difficulties of the launch , this was the last big ship to be built on the River , and the industry fell into a long decline . Smaller ships , including battleships , continued to be built at the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company at Blackwall until the beginning of the 20th century .
The West India Docks were established in 1803 , providing berths for larger ships and a model for future London dock building . Imported produce from the West Indies was unloaded directly into quayside warehouses . Ships were limited to 6000 tons . The old Brunswick Dock , a shipyard at Blackwall became the basis for the East India Company 's East India Docks established there in 1806 . The London Docks were built in 1805 , and the waste soil and rubble from the construction was carried by barge to west London , to build up the marshy area of Pimlico . These docks imported tobacco , wine , wool and other goods into guarded warehouses within high walls ( some of which still remain ) . They were able to berth over 300 sailing vessels simultaneously , but by 1971 they closed , no longer able to accommodate modern shipping . The most central docks , St Katharine Docks , were built in 1828 to accommodate luxury goods , clearing the slums that lay in the area of the former Hospital of St Katharine . They were not successful commercially , as they were unable to accommodate the largest ships , and in 1864 , management of the docks was amalgamated with that of the London Docks . The Millwall Docks were created in 1868 , predominantly for the import of grain and timber . These docks housed the first purpose built granary for the Baltic grain market , a local landmark that remained until it was demolished to improve access for the London City Airport .
The first railway ( ' The Commercial Railway ' ) to be built , in 1840 , was a passenger service based on cable haulage by stationary steam engines that ran the 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) from Minories to Blackwall on a pair of tracks . It required 14 miles ( 22 @.@ 5 km ) of hemp rope , and ' dropped ' carriages as it arrived at stations , which were reattached to the cable for the return journey , and the train ' reassembling ' itself at the terminus . The line was converted to standard gauge in 1859 , and steam locomotives adopted . The building of London termini at Fenchurch Street ( 1841 ) , and Bishopsgate ( 1840 ) provided access to new suburbs across the River Lea , again resulting in the destruction of housing and increased overcrowding in the slums . After the opening of Liverpool Street station ( 1874 ) , Bishopsgate railway station became a goods yard , in 1881 , to bring imports from Eastern ports . With the introduction of containerisation , the station declined , suffered a fire in 1964 that destroyed the station buildings , and it was finally demolished in 2004 for the extension of the East London Line . In the 19th century , the area north of Bow Road became a major railway centre for the North London Railway , with marshalling yards and a maintenance depot serving both the City and the West India docks . Nearby Bow railway station opened in 1850 and was rebuilt in 1870 in a grand style , featuring a concert hall . The line and yards closed in 1944 , after severe bomb damage , and never reopened , as goods became less significant , and cheaper facilities were concentrated in Essex .
The River Lea was a smaller boundary than the Thames , but it was a significant one . The building of the Royal Docks consisting of the Royal Victoria Dock ( 1855 ) , able to berth vessels of up to 8000 tons ; Royal Albert Dock ( 1880 ) , up to 12 @,@ 000 tons ; and King George V Dock ( 1921 ) , up to 30 @,@ 000 tons , on the estuary marshes , extended the continuous development of London across the Lea into Essex for the first time . The railways gave access to a passenger terminal at Gallions Reach and new suburbs created in West Ham , which quickly became a major manufacturing town , with 30 @,@ 000 houses built between 1871 and 1901 . Soon afterwards , East Ham was built up to serve the new Gas Light and Coke Company and Bazalgette 's grand sewage works at Beckton .
From the mid @-@ 20th century , the docks declined in use and were finally closed in 1980 , leading to the setting up of the London Docklands Development Corporation in 1981 . London 's main port is now at Tilbury , further down the Thames estuary , outside the boundary of Greater London . The dock had been established in 1886 to bring bulk goods by rail to London , but being nearer the sea and able to accommodate vessels of 50 @,@ 000 tons , they were more easily converted to the needs of modern container ships in 1968 , and so they survived the closure of the inner docks . Various wharves along the river continue in use but on a much smaller scale .
= = = Settlement = = =
During the Middle Ages , settlements had been established predominantly along the lines of the existing roads , and the principal villages were Stepney , Whitechapel and Bow . Settlements along the river began at this time to service the needs of shipping on the Thames , but the City of London retained its right to actually land the goods . The riverside became more active in Tudor times , as the Royal Navy was expanded and international trading developed . Downstream , a major fishing port developed at Barking to provide fish to the City .
Whereas royalty such as King John had had a hunting lodge at Bromley @-@ by @-@ Bow , and the Bishop of London had a palace at Bethnal Green , later these estates began to be split up , and estates of fine houses for captains , merchants and owners of manufacturers began to be built . Samuel Pepys moved his family and goods to Bethnal Green during the Great Fire of London , and Captain Cook moved from Shadwell to Stepney Green , a place where a school and assembly rooms had been established ( commemorated by Assembly Passage , and a plaque on the site of Cook 's house on the Mile End Road ) . Mile End Old Town also acquired some fine buildings , and the New Town began to be built . As the area became built up and more crowded , the wealthy sold their plots for sub @-@ division and moved further afield . Into the 18th and 19th centuries , there were still attempts to build fine houses , for example Tredegar Square ( 1830 ) , and the open fields around Mile End New Town were used for the construction of estates of workers ' cottages in 1820 . This was designed in 1817 in Birmingham by Anthony Hughes and finally constructed in 1820
Globe Town was established from 1800 to provide for the expanding population of weavers around Bethnal Green , attracted by improving prospects in silk weaving . The population of Bethnal Green trebled between 1801 and 1831 , with 20 @,@ 000 looms being operated in people 's own homes . By 1824 , with restrictions on importation of French silks relaxed , up to half these looms had become idle , and prices were driven down . With many importing warehouses already established in the district , the abundance of cheap labour was turned to boot , furniture and clothing manufacture . Globe Town continued its expansion into the 1860s , long after the decline of the silk industry .
During the 19th century , building on an adhoc basis could never keep up with the needs of the expanding population . Henry Mayhew visited Bethnal Green in 1850 and wrote for the Morning Chronicle , as a part of a series forming the basis for London Labour and the London Poor ( 1851 ) , that the trades in the area included tailors , costermongers , shoemakers , dustmen , sawyers , carpenters , cabinet makers and silkweavers . He noted that in the area :
roads were unmade , often mere alleys , houses small and without foundations , subdivided and often around unpaved courts . An almost total lack of drainage and sewerage was made worse by the ponds formed by the excavation of brickearth . Pigs and cows in back yards , noxious trades like boiling tripe , melting tallow , or preparing cat 's meat , and slaughter houses , dustheaps , and ' lakes of putrefying night soil ' added to the filth
A movement began to clear the slums – with Burdett @-@ Coutts building Columbia Market in 1869 and with the passing of the " Artisans ' and Labourers ' Dwelling Act " in 1876 to provide powers to seize slums from landlords and provide access to public funds to build new housing . Housing associations such as the Peabody Trust were formed to provide philanthropic homes for the poor and clearing the slums generally . Expansion work by the railway companies , such as the London and Blackwall Railway and Great Eastern Railway , caused large areas of slum housing to be demolished . The " Working Classes Dwellings Act " in 1890 placed a new responsibility to house the displaced residents and this led to the building of new " philanthropic housing " such as Blackwall Buildings and Great Eastern Buildings .
By 1890 official slum clearance programmes had begun . One was the creation of the world 's first council housing , the LCC Boundary Estate , which replaced the neglected and crowded streets of Friars Mount , better known as The Old Nichol Street Rookery . Between 1918 and 1939 the LCC continued replacing East End housing with five or six storey flats , despite residents preferring houses with gardens and opposition from shopkeepers who were forced to relocate to new , more expensive premises . The Second World War brought an end to further slum clearance .
= = = Second World War = =
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7 @,@ 000 people marched to Hyde Park in protest , and the community became more politically involved . The former churchyard of St Mary 's Whitechapel , near where the attack took place , was renamed " Altab Ali Park " in 1998 as a commemoration of his death . Inter @-@ racial tension has continued with occasional outbreaks of violence and in 1993 there was a council seat win for the British National Party ( since lost ) . A 1999 bombing in Brick Lane was part of a series that targeted ethnic minorities , gays and " multiculturalists " .
= = = = Demographics = = = =
The population of the East End increased inexorably throughout the 19th century . House building could not keep pace and overcrowding was rife . It was not until the interwar period that there was a decline caused by migration to new London suburbs like the Becontree estate , built by the London County Council between 1921 and 1932 , and to areas outside London . This depopulation accelerated after the Second World War and has only recently begun to reverse .
These population figures reflect the area that now forms the London Borough of Tower Hamlets only :
By comparison , in 1801 the population of England and Wales was 9 million ; by 1851 it had more than doubled to 18 million , and by the end of the century had reached 40 million . Today , Bangladeshis form the largest minority population in Tower Hamlets , constituting 33 @.@ 5 % of the borough 's population at the 2001 census ; the Bangladeshi community there is the largest such community in Britain . The 2006 estimates show a decline in this group to 29 @.@ 8 % of the population , reflecting a movement to better economic circumstances and the larger houses available in the eastern suburbs . In this , the latest group of migrants are following a pattern established for over three centuries .
= = = Crime = = =
The high levels of poverty in the East End have , throughout history , corresponded with a high incidence of crime . From earliest times , crime depended , as did labour , on the importing of goods to London , and their interception in transit . Theft occurred in the river , on the quayside and in transit to the City warehouses . This was why , in the 17th century , the East India Company built high @-@ walled docks at Blackwall and had them guarded to minimise the vulnerability of their cargoes . Armed convoys would then take the goods to the company 's secure compound in the City . The practice led to the creation of ever @-@ larger docks throughout the area , and large roads to drive through the crowded 19th century slums to carry goods from the docks .
No police force operated in London before the 1750s . Crime and disorder were dealt with by a system of magistrates and volunteer parish constables , with strictly limited jurisdiction . Salaried constables were introduced by 1792 , although they were few in number and their power and jurisdiction continued to derive from local magistrates , who in extremis could be backed by militias . In 1798 , England 's first Marine Police Force was formed by magistrate Patrick Colquhoun and a Master Mariner , John Harriott , to tackle theft and looting from ships anchored in the Pool of London and the lower reaches of the river . Its base was ( and remains ) in Wapping High Street . It is now known as the Marine Support Unit .
In 1829 , the Metropolitan Police Force was formed , with a remit to patrol within 7 miles ( 11 km ) of Charing Cross , with a force of 1 @,@ 000 men in 17 divisions , including ' H ' division , based in Stepney . Each division was controlled by a superintendent , under whom were four inspectors and sixteen sergeants . The regulations demanded that recruits should be under thirty @-@ five years of age , well built , at least 5 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) in height , literate and of good character .
Unlike the former constables , the police were recruited widely and financed by a levy on ratepayers ; so they were initially disliked . The force took until the mid @-@ 19th century to be established in the East End . Unusually , Joseph Sadler Thomas , a Metropolitan Police superintendent of ' F ' ( Covent Garden ) Division , appears to have mounted the first local investigation ( in Bethnal Green ) , in November 1830 of the London Burkers . A specific Dockyard division of the Metropolitan force was formed to assume responsibility for shore patrols within the docks in 1841 , a detective department was formed in 1842 , and in 1865 , ' J ' division was established in Bethnal Green .
One of the East End industries that serviced ships moored off the Pool of London was prostitution , and in the 17th century , this was centred on the Ratcliffe Highway , a long street lying on the high ground above the riverside settlements . In 1600 , it was described by the antiquarian John Stow as ' a continual street , or filthy straight passage , with alleys of small tenements or cottages builded , inhabited by sailors and victuallers . ' Crews were ' paid off ' at the end of a long voyage , and would spend their earnings on drink in the local taverns .
One madame described as ' the great bawd of the seamen ' by Samuel Pepys was Damaris Page . Born in Stepney in approximately 1610 , she had moved from prostitution to running brothels , including one on the Highway that catered for ordinary seaman and a further establishment nearby that catered for the more expensive tastes amongst the officers and gentry . She died wealthy , in 1669 , in a house on the Highway , despite charges being brought against her and time spent in Newgate Prison .
By the 19th century , an attitude of toleration had changed , and the social reformer William Acton described the riverside prostitutes as a ' horde of human tigresses who swarm the pestilent dens by the riverside at Ratcliffe and Shadwell ' . The ' Society for the Suppression of Vice ' estimated that between the Houndsditch , Whitechapel and Ratcliffe areas there were 1803 prostitutes ; and between Mile End , Shadwell and Blackwall 963 women in the trade . They were often victims of circumstance , there being no welfare state and a high mortality rate amongst the inhabitants that left wives and daughters destitute , with no other means of income .
At the same time , religious reformers began to introduce ' Seamans ' Missions ' throughout the dock areas that sought both to provide for seafarer 's physical needs and to keep them away from the temptations of drink and women . Eventually , the passage of the ' Contagious Diseases Act ' in 1864 allowed policemen to arrest prostitutes and detain them in hospital . The act was repealed in 1886 , after agitation by early feminists , such as Josephine Butler and Elizabeth Wolstenholme , led to the formation of the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts .
Notable crimes in the area include the Ratcliff Highway murders ( 1813 ) ; the killings committed by the London Burkers ( apparently inspired by Burke and Hare ) in Bethnal Green ( 1831 ) ; the notorious serial killings of prostitutes by Jack the Ripper ( 1888 ) ; and the Siege of Sidney Street ( 1911 ) ( in which anarchists , inspired by the legendary Peter the Painter , took on Home Secretary Winston Churchill , and the army ) .
In the 1960s the East End was the area most associated with gangster activity , most notably that of the Kray twins . The 1996 Docklands bombing caused significant damage around South Quay Station , to the south of the main Canary Wharf development . Two people were killed and thirty @-@ nine injured in one of Mainland Britain 's biggest bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army . This led to the introduction of police checkpoints controlling access to the Isle of Dogs , reminiscent of the City 's ' ring of steel ' .
= = = Disasters = = =
Many disasters have befallen the residents of the East End , both in war and in peace . In particular , as a maritime port , plague and pestilence have disproportionately fallen on the residents of the East End . The area most afflicted by the Great Plague ( 1665 ) was Spitalfields , and cholera epidemics broke out in Limehouse in 1832 and struck again in 1848 and 1854 . Typhus and tuberculosis were also common in the crowded 19th century tenements . The Princess Alice was a passenger steamer crowded with day trippers returning from Gravesend to Woolwich and London Bridge . On the evening of 3 September 1878 , she collided with the steam collier Bywell Castle ( named for Bywell Castle ) and sank into the Thames in under four minutes . Of the approximately 700 passengers , over 600 were lost .
During the First World War , the morning of 13 June 1917 was the first ever daylight air @-@ raid over the East End which in total killed 104 people . Sixteen of the dead were 5 and 6 year olds who were sitting in their class room at Upper North Street School , Poplar when the bomb hit . The memorial which still stands today in Poplar Recreation Ground was built by A.R. Adams , a local funeral director at the time . Also , on 19 January 1917 , 73 people died , including 14 workers , and more than 400 were injured , in a TNT explosion in the Brunner @-@ Mond munitions factory in Silvertown . Much of the area was flattened , and the shock wave was felt throughout the city and much of Essex . This was the largest explosion in London history , and was heard in Southampton and Norwich . Andreas Angel , chief chemist at the plant , was posthumously awarded the Edward Medal for trying to extinguish the fire that caused the blast . The same year , on 13 June , a bomb from a German Gotha bomber killed 18 children in their primary school in Upper North Street , Poplar . This event is commemorated by the local war memorial erected in Poplar Recreation Ground , but during the war a total of 120 children and 104 adults were killed in the East End by aerial bombing , with many more injured .
Another tragedy occurred on the morning of 16 May 1968 when Ronan Point , a 23 @-@ storey tower block in Newham , suffered a structural collapse due to a natural gas explosion . Four people were killed in the disaster and seventeen were injured , as an entire corner of the building slid away . The collapse caused major changes in UK building regulations and led to the decline of further building of high rise council flats that had characterised 1960s public architecture .
= = = Entertainment = = =
Inn @-@ yard theatres were first established in the Tudor period , with the Boar 's Head Inn ( 1557 ) in Whitechapel , the George in Stepney and a purpose built , but short lived , John Brayne 's Red Lion Theatre ( 1567 ) , nearby . The first permanent theatres with resident companies were constructed in Shoreditch , with James Burbage 's The Theatre ( 1576 ) and Henry Lanman 's Curtain Theatre ( 1577 ) standing close together . On the night of 28 December 1598 Burbage 's sons dismantled The Theatre , and moved it piece by piece across the Thames to construct the Globe Theatre .
The Goodman 's Fields Theatre was established in 1727 , and it was here that David Garrick made his successful début as Richard III , in 1741 . In the 19th century the theatres of the East End rivalled in their grandiosity and seating capacity those of the West End . The first of this era was the ill @-@ fated Brunswick Theatre ( 1828 ) , which collapsed three days after opening , killing 15 people . This was followed by the opening of the Pavilion ( 1828 ) in Whitechapel , the Garrick ( 1831 ) in Leman Street , the Effingham ( 1834 ) in Whitechapel , the Standard ( 1835 ) in Shoreditch , the City of London ( 1837 ) in Norton Folgate , then the Grecian and the Britannia Theatre in Hoxton ( 1840 ) . Though very popular for a time , from the 1860s onwards these theatres , one by one , began to close , the buildings were demolished and their very memory began to fade .
There were also many Yiddish theatres , particularly around Whitechapel . These developed into professional companies , after the arrival of Jacob Adler in 1884 and the formation of his ' Russian Jewish Operatic Company ' that first performed in Beaumont Hall , Stepney , and then found homes both in the Prescott Street Club , Stepney , and in Princelet Street in Spitalfields . The Pavilion became an exclusively Yiddish theatre in 1906 , finally closing in 1936 and being demolished in 1960 . Other important Jewish theatres were Feinmans , The Jewish National Theatre and the Grand Palais . Performances were in Yiddish , and predominantly melodrama . These declined , as audience and actors left for New York and the more prosperous parts of London .
The once popular music halls of the East End have mostly met the same fate as the theatres . Prominent examples included the London Music Hall ( 1856 – 1935 ) , 95 @-@ 99 Shoreditch High Street , and the Royal Cambridge Music Hall ( 1864 – 1936 ) , 136 Commercial Street . An example of a ' giant pub hall ' , Wilton 's Music Hall ( 1858 ) , remains in Grace 's Alley , off Cable Street and the early ' saloon style ' Hoxton Hall ( 1863 ) survives in Hoxton Street , Hoxton . Many popular music hall stars came from the East End , including Marie Lloyd .
The music hall tradition of live entertainment lingers on in East End public houses , with music and singing . This is complemented by less respectable amusements such as striptease , which , since the 1950s has become a fixture of certain East End pubs , particularly in the area of Shoreditch , despite being a target of local authority restraints .
Novelist and social commentator Walter Besant proposed a ' Palace of Delight ' with concert halls , reading rooms , picture galleries , an art school and various classes , social rooms and frequent fêtes and dances . This coincided with a project by the philanthropist businessman , Edmund Hay Currie to use the money from the winding up of the ' Beaumont Trust ' , together with subscriptions to build a ' People 's Palace ' in the East End . Five acres of land were secured on the Mile End Road , and the Queen 's Hall was opened by Queen Victoria on 14 May 1887 . The complex was completed with a library , swimming pool , gymnasium and winter garden , by 1892 , providing an eclectic mix of populist entertainment and education . A peak of 8000 ' tickets ' were sold for classes in 1892 , and by 1900 , a Bachelor of Science degree awarded by the University of London was introduced . In 1931 , the building was destroyed by fire , but the Draper 's Company , major donors to the original scheme , invested more to rebuild the technical college and create Queen Mary 's College in December 1934 . A new ' People 's Palace ' was constructed , in 1937 , by the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney , in St Helen 's Terrace . This finally closed in 1954 .
Professional theatre returned briefly to the East End in 1972 , with the formation of the Half Moon Theatre in a rented former synagogue in Aldgate . In 1979 , they moved to a former Methodist chapel , near Stepney Green and built a new theatre on the site , opening in May 1985 , with a production of Sweeney Todd . The theatre enjoyed success , with premières by Dario Fo , Edward Bond and Steven Berkoff , but by the mid @-@ 1980s , the theatre suffered a financial crisis and closed . After years of disuse , it has been converted to a public house . The theatre spawned two further arts projects : the Half Moon Photography Workshop , exhibiting in the theatre and locally , and from 1976 publishing Camerwork , and the ' Half Moon Young People 's Theatre ' , which remains active in Tower Hamlets .
The football team followed by many East End people is West Ham United , founded in 1895 as Thames Ironworks . The ' other ' East London clubs are Leyton Orient , and to a lesser extent Dagenham and Redbridge , but rather than rivalry , there is some overlap of support . Millwall F.C. originally played in the area of that name on the Isle of Dogs , but moved south of the Thames in 1910 .
= = = Late 20th and early 21st century = = =
Historically , the East End has suffered from under @-@ investment in both housing stock and infrastructure . From the 1950s , the East End represented the structural and social changes affecting the UK economy in a microcosm . The area had one of the highest concentrations of council housing , the legacy both of slum clearance and wartime destruction . The progressive closure of docks , cutbacks in railways and the closure and relocation of industry contributed to a long @-@ term decline , removing many of the traditional sources of low- and semi @-@ skilled jobs . However , beginning with the LDDC , in the 1980s , there have been a number of urban regeneration projects , most notably Canary Wharf , a huge commercial and housing development on the Isle of Dogs . Many of the 1960s tower blocks have been demolished or renovated , replaced by low @-@ rise housing , often in private ownership , or owned by housing associations .
The area around Old Spitalfields Market and Brick Lane called " London 's curry capital " has been extensively regenerated and , amongst other things , has been dubbed as Bangla Town . The contribution of Bangladeshi people to British life was recognised in 1998 , when Pola Uddin , Baroness Uddin of Bethnal Green became the first Bangladeshi @-@ born Briton to enter the House of Lords , and the first Muslim peer to swear her oath of allegiance in the name of her own faith . Her glory was short @-@ lived as she was investigated and suspended from the House of Lords for an expenses scandal where she was found guilty of offences .
The area is also home to a number of commercial and public art galleries ; including the newly expanded Whitechapel Gallery . The artists Gilbert and George have long made their home and workshop in Spitalfields , and the neighbourhood around Hoxton Square has become a centre for modern British art , including the White Cube gallery , with many artists from the Young British Artists movement living and working in the area . This has made the area around Hoxton and Shoreditch fashionable , with many former residents now driven out by higher property prices , and a busy nightlife has developed , with over 80 licensed premises around Shoreditch .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , both the District line ( extended to the East End in 1884 and 1902 ) and Central line ( 1946 ) were running beyond their capacity , and the Docklands Light Railway ( 1987 ) and Jubilee line ( 1999 ) were constructed to improve rail communications through the riverside district . There was a long @-@ standing plan to provide London with an inner motorway box , the East Cross Route . Apart from a short section , this was never built , but road communications were improved by the completion of the Limehouse Link tunnel under Limehouse Basin in 1993 and the extension of the A12 connecting to the Blackwall Tunnel with an upgraded carriageway in the 1990s . The extension of the East London line to the north , on the border between Islington and Hackney , provided further travel links in 2010 . From 2017 , Crossrail line 1 is expected to create a fast railway service across London , from east to west , with a major interchange at Whitechapel . New river crossings are planned at Beckton , ( the Thames Gateway Bridge ) and the proposed Silvertown Link road tunnel , to supplement the existing Blackwall Tunnel .
The 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were held in an Olympic Park created on former industrial land around the River Lea . It is intended that this should leave a legacy of new sports facilities , housing , and industrial and technical infrastructure that will further help regenerate the area . This is linked to a new Stratford International station in the Newham , and the future Stratford City development . Also in Newham is London City Airport , built in 1986 in the former King George V Dock , a small airport serving short @-@ haul domestic and European destinations . In the same area , the University of East London has developed a new campus which will provide the United States Olympic Team its training base during the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games . The Queen Mary campus has expanded into new accommodation both adjacent to its existing site at Mile End , and with specialist medical campuses at the Royal London Hospital , Whitechapel and at Charterhouse Square in the City . Whitechapel is the base for the London Air Ambulance , and the hospital 's clinical facilities are undergoing a £ 1 billion refurbishment and expansion .
Much of the area remains , however , one of the poorest in Britain . This is in spite of rising property prices and the extensive building of luxury apartments centred largely around the former dock areas and alongside the Thames . With rising costs elsewhere in the capital and the availability of brownfield land , the East End has become a desirable place for business .
= = Popular culture = =
The East End has been the subject of parliamentary commissions and other examinations of social conditions since the 19th century , as seen in Henry Mayhew 's London Labour and the London Poor ( 1851 ) and Charles Booth 's Life and Labour of the People in London ( third , expanded edition 1902 @-@ 3 , in 17 volumes ) . Narrative accounts of experiences amongst the East End poor were also written by Jack London in The People of the Abyss ( 1903 ) , by George Orwell in parts of his novel Down and Out in Paris and London , recounting his own experiences in the 1930s , as well as the Jewish writer Emanuel Litvinoff in his autobiographical novel Journey Through a Small Planet set in the 1930s . A further detailed study of Bethnal Green was carried out in the 1950s by sociologists Michael Young and Peter Willmott , in Family and Kinship in East London .
Themes from these social investigations have been drawn out in fiction . Crime , poverty , vice , sexual transgression , drugs , class @-@ conflict and multi @-@ cultural encounters and fantasies involving Jewish , Chinese and Indian immigrants are major themes . Though the area has been productive of local writing talent , from the time of Oscar Wilde 's The Picture of Dorian Gray ( 1891 ) the idea of ' slumming it ' in the ' forbidden ' East End has held a fascination for a coterie of the literati .
The image of the East Ender changed dramatically between the 19th century and the 20th . From the 1870s they were characterised in culture as often shiftless , untrustworthy and responsible for their own poverty . However , many East Enders worked in lowly but respectable occupations such as carters , porters and costermongers . This latter group particularly became the subject of music hall songs at the turn of the 20th century , with performers such as Marie Lloyd , Gus Elen and Albert Chevalier establishing the image of the humorous East End Cockney and highlighting the conditions of ordinary workers . This image , buoyed by close family and social links and the community 's fortitude in the war , came to be represented in literature and film . However , with the rise of the Kray twins in the 1960s the dark side of East End character returned with a new emphasis on criminality and gangsterism .
The success of Jennifer Worth 's memoir Call the Midwife ( 2002 , reissued 2007 ) , which became a major best @-@ seller and was adapted by the BBC into their most popular new programme since the current ratings system began , has led to a high level of interest in true @-@ life stories from the East End . Melanie McGrath 's Silvertown ( 2003 ) , about her grandmother 's life in the East End , was also a best @-@ seller , as was the follow @-@ up Hopping , about the annual East Enders ' ' holiday ' hop @-@ picking in Kent . A raft of similar books was published in the 2000s , among them Gilda O 'Neill 's best @-@ selling Our Street ( 2004 ) , Piers Dudgeon 's Our East End ( 2009 ) , Jackie Hyam 's Bombsites and Lollipops ( 2011 ) and Grace Foakes ' Four Meals for Fourpence ( reprinted 2011 ) . In 2012 , HarperCollins published The Sugar Girls , a book which tells the true stories of women working at Tate & Lyle 's factories in Silvertown since 1944 . The authors commented that many of the East Enders they interviewed were unhappy with the way their neighbourhoods had previously been portrayed in books and on screen – as squalid and criminal , in the Dickensian vein – and as a result they were keen to emphasise the positive aspects of East End life and community . 2012 also saw the publication of Spitalfields Life , a book adapted from the very successful blog of the same name , in which ' the gentle author ' ( who is anonymous ) writes about , and celebrates , the lives of the men and women who live and work in the East End community of Spitalfields .
= Starfish =
Starfish or sea stars are star @-@ shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea . Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids , which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or " basket stars " . About 1 @,@ 500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the world 's oceans , from the tropics to frigid polar waters . They are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths , 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) below the surface .
Starfish are marine invertebrates . They typically have a central disc and five arms , though some species have a larger number of arms . The aboral or upper surface may be smooth , granular or spiny , and is covered with overlapping plates . Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange , while others are blue , grey or brown . Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface . They are opportunistic feeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates . Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and suspension feeding . They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence . The Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles . Starfish , such as the ochre sea star ( Pisaster ochraceus ) and the reef sea star ( Stichaster australis ) , have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology . The tropical crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish ( Acanthaster planci ) is a voracious predator of coral throughout the Indo @-@ Pacific region , and the northern Pacific sea star is considered to be one of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .
The fossil record for starfish is ancient , dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago , but it is rather poor , as starfish tend to disintegrate after death . Only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved , making remains hard to locate . With their appealing symmetrical shape , starfish have played a part in literature , legend , design and popular culture . They are sometimes collected as curios , used in design or as logos , and in some cultures , despite possible toxicity , they are eaten .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830 . It is derived from the Greek aster , ἀστήρ ( a star ) and the Greek eidos , εἶδος ( form , likeness , appearance ) . The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata . As well as the starfish , the echinoderms include sea urchins , sand dollars , brittle and basket stars , sea cucumbers and crinoids . The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry , but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry , typically pentameric . Adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres . Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa , the characteristics of which include a flattened , star @-@ shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc and multiple radiating arms . The subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea , the starfish , and Ophiuroidea , the brittle stars and basket stars . Asteroids have broad @-@ based arms with skeletal support provided by calcareous plates in the body wall while ophiuroids have clearly demarcated slender arms strengthened by paired fused ossicles forming jointed " vertebrae " .
The starfish are a large and diverse class with about 1 @,@ 500 living species . There are seven extant orders , Brisingida , Forcipulatida , Notomyotida , Paxillosida , Spinulosida , Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones , Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida .
= = Anatomy = =
Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc , but the number varies with the group . Luidia ciliaris has seven arms , members of the Solasteridae have ten to fifteen while the Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have up to fifty . It is not unusual in species that typically have five arms for some individuals to possess six or more through abnormal development .
= = = Body wall = = =
The body wall consists of a thin cuticle , an epidermis consisting of a single layer of cells , a thick dermis formed of connective tissue and a thin coelomic myoepithelial layer , which provides the longitudinal and circular musculature . The dermis contains an endoskeleton of calcium carbonate components known as ossicles . These are honeycombed structures composed of calcite microcrystals arranged in a lattice . They vary in form , with some bearing external granules , tubercles and spines , but most are tabular plates that fit neatly together in a tessellated manner and form the main covering of the aboral surface . Some are specialised structures such as the madreporite ( the entrance to the water vascular system ) , pedicellariae and paxillae . Pedicellariae are compound ossicles with forceps @-@ like jaws . They remove debris from the body surface and wave around on flexible stalks in response to physical or chemical stimuli while continually making biting movements . They often form clusters surrounding spines . Paxillae are umbrella @-@ like structures found on starfish that live buried in sediment . The edges of adjacent paxillae meet to form a false cuticle with a water cavity beneath in which the madreporite and delicate gill structures are protected . All the ossicles , including those projecting externally , are covered by the epidermal layer .
Several groups of starfish , including Valvatida and Forcipulatida , possess pedicellariae . In Forcipulatida , such as Asterias and Pisaster , they occur in pompom @-@ like tufts at the base of each spine , whereas in the Goniasteridae , such as Hippasteria phrygiana , the pedicellariae are scattered over the body surface . Some are thought to assist in defence , while others aid in feeding or in the removal of organisms attempting to settle on the starfish 's surface . Some species like Labidiaster annulatus , Rathbunaster californicus and Novodinia antillensis use their large pedicellariae to capture small fish and crustaceans .
There may also be papulae , thin @-@ walled protrusions of the body cavity that reach through the body wall and extend into the surrounding water . These serve a respiratory function . The structures are supported by collagen fibres set at right angles to each other and arranged in a three @-@ dimensional web with the ossicles and papulae in the interstices . This arrangement enables both easy flexion of the arms by the starfish and the rapid onset of stiffness and rigidity required for actions performed under stress .
= = = Water vascular system = = =
The water vascular system of the starfish is a hydraulic system made up of a network of fluid @-@ filled canals and is concerned with locomotion , adhesion , food manipulation and gas exchange . Water enters the system through the madreporite , a porous , often conspicuous , sieve @-@ like ossicle on the aboral surface . It is linked through a stone canal , often lined with calcareous material , to a ring canal around the mouth opening . A set of radial canals leads off this ; one radial canal runs along the ambulacral groove in each arm . There are short lateral canals branching off alternately to either side of the radial canal , each ending in an ampulla . These bulb @-@ shaped organs are joined to tube feet ( podia ) on the exterior of the animal by short linking canals that pass through ossicles in the ambulacral groove . There are usually two rows of tube feet but in some species , the lateral canals are alternately long and short and there appear to be four rows . The interior of the whole canal system is lined with cilia .
When longitudinal muscles in the ampullae contract , valves in the lateral canals close and water is forced into the tube feet . These extend to contact the substrate . Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance , the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction . Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate . The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave , with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases . Some multi @-@ armed , fast @-@ moving starfish such as the sunflower seastar ( Pycnopodia helianthoides ) pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind . Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving which gives maximum exposure of the sensory tube feet and the eyespot to external stimuli .
Most starfish cannot move quickly , a typical speed being that of the leather star ( Dermasterias imbricata ) , which can manage just 15 cm ( 6 in ) in a minute . Some burrowing species from the genera Astropecten and Luidia have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion , " gliding " across the ocean floor . The sand star ( Luidia foliolata ) can travel at a speed of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 ft 2 in ) per minute .
Apart from their function in locomotion , the tube feet act as accessory gills . The water vascular system serves to transport oxygen from , and carbon dioxide to , the tube feet and also nutrients from the gut to the muscles involved in locomotion . Fluid movement is bidirectional and initiated by cilia . Gas exchange also takes place through other gills known as papulae , which are thin @-@ walled bulges on the aboral surface of the disc and arms . Oxygen is transferred from these to the coelomic fluid , which acts as the transport medium for gasses . Oxygen dissolved in the water is distributed through the body mainly by the fluid in the main body cavity ; the circulatory system may also play a minor role .
= = = Digestive system and excretion = = =
The gut of a starfish occupies most of the disc and extends into the arms . The mouth is located in the centre of the oral surface , where it is surrounded by a tough peristomial membrane and closed with a sphincter . The mouth opens through a short oesophagus into a stomach divided by a constriction into a larger , eversible cardiac portion and a smaller pyloric portion . The cardiac stomach is glandular and pouched , and is supported by ligaments attached to ossicles in the arms so it can be pulled back into position after it has been everted . The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm : the pyloric caeca . These are elongated , branched hollow tubes that are lined by a series of glands , which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food . A short intestine and rectum run from the pyloric stomach to open at a small anus at the apex of the aboral surface of the disc .
Primitive starfish , such as Astropecten and Luidia , swallow their prey whole , and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs . Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths . The semi @-@ digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues . In more advanced species of starfish , the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism 's body to engulf and digest food . When the prey is a clam or other bivalve , the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly , and inserts a small section of its stomach , which releases enzymes to digest the prey . The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc . Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach , which always remains inside the disc . The retraction and contraction of the cardiac stomach is activated by a neuropeptide known as NGFFYamide .
Because of this ability to digest food outside the body , starfish can hunt prey much larger than their mouths . Their diets include clams and oysters , arthropods , small fish and gastropod molluscs . Some starfish are not pure carnivores , supplementing their diets with algae or organic detritus . Some of these species are grazers , but others trap food particles from the water in sticky mucus strands that are swept towards the mouth along ciliated grooves .
The main nitrogenous waste product is ammonia . Starfish have no distinct excretory organs ; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet and papulae . The body fluid contains phagocytic cells , coelomocytes , which are also found within the hemal and water vascular systems . These cells engulf waste material , and eventually migrate to the tips of the papulae , where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water . Some waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the faeces .
Starfish do not appear to have any mechanisms for osmoregulation , and keep their body fluids at the same salt concentration as the surrounding water . Although some species can tolerate relatively low salinity , the lack of an osmoregulation system probably explains why starfish are not found in fresh water or even in many estuarine environments .
= = = Sensory and nervous systems = = =
Although starfish do not have many well @-@ defined sense organs , they are sensitive to touch , light , temperature , orientation and the status of the water around them . The tube feet , spines and pedicellariae are sensitive to touch . The tube feet , especially those at the tips of the rays , are also sensitive to chemicals , enabling the starfish to detect odour sources such as food . There are eyespots at the ends of the arms , each one made of 80 – 200 simple ocelli . These are composed of pigmented epithelial cells that respond to light and are covered by a thick , transparent cuticle that both protects the ocelli and acts to focus light . Many starfish also possess individual photoreceptor cells in other parts of their bodies and respond to light even when their eyespots are covered . Whether they advance or retreat depends on the species .
While a starfish lacks a centralized brain , it has a complex nervous system with a nerve ring around the mouth and a radial nerve running along the ambulacral region of each arm parallel to the radial canal . The peripheral nerve system consists of two nerve nets : a sensory system in the epidermis and a motor system in the lining of the coelomic cavity . Neurons passing through the dermis connect the two . The ring nerves and radial nerves have sensory and motor components and coordinate the starfish 's balance and directional systems . The sensory component receives input from the sensory organs while the motor nerves control the tube feet and musculature . The starfish does not have the capacity to plan its actions . If one arm detects an attractive odour , it becomes dominant and temporarily over @-@ rides the other arms to initiate movement towards the prey . The mechanism for this is not fully understood .
= = = Circulatory system = = =
The body cavity contains the circulatory or haemal system . The vessels form three rings : one around the mouth ( the hyponeural haemal ring ) , another around the digestive system ( the gastric ring ) and the third near the aboral surface ( the genital ring ) . The heart beats about six times a minute and is at the apex of a vertical channel ( the axial vessel ) that connects the three rings . At the base of each arm are paired gonads ; a lateral vessel extends from the genital ring past the gonads to the tip of the arm . This vessel has a blind end and there is no continuous circulation of the fluid within it . This liquid does not contain a pigment and has little or no respiratory function but is probably used to transport nutrients around the body .
= = = Secondary metabolites = = =
Starfish produce a large number of secondary metabolites in the form of lipids , including steroidal derivatives of cholesterol , and fatty acid amides of sphingosine . The steroids are mostly saponins , known as asterosaponins , and their sulphated derivatives . They vary between species and are typically formed from up to six sugar molecules ( usually glucose and galactose ) connected by up to three glycosidic chains . Long @-@ chain fatty acid amides of sphingosine occur frequently and some of them have known pharmacological activity . Various ceramides are also known from starfish and a small number of alkaloids have also been identified . The functions of these chemicals in the starfish have not been fully investigated but most have roles in defence and communication . Some are feeding deterrents used by the starfish to discourage predation . Others are antifoulants and supplement the pedicellariae to prevent other organisms from settling on the starfish 's aboral surface . Some are alarm pheromones and escape @-@ eliciting chemicals , the release of which trigger responses in conspecific starfish but often produce escape responses in potential prey . Research into the efficacy of these compounds for possible pharmacological or industrial use occurs worldwide .
= = Life cycle = =
= = = Sexual reproduction = = =
Most species of starfish are gonochorous , there being separate male and female individuals . These are usually not distinguishable externally as the gonads cannot be seen , but their sex is apparent when they spawn . Some species are simultaneous hermaphrodites , producing eggs and sperm at the same time and in a few of these , the same gonad , called an ovotestis , produces both eggs and sperm . Other starfish are sequential hermaphrodites . Protandrous individuals of species like Asterina gibbosa start life as males before changing sex into females as they grow older . In some species such as Nepanthia belcheri , a large female can split in half and the resulting offspring are males . When these grow large enough they change back into females .
Each starfish arm contains two gonads that release gametes through openings called gonoducts , located on the central disc between the arms . Fertilization is generally external but in a few species , internal fertilization takes place . In most species , the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water ( free spawning ) and the resulting embryos and larvae live as part of the plankton . In others , the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks . In certain species of starfish , the females brood their eggs – either by simply enveloping them or by holding them in specialised structures . Brooding may be done in pockets on the starfish 's aboral surface , inside the pyloric stomach ( Leptasterias tenera ) or even in the interior of the gonads themselves . Those starfish that brood their eggs by " sitting " on them usually assume a humped posture with their discs raised off the substrate . Pteraster militaris broods a few of its young and disperses the remaining eggs , that are too numerous to fit into its pouch . In these brooding species , the eggs are relatively large , and supplied with yolk , and they generally develop directly into miniature starfish without an intervening larval stage . The developing young are called lecithotrophic because they obtain their nutrition from the yolk as opposed to " planktotrophic " larvae that feed in the water column . In Parvulastra parvivipara , an intragonadal brooder , the young starfish obtain nutrients by eating other eggs and embryos in the brood pouch . Brooding is especially common in polar and deep @-@ sea species that live in environments unfavourable for larval development and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs .
In the tropics , a plentiful supply of phytoplankton is continuously available for starfish larvae to feed on . Spawning takes place at any time of year , each species having its own characteristic breeding season . In temperate regions , the spring and summer brings an increase in food supplies . The first individual of a species to spawn may release a pheromone that serves to attract other starfish to aggregate and to release their gametes synchronously . In other species , a male and female may come together and form a pair . This behaviour is called pseudocopulation and the male climbs on top , placing his arms between those of the female . When she releases eggs into the water , he is induced to spawn . Starfish may use environmental signals to coordinate the time of spawning ( day length to indicate the correct time of the year , dawn or dusk to indicate the correct time of day ) , and chemical signals to indicate their readiness to breed . In some species , mature females produce chemicals to attract sperm in the sea water .
= = = Larval development = = =
Most starfish embryos hatch at the blastula stage . The original ball of cells develops a lateral pouch , the archenteron . The entrance to this is known as the blastopore and it will later develop into the anus . Another invagination of the surface will fuse with the tip of the archenteron as the mouth while the interior section will become the gut . At the same time , a band of cilia develops on the exterior . This enlarges and extends around the surface and eventually onto two developing arm @-@ like outgrowths . At this stage the larva is known as a bipinnaria . The cilia are used for locomotion and feeding , their rhythmic beat wafting phytoplankton towards the mouth .
The next stage in development is a brachiolaria larva and involves the growth of three short , additional arms . These are at the anterior end , surround a sucker and have adhesive cells at their tips . Both bipinnaria and brachiolaria larvae are bilaterally symmetrical . When fully developed , the brachiolaria settles on the seabed and attaches itself with a short stalk formed from the ventral arms and sucker . Metamorphosis now takes place with a radical rearrangement of tissues . The left side of the larval body becomes the oral surface of the juvenile and the right side the aboral surface . Part of the gut is retained but the mouth and anus move to new positions . Some of the body cavities degenerate but others become the water vascular system and the visceral coelom . The starfish is now pentaradially symmetrical . It casts off its stalk and becomes a free @-@ living juvenile starfish about 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 in ) in diameter . Starfish of the order Paxillosida have no brachiolaria stage , with the bipinnaria larvae settling on the seabed and developing directly into juveniles .
= = = Asexual reproduction = = =
Some species of starfish are able to reproduce asexually as adults either by fission of their central discs or by autotomy of one or more of their arms . Which of these processes occurs depends on the genus . Among starfish that are able to regenerate their whole body from a single arm , some can do so even from fragments just 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long . Single arms that regenerate a whole individual are called comet forms . The division of the starfish , either across its disc or at the base of the arm , is usually accompanied by a weakness in the structure that provides a fracture zone .
The larvae of several species of starfish can reproduce asexually before they reach maturity . They do this by autotomising some parts of their bodies or by budding . When such a larva senses that food is plentiful , it takes the path of asexual reproduction rather than normal development . Though this costs it time and energy and delays maturity , it allows a single larva to give rise to multiple adults when the conditions are appropriate .
= = = Regeneration = = =
Some species of starfish have the ability to regenerate lost arms and can regrow an entire new limb given time . A few can regrow a complete new disc from a single arm , while others need at least part of the central disc to be attached to the detached part . Regrowth can take several months or years , and starfish are vulnerable to infections during the early stages after the loss of an arm . A separated limb lives off stored nutrients until it regrows a disc and mouth and is able to feed again . Other than fragmentation carried out for the purpose of reproduction , the division of the body may happen inadvertently due to part being detached by a predator , or part may be actively shed by the starfish in an escape response . The loss of parts of the body is achieved by the rapid softening of a special type of connective tissue in response to nervous signals . This type of tissue is called catch connective tissue and is found in most echinoderms . An autotomy @-@ promoting factor has been identified which , when injected into another starfish , causes rapid shedding of arms .
= = = Lifespan = = =
The lifespan of a starfish varies considerably between species , generally being longer in larger forms and in those with planktonic larvae . For example , Leptasterias hexactis broods a small number of large @-@ yolked eggs . It has an adult weight of 20 g ( 0 @.@ 7 oz ) , reaches sexual maturity in two years and lives for about ten years . Pisaster ochraceus releases a large number of eggs into the sea each year and has an adult weight of 80 g ( 2 @.@ 8 oz ) . It reaches maturity in five years and has a maximum recorded lifespan of 34 years .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Echinoderms , including starfish , maintain a delicate internal electrolyte balance that is in equilibrium with sea water . This means that it is only possible for them to live in a marine environment and they are not found in any freshwater habitats . Starfish species inhabit all of the world 's oceans . Habitats range from tropical coral reefs , rocky shores , tidal pools , mud , and sand to kelp forests , seagrass meadows and the deep @-@ sea floor down to at least 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) . The greatest diversity of species occurs in coastal areas .
= = = Diet = = =
Most species are generalist predators , eating microalgae , sponges , bivalves , snails and other small animals . Some species are detritivores , eating decomposing organic material and faecal matter . The crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish consumes coral polyps . The processes of feeding and capture may be aided by special parts ; Pisaster brevispinus , the short @-@ spined pisaster from the West Coast of America , can use a set of specialized tube feet to dig itself deep into the soft substrate to extract prey ( usually clams ) . Grasping the shellfish , the starfish slowly pries open the prey 's shell by wearing out its adductor muscle , and then inserts its everted stomach into the crack to digest the soft tissues . The gap between the valves need only be a fraction of a millimetre wide for the stomach to gain entry .
= = = Ecological impact = = =
Starfish are keystone species in their respective marine communities . Their relatively large sizes , diverse diets and ability to adapt to different environments makes them ecologically important . The term " keystone species " was in fact first used by Robert Paine in 1966 to describe a starfish , Pisaster ochraceus . When studying the low intertidal coasts of Washington state , Paine found that predation by P. ochraceus was a major factor in the diversity of species . Experimental removals of this top predator from a stretch of shoreline resulted in lower species diversity and the eventual domination of Mytilus mussels , which were able to outcompete other organisms for space and resources . Similar results were found in a 1971 study of Stichaster australis on the intertidal coast of the South Island of New Zealand . S. australis was found to have removed most of a batch of transplanted mussels within two or three months of their placement , while in an area from which S. australis had been removed , the mussels increased in number dramatically , overwhelming the area and threatening biodiversity .
The feeding activity of the omnivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus on sandy and seagrass bottoms in the Virgin Islands appears to regulate the diversity , distribution and abundance of microorganisms . These starfish engulf piles of sediment removing the surface films and algae adhering to the particles . Organisms that dislike this disturbance are replaced by others better able to rapidly recolonise " clean " sediment . In addition , foraging by these migratory starfish creates diverse patches of organic matter , which may play a role in the distribution and abundance of organisms such as fish , crabs and sea urchins that feed on the sediment .
Starfish sometimes have negative effects on ecosystems . Outbreaks of crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish have caused damage to coral reefs in Northeast Australia and French Polynesia . A study in Polynesia found that coral cover declined drastically with the arrival of migratory starfish in 2006 , dropping from 50 % to under 5 % in three years . This had an unintended effect on reef @-@ feeding fish and the whole benthic community . Asterias amurensis is one of a few echinoderm invasive species . Its larvae likely arrived in Tasmania from central Japan via water discharged from ships in the 1980s . The species has since grown in numbers to the point where they threaten commercially important bivalve populations . As such , they are considered pests , and are on the Invasive Species Specialist Group 's list of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .
= = = Threats = = =
Starfish may be preyed on by conspecifics , other starfish species , tritons , crabs , fish , gulls and sea otters . Their first lines of defence are the saponins present in their body walls , which have unpleasant flavours . Some starfish such as Astropecten polyacanthus also include powerful toxins such as tetrodotoxin among their chemical armoury , and the slime star can ooze out large quantities of repellent mucus . They also have body armour in the form of hard plates and spines . The crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish is particularly unattractive to potential predators , being heavily defended by sharp spines , laced with toxins and sometimes with bright warning colours . Other species protect their vulnerable tube feet and arm tips by lining their ambulacral grooves with spines and heavily plating their extremities .
Several species sometimes suffer from a wasting condition caused by bacteria in the genus Vibrio ; however , a more widespread wasting disease , causing mass mortalities among starfish , appears sporadically . A paper published in November 2014 revealed the most likely cause of this disease to be a densovirus the authors named sea star @-@ associated densovirus ( SSaDV ) . The protozoan Orchitophrya stellarum is known to infect the gonads of starfish and damage tissue . Starfish are vulnerable to high temperatures . Experiments have shown that the feeding and growth rates of P. ochraceus reduce greatly when their body temperatures rise above 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) and that they die when their temperature rises to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . This species has a unique ability to absorb seawater to keep itself cool when it is exposed to sunlight by a receding tide . It also appears to rely on its arms to absorb heat , so as to protect the central disc and vital organs like the stomach .
Starfish and other echinoderms are sensitive to marine pollution . The common starfish is considered to be a bioindicator for marine ecosystems . A 2009 study found that P. ochraceus is unlikely to be affected by ocean acidification as severely as other marine animals with calcareous skeletons . In other groups , structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution when the pH is lowered . Researchers found that when P. ochraceus were exposed to 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and 770 ppm carbon dioxide ( beyond rises expected in the next century ) , they were relatively unaffected . Their survival is likely due to the nodular nature of their skeletons , which are able to compensate for a shortage of carbonate by growing more fleshy tissue .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Echinoderms first appeared in the fossil record in the Cambrian . The first known asterozoans were the Somasteroidea , which exhibit characteristics of both groups . Modern starfish and brittle stars probably had a common somasteroid ancestor . Starfish are infrequently found as fossils , possibly because their hard skeletal components separate as the animal decays . However , although starfish fossils are uncommon , there are a few places where accumulations of complete skeletal structures occur , fossilized in place in Lagerstätten — so @-@ called " starfish beds " .
By the late Paleozoic , the crinoids and blastoids were the predominant echinoderms , and some limestones from this period are made almost entirely from fragments from these groups . In the two major extinction events that occurred during the late Devonian and late Permian , the blastoids were wiped out and only a few species of crinoids survived . Many starfish species also became extinct in these events , but afterwards the surviving few species diversified rapidly within about sixty million years during the Early Jurassic and the beginning of the Middle Jurassic . A 2012 study found that speciation in starfish can occur rapidly . During the last 6 @,@ 000 years , divergence in the larval development of Cryptasterina hystera and Cryptasterina pentagona has taken place , the former adopting internal fertilization and brooding and the latter remaining a broadcast spawner .
= = = Diversity = = =
Living asteroids , the Neoasteroidea , are morphologically distinct from their forerunners in the Paleozoic . The taxonomy of the group is relatively stable but there is ongoing debate about the status of the Paxillosida , and the deep @-@ water sea daisies , though clearly Asteroidea and currently included in Velatida , do not fit easily in any accepted lineage . Phylogenetic data suggests that they may be a sister group , the Concentricycloidea , to the Neoasteroidea , or that the Velatida themselves may be a sister group .
= = = = Living groups = = = =
Brisingida ( 2 families , 17 genera , 111 species )
Species in this order have a small , inflexible disc and 6 – 20 long , thin arms , which they use for suspension feeding . They have a single series of marginal plates , a fused ring of disc plates , a reduced number of aboral plates , crossed pedicellariae , and several series of long spines on the arms . They live almost exclusively in deep @-@ sea habitats , although a few live in shallow waters in the Antarctic . In some species , the tube feet have rounded tips and lack suckers .
Forcipulatida ( 6 families , 63 genera , 269 species )
Species in this order have distinctive pedicellariae , consisting of a short stalk with three skeletal ossicles . They tend to have robust bodies and have tube feet with flat @-@ tipped suckers usually arranged in four rows . The order includes well @-@ known species from temperate regions , including the common starfish of North Atlantic coasts and rock pools , as well as cold @-@ water and abyssal species .
Notomyotida ( 1 family , 8 genera , 75 species )
These starfish are deep @-@ sea dwelling and have particularly flexible arms . The inner dorso @-@ lateral surfaces of the arms contain characteristic longitudinal muscle bands . In some species , the tube feet lack suckers .
Paxillosida ( 7 families , 48 genera , 372 species )
This is a primitive order and members do not extrude their stomach when feeding , lack an anus and have no suckers on their tube feet . Papulae are plentiful on their aboral surface and they possess marginal plates and paxillae . They mostly inhabit soft @-@ bottomed areas of sand or mud . There is no brachiolaria stage in their larval development . The comb starfish ( Astropecten polyacanthus ) is a member of this order .
Spinulosida ( 1 family , 8 genera , 121 species )
Most species in this order lack pedicellariae and all have a delicate skeletal arrangement with small or no marginal plates on the disc and arms . They have numerous groups of short spines on the aboral surface . This group includes the red starfish Echinaster sepositus .
Valvatida ( 16 families , 172 genera , 695 species )
Most species in this order have five arms and two rows of tube feet with suckers . There are conspicuous marginal plates on the arms and disc . Some species have paxillae and in some , the main pedicellariae are clamp @-@ like and recessed into the skeletal plates . This group includes the cushion stars , the leather star and the sea daisies .
Velatida ( 4 families , 16 genera , 138 species )
This order of starfish consists mostly of deep @-@ sea and other cold @-@ water starfish often with a global distribution . The shape is pentagonal or star @-@ shaped with five to fifteen arms . They mostly have poorly developed skeletons with papulae widely distributed on the aboral surface and often spiny pedicellariae . This group includes the slime star .
= = = = Extinct groups = = = =
Extinct groups within the Asteroidea include :
† Calliasterellidae , with the type genus Calliasterella from the Devonian periods and Carboniferous .
† Trichasteropsida , with the Triassic genus Trichasteropsis ( at least 2 species ) .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The phylogeny of the Asteroidea has been difficult to resolve , with visible ( morphological ) features proving inadequate , and the question of whether traditional taxa are clades in doubt . The phylogeny proposed by Gale in 1987 is :
The phylogeny proposed by Blake in 1987 is :
Later work making use of molecular evidence , with or without the use of morphological evidence , had by 2000 failed to resolve the argument . In 2011 , on further molecular evidence , Janies and colleagues noted that the phylogeny of the echinoderms " has proven difficult " , and that " the overall phylogeny of extant echinoderms remains sensitive to the choice of analytical methods " . They presented a phylogenetic tree for the living Asteroidea only ; using the traditional names of starfish orders where possible , and indicating " part of " otherwise , the phylogeny is shown below . The Solasteridae are split from the Velatida , and the old Spinulosida is broken up .
= = Human relations = =
= = = In research = = =
Starfish are deuterostomes , closely related , together with all other echinoderms , to chordates , and are used in reproductive and developmental studies . Female starfishs produce large numbers of oocytes that are easily isolated ; these can be stored in a pre @-@ meiosis phase and stimulated to complete division by the use of 1 @-@ methyladenine . Starfish oocytes are well suited for this research as they are large and easy to handle , transparent , simple to maintain in sea water at room temperature , and they develop rapidly . Asterina pectinifera , used as a model organism for this purpose , is resilient and easy to breed and maintain in the laboratory .
Another area of research is the ability of starfish to regenerate lost body parts . The stem cells of adult humans are incapable of much differentiation and understanding the regrowth , repair and cloning processes in starfish may have implications for human medicine .
Starfish also have an unusual ability to expel foreign objects from their bodies , which makes them difficult to tag for research tracking purposes .
= = = In legend and culture = = =
An aboriginal Australian fable retold by the Welsh school headmaster William Jenkyn Thomas ( 1870 – 1959 ) tells how some animals needed a canoe to cross the ocean . Whale had one but refused to lend it , so Starfish kept him busy , telling him stories and grooming him to remove parasites , while the others stole the canoe . When Whale realized the trick he beat Starfish ragged , which is how Starfish still is today .
In 1900 , the scholar Edward Tregear documented The Creation Song , which he describes as " an ancient prayer for the dedication of a high chief " of Hawaii . Among the " uncreated gods " described early in the song are the male Kumilipo ( " Creation " ) and the female Poele , both born in the night , a coral insect , the earthworm , and the starfish .
Georg Eberhard Rumpf 's 1705 The Ambonese Curiosity Cabinet describes the tropical varieties of Stella Marina or Bintang Laut , " Sea Star " , in Latin and Malay respectively , known in the waters around Ambon . He writes that the Histoire des Antilles reports that when the sea stars " see thunder storms approaching , [ they ] grab hold of many small stones with their little legs , looking to ... hold themselves down as if with anchors " .
Starfish is the title of novels by Peter Watts and Jennie Orbell , and in 2012 , Alice Addison wrote a non @-@ fiction book subtitled " A year in the life of bereavement and depression " . The Starfish and the Spider is a 2006 business management book by Ori Brafman and Rod Beckstrom ; its title alludes to the ability of the starfish to regenerate itself because of its decentralized nervous system , and the book suggests ways that a decentralized organisation may flourish .
In the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , the eponymous character 's best friend is a dim @-@ witted starfish , Patrick Star .
= = = As food = = =
Starfish are widespread in the oceans , but are only occasionally used as food . There may be good reason for this : the bodies of numerous species are dominated by bony ossicles , and the body wall of many species contains saponins , which have an unpleasant taste , and others contain tetrodotoxins which are poisonous . Some species that prey on bivalve molluscs can transmit paralytic shellfish poisoning . Georg Eberhard Rumpf found few starfish being used for food in the Indonesian archipelago , other than as bait in fish traps , but on the island of " Huamobel " [ sic ] the people cut them up , squeeze out the " black blood " and cook them with sour tamarind leaves ; after resting the pieces for a day or two , they remove the outer skin and cook them in coconut milk . Starfish are sometimes eaten in China , Japan and in Micronesia .
= = = As collectables = = =
Starfish are in some cases taken from their habitat and sold to tourists as souvenirs , ornaments , curios or for display in aquariums . In particular , Oreaster reticulatus , with its easily accessed habitat and conspicuous coloration , is widely collected in the Caribbean . In the early to mid 20th century , this species was common along the coasts of the West Indies , but collection and trade have severely reduced its numbers . In the State of Florida , O. reticulatus is listed as endangered and its collection is illegal . Nevertheless , it is still sold throughout its range and beyond . A similar phenomenon exists in the Indo @-@ Pacific for species such as Protoreaster nodosus .
= = = In industry and military history = = =
With its multiple arms , the starfish provides a popular metaphor for computer networks , companies and software tools . It is also the name of a seabed imaging system and company .
Starfish has repeatedly been chosen as a name in military history . Three ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Starfish : an A @-@ class destroyer launched in 1894 ; an R @-@ class destroyer launched in 1916 ; and an S @-@ class submarine launched in 1933 and lost in 1940 . In the World War II , Starfish sites were large @-@ scale night @-@ time decoys created during The Blitz to simulate burning British cities . Starfish Prime was a high @-@ altitude nuclear test conducted by the United States on 9 July 1962 .
= Emirates Stadium =
The Emirates Stadium ( known as Ashburton Grove prior to sponsorship ) is a football stadium in Holloway , London , England , and the home of Arsenal Football Club . With a capacity of 60 @,@ 260 , the Emirates is the third @-@ largest football stadium in England after Wembley and Old Trafford .
In 1997 , Arsenal explored the possibility of relocating to a new stadium , having been denied planning permission by Islington Council to expand its home ground of Highbury . After considering various options ( including purchasing Wembley Stadium ) , the club bought an industrial and waste disposal estate in Ashburton Grove in 2000 . A year later they won the council 's approval to build a stadium on the site ; manager Arsène Wenger described this as the " biggest decision in Arsenal 's history " since the board appointed Herbert Chapman . Relocation began in 2002 , but financial difficulties delayed work until February 2004 . Emirates Airline was later announced as the main sponsor for the stadium . The whole stadium project was completed in 2006 at a cost of £ 390 million . The related Highbury Square development was completed in 2009 for an additional £ 130 million .
The stadium has undergone a process of " Arsenalisation " since 2009 with the aim of restoring Arsenal 's heritage and history . The ground has hosted international fixtures and music concerts .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
In response to the Hillsborough disaster of April 1989 , an inquiry led by Lord Taylor of Gosforth was launched into crowd safety at sports grounds . Finalised in January 1990 , the Taylor Report recommended the capacity restriction of grounds by 15 % with all terraces replaced by seating . Many football clubs , faced with the requirement of making their grounds all @-@ seater by the start of the 1994 – 95 season , had sought ways of raising income for converting terraced areas . Arsenal at the end of the 1990 – 91 season introduced a bond scheme , which offered supporters the right to buy a season ticket at its converted North Bank stand of Highbury . The board felt this was the only viable option after considering other proposals ; they did not want to compromise on their traditions , nor limit manager George Graham 's resources . At a price of between £ 1 @,@ 000 to £ 1 @,@ 500 , the 150 @-@ year bond was criticised by supporters , who argued it potentially blocked the participation of those less well @-@ off from supporting Arsenal . A campaign directed by the Independent Arsenal Supporters ' Association brought relative success as only a third of all bonds were sold .
The North Bank was the last area of Highbury to be refurbished . It opened in August 1993 at a cost of £ 20 million . The rework significantly reduced the stadium 's capacity , from 57 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the decade to under 40 @,@ 000 . High ticket prices to serve the club 's existing debts and low attendance figures forced Arsenal to explore the possibility of building a larger stadium in 1997 . The club wanted to attract an evergrowing fanbase and financially compete with the biggest clubs in England . Manchester United by comparison enjoyed a rise in gate receipts from £ 43 @.@ 9 million in 1994 to £ 87 @.@ 9 million in 1997 , because of Old Trafford 's expansion .
Arsenal 's initial proposal to rebuild Highbury was met with disapproval from local residents , as it required the demolition of 25 neighbouring houses . It soon became problematic once the East Stand of the stadium was granted Grade II listing in July 1997 . After much consultation , the club eventually abandoned its plan , deciding a capacity of 48 @,@ 000 was not big enough .
In January 1998 , Arsenal investigated the opportunity of relocating to Wembley Stadium and made an official bid to buy the ground two months later . However , the Football Association and the English National Stadium Trust opposed Arsenal 's offer , stating that it would harm England 's bid for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , though FIFA denied this . By the end of the 1997 – 98 season , the bid was withdrawn and Wembley was purchased by The Football Association . The stadium , however , played host to all of Arsenal 's UEFA Champions League home ties during the 1998 – 99 and 1999 – 2000 seasons . Although the club fared poorly in the competition – eliminated twice from the group stages in successive seasons – Arsenal 's record home attendance ( 73 @,@ 707 against RC Lens in November 1998 ) was set and earned up to £ 1 million for each Wembley matchday , highlighting potential profitability .
= = = Site chosen and conflict = = =
Through the persuasion of estate agent and club property adviser Antony Spencer , Arsenal examined the feasibility of building a new stadium in Ashburton Grove in November 1999 . The land , 500 yards ( 460 m ) from Highbury , composed of a rubbish processing plant and industrial estate , 80 % owned by the Islington Council , Railtrack and Sainsbury 's . The move therefore depended on the club buying out the existing occupants and financing for their relocation . After passing the first significant milestone at the council 's planning committee , Arsenal submitted their planning application for a new 60 @,@ 000 seater stadium in November 2000 . This included a redevelopment project at Drayton Park , converting the existing ground Highbury as flats and building a new waste station in Lough Road . The scheme also involved the club creating 1 @,@ 800 new jobs for the community and 2 @,@ 300 new homes . Improvements to three railway stations , Holloway Road , Drayton Park and Finsbury Park , were promised in order to cope with the matchday crowds .
The move to Ashburton Grove was opposed by members of the Arsenal Independent Supporters ' Association ( AISA ) , who were concerned about environmental issues . The Islington Stadium Communities Alliance ( ISCA ) ; an alliance of 16 groups representing local residents and businesses was set up in January 2000 to promote awareness against the redevelopment . Alison Carmichael , a spokeswoman for the group said of the move : " It may look like Arsenal are doing great things for the area , but in its detail the plan is awful . We blame the council ; the football club just wants to expand to make more money . " Seven months after the planning application was submitted in June 2001 , a poll showed that 75 % of respondents were against the scheme , with 2 @,@ 133 residents objecting and 712 in support . By October 2001 , the club asserted that a poll of Islington residents found that 70 % were in favour , and received the backing from Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone .
To push for more local support , the club planted the slogan " Let Arsenal support Islington " around Highbury during matches against Aston Villa and Juventus in December 2001 . It also featured as a backdrop for manager Arsène Wenger 's press conference in the lead up to Christmas . Islington Council approved Arsenal 's plans on 10 December 2001 , as 34 councillors voted in favour of the Ashburton Grove development with seven against and one abstention . 31 voted for the transfer of a waste recycling plant in Lough Road and eight against . The final vote was ratified by Ken Livingstone and Transport Secretary Stephen Byers . Arsenal was given the all clear to start work in July 2002 after a High Court judge rejected a challenge by local residents and ISCA . The club succeeded in a further legal challenge by small firms in January 2005 as the High Court upheld a decision by Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott to grant a compulsory purchase order in support of the scheme .
The stadium became a major issue in the local elections in May 2006 . The Metropolitan Police demanded that supporters ' coaches be parked in the nearby Sobel Sports Centre rather than in the underground car park , and restrictions on access to 14 streets be imposed on match days . The health and safety certificate would not be issued unless the stadium meets such conditions , without which the stadium could not open . The road closures were passed at a council meeting , but kept under review .
= = = Finance and naming = = =
Financing for the project proved difficult as Arsenal was not granted any public subsidy by the government . The club therefore sought other ways to generate income , namely by adopting a policy of buying football players for low transfer fees and selling high , as well as agreeing sponsorship deals . Arsenal recouped over £ 50 million from transfers involving Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid and Marc Overmars , in a joint deal with Emmanuel Petit to Barcelona . The transfer of Anelka in particular helped fund the club 's new training ground , in London Colney , which opened in October 1999 .
In September 2000 , Granada Media Group purchased a five @-@ percent stake in Arsenal at a price of £ 47 million . As part of the acquisition , Granada became the premier media agent for the football club , handling advertising , sponsorship , merchandising , publishing and licensing agreements . The company furthermore invested £ 20 million in a joint venture , AFC Broadband , to exploit the club 's internet viewership . Arsenal chairman Peter Hill @-@ Wood said of the deal : " This partnership will assist us in meeting Arsenal 's two strategic objectives . First , to build a world @-@ class team and a new stadium with an increased capacity so that more of our fans can enjoy watching the team . Secondly , to develop the Arsenal brand on a global basis by extending our fanbase around the world . " Managing Director Keith Edelman added that the investment would be used directly to fund for the new stadium . The collapse of ITV Digital – part @-@ owned by Granada – in April 2002 coincided with company being tied in to pay £ 30 million once arrangements for the new stadium were finalised .
After announcing pre @-@ tax loss of £ 22.3m for the financial year 2001 – 02 , the club formulated plans to reduce their wage bills in order to continue with the stadium work . Investment bank NM Rothschild and Sons was appointed to examine the financial situation at the club and advise whether it was feasible for Arsenal to move on with construction at the end of March 2003 . Although Arsenal secured a £ 260 million loan from a group of banks led by the Royal Bank of Scotland in April 2003 , the club suspended work on Ashburton Grove citing in a statement , " We have experienced a number of delays in arrangements for our new stadium project in recent months across a range of issues . The impact of these delays is that we will now be unable to deliver a stadium opening for the start of the 2005 – 06 season . " The cost of building the stadium , forecasted at £ 400 million , had risen by a £ 100 million during that period . To combat the financial difficulties , Arsenal throughout the summer of 2003 gave fans the opportunity to register their interest in a relaunched bond scheme . The club planned to issue 3 @,@ 000 bonds for between £ 3 @,@ 500 and £ 5 @,@ 000 each for a season ticket at Highbury , then at Ashburton Grove . Arsenal supporters reacted with surprise to the reintroduction of the bond scheme with AISA chairman Steven Powell adding : " We are disappointed that the club has not consulted supporters before announcing a new bond scheme . " Though they never stated how many bonds were sold , Arsenal did raise several million pounds through the scheme .
Sportswear provider Nike signed a contract extension with Arsenal in August 2003 to remain as the club 's official kit supplier . This was presented as a solution to the stadium financing ; in addition to paying £ 55 million over seven years , Nike paid a minimum of £ 1 million each year as a royalty fee , dependent on sales . On 23 February 2004 , Arsenal Holdings plc – the club 's parent company announced that funding for the stadium was now secured with construction work being able to resume . Wenger said of the announcement : " It has been a big target of mine to participate in pushing the club forward and relocating to a new stadium is a necessity as it will enable us to become of one the biggest clubs in the world . " Interest on the £ 260 million debt was set at a commercial fixed rate over a 14 @-@ year period . To refinance the cost , the club planned to convert the money into a 30 @-@ year bond financed by banks . The proposed bond issue went ahead on 13 July 2006 . Arsenal issued £ 210 million worth of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ year bonds with a spread of 52 basis points over government bonds and £ 50 million of 7 @.@ 1 @-@ year bonds with a spread of 22 basis points over LIBOR . It was the first publicly marketed , asset @-@ backed bond issue by a European football club . The effective interest rate on these bonds is 5 @.@ 14 % and 5 @.@ 97 % , respectively , and are due to be paid back over a 25 @-@ year period ; the move to bonds has reduced the club 's annual debt service cost to approximately £ 20 million a year . In September 2010 , Arsenal announced that the Highbury Square development – one of the main sources of income to reduce the stadium debt – was now debt free and making revenue .
On 5 October 2004 , Emirates Airline signed a 15 @-@ year contract with Arsenal estimated at £ 100 million . Under the deal , the group secured naming rights to the stadium and shirt sponsorship when the club 's deal with O2 expired at the end of the 2005 – 06 season . The stadium name is often colloquially shortened from " Emirates Stadium " to " The Emirates " , although some supporters continue to use the former name " Ashburton Grove " or even " The Grove " for the new stadium , especially those who object to the concept of corporate sponsorship of stadium names . Due to UEFA regulations on stadium sponsors , during European matches the stadium is not officially referred to as Emirates Stadium , as Emirates are not an official sponsor of the Champions League competition ; other stadia , such as the Allianz Arena in Munich , have fallen foul of this rule before . UEFA refer to the stadium as Arsenal Stadium , which was the official name of the stadium at Highbury .
In November 2012 , Arsenal and Emirates officially announced a new deal worth £ 150 million at the Emirates Stadium . The partnership keeps Emirates as the official match and training shirt sponsor for another 5 years . The deal also grants Emirates the Ashburton Grove stadium naming rights until 2028 . The deals payment terms were brought forward for potential earlier investment though the extent of this was not released .
= = = Construction and opening = = =
Actual construction of the stadium began in February 2004 . Arsenal appointed Sir Robert McAlpine in January 2002 to carry out building work and the stadium was designed by HOK Sport ( known as Populous since 2009 ) , who were the architects for Stadium Australia and the redevelopment of Ascot Racecourse . Construction consultants Arcadis and engineering firm Buro Happold were also involved in the process .
The first phase of demolition was completed in March 2004 and two months later stand piling on the West , East and North stands had been concluded . Two bridges over the Northern City railway line connecting the stadium with Drayton Park were also built ; these were completed in August 2004 . The stadium topped out in August 2005 and external glazing , power and water tank installation was completed by December 2005 . The first seat in the new stadium was ceremonially installed on 13 March 2006 by Arsenal midfielder Abou Diaby . Like Highbury , DD GrassMaster was selected as the pitch installer with Hewitt Sportsturf contracted to design and construct the playing field . Floodlights were successfully tested for the first time on 25 June 2006 , and a day later the goalposts were erected .
In order to obtain the licences the stadium needed to open , the stadium hosted three non @-@ full capacity events . The first ' ramp @-@ up ' event was a shareholder open day on 18 July 2006 , the second an open training session for 20 @,@ 000 selected club members held two days later . The third event on 22 July 2006 was striker Dennis Bergkamp 's testimonial match against Ajax .
The Emirates Stadium was officially opened by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh on 26 October 2006 ; it had been intended that Queen Elizabeth II would open the stadium as well , but she suffered a back injury and was unable to attend on the day . Prince Philip quipped with the crowd : " Well , you may not have my wife , but you 've got the second @-@ most experienced plaque unveiler in the world . " The royal visit echoed the attendance of the Queen 's uncle , the Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VIII ) at the official opening of Highbury 's West Stand in 1932 . As a result of the change of plan , Queen Elizabeth extended to the club the honour of inviting the chairman , manager and first team to join her for afternoon tea at Buckingham Palace on 15 February 2007 – the first club to be invited to the palace for such an event .
= = Design = =
The Emirates Stadium is seen by many as the benchmark for top league stadia developments in the UK and Europe . Its design is a radical break from the traditions of the " English style " stadia of the United Kingdom and the Municipal multi @-@ tenant stadia of Europe . The focus on spectator experience for both general spectator and the Corporate or Premium Hospitality spectators marked a step change in stadia design and consequently on the football business in the UK , with Arsenal increasing their matchday revenues by 111 % . The architect , Christopher Lee of Populous , described the design as beautiful and intimidating .
The Emirates Stadium is a three @-@ tiered bowl with translucent polycarbonate roofing over the stands but not over the pitch . The underside is clad with metallic panels and the roof is supported by four triangular trusses , made of welded tubular steel . Two trusses span 200 metres ( 660 ft ) in a north – south direction while a further two span an east – west direction . The trusses are supported by the stadium 's vertical concrete cores , eight of which connected to them by steel tripods . They in turn each house four stairways , a passenger lift as well as service access . Façades are either glazed or woven between the cores which allows visitors on the podium to see inside the stadium . The glass and steel construction was devised by Populous to give an impression that the stadium sparkles in sunlight and glows in the night .
The upper ( 26 @,@ 646 ) and lower ( 24 @,@ 425 ) parts of the stadium feature standard seating . The stadium has two levels below ground that house its support facilities such as commercial kitchens , changing rooms and press and education centres . The main middle tier , known as the " Club Level " , is premium priced and also includes the director 's box . There are 7 @,@ 139 seats at this level , which are sold on licences lasting from one to four years . Immediately above the club tier there is a small circle consisting of 150 boxes of 10 , 12 and 15 seats . The total number of spectators at this level is 2 @,@ 222 . The high demand for tickets , as well as the relative wealth of their London fans , means revenue from premium seating and corporate boxes is nearly as high as the revenue from the entire stadium at Highbury .
The upper tier is contoured to leave open space in the corners of the ground , and the roof is significantly canted inwards . Both of these features are meant to provide as much airflow and sunlight to the pitch as possible . The stadium also gives an illusion that supporters in the upper tier on one side of the ground are unable to see supporters in the upper tier opposite . As part of a deal with Sony , the stadium was the first in the world to incorporate HDTV streaming . In the north @-@ west and south @-@ east corners of the stadium are two giant screens suspended from the roof .
The pitch is 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) in size and the total grass area at Emirates is 113 by 76 metres ( 124 by 83 yd ) . Like Highbury , it runs north – south , with the players ' tunnel and the dugouts on the west side of the pitch underneath the main TV camera . The away fans are found in the south @-@ east corner of the lower tier . The away supporter configuration can be expanded from 1 @,@ 500 seats to 4 @,@ 500 seats behind the south goal in the lower tier , and a further 4 @,@ 500 seats can be made available also in the upper tier , bringing the total to 9 @,@ 000 supporters ( the regulation 15 % required for domestic cup competitions such as the FA Cup and League Cup ) .
The Emirates Stadium pays tribute to Arsenal 's former home , Highbury . The club 's offices are officially called Highbury House , located north @-@ east of Emirates Stadium , and house the bust of Herbert Chapman that used to reside at Highbury . Three other busts that used to reside at Highbury of Claude Ferrier ( architect of Highbury 's East stand ) , Denis Hill @-@ Wood ( former Arsenal chairman ) and manager Arsène Wenger have also been moved to Emirates Stadium and are in display in the entrance of the Diamond Club . Additionally , the two bridges over the railway line to the east of the stadium , connecting the stadium to Drayton Park , are called the Clock End and North Bank bridges , after the stands at Highbury ; the clock that gave its name to the old Clock
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End has been resited on the new clock end which features a newer , larger replica of the clock . The Arsenal club museum , which was formerly held in the North Bank Stand , opened in October 2006 and is located to the north of the stadium , within the Northern Triangle building . It houses the marble statues that were once held in the marble halls of Highbury .
= = = Arsenalisation = = =
In August 2009 , Arsenal began a programme of " Arsenalisation " of the Emirates Stadium after listening to feedback from supporters in a forum . The intention was to turn the stadium into a " visible stronghold of all things Arsenal through a variety of artistic and creative means " , led by club CEO Ivan Gazidis .
Among the first changes were white seats installed in the pattern of the club 's trademark cannon , located in the lower level stands opposite the entrance tunnel . " The Spirit of Highbury " – a shrine depicting every player to have played for Arsenal during its 93 @-@ year residence – was erected in late 2009 outside the stadium at the south end . Eight large murals on the exterior of the stadium were installed , each depicting four Arsenal legends linking arms , such that the effect of the completed design is 32 legends in a huddle embracing the stadium :
Around the lower concourse of the stadium , further murals depicting 12 " greatest moments " in Arsenal history voted for by a poll on the club 's website . Prior to the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Arsenal renamed the coloured seating quadrants of the ground as the East Stand , West Stand , North Bank , and Clock End . Akin to Highbury , this involved the installation of a clock above the newly renamed Clock End which was unveiled in a league match against Blackpool .
In April 2011 , Arsenal renamed two bridges near the stadium in honour of club directors Ken Friar and Danny Fiszman . As part of the club 's 125 anniversary celebrations in December 2011 , Arsenal unveiled three statues of former captain Tony Adams , record goalscorer Thierry Henry and manager Herbert Chapman outside of the stadium . In February 2014 , before Arsenal 's match with Sunderland , the club unveiled a statue of former striker Dennis Bergkamp , outside the west stand of Emirates Stadium .
Banners and flags , often designed by supporters group REDaction , are hung around the ground . A large " 49 " flag , representing the run of 49 unbeaten league games , is passed around the lower tier before kick off .
= = = Expansion and future developments = = =
As of 2008 , Arsenal 's season ticket waiting list stood at 40 @,@ 000 people . The potential for expanding the stadium is a common topic within fan debate . Potential expansion methods include , make seats smaller , filling in the dips in the corners of the stadium though this would block airflow , and replacing the roof with a third level and building a new roof . There has also been discussion on the implementation of safe standing .
= = Other uses = =
As well as functioning as a football stadium , the Emirates Stadium also operates as a conference centre and music venue . On 27 March 2008 , the Emirates Stadium played host to a summit between British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and French President Nicolas Sarkozy , in part because the stadium was regarded as " a shining example of Anglo – French co @-@ operation " . When used as a music venue , the capacity can be up to 72 @,@ 000 as opposed to 60 @,@ 000 the capacity for domestic football matches . Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band became the first band to play a concert at the stadium on 30 May 2008 . They played a second gig the following night . British band Coldplay played three concerts at the Emirates in the June 2012 , having sold out the first two dates within 30 minutes of going on sale . They were the first band to sell out the stadium for music purposes . A full list of the concerts played so far at the stadium can be seen at the side . The June 2013 Green Day concert broke the record attendance at the stadium .
= = = International football matches = = =
The stadium has also been used for a number of international friendly matches all of which have featured the Brazil national football team . The first match was against Argentina on 3 September 2006 which ended in a 3 – 0 victory for Brazil .
= = Records = =
It is difficult to get accurate attendance figures as Arsenal do not release these , but choose to use tickets sold . The highest attendance for an Arsenal match at Emirates Stadium as of 2012 is 60 @,@ 161 , for a 2 – 2 draw with Manchester United on 3 November 2007 . The average attendance for competitive first @-@ team fixtures in the stadium 's first season , 2006 – 07 , was 59 @,@ 837 , with a Premier League average attendance of 60 @,@ 045 . The Record for the most away fans that have attended the Emirates Stadium was 9 @,@ 000 , set by Plymouth Argyle , where Arsenal won 3 – 1 in the FA Cup 3rd round in 2009 . The lowest attendance for an Arsenal match at Emirates Stadium as of 2012 is 46 @,@ 539 against Shrewsbury Town in the Football League Cup third round on 20 September 2011 , where Arsenal won 3 – 1 . The first player to score in a league game at the Emirates Stadium was Aston Villa 's Olof Mellberg after 53 minutes . The first Arsenal player to score at the Emirates Stadium was midfielder Gilberto Silva .
= = Transport and access = =
The Emirates Stadium is served by a number of London Underground stations and bus routes . Arsenal tube station is the closest for the northern portion of the stadium , with Highbury & Islington tube station servicing the southern end . While Holloway Road tube station is the closest to the southern portion , it is entry @-@ only before matches and exit @-@ only afterwards to prevent overcrowding . Drayton Park station , adjacent to the Clock End Bridge is shut on matchdays as the rail services to this station do not operate at weekends nor after 10 pm . £ 7 @.@ 6 million was set aside in the planning permission for upgrading Drayton Park and Holloway Road ; however Transport for London decided not to upgrade either station , in favour of improvement works at the interchanges at Highbury & Islington and Finsbury Park , both of which are served by Underground and First Capital Connect services and are approximately a ten @-@ minute walk away . The Emirates Stadium is the only football stadium that stands beside the East Coast Main Line between London and Edinburgh and is just over 2 miles from London King 's Cross .
Driving to the Emirates Stadium is strongly discouraged as there are strict matchday parking restrictions in operation around the stadium . An hour before kick @-@ off to one hour after the final whistle there is a complete ban on vehicle movement on a number of the surrounding roads , except for Islington residents and businesses with a road closure access permit . The parking restrictions mean that the stadium is highly dependent on the Underground service , particularly when there is no overground service in operation . Industrial action on a matchday in December 2012 forced Arsenal to reschedule the match for the following month .
The stadium opens to ticket holders two hours before kick @-@ off . The main club shop , named ' The Armoury ' , and ticket offices are located near the West Stand , with other an additional store at the base of the North Bank Bridge , named ' All Arsenal ' and the ' Arsenal Store ' next to Finsbury Park station . Arsenal operates an electronic ticketing system where members of ' The Arsenal ' ( the club 's fan membership scheme ) use their membership cards to enter the stadium , thus removing the need for turnstile operators . Non @-@ members are issued with one @-@ off paper tickets embedded with an RFID tag allowing them to enter the stadium .
= Suffolk Punch =
The Suffolk Punch , also historically known as the Suffolk Horse or Suffolk Sorrel , is an English breed of draught horse . The breed takes the first part of its name from the county of Suffolk in East Anglia , and the name " Punch " from its solid appearance and strength . It is a heavy draught horse which is always chestnut in colour , traditionally spelled " chesnut " by the breed registries . Suffolk Punches are known as good doers , and tend to have energetic gaits .
The breed was developed in the early 16th century , and remains similar in phenotype to its founding stock . The Suffolk Punch was developed for farm work , and gained popularity during the early 20th century . However , as agriculture became increasingly mechanised , the breed fell out of favour , particularly from the middle part of the century , and almost disappeared completely . Although the breed 's status is listed as critical by the UK Rare Breeds Survival Trust and the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy , there has been a resurgence in interest , and population numbers are increasing . As well as being used for farm work , the breed pulled artillery and non @-@ motorised commercial vans and buses . It was also exported to other countries to upgrade local equine stock . Today , they are used for draught work , forestry and advertising .
= = Characteristics = =
Suffolk Punches generally stand 16 @.@ 1 to 17 @.@ 2 hands ( 65 to 70 inches , 165 to 178 cm ) , weigh 1 @,@ 980 to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 900 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ) , and are always chestnut in colour . The traditional spelling , still used by the Suffolk Horse Society , is " chesnut " ( with no " t " in the middle of the word ) . Horses of the breed come in many different shades of chestnut , ranging from dark to red to light . Suffolk horse breeders in the UK use several different colour terms specific to the breed , including dark liver , dull dark , red and bright . White markings are rare and generally limited to small areas on the face and lower legs . Equestrian author Marguerite Henry described the breed by saying , " His color is bright chestnut – like a tongue of fire against black field furrows , against green corn blades , against yellow wheat , against blue horizons . Never is he any other color . "
The Suffolk Punch tends to be shorter but more massively built than other British heavy draught breeds , such as the Clydesdale or the Shire , as a result of having been developed for agricultural work rather than road haulage . The breed has a powerful , arching neck ; well @-@ muscled , sloping shoulders ; a short , wide back ; and a muscular , broad croup . Legs are short and strong , with broad joints ; sound , well @-@ formed hooves ; and little or no feathering on the fetlocks . The movement of the Suffolk Punch is said to be energetic , especially at the trot . The breed tends to mature early , be long @-@ lived , and is economical to keep , needing less feed than other horses of similar type and size . They are hard workers , said to be willing to " pull a heavily laden wagon till [ they ] dropped . "
In the past , the Suffolk was often criticised for its poor feet , having hooves that were too small for its body mass . This was corrected by the introduction of classes at major shows in which hoof conformation and structure were judged . This practice , unique among horse breeds , resulted in such an improvement that the Suffolk Punch is now considered to have excellent foot conformation .
= = History = =
The Suffolk Punch registry is the oldest English breed society . The first known mention of the Suffolk Punch is in William Camden 's Britannia , published in 1586 , in which he describes a working horse of the eastern counties of England that is easily recognisable as the Suffolk Punch . This description makes them the oldest breed of horse that is recognisable in the same form today . A detailed genetic study shows that the Suffolk Punch is closely genetically grouped not only with the Fell and Dales British ponies , but also with the European Haflinger . They were developed in Norfolk and Suffolk in the east of England , a relatively isolated area . The local farmers developed the Suffolk Punch for farm work , for which they needed a horse with power , stamina , health , longevity , and docility , and they bred the Suffolk to comply with these needs . Because the farmers used these horses on their land , they seldom had any to sell , which helped to keep the bloodlines pure and unchanged .
The foundation sire of the modern Suffolk Punch breed was a 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) stallion foaled near Woodbridge in 1768 and owned by Thomas Crisp of Ufford . At this time the breed was known as the Suffolk Sorrel . This horse was never named , and is simply known as " Crisp 's horse " . Although it is commonly ( and mistakenly ) thought that this was the first horse of the breed , by the 1760s , all other male lines of the breed had died out , resulting in a genetic bottleneck . Another bottleneck occurred in the late 18th century .
In 1784 , the breed was described as " 15 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) high , short and compact with bony legs , often light sorrel in color , gentle , tractable , strong " and with " shoulders loaded with flesh " . During its development , the breed was influenced by the Norfolk Trotter , Norfolk Cob , and later the Thoroughbred . The uniform colouring derives in part from a small trotting stallion named Blakes Farmer , foaled in 1760 . Other breeds were cross bred in an attempt to increase the size and stature of the Suffolk Punch , as well as to improve the shoulders , but they had little lasting influence , and the breed remains much as it was before any crossbreeding took place . The Suffolk Horse Society , formed in Britain in 1877 to promote the Suffolk Punch , published its first stud book in 1880 . The first official exports of Suffolks to Canada took place in 1865 . In 1880 , the first Suffolks were imported into the United States , with more following in 1888 and 1903 to begin the breeding of Suffolk Punches in the US . The American Suffolk Horse Association was established and published its first stud book in 1907 . By 1908 , the Suffolk had also been exported from England to Spain , France , Germany , Austria , Russia , Sweden , various parts of Africa , New Zealand , Australia , Argentina and other countries .
By the time of the First World War , the Suffolk Punch had become a popular work horse on large farms in East Anglia due to its good temperament and excellent work ethic . It remained popular until the Second World War , when a combination of the need for increased wartime food production ( which resulted in many horses being sent to the slaughterhouse ) , and increased farm mechanisation which followed the war decimated population numbers . Only nine foals were registered with the Suffolk Horse Society in 1966 , but there has been a revival of interest in the breed since the late 1960s and numbers have risen continuously . The breed did remain rare , and in 1998 there were only 80 breeding mares in Britain , producing around 40 foals per year . In the United States , the American Suffolk Horse Association became inactive after the war and remained so for 15 years , but restarted in May 1961 as the draught horse market began to recover . In the 1970s and early 1980s , the American registry allowed some Belgians to be bred to Suffolk Punches , but only the fillies from these crosses were permitted registry with the American Suffolk Horse Association .
As of 2001 , horses bred with American bloodlines were not allowed to be registered with the British Association , and the breed was considered the rarest horse breed in Britain . Although the Suffolk Punch population has continued to increase , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust of the UK considers their survival status critical , with between 800 and 1 @,@ 200 horses in the United States and around 150 in England . The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy also lists the breed as critical . The Suffolk Horse Society recorded the births of 36 pure @-@ bred foals in 2007 , and a further 33 foals as of March 2008 .
= = Uses = =
The Suffolk Punch was used mainly for draught work on farms , but was also often used to pull heavy artillery in wartime . Like other heavy horses , they were also used to pull non @-@ motorised vans and other commercial vehicles . Today , they are used for commercial forestry operations , for other draught work , and in advertising . They are also used for crossbreeding , to produce heavy sport horses for use in hunter and show jumping competition . As a symbol of the county in which they are based , Ipswich Town F.C. incorporate a Suffolk Punch as a dominant part of their team crest .
The Suffolk Punch contributed significantly to the creation of the Jutland breed in Denmark . Oppenheimer LXII , a Suffolk Punch imported to Denmark in the 1860s by noted Suffolk dealer Oppenheimer of Hamburg , was one of the founding stallions of the Jutland . Oppenheimer specialised in selling Suffolk Punches , importing them to the Mecklenburg Stud in Germany . The stallion Oppenheimer founded the Jutland breed 's most important bloodline , through his descendant Oldrup Munkedal . Suffolks were also exported to Pakistan in the 20th century , to be used in upgrading native breeds , and they have been crossed with Pakistani horses and donkeys to create army remounts and mules . Suffolks have adapted well to the Pakistani climate , despite their large size , and the programme has been successful . The Vladimir Heavy Draft , a draught breed from the former USSR , is another which has been influenced by the Suffolk .
= Staten Island Peace Conference =
The Staten Island Peace Conference was a brief meeting held in the hope of bringing an end to the American Revolutionary War . The conference took place on September 11 , 1776 , at Billop Manor , the residence of Colonel Christopher Billop , on Staten Island , New York . The participants were the British Admiral Lord Richard Howe , and members of the Second Continental Congress John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , and Edward Rutledge .
Since Lord Howe 's authority was , by design , extremely limited , the Congressional delegation was pessimistic about the meeting 's outcome . The conference , held in the days after the British capture of Long Island , lasted just three hours and was a failure . The Americans insisted on recognition of their recently declared independence , and Howe 's limited authority was inadequate to deal with that development . After the conference , the British continued their military campaign for control of New York City .
= = Background = =
When British authorities were planning how to deal with their rebellious North American colonies in late 1775 and early 1776 , they decided to send a large military expedition to occupy New York City . Two brothers , Admiral Lord Richard Howe and General William Howe , were given command of the naval and land aspects of the operation respectively . Since they believed it might still be possible to end the dispute without further violence , the Howe brothers insisted on being granted diplomatic powers in addition to their military roles . Admiral Howe had previously discussed colonial grievances informally with Benjamin Franklin in 1774 and 1775 , without resolution . General Howe believed that the problem of colonial taxation could be resolved while retaining the supremacy of Parliament . At first King George III reluctantly agreed to grant the Howes limited powers , but Lord George Germain took a harder line , and insisted that the Howes not be given any powers that might be seen as giving in to the colonial demands for relief from taxation without representation or the so @-@ called Intolerable Acts . As a consequence , the Howes were only granted the ability to issue pardons and amnesties , but not to make any substantive concessions . The commissioners were also mandated to seek dissolution of the Continental Congress , re @-@ establishment of the pre @-@ war colonial assemblies , acceptance of the terms of Lord North 's Conciliatory Resolution regarding self @-@ taxation , and to promise a further discussion of colonial grievances . No concessions could be made unless hostilities were ended and colonial assemblies made specific admissions of Parliamentary supremacy .
After the fleet arrived in July 1776 , Admiral Howe made several attempts to open communications with Continental Army General George Washington . Two attempts to deliver letters to Washington were rebuffed because Howe refused to recognize Washington 's title . Washington did however agree to meet in person with one of Howe 's adjutants , Colonel James Patterson . In the meeting on July 20 , Washington learned that the Howes ' diplomatic powers were essentially limited to the granting of pardons , to which he responded that the Americans had not committed any faults and thus did not need pardons . Lord Howe then sent a letter to Benjamin Franklin detailing a proposal for a truce and offers of pardons . After Franklin read the letter in Congress on July 30 , he wrote back to the admiral that " Directing pardons to be offered to the colonies , who are the very parties injured , [ ... ] can have no other effect than that of increasing our resentments . It is impossible we should think of submission to a government that has with the most wanton barbarity and cruelty burnt our defenseless town , [ ... ] excited the savages to massacre our peaceful farmers , and our slaves to murder their masters , and is even now bringing foreign mercenaries to deluge our settlements with blood . " He also pointed out to the admiral that " you once gave me expectations that reconciliation might take place . " Howe was apparently somewhat taken aback by Franklin 's forceful response .
In the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , 1776 , British forces successfully occupied western Long Island ( modern Brooklyn ) , compelling Washington to withdraw his army to Manhattan . General Howe then paused to consolidate his gains , and the brothers decided to make a diplomatic overture . During the battle they had captured several high @-@ ranking Continental Army officers , including Major General John Sullivan . The Howes managed to convince Sullivan that a conference with members of the Continental Congress might yield fruit , and released him on parole to deliver a message to the Congress in Philadelphia , proposing an informal meeting to discuss ending the armed conflict between Britain and its rebellious colonies . After Sullivan 's speech to Congress , John Adams cynically commented on this diplomatic attempt , calling Sullivan a " decoy @-@ duck " and accusing the British of sending Sullivan " to seduce us into a renunciation of our independence " ; others noted that it appeared to be an attempt to blame Congress for prolonging the war . The Congress did however agree to send three of its members – Adams , Benjamin Franklin and Edward Rutledge – to a conference with Lord Howe . They were instructed " to ask a few Questions and take [ Howe 's ] Answers " , but had no further authority . When Howe learned of the committee 's limited authority , he briefly considered calling the meeting off , but decided to proceed after discussion with his brother . None of the commissioners believed the conference would amount to anything .
Lord Howe initially sought to meet with the men as private citizens , since British policy did not recognize the Congress as a legitimate authority . In order that the conference might take place , he agreed to the American demand that they be recognized as official representatives of the Congress .
= = Meeting = =
The house of Christopher Billop on Staten Island was selected to be the meeting place . It had been occupied by British troops for use as a barracks and was in filthy condition , but one room was cleaned and prepared for the meeting . The arrangements included one British officer to be left on the American side as a hostage during the meeting ; the Congressional delegation , rather than leaving him behind the American lines , invited him to accompany them . On arrival , the delegation was escorted past a line of Hessian soldiers and into the house , where , according to Adams , a repast of claret , ham , mutton , and tongue was served .
The meeting lasted three hours , and the two sides were unable to find any common ground . The Americans insisted that any negotiations required British recognition of their recently declared independence . Lord Howe stated he did not have the authority to meet that demand . When asked by Edward Rutledge whether he had the authority to repeal the Prohibitory Act ( which authorized a naval blockade of the colonies ) as had been claimed by Sullivan , Howe demurred , claiming Sullivan was mistaken . Howe 's authority included the ability to suspend its execution , provided the colonies agreed to make fixed contributions instead of the taxes Parliament had levied on them . None of this could be done unless the colonies first agreed to end hostilities .
For most of the meeting , both sides were cordial . But when Lord Howe expressed that he would feel America 's loss " like the loss of a brother " , Franklin informed him that " we will do our utmost endeavors to save your lordship that mortification . " Lord Howe unhappily stated he could not view the American delegates as anything but British subjects , to which Adams replied , " Your lordship may consider me in what light you please , [ ... ] except that of a British subject . " Lord Howe then spoke past Adams to Franklin and Rutledge , stating , " Mr. Adams appears to be a decided character . "
= = Effects = =
The Congressmen returned to Philadelphia and reported that Lord Howe " has no propositions to make us " and that " America is to expect nothing but total unconditional submission . " John Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from any pardon offers the Howes might make . Congress published the committee 's report without comment . Because Lord Howe did not also publish an account of the meeting , the meeting 's outcome was perceived by many as a sign of British weakness ; however , many Loyalists and some British observers suspected the Congressional report misrepresented the meeting . One British commentator wrote of the meeting , " They met , they talked , they parted . And now nothing remains but to fight it out . " Lord Howe reported the failure of the conference to his brother , and they then made preparations to continue the campaign for New York City . Four days after the conference , British troops landed on Manhattan and occupied New York City .
Parliamentary debate over the terms of the diplomatic mission and its actions prompted some opposition ( Whig ) members to essentially boycott Parliamentary proceedings . The next major peace effort occurred in 1778 , when the British sent commissioners led by the Earl of Carlisle to occupied Philadelphia . They were authorized to treat with Congress as a body , and offered self @-@ government that was roughly equivalent to Dominion status . This effort was undermined by the planned withdrawal of British troops from Philadelphia and by American demands that the commissioners were not authorized to grant .
The house where the conference took place is now preserved as a museum within Conference House Park , a city park . It is a National Historic Landmark , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= Surrender of Japan =
The surrender of Japan was announced by Imperial Japan on August 15 and formally signed on September 2 , 1945 , bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close . By the end of July 1945 , the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent . Together with the United Kingdom and China , the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26 , 1945 — the alternative being " prompt and utter destruction " . While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end , Japan 's leaders ( the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War , also known as the " Big Six " ) were privately making entreaties to the still @-@ neutral Soviet Union to mediate peace on terms more favorable to the Japanese . Meanwhile , the Soviets were preparing to attack Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea ( in addition to southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands ) in fulfillment of promises they had secretly made to the United States and the United Kingdom at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences .
On August 6 , 1945 , at 8 : 15 AM local time , the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima . Sixteen hours later , American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan 's surrender , warning them to " expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . " Late in the evening of August 8 , 1945 , in accordance with the Yalta agreements , but in violation of the Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact , the Soviet Union declared war on Japan , and soon after midnight on August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union invaded the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . Later in the day , the United States dropped a second atomic bomb , this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki . Following these events , Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration for ending the war . After several more days of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes negotiations and a failed coup d 'état , Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15 . In the radio address , called the Jewel Voice Broadcast ( 玉音放送 , Gyokuon @-@ hōsō ) , he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies .
On August 28 , the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began . The surrender ceremony was held on September 2 , aboard the United States Navy battleship USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) , at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender , thereby ending the hostilities . Allied civilians and military personnel alike celebrated V @-@ J Day , the end of the war ; however , some isolated soldiers and personnel from Imperial Japan 's far @-@ flung forces throughout Asia and the Pacific islands refused to surrender for months and years afterwards , some even refusing into the 1970s . The role of the atomic bombings in Japan 's unconditional surrender , and the ethics of the two attacks , is still debated . The state of war formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28 , 1952 . Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet – Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which formally brought an end to their state of war .
= = Impending defeat = =
By 1945 , the Japanese had suffered an unbroken string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific , the Marianas campaign , and the Philippines campaign . In July 1944 , following the loss of Saipan , General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as prime minister by General Kuniaki Koiso , who declared that the Philippines would be the site of the decisive battle . After the Japanese loss of the Philippines , Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki . The Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945 . Okinawa was to be a staging area for Operation Downfall , the American invasion of the Japanese Home Islands . Following Germany 's defeat , the Soviet Union quietly began redeploying its battle @-@ hardened European forces to the Far East , in addition to about forty divisions that had been stationed there since 1941 , as a counterbalance to the million @-@ strong Kwantung Army .
The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet . With few natural resources , Japan was dependent on raw materials , particularly oil , imported from Manchuria and other parts of the East Asian mainland , and from the conquered territory in the Dutch East Indies . The destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet , combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry , had wrecked Japan 's war economy . Production of coal , iron , steel , rubber , and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war .
As a result of the losses it had suffered , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) had ceased to be an effective fighting force . Following a series of raids on the Japanese shipyard at Kure , Japan , the only major warships in fighting order were six aircraft carriers , four cruisers , and one battleship , none of which could be fueled adequately . Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational , their use was limited by the lack of fuel .
= = = Defense preparations = = =
Faced with the prospect of an invasion of the Home Islands , starting with Kyūshū , and the prospect of a Soviet invasion of Manchuria — Japan 's last source of natural resources — the War Journal of the Imperial Headquarters concluded :
We can no longer direct the war with any hope of success . The only course left is for Japan 's one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight .
As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances , the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all @-@ out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō . This was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . Instead , everything was staked on the beachhead ; more than 3 @,@ 000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the amphibious transports before troops and cargo were disembarked on the beach .
If this did not drive the Allies away , they planned to send another 3 @,@ 500 kamikazes along with 5 @,@ 000 Shin 'yō suicide boats and the remaining destroyers and submarines — " the last of the Navy 's operating fleet " — to the beach . If the Allies had fought through this and successfully landed on Kyūshū , only 3 @,@ 000 planes would have been left to defend the remaining islands , although Kyūshū would be " defended to the last " regardless . The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality .
A set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu , the largest of the Japanese islands . In the event of invasion , these caves , the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters , were to be used by the army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family .
= = Supreme Council for the Direction of the War = =
Japanese policy @-@ making centered on the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War ( created in 1944 by earlier Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso ) , the so @-@ called " Big Six " — the Prime Minister , Minister of Foreign Affairs , Minister of the Army , Minister of the Navy , Chief of the Army General Staff , and Chief of the Navy General Staff . At the formation of the Suzuki government in April 1945 , the council 's membership consisted of :
Prime Minister : Admiral Kantarō Suzuki
Minister of Foreign Affairs : Shigenori Tōgō
Minister of the Army : General Korechika Anami
Minister of the Navy : Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai
Chief of the Army General Staff : General Yoshijirō Umezu
Chief of the Navy General Staff : Admiral Koshirō Oikawa ( later replaced by Admiral Soemu Toyoda )
All of these positions were nominally appointed by the Emperor and their holders were answerable directly to him . Nevertheless , from 1936 the Japanese Army and Navy held , effectively , a legal right to nominate ( or refuse to nominate ) their respective ministers . Thus , they could prevent the formation of undesirable governments , or by resignation bring about the collapse of an existing government .
Emperor Hirohito and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido also were present at some meetings , following the Emperor 's wishes . As Iris Chang reports , " the Japanese deliberately destroyed , hid or falsified most of their secret wartime documents . "
= = Divisions within the Japanese leadership = =
For the most part , Suzuki 's military @-@ dominated cabinet favored continuing the war . For the Japanese , surrender was unthinkable — Japan had never been invaded or lost a war in its history . Only Mitsumasa Yonai , the Navy minister , was known to desire an early end to the war . According to historian Richard B. Frank :
Although Suzuki might indeed have seen peace as a distant goal , he had no design to achieve it within any immediate time span or on terms acceptable to the Allies . His own comments at the conference of senior statesmen gave no hint that he favored any early cessation of the war ... Suzuki 's selections for the most critical cabinet posts were , with one exception , not advocates of peace either .
After the war , Suzuki and others from his government and their apologists claimed they were secretly working towards peace , and could not publicly advocate it . They cite the Japanese concept of haragei — " the art of hidden and invisible technique " — to justify the dissonance between their public actions and alleged behind @-@ the @-@ scenes work . However , many historians reject this . Robert J. C. Butow wrote :
Because of its very ambiguity , the plea of haragei invites the suspicion that in questions of politics and diplomacy a conscious reliance upon this ' art of bluff ' may have constituted a purposeful deception predicated upon a desire to play both ends against the middle . While this judgment does not accord with the much @-@ lauded character of Admiral Suzuki , the fact remains that from the moment he became Premier until the day he resigned no one could ever be quite sure of what Suzuki would do or say next .
Japanese leaders had always envisioned a negotiated settlement to the war . Their prewar planning expected a rapid expansion and consolidation , an eventual conflict with the United States , and finally a settlement in which they would be able to retain at least some new territory they had conquered . By 1945 , Japan 's leaders were in agreement that the war was going badly , but they disagreed over the best means to negotiate its end . There were two camps : the so @-@ called " peace " camp favored a diplomatic initiative to persuade Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , to mediate a settlement between the Allies and Japan ; and the hardliners who favored fighting one last " decisive " battle that would inflict so many casualties on the Allies that they would be willing to offer more lenient terms . Both approaches were based on Japan 's experience in the Russo – Japanese War , forty years earlier , which consisted of a series of costly but largely indecisive battles , followed by the decisive naval Battle of Tsushima .
In February 1945 , Prince Fumimaro Konoe gave Emperor Hirohito a memorandum analyzing the situation , and told him that if the war continued , the imperial family might be in greater danger from an internal revolution than from defeat . According to the diary of Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita , the Emperor , looking for a decisive battle ( tennōzan ) , replied that it was premature to seek peace " unless we make one more military gain " . Also in February , Japan 's treaty division wrote about Allied policies towards Japan regarding " unconditional surrender , occupation , disarmament , elimination of militarism , democratic reforms , punishment of war criminals , and the status of the emperor . " Allied @-@ imposed disarmament , Allied punishment of Japanese war criminals , and especially occupation and removal of the Emperor , were not acceptable to the Japanese leadership .
On April 5 , the Soviet Union gave the required 12 months ' notice that it would not renew the five @-@ year Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact ( which had been signed in 1941 following the Nomonhan Incident ) . Unknown to the Japanese , at the Tehran Conference in November – December 1943 , it had been agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Nazi Germany was defeated . At the Yalta conference in February 1945 , the United States had made substantial concessions to the Soviets to secure a promise that they would declare war on Japan within three months of the surrender of Germany . Although the five @-@ year Neutrality Pact did not expire until April 5 , 1946 , the announcement caused the Japanese great concern , because Japan had amassed its forces in the South to repel the inevitable US attack , thus leaving its Northern islands vulnerable to Soviet invasion . Russian Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov , in Moscow , and Yakov Malik , Soviet ambassador in Tokyo , went to great lengths to assure the Japanese that " the period of the Pact 's validity has not ended " .
At a series of high @-@ level meetings in May , the Big Six first seriously discussed ending the war — but none of them on terms that would have been acceptable to the Allies . Because anyone openly supporting Japanese surrender risked assassination by zealous army officers , the meetings were closed to anyone except the Big Six , the Emperor , and the Privy Seal — no second- or third @-@ echelon officers could attend . At these meetings , despite the dispatches from Japanese ambassador Satō in Moscow , only Foreign minister Tōgō realized that Roosevelt and Churchill might have already made concessions to Stalin to bring the Soviets into the war against Japan . As a result of these meetings , Tōgō was authorized to approach the Soviet Union , seeking to maintain its neutrality , or ( despite the very remote probability ) to form an alliance .
In keeping with the custom of a new government declaring its purposes , following the May meetings the Army staff produced a document , " The Fundamental Policy to Be Followed Henceforth in the Conduct of the War , " which stated that the Japanese people would fight to extinction rather than surrender . This policy was adopted by the Big Six on June 6 . ( Tōgō opposed it , while the other five supported it . ) Documents submitted by Suzuki at the same meeting suggested that , in the diplomatic overtures to the USSR , Japan adopt the following approach :
It should be clearly made known to Russia that she owes her victory over Germany to Japan , since we remained neutral , and that it would be to the advantage of the Soviets to help Japan maintain her international position , since they have the United States as an enemy in the future .
On June 9 , the Emperor 's confidant Marquis Kōichi Kido wrote a " Draft Plan for Controlling the Crisis Situation , " warning that by the end of the year Japan 's ability to wage modern war would be extinguished and the government would be unable to contain civil unrest . " ... We cannot be sure we will not share the fate of Germany and be reduced to adverse circumstances under which we will not attain even our supreme object of safeguarding the Imperial Household and preserving the national polity . " Kido proposed that the Emperor take action , by offering to end the war on " very generous terms . " Kido proposed that Japan withdraw from the formerly European colonies it had occupied provided they were granted independence , that Japan disarm provided this not occur under Allied supervision , and that Japan for a time be " content with minimum defense . " Kido 's proposal did not contemplate Allied occupation of Japan , prosecution of war criminals or substantial change in Japan 's system of government . With the Emperor 's authorization , Kido approached several members of the Supreme Council , the " Big Six . " Tōgō was very supportive . Suzuki and Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai , the Navy minister , were both cautiously supportive ; each wondered what the other thought . General Korechika Anami , the Army minister , was ambivalent , insisting that diplomacy must wait until " after the United States has sustained heavy losses " in Operation Ketsugō .
In June , the Emperor lost confidence in the chances of achieving a military victory . The Battle of Okinawa was lost , and he learned of the weakness of the Japanese army in China , of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria , of the navy , and of the army defending the Home Islands . The Emperor received a report by Prince Higashikuni from which he concluded that " it was not just the coast defense ; the divisions reserved to engage in the decisive battle also did not have sufficient numbers of weapons . " According to the Emperor :
I was told that the iron from bomb fragments dropped by the enemy was being used to make shovels . This confirmed my opinion that we were no longer in a position to continue the war .
On June 22 , the Emperor summoned the Big Six to a meeting . Unusually , he spoke first : " I desire that concrete plans to end the war , unhampered by existing policy , be speedily studied and that efforts made to implement them . " It was agreed to solicit Soviet aid in ending the war . Other neutral nations , such as Switzerland , Sweden , and the Vatican City , were known to be willing to play a role in making peace , but they were so small they were believed unable to do more than deliver the Allies ' terms of surrender and Japan 's acceptance or rejection . The Japanese hoped that the Soviet Union could be persuaded to act as an agent for Japan in negotiations with America and Britain .
= = Attempts to deal with the Soviet Union = =
On June 30 , Tōgō told Naotake Satō , Japan 's ambassador in Moscow , to try to establish " firm and lasting relations of friendship . " Satō was to discuss the status of Manchuria and " any matter the Russians would like to bring up . " Well aware of the overall situation and cognizant of their promises to the Allies , the Soviets responded with delaying tactics to encourage the Japanese without promising anything . Satō finally met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov on July 11 , but without result . On July 12 , Tōgō directed Satō to tell the Soviets that :
His Majesty the Emperor , mindful of the fact that the present war daily brings greater evil and sacrifice upon the peoples of all the belligerent powers , desires from his heart that it may be quickly terminated . But so long as England and the United States insist upon unconditional surrender , the Japanese Empire has no alternative but to fight on with all its strength for the honor and existence of the Motherland .
The Emperor proposed sending Prince Konoe as a special envoy , although he would be unable to reach Moscow before the Potsdam Conference .
Satō advised Tōgō that in reality , " unconditional surrender or terms closely equivalent thereto " was all that Japan could expect . Moreover , in response to Molotov 's requests for specific proposals , Satō suggested that Tōgō 's messages were not " clear about the views of the Government and the Military with regard to the termination of the war , " thus questioning whether Tōgō 's initiative was supported by the key elements of Japan 's power structure .
On July 17 , Tōgō responded :
Although the directing powers , and the government as well , are convinced that our war strength still can deliver considerable blows to the enemy , we are unable to feel absolutely secure peace of mind ... Please bear particularly in mind , however , that we are not seeking the Russians ' mediation for anything like an unconditional surrender .
In reply , Satō clarified :
It goes without saying that in my earlier message calling for unconditional surrender or closely equivalent terms , I made an exception of the question of preserving [ the imperial family ] .
On July 21 , speaking in the name of the cabinet , Tōgō repeated :
With regard to unconditional surrender we are unable to consent to it under any circumstances whatever . ... It is in order to avoid such a state of affairs that we are seeking a peace , ... through the good offices of Russia . ... it would also be disadvantageous and impossible , from the standpoint of foreign and domestic considerations , to make an immediate declaration of specific terms .
American cryptographers had broken most of Japan 's codes , including the Purple code used by the Japanese Foreign Office to encode high @-@ level diplomatic correspondence . As a result , messages between Tokyo and Japan 's embassies were provided to Allied policy @-@ makers nearly as quickly as to the intended recipients .
= = = Soviet intentions = = =
Security concerns dominated Soviet decisions concerning the Far East . Chief among these was gaining unrestricted access to the Pacific Ocean . The year @-@ round ice @-@ free areas of the Soviet Pacific coastline — Vladivostok in particular — could be blockaded by air and sea from Sakhalin island and the Kurile Islands . Acquiring these territories , thus guaranteeing free access to the Soya Strait , was their primary objective . Secondary objectives were leases for the Chinese Eastern Railway , Southern Manchuria Railway , Dairen , and Port Arthur .
To this end , Stalin and Molotov strung out the negotiations with the Japanese , giving them false hope of a Soviet @-@ mediated peace . At the same time , in their dealings with the United States and Britain , the Soviets insisted on strict adherence to the Cairo Declaration , re @-@ affirmed at the Yalta Conference , that the Allies would not accept separate or conditional peace with Japan . The Japanese would have to surrender unconditionally to all the Allies . To prolong the war , the Soviets opposed any attempt to weaken this requirement . This would give the Soviets time to complete the transfer of their troops from the Western Front to the Far East , and conquer Manchuria ( Manchukuo ) , Inner Mongolia ( Mengjiang ) , Korea , Sakhalin , the Kuriles , and possibly , Hokkaidō ( starting with a landing at Rumoi ) .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In 1939 , Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd wrote a letter to President Roosevelt warning him that the Germans might be researching the development of atomic weaponry and that it was necessary that the United States fund research and development of its own such project . Roosevelt agreed , and the result was the Manhattan Project — a top @-@ secret research program administered by General Leslie Groves , with scientific direction from J. Robert Oppenheimer . The first bomb was tested successfully in the Trinity explosion on July 16 , 1945 .
As the project neared its conclusion , American planners began to consider the use of the bomb . Groves formed a committee that met in April and May 1945 to draw up a list of targets . One of the primary criteria was that the target cities must not have been damaged by conventional bombing . This would allow for an accurate assessment of the damage done by the atomic bomb . The targeting committee 's list included 18 Japanese cities . At the top of the list were Kyoto , Hiroshima , Yokohama , Kokura , and Niigata . Ultimately , Kyoto was removed from the list at the insistence of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , who had visited the city on his honeymoon and knew of its cultural and historical significance .
The Allies ' atomic bomb program was considered to be so sensitive that not even the Vice President of the United States was told of its existence . As a result , Harry S. Truman only learned about the Manhattan Project and its purpose after becoming President upon Franklin Roosevelt 's death on April 12 . In May , Truman approved the formation of an " Interim Committee " , an advisory group that would report on the atomic bomb . It consisted of George L. Harrison , Vannevar Bush , James Bryant Conant , Karl Taylor Compton , William L. Clayton , and Ralph Austin Bard , advised by scientists Oppenheimer , Enrico Fermi , Ernest Lawrence , and Arthur Compton . In a June 1 report , the Committee concluded that the bomb should be used as soon as possible against a war plant surrounded by workers ' homes , and that no warning or demonstration should be given .
The Committee 's mandate did not include the use of the bomb — its use upon completion was presumed . Following a protest by scientists involved in the project , in the form of the Franck Report , the Committee re @-@ examined the use of the bomb . In a June 21 meeting , it reaffirmed that there was no alternative .
= = Events at Potsdam = =
The leaders of the major Allied powers met at the Potsdam Conference from July 16 to August 2 , 1945 . The participants were the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom , and the United States , represented by Stalin , Winston Churchill ( later Clement Attlee ) , and Truman respectively .
= = = Negotiations = = =
Although the Potsdam Conference was mainly concerned with European affairs , the war against Japan was also discussed in detail . Truman learned of the successful Trinity test early in the conference , and shared this information with the British delegation . The successful test caused the American delegation to reconsider the necessity and wisdom of Soviet participation , for which the U.S. had lobbied hard at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences . High on the United States ' list of priorities was shortening the war and reducing American casualties — Soviet intervention seemed likely to do both , but at the cost of possibly allowing the Soviets to capture territory beyond that which had been promised to them at Tehran and Yalta , and causing a postwar division of Japan similar to that which had occurred in Germany .
In dealing with Stalin , Truman decided to give the Soviet leader vague hints about the existence of a powerful new weapon without going into details . However , the other Allies were unaware that Soviet intelligence had penetrated the Manhattan Project in its early stages , so Stalin already knew of the existence of the atomic bomb , but did not appear impressed by its potential .
= = = The Potsdam Declaration = = =
It was decided to issue a statement , the Potsdam Declaration , defining " Unconditional Surrender " and clarifying what it meant for the position of the emperor and for Hirohito personally . The American and British governments strongly disagreed on this point — the United States wanted to abolish the position and possibly try him as a war criminal , while the British wanted to retain the position , perhaps with Hirohito still reigning . The Potsdam Declaration went through many drafts until a version acceptable to all was found .
On July 26 , the United States , Britain and China released the Potsdam Declaration announcing the terms for Japan 's surrender , with the warning , " We will not deviate from them . There are no alternatives . We shall brook no delay . " For Japan , the terms of the declaration specified :
the elimination " for all time [ of ] the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest "
the occupation of " points in Japanese territory to be designated by the Allies "
that the " Japanese sovereignty shall be limited to the islands of Honshū , Hokkaidō , Kyūshū , Shikoku and such minor islands as we determine . " As had been announced in the Cairo Declaration in 1943 , Japan was to be reduced to her pre @-@ 1894 territory and stripped of her pre @-@ war empire including Korea and Taiwan , as well as all her recent conquests .
that " [ t ] he Japanese military forces , after being completely disarmed , shall be permitted to return to their homes with the opportunity to lead peaceful and productive lives . "
that " [ w ] e do not intend that the Japanese shall be enslaved as a race or destroyed as a nation , but stern justice shall be meted out to all war criminals , including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners . "
On the other hand , the declaration stated that :
" The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people . Freedom of speech , of religion , and of thought , as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established . "
" Japan shall be permitted to maintain such industries as will sustain her economy and permit the exaction of just reparations in kind , but not those which would enable her to rearm for war . To this end , access to , as distinguished from control of , raw materials shall be permitted . Eventual Japanese participation in world trade relations shall be permitted . "
" The occupying forces of the Allies shall be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been accomplished and there has been established , in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people , a peacefully inclined and responsible government . "
The only use of the term " unconditional surrender " came at the end of the declaration :
" We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces , and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action . The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction . "
Contrary to what had been intended at its conception , the Declaration made no mention of the Emperor at all . Allied intentions on issues of utmost importance to the Japanese , including whether Hirohito was to be regarded as one of those who had " misled the people of Japan " or even a war criminal , or alternatively , whether the Emperor might become part of a " peacefully inclined and responsible government " were thus left unstated .
The " prompt and utter destruction " clause has been interpreted as a veiled warning about American possession of the atomic bomb ( which had been tested successfully on the first day of the conference ) . On the other hand , the declaration also made specific references to the devastation that had been wrought upon Germany in the closing stages of the European war . To contemporary readers on both sides who were not yet aware of the atomic bomb 's existence , it was easy to interpret the conclusion of the declaration simply as a threat to bring similar destruction upon Japan using conventional weapons .
= = = Japanese reaction = = =
On July 27 , the Japanese government considered how to respond to the Declaration . The four military members of the Big Six wanted to reject it , but Tōgō persuaded the cabinet not to do so until he could get a reaction from the Soviets . In a telegram , Shun 'ichi Kase , Japan 's ambassador to Switzerland , observed that " unconditional surrender " applied only to the military and not to the government or the people , and he pleaded that it should be understood that the careful language of Potsdam appeared " to have occasioned a great deal of thought " on the part of the signatory governments — " they seem to have taken pains to save face for us on various points . " The next day , Japanese newspapers reported that the Declaration , the text of which had been broadcast and dropped by leaflet into Japan , had been rejected . In an attempt to manage public perception , Prime Minister Suzuki met with the press , and stated :
I consider the Joint Proclamation a rehash of the Declaration at the Cairo Conference . As for the Government , it does not attach any important value to it at all . The only thing to do is just kill it with silence ( mokusatsu ) . We will do nothing but press on to the bitter end to bring about a successful completion of the war .
The meaning of mokusatsu , literally " kill with silence , " can range from " ignore " to " treat with contempt " — which rather accurately described the range of reactions within the government . On July 30 , Ambassador Satō wrote that Stalin was probably talking to Roosevelt and Churchill about his dealings with Japan , and he wrote : " There is no alternative but immediate unconditional surrender if we are to prevent Russia 's participation in the war . " On August 2 , Tōgō wrote to Satō : " it should not be difficult for you to realize that ... our time to proceed with arrangements of ending the war before the enemy lands on the Japanese mainland is limited , on the other hand it is difficult to decide on concrete peace conditions here at home all at once . "
= = Hiroshima , Manchuria , and Nagasaki = =
= = = August 6 : Hiroshima = = =
On August 6 at 8 : 15 AM local time , the Enola Gay , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets , dropped an atomic bomb ( code @-@ named Little Boy by the U.S. ) on the city of Hiroshima in southwest Honshū . Throughout the day , confused reports reached Tokyo that Hiroshima had been the target of an air raid , which had leveled the city with a " blinding flash and violent blast " . Later that day , they received U.S. President Truman 's broadcast announcing the first use of an atomic bomb , and promising :
We are now prepared to obliterate more rapidly and completely every productive enterprise the Japanese have above ground in any city . We shall destroy their docks , their factories , and their communications . Let there be no mistake ; we shall completely destroy Japan 's power to make war . It was to spare the Japanese people from utter destruction that the ultimatum of July 26 was issued at Potsdam . Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum . If they do not now accept our terms they may expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth …
The Japanese Army and Navy had their own independent atomic @-@ bomb programs and therefore the Japanese understood enough to know how very difficult building it would be . Therefore , many Japanese and in particular the military members of the government refused to believe the United States had built an atomic bomb , and the Japanese military ordered their own independent tests to determine the cause of Hiroshima 's destruction . Admiral Soemu Toyoda , the Chief of the Naval General Staff , argued that even if the United States had made one , they could not have many more . American strategists , having anticipated a reaction like Toyoda 's , planned to drop a second bomb shortly after the first , to convince the Japanese that the U.S. had a large supply .
= = = August 8 – 9 : Soviet invasion and Nagasaki = = =
At 04 : 00 on August 9 word reached Tokyo that the Soviet Union had broken the Neutrality Pact , declared war on Japan , and launched an invasion of Manchuria .
When the Russians invaded Manchuria , they sliced through what had once been an elite army and many Russian units only stopped when they ran out of gas . The Soviet 16th Army — 100 @,@ 000 strong — launched an invasion of the southern half of Sakhalin Island . Their orders were to mop up Japanese resistance there , and then — within 10 to 14 days — be prepared to invade Hokkaido , the northernmost of Japan ’ s home islands . The Japanese force tasked with defending Hokkaido , the 5th Area Army , was under strength at two divisions and two brigades , and was in fortified positions on the east side of the island . The Soviet plan of attack called for an invasion of Hokkaido from the west . The Soviet declaration of war also changed the calculation of how much time was left for maneuver . Japanese intelligence was predicting that U.S. forces might not invade for months . Soviet forces , on the other hand , could be in Japan proper in as little as 10 days . The Soviet invasion made a decision on ending the war extremely time sensitive .
These " twin shocks " — the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and the Soviet entry — had immediate profound effects on Prime Minister Suzuki and Foreign Minister Tōgō Shigenori , who concurred that the government must end the war at once . However , the senior leadership of the Japanese Army took the news in stride , grossly underestimating the scale of the attack . With the support of Minister of War Anami , they started preparing to impose martial law on the nation , to stop anyone attempting to make peace . Hirohito told Kido to " quickly control the situation " because " the Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us . "
The Supreme Council met at 10 : 30 . Suzuki , who had just come from a meeting with the Emperor , said it was impossible to continue the war . Tōgō Shigenori said that they could accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration , but they needed a guarantee of the Emperor 's position . Navy Minister Yonai said that they had to make some diplomatic proposal — they could no longer afford to wait for better circumstances .
In the middle of the meeting , shortly after 11 : 00 , news arrived that Nagasaki , on the west coast of Kyūshū , had been hit by a second atomic bomb ( called " Fat Man " by the United States ) . By the time the meeting ended , the Big Six had split 3 – 3 . Suzuki , Tōgō , and Admiral Yonai favored Tōgō 's one additional condition to Potsdam , while Generals Anami , Umezu , and Admiral Toyoda insisted on three further terms that modified Potsdam : that Japan handle their own disarmament , that Japan deal with any Japanese war criminals , and that there be no occupation of Japan .
Following the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , Truman issued another statement :
The British , Chinese , and United States Governments have given the Japanese people adequate warning of what is in store for them . We have laid down the general terms on which they can surrender . Our warning went unheeded ; our terms were rejected . Since then the Japanese have seen what our atomic bomb can do . They can foresee what it will do in the future .
The world will note that the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima , a military base . That was because we wished in this first attack to avoid , insofar as possible , the killing of civilians . But that attack is only a warning of things to come . If Japan does not surrender , bombs will have to be dropped on her war industries and , unfortunately , thousands of civilian lives will be lost . I urge Japanese civilians to leave industrial cities immediately , and save themselves from destruction .
I realize the tragic significance of the atomic bomb .
Its production and its use were not lightly undertaken by this Government . But we knew that our enemies were on the search for it . We know now how close they were to finding it . And we knew the disaster which would come to this Nation , and to all peace @-@ loving nations , to all civilization , if they had found it first .
That is why we felt compelled to undertake the long and uncertain and costly labor of discovery and production .
We won the race of discovery against the Germans .
Having found the bomb we have used it . We have used it against those who attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbor , against those who have starved and beaten and executed American prisoners of war , against those who have abandoned all pretense of obeying international laws of warfare . We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war , in order to save the lives of thousands and thousands of young Americans .
We shall continue to use it until we completely destroy Japan 's power to make war . Only a Japanese surrender will stop us .
= = Imperial intervention , Allied response , and Japanese reply = =
The full cabinet met on 14 : 30 on August 9 , and spent most of the day debating surrender . As the Big Six had done , the cabinet split , with neither Tōgō 's position nor Anami 's attracting a majority . Anami told the other cabinet ministers that , under torture , a captured American P @-@ 51 fighter pilot had told his interrogators that the United States possessed 100 atom bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto would be bombed " in the next few days " . The pilot , Marcus McDilda , was lying . He knew nothing of the Manhattan Project and simply told his interrogators what he thought they wanted to hear to end the torture . The lie , which caused him to be classified as a high @-@ priority prisoner , probably saved him from beheading . In reality , the United States would have had the third bomb ready for use around August 19 , and a fourth in September 1945 . The third bomb probably would have been used against Tokyo .
The cabinet meeting adjourned at 17 : 30 with no consensus . A second meeting lasting from 18 : 00 to 22 : 00 also ended with no consensus . Following this second meeting , Suzuki and Tōgō met the Emperor , and Suzuki proposed an impromptu Imperial conference , which started just before midnight on the night of August 9 – 10 . Suzuki presented Anami 's four @-@ condition proposal as the consensus position of the Supreme Council . The other members of the Supreme Council spoke , as did Kiichirō Hiranuma , the president of the Privy Council , who outlined Japan 's inability to defend itself and also described the country 's domestic problems , such as the shortage of food . The cabinet debated , but again no consensus emerged . At around 02 : 00 ( August 10 ) , Suzuki finally addressed Emperor Hirohito , asking him to decide between the two positions . The participants later recollected that the Emperor stated :
I have given serious thought to the situation prevailing at home and abroad and have concluded that continuing the war can only mean destruction for the nation and prolongation of bloodshed and cruelty in the world . I cannot bear to see my innocent people suffer any longer . ...
I was told by those advocating a continuation of hostilities that by June new divisions would be in place in fortified positions [ at Kujūkuri Beach , east of Tokyo ] ready for the invader when he sought to land . It is now August and the fortifications still have not been completed . ...
There are those who say the key to national survival lies in a decisive battle in the homeland . The experiences of the past , however , show that there has always been a discrepancy between plans and performance . I do not believe that the discrepancy in the case of Kujūkuri can be rectified . Since this is also the shape of things , how can we repel the invaders ? [ He then made some specific reference to the increased destructiveness of the atomic bomb ]
It goes without saying that it is unbearable for me to see the brave and loyal fighting men of Japan disarmed . It is equally unbearable that others who have rendered me devoted service should now be punished as instigators of the war . Nevertheless , the time has come to bear the unbearable . ...
I swallow my tears and give my sanction to the proposal to accept the Allied proclamation on the basis outlined by the Foreign Minister .
According to General Sumihisa Ikeda and Admiral Zenshirō Hoshina , Privy Council President Kiichirō Hiranuma then turned to the Emperor and asked him : " Your majesty , you also bear responsibility ( sekinin ) for this defeat . What apology are you going to make to the heroic spirits of the imperial founder of your house and your other imperial ancestors ? "
Once the Emperor had left , Suzuki pushed the cabinet to accept the Emperor 's will , which it did . Early that morning ( August 10 ) , the Foreign Ministry sent telegrams to the Allies ( by way of the Swiss Federal Political Department and Max Grässli in particular ) announcing that Japan would accept the Potsdam Declaration , but would not accept any peace conditions that would " prejudice the prerogatives " of the Emperor . That effectively meant no change in Japan 's form of government — that the Emperor of Japan would remain a position of real power .
= = = August 12 = = =
The Allied response was written by James F. Byrnes and approved by the British , Chinese , and Soviet governments , although the Soviets agreed only reluctantly . The Allies sent their response ( via the Swiss Political Affairs Department ) to Japan 's qualified acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration on August 12 . On the status of the Emperor it said :
From the moment of surrender the authority of the Emperor and the Japanese government to rule the state shall be subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied powers who will take such steps as he deems proper to effectuate the surrender terms . ... The ultimate form of government of Japan shall , in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration , be established by the freely expressed will of the Japanese people .
President Truman ordered military operations ( including the B @-@ 29 bombings ) to continue until official word of Japanese surrender was received . However , news correspondents incorrectly interpreted a comment by Carl Andrew Spaatz that the B @-@ 29s were not flying on August 11 ( because of bad weather ) as a statement that a ceasefire was in effect . To avoid giving the Japanese the impression that the Allies had abandoned peace efforts and resumed bombing , Truman then ordered a halt to further bombings .
The Japanese cabinet considered the Allied response , and Suzuki argued that they must reject it and insist on an explicit guarantee for the imperial system . Anami returned to his position that there be no occupation of Japan . Afterward , Tōgō told Suzuki that there was no hope of getting better terms , and Kido conveyed the Emperor 's will that Japan surrender . In a meeting with the Emperor , Yonai spoke of his concerns about growing civil unrest :
I think the term is inappropriate , but the atomic bombs and the Soviet entry into the war are , in a sense , divine gifts . This way we don 't have to say that we have quit the war because of domestic circumstances .
That day , Hirohito informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender . One of his uncles , Prince Asaka , then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai ( imperial sovereignty ) could not be preserved . The Emperor simply replied " of course . "
= = = August 13 – 14 = = =
The Big Six and the cabinet spent August 13 debating their reply to the Allied response , but remained deadlocked . Meanwhile , the Allies grew doubtful , waiting for the Japanese to respond . The Japanese had been instructed that they could transmit an unqualified acceptance in the clear , but in fact they sent out coded messages on matters unrelated to the surrender parlay . The Allies took this coded response as non @-@ acceptance of the terms .
Via Ultra intercepts , the Allies also detected increased diplomatic and military traffic , which was taken as evidence that the Japanese were preparing an " all @-@ out banzai attack . " President Truman ordered a resumption of attacks against Japan at maximum intensity " so as to impress Japanese officials that we mean business and are serious in getting them to accept our peace proposals without delay . " The United States Third Fleet began shelling the Japanese coast . In the largest bombing raid of the Pacific War , more than 400 B @-@ 29s attacked Japan during daylight on August 14 , and more than 300 that night . A total of 1 @,@ 014 aircraft were used with no losses .
In the longest bombing mission of the war , B @-@ 29s from the 315 Bombardment Wing flew 6 @,@ 100 km ( 3 @,@ 800 mi ) to destroy the Nippon Oil Company refinery at Tsuchizaki on the northern tip of Honshū . This was the last operational refinery in the Japan Home Islands and it produced 67 % of their oil . After the war , the bombing raids were justified as already in progress when word of the Japanese surrender was received , but this is only partially true .
At the suggestion of American psychological operations experts , B @-@ 29s spent August 13 dropping leaflets over Japan , describing the Japanese offer of surrender and the Allied response . The leaflets had a profound effect on the Japanese decision @-@ making process . As August 14 dawned , Suzuki , Kido , and the Emperor realized the day would end with either an acceptance of the American terms or a military coup .
The Emperor met with the most senior Army and Navy officers . While several spoke in favor of fighting on , Field Marshal Shunroku Hata did not . As commander of the Second General Army , the headquarters of which had been in Hiroshima , Hata commanded all the troops defending southern Japan — the troops preparing to fight the " decisive battle " . Hata said he had no confidence in defeating the invasion and did not dispute the Emperor 's decision . The Emperor asked his military leaders to cooperate with him in ending the war .
At a conference with the cabinet and other councilors , Anami , Toyoda , and Umezu again made their case for continuing to fight , after which the Emperor said :
I have listened carefully to each of the arguments presented in opposition to the view that Japan should accept the Allied reply as it stands and without further clarification or modification , but my own thoughts have not undergone any change . ... In order that the people may know my decision , I request you to prepare at once an imperial rescript so that I may broadcast to the nation . Finally , I call upon each and every one of you to exert himself to the utmost so that we may meet the trying days which lie ahead .
The cabinet immediately convened and unanimously ratified the Emperor 's wishes . They also decided to destroy vast amounts of material pertaining to war crimes and the war responsibility of the nation 's highest leaders . Immediately after the conference , the Foreign ministry transmitted orders to its embassies in Switzerland and Sweden to accept the Allied terms of surrender . These orders were picked up and received in Washington at 02 : 49 , August 14 .
Difficulty with senior commanders on the distant war fronts was anticipated . Three princes of the Imperial Family who held military commissions were dispatched on August 14 to deliver the news personally . Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda went to Korea and Manchuria , Prince Yasuhiko Asaka to the China Expeditionary Army and China Fleet , and Prince Kan 'in Haruhito to Shanghai , South China , Indo @-@ China and Singapore .
The text of the Imperial Rescript on surrender was finalized by 19 : 00 August 14 , transcribed by the official court calligrapher , and brought to the cabinet for their signatures . Around 23 : 00 , the Emperor , with help from an NHK recording crew , made a gramophone record of himself reading it . The record was given to court chamberlain Yoshihiro Tokugawa , who hid it in a locker in the empress 's secretary 's office .
= = Attempted military coup d 'état ( August 12 – 15 ) = =
Late on the night of August 12 , 1945 , Major Kenji Hatanaka , along with Lieutenant Colonels Masataka Ida , Masahiko Takeshita ( Anami 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , and Inaba Masao , and Colonel Okitsugu Arao , the Chief of the Military Affairs Section , spoke to War Minister Korechika Anami ( the army minister and " most powerful figure in Japan besides the Emperor himself " ) , and asked him to do whatever he could to prevent acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration . General Anami refused to say whether he would help the young officers in treason . As much as they needed his support , Hatanaka and the other rebels decided they had no choice but to continue planning and to attempt a coup d 'état on their own . Hatanaka spent much of August 13 and the morning of August 14 gathering allies , seeking support from the higher @-@ ups in the Ministry , and perfecting his plot .
Shortly after the conference on the night of August 13 – 14 at which the surrender finally was decided , a group of senior army officers including Anami gathered in a nearby room . All those present were concerned about the possibility of a coup d 'état to prevent the surrender — some of those present may have even been considering launching one . After a silence , General Torashirō Kawabe proposed that all senior officers present sign an agreement to carry out the Emperor 's order of surrender — " The Army will act in accordance with the Imperial Decision to the last . " It was signed by all the high @-@ ranking officers present , including Anami , Hajime Sugiyama , Yoshijirō Umezu , Kenji Doihara , Torashirō Kawabe , Masakazu Kawabe , and Tadaichi Wakamatsu . " This written accord by the most senior officers in the Army ... acted as a formidable firebreak against any attempt to incite a coup d 'état in Tokyo . "
Around 21 : 30 on August 14 , Hatanaka 's rebels set their plan into motion . The Second Regiment of the First Imperial Guards had entered the palace grounds , doubling the strength of the battalion already stationed there , presumably to provide extra protection against Hatanaka 's rebellion . But Hatanaka , along with Lt. Col. Jirō Shiizaki , convinced the commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards , Colonel Toyojirō Haga , of their cause , by telling him ( falsely ) that Generals Anami and Umezu , and the commanders of the Eastern District Army and Imperial Guards Divisions were all in on the plan . Hatanaka also went to the office of Shizuichi Tanaka , commander of the Eastern region of the army , to try to persuade him to join the coup . Tanaka refused , and ordered Hatanaka to go home . Hatanaka ignored the order .
Originally , Hatanaka hoped that simply occupying the palace and showing the beginnings of a rebellion would inspire the rest of the Army to rise up against the move to surrender . This notion guided him through much of the last days and hours and gave him the blind optimism to move ahead with the plan , despite having little support from his superiors . Having set all the pieces into position , Hatanaka and his co @-@ conspirators decided that the Guard would take over the palace at 02 : 00 . The hours until then were spent in continued attempts to convince their superiors in the Army to join the coup . At about the same time , General Anami committed seppuku , leaving a message that , " I — with my death — humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime . " Whether the crime involved losing the war , or the coup , remains unclear .
At some time after 01 : 00 , Hatanaka and his men surrounded the palace . Hatanaka , Shiizaki and Captain Shigetarō Uehara ( of the Air Force Academy ) went to the office of Lt. General Takeshi Mori to ask him to join the coup . Mori was in a meeting with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Michinori Shiraishi . The cooperation of Mori , as commander of the 1st Imperial Guards Division , was crucial . When Mori refused to side with Hatanaka , Hatanaka killed him , fearing Mori would order the Guards to stop the rebellion . Uehara killed Shiraishi . These were the only two murders of the night . Hatanaka then used General Mori 's official stamp to authorize Imperial Guards Division Strategic Order No. 584 , a false set of orders created by his co @-@ conspirators , which would greatly increase the strength of the forces occupying the Imperial Palace and Imperial Household Ministry , and " protecting " the Emperor .
The palace police were disarmed and all the entrances blocked . Over the course of the night , Hatanaka 's rebels captured and detained eighteen people , including Ministry staff and NHK workers sent to record the surrender speech .
The rebels , led by Hatanaka , spent the next several hours fruitlessly searching for Imperial House Minister Sōtarō Ishiwatari , Lord of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido , and the recordings of the surrender speech . The two men were hiding in the " bank vault " , a large chamber underneath the Imperial Palace . The search was made more difficult by a blackout in response to Allied bombings , and by the archaic organization and layout of the Imperial House Ministry . Many of the names of the rooms were unrecognizable to the rebels . The rebels did find the chamberlain Tokugawa . Although Hatanaka threatened to disembowel him with a samurai sword , Tokugawa lied and told them he did not know where the recordings or men were . During their search , the rebels cut nearly all of the telephone wires , severing communications between the palace grounds and the outside world .
At about the same time , another group of Hatanaka 's rebels led by Captain Takeo Sasaki went to Prime Minister Suzuki 's office , intent on killing him . When they found it empty , they machine @-@ gunned the office and set the building on fire , then left for his home . Hisatsune Sakomizu had warned Suzuki , and he escaped minutes before the would @-@ be assassins arrived . After setting fire to Suzuki 's home , they went to the estate of Kiichirō Hiranuma to assassinate him . Hiranuma escaped through a side gate and the rebels burned his house as well . Suzuki spent the rest of August under police protection , spending each night in a different bed .
Around 03 : 00 , Hatanaka was informed by Lieutenant Colonel Masataka Ida that the Eastern District Army was on its way to the palace to stop him , and that he should give up . Finally , seeing his plan collapsing around him , Hatanaka pleaded with Tatsuhiko Takashima , Chief of Staff of the Eastern District Army , to be given at least ten minutes on the air on NHK radio , to explain to the people of Japan what he was trying to accomplish and why . He was refused . Colonel Haga , commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards , discovered that the Army did not support this rebellion , and he ordered Hatanaka to leave the palace grounds .
Just before 05 : 00 , as his rebels continued their search , Major Hatanaka went to the NHK studios , and , brandishing a pistol , tried desperately to get some airtime to explain his actions . A little over an hour later , after receiving a telephone call from the Eastern District Army , Hatanaka finally gave up . He gathered his officers and walked out of the NHK studio .
At dawn , Tanaka learned that the palace had been invaded . He went there and confronted the rebellious officers , berating them for acting contrary to the spirit of the Japanese army . He convinced them to return to their barracks . By 08 : 00 , the rebellion was entirely dismantled , having succeeded in holding the palace grounds for much of the night but failing to find the recordings .
Hatanaka , on a motorcycle , and Shiizaki , on horseback , rode through the streets , tossing leaflets that explained their motives and their actions . Within an hour before the Emperor 's broadcast , sometime around 11 : 00 , August 15 , Hatanaka placed his pistol to his forehead , and shot himself . Shiizaki stabbed himself with a dagger , and then shot himself . In Hatanaka 's pocket was found his death poem : " I have nothing to regret now that the dark clouds have disappeared from the reign of the Emperor . "
= = Surrender = =
= = = Broadcast of the Imperial Rescript on surrender = = =
At 12 : 00 noon Japan standard time on August 15 , the Emperor 's recorded speech to the nation , reading the Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War , was broadcast :
After pondering deeply the general trends of the world and the actual conditions obtaining in Our Empire today , We have decided to effect a settlement of the present situation by resorting to an extraordinary measure .
We have ordered Our Government to communicate to the Governments of the United States , Great Britain , China and the Soviet Union that Our Empire accepts the provisions of their Joint Declaration .
To strive for the common prosperity and happiness of all nations as well as the security and well @-@ being of Our subjects is the solemn obligation which has been handed down by Our Imperial Ancestors and which lies close to Our heart .
Indeed , We declared war on America and Britain out of Our sincere desire to ensure Japan 's self @-@ preservation and the stabilization of East Asia , it being far from Our thought either to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations or to embark upon territorial aggrandizement .
But now the war has lasted for nearly four years . Despite the best that has been done by everyone — the gallant fighting of the military and naval forces , the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State , and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people — the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage , while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest .
Moreover , the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb , the power of which to do damage is , indeed , incalculable , taking the toll of many innocent lives . Should we continue to fight , not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation , but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization .
Such being the case , how are We to save the millions of Our subjects , or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors ? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers ....
The hardships and sufferings to which Our nation is to be subjected hereafter will be certainly great . We are keenly aware of the inmost feelings of all of you , Our subjects . However , it is according to the dictates of time and fate that We have resolved to pave the way for a grand peace for all the generations to come by enduring the unendurable and suffering what is unsufferable .
The low quality of the recording , combined with the Classical Japanese language used by the Emperor in the Rescript , made the recording very difficult to understand for most listeners . This speech marked the end of imperial Japan 's ultranationalist ideology , and was a major turning point in Japanese history .
Public reaction to the Emperor 's speech varied – many Japanese simply listened to it , then went on with their lives as best they could , while some Army and Navy officers chose suicide over surrender . At a base north of Nagasaki , some Japanese Army officers , enraged at the prospect of surrender , pulled some 16 captured American airmen out of the base prison and hacked them to death with swords . A large , weeping crowd gathered in front of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo , with their cries sometimes interrupted by the sound of gunshots as military officers present committed suicide .
On August 17 , Suzuki was replaced as prime minister by the Emperor 's uncle , Prince Higashikuni , perhaps to forestall any further coup or assassination attempts ; Mamoru Shigemitsu replaced Tōgō as foreign minister .
Japan 's forces were still fighting against the Soviets as well as the Chinese , and managing their cease @-@ fire and surrender was difficult . The last air combat by Japanese fighters against American reconnaissance bombers took place on August 18 . The Soviet Union continued to fight until early September , taking the Kuril Islands .
= = = Beginning of occupation and the surrender ceremony = = =
Allied civilians and servicemen alike rejoiced at the news of the end of the war . A photograph , V – J day in Times Square , of an American sailor kissing a woman in New York , and a news film of the Dancing Man in Sydney have come to epitomize the immediate celebrations . August 14 and 15 are celebrated as Victory over Japan Day in many Allied countries .
The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō . Unlike the Soviet occupations of East Germany and North Korea , however , these plans were frustrated by the opposition of President Truman .
Japanese officials left for Manila on August 19 to meet Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur , and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation . On August 28 , 150 U.S. personnel flew to Atsugi , Kanagawa Prefecture , and the occupation of Japan began . They were followed by USS Missouri , whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marines on the southern coast of Kanagawa . Other Allied personnel followed .
MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30 , and immediately decreed several laws : No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people . No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food . Flying the Hinomaru or " Rising Sun " flag was severely restricted .
The formal surrender occurred on September 2 , 1945 around 9 a.m. Tokyo time , when representatives from the Empire of Japan signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender in Tokyo Bay aboard the USS Missouri . Japanese Foreign Minister Shigemitsu signed for the Japanese government , while Gen. Umezu signed for the Japanese armed forces .
On the Missouri that day was the American flag flown in 1853 on the USS Powhatan by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on the first of his two expeditions to Japan . Perry 's expeditions had resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa , which forced the Japanese to open the country to American trade .
After the formal surrender on September 2 aboard the Missouri , investigations into Japanese war crimes began quickly . At a meeting with General MacArthur later in September , Emperor Hirohito offered to take blame for the war crimes , but his offer was rejected , and he was never tried . Legal procedures for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East were issued on January 19 , 1946 .
In addition to August 14 and 15 , September 2 , 1945 is also known as V @-@ J Day . President Truman declared September 2 to be V @-@ J Day , but noted that " It is not yet the day for the formal proclamation of the end of the war nor of the cessation of hostilities . " In Japan , August 15 is often called Shūsen @-@ kinenbi ( 終戦記念日 ) , which literally means the " memorial day for the end of the war , " but the government 's name for the day ( which is not a national holiday ) is Senbotsusha o tsuitō shi heiwa o kinen suru hi ( 戦没者を追悼し平和を祈念する日 , " day for mourning of war dead and praying for peace " ) .
= = Further surrenders and continued Japanese military resistance = =
Following the signing of the instrument of surrender , many further surrender ceremonies took place across Japan 's remaining holdings in the Pacific . Japanese forces in South East Asia surrendered on September 12 , 1945 in Singapore . Taiwan 's Retrocession Day ( October 25 ) , marked the end of Japanese rule of Taiwan and the subsequent rule by the Republic Of China government . It was not until 1947 that all prisoners held by America and Britain were repatriated . As late as April 1949 , China still held more than 60 @,@ 000 Japanese prisoners . Some , such as Shozo Tominaga , were not repatriated until the late 1950s .
The logistical demands of the surrender were formidable . After Japan 's capitulation , more than 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers and 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 Japanese sailors were taken prisoner by the Allies . The damage done to Japan 's infrastructure , combined with a severe famine in 1946 , further complicated the Allied efforts to feed the Japanese POWs and civilians .
The state of war between the United States and Japan officially ended when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect on April 28 , 1952 . Japan and the Soviet Union formally made peace four years later , when they signed the Soviet – Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 .
Some Japanese holdouts , especially on small Pacific Islands , refused to surrender at all ( believing the declaration to be propaganda or considering surrender against their code ) . Some may never have heard of it . Teruo Nakamura , the last known holdout , emerged from his hidden retreat in Indonesia in December 1974 , while two other Japanese soldiers , who had joined Communist guerrillas at the end of the war , fought in southern Thailand until 1991 .
= = = Texts = = =
= Amanita rubrovolvata =
Amanita rubrovolvata , commonly known as the red volva Amanita , is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family . First described scientifically by the Japanese mycologist S. Imai in 1939 , it is widely distributed in eastern Asia . The fungus produces small- to medium @-@ sized mushrooms , with reddish @-@ orange caps up to 6 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) wide . The stems are up to 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall , cream above the ring and cream to yellowish below it . The stem ends in a roughly spherical bulb at the base , which is covered with bright orange patches . Neither edibility nor toxicity have been established for the fungus , but it is suspected to be associated with neurological anomalies . Several molecular studies have confirmed the mushroom 's classification in the subgenus Amanita of the genus Amanita , along with closely related species such as A. muscaria .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described scientifically by the Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai in 1939 , based on various collections made in Japan during 1933 – 38 . Imai designated the Japanese name for mushroom as Hime @-@ beni @-@ tengutake ( ヒメベニテングタケ ) . According to the online taxonomical database MycoBank , the name Amplariella rubrovolvata , proposed by French mycologist Jean @-@ Edouard Gilbert in 1941 , is a synonym ; the generic name Amplariella has since been subsumed into Amanita .
Amanita rubrovolvata is classified in the subgenus Amanita of the genus Amanita , according to the systems proposed by Cornelis Bas ( 1969 ) , and Rolf Singer ( 1986 ) . It was one of 49 Amanita species included in a 1998 molecular phylogenetic analysis intended to help clarify natural groups and phylogenetic relationships within the genus . In the cladogram , A. rubrovolvata is on a branch next to a cluster of species including A. pantherina var. lutea , A. gemmata , A. farinosa , and A. sinensis . These results were comparable to those published in later phylogenetic analyses ( 1999 , 2004 , 2010 ) that have included A. rubrovolata as part of a larger dataset .
The specific epithet rubrovolvata is derived from the Latin words ruber ( " red " ) , and the adjective volvatus ( " closely sheathed " ) . Amanita authority Rodham E. Tulloss has suggested " red volva Amanita " as an appropriate common name .
= = Description = =
The cap of A. rubrovolvata is 2 – 6 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 26 in ) wide , convex to flattened , sometimes with a slight umbo . They are dark red to reddish @-@ orange , becoming a paler orange to yellowish at the margin . The cap surface is densely covered with red to orange to yellow , powdery to granular remnants of the volva . The cap margin is grooved — with the grooves extending to between 30 % to 60 % of the radius — and does not have partial veil remnants hanging along the cap margin . The flesh of the mushroom is white to yellow , or reddish immediately beneath the cap cuticle . The white gills are free from attachment to the stem and are 3 to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) broad . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) are truncate , and typically range in length between 15 – 50 % of the length of the gills .
The stem is 50 – 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) by 5 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , roughly cylindrical or slightly larger upwards , with a surface that is cream above the ring and cream to yellowish below . The bulb at the base of the stem is roughly spherical , and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , with its upper part covered with red , orange to yellow woolly to powdery remnants of the volva . The volva remains in mature specimens as a ring around the upper part of the stem bulb . The ring is membranous , persistent , with an upper surface that is white and a lower surface having a yellowish tinge and an edge that is red to orange .
Amanita rubrovolvata produces a white to cream @-@ colored spore print . The spores are spherical or nearly so , and typically measure 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 0 by 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 5 µm . They are inamyloid , meaning that they will not absorb iodine stain from Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored ( rarely two @-@ spored ) , and measure 25 – 44 by 10 – 14 µm . The sterigmata ( slender extensions at the basidial tips that attach to the spores ) are 3 – 4 µm long , and clamps are not found on the bases of basidia .
Although the edibility or toxicity of the mushroom is not known with certainty , it has been reported to cause " neurological symptoms " in mice , as well as increased levels of blood glucose and decreased blood urea nitrogen . Other biochemical changes reported
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uphin Island , Alabama . Damages from the flooding amounted to $ 100 @,@ 000 . The remnant circulation of Dean , after lingering off the Pacific Coast , moved inland by Santa Barbara , California , and brought heavy thunderstorms and localized flooding to coastal Southern California on the morning of August 26 . The remnants crossed the Mojave Desert on the morning of August 27 . Las Vegas , received a daily record of 0 @.@ 58 in ( 15 mm ) of rain , with flash flooding and minor damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite Dean 's significant damage , it did not have severe effects on infrastructure , and the non @-@ agricultural sectors of most affected nations recovered quickly . Most cruise lines diverted their ships away from the Western Caribbean in anticipation of Hurricane Dean 's passage , though by August 27 all were back on schedule , except those with damaged ports in Belize and the Yucatán . The Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles were especially quick to resume servicing cruise lines , as their ports opened within days .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Although Hurricane Dean was only a Category 2 hurricane when its northern eyewall passed over Martinique , the wind and widespread flooding destroyed 70 % of the island 's sugar cane crop and all of its banana crop , valued at € 400 million or 10 % of GDP . Remarkably the tourism industry withstood the storm well ; only a few hotels reported minor damage and the airport opened the day after the hurricane . Other than landscaping damage , all of the island 's hotels were fully functional by the end of August .
The French Overseas Minister , Christian Estrozy and French Prime Minister , Francois Fillon visited French Caribbean island to assess the storm 's damage . They estimated the storm left 600 people homeless . The brevity of their visit prompted some of Martinique 's famous writers , including Edouard Glissant , Patrick Chamoiseau and Raphael Confiant , to write an open letter airing their grievances concerning French politics and the handling of Hurricane Dean 's impact .
Francois Fillon then visited Guadaloupe and brought with him a team of experts from the Ministry of the Interior to assess the nature and cost of the damage . The local government reported to them that 75 % of Guadeloupe 's banana plantations , valued at € 100 million , were totally destroyed . Despite promises by Overseas Minister Christian Estrosi that all problems would be resolved within three months , it took over six months to restart banana production , and several more to restore lost capacity . Other than the crop damage , the island suffered only minor wind and flooding damage , both of which were quickly repaired .
= = = Jamaica = = =
On August 24 Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller announced that her government would provide JA $ 225 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) in emergency assistance to the country 's agriculture sector . This aid was targeted at the country 's hardest @-@ hit parishes . She also announced a JA $ 500 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 1 million ) programme to provide grants and low @-@ interest loans for emergency housing repairs . Temporary tarpaulins were also provided to patch roofs at no cost .
The World Food Program immediately placed 5 @,@ 500 Jamaicans on complementary food assistance , a daily ration of 1900 kJ ( 450 kcal ) of High Energy Biscuits , for two weeks . Within three days US $ 398 @,@ 000 of pre @-@ prepared United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) emergency supplies arrived on the island . The airlift was composed mostly of mattresses , blankets , plastic sheeting , hygiene kits and water containers . The Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) provided a US $ 200 @,@ 000 grant to support the relief effort and the Chinese Red Cross , despite dealing with Typhoon Sepat , sent US $ 30 @,@ 000 to its Jamaican counterpart for the purchase of emergency relief supplies .
In December , four months after the hurricane struck the island , the World Bank 's Board of Directors approved a US $ 10 million emergency loan . World Bank Director for the Caribbean and the Jamaican Finance Minister negotiated a 17 @-@ year repayment plan , and endowed the money into the Jamaica Hurricane Dean Emergency Recovery Project . The Jamaica Social Investment Fund , which was charged with implementing the project , used the money to " rebuild and support schools , health centers , and community and farm roads affected by the hurricane " . The Hurricane Dean Emergency Recovery Project finally kicked off in June 2008 , with the issuance of rural road repair contracts valued at JA $ 37 million ( US $ 520 @,@ 000 ) .
By the end of the summer on 2008 , banana production in Jamaica was returning to pre @-@ Dean levels . With the help of JA $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 15 @.@ 5 million ) of aid from the EU 's Banana Support Programme , thousands of acres were replanted . Banana chips were the first products ready for export at the beginning of the summer , with fresh banana production following shortly thereafter .
= = = Mexico = = =
Although Dean 's landfall in Mexico occurred in a relatively uninhabited area and the storm 's well @-@ predicted track gave ample warning , the storm inflicted extreme damage . In Majahual , the only town to experience the full force of the hurricane , hundreds of buildings were destroyed . Quintana Roo Governor Félix González Canto reported that although the cleanup in the state capital of Chetumal was completed within three weeks , it took more than six months to fix all of the region 's more rural roads . Unable to handle the hurricane 's aftermath , the state government appealed to federal authorities for aid . Together , they established a housing @-@ repair fund which contributed to the reconstruction of over 37 @,@ 000 residences .
The cruise port of Puerto Costa Maya was severely damaged , causing Carnival Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruises , the world 's two largest cruise operators , to divert away from the port until at least 2009 . The Mexican government was quick to fund rebuilding of the destroyed concrete piers which , by June 2008 , were rebuilt to accommodate even larger ships than before .
The federal government was initially lauded for its swift and thorough preparation to which most observers , including the United Nations , attributed Dean 's low death toll . However , after the storm there were several accusations of political motivation in the distribution of aid . Members of President Felipe Calderón 's Partido Accion Nacional ( PAN ) distributed bags of bread , funded by the nation 's disaster relief coffers , carrying the party 's logo . In Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera was accused by both the PAN and his own Partido Revolucionario Institucional ( PRI ) of using state resources , including hurricane relief , to support the campaigns of PRI candidates .
= = = Retirement = = =
As the first Category 5 landfalling hurricane in 15 years , and due to its widespread impact , the name Dean was officially retired on May 13 , 2008 by the World Meteorological Organization during its annual meeting in Orlando , Florida , and will not be used for a future Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced by Dorian on List V of the Atlantic hurricane naming lists , which was used in the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = In Literature = =
Hurricane Dean featured prominently in the travel novel Chasing Dean by Welsh surf / travel writer Tom Anderson . The book is an account of surfing America 's hurricane states and the swell produced by Hurricane Dean .
= The Fountain =
The Fountain is a 2006 American epic drama film that blends elements of fantasy , history , spirituality , and science fiction . It is directed by Darren Aronofsky , and stars Hugh Jackman and Rachel Weisz . The film consists of three story lines , in which Jackman and Weisz play different sets of characters who may or may not be the same two people : a modern @-@ day scientist and his cancer @-@ stricken wife , a conquistador and his queen , and a space traveler in the future who hallucinates his lost love . The story lines — interwoven with use of match cuts and recurring visual motifs — reflect the themes of love and mortality .
Aronofsky originally planned to direct The Fountain on a $ 70 million budget with Brad Pitt and Cate Blanchett in the lead roles , but Pitt 's withdrawal and cost overruns led Warner Bros. to shut down production . The director rewrote the script to be sparser , and was able to resurrect the film with a $ 35 million budget with Jackman and Weisz in the lead roles . Production mainly took place on a sound stage in Montreal , Quebec , and the director used macro photography to create key visual effects for The Fountain at a low cost .
The film was released theatrically in the United States and Canada on November 22 , 2006 . It grossed $ 10 @,@ 144 @,@ 010 in the United States and Canada and $ 5 @,@ 761 @,@ 344 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 15 @,@ 978 @,@ 422 . Critics ' reactions to the film were divided , but it has gained a large cult following since its release .
= = Plot = =
At its core , The Fountain is the story of a 21st @-@ century doctor , Tom Creo ( Hugh Jackman ) , losing his wife Izzi ( Rachel Weisz ) to cancer in 2005 . As she is dying , Izzi begs Tom to share what time they have left together , but he is focused on his quest to find a cure for her .
While he 's working in the lab , she writes a story about 16th century Queen Isabella losing her territory to the Inquisition while her betrothed , conquistador Tomás Verde plunges through the Central America forest in Mayan territory , searching for the Tree of Life for his Queen .
Since she does not have time herself , Izzi asks Tom to finish the story for her . As they look out to the stars , she imagines that their souls will meet there when the star dies . And we see space traveler Tommy , travelling there for the event , in a spaceship made of an enclosed biosphere containing the Tree of Life .
The three story lines are told nonlinearly , each separated by five centuries . The three periods are interwoven with match cuts and recurring visual motifs ; Hugh Jackman and Rachel Weisz play the main characters for all three narratives . Even within a given narrative , the elements of that particular story are not told in chronological order .
Whether these stories are actual events , or symbolic , is not clarified ; and , director Darren Aronofsky emphasized that the storylines in their time periods and their respective convergences were open to interpretation . The director has said of The Fountain 's intricacy and underlying message , " [ The film is ] very much like a Rubik 's Cube , where you can solve it in several different ways , but ultimately there 's only one solution at the end . " In a 2012 interview , Aronofsky stated that " ultimately the film is about coming to terms with your own death " .
= = = Tomás the conquistador = = =
The film opens with conquistador Tomás Verde in New Spain fighting a horde of Mayans to gain entry into a pyramid , where he is attacked by a Mayan priest with a flaming sword . Through flashbacks , it is revealed that the conquistador has been commissioned by Queen Isabella of Spain to travel to the New World in search of the Biblical Tree of Life . If Tomás can find it , she is convinced that she can put an end to the struggle between herself and an influential cleric during the Spanish Inquisition who is attempting to usurp the throne . Isabella vows to wed Tomás upon his return , citing a correlation with Adam and Eve . When Tomás arrives at his destination , he finds that his fellow knights are exhausted and refuse to continue searching for the Tree of Life . A Franciscan monk discovers the location of the temple , but is accidentally killed while Tomás represses the mutiny amongst his officers . As the priest dies , he gives Tomás a ceremonial dagger and directs him towards the pyramid . Once he arrives at the pyramid , Tomás and his men are ambushed and Tomás is captured . He is forced to the top of the pyramid , and engages in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with a Mayan priest . Tomás is stabbed in the stomach , but just as the priest is about to kill him , a vision of Tommy appears before him . The priest believes Tomás is the " First Father " , apologizes and asks Tomás to sacrifice him by slitting his throat . Tomás kills the priest and proceeds to a garden with a large tree ; convinced this is the Tree of Life , Tomás applies some of its sap to his torso and is cured of his stab wound . He drinks the sap flowing from the bark . But in a reenactment of the Mayan creation myth told earlier in the film , flowers and grass burst forth from his body and he literally gives rise to new life .
= = = Tom the neuroscientist = = =
Tom Creo is a doctor working on a cure using samples of the " Tree of Life " , found through exploration in Central America , which are being tested for medicinal use for degenerative brain diseases in his lab in 2005 . He is motivated by his wife Izzi 's brain tumor , which has caused a rapid decline in her health . Izzi has used this time to assess the meaning of life and come to terms with her mortality , but Tom refuses to accept that she might die and has increasingly resolved to find a cure . She has written a book which apparently tells the story of Tomás the conquistador , but when she collapses at a museum , she becomes convinced that she won 't live long enough to finish the book and asks Tom to write the final chapter . She dies shortly thereafter and Tom dedicates himself to curing not only her disease , but death itself . His colleagues fear that this drive has made him reckless , but they try to support him emotionally at Izzi 's funeral . As a final act of love and devotion , Tom plants a sweetgum seed at Izzi 's grave in the manner of a story she told him relating how a Mayan guide 's dead father lived on in a tree nourished by the organic nutrients of the buried body .
= = = Tommy the space traveler = = =
The narrative for Tommy is set entirely in deep space in a small , self @-@ contained biosphere bubble . Jackman 's character in this plot is alone , flying in outer space toward the golden nebula of Xibalba with a large tree and a few personal effects inside his ship . While traveling , he meditates , performs t 'ai chi , grows mushrooms and cuts pieces of bark from the tree for nourishment . He also converses with apparitions of Izzi from 2005 . It is implied that the tree within the biosphere represents Izzi and that Tommy has been transporting it to Xibalba with the hope that her life will be restored . Tommy is also shown to have applied extensive , incremental tattooed patterns to both of his arms ; it is implied that the tattoos mark the passage of time on his journey .
At the climax of the film , to Tommy 's horror the tree suddenly dies . A final apparition of Izzi from 2005 appears , comforting Tommy in the face of his imminent death and suggesting that they may share an afterlife together . He finally understands and accepts his death , moments before the star goes supernova , engulfing the ship and everything within . The traveler 's body is incinerated , but the tree is brought flowering back to life . Izzi 's apparition picks a fruit from the new tree and hands it to Tom , the present @-@ day neuroscientist , who plants it in Izzi 's grave .
= = Themes = =
Darren Aronofsky described the core of the film as " a very simple love story " about a man and a woman in love , with the woman dying young . The director researched people who were dying young , and learned from doctors and caregivers that such patients find new ways of coping . Aronofsky observed that the patients often die more alone because their families cannot recognize what happens with them , calling it " an incredible tragedy " :
Instead of facing this tragedy in terror , she is coming to terms with what is happening to her ... Many patients actually start opening up to the possibility of what 's happening to them , but there 's very little vocabulary to help them deal ... We decided to expand it with this woman [ Izzi ] offering a gift to her husband of a metaphor that tells him where she 's come to . Hopefully through time he 'll be able to understand it and basically get where she is .
The Fountain 's theme of fear of death is " a movement from darkness into light , from black to white " that traces the journey of a man scared of death and moving toward it . The film begins with a paraphrase of Genesis 3 : 24 , the Biblical passage that reflects The Fall of Man . Hugh Jackman emphasized the importance of the Fall in the film : " The moment Adam and Eve ate of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil , humans started to experience life as we all experience it now , which is life and death , poor and wealthy , pain and pleasure , good and evil . We live in a world of duality . Husband , wife , we relate everything . And much of our lives are spent not wanting to die , be poor , experience pain . It 's what the movie 's about . " Aronofsky also interpreted the story of Genesis as the definition of mortality for humanity . He inquired of the Fall , " If they had drank from the Tree of Life [ instead of the Tree of Knowledge ] what would have separated them from their maker ? So what makes us human is actually death . It 's what makes us special . "
Aronofsky 's sensibility can be placed between Kubrick 's exploration of humanity , and Spielberg 's emotionality as he " combines elements of Kubrick ’ s excess visible in the human condition and leading us toward the limit of existence in obsession or madness , and of Spielberg ’ s emotion and the wish to leave a ray of hope , regardless of how hopeless the situation might be . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Darren Aronofsky sought to produce The Fountain after the release of Requiem for a Dream in 2000 . In April 2001 , he entered negotiations with Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow to direct the then @-@ untitled film with actor Brad Pitt in the lead role . Requiem for a Dream was screened for Pitt , and the preliminary script for The Fountain persuaded the actor to join the project . Aronofsky prepared for production by traveling with a crew to Central America to consult with Mayan experts and to explore the Mexican ruins of Palenque . The group also visited Tikal , a jungle location featured in the 1977 film Star Wars . In addition to the trip , the films Aguirre , the Wrath of God and The Holy Mountain were screened for the crew to inspire it in designing a rainforest set for The Fountain . In June 2001 , actress Cate Blanchett entered talks to join Aronofsky 's project . Aronofsky , who wanted the film 's actual title to be a secret , gave the project the working title of The Last Man . Production was postponed to improve the script and to wait for Blanchett , pregnant when she joined , to give birth to her child in December 2001 . The start date for production was tentatively set in summer 2002 .
In June 2002 , Warner Bros. met with Aronofsky and producer Eric Watson , expressing concerns over an escalating budget and threatening to cease the project unless a co @-@ financier was found . Watson petitioned independent production companies for support and was able to enlist Regency Enterprises for assistance . Production was ultimately set for late October 2002 in Queensland and Sydney , Australia . The film , officially titled The Fountain , was ' greenlit ' ( approved for production ) with a budget of $ 70 million , co @-@ financed by Warner Bros. and New Regency , who filled the gap after Village Roadshow withdrew from the project . Preparation for production of The Fountain cost $ 18 million . Abruptly , Pitt , whose requested screenplay revisions were not met , left the project seven weeks before the first day of shooting . The actor went on to star as Achilles in director Wolfgang Petersen 's Troy . With the studio threatening to shut down the project , Aronofsky sent the script to actor Russell Crowe as a potential replacement for Pitt . However , Crowe , worn out from recently completing Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World , declined . In September 2002 , Jeff Robinov , President of Production at Warner Bros. Pictures , announced that The Fountain would cease production , with Blanchett receiving compensation for her time and the Australian crew being fired from the halted project . Sets built for the production of the film , including a 10 @-@ story Mayan temple , were eventually auctioned off , in addition to props and other items . Pitt said that he was disappointed to leave and added , " I remain encouraged that The Fountain will yet have its day . "
Aronofsky began to develop other films . When he looked over the books he used to research for The Fountain , he decided to return to The Fountain , feeling closer to it creatively than the other possible projects . Without a studio and an actor , he decided to write a " no @-@ budget " version of the film , using his experiences filming Pi and Requiem for a Dream with small budgets . In February 2004 , Warner Bros. resurrected Aronofsky 's project and began to court actor Hugh Jackman to replace Pitt in the lead role . The film received a second greenlight with a budget of $ 35 million , in part because of the director 's willingness to leave costly set pieces out of the screenplay . In August , actress Rachel Weisz joined Hugh Jackman for the film , filling the vacancy left by Blanchett . Filming lasted 60 days in early 2005 and took place mainly on a sound stage in Montreal .
= = = Writing = = =
Darren Aronofsky and his friend Ari Handel created the story for The Fountain , and Aronofsky wrote the screenplay . When Aronofsky saw The Matrix in 1999 , he considered it a film that redefined the science fiction genre . He sought to make a science fiction film that would explore new territory in the genre like The Matrix and its predecessors Star Wars and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Aronofsky had in mind a science fiction film that would go beyond the other films whose plots were driven by technology and science . The director said , " We 've seen it all . It 's not really interesting to audiences anymore . The interesting things are the ideas ; the search for God , the search for meaning . "
In 1999 , when Aronofsky turned 30 years old , his parents were diagnosed with cancer . He began reflecting on human mortality , " That was a really heavy @-@ duty emotional time . I know it 's a very young age , but turning thirty marks when your twenties are over and you could start considering , ' Wow , one of these days I 'm actually going to die . ' " While his parents overcame cancer , he began to focus on the concept of a young man saving a loved one from a life @-@ threatening disease . He shared the concept with Handel , his undergraduate school roommate at Harvard University . Handel earned a Ph.D in neuroscience from New York University but was uncertain about a future in neuroscience . He recalled the discussion , " Darren and I just started talking about the story . We kept wanting to talk more about it as the story kept getting bigger . I decided to make some life choices to continue working with Darren , because it was so much fun . "
The director relied on a change of locale to inspire him to write Pi and Requiem for a Dream . For The Fountain , Aronofsky was inspired by a research trip he took to Guatemala with Handel to learn about Mayan history and philosophy . The script for The Fountain was influenced by the accounts of Uruguayan journalist Eduardo Galeano , who wrote examples of myth from an indigenous perspective , particularly Galeano 's Genesis trilogy . The film Once Upon a Time in America also served as an influence on the script . Aronofsky , influenced by Bernal Díaz del Castillo 's The Conquest of New Spain , applied the narrative in writing the film 's conquistador scenes .
Aronofsky realized that since writing in 2000 the battle scene between the armies of Mayans and conquistadors , The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , Troy , King Arthur , and other films had featured massive battle scenes . He felt less inclined to mimic the scale and rewrote the battle to be mainly between Jackman 's conquistador character and the Mayans . The director realized that , with one man against the army , the rewrite was a suitable metaphor for his film 's theme of a man defying odds to do the impossible and conquer death .
The filmmakers researched space travel and Mayan culture , including its history , religion , and spirituality . They attended brain surgeries with the actors . With the research in place , Aronofsky said , " We decided which things we wanted to be purely factual and which things we wanted to bend . " The director did not strive to be historically accurate with the various time periods , perceiving the entire film as a setting of a fairy tale . He said , " It was more about painting a relationship between a queen and her warrior , and just using that for more fantasy reasons . "
= = = Casting = = =
Aronofsky saw Hugh Jackman perform as Peter Allen in the Broadway musical The Boy from Oz and was impressed with his performance . The director met with Jackman , who sought " a role that could show a lot of dimension , " and cast him into the lead role in The Fountain . Jackman starred previously as the muscular character Wolverine in the X @-@ Men films , so for The Fountain , he exercised to adopt a slimmer figure . Jackman practiced t 'ai chi for seven months to demonstrate it in a 30 @-@ second scene . He also practiced yoga for over a year to achieve the lotus position for scenes set in space . For these scenes when he is seen in the position in mid @-@ air , he was immersed in a swimming pool and harnessed to a rig that rotated him 360 degrees so his clothes floated freely about him .
Jackman also watched a woman undergo brain tumor surgery and was shaken to see the woman have similar blond hair to his wife : " All I could think of was my wife on that table . As much as I 'd read the script and theorized and practiced philosophy , I knew in that moment that I was so not ready for death . " For his various characters , the actor assumed a different posture for each persona . As the conquistador , Jackman was upright and forward @-@ leaning to evoke an unstoppable nature . As the scientist , the actor hunched over with a dedicated focus on his character 's work , being weighed down by the " world on his shoulders . " As the space traveler , Jackman practiced the state of zen but also exhibited a continued persistence in his endeavor .
Jackman suggested that Aronofsky cast Rachel Weisz as his character 's wife . The director , who was in a relationship with the actress , had originally hesitated to show the studio signs of favoritism in casting Weisz . With Jackman 's earnest recommendation , the actress was cast as Izzi / Isabel . For her role , Weisz read books and first @-@ person accounts about people who had terminal illnesses . The actress also visited hospitals to see young people who were dying and under hospice care . " There were a few days where I was in the headspace where I could say : ' I could go now ' , " said Weisz .
The Fountain also stars Ellen Burstyn as Dr. Lillian Guzetti , Tom 's superior , and Mark Margolis as Father Avila , who accompanies Tomás the conquistador . Burstyn and Margolis appeared in Aronofsky 's Requiem for a Dream , and the director wrote into the script roles for both of them . Sean Patrick Thomas , Donna Murphy , and Ethan Suplee were cast as assistants to Tom 's lab work . Cliff Curtis was cast as Captain Ariel , a fellow conquistador , and Stephen McHattie was cast as Grand Inquisitor Silecio , a religious fanatic who threatens the Spanish queen . Seventy extras were cast as Maya warriors , including twenty who had actual Guatemala Mayan backgrounds . One of the twenty , a real @-@ life spiritual leader , was cast as the Maya spiritual leader in the film .
= = = Design = = =
The film 's locations , with the exception of scenes filmed at a museum and at a farmhouse , were built on the Montreal sound stage . Production designer James Chinlund and his crew built sets for The Fountain in a large warehouse in Montreal . The sets included the 16th century jungle settings and the bubble @-@ shaped spacecraft containing the tree of life and its garden . The spacecraft set was placed against greenscreen , and the crew hung colored reflective material , which included green , black , gold , and silver , on three circular tracks around the set . One material would be moved into place instead of the heavy equipment , and with the other materials partitioned off , a light source was used with the preferred material . Silver was used for scenes in which the spacecraft moved through the stars , and gold was used for when it entered the nebula .
In The Fountain , the Tree of Life was a central design and part of the film 's three periods . The tree was based on Kabbalah 's Sefirot , which depicts a " map " of creation to understand the nature of God and how he created the world ex nihilo ( out of nothing ) . The Sefirot Tree , being two to three hundred feet tall in lore , had to be resized for The Fountain to fit in the camera 's frame . Pieces of driftwood and pieces from real trees in Canada were collected for the tree 's branches and roots , and sculpted molds of the pieces were applied to a steel frame to create the tree 's body . According to production designer James Chinlund , the tree , part of an enormous set surrounded by green screens , and other sets presented difficult logistical problems because of the small budget given to the resurrected project . The tree set itself had been a collaboration between Chinlund , Aronofsky , and cinematographer Matthew Libatique to create the appropriate design , particularly the palette in comparison to the biospheric ship that carries the tree in the astronaut period . Aronofsky described the astronaut period as a homage to David Bowie 's " Space Oddity " ; the protagonist 's name " Tom " originating from the Major Tom of the popular song . Co @-@ writer Ari Handel researched biospherics , such as the Biosphere 2 , to help design the ship that carried the protagonist and the tree through space . With respect to the glass @-@ sphered ship 's design , Aronofsky argued , " There is no reason a spaceship would be built like a giant truck in space . "
Aronofsky and cinematographer Matthew Libatique also discussed using a limited palette of colors , an approach that started with Aronofsky 's Pi and continued with Requiem for a Dream . In The Fountain , the primary colors are gold and white . Gold represents " the Mayans , a sort of fool 's gold , a false truth " ; Aronofsky explained the choice , " When you see gold , it represents materialism and wealth and all these things that distract us from the true journey that we 're on . " White was chosen to represent mortality and truth . Weisz 's characters are white , and wear white or are enveloped in white light to accentuate this presentation . Secondary colors are green , representing the color of life , and red , representing death . The director also used similar geometric constructs in the film to distinguish the three storylines . The 16th century conquistador 's tale reflected triangles through pyramids and constellations , the 21st century researcher 's period reflected rectangles through doors , windows , and computer screens , and the 26th century contemplative 's journey reflected circles and spheres through the spacecraft and stellar bodies .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Cinematographer Matthew Libatique shot The Fountain under Aronofsky 's direction . Libatique , who worked with Aronofsky throughout the 1990s , prepared for over a year for The Fountain when Aronofsky tried to produce the film for the first time . When production restarted on a smaller budget , Libatique felt that the more budget @-@ conscious approach resulted in a better film , " I think the streamlining of the film helped us tell the story more effectively . It 's been stripped down to its core , to what it 's really about : a search for immortality , when the truth of life is mortality . "
Aronofsky planned to have a strong presentation of the thematic movement from darkness into light . He originally sought to show only a silhouette of the man until the second of the film 's three acts , but he chose not to be so extreme , wanting to be more communicative to the audience . The movement was presented less aggressively in the film ; Jackman 's characters are seen in silhouette at the beginning , kept out of key light . In each of the three periods , the lighting on Jackman 's characters is initially dim and gradually grows brighter as the storylines unfold . Meanwhile , Weisz 's characters are frequently awash with light in the storylines . Libatique described the metaphoric change of the lighting on Jackman 's characters , " We follow the arc of the Thomas character as he gets closer and closer to the truth . "
Aronofsky preferred to use one camera whenever possible , only using a second camera if the scene was more about the setting and could be shot from two distinctly different axes . Libatique said Aronofsky preferred the eyeline match , " Darren is big on eyelines , and if you sacrifice an eyeline on an angle , he feels it nullifies the shot and de @-@ emphasizes the performances . " Aronofsky originally intended to have Jackman 's characters always moving in an " unusual " left @-@ to @-@ right direction across the frame , but the plan was complicated by the spacecraft needing to move upward toward a light source .
= = = Visual effects = = =
When production restarted in 2005 , there was a more budget @-@ conscious approach to filming The Fountain , whose original budget was mostly intended for visual effects . Libatique reflected , " Visual effects comprised of a lot of the budget in the original conception . The popcorn moments were in there to justify the budget and bring target audiences into the theater . Ultimately , I think the streamlining of the film helped us tell the story more effectively . It 's been stripped down to the core , to what it 's really about : a search for immortality , when the truth of life is mortality . I think at the end of the day , the theme of the film will be easier to feel . "
To create a death scene , Aronofsky drew from Mayan mythology the description of flowers and butterflies emerging from the bodies of valiant warriors when they die . Aronofsky excluded butterflies from the death scene to minimize the film 's computer @-@ generated imagery but kept the effect of flowers bursting from the body .
Jeremy Dawson and Dan Schrecker , who had provided visual effects for Darren Aronofsky 's π and Requiem for a Dream , returned to The Fountain to help the director with the film 's effects . The pair was assigned the task of creating as little computer @-@ generated imagery as possible , a difficult task with a third of the film taking place in deep space . Aronofsky chose to avoid effects that would make the film look dated in several decades but instead hold up as well as a film like 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Dawson said , " Using CG is really the easy route because it 's so prevalent and the tools are great . What it did was really force us to come up with creative solutions to solve a lot of our problems . "
One creative solution was uncovering Peter Parks , a specialist in macro photography , who had retrieved deep @-@ sea microorganisms and photographed them in 3 @-@ D under partial funding from the Bahamas government . Parks brewed chemicals and bacteria together to create reactions that Schrecker and Dawson shot , recording 20 @,@ 000 feet worth of film over eight weeks . To create the effects , Peter Parks took advantage of fluid dynamics , which affected the behavior of the substances that he photographed . " When these images are projected on a big screen , you feel like you 're looking at infinity . That 's because the same forces at work in the water — gravitational effects , settlement , refractive indices — are happening in outer space , " Parks said . The specialist 's talent convinced the film 's creative department to go beyond computer @-@ generated imagery and follow Parks ' lead . Instead of millions of dollars for a single special effects sequence , Parks generated all the footage for the film for just $ 140 @,@ 000 .
The visual @-@ effects company Look Effects worked on 87 shots for The Fountain that included major set extensions , digital mattes , image enhancement , face replacement and blemish removal , as well as animating key elements to the film 's story . Henrik Fett , the visual effects supervisor of Look Effects , said , " Darren was quite clear on what he wanted and his intent to greatly minimize the use of computer graphics ... [ and ] I think the results are outstanding . "
= = = Music = = =
Clint Mansell — the composer for Aronofsky 's previous films Pi and Requiem for a Dream — reprised his role for The Fountain . The San Francisco @-@ based string quartet Kronos Quartet — who previously performed for the Requiem for a Dream soundtrack — and Scottish post @-@ rock band Mogwai also contributed to the film score . Mansell researched possible scores to compose one tying together the three storylines and sought to have an organic feeling to the score and explored implementing orchestral and electronic elements that would have " a real human element to them that breathes . " While reading the script , Mansell was reminded of the post @-@ rock music of Mogwai as well as Godspeed You ! Black Emperor and Sigur Rós and initially planned a score based around percussion before adding the string quartet and choir . The soundtrack was released by Nonesuch Records in 2006 and received numerous award nominations .
= = Marketing = =
When Warner Bros. shut down pre @-@ production of The Fountain in 2002 , Aronofsky reserved rights to publish a graphic novel based on the script that was not produced . He said , " I knew it was a hard film to make , and I said at least if Hollywood fucks me over at least I 'll make a comic book out of it . " He shopped the story to Vertigo Comics and met comic book artist Kent Williams , whose illustrations impressed him . Aronofsky hired Williams to create the graphic novel , and Ari Handel , co @-@ writer for the film , provided Williams with research , photographs , and images on " Mayans , astronomy , pulsars , and all kinds of cool stuff " for the graphic novel 's design . Aronofsky gave Williams the freedom to interpret the story as the artist saw fit .
The Fountain was originally scheduled to be released on October 13 , 2006 , but the film was delayed to create a " long @-@ lead campaign " and generate anticipation via word of mouth . The release date was ultimately set for November 22 , 2006 . Aronofsky shared his screenplay with eleven artists : Phil Hale , Martin Wilner , Jason Shawn Alexander , Kostas Seremetis , Dave Gibbons , Barron Storey , James Jean , Jim Lee , Olivier Bramanti , Seth Fisher , and Bill Sienkiewicz . He invited them to interpret the screenplay in each one 's chosen medium , and the interpretations were intended to be available on the film 's website . Aronofsky also published a book about the film that contained production stills , the original script , original art , and observations by the film 's creators . The content and research agency Ramp Industry launched The Fountain Remixed , an official website driven by user @-@ generated content . Users could download freely provided audio parts from The Fountain 's film score , remix the music , and upload the work onto the website to be evaluated by other users .
= = Release = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film had its world premiere at the 63rd Venice Film Festival on September 2 , 2006 . Several critics booed The Fountain at the festival 's press screening , while the film received a 10 @-@ minute standing ovation at the public screening the following evening . The Fountain was released in 1 @,@ 472 theaters in the United States and Canada on November 22 , 2006 , a day before the American Thanksgiving holiday . The film earned $ 3 @,@ 768 @,@ 702 in the U.S. and Canadian box office during the opening weekend of November 24 . The Fountain earned $ 10 @,@ 144 @,@ 010 in the United States and Canada , and $ 5 @,@ 761 @,@ 344 in other territories . The film , which had a production budget of $ 35 million , grossed $ 15 @,@ 978 @,@ 422 in theaters worldwide . The box @-@ office performance was considered a flop with the film only earning back 54 % of its budget .
The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 51 % of 187 critics gave the film positive reviews and that it got a rating average of 5 @.@ 9 out of 10 . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 51 based on 36 reviews . Rotten Tomatoes reported of the critics ' consensus that the movie , " about metaphysics , universal patterns , Biblical symbolism , and boundless love spread across one thousand years — is visually rich but suffers from its own unfocused ambitions . " Newsweek reported how people received the film , " Its supporters admire the film 's beauty and daring ; its detractors find it overblown and hokey . "
Michael Atkinson , writing for Sight & Sound , reviewed Aronofsky 's endeavor , " It 's difficult to recall another American film that , in pursuing a passionate and personal vision , goes so maddeningly , uproariously wrong . " Atkinson said of the narrative , " The erratic and pointless leapfrogging between its storylines is torporific ... all three stories are assembled piecemeal , many of which repeat over and over as flashback and flashforwards . " He complained of the numerous motifs , " It 's difficult to swallow the amalgamation of Mayan , Biblical , Buddhist , Taoist and New Age iconography , all of it tossed as if into a stew . " In contrast , Glenn Kenny of Premiere wrote of the film , " The Fountain is probably the deftest stories @-@ within @-@ stories narrative film I 've seen ... By The Fountain 's end , the multilayered meta @-@ narrative ... resolves ( or does it ? ) into a kind of diegetic Möbius strip , to stunning effect . " Kenny called the film " as demanding as it is dazzling " and compared Aronofsky 's direction to Stanley Kubrick 's " in terms of conceptual audacity and meticulousness of execution . " He concluded , " It 's a movie that 's as deeply felt as it is imagined . "
Anthony Lane , reviewing for The New Yorker , called The Fountain " a gorgeous nimbus of confusion . " Lane complained about the film 's up @-@ close and far @-@ away shots , " What fails to concern or attract Aronofsky is the place where most of us hang out — the in @-@ between , the midshot of everyday existence . " He summarized , " The movie may have significant truths to impart , although I have my doubts , but it feels too inexperienced , too unworldly , to have earned the right to them . " Roger Ebert , who admired Aronofsky 's previous films , conceded in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times that The Fountain was " not a great success . " He identified the film 's issues : " too many screens of blinding lights , " " too many transitions for their own sake , " and " abrupt changes of tone . " He believed that the scaling down of the film from Aronofsky 's original ambition lost some elements and anticipated a director 's cut truer to Aronofsky 's vision .
In 2009 , Aronofsky reflected on the reception of The Fountain , " There are a lot of Fountain @-@ haters out [ at the Venice Film Festival ] . The film 's about the fact that it 's OK that we die , and we should come to terms with it . But many , many people don 't want to think about that , so why pay money for a meditation on losing someone you love ? Everything about western culture denies that . " He also believed the film was released at the wrong time , " It was pre @-@ Obama , smack in the middle of Paris Hilton time . But there has been a serious turn now , people are starting to realise that the party 's over , finally . So we can stop thinking about the culture of superficiality , start to remember there are other things going on . "
In the book Positive Psychology at the Movies : Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths , Ryan M. Niemiec and Danny Wedding cite the film as one which depicts the development of perspective . " [ Jackman 's character 's ] denial and work addiction are obstacles to the development of the strength of perspective , but he is able to confront those obstacles as he develops acceptances and wisdom , represented by themes drawn from both Buddhism ( meditation , rebirth , reincarnation ) and Christianity ( eternal life , faith , and love ) . "
It was listed as number 484 on Empire 's 500 Greatest films of all time .
= = = Home media = = =
The Fountain was released on DVD , HD DVD , and Blu @-@ ray in the United States on May 15 , 2007 . The included extras were the theatrical trailer and a six @-@ part featurette gallery about the film 's periods and settings . Aronofsky was disappointed with the limited extras available on home video . He reported that Warner Bros. did not want to have the director record a commentary track because it felt the commentary would not help sales . He hoped to petition for the film to be re @-@ released in the Criterion Collection with extras that were not made available on the initial media . Aronofsky recorded a commentary track on his own and made the track available on his personal website . In December 2008 , he expressed interest in reassembling The Fountain , not as a director 's cut , but as an alternate story that combined theatrical footage and unused footage .
= Willie Mitchell ( ice hockey ) =
William Reid Mitchell ( born April 23 , 1977 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who is currently an unrestricted free agent who most recently served as captain of the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is known primarily as a physical defensive defenceman . Mitchell played Junior A in the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) and Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League ( SJHL ) before joining the college ranks with the Clarkson Knights of ECAC Hockey in 1997 . He won an ECAC championship with Clarkson in 1999 , while also earning playoff MVP and ECAC First Team All @-@ Star honours .
Selected by the New Jersey Devils in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft , he played two seasons with the Albany River Rats of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) while earning limited playing time with the Devils over two seasons . In 2001 , he was traded to the Minnesota Wild where he played four seasons before a brief stint with the Dallas Stars . He signed with the Vancouver Canucks in the 2006 off @-@ season and was named the team 's top defenceman twice , in 2008 and 2009 . After four seasons in Vancouver , Mitchell signed with the Los Angeles Kings in August 2010 . While with Los Angeles , Mitchell won two Stanley Cups ( 2012 and 2014 ) before signing with the Florida Panthers in the 2014 off @-@ season .
Internationally , he has represented Team Canada once at the 2004 World Championships , capturing a gold medal .
= = Early life = =
Mitchell was born on April 23 , 1977 , to Reid and Nadija Mitchell . He has a sister named Chantal . His father works as a heavy @-@ duty mechanic with Western Forest Products , while his mother is a Croatian @-@ born immigrant who works as a terminal service agent for B.C. Ferries . Mitchell 's grandfather , Les Mitchell , played amateur senior hockey and once earned a tryout with the New York Rangers during the Original Six @-@ era .
Mitchell was born and raised in Port McNeill , British Columbia , a small logging town on Vancouver Island . He grew up working on the docks in his hometown unloading fish and cleaning equipment . He first began skating at the age of four and took figure skating . Growing up as a Vancouver Canucks fan , his father would take him across to the mainland to see games at the Pacific Coliseum . He played minor hockey as a winger with the North Island Eagles and won back @-@ to @-@ back double @-@ A provincial titles in pee wee and bantam with the club . At the age of 15 , he left home after being recruited to play for Athol Murray College of Notre Dame , a high school in Wilcox , Saskatchewan . It was there that he switched from wing to defence . He played with the Notre Dame Hounds ' midget team of the Saskatchewan Midget Hockey League ( SMHL ) and recorded 15 points over 31 games in 1993 – 94 . From there , he earned an athletic scholarship with Clarkson University in Potsdam , New York .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and college hockey ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
As a junior hockey player , Mitchell began in the BCHL with the Kelowna Spartans in 1994 – 95 , recording 11 points over 42 games . After one season with Kelowna , he joined the Melfort Mustangs of the SJHL . Following his first season with Melfort in 1995 – 96 , he was selected by the New Jersey Devils in the eighth round , 199th overall , in the 1996 NHL Entry Draft . He returned to Melfort for a second season and recorded 56 points in 64 games to earn the Top Defenceman Award and SJHL First All @-@ Star Team honours .
Beginning in 1997 – 98 , Mitchell began two seasons of college hockey with Clarkson University Golden Knights of the ECAC . In his freshman year , he recorded 26 points over 34 games , fourth among league defencemen , and was named co @-@ Rookie of the Year with Clarkson teammate Erik Cole . He also earned ECAC All @-@ Rookie and ECAC Second All @-@ Star honours . Clarkson advanced to the ECAC Tournament Final against Princeton University , but lost 5 – 4 in double overtime . The following season , Mitchell led all Golden Knights defencemen in scoring with 29 points ( 10 goals and 19 assists ) and a + 13 rating in 34 games . He finished the season with a league player of the week recognition on March 1 , 1999 . As Clarkson met Pricenton in the 1999 ECAC Semi @-@ final , Mitchell scored the game winning goal with a slap shot from centre ice with three seconds remaining in regulation . Clarkson went on to defeat St. Lawrence University 3 – 2 in the final to capture the ECAC championship . Mitchell earned tournament MVP honours and was also named to the ECAC First All @-@ Star Team and NCAA East Second All @-@ American Team .
= = = New Jersey Devils ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Following his sophomore season with Clarkson , Mitchell decided to forgo his final two seasons of college eligibility to turn professional in the New Jersey Devils system . He played the final six games of the 1998 – 99 AHL season with the Devils ' minor league affiliate , the Albany River Rats , registering a goal and three assists .
In his first Devils ' training camp in September 1999 , he broke a finger in his left hand during a fight in a rookie game against the Boston Bruins . The injury required three pins to set the finger in place . Although sidelined , the Devils signed him to a rookie contract in September 1999 . After recovering , he was assigned to the River Rats . Mitchell received a call @-@ up late in the season and made his NHL debut on March 27 , 2000 , in a 5 – 2 loss to the Toronto Maple Leafs . He stayed with the Devils for a week before being returned to the AHL . He finished the 1999 – 2000 season with 19 points over 63 games with the River Rats and no points in two games with the Devils .
The following season , Mitchell made the Devils ' opening lineup , but was a regular healthy scratch . After appearing in 11 games , he was returned to the AHL on November 22 , 2000 . He registered his first NHL point , an assist , during his initial stint . After injuries to Devils defencemen Scott Niedermayer and Brian Rafalski , Mitchell was recalled on February 10 , 2001 . The following month , after having been sent back down to the AHL , he was traded to the Minnesota Wild on March 4 , 2001 , in exchange for defenceman Sean O 'Donnell .
= = = Minnesota Wild and Dallas Stars ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
Following the trade , Mitchell became a full @-@ time NHLer , playing in 17 games with the Wild to finish the season . He completed his rookie NHL season with a goal and 10 assists over 33 games between the Devils and Wild . In his first full season with the Wild in 2001 – 02 , he recorded three goals and 13 points in 68 games , while earning $ 550 @,@ 000 from his initial rookie contract with the Devils . He missed 14 games due to three separate shoulder , groin and wrist injuries . Establishing himself as a top @-@ four defenceman on the team , paired with Brad Bombardir , Mitchell ranked third on the team in average ice time with 21 : 25 minutes per game . The following season , he improved to a third @-@ ranked plus @-@ 13 on the team after going – 16 the previous season . He went on to help the club make a run in the 2003 playoffs to the semi @-@ finals , leading the team with a + 5 rating in 18 post @-@ season games . He suffered a cheekbone injury during the first round against the Colorado Avalanche that required him to wear a fully visored helmet for the remainder of the playoffs . After defeating the Avalanche and Vancouver Canucks in the first two rounds , the Wild were eliminated in four games by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the semi @-@ finals .
In the off @-@ season , he was re @-@ signed to a one @-@ year contract by the Wild on August 11 , 2003 . He recorded 14 points over 70 games in 2003 – 04 , while leading the Wild with a + 12 rating and ranking second in average ice time at 22 : 35 minutes per game . Minnesota failed to qualify for the playoffs .
On June 30 , 2004 , the Wild tendered Mitchell a qualifying offer , but he later filed for arbitration on July 7 . The two sides avoided arbitration by agreeing on a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 775 million deal on August 12 , 2004 . However , due to the NHL lockout , Mitchell was inactive in 2004 – 05 . With NHL play set to resume for 2005 – 06 , he re @-@ signed with the Wild to another one @-@ year , $ 1 million contract on August 9 , 2005 . In December 2005 , he was named team captain as part of the Wild 's monthly rotating captaincy ( he was then succeeded by Brian Rolston in February 2006 ) .
At the 2005 – 06 NHL trade deadline , Mitchell was traded away to the Dallas Stars as a rental player in exchange for defencemen Martin Škoula and Shawn Belle on March 9 , 2006 . Mitchell closed the season playing 16 games and one playoff round with Dallas before becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2006 – 2010 ) = = =
On July 1 , 2006 , the Vancouver Canucks signed Mitchell to a four @-@ year , $ 14 million contract . Canucks General Manager Dave Nonis had previously attempted to acquire him at the previous season 's trade deadline before he was sent to Dallas . His acquisition as a free agent followed the signings of goaltender Roberto Luongo and Head Coach Alain Vigneault , which reflected an effort from Nonis to develop a defence @-@ first system .
Early in the 2006 – 07 season , Mitchell suffered a concussion on October 23 and missed nine games . He then missed 11 more games due to a recurring groin injury in February and March 2007 . He finished his first season with the Canucks recording a goal and 11 points in 62 games . His 4 : 57 minutes of average shorthanded ice time per game ranked third in the NHL behind Derian Hatcher and Adam Foote . He helped the team to the second round of the 2007 playoffs , where they were defeated by the Anaheim Ducks in five games .
During his second season with Vancouver , he missed ten games with a fractured vertebra . The injury was sustained on December 31 , 2007 , in a loss to the Calgary Flames , while trying to dodge a check . However , Mitchell continued to play with the injury for nine games afterwards . He recorded two goals and 12 points , while leading the team with 108 blocked shots and 1 @,@ 646 : 20 minutes in total ice time . At the end of the 2007 – 08 season , he was awarded his first Babe Pratt Trophy as the Canucks ' top defenceman .
With the departure of long @-@ time Canucks captain Markus Näslund to free agency in the 2008 off @-@ season , Mitchell was considered a leading candidate for captaincy . The Canucks instead appointed team MVP Roberto Luongo as the first goaltender to be a captain since 1947 – 48 on September 30 , 2008 . Mitchell was named alternate captain along with forward Ryan Kesler and defenceman Mattias Öhlund . Due to Luongo 's limitations as a goaltender , Mitchell was designated the captain 's traditional role of disputing calls by the officials and relaying messages to the coach .
During the subsequent 2008 – 09 season , Mitchell recorded career @-@ highs with three goals , 20 assists , 23 points and a team @-@ best + 29 rating , earning his second consecutive Babe Pratt Trophy . He added two assists and led all Canucks in average ice time at 24 : 12 minutes per game in the post @-@ season . He helped the Canucks advance to the second round , where they were eliminated by the Chicago Blackhawks in six games .
Early on in the 2009 – 10 season , Mitchell delivered an open @-@ ice hit that concussed Blackhawks captain Jonathan Toews in the two teams ' first game against each other since the 2009 playoffs . Mitchell had just exited the penalty box when he caught Toews with his head down receiving a pass in the neutral zone ; the hit was deemed legal as Mitchell checked Toews with his shoulder . Toews was sidelined for six games as a result . Later on in the season , Mitchell suffered a concussion himself , receiving a hit from opposing forward Evgeni Malkin , causing his head to hit the end boards , during a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins on January 16 . He was sidelined for the remainder of the season with post @-@ concussion syndrome , finishing with 12 points and a + 13 rating in 48 games .
Unsure if the injury had ended his career , Mitchell later recalled his subsequent recovery as " the toughest year of [ his ] life . " Not speaking to the media until after the Canucks were eliminated in the playoffs , he expressed criticism towards both Malkin for the hit resulting in his concussion and to NHL Senior Vice President Colin Campbell for not taking any disciplinary action . He denounced Campbell for being " inconsistent ... hand [ ing ] down suspensions and fines on result [ instead of the nature of a hit ] , " as Mitchell 's injury was not immediately apparent following the game .
Mitchell 's four @-@ year deal with the Canucks expired on July 1 , 2010 , and he became an unrestricted free agent . Mitchell was still involved in negotiations with Vancouver to re @-@ sign , but concerns over his head injury , as well as the new defensive acquisitions of Keith Ballard and Dan Hamhuis in the off @-@ season factored against the possibility of remaining with the Canucks .
= = = Los Angeles Kings ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
On August 25 , 2010 , Mitchell signed a two @-@ year deal worth $ 3 @.@ 5 million per season with the Los Angeles Kings . He had interest from several other teams , including the Washington Capitals and San Jose Sharks . The Canucks were also offering a one @-@ year contract between $ 1 @.@ 8 and $ 2 million , but were not willing to match the Kings ' deal . Mitchell expressed disappointment in leaving the Canucks , but stated he was " looking forward to going to a team which , I get the feeling , is really passionate about having me there . "
Mitchell began the season on a defensive pairing with Drew Doughty . Nearly a month into the campaign , he notched his first goal as a King , scoring short handed against the Dallas Stars in a 5 – 2 victory on October 28 , 2010 . In November 2010 , he sustained a wrist injury during a game against the Nashville Predators , sidelining him for 12 games . After recovering , he suffered a knee injury , keeping him from another 11 games . Later in the season , during a game against the Phoenix Coyotes , on March 3 , 2011 , Mitchell was hit in the face by a shot from opposing forward Kyle Turris , requiring 53 stitches . He did not miss any additional games , however . Mitchell finished the season with five goals and five assists over 57 games , ranking third in average ice time per contest with the Kings . He added a goal and an assist in six playoff games as the Kings were eliminated by the San Jose Sharks in the first round . On February 24 , 2012 , Mitchell signed a two @-@ year contract extension with the Kings . In the 2012 playoffs , Mitchell helped the Kings defeat the Vancouver Canucks in the first round , the St. Louis Blues in the semi @-@ finals ( winning four games straight ) and the Phoenix Coyotes in the Conference Finals . The Kings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time since 1993 and defeated the New Jersey Devils ; this also marked Mitchell 's first appearance in the Stanley Cup Final . Mitchell was the second player , after team captain Dustin Brown , to hoist the Cup after the win .
During the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Mitchell began having knee problems , requiring a first surgery to clean up debris and a second surgery after re @-@ injuring the knee during rehabilitation prior to the 2012 – 13 King 's training camp . Mitchell was out for the remainder of the 2012 – 13 season and questionable for the 2013 – 14 season .
Mitchell did return alongside Slava Voynov in the 2013 – 14 season . Mitchell missed a handful of games in the second round of the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs due to an injury , but returned to beat the Chicago Blackhawks in the Western Conference Finals and win his second Stanley Cup over the New York Rangers .
= = = Florida Panthers ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
With the Kings facing cap constraints , Mitchell was not retained as a free agent . On July 1 , 2014 , he signed a two @-@ year $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract with the Florida Panthers . On October 6 , 2014 , Mitchell was named the eighth captain in Florida Panthers history .
= = International play = =
Mitchell has made one international appearance for Canada in his career . After the Minnesota Wild failed to qualify for the 2004 playoffs , he was named to the national team for the 2004 World Championships in the Czech Republic . He was joined on the squad by Wild teammate Nick Schultz in the first group of players chosen by General Manager Jim Nill on April 5 , 2004 . Appearing in nine games , Mitchell helped Canada to a gold medal , defeating Sweden 5 – 3 in the final .
= = Playing style = =
Mitchell plays in the style of a stay @-@ at @-@ home defenceman . While with the Vancouver Canucks , he established himself as their top shutdown defenceman , being matched up against opposing teams ' best players and spending significant time on the penalty kill . He had usually formed a defensive pairing on the Canucks with the often offensive @-@ minded Kevin Bieksa . Bieksa has credited Mitchell with teaching him to be more aware of game situations before jumping into the rush .
In order to defend effectively , Mitchell opts to use a longer @-@ than @-@ usual hockey stick . Prior to a game against the Calgary Flames on February 17 , 2009 , opposing Head Coach Mike Keenan accused Mitchell of playing with an illegal hockey stick . Mitchell responded by asserting he uses the League maximum length at 63 inches .
Mitchell is also known for his leadership qualities , serving as an alternate captain on the Canucks . During his tenure with the Minnesota Wild , he was named captain once for the months of December 2005 and January 2006 as part of the Wild 's rotating captaincy system . At the start of the 2014 – 15 season , Mitchell was also named the captain of the Florida Panthers .
= = Personal life = =
Mitchell married Minnesota @-@ native Megan on August 17 , 2006 , in Napa Valley , California . They reside in the Yaletown neighbourhood in downtown Vancouver , while returning to Mitchell 's hometown of Port McNeill during the summer , where he fishes avidly .
Mitchell is an active philanthropist around the Port McNeill community . In 2004 , he hosted the first Willie Mitchell Classic , a celebrity golf tournament to raise scholarship funds for high school students around his hometown . He has also regularly donated game @-@ used equipment to fundraise for his former minor hockey team , the North Island Eagles .
In the summer of 2009 , Mitchell threw the first pitch at a Seattle Mariners game against the Toronto Blue Jays at Safeco Field in Seattle , Washington .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = SJHL = = =
= = = College = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= English Poor Laws =
The English Poor Laws were a system of poor relief which existed in England and Wales that developed out of late @-@ medieval and Tudor @-@ era laws being codified in 1587 – 98 . The Poor Law system was in existence until the emergence of the modern welfare state after the Second World War .
English Poor Law legislation can be traced back as far as 1536 , when legislation was passed to deal with the impotent poor , although there is much earlier Tudor legislation dealing with the problems caused by vagrants and beggars . The history of the Poor Law in England and Wales is usually divided between two statutes , the Old Poor Law passed during the reign of Elizabeth I and the New Poor Law , passed in 1834 , which significantly modified the existing system of poor relief . The later statute altered the Poor Law system from one which was administered haphazardly at a local parish level to a highly centralised system which encouraged the large @-@ scale development of workhouses by Poor Law Unions .
The Poor Law system fell into decline at the beginning of the 20th century owing to factors such as the introduction of the Liberal welfare reforms and the availability of other sources of assistance from friendly societies and trade unions , as well as piecemeal reforms which bypassed the Poor Law system . The Poor Law system was not formally abolished until the National Assistance Act 1948 , with parts of the law remaining on the books until 1967 .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval Poor Laws = = =
The earliest medieval Poor Law was the Ordinance of Labourers which was issued by King Edward III of England on 18 June 1349 , and revised in 1350 . The ordinance was issued in response to the 1348 – 1350 outbreak of the Black Death in England , when an estimated 30 – 40 % of the population had died . The decline in population left surviving workers in great demand in the agricultural economy of Britain . Landowners had to face the choice of raising wages to compete for workers or letting their lands go unused . Wages for labourers rose , and this forced up prices across the economy as goods became more expensive to produce . An attempt to rein in prices , the ordinance ( and subsequent acts , such the Statute of Labourers of 1351 ) required that everyone who could work did ; that wages were kept at pre @-@ plague levels and that food was not overpriced . Workers saw these shortage conditions as an opportunity to flee employers and become freemen , so Edward III passed additional laws to punish escaped workers . In addition , the Statute of Cambridge was passed in 1388 and placed restrictions on the movement of labourers and beggars .
= = = Tudor Poor Law = = =
The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced as far back as late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy but it was only during the Tudor period that the Poor Law system became codified . Monasteries , the primary source of poor relief , were dissolved by the Tudors Reformation causing poor relief to move from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level . Early legislation was concerned with vagrants and making the able @-@ bodied work , especially while labour was in short supply following the Black Death .
Tudor attempts to tackle the problem originate during the reign of Henry VII . In 1495 , Parliament passed the Vagabonds and Beggars Act ordering that " vagabonds , idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town . Every beggar suitable to work shall resort to the Hundred where he last dwelled , is best known , or was born and there remain upon the pain aforesaid . " No remedy to the problem of poverty was offered by this ; it was merely swept from sight , or moved from town to town . Moreover , no distinction was made between vagrants and the jobless ; both were simply categorised as " sturdy beggars " , to be punished and moved on .
In 1530 , during the reign of Henry VIII , a proclamation was issued , describing idleness as the " mother and root of all vices " and ordering that whipping should replace the stocks as the punishment for vagabonds . This change was confirmed in the 1531 Vagabonds Act the following year , with one important change : it directed the justices of the peace to assign to the impotent poor an area within which they are to beg . Generally , the licences to beg for the impotent poor were limited to the disabled , sick , and elderly . An impotent person begging out of his area was to be imprisoned for two days and nights in the stocks , on bread and water , and then sworn to return to the place in which he was authorized to beg . An able @-@ bodied beggar was to be whipped , and sworn to return to the place where he was born , or last dwelt for the space of three years , and there put himself to labour . Still no provision was made , though , for the healthy man simply unable to find work . All able @-@ bodied unemployed were put into the same category . Those unable to find work had a stark choice : starve or break the law . In 1535 , a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of public works to deal with the problem of unemployment , to be funded by a tax on income and capital . A law passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped .
In London , there was a great massing of the poor , and the Reformation threatened to eliminate some of the infrastructure used to provide for the poor . As a result , King Henry VIII consented to re @-@ endow St. Bartholomew 's Hospital in 1544 and St. Thomas ’ Hospital in 1552 on the condition that the citizens of London pay for their maintenance . However , the city was unable to raise enough revenue from voluntary contributions , so it instituted the first definite compulsory Poor Rate in 1547 which replaced Sunday collections in Church with a mandatory collection for the poor . In 1555 , London became increasingly concerned with the number of poor who could work , but yet could not find work , so it established the first House of Correction ( predecessor to the workhouse ) in the King ’ s Palace at Bridewell where poor could receive shelter and work at cap @-@ making , feather @-@ bed making , and wire drawing .
For the able @-@ bodied poor , life became even tougher during the reign of Edward VI . In 1547 , the Vagabonds Act was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law , namely two years servitude and branding with a " V " as the penalty for the first offence and death for the second . Justices of the Peace were reluctant to apply the full penalty. in 1552 , Edward VI passed a poor act which designated a position of " Collector of Alms " in each parish and created a register of licensed poor . Under the assumption that parish collections would now relieve all poor , begging was completely prohibited .
The government of Elizabeth I , Edward VI 's successor after Mary I , was also inclined to severity . An Act passed in 1572 called for offenders to be burned through the ear for a first offence and that persistent beggars should be hanged . However , the Act also made the first clear distinction between the " professional beggar " and those unemployed through no fault of their own . Early in her reign , Elizabeth I also passed laws directly aimed at providing relief for the poor . For example , in 1563 , her Act for the Relief of the Poor required all parish residents with ability to pay to contribute to poor collections . Those who “ of his or their forward willful mind shall obstinately refuse to give weekly to the relief of the poor according to his or their abilities ” could be bound over to justices of the peace and fined £ 10 . Additionally , the 1572 Vagabonds Act further enabled Justices of the Peace to survey and register the impotent poor , determine how much money was required for their relief , then assess parish residents weekly for the appropriate amount . Her 1575 Poor Act required towns to create “ a competent stock of wool , hemp , flax , iron and other stuff ” for the poor to work on and houses of correction for those who refused to work where recalcitrant or careless workers could be forced to work and punished accordingly .
The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and some provision for the " deserving poor " was eventually made in the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 . The more immediate origins of the Elizabethan Poor Law system were deteriorating economic circumstances in sixteenth @-@ century England . Historian George Boyer has stated that England suffered rapid inflation at this time caused by population growth , the debasement of coinage and the inflow of American silver . Poor harvests in the period between 1595 and 1598 causing the numbers in poverty to increase while charitable giving decreased after the dissolution of the Monasteries and religious guilds .
= = = A new colonial solution = = =
In the early 1580s , with the development of English colonization schemes , initially in Ireland and later in North America , a new method to alleviate the condition of the poor would be suggested and utilized considerably over time . Merchant and colonization proponent , George Peckham noted the then @-@ current domestic conditions ; " there are at this day great numbers which Hue in such penurie & want , as they could be content to hazard their Hues , and to serue one yeere for meat , drinke and apparell only , without wages , in hope thereby to amend their estates . " With this , he may have been the first to suggest what became the institution of indentured service . At the same time Richard Hakluyt , in his preface to Divers Voyages , likens English planters to " Bees ... led out by their Captaines to swarme abroad " ; he recommends " deducting " the poor out of the realm . Hakluyt also broadens the scope and additionally recommends to empty the prisons and send them off to the New World . By 1619 Virginia 's system of indentured service would be fully developed , and subsequent colonies would adopt the method with modifications suitable to their different conditions and times . English penal transportation would be implemented soon after , and evolve into a subsidized government endeavor with the Transportation Act 1717 .
= = = Old Poor Law = = =
The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 formalized earlier practices of poor relief contained in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 yet is often cited as the beginning of the Old Poor Law system . It created a system administered at parish level , paid for by levying local rates on rate payers . Relief for those too ill or old to work , the so @-@ called ' impotent poor ' , was in the form of a payment or items of food ( ' the parish loaf ' ) or clothing also known as outdoor relief . Some aged people might be accommodated in parish alms houses , though these were usually private charitable institutions . Meanwhile , able @-@ bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in Houses of Correction or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes . Provision for the many able @-@ bodied poor in the workhouse , was relatively unusual , and most workhouses developed later . The 1601 Law said that parents and children were responsible for each other , elderly parents would live with their children .
The Old Poor Law was a parish based system , there were around 15 @,@ 000 such parishes based upon the area around a parish church . The system allowed for despotic behavior from the Overseers of the Poor but as Overseers of the Poor would know their paupers they were considered able to differentiate between the deserving and undeserving poor making the system both more humane and initially more efficient . The Elizabethan Poor Law operated at a time when the population was small enough for everyone to know everyone else , therefore people 's circumstances would be known and the idle poor would be unable to claim on the parishes ' poor rate . The system provided social stability yet by 1750 needed to be adapted to cope with population increases , greater mobility and regional price variations .
The 1601 Act sought to deal with ' settled ' poor who had found themselves temporarily out of work — it was assumed they would accept indoor relief or outdoor relief . Neither method of relief was at this time in history seen as harsh . The act was supposed to deal with beggars who were considered a threat to civil order . The Act was passed at a time when poverty was considered necessary as fear of poverty made people work . In 1607 a House of Correction was set up in each county . However , this system was separate from the 1601 system which distinguished between the settled poor and ' vagrants ' . There was much variation in the application of the law and there was a tendency for the destitute to migrate towards the more generous parishes , usually situated in the towns . This led to the Settlement Act 1662 also known as the Poor Relief Act 1662 , this allowed relief only to established residents of a parish ; mainly through birth , marriage and apprenticeship . Unfortunately the laws reduced the mobility of labour and discouraged paupers from leaving their parish to find work . They also encouraged industry to create short contracts ( e.g. 364 days ) so that an employee could not become eligible for poor relief .
A pauper applicant had to prove a settlement . If they could not they were removed to the parish that was nearest to their place of birth , or where they might prove some connection ; some paupers were moved hundreds of miles . Although the parishes they passed through en route had no responsibility for them , they were supposed to supply food and drink and shelter for at least one night . In 1697 an act was passed requiring those who begged to wear a " badge " of red or blue cloth on the right shoulder with an embroidered letter " P " and the initial of their parish . However , this practice soon fell into disuse .
The workhouse movement began at the end of the 17th century with the establishment of the Bristol Corporation of the Poor , founded by Act of Parliament in 1696 . The corporation established a workhouse which combined housing and care of the poor with a house of correction for petty offenders . Following the example of Bristol , some twelve further towns and cities established similar corporations in the next two decades . As these corporations required a private Act , they were not suitable for smaller towns and individual parishes .
Starting with the parish of Olney , Buckinghamshire in 1714 several dozen small towns and individual parishes established their own institutions without any specific legal authorization . These were concentrated in the South Midlands and in the county of Essex . From the late 1710s the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge began to promote the idea of parochial workhouses . The Society published several pamphlets on the subject , and supported Sir Edward Knatchbull in his successful efforts to steer the Workhouse Test Act through parliament in 1723 . The act gave legislative authority for the establishment of parochial workhouses , by both single parishes and as joint ventures between two or more parishes . More importantly , the Act helped to publicise the idea of establishing workhouses to a national audience . By 1776 some 1 @,@ 912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales , housing almost 100 @,@ 000 paupers . Perhaps one million people were receiving some kind of parish poor relief by the end of the century . Although many parishes and pamphlet writers expected to earn money from the labour of the poor in workhouses , the vast majority of people obliged to take up residence in workhouses were ill , elderly , or children whose labour proved largely unprofitable . The demands , needs and expectations of the poor also ensured that workhouses came to take on the character of general social policy institutions , combining the functions of creche , and night shelter , geriatric ward and orphanage . In 1782 , Thomas Gilbert finally succeeded in passing an Act that established poor houses solely for the aged and infirm and introduced a system of outdoor relief for the able @-@ bodied . This was the basis for the development of the Speenhamland system , which made financial provision for low @-@ paid workers . Settlement Laws were altered by the Removal Act 1795 which prevented non @-@ settled persons from being moved on unless they had applied for relief .
During Napoleonic Wars it became impossible to import cheap grain into Britain which resulted in the price of bread increasing . As wages did not similarly increase many agricultural labourers were plunged into poverty and following peace in 1814 , the Tory government of Lord Liverpool passed the Corn Laws to keep the price of grain artificially high . 1815 saw great social unrest as the end of the French Wars saw industrial and agricultural depression and high unemployment . Social attitudes to poverty began to change after 1815 and overhauls of the system were considered . The Poor Law system was criticized as distorting the free market and in 1816 a Parliamentary Select Committee looked into altering the system which resulted in the Sturges @-@ Bourne Acts being passed . 1817 also saw the passing of the Poor Employment Act , " to authorise the issue of Exchequer Bills and the Advance of Money out of the Consolidated Fund , to a limited Amount , for the carrying on of Public Works and Fisheries in the United Kingdom and Employment of the Poor in Great Britain " . By 1820 , before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act workhouses were already being built to reduce the spiraling cost of poor relief . Boyer suggests several possible reasons for the gradual increase in relief given to able @-@ bodied males , including the enclosure movement and a decline in industries such as wool spinning and lace making . Boyer also contends that farmers were able to
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from claiming . Workhouses were to be built in every parish and , if parishes were too small , parishes could group together to form Workhouse Unions . The Poor Law Commissioners were to be responsible for overseeing the implementation of the Act .
For various reasons it was impossible to apply some of the terms of the Act . Less eligibility was in some cases impossible without starving paupers and the high cost of building workhouses incurred by rate payers meant that outdoor relief continued to be a popular alternative . Despite efforts to ban outdoor relief , parishes continued to offer it as a more cost @-@ effective method of dealing with pauperism . The Outdoor Labour Test Order and Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order were both issued to try to prevent people receiving relief outside of the workhouse .
When the new Amendment was applied to the industrial North of England ( an area the law had never considered during reviews ) , the system failed catastrophically as many found themselves temporarily unemployed , due to recessions or a fall in stock demands , so called ' cyclical unemployment ' and were reluctant to enter a Workhouse , despite its being the only method of gaining aid . Nottingham also was allowed an exemption from the law and continued to provide outdoor relief
The abuses and shortcomings of the system are documented in the novels of Charles Dickens and Frances Trollope and later in People of the Abyss [ 1 ] by Jack London . Despite the aspirations of the reformers , the New Poor Law was unable to make the Workhouse as bad as life outside . The primary problem was that in order to make the diet of the Workhouse inmates " less eligible " than what they could expect outside , it would be necessary to starve the inmates beyond an acceptable level . It was for this reason that other ways were found to deter entrance to the Workhouses . These measures ranged from the introduction of prison style uniforms to the segregation of ' inmates ' into yards – there were normally male , female , boys ' and girls ' yards .
In 1846 , the Andover workhouse scandal , where conditions in the Andover Union Workhouse were found to be inhumane and dangerous , prompted a government review and the abolition of the Poor Law Commission which was replaced with a Poor Law Board which meant that a Committee of Parliament was to administer the Poor Law , with a cabinet minister as head . Despite this another scandal occurred over inhumane treatment of paupers in the Huddersfield workhouse .
= = = After the New Poor Law = = =
After 1847 the Poor Law Commission was replaced with a Poor Law Board . This was because of the Andover workhouse scandal and the criticism of Henry Parker who was responsible for the Andover union as well as the tensions in Somerset House caused by Chadwick 's failure to become a Poor Law Commissioner . The Poor Law had been altered in 1834 because of increasing costs . The Workhouse Visiting Society which formed in 1858 highlighted conditions in workhouses and led to workhouses being inspected more often . The Union Chargeability Act was passed in 1865 in order to make the financial burden of pauperism be placed upon the whole unions rather than individual parishes . Most Boards of Guardians were middle class and committed to keeping Poor Rates as low as possible . After the Reform Act 1867 there was increasing welfare legislation . As this legislation required local authorities ' support the Poor Law Board was replaced with a Local Government Board in 1871 . The Local Government Board led a crusade against outdoor relief supported by the Charity Organisation Society , an organization which viewed outdoor relief as destroying the self @-@ reliance of the poor . The effect of this renewed effort to deter outdoor relief was to reduce claimants by a third and to increase numbers in the work house by 12 – 15 % . County Councils were formed in 1888 , District Councils in 1894 . This meant that public housing , unlike health and income maintenance , developed outside the scope of the Poor Law . Poor Law policy after the New Poor Law concerning the elderly , the sick and mentally ill and children became more humane . This was in part due to the expense of providing " mixed workhouses " as well as changing attitudes regarding the causes and nature of poverty .
= = = Decline and abolition = = =
The Poor Law system began to decline with the availability of other forms of assistance . The growth of friendly societies provided help for its members without recourse to the Poor Law system . Some trade unions also provided help for their members . The Medical Relief Disqualification Removal Act 1885 meant that people who had accessed medical care funded by the poor rate were no longer disqualified from voting in elections . In 1886 the Chamberlain Circular encouraged the Local Government Board to set up work projects when unemployment rates were high rather than use workhouses . In 1905 the Conservatives passed the Unemployed Workman Act which provided for temporary employment for workers in times of unemployment .
In 1905 a Royal Commission was set up to investigate what changes could be made to the Poor Law . The Commission produced two conflicting reports but both investigations were largely ignored by the Liberal government when implementing their own scheme of welfare legislation . The welfare reforms of the Liberal Government made several provisions to provide social services without the stigma of the Poor Law , including Old age pensions and National Insurance , and from that period fewer people were covered by the system . From 1911 , the term " Workhouse " was replaced by " Poor Law Institution " . Means tests were developed during the inter @-@ war period , not as part of the Poor Law , but as part of the attempt to offer relief that was not affected by the stigma of pauperism . According to Lees by slowly dismantling the system the Poor Law was " to die by attrition and surgical removals of essential organs " .
During the First World War there is evidence that some workhouses were used as makeshift hospitals for wounded servicemen . Numbers using the Poor Law system increased during the interwar years and between 1921 and 1938 despite the extension of unemployment insurance to virtually all workers except the self @-@ employed . Many of these workers were provided with outdoor relief . One aspect of the Poor Law that continued to cause resentment was that the burden of poor relief was not shared equally by rich and poor areas but , rather , fell most heavily on those areas in which poverty was at its worst . This was a central issue in the Poplar Rates Rebellion led by George Lansbury and others in 1921 . Lansbury had in 1911 written a provocative attack on the workhouse system in a pamphlet entitled " Smash Up the Workhouse ! " .
Poverty in the interwar years ( 1918 – 1939 ) was responsible for several measures which largely killed off the Poor Law system . The Board of Guardians ( Default ) Act 1926 was passed in response to some Boards of Guardians supporting the Miners during the General Strike . Workhouses were officially abolished by the Local Government Act 1929 , and between 1929 and 1930 Poor Law Guardians , the " workhouse test " and the term " pauper " disappeared . The Unemployment Assistance Board was set up in 1934 to deal with those not covered by the earlier 1911 National Insurance Act passed by the Liberals , and by 1937 the able @-@ bodied poor had been absorbed into this scheme . By 1936 only 13 % of people were still receiving poor relief in some form of institution . In 1948 the Poor Law system was finally abolished with the introduction of the modern welfare state and the passing of the National Assistance Act . The National Health Service Act 1946 came into force in 1948 and created the modern day National Health Service .
= = Opposition = =
Opposition to the Poor Law grew at the beginning of the 19th century . The 1601 system was felt to be too costly and was considered in academic circles as encouraging the underlying problems . Jeremy Bentham argued for a disciplinary , punitive approach to social problems , whilst the writings of Thomas Malthus focused attention on overpopulation , and the growth of illegitimacy . David Ricardo argued that there was an " iron law of wages " . The effect of poor relief , in the view of the reformers , was to undermine the position of the " independent labourer " .
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars , several reformers altered the function of the " poorhouse " into the model for a deterrent workhouse . The first of the deterrent workhouses in this period was at Bingham , Nottinghamshire . The second was Becher 's workhouse in Southwell , now maintained by the National Trust . George Nicholls , the overseer at Southwell , was to become a Poor Law Commissioner in the reformed system . The 1817 Report of the Select Committee on the Poor Laws condemned the Poor Law as causing poverty itself .
The introduction of the New Poor Law also resulted in opposition . Some who gave evidence to the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws suggested that the existing system had proved adequate and was more adaptable to local needs . This argument was strongest in the industrial North of England and in the textile industries where outdoor relief was a more effective method of dealing with cyclical unemployment as well as being a more cost @-@ effective method . Poor Law commissioners faced greatest opposition in Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire where in 1837 there was high unemployment during an economic depression . The New Poor Law was seen as interference from Londoners with little understanding of local affairs . Opposition was unusually strong because committees had already been formed in opposition to the Ten Hours Movement , leaders of the Ten Hours campaign such as Richard Oastler , Joseph Rayner Stephens and John Fielden became the leaders of the Anti @-@ Poor Law campaign . The Book of Murder was published and was aimed at creating opposition to the workhouse system. and pamphlets were published spreading rumour and propaganda about Poor Law Commissioners and alleged infanticide inside of workhouses . Opposition to the Poor Law yielded some successes in delaying the development of workhouses , and one workhouse in Stockport was attacked by a crowd of rioters . As many Boards of Guardians were determined to continue under the old system , the Poor Law Commission granted some boards the right to continue providing relief under the Old Poor Law . However , the movement against the New Poor Law was short @-@ lived , leading many to instead turn towards Chartism .
= = Scotland and Ireland = =
The Poor Law systems of Scotland and Ireland were distinct from the English Poor Law system covering England and Wales although Irish legislation was heavily influenced by the English Poor Law Amendment Act . In Scotland the Poor Law system was reformed by the 1845 Scottish Poor Law Act . In Ireland the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838 was the first attempt to put control of the destitute and responsibility for their welfare on a statutory basis . Due to exceptional overcrowding , workhouses in Ireland stopped admissions during the Irish Potato famine and increasingly resorted to outdoor relief . Emigration was sometimes used by landlords as a method of keeping the cost of poor relief down and removing surplus labour . Reforms after the Irish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of Boards of Guardians in the jurisdiction of the Irish Free State and their replacement by County Boards of Health .
= = Historiography = =
The historiography of the Poor Laws has passed through several distinct phases . The " traditionalist " or " orthodox " account of the Poor Laws focuses upon the deficiencies of the Old Poor Law . This early historiography was influential in successfully overhauling the system . Blaug presents the first revisionist analysis of the Poor Law in “ The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the making of the New ” , arguing that the Old Poor Law did not reduce the efficiency of agricultural workers , lower wages , depress rents or compound the burden on rate payers . Instead Blaug argues that Old Poor Law was a device " for dealing with the problems of structural unemployment and substandard wages in the lagging rural sector of a rapidly growing but still underdeveloped economy " . Other areas of Poor Law which have concerned historians include the extent to which the Second Great Reform Act contributed to the Poor Law Amendment Act and the extent to which outdoor relief was abolished following the New Poor Law .
= Broken Sword =
Broken Sword is a franchise centered on a series of adventure games . The first game in the series , Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars , was released in 1996 by English video game company Revolution Software . The first sequel , Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror , was released a year later , and was followed by three more sequels : Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon in 2003 , Broken Sword : The Angel of Death in 2006 , and Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse in 2013 . A remake of the first game in the series , known as Broken Sword : Shadow of the Templars – The Director 's Cut , was released in 2009 , and a remake of the second game in the series , Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror – Remastered , in 2010 ( for iOS devices ; other platforms followed in 2011 ) .
The main protagonists of the series are George Stobbart , an American patent lawyer , and Nicole " Nico " Collard , a French freelance journalist , although Nico does not appear as a playable character in the original game The Shadow of the Templars .
The Broken Sword series was originally conceived in 1994 by Charles Cecil , Noirin Carmody and Sean Brennan , while talking about the mythology of the Knights Templar . The first three games in the series were all developed by Revolution Software , while the fourth game was co @-@ developed by Revolution and Sumo Digital . The Shadow of the Templars and The Smoking Mirror were critical and commercial successes , selling millions . However , The Sleeping Dragon and The Angel of Death received mixed reviews and were not as popular as the first two games . This was mainly due to the switch to 3D graphics and that the third game left the " point and click " interface to a more action oriented gameplay . The series appeared on several top adventure game lists . A comic book was produced for each remake of the first two Broken Sword games .
In 2007 , it was revealed that a Broken Sword film was in the works and would be produced by CastleBright studios , although there has been no sign of development for many years , which may indicate that the project has been abandoned . However , in 2015 , Matt Smalley of Cheltenham , UK , started fund raising on a new planned Broken Sword film . According to Matt Smalley " Fund Raising is going well , I send out at least 50 emails and Facebook posts a week and hope to reach my target amount shortly . But not before sending out some more emails and recurring Facebook posts . "
= = Games = =
= = Story overview = =
In The Shadow of the Templars , American George Stobbart , who is touring Europe , is a witness and victim of a bomb attack on a Parisian café " La Chandelle Verte " , caused by a clown , later revealed to be a serial killer named Khan , who steals an old man 's briefcase and then sets off a bomb inside the café . Shortly after , he meets a French photo @-@ journalist , Nicole " Nico " Collard , a resident of Rue Jarry in Paris , with whom he tries to discover who is responsible for the murder of the old man , Plantard , and while doing so , end up unraveling a conspiracy relating to the Knights Templar . The third and fourth game , The Sleeping Dragon and The Angel of Death , also follow the Templar @-@ related story line : The Sleeping Dragon continuing the story from The Shadow of the Templars with a number of returning characters , while in The Angel of Death , George and Nico , with a newly introduced character Anna @-@ Maria , unravel a mystery related to the Catholic Church . Unlike the other installments , in The Smoking Mirror , George and Nico unravel a Mayan mystery , involving the Mayan god Tezcatlipoca . The Serpent 's Curse will follow a storyline related to the Gnostic Gospels .
= = Development = =
= = = The Shadow of the Templars and The Smoking Mirror = = =
Video game designer , writer and director Charles Cecil began working on the scenario for Broken Sword , Revolution Software 's third game following Lure of the Temptress ( 1992 ) and Beneath a Steel Sky ( 1994 ) , in 1992 , which would be set in Paris with a Knights Templar storyline . After visiting Paris and reading The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail , Cecil was certain the Templars would be a good subject for a game . Cecil , Dave Cummins and Jonathan L. Howard began work on the story and design . Cecil and Cummins attended a film @-@ writing course and their script was read by senior BBC scriptwriter and dramatist Alan Drury . Steve Ince , who created initial location sketches for the game before working on Beneath a Steel Sky , was promoted to producer halfway through the project . In 1994 Cecil and Noirin Carmody met with Sean Brennan , then @-@ head of publishing at Virgin Interactive , and Virgin agreed to publish the game 's PC version , but were not interested in publishing the game on the PlayStation , feeling that only 3D games would sell for the console . As a result , Cecil contacted Sony Computer Entertainment , who agreed to publish the game for the console . Tony Warriner and David Sykes were the game 's designer @-@ programmer Carmody the executive producer . The game uses the Virtual Theatre engine , as do Revolution 's previous two games .
One of Cecil 's goals was to depart from the humour @-@ based adventure games more popular at the time by creating a game with good pacing and a complex storyline , a reason he thought the Knights Templar would be an ideal subject . Broken Sword offered a unique " conversation icon " system which would not reveal to the player what the protagonist was about to say ; Cecil 's intention was to make the game more cinematic . Although aiming at designing a game with a cinematic feel , Cecil felt the game should not resemble interactive movies of that time , which he felt were " mimicking movies " . He wanted to create two protagonists who would exchange ideas , helping drive the game along . He made George American and Nico French to appeal to US and European markets . Revolution believed they needed to utilise the best of other creative industries . Hand drawn artwork was animated by artists including Don Bluth Studios ' Eoghan Cahill and Neil Breen and Red Rover Studio 's Mike Burgess , resulting in graphics animated in a style resembling classic animated films . The game 's final cost was one million pounds .
Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror was conceived in 1997 , by Cecil and Revolution 's crew . The artwork for Broken Sword 2 was developed through a number of stages . Initially pencil drawings were made of characters which were then digitally coloured in , before being cleaned up . The background layouts were produced in a similar way , also starting out as pencil designs . They were all drawn by Eoghan Cahill and Neil Breen , who both previously worked on the original Broken Sword game , while they were now working together with Amy Berenz and Lee Taylor . The music in the game was again composed by Barrington Pheloung , with Bob Sekar adding the closing score . While Rolf Saxon returns to voice actor of George , Jennifer Caron Hall a bilingual actress and daughter of French actress Leslie Caron , was cast as Nico . Theatre director Edward Hall ( director ) rehearsed the assembled actors and took no more than a week to record the entire game , according to an interview given by Rolf Saxon in 2011 Alternative Magazine The game was first released for Windows on October 31 , 1997 .
= = = The Sleeping Dragon and The Angel of Death = = =
Revolution first discussed the idea of a third Broken Sword in 2000 . At first , The Sleeping Dragon was planned to have similar cartoon @-@ quality visuals to the first two Broken Sword games ; however , Revolution decided not to use the " flat " look , claiming it lacked visual depth . The team wanted the game to look believable , but not necessarily realistic , similar to Japanese animated films . Textures were hand drawn to achieve the " cartoon " look , while the light @-@ map employed radiosity to create realistic lighting . Advances in hardware plus the changes in methodology allowed the game to move to 24 @-@ bit color . To make the game feel like a film , Revolution brought in a cinematic consultant , Bob Keen , who made sure the game conveyed emotions and atmospheres appropriate for each scene . The music in the game was composed by Ben McCullough . The voice recording was scheduled to take five days ; however , the entire process took four days . The voices were recorded with the voice actors together , enabling better getting into their parts . The full script is 6 @,@ 000 lines in total , similar to Broken Sword II . While Rolf Saxon returns to voice George , Nico was this time played by Sarah Crook . The game 's final cost was two million pounds .
Revolution Software and THQ announced Broken Sword : The Angel of Death on August 17 , 2005 . Acorrding to Charles Cecil , the Broken Sword was originally planned to be a trilogy , but that after the release of Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon , the demand from fans for a sequel was overwhelming . Though The Sleeping Dragon benefited commercially from being released on console as well as PC , this approach required certain development compromises as the PC version was held back by the constraints of the console versions . As a result , The Angel of Death was written for PC only " so as to really push the boundaries in terms of the technology and graphics . " As a series ' first , Revolution was not the only developer , but was co @-@ developed by Revolution and Sumo Digital . Cecil believed that because of the requirement for ever larger team sizes , it was no longer possible to maintain a large development team to write single original titles , resulting in Revolution closed the production side in order to concentrate on design , and Sumo to concentrate on production . It is the first game to be amBX enabled . Broken Sword : The Sleeping Dragon was criticised for featuring a high number of action elements . Cecil stated that he aimed to put the player under pressure . While he still stood behind this principle , he thought the action elements were not the right approach . The Sleeping Dragon was also criticised for using a high number of crate puzzles , resulting in Cecil reducing the number of them . The music in the game was composed by Ben McCullough and features tracks by Übernoise . While Rolf Saxon returns to voice George Stobbart , Nicole " Nico " Collard was this time played by Katherine Pageon .
= = = The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut and The Smoking Mirror – Remastered = = =
On March 21 , 2009 , Ubisoft released a special edition of The Shadow of the Templars for the Wii and Nintendo DS . According to Cecil , the Director 's Cut came about thanks to a group of Broken Sword fans , who started an online petition begging him to bring the series to the Wii and DS . The game starts a day before the Parisian cafe explosion in the original game , filling in some of Nicole Collard 's back @-@ story . Dave Gibbons , with whom Revolution worked previously on their 1994 cult classic adventure Beneath a Steel Sky , worked on visual references for the game ; He also produced a comic book to accompany the game 's DS release . In the Director 's Cut , Hazel Ellerby returns to voice Nicole Collard in the new sections , playing Nico again for the first time since the original game 's release . Rolf Saxon , as in every sequel , also returns to voice George Stobbart . Unlike in the original game , players control Nicole Collard for selected game sections . Besides the new character artwork by Gibbons during conversations , the Director 's Cut also features a new first person view for certain puzzles . In the DS version , there is no spoken dialogue , only subtitles . A version of the Director 's Cut for iPhone and iPod Touch was released on January 20 , 2010 . In May 2010 , a version with higher resolution and a digital comic was released on the iPad . A PC version was released on August 27 , 2010 on various digital distribution services .
When considering the project , Cecil played the game again and noticed many issues , including that backgrounds were pixilated , the movies and audio were of poor quality , and he also felt some dialogue was out of place . He thought all these elements could be addressed and improved in a remastered edition , in which they could add a diary , hint system , and new artwork from Dave Gibbons , which they could offer as an interactive digital comic . On December 9 , 2010 , Revolution Software announced the release of Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror – Remastered on Apple iOS devices , and was finally released on December 16 , 2010 . The new features include an exclusive interactive digital comic from Dave Gibbons , fully animated facial expressions , enhanced graphics , high quality music , a context @-@ sensitive hint system , diary , and a Dropbox integration which facilitates a unique cross @-@ platform save @-@ game feature , enabling players to enjoy the same adventure simultaneously on multiple devices . It also featured full Game Center integration – including in @-@ game achievements . The Mac and PC versions followed in early 2011 .
= = = The Serpent 's Curse = = =
On August 23 , 2012 , Revolution announced a fifth title in the series , Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , has been in development for six months and is to return to the series ' 2D graphical style with an early 2013 release targeted . Cecil also announced that , despite interest from the " industry 's biggest third party publisher , " funding for the game 's remaining development is to be sought via Kickstarter with a target of $ 400 @,@ 000 . It received its funding of $ 771 @,@ 561 on September 22 , 2012 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Sales and critical reception = = =
The Broken Sword franchise is Europe 's most successful adventure series , selling six million units ; The Shadow of the Templars and The Smoking Mirror are Revolution 's best @-@ selling titles , each selling a million copies . With the decline of the adventure genre at the beginning of the 2000s , sales of the Broken Sword series decreased as well , with The Sleeping Dragon and The Angel of Death selling a few hundred thousand copies . During the so @-@ called " adventure renaissance " , the two Broken Sword remakes were met with success ; in 2011 , the Director 's Cut and The Smoking Mirror : Remastered sold 500 @,@ 000 copies on the iOS alone .
The series ' installments have received positive reviews , with The Shadow of the Templars often being cited as a classic in the adventure genre , ranking high on various " top " lists . The remakes were met with acclaim , most notably the iOS versions , often called one of the best games on the platform .
= = = Other media = = =
On May 21 , 2007 , it was announced that Charles Cecil had begun the work of taking the game franchise to the silver screen .
Dave Gibbons produced comics for each remake of the first two Broken Sword games ; Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut , and Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror – Remastered .
On September 28 , 2008 , mindFactory released a fan @-@ made freeware Broken Sword game , called Broken Sword 2 @.@ 5 : The Return of the Templars .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = = Game listings = = =
Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars
Adventure Gamers : Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time ( 2004 ) — 4th
Adventure Classic Gaming : Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles ( 2006 ) — 3rd
Bright Hub : Best Windows Mobile Games Software ( 2008 )
Retro Gamer : Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time ... not by LucasArts ( 2010 ) — 2nd
Universe Publishing : 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die ( 2010 )
NowGamer : Greatest Point @-@ And @-@ Click Games ( Not By LucasArts ) ( 2011 )
Adventure Gamers : Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures ( 2011 ) — 4th
GamesRadar : Best point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games ( 2012 ) — 8th
GameSpot : Top Adventure Games — 3rd ( review score : 9 @.@ 2 / 10 )
Adventure Gamers : Top Adventure Games recommendations list
Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror
Kotaku : The Most Beautiful Cartoon @-@ Style Adventure Games ( 2013 )
Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 DS games of 2009 so far ( 2009 )
PCWorld : 25 Best iPad Games ( 2010 )
Complex : Mobile Check @-@ In : The Hottest New iPhone Games ( 2010 )
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 best @-@ looking up @-@ scaled iPhone games on iPad ( 2010 )
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 @-@ point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games on iPhone and iPad ( 2010 )
Pocket Gamer : The 10 best iPhone games of 2010 ( so far ) ( 2010 )
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 @-@ point @-@ and @-@ click adventures for iPad ( 2011 )
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 iOS games with Game Center ( 2011 )
Metacritic : 25 Best iPhone and iPad Games of 2010 ( 2010 )
Trusted Reviews : Top 100 Best iPhone Video Games Ever ( 2011 )
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 best Android games to show off your new LG Nexus 4 ( 2013 )
The Sunday Telegraph : 500 Must @-@ Have Apps ( 2013 )
VideoGamer.com : Top Wii Adventure Games of All Time — 5th ( review score : 8 / 10 )
VideoGamer.com : Top DS Adventure Games of All Time — 1st ( review score : 9 / 10 )
Adventure Gamers : PC Classic Releases recommendations list
Broken Sword : The Smoking Mirror – Remastered
Pocket Gamer : Top 10 @-@ point @-@ and @-@ click adventures for iPad ( 2011 )
The Guardian : 30 Best Android apps this week ( 2012 )
Stuff : Best Android apps this week ( 2012 )
Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse
TheSixthAxis : Top 100 Most Anticipated Games of 2013 ( 2012 ) — 65th
Micro Mart : The best PC games of 2013 ( 2013 ) — 15th
Adventure Gamers : Hype @-@ o @-@ Meter — 2nd ( Aug. – Oct. 2012 ) , 3rd ( November 2012 – April 2013 )
= = = Game element listings = = =
The Goat Puzzle
Computer and Video Games : Gaming 's hardest puzzles ( 2011 )
GameFront : 5 Crazy Difficult and Intricate Video Game Puzzles ( 2012 )
Barrington Pheloung 's " Intro " opening theme
Computer and Video Games : Video game soundtracks : The 100 best themes of all time ( 2012 ) — 21st
Nicole Collard
Pocket Gamer : Our top 10 favourite women in mobile and handheld games ( 2013 )
Khan
The Telegraph : The 10 best video game assassins ( 2011 )
Kotaku : The Scariest Clowns And Jesters in Video Games ( 2013 )
= Little Busters ! =
Little Busters ! ( リトルバスターズ ! , Ritoru Basutāzu ! ) is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key . It was released on July 27 , 2007 for Windows PCs and is rated for all ages . Little Busters ! is Key 's sixth game , along with other titles such as Kanon , Air , and Clannad . An adult version of the game titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy was released on July 25 , 2008 for Windows , unlike Kanon and Air , which were first released with adult content and then had later versions with such content removed . Ecstasy was later ported to the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Vita , and PlayStation 3 . The story follows the life of Riki Naoe , a high school student who has been a member of a group of friends named the Little Busters since childhood . Riki brings multiple girls at his school into the Little Busters to have enough people to play a baseball game .
The gameplay in Little Busters ! follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the six female main characters by the player character , which increases to nine in Ecstasy . There are additional minigames added into the gameplay , such as battle sequences that resemble fighting games or baseball batting practice , which serve to give the characters experience , obtain accessories to use during battle , and improve their statistics . Both Little Busters ! and Ecstasy ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of their release , and Ecstasy would go on to sell over 100 @,@ 000 units . Key went on to produce an adult spin @-@ off called Kud Wafter in June 2010 , which expanded on the scenario of Kudryavka Noumi , one of the heroines from Little Busters ! and Ecstasy .
There have been 13 manga adaptations based on Little Busters ! and Ecstasy published by ASCII Media Works , Kadokawa Shoten and Ichijinsha . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books were also published , as were several music albums . There have been two Internet radio shows hosted by the voice actors of Rin and Kyousuke Natsume and Kudryavka Noumi . A 26 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , produced by J.C.Staff and directed by Yoshiki Yamakawa , aired between October 2012 and April 2013 , and an additional original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released in August 2013 . A 13 @-@ episode second season produced by the same staff titled Little Busters ! Refrain aired between October and December 2013 . An eight @-@ episode OVA series titled Little Busters ! EX was released between January and July 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Little Busters ! is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Riki Naoe . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text in the game is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Riki is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites . When the game is completed at least once , a gallery of the viewed CGs and played background music becomes available on the game 's title screen . Little Busters ! follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are seven main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . When first playing the game , the scenarios for all six heroines are available . Once a scenario for any one heroine is completed , that scenario will be unavailable in the next play through because the last choice that will ultimately lead to that heroine 's scenario becomes unavailable for players to choose . After the completion of these six routes , the final scenario called Refrain is made available , which serves to bring everything to a definite conclusion and answers questions brought up throughout the normal gameplay . Completing Refrain makes available all the heroine 's scenarios that were previously made inaccessible during gameplay so that the player can revisit the scenarios again , along with some extra decision points that were previously unavailable .
Throughout gameplay , the player encounters various minigames , which range from simple to more complex . The first type of minigame encountered is a battle sequence that resembles a fighting game , but no interaction from the player is required to fight . These recurring battle sequences represent when the members of the Little Busters get into physical fights with either each other or with others . Each member of the fight has a set of statistics attributed to them ( which includes strength , stamina , agility , reflex , concentration , judgment , and luck ) along with a life bar to keep track of how many hit points a fighter has left . The maximum number of hit points is determined by the given fighter 's stamina rating . Weapons may be used along with any accessories the fighter has in their possession , and these items may be exchanged with other characters . Another recurring minigame involves the player being able to play baseball batting practice with members of the Little Busters . The player , as Riki , controls his position and when to swing the bat .
The Little Busters will also participate in missions to accomplish some goal , and a mission will either be completed or failed depending on the choices of the player . These missions are connected with the battle sequences and batting practice in that they serve to give the characters experience , obtain accessories to use during fights , and improve their statistics . However , these missions do not affect the main plot in any way — the player even has the choice to turn off most of the minigames so that the player may focus on the main plot , including the battle sequences and batting practice . The first time that the game is played , Rin 's statistics are weak compared to other characters . However , when the player completes several heroine 's routes , Rin 's and Riki 's statistics will start out higher than before when the player starts a new game , allowing Rin and Riki to stand a better chance against opponents with higher statistics . The statistics of the Little Busters members are shown in a ranking system from highest to lowest in overall statistics .
Despite Little Busters ! having a rating for all ages , there is an ample amount of CG artwork featuring the female characters in risqué situations , though never to the point to be considered sexual in nature . This is in stark contrast to Key 's previous titles Clannad and Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet that also have ratings for all ages , but those titles contain no such risqué situations or even any fan service .
In Little Busters ! Ecstasy , adult elements were added to the gameplay in the form of sexual CGs depicting Riki and a given heroine having sex . Ecstasy extends the story for the scenarios of the heroines in Little Busters ! , as well as increasing the number of heroine routes from six to nine . These three heroine routes include scenarios for Kanata Futaki and Sasami Sasasegawa — two supporting characters from Little Busters ! — and a new heroine named Saya Tokido who is only featured in Ecstasy . The first time the game is played , these three heroine routes are unavailable to the player until after the Refrain scenario is completed , though the player is given the option make them immediately available . Ecstasy has several minor additions and changes to the minigames as well , including the addition of weapons available for use in the battle sequences . Also , Ecstasy features the addition of two recurring minigames related to Saya : a shooting game with pistols and navigating a labyrinth .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The main part of the story takes place at a high school in Japan . There is a " secret of this world " that Kyousuke speaks of ; Kengo and Masato are also aware of this . The characters live in either the male or female dormitories on the school grounds which are across from each other . Beside the dorms is the main school building where classes take place , which also houses the cafeteria on the ground floor . The school is four stories and the roof is normally restricted from access . Beyond the main school building is the large schoolyard , with the pool area adjacent to the yard . On the other side of the field is the baseball field , with the gymnasium and tennis court beyond it , which are closer to the main school building .
Childhood and adolescence are two important themes in Little Busters ! . The opening video of the visual novel starts with two lines written in English : " What ' Adolescence ' do you have ? " and " Do you remember ' Childhood ' ? " . Riki Naoe , the male protagonist , has four childhood friends whom he grew up together with through adolescence and still hangs out with when the story begins . Thus , friendship is another theme presented in the form of Riki 's relationships with his friends in high school , and is thought to be irreplaceable . The opening video of the original visual novel contains a third line written in English , " The irreplaceable one existed there , " though another line was added into the opening video of Little Busters ! Ecstasy : " This will remind you that you have to recollect ' Adolescence ' . "
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Riki Naoe , the protagonist of Little Busters ! . He is seen as weak due to his girlish appearance and physical build but is very straightforward and has more common sense than most of his friends . He is a member of a group of friends called the Little Busters , which originally consisted of four members , but expanded to five with Riki during his childhood . The leader of the Little Busters is Kyousuke Natsume , who is the eldest member . He often comes up with absurd ideas , but almost always follows up with a reasonable explanation along with it .
Kyousuke 's younger sister is Rin Natsume , the main heroine of Little Busters ! , and is initially the only female member of the Little Busters . She does not communicate well with others due to her poor social skills and can be seen as inarticulate . Due to this , she is shy , and is usually seen alone . Rin loves cats and at school takes care of several strays . Riki 's roommate and fellow member of the Little Busters is Masato Inohara who loves to work out and improve his muscle mass . He has a particular fondness for Riki , which he is more than willing to express out aloud . Masato 's rival and fellow member of the Little Busters is Kengo Miyazawa who is skilled in the art of kendo and seemingly has a cynical personality , but his passion for the Little Busters is unmatched by any of the other members .
In Little Busters ! , Riki meets five other girls attending his high school who later become members of the Little Busters , in addition to three more girls in Ecstasy ; all eight are heroines in the game . The first is Komari Kamikita , a childish girl who takes great interest in fairy @-@ tales , picture books , candy , and clothing with many layers of frills . She is very clumsy , though athletic , and will often not think before she acts . Haruka Saigusa is a schoolmate of Riki 's from a different class , but always finds time to hang around in Riki 's classroom . She incites uproars for her own personal enjoyment , which causes her twin sister , the public morals chairman Kanata Futaki , to chase after her . Kanata generally acts cold towards her sister , though gets annoyed when Riki gets close to Haruka . Kudryavka Noumi , known as " Kud " ( クド , Kudo ) for short , is a girl who is one quarter Japanese , and three @-@ quarters Russian . Despite having a poor handle on the English language , she was able to skip a year in school due to credits obtained through studying abroad , making her the youngest member of the Little Busters . Kudryavka appears in Key 's eighth game , Kud Wafter , as the main heroine .
Yuiko Kurugaya is Riki 's classmate who has a self @-@ sufficient personality , and is sometimes seen carrying a replica of a katana called Muramasa . She is seen as an older sister to everyone despite being the same age of almost the entire cast , and is fond of things or people she considers to be cute . Mio Nishizono is a calm girl who is very diligent . Due to having weak health , she is always seen with a parasol when outside . She enjoys reading , especially when the story contains boys love elements , and her room is filled with books . Sasami Sasasegawa is the captain of the girl 's softball team and is Rin 's rival ; while Rin loves cats , Sasami is a devoted dog lover . Saya Tokido , who only appeared in Ecstasy , is a popular girl at Riki 's school , though she is known to be ditzy . At night , she wanders around the school to protect a " treasure " from those she calls the " darkness executives " ( 闇の執行部 , yami no shikkōbu ) , and even has to fight them for it .
= = = Story = = =
Little Busters ! ' story revolves around the main protagonist Riki Naoe , a young male high school student . When Riki was a child , his parents died , leaving him hopeless and depressed . He was saved by a group — three boys and a girl , all his age — who referred to themselves as the Little Busters , a group dedicated to fighting evil and preserving justice . The leader of the group was Kyousuke Natsume who had a younger sister named Rin . The other two members were Masato Inohara and Kengo Miyazawa , who were friends despite being rivals . They took Riki out and played together with him during his time of need , making him the fifth Little Busters member . In time , Riki enjoyed playing with them , and his grief over his parents gradually faded away . When the story begins , Riki and his friends are seemingly in their second year of high school , except for Kyousuke who is in his third year . They still hang out together , and enjoy their school life .
The story opens on Sunday May 13 , 2007 , and the next day at school , Kyousuke decides that the Little Busters are going to play a baseball game , except they do not have enough members to have a complete team . Kyousuke gives Riki and Rin the task of going around school to find more members to join , preferably girls so as not to leave Rin the lone girl . Riki finds five girls his age willing to help him out : Komari Kamikita , Haruka Saigusa , Kudryavka Noumi , Yuiko Kurugaya , and Mio Nishizono ; three other girls Riki meets are Kanata Futaki , Sasami Sasasegawa , and Saya Tokido . Throughout the game , Riki hangs out with these girls and learns more about them .
The story 's main part takes place in what seems to be a normal high school , but in fact all took place in the school term previous to Little Busters ! , and Riki and Rin are reliving it in an artificial world created by the other members of the Little Busters . They , and the other main characters , were involved in a bus accident during a field trip , and only the two of them will survive . Kyousuke and the others created the artificial world to make them strong enough to deal with what will happen when they awaken in the real world . This was caused by a ripple effect based on all of their desires to save Riki and Rin . The world loops , but though they forget what happens , Riki and Rin do grow stronger , and Kyousuke hopes that they will eventually be strong enough to leave the world . They do manage to survive and get away from the crash site before Riki collapses because he has narcolepsy . Riki vows to fight against his narcoleptic condition , which was the reason why he was only able to save Rin and merely get away from the explosion before collapsing .
Rejecting this turn of events , Rin travels back into the artificial world again ( this time created by Riki and Rin ) and helps Riki overcome his weakness . Afterwards , the two of them go back to waking up at the crash site . This time , Riki and Rin work together to save everyone at the crash scene . Kyousuke , who sneaked onto the bus ( as a third year he was not allowed to go ) , managed to block the leak hole on the gas tank to delay the explosion , despite his injuries being far greater than anyone else . Everyone in the bus recovers from their injuries , although Kyousuke 's recovery takes longer due to extensive injuries . Finally , after Kyousuke returns , he rents a minibus , and the members of the Little Busters set out for a trip to the ocean .
= = Development = =
For the first time in Key 's history , two artists were given the position of art director for the visual novel : Itaru Hinoue and Na @-@ Ga . Hinoue has been Key 's signature art director since Key 's first game Kanon , and Na @-@ Ga has been with Key since the production of Air working as one of the computer graphics artists to render background art used in Key 's games . Due to having two art directors , character design was split between the two , though Na @-@ Ga is responsible for the character design of the majority of the cast . Of the six heroines in the story , three were designed by each artist ; Komari , Haruka , and Yuiko were designed by Hinoue while Rin , Kudryavka , and Mio were done by Na @-@ Ga .
For work on the scenario , Jun Maeda contributed along with composing some of the game 's music . Further writers include Leo Kashida who had worked on Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life , and two new scenario writers to Key — Yūto Tonokawa , and Chika Shirokiri . Maeda wrote the scenarios for Rin and the entire male cast ; Kashida wrote the scenario for Mio ; Tonokawa wrote the scenarios for Komari and Yuiko ; finally , Shirokiri wrote the scenarios for Haruka and Kudryavka . In an interview of Maeda and Tonokawa in the August 2007 issue of Push ! ! , it was reported that the story of Little Busters ! is twice as long as Air 's , but only half as long as Clannad 's . However , this does not take into account the minigames in Little Busters ! which serve to lengthen the game . The music in the game , not counting Maeda 's , was composed by Key 's signature composers Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi , in addition to Manack and members of PMMK . Togoshi left Key in October 2006 before the visual novel went on sale .
Three or four months before the release of Little Busters ! , it was decided that an adult version of the game would be developed titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー , Ritoru Basutāzu Ekusutashī ) , or Little Busters @-@ EX for short . Na @-@ Ga designed the heroine Saya Tokido and Maeda wrote her scenario . Tonokawa wrote Sasami Sasasegawa 's scenario , and Shirokiri wrote Kanata Futaki 's story . Lines from the original game were rewritten as well for Ecstasy , and the total number of lines with spoken dialogue comes to 43 @,@ 347 lines . The total word count in Ecstasy exceeds that of Clannad by about 4 @,@ 000 words , making it Key 's longest work , and carries so much data that Ecstasy was released on two DVDs instead of one for the original release .
= = = Marketing = = =
An art exhibition of Little Busters ! was held in Osaka , Japan between May 3 and May 4 , 2007 , and in Tokyo , Japan between May 24 and May 25 , 2007 . A large amount of the character and background art featured in the game was showcased , along with original art used to promote the character artwork , and other production sketches drawn when the game was still in development . Flowcharts outlining the story for the game were on display , along with the flowcharts for Clannad . Also at the exhibition was a life @-@ size mannequin of Rin Natsume with a baseball glove in one hand , though instead of a baseball , a cat was in the glove . This mannequin was later put onto the Japanese Yahoo ! Auction website in late September 2007 and sold for 764 @,@ 000 yen , a far cry from the original wish of selling the figure for 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 yen .
Little Busters ! was the first Key title to receive coverage in an entire issue of Dengeki G 's Festival ! , a special edition version of Dengeki G 's Magazine which is published in irregular intervals each year by ASCII Media Works ; the issue in question was the ninth , published on June 30 , 2007 . Along with a full 80 pages of information on Little Busters ! , the magazine came bundled with a double @-@ sided hug pillowcase , a small cell phone cleaner which could also attach to a cell phone , and a B5 size jigsaw puzzle . ASCII Media Works published the third volume of another special edition version of Dengeki G 's Magazine named Dengeki G 's Festival ! Deluxe on June 30 , 2008 which had a focus on Little Busters ! Ecstasy . Along with again containing about eighty pages of information pertaining to the visual novel , the magazine also comes bundled with an ergonomic mousepad , a jigsaw puzzle , and a deck of playing cards . The third volume of another magazine in the Festival ! line , Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic , was sold on July 26 , 2008 with Rin and Dorj on the cover , and the magazine came bundled with a hug pillowcase , a notepad , and a B2 size poster .
= = = Release history = = =
On June 1 , 2007 , a free game demo of Little Busters ! became available for download at Key 's official website . In the demo , the player is introduced to the characters of the Little Busters group in the game through a short visual novel sequence . The demo does not give the player the chance to interact with the scene presented , making the demo a short kinetic novel . The game was released in Japan as a limited edition version on July 27 , 2007 as a DVD playable on Windows PCs ; the regular edition was released on September 28 , 2007 . The limited edition contained an arrange album of some of the music featured in the game , and a 128 @-@ page visual guide book titled Natsume Kyousuke Fūrai Ki ( 棗恭介風来記 ) . The book contained information and images on characters , background CGs , the art exhibition , images of the heroines published in various Japanese anime and gaming magazines , a question and answer section , information on the creators of the game , and lyrics of a couple of songs featured in the game .
Little Busters ! Ecstasy was released as a limited edition version on July 25 , 2008 as two DVDs playable only on a Windows PC ; the regular edition followed on September 26 , 2008 . The limited edition came bundled with a remix album of music featured in the game , and a 22 @-@ minute length CD containing a special broadcast of the Little Busters ! Internet radio show . An updated version , 1 @.@ 01 , for the limited edition of Ecstasy was released by Key for free on their website on September 22 , 2008 ; the regular edition of Ecstasy contains this update . An all ages version of Ecstasy for Windows was released by Key on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box .
Prototype released a PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) port of Ecstasy titled Little Busters ! Converted Edition on December 24 , 2009 , which removed the adult elements of the game . The PS2 version was available to try at Key 10th Memorial Fes , an event held in commemoration of Key 's ten @-@ year anniversary between February 28 and March 1 , 2009 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version of Little Busters ! Converted Edition , also by Prototype , was released on November 25 , 2010 . The Windows and PS2 versions had voice acting for only the major characters , but the PSP version contained full voice acting for all of the characters other than Riki . Prototype also released a version of Little Busters ! Converted Edition ported to the PlayStation Vita ( PS Vita ) on March 22 , 2012 . Along with also having full voice acting , the PS Vita version contains 1.4x larger CGs than the Windows edition , and the limited edition came bundled with a drama CD . Prototype released a PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) version of Converted Edition with the additional content included in the previous consumer ports on March 20 , 2013 . An added feature in the PS3 version is a 3D rendering of the minigame in Saya 's route where the player must navigate a labyrinth . A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on May 29 , 2013 .
Key released an all ages version of Ecstasy titled Little Busters ! Perfect Edition ( リトルバスターズ ! パーフェクトエディション ) on November 30 , 2012 for Windows . The Perfect Edition contains the additional content featured in the consumer ports , and came bundled with additional merchandise including : an expanded reprint of Natsume Kyousuke Fūrai Ki , a CD containing a special recording of the Internet radio show Little Busters ! R , Microsoft Gadgets , wallpapers , a Rin Natsume @-@ themed system sounds package for Windows which uses dialogue of Tomoe Tamiyasu — the voice of Rin , and nine promotional cards from the trading card games Weiß Schwarz , Chaos TCG and Megami Engage . Little Busters ! will be released in English .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
A series of 12 short stories were serialized in the Japanese bishōjo magazine Dengeki G 's Magazine , published by ASCII Media Works . The stories , under the collective title Official Episode Collection , were published in two batches : the first six stories were published between the March 2006 and August 2006 issues , while the second batch of six were serialized between the October 2006 and March 2007 issues . In each of the two batches , one of the six stories centered on one of the six heroines , and featured illustrations by Itaru Hinoue and Na @-@ Ga . The stories were written by the respective scenario writer for each girl : Jun Maeda wrote Rin 's , Leo Kashida wrote Mio 's , Yūto Tonokawa wrote Komari 's and Yuiko 's , and Chika Shirokiri wrote Haruka 's and Kudryavka 's stories . Key released five volumes of another series of official short stories , written by the original scenario staff and titled Little Busters ! SS , on iOS and Android devices between November 1 , 2012 and March 7 , 2013 .
A single @-@ volume light novel anthology was released by Ichijinsha on January 25 , 2008 under their DMC Novel imprint titled Little Busters ! Novel Anthology . The anthology was written by six authors , and illustrated by six artists . Four volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Little Busters ! SSS were published by Harvest between April and November 2008 . Harvest published a novel by Tasuku Saika titled Little Busters ! Saigusa Haruka no Jikenbo ( リトルバスターズ ! 三枝葉留佳の事件簿 , Little Busters ! Haruka Saigusa 's Trouble Record Book ) in September 2008 . Ten volumes of another short story compilation series by several authors called Little Busters ! Ecstasy SSS were published by Harvest between January 2009 and October 2010 . Five volumes of an adult novel series titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy H & H written by several authors were published by Harvest between February and June 2009 . Harvest published a novel by Osamu Murata titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Bokura no Gakuensai Sensō ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー 僕らの学園祭戦争 , Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Our School Festival War ) in March 2009 .
Two volumes of a short story anthology compilation series written by Shin 'ichirō Kodama , Ken 'ichi Itoi , and Kachō titled LittBus . ( りとばす 。 , Ritobasu . ) were released between May and July 2009 . Paradigm published a light novel anthology character series in three volumes titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Anthology between February and June 2010 . Harvest published a light novel anthology character series in three volumes titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Character Anthology between June and December 2010 . Harvest published an illustrated short story anthology titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy 4 @-@ Page Short Story Collection in October 2010 . Paradigm published two volumes of a light novel collection between December 2010 and April 2011 . Paradigm published a light novel based on Kudryavka , written by Masayuki Ogura and illustrated by Ayumu Shōji , on September 28 , 2012 . Paradigm also published a light novel under their VA Bunko imprint , written by Mariko Shimizu and illustrated by Zen , on October 30 , 2013 .
An art book titled Little Busters ! Perfect Visual Book ( リトルバスターズ ! パーフェクトビジュアルブック , Ritoru Basutāzu ! Pāfekkto Bijuaru Bukku ) was released on December 20 , 2007 . Published by ASCII Media Works , the 206 @-@ page , hard @-@ cover book contains a compilation of the published and promotional art from the visual novel , detailed character profiles and memo sections , and an overview of the visual novel 's plot . Also included are all the CG scenes from the game , concept illustrations , staff interviews , and a short story " ' Our ' Morning " ( 「 僕ら 」 の朝 , ' Bokura ' no Asa ) written by Yūto Tonokawa . A short section also includes the sheet music and lyrics of the vocal songs featured in the game . Included with the book were two pencil boards . The statistics of the battle equipment used in the mini @-@ games are listed on one of the boards . Another art book titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Perfect Visual Book ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー パーフェクトビジュアルブック , Ritoru Basutāzu ! Ekusutashī Pāfekkto Bijuaru Bukku ) was released on December 19 , 2008 by ASCII Media Works .
= = = Manga = = =
A four @-@ panel comic strip manga , titled Little Busters ! The 4 @-@ koma and illustrated by Yūya Sasagiri , was serialized between the March 2006 and March 2010 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . Some chapters begin as a normal manga layout and follow with comic strips . An " extra " chapter was published in the ninth volume of Dengeki G 's Festival ! on June 30 , 2007 , and special chapters of the manga have been published in ASCII Media Works 's manga magazine Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic . Four tankōbon volumes were released between August 27 , 2007 and April 27 , 2010 , published by ASCII Media Works under their Dengeki Comics EX imprint . Sasagiri also illustrates the Little Busters ! EX The 4 @-@ koma four @-@ panel comic strip manga , which began serialization in the June 2010 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine . The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in Dengeki G 's Comic between the June and December 2014 issues . Four volumes for Little Busters ! EX The 4 @-@ koma were released between February 26 , 2011 , and January 27 , 2015 .
A third manga , titled Little Busters ! and illustrated by Nobuyuki Takagi , was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between November 26 , 2007 and October 25 , 2013 . Six volumes of Takagi 's Little Busters ! manga were released between April 27 , 2009 and December 21 , 2013 . A fourth manga , titled Little Busters ! and illustrated by Mogura Anagura , was serialized between the May 2008 and April 2010 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's magazine Comp Ace and was referred to as the " official Little Busters ! comic " . Two volumes were released for Anagura 's Little Busters ! manga : the first on September 26 , 2008 , and the second on April 22 , 2010 .
A fifth manga adaptation , titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Saya Tokido School Revolution ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー 朱鷺戸沙耶 -SCHOOL REVOLUTION- ) and illustrated by Zen , was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between January 26 , 2009 and February 23 , 2010 . A single volume of Saya Tokido School Revolution was released on April 27 , 2010 . Zen also illustrated the Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Sasami Sasasegawa Black Cat Fantasia ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー 笹瀬川佐々美 -Black Cat Fantasia- ) manga , which was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between June 26 , 2010 and April 26 , 2011 . A single volume of Sasami Sasasegawa Black Cat Fantasia was released on May 27 , 2011 . Zen later illustrated the Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Kanata Futaki My Minroud ( リトルバスターズ ! EX 二木佳奈多 〜 My Minroud 〜 ) manga as well , which was serialized in Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between June 23 , 2011 and June 26 , 2012 . A single volume of Kanata Futaki My Minroud was released on August 27 , 2012 . Zen also illustrates the manga Little Busters ! End of Refrain , which began serialization in the November 2012 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine . The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and continued serialization in Dengeki G 's Comic between the June 2014 and January 2015 issues . Four volumes of End of Refrain were released between March 27 , 2013 and January 27 , 2015 .
A ninth manga , titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy : Wonderbit Wandering ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシー ワンダービット ワンダリング ) and illustrated by Juri Misaki , was serialized between the May 2010 and January 2012 issues of Comp Ace . Three volumes of Wonderbit Wandering were released between September 25 , 2010 and December 26 , 2011 . A tenth manga , titled Little Busters ! Kudryavka Noumi ( リトルバスターズ ! 能美クドリャフカ ) and illustrated by Kazusa Yoneda , was serialized between the April 2011 and March 2013 issues of Ichijinsha 's Comic Rex . Four volumes for Kudryavka Noumi were released between August 27 , 2011 and March 27 , 2013 . An 11th , four @-@ panel comic strip manga , titled Little Busters ! Band Mission ( リトルバスターズ ! ばんどみっしょん ) and illustrated by Misaki Sakura , began serialization in the August 2011 issue of Ichijinsha 's Manga 4 @-@ koma Palette . A 12th manga , titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Heartful ( リトルバスターズ ! エクスタシーはーとふる ) and illustrated by Itotin , was serialized between the May 2012 and December 2013 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Hime . Three volumes of Little Busters ! Ecstasy Heartful were released between October 15 , 2012 and December 15 , 2013 . A 13th manga , titled Little Busters ! and illustrated by Kurohachi , was serialized between the November 2012 and July 2013 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's Comptiq . Two volumes of Kurohachi 's Little Busters ! manga were released between March 9 and September 26 , 2013 .
There have also been many sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . Six volumes of the earliest anthology series , a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Little Busters ! , were released between September 2007 and July 2008 under their MC Comics imprint . Three volumes of an anthology series released by Ichijinsha under the title Little Busters ! Comic Anthology were released between October 2007 and July 2008 under their DNA Media Comics imprint . Three volumes of an anthology series released by Ohzora under the title Little Busters were released between November 2007 and January 2008 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint . Another anthology was released in a single volume by Harvest on December 20 , 2007 titled Ike ! Ike ! Bokura no Little Busters ! ( いけ ! いけ ! 僕らのリトルバスターズ ! , Go ! Go ! Our Little Busters ! ) . A manga anthology titled Little Busters ! Comic A La Carte ( リトルバスターズ ! コミックアラカルト ) appeared in Comp Ace .
Enterbrain released 17 volumes of a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Little Busters ! Ecstasy between November 2008 and August 2012 . Four volumes of an anthology titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Comic Anthology were released by Ichijinsha between November 2008 and August 2011 . Ichijinsha released 10 volumes of the anthology Little Busters ! Ecstasy Ecstatic Anthology between July 2009 and November 2013 . An anthology published by Brain Navi titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy 4 @-@ koma Maximum ( リトルバスターズ ！ エクスタシー 4コマMAXIMUM , Ritoru Basutāzu ! Ekusutashī 4 @-@ koma MAXIMUM ) was released in December 2008 . Another anthology titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Comic A La Carte ( リトルバスターズ ！ エクスタシー コミックアラカルト ) appeared in Comp Ace and a single volume was released in April 2010 . Two volumes of a manga anthology based on the Little Busters ! Ecstasy H & H novel anthologies were released by Harvest in June and August 2010 .
ASCII Media Works released two volumes of an anthology titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Comic Anthology between December 2012 and February 2013 . Enterbrain released three volumes of a collection of four @-@ panel comic strips under the title Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma Little Busters ! Re : play between December 2012 and March 2013 . Ichijinsha published an anthology drawn by Haruka Hano titled Ring Ring Busters ! in January 2013 . Ichijinsha published an anthology titled TV Anime Little Busters ! Comic Anthology in March 2013 . Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
An Internet radio show to promote Little Busters ! called Natsume Brothers ! ( ナツメブラザーズ ! , Natsume Burazāzu ! ) had a pre @-@ broadcast on June 9 , 2008 , and started regular broadcasting on June 23 , 2008 . The show was hosted by Tomoe Tamiyasu and Hikaru Midorikawa , who voice Rin and Kyousuke Natsume from Little Busters ! , for the first 35 broadcasts . Starting with the following broadcast on March 2 , 2009 , the show 's title was changed to Natsume Brothers ! ( 21 ) ( ナツメブラザーズ ! ( 21 ) , Natsume Burazāzu ! ( 21 ) ) , and a third host was added , Miyako Suzuta , who voices Kudryavka Noumi from Little Busters ! . The show 's final broadcast , episode 170 , was on October 24 , 2011 . The show was streamed online every Monday , and was produced by the Japanese Internet radio station Onsen .
An exclusive 22 @-@ minute broadcast of the show was included with the first press release of Little Busters ! Ecstasy sold on July 25 , 2008 . Four CD compilation volumes containing the 35 episodes of Natsume Brothers ! ( including the pre @-@ broadcast ) were released between September 24 , 2008 and March 26 , 2009 . Another 15 CD compilation volumes containing most of the 170 episodes of Natsume Brothers ! ( 21 ) were released between June 26 , 2009 and February 24 , 2012 ; episodes 64 through 98 of Natsume Brothers ! ( 21 ) were not sold in CD compilation volumes . An exclusive broadcast of Natsume Brothers ! ( 21 ) was included with the release of the PlayStation 2 version of the game , Little Busters ! Converted Edition , on December 24 , 2009 .
A second Internet radio show to promote the anime adaptation titled Little Busters ! R broadcast 99 episodes between October 5 , 2012 and September 12 , 2014 . Like the previous radio show , it was normally hosted by Tamiyasu , Midorikawa and Suzuta . However , once a month , the show was hosted by Midorikawa and Nobutoshi Canna , who voices Masato Inohara . The show was streamed online every Friday and was produced by Hibiki and Onsen . The 99 episodes were released on 11 compilation volumes between January 30 , 2013 and January 28 , 2015 .
= = = Anime = = =
A 26 @-@ episode anime TV series adaptation , directed by Yoshiki Yamakawa and produced by J.C.Staff , aired in Japan between October 6 , 2012 and April 6 , 2013 on Tokyo MX . The series was also streamed by Crunchyroll with English subtitles . The screenplay was written by Michiru Shimada , and chief animator Haruko Iizuka based the character design used in the anime on Itaru Hinoue 's and Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . The anime series was released on nine BD / DVD compilation volumes between December 26 , 2012 and August 28 , 2013 by Warner Home Video in limited and regular editions . A BD containing an original video animation ( OVA ) episode was available for mail order to those who bought all nine limited edition BD / DVD volumes . The anime has been licensed by Sentai Filmworks for release in North America . Section23 Films released the first BD / DVD collection on November 19 , 2013 . Hanabee Entertainment has licensed the series in Australia and New Zealand for a January 2014 release on BD and DVD .
The staff and cast from the anime returned for a 13 @-@ episode second season titled Little Busters ! Refrain , which mainly covers the final scenario in the visual novel . It aired between October 5 and December 28 , 2013 on AT @-@ X. The episodes were released on seven BD / DVD compilation volumes between January 29 and July 30 , 2014 by Warner Home Video in limited and regular editions . Refrain has also been licensed by Sentai Filmworks for release on home video in 2015 . A series of eight OVA episodes titled Little Busters ! EX , based on the Ecstasy version of the game , are included on the BD / DVD releases of Refrain .
For the first season , the opening theme is " Little Busters ! ( TV animation ver . ) " and the ending theme is " Alicemagic ( TV animation ver . ) " . Both songs are sung by Rita and are remixes of the theme songs featured in the original visual novel . For Refrain , the opening theme is " Boys be Smile " by Suzuyu and the ending theme is " Kimi to no Nakushi Mono " ( 君とのなくしもの ) by Ayaka Kitazawa . For Little Busters ! EX , the opening theme is " Little Busters ! EX " by Rita and the ending theme " Mezameta Asa ni wa Kimi ga Tonari ni " ( 目覚めた朝にはきみが隣に ) by Suzuyu . The rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from albums released for the visual novels , Little Busters ! Original Soundtrack and Little Busters ! Ecstasy Tracks , and the Little Busters ! Refrain Original Soundtrack .
= = Music = =
The visual novel Little Busters ! has six main theme songs , starting with the opening theme " Little Busters ! " , sung by Rita . There are four different ending themes ; three depend on what heroine 's story is completed , and the last is the game 's final ending theme . The first ending theme for Yuiko 's story is " Song for friends " , which is also used as the first ending theme of the Refrain scenario . The ending theme for Komari and Haruka is " Alicemagic " , which is also used as the second ending theme for Yuiko . The ending theme for Kudryavka and Mio is " Amenochi Hare " ( 雨のち晴れ , Clear Weather After the Rain ) , and the final ending theme is " Little Busters ! ( Little Jumper Ver . ) " , which is used as the second ending theme of Refrain . One last theme song is an insert song played during Refrain called " Haruka Kanata " ( 遥か彼方 , Faraway ) . The insert song and each of the ending themes are also sung by Rita . While not a theme song , the ending theme for Rin 's scenario is the background music track " Regret " composed by PMMK . Seven of the main characters from Little Busters ! have background music leitmotifs — the original six heroines , and Kyousuke Natsume . Rin 's theme is " Ring Ring Ring ! " ; Komari 's theme is " Mahō no Ensemble " ( 魔法のアンサンブル , Magic Ensemble ) ; Haruka 's theme is " Sawagashi Otome no Yūshū " ( 騒がし乙女の憂愁 , Grief of a Noisy Girl ) ; Kudryavka 's theme is " Exotic Toybox " ( えきぞちっく ・ といぼっくす , Ekizochikku Toibokkusu ) ; Yuiko 's theme is " Kokoroiro Kisōkyoku " ( 心色綺想曲 , Heart @-@ colored Capriccio ) ; Mio 's theme is " Hikari ni Yosete " ( 光に寄せて , Approaching Light ) ; lastly , Kyousuke 's theme is " Boys Don 't Cry " .
Little Busters ! Ecstasy features a remixed version of " Little Busters ! " as the game 's opening theme called " Little Busters ! ( Ecstasy Ver . ) " . The song is a remixed version of the remix included in the album Rockstar Busters ! . Ecstasy also features remixed versions of the ending themes " Song for friends " and " Alicemagic " . The former is a remix version featuring less lyrics and is renamed to " Song for friends ( No Intro Ver . ) " , while the latter is the remix included on Rockstar Busters ! , but renamed to " Alicemagic ( Rockstar Ver . ) " . The remix of " Alicemagic " is used as the ending theme for Kanata 's and Sasami 's stories , and the remix of " Song for friends " is used as a background music track . A new theme song featured in Ecstasy is Saya 's ending theme " Saya 's Song " and is sung by Lia . Saya 's leitmotif is called " Kakeru " ( 駆ける , Run ) and is a remix version of the song " Hashiru " ( 走る , Run ) on Riya 's 2005 album Love Song released by Key Sounds Label . Kanata 's leitmotif is " Will & Wish " , and Sasami 's theme is " Neko to Garasu to Marui Tsuki " ( 猫と硝子と円い月 , Cat , Glass , and the Round Moon ) .
A maxi single titled " Little Busters ! " was released in May 2007 . This first single contained " Little Busters ! " , " Haruka Kanata " , and " Alicemagic " in original and instrumental versions . As with Key 's previous works ( excluding Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet ) , a music album came bundled with the limited edition release of the game ; the album , released on July 27 , 2007 , was called Semicrystalline. and contained arranged versions of 10 tracks of the game 's music . Eight of the tracks were background music while the last two were remix versions of " Little Busters ! " and " Haruka Kanata " . The game 's original soundtrack was first released in August 2007 at Comiket 72 containing three discs with 53 tracks . Of the 53 total tracks , three were left out of the visual novel . The original soundtrack was re @-@ released in Japanese stores on September 28 , 2007 . Two more albums were released at Comiket 73 in December 2007 : another arrange album titled Rockstar Busters ! and an image song single called " Rin no Hisoka na Koi no Uta / Mission : Love sniper " sung by Tomoe Tamiyasu , the voice actress who voiced Rin in the game .
In February 2008 , a trance remix album of Little Busters ! themes titled OTSU Club Music Compilation Vol.2 was released by OTSU — a disc jockey unit composed of a number of different remix artists . An EP was released in May 2008 containing original and remix versions of " Little Busters ! " , " Faraway " , and " Alicemagic " ; the remix versions are from the second OTSU Club Music Compilation album . A remix album titled Ontology containing arranged versions of nine tracks from Little Busters ! Ecstasy was released bundled with the limited edition release of that game on July 25 , 2008 . A soundtrack containing the additional music tracks in Ecstasy titled Little Busters ! Ecstasy Tracks was released in August 2008 at Comiket 74 . An image song single called " Saya no Nemureru Requiem / Saya 's Song " sung by Harumi Sakurai , the voice actress who voiced Saya in Little Busters ! Ecstasy , was released in February 2009 as a limited edition , and for general sale in March 2010 . Two more image song singles were released in December 2009 at Comiket 77 : " Raison / Pickles o Oishikusuru Tsukurikata " sung by Keiko Suzuki who voiced Kanata Futaki in Little Busters ! , and " Neko to Garasu to Marui Tsuki / Alicemagic ( Aroma Tablet mix ) " sung by Tomoe Tamiyasu who voiced Sasami Sasasegawa .
A remix album titled Deejay Busters ! , featuring tracks from Little Busters ! , Ecstasy and Kud Wafter , was released in May 2011 . A single sung by Rita was released in October 2012 for the first anime series titled " Little Busters ! / Alicemagic " , which contains the anime 's opening and ending themes in original , short , and instrumental versions . A piano arrange album titled Ripresa , which also features tracks from Little Busters ! , Ecstasy and Kud Wafter , was released in April 2013 . A single sung by Suzuyu was released in October 2013 for the Little Busters ! Refrain anime series titled " Boys be Smile / Mezameta Asa ni wa Kimi ga Tonari ni " , which contains the anime 's opening theme . A single sung by Ayaka Kitazawa was released in November 2013 for the Refrain anime series titled " Kimi to no Nakushi Mono / Namidairo no Tsubasa " , which contains the anime 's ending theme . A soundtrack containing tracks featured in the Refrain anime titled Little Busters ! Refrain Original Soundtrack was released in December 2013 at Comiket 85 . A compilation album titled Little Busters ! Perfect Vocal Collection mainly containing previously released vocal tracks for the visual novels and anime adaptations was released in April 2014 . Each of the albums released were on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Getchu.com hosts a yearly voting poll called the " Getchu.com Bishōjo Game Ranking " where game users vote online for the best games of the previous year in several different categories . For the 2007 ranking , the categories were : overall , scenario , theme songs , background music , visuals , gameplay system , and heroines . In February 2008 , users cast votes for more than 470 different titles released in 2007 , and among the rankings , Little Busters ! ranked first in all categories aside from visuals ( placing third ) , and gameplay system ( placing second ) . Rin ranked as the number one most popular heroine , while Kudryavka ranked fourth , and Komari ranked 13th . For the 2008 ranking , the categories were : overall , scenario , gameplay system , graphics , opening theme video , vocal theme songs , background music , individual characters , individual voices , and game title naming .
In early 2009 , users of Getchu.com cast votes for more than 400 different titles released in 2008 , and among the rankings , Little Busters ! Ecstasy ranked second overall , second in scenario , third in gameplay system , twelfth in graphics , fifth in opening theme video , third in vocal theme songs , second in background music , fifth ( Saya Tokido ) and tenth ( Kudryavka Noumi ) for individual characters , first ( Kazane 's role as Saya Tokido ) and sixth ( Tomoe Tamiyasu 's role as Rin Natsume ) for individual voices , and second for game title naming . The PS Vita port in 2012 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu , which gave it an overall score of 30 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 8 , 8 , 7 , and 7 ) .
In a review of the first six episodes of the anime adaptation , Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network gave Little Busters ! a C rating overall , criticizing its overuse of the " same gags over and over again , with predictably diminishing returns . " He praised the " guy @-@ to @-@ girl ratio " compared to other series made by Key , but notes that Riki is a " bland main character . " Kimlinger panned J.C.Staff 's " unexciting professionalism " and for " animation that is only good enough to avoid looking cheap . "
= = = Sales = = =
From June to July 2007 , the limited edition of Little Busters ! ranked second in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The limited edition version of Little Busters ! ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in July 2007 . The game ( which includes the regular edition ) ranked consecutively seven more times achieving sales rankings of 14th , 25th twice in a row , 37th , 39th twice in a row , and 41st between the months of August 2007 and February 2008 . According to public sales information published at Gamasutra , taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Little Busters ! was the number one top seller between July 26 , 2007 and August 17 , 2007 for Japanese PC game sales . The game dropped to third highest the following week taken from August 24 , 2007 . Little Busters ! was the highest selling game for the month of July 2007 on Getchu.com , and dropped to twelfth in the ranking the following month . Regardless of the drop in ratings earlier in the year , Little Busters ! ended up as the most widely sold game of 2007 on Getchu.com.
From May to July 2008 , Little Busters ! Ecstasy ranked first in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . The limited edition version of Little Busters ! Ecstasy ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in July 2008 . Ecstasy sold quickly in Akihabara on its first day of sales , and by the end of the first day about half the stores were already sold out of the game . By the next day , the majority of stores in Akihabara were sold out of Ecstasy . Only four days after Ecstasy 's initial release , Key reported that many stores were already sold out of the game as well . Three months after Ecstasy 's initial release , Key reported that the game had already sold over 100 @,@ 000 units . Little Busters ! Perfect Edition ranked at 18th in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in November 2012 .
The nine anime Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) compilation volumes for the anime 's first season ranked in the top ten on Japan 's Oricon weekly BD sales chart . The first three volumes sold over 8 @,@ 000 units each in their first week of sales . For Little Busters ! Refrain , the seven BD volumes ranked in the top ten on Japan 's Oricon weekly BD sales chart .
= = = Legacy = = =
A cover version of " Little Busters ! " appeared in the sequel of Front Wing 's visual novel Time Leap titled Time Leap Paradise released on July 24 , 2009 . Rin and Kudryavka were featured as characters in Illusion 's Characolle ! 3D animation program series . The program 's third entry , Characolle ! Key , was released on March 4 , 2011 , and included the characters ' models and scenery assets based on the locals in Little Busters ! as part of the package .
After the success of Little Busters ! and Ecstasy , an adult spin @-@ off titled Kud Wafter was developed by Key and released on June 25 , 2010 . Set directly after the events of Little Busters ! , the story follows Riki and Kudryavka as they start to see more of each other in a romantic relationship at the onset of summer vacation . A mobile app game for iOS and Android titled Little Busters ! Card Mission , produced through VisualArt 's and distributed via Mobage , was released on April 24 , 2013 . The player collects cards of varying rarity featuring Little Busters ! characters , obtained through completing various minigame missions , to form a team . The player then trains his or her team to improve their statistics and eventually challenge others who play the game . Paradigm published the first volume of
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that as proof of his feelings he will defy Armida 's wrath and secure Almirena 's freedom . Meanwhile , Rinaldo is brought before the triumphant Armida . As he demands that Almirena be set free , Armida finds herself drawn to his noble spirit , and declares her love . When he angrily rejects her she uses her powers to assume Almirena 's form , but Rinaldo suspects trickery , and departs . Armida , resuming her own appearance , is furious at her rejection yet retains feelings of tender love . She decides on another attempt to ensnare Rinaldo , and transforms herself back into Almirena 's shape , but then encounters Argante . Believing her to be Almirena , Argante repeats his earlier promises of love and freedom . Swiftly resuming her own form , Armida denounces his infidelity and vows vengeance . Argante defiantly confirms his love for Almirena and declares that he no longer needs Armida 's help . She departs in a fury .
Act 3
A mountainside , at the magician 's cavern . Goffredo and Eustazio are told by the Magician that Almirena is being held captive in Armida 's palace at the mountain @-@ top . Ignoring the magician 's warning that they will need special powers , the pair set off for the palace but are quickly driven back by Armida 's monsters . The magician then gives them magic wands that transcend Armida 's power , and they set off again . This time they overcome the monsters , but as they reach the gates of the palace it disappears , leaving them clinging to a rock in the midst of a stormy sea . They climb the rock and descend out of sight .
In the palace garden Armida prepares to kill Almirena . Rinaldo draws his sword , but Armida is protected from his wrath by spirits . Suddenly Goffredo and Eustazio arrive , but as they touch the garden with their wands it disappears , leaving them all on an empty plain with the city of Jerusalem visible in the distance . Armida , after a last attempt to kill Almirena , also disappears as Rinaldo strikes her with his sword . The remaining four celebrate their reunion , while Goffredo announces that the attack on Jerusalem will begin the next day .
In the city , Argante and Armida , in danger from a common enemy , become reconciled and prepare their troops for battle . Goffredo 's army advances , and battle finally commences . After a struggle for supremacy , Jerusalem falls to Goffredo ; Argante is overcome and captured by Rinaldo , while Armida is taken by Eustazio . Rinaldo and Almirena celebrate their love and forthcoming marriage . Armida , accepting her defeat , breaks the wand which is the source of her evil power and together with Argante embraces Christianity . Goffredo expresses his forgiveness to his beaten foes and sets them free , before victors and vanquished join in a chorus of reconciliation .
Revisions , 1717 and 1731
The opera was frequently revised , most particularly in 1717 and in 1731 ; modern performances are usually a conflation of the versions available . Up to and including 1717 , these changes had no significant effect on the plot . In the 1731 version , however , in Act 2 Armida imitates Almirena 's voice rather than assuming her appearance , and Argante declares his love to Almirena 's portrait rather than to her face . In Act 3 the marches and the battle scene are cut ; Armida and Argante remain unrepentant and vanish in a chariot drawn by dragons before the conclusion .
= = Compositional history = =
In a letter dedicating the new opera to Queen Anne , Hill wrote of his choice of story : " I could not chuse a finer Subject than the celebrated story of Rinaldo and Armida " . He had , however , exercised " a Poet 's Privilege " , to render Tasso 's work suitable for the stage . This " privilege " moved the opera 's story a long way from Tasso 's original . Hill invented a new heroine , Almirena , to provide the main love interest with the hero Rinaldo , and the relationship between Rinaldo and Armida scarcely figures in the opera . Likewise , the affair between Argante and Armida is Hill 's creation , as are the conversions to Christianity , the latter possibly a sop to English susceptibilities . Rossi was required to turn the elaborate scenario into verses , a relatively light task which , he said , was " the delivery of a few evenings " . Nevertheless , Rossi complained that Handel hardly gave him time to write : " To my great wonder I saw an entire Opera set to music by that surprising genius , with the greatest degree of perfection , in two weeks " . Price argues that Rossi 's role was beyond that of a mere versifier , quoting Hill 's words of praise for Rossi in the preface to the libretto , which suggest that Rossi was the senior partner in the birth of the libretto . Price also points to the likely influences on the structure of Rinaldo from two British semi @-@ operas — George Granville 's The British Enchanters , and Purcell 's King Arthur . The transformations of characters to others ' shapes , Price contends , is likely derived from John Dryden 's play Amphitryon .
Handel 's speed of composition was assisted by his inclusion of arias and other numbers from his earlier Italian works , among them " Bel piacere " and " Basta che sol " from Agrippina , " Sibillar gli angui " from the dramatic cantata Aci , Galatea e Polifemo , and the mermaids ' song " Il vostro maggio " from the cantata Arresta il passo . Almirena 's aria " Lascia ch 'io pianga " had appeared in the oratorio Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno . The suitability of some of these insertions has been questioned by later commentators ; Dean and Knapp cite Argante 's " Sibillar gli angui " , with its references to the hissing snakes of Alecto and the howls of Scylla , as " ludicrously inappropriate " to accompany the king 's grand Act 1 entrance . Many other numbers — Dean and Knapp estimate two @-@ thirds of the arias — were adapted and partly recomposed from earlier sources .
In the years between the 1711 premiere and the 1717 revival , Handel made various adjustments to the score and the vocal parts , often to accommodate the requirements of new singers . Details of these changes are difficult to establish since the performing librettos and scores for these years no longer exist . For 1717 , more significant revisions were made ; the role of Eustazio was merged with that of Goffredo , and Argante 's part was rewritten to accommodate an alto voice . Thus in this revival all the principal parts were sung in high voice ranges . Handel 's revisions for the 1731 revival were even more radical , since they not only affected individual musical numbers but involved alterations in the plot . The production was advertised " With New Scenes and Cloathes " , but many of the changes involved reducing or eliminating the pyrotechnics and special effects that had characterised the original production . The only significant new music in the 1731 production is a long accompanied recitative for Rinaldo , though other numbers are changed or cut . Goffredo becomes a tenor , Armida a contralto , the Herald and the Magician become basses . Dean and Knapp summarise the 1731 revisions as " a striking illustration of the seeming vandalism with which Handel could treat his works in revival " .
= = Performance history and reception = =
= = = Early performances = = =
The 19th @-@ century music critic George Hogarth wrote of Rinaldo that " [ t ] he romantic interest of the subject , the charms of the music , and the splendour of the spectacle , made it an object of general attraction " . Its premiere at the Queen 's Theatre on 24 February 1711 , possibly under Handel 's direction , was a triumphant success . A further 12 performances were immediately scheduled ; at the end of the run , popular demand was such that two more were added . Notwithstanding this enthusiasm , the financial strains of such a grand production led to legal actions against Hill from unpaid craftsmen . Nine days after the premiere the Lord Chamberlain 's Office revoked the impresario 's licence . Under Hill 's successors the opera was played at the theatre in most seasons until 1716 – 17 , by which time it had totalled 47 performances , far more than any other opera at the Queen 's .
The public 's general enthusiasm for the opera was not shared by the writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele , who used the pages of their new journal , The Spectator , to pour scorn and ridicule on the work . Addison may have been motivated by his own failure , a few years previously , to establish a school of English opera with Rosamund , on which he had collaborated with the composer Thomas Clayton . It was absurd , he wrote , that theatre audiences should be exposed to entire evenings of entertainment in a foreign tongue : " We no longer understand the language of our own stage " . Addison did , however , praise the singing of Nicolo Grimaldi , the celebrated alto castrato known as " Nicolini " , in the title role . Steele compared the production unfavourably to a Punch and Judy show , particularly criticising certain bungled scene changes and the poor quality of effects such as thunder and lightning . Hogarth made light of such comments : " Notwithstanding the influence which the Spectator influenced over the taste and manners of the age , its attacks ... seem to have had little effect in turning people from the entertainment " .
Some sources have suggested that the opera was performed in Dublin in March or April 1711 , though according to Dean and Knapp there is no record of such an occasion . In November 1715 a version mainly in German was performed in Hamburg . This production , based on a translation by the playwright Barthold Feind , proved to be very popular and was revived in the city on numerous occasions during the 1720s . A pastiche of the opera , with additional numbers by Leonardo Leo , was presented by Leo at the Royal Court in Naples in 1718 , with Nicolini singing his original role .
After 1716 – 17 , Rinaldo was not seen on the London stage until 1731 , when it was revived in its revised form at the King 's Theatre . During these years Handel 's industry was such that he was producing a new opera for this theatre every nine months . The 1731 production of Rinaldo received six performances , bringing the London total for the work to 53 in Handel 's lifetime , the most for any of his operas . After 1731 Handel had fewer stage successes , and performances of his operas became rarer . Changes in taste and style combined , as Grout concludes , to " thrust [ the operas ] into ill @-@ deserved oblivion " , as a result of which Rinaldo was not staged anywhere for two hundred years .
= = = Modern revivals = = =
The first 20th @-@ century production of Rinaldo which can be specifically verified was a performance in London , in February 1933 , by pupils of the Hammersmith Day Continuation School , though Dean and Knapp mention a shortened version , in Czech , at the Prague Conservatory in 1923 . The first modern professional performance was at the Halle Opera House in June 1954 , under Horst @-@ Tanu Margraf , as part of the Handel Festival . On 17 May 1961 the Handel Opera Society , directed by Charles Farncombe , staged the work at London 's Sadler 's Wells Theatre , a production that was revived four years later . The first American performance was a concert version at Carnegie Hall on 27 March 1972 , given by the Handel Society of New York , with Stephen Simon conducting and Beverly Wolff as Rinaldo . The first staging of the opera in America was at the Houston Grand Opera under Lawrence Foster , in October 1975 , with Marilyn Horne in the title role , a part with which she would become particularly associated .
In July 1982 Horne sang the part alongside John Alexander 's Goffredo and Samuel Ramey 's Argante , in a National Arts Centre ( NAC ) production in Ottawa directed by Frank Corsaro . The performance , with Mario Bernardi conducting the NAC Orchestra , was applauded by Montreal Gazette critic Eric McLean for its fine music making and its displays of " architectural and sartorial splendour " . Eighteen months later , on 19 January 1984 Bernardi and Corsaro , with Horne , Ramey and Benita Valente from the Ottawa cast , brought the production to New York for the work 's debut at the Metropolitan Opera . The production was loaned to the Met for its centennial season by the National Arts Centre of Canada " in deep appreciation of the many years during which Canadians have enjoyed opera from the Met – on tour , on radio and in New York " . Donal Henahan in The New York Times praised all the singers in turn , with a special mention for Valente 's " plaintive and affecting " rendering of the popular aria " Lascia ch 'io pianga " . But , says Henahan , " the loudest cheers of the night went at last to the choreographer , Eugene Collins , and an incredibly nimble corps of tumbling warriors " . After ten performances at the Metropolitan Opera House the production was taken in May to Washington , D.C. , and toured in the US before returning to New York in June for several outdoors performances .
From the mid @-@ 1980s onwards , performances of Rinaldo became more frequent worldwide . In June 1989 it was staged at La Fenice in Venice , under John Fisher , again with Marilyn Horne . This production was criticised by critic and music scholar Stanley Sadie , in his review of the live recording , for straying too far from the composer 's original intentions , particularly in the rearrangement of material and the extent of cuts . Singers were , Sadie says , allowed too much freedom to ornament their vocal lines ; some of the cadenzas were " preposterous " . The opera reached Australia in 1999 , at the Sydney Opera House under Patrick Summers , and was performed there again in July – August 2005 under Trevor Pinnock , with Michael Chance as Rinaldo . The new century saw a number of performances across Europe , including an appearance at the Göttingen International Handel Festival in 2004 , with Nicholas McGegan conducting Concerto Köln . This production was well received by the public , but was criticised by Jochen Breiholz of Opera News for poor staging , indifferent singing and a substandard performance from the orchestra .
Zurich Opera 's 2008 production , directed by Jens @-@ Daniel Herzog and conducted by William Christie , threw aside all convention by representing the action in a 21st @-@ century airport lounge and conference centre , with Rinaldo dressed in a double @-@ breasted navy blazer and needing a drink . " Characters go up and down on @-@ stage escalators , and the set spins to show various areas of the lounge and terminal . There is a dissection of a small , white furry animal , a large snake , some allusions to Bond girls and character transformations . The Christians pull guns on the Muslims at a signing ceremony " . It was , wrote Associated Press critic Ronald Blum , " outrageous – and entertaining " . A concert version of Rinaldo was given at the 2009 Edinburgh Festival , by the Bach Collegium Japan conducted by Masaaki Suzuki , with the Japanese soprano Maki Mori as Almirena .
During the opera 's tercentenary year in 2011 , the Glyndebourne Festival mounted a new production directed by Robert Carsen , designed by Gideon Davey , and conducted by Ottavio Dantone with the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment in the pit . The production is set in a school where Rinaldo is a student , initially the victim of bullying , who enters into the world of the Crusades . The Glyndebourne Festival Opera brought a semi @-@ staged version of this production to the 2011 Proms .
= = Music = =
The amount of recycled music in Rinaldo is such that Dean and Knapp call it an " anthology " of the best works from Handel 's Italian period . Sadie raises the question of whether the opera 's dramaturgy is affected by the small amount of music written for its particular situations . He also comments on the problems raised for scholars by the extensive revisions to the music that took place during Handel 's lifetime , but suggests that the available admixture creates interesting opportunities in the preparation of modern performing versions . The initial popular success of Rinaldo was assisted by the employment of virtuoso singers , in particular Nicolini in the title role . This part has remained in its original pitch , though in his various revisions Handel transposed the music of other leading roles to different voice types . Thus Goffredo had originally been an alto part , but in the 1717 revisions became a tenor ; the Magician was transposed from alto castrato to bass , and Armida from soprano to contralto .
The music , Lang says , flows " beguilingly " from the spacious overture ; the quieter , emotional passages are illustrated evocatively , while in the more spectacular moments Handel 's innovative use of brass is exciting and inspiring . The sudden blast of trumpets which announces the Act 3 March provides , say Dean and Knapp , " an effect of splendour and exhilaration that time has not dimmed " . The harpsichord solos which decorate " Vo ' far guerra " in Act 2 were originally improvised on the keyboard by Handel during performances , and were extremely popular . They were remembered and written down by William Babell , and published later as separate pieces . Lang believes that in spite of the borrowings , and the hasty manner in which the work was put together , Rinaldo is one of Handel 's great operas . According to Dean and Knapp , no Italian opera heard in London to that point had been supported by such " majestic " orchestral forces . Critic Anthony Hicks describes the music , overall , as both " varied and excellent " . Dean and Knapp 's verdict is more equivocal . The music for the war and pageantry scenes , they say , is " brilliantly successful " , but in depicting the scenes concerned with magic , Handel misses the mark ; they suggest it was not until over 15 years later , with Admeto and Orlando , that he was able to represent the supernatural convincingly in music .
The opera begins in the key of F , and switches to G at the inception of the grove scene in Act 1 . Act 2 starts in E minor and ends in G. The final act begins and ends in B minor . According to Hicks the dominant character musically , except in Act 3 in which she barely sings , is Armida . Her entry cavatina " Furie terribili " gives , says Hicks , " an immediate impression of fiery passion " , an energy and intensity demonstrated in her Act 2 " Ah crudel " , and in her later vengeance aria which is the occasion of Handel 's harpsichord cadenzas . Armida 's Act 3 duet with Argante was the last duet with bass part that Handel wrote for 30 years . Of the other set pieces , Dean and Knapp highlight Rinaldo 's " Cara sposa " as an example of Handel 's growing confidence with aria forms . " Or la tromba " is praised for the brilliance of its orchestration : 4 trumpets , drums , strings & oboes — the only aria Handel ever wrote for this combination . The melody for Almirena 's " Lascia ch 'io pianga " began its life as an Asian dance in Almira before appearing as an aria in the oratorio Il trionfo . From this simple tune and plain accompaniment Handel achieves an " intensely moving effect " in this , the best @-@ known of all the arias .
= = Arias and other musical numbers = =
= = = 1717 libretto and subsequent amendments = = =
The main musical numbers from the 1711 libretto are listed , together with changes and replacements from the two major revisions of 1717 and 1731 . Minor changes , transpositions , and alterations to recitative sections are not shown . New numbers introduced in 1717 and 1731 are listed separately . Other arias not listed may have been sung in Rinaldo during the years 1711 – 17 , but in the absence of contemporary evidence from scores or librettos the extent of such changes cannot be accurately ascertained .
= J @-@ Air =
J @-@ Air Co . , Ltd . ( 株式会社ジェイエア , Kabushiki @-@ gaisha Jei Ea ) , is a regional commuter airline with its headquarters in the Terminal Building in Nagoya Airfield and in Toyoyama , Nishikasugai District , Aichi , Japan and its main hub at Nagoya Airfield . J @-@ Air previously had its headquarters in Ōmura , Nagasaki Prefecture . Its operations include scheduled passenger services to 16 destinations across regional Japan , under Japan Airlines ' flight numbers . The airline has a fleet 19 aircraft , consisting of Bombardier CRJ @-@ 200s and Embraer 170s .
J @-@ Air is a wholly owned subsidiary of Japan 's flag carrier , Japan Airlines ( JAL ) and an affiliate member of the Oneworld alliance . The airline was founded on August 8 , 1996 , when JAL restructured JAL Flight Academy and J @-@ Air was separated ; and began operations as a separate entity from Hiroshima @-@ Nishi Airport on November 1 . Faced with limited opportunities for route expansion at Hiroshima , the airline relocated to its new home at Nagoya Airfield , after the opening of Chūbu Centrair International Airport , on February 17 , 2005 . In the fiscal year ended March 31 , 1999 , J @-@ Air , together with its sister airlines within the JAL Group , carried over 32 million passengers and over 1 @.@ 1 million tons of cargo and mail .
J @-@ Air has been reported by Japanese newspapers and television to be leaving Nagoya Airfield in a phased transition with many flights leaving October 2010 and all flight leaving from the Spring of 2011 .
= = History = =
JAL Flight Academy ( JFA ) was established by Japan Airlines ( JAL ) in August 1989 , as a flight training school subsidiary based at Omura Airport , Nagasaki . It provided conversion training for its flight engineers to become pilots . In April 1991 , a new division of JFA was created to operate scheduled services to succeed the troubled Nishi Seto Airlink services , a commuter airline serving cities in western Japan . Since the introduction of the 19 @-@ seats Jetstream 31s ( JS31 ) in September 1991 , the aircraft progressively replaced the Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante inherited from Nishi Seto .
In August 1996 , JAL Flight Academy was restructured , J @-@ Air was separated and established as a wholly owned regional subsidiary airline of Japan Airlines on August 8 . On November 1 , the airline inaugurated its first flight from Hiroshima @-@ Nishi Airport and was building up service on smaller @-@ demand domestic routes , which larger aircraft could not serve economically . However , the local government subsidy was terminated at the end of the 2000 fiscal year and the airline was required to become self @-@ sufficient . As part of its domestic marketing strategy , JAL found a niche market where the 100 @-@ plus @-@ seats Boeing 737s were too large and frequent services were in demand , and began repositioning the airline . Fifty @-@ seats Bombardier CRJ @-@ 200s were introduced and progressively replaced the five JS31s until completion in August 2003 .
Despite the introduction of the Bombardier CRJ @-@ 200s , there were limited opportunities for route expansion from its home at Hiroshima @-@ Nishi Airport . The airline decided to move to Nagoya Airfield , after the opening of Chūbu Centrair International Airport . On February 17 , 2005 , J @-@ Air realized its dream and relocated to its new home at Nagoya Airfield . In order to strengthen the recognition of the JAL brand and improve customer convenience , the airline disposed its own flight numbers and changed to JAL flight numbers from April 1 , 2005 .
On April 1 , 2007 , J @-@ Air , together with four of its sister airlines within the JAL Group , joined Oneworld and became a Oneworld affiliate member . On June 18 , JAL signed a purchase agreement with Embraer for ten Embraer 170 jets , with options to acquire another five aircraft . The contract value was worth approximately US $ 435 million , if all the options are exercised . The aircraft was configured to seat 76 passengers in a single @-@ class layout and was designated for J @-@ Air . The first aircraft was delivered on October 3 , 2008 , received the type certification from the Japan Civil Aviation Bureau ( JCAB ) on October 27 and operated its first flight in February 2009 .
= = Destinations = =
J @-@ Air operates to the following destinations ( as of January 2013 ) :
Japan
Akita – Akita Airport
Aomori - Aomori Airport
Fukuoka – Fukuoka Airport Focus city
Iwate @-@ Hanamaki – Hanamaki Airport
Kitakyūshū - Kitakyushu Airport
Kōchi – Kōchi Ryōma Airport
Kumamoto – Kumamoto Airport
Kunisaki - Oita Airport
Miyazaki - Miyazaki Airport
Nagazaki – Nagasaki Airport
Osaka
Kansai International Airport
Osaka International Airport Hub
Nanki Shirahama - Nanki @-@ Shirahama Airport
Nagasaki - Nagasaki Airport
Niigata – Niigata Airport
Ōzora - Memanbetsu Airport
Sapporo – New Chitose Airport Hub
Sendai – Sendai Airport
Tokachi @-@ Obihiro – Tokachi @-@ Obihiro Airport
Tokyo - Haneda Airport Focus city
Yamagata - Yamagata Airport
Tokushima - Tokushima Airport
= = = Terminated destinations = = =
Japan – Fukushima , Hiroshima , Izumo , Kagoshima , Komatsu , Miyazaki , Ōita , Shizuoka , Tottori
= = Fleet = =
The J @-@ Air fleet consists of the following aircraft ( as of August 2014 ) :
= = = Fleet history = = =
Aircraft that have been in service with J @-@ Air are ( in alphabetical order ) :
Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante
Jetstream 31
= = JAL Mileage Bank = =
JAL Mileage Bank ( JMB ) is the travel rewards program of JAL Group , including Japan Airlines , JALways , JAL Express , Japan Transocean Air , Japan Air Commuter , Hokkaido Air System and Ryukyu Air Commuter . The program 's airline partners also include JAL 's Oneworld partners , as well as Air France , China Eastern Airlines and Emirates . For the airline 's most frequent flyers , JMB offers Fly On Program , a frequent flyer service status program ; and JAL Global Club ( JGC ) , an exclusive club designed for experienced travelers .
The JMB program has no membership fee , and mileage will be valid to the last day of the 36th month following the month of the flight or transaction date . In addition , if a JMB member does not accumulate mileage within 36 months after becoming a member , or a JMB member 's account remains inactive at zero mileage for a consecutive 36 @-@ month period , JAL may withdraw or cancel the membership of such member .
= = = JMB Fly On Program = = =
The Fly On Program is the frequent flyer service status program and is divided into four membership levels , Crystal , Sapphire , JGC Premier and Diamond , based on the member 's travel in the last calendar year . Additionally , a minimum of four JAL Group flights on eligible fare classes are required . Members earn Fly On points on eligible fare classes on JAL Group and Oneworld member airlines . These are used to calculate the member 's eligibility for membership renewal , upgrade or downgrade during the membership year . Higher @-@ tiered members are provided with increased travel benefits such as bonus mileage , additional baggage allowance , priority boarding and airport lounge access . There are two phases to the Fly On Program service benefits ; one begins after two months following qualification for membership and the other begins from April of the following year . Membership is valid until 31 March of the second year following membership qualification .
= = = = Crystal = = = =
Crystal level is achieved or retained when the member earns 30 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 30 flights and minimum of 10 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Services and benefits after two months of membership qualification include priority waitlisting , 50 percent bonus mileage , airport lounge access for Japan domestic flights with lounge coupons via mileage deduction , priority check @-@ in at Executive Class counters for international flights , JGC counters and priority baggage for class J on JAL Group domestic flights , 10 kg ( 22 lb ) or one piece of extra baggage allowance , priority boarding on international flights , priority airport standby and class J upgrade with class J coupon via mileage deduction . Services and benefits from April of the following year include 10 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Crystal membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Ruby benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Sapphire = = = =
Sapphire level is achieved or retained when the member earns 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members after two months of membership qualification include 100 percent bonus mileage , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights . Priority check @-@ in at First Class counters for international flights and JGC counters for Japan domestic flights , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance and access to JAL Fast Security Lane . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members from April of the following year include 20 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Sapphire members will be invited to join the JGC , which is dedicated to cater for experienced travelers . JMB Sapphire membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Sapphire benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = JGC Premier = = = =
JGC Premier is achieved or retained when the member earns 80 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 80 flights and minimum of 25 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members after two months of membership qualification include mileage expiry suspension during membership period , First Class and Diamond / Premier Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights , and priority check @-@ in at First Class counters and priority boarding for both international and domestic flights . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members from April of the following year include three complimentary transferable JAL and Sakura Lounge coupons , 30 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , one complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupon , five complementary passes to the Century 21 Club and one flower gift coupon . JGC Premier membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Diamond = = = =
The highest membership level in the Fly On Program of the JAL Mileage Bank . Diamond level is achieved or retained when the member earns 100 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 120 flights and minimum of 35 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members after two months of membership qualification include 125 percent bonus mileage and any seat award tickets with double mileage deduction . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members from April of the following year include 40 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , two complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupons and Century 21 Club membership . JMB Diamond membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = JAL Global Club = = =
The JAL Global Club is an exclusive club dedicated to catering to JAL Group 's most experienced and valuable travelers . Membership is available to JMB members who have earned 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . In addition , membership can be enrolled under JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold or JAL 's Diners Club membership after payment of an annual fee . Lifetime membership will be given as long as a one @-@ time qualifying member continues to pay the JALCARD annual fee . The Oneworld tier status as a JGC member will depend on the JMB Fly On program membership levels , with the following exception : JGC members will automatically attain Oneworld Sapphire status upon enrollment , regardless of the number of FLY ON Points accumulated in the previous calendar year .
JGC benefits include 3 @,@ 000 bonus miles for the first JAL Group eligible flight flown every year , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance , priority check @-@ in , personalized leather baggage tags , annual gifts of a calendar and a diary and exclusive use of member lounges at designated hotels . In addition , JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold and JAL Diners Club holders receive 35 percent JALCARD flight bonus mileage .
= SM UB @-@ 10 =
SM UB @-@ 10 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I.
UB @-@ 10 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 10 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 t ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 10 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in February 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 10 in March . The U @-@ boat was the first of her class to commence operations when she entered service on 27 March 1915 .
UB @-@ 10 was the first boat assigned to the Flanders Flotilla , the unit in which she spent her entire career . Her first two commanders were Otto Steinbrinck and Reinhold Saltzwedel , fifth and eleventh , respectively , among the top @-@ scoring German submarine commanders of the war . UB @-@ 10 was credited with sinking 37 ships , about two @-@ thirds of them British fishing vessels . The first ship sunk , the neutral Dutch steamer Katwijk , provoked outrage in the Netherlands and helped turn Dutch public opinion against Germany . That sinking was also the impetus behind a renewed effort to avoid attacking neutral ships by U @-@ boats . In a 13 @-@ day span in July and August 1915 , UB @-@ 10 sank 23 ships , and by herself accounted for nearly all of the tonnage sunk by the Flanders Flotilla in the latter month . She was also responsible for sinking the British destroyer HMS Lassoo in August 1916 . UB @-@ 10 had two close calls with British submarines near the Schouwen Bank off Zeebrugge in 1916 and 1917 , but survived both .
By 1918 , UB @-@ 10 had been converted into a minelayer by the replacement of her torpedo tubes with four mine chutes . UB @-@ 10 was seriously damaged in a British air raid on Flanders in July 1918 , and was decommissioned in September 1918 in a worn out condition . She was not deemed seaworthy to sail to Germany when the bases in Flanders were being evacuated by the Germans in October 1918 and was scuttled off Zeebrugge in early October .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 t ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 10 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 10 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 10 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 60 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 120 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 88 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert double @-@ acting electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 10 was rated to a diving depth of 50 meters ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 10 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 10 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 10 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 10 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 10 was assembled and launched on 20 February , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 10 on 15 March 1915 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt.z.S. ) Otto Steinbrinck the 26 @-@ year @-@ old former skipper of U @-@ 6 . On 27 March , UB @-@ 10 became the first UB I boat to begin operations , and the first U @-@ boat attached to the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) when it was organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 10 began operations , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
The UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla were initially limited to patrols in the Hoofden , the southern portion of the North Sea between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . UB @-@ 4 made the first sortie of the flotilla on 9 April , and UB @-@ 10 departed on her first patrol soon after . On 14 April , Steinbrinck and UB @-@ 10 sank their first ship , the 2 @,@ 040 @-@ ton Dutch steamer Katwijk , 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) west of the North Hinder Lightship . Although no one was killed in the attack , the attack on a neutral ship sailing between neutral ports — Katwijk was sailing from Rotterdam to Baltimore — provoked outrage among the Dutch population . The sinking of Katwijk and other Dutch ships sharply turned public opinion in the Netherlands against Germany . As a direct result of UB @-@ 10 's sinking of Katwijk , and to avoid further provoking the Dutch or other neutrals ( primarily the United States ) , the German government issued an order on 18 April that no neutral vessels were to be attacked . The German government later paid compensation for the sinking of Katwijk .
It was early June before UB @-@ 10 sank her next ship . The Belgian ship Menapier , carrying a load of iron ore from Algiers for Middlesbrough , was torpedoed and sunk off North Foreland by Steinbrinck on the 7th . Of the 23 persons on board the 1 @,@ 886 @-@ ton ship , only 6 were saved . Menapier 's master , his wife , and six @-@ year @-@ old daughter , the first mate , the pilot , and 12 other crewmen perished .
After UB @-@ 10 's sister boat UB @-@ 6 pioneered a route through British anti @-@ submarine nets and mines in the Straits of Dover on 21 and 22 June , boats of the flotilla began to patrol into the English Channel . UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 5 , and UB @-@ 10 soon followed with patrols in the Channel , but were hampered by fog and bad weather . Even though none of the boats sank any ships , by successfully completing their voyages , they helped further prove the feasibility of defeating the British countermeasures in the Straits of Dover .
On 30 June , Steinbrinck and the crew of UB @-@ 10 , which was back patrolling in the North Sea , had a busy day when they sank eight British fishing vessels ranging from 43 gross register tons ( GRT ) while patrolling between 20 and 35 nautical miles ( 37 and 65 km ; 23 and 40 mi ) east of Lowestoft . All eight of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 10 , and sunk with explosives .
= = = August 1915 = = =
UB @-@ 10 began August 1915 by capturing and burning Alert — another British fishing smack — off Lowestoft on the 1st . The same day , Fulgens , a 2 @,@ 512 @-@ ton collier , was torpedoed one nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) from Palling ; the crew of the ship — UB @-@ 10 's largest victim to @-@ date — were all saved .
On 8 August , UB @-@ 10 captured and sank two more smacks — Arbor Vitae and Xmas Rose — off Lowestoft , and followed that up by sinking the largest ship of her career two days later . The 4 @,@ 243 GRT Rosalie , headed from North Shields for San Francisco , was torpedoed 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ; 3 @.@ 5 mi ) from the Blankeney Buoy . A contemporary news account reported that Rosalie had been beached , but was apparently irreparably damaged ; all her crew , however , was saved .
On 11 August , one day after sinking Rosalie , Steinbrinck and the crew of UB @-@ 10 bettered their 30 June activities by sinking ten fishing smacks off Cromer . All ten ships , which ranged in size from 41 to 62 tons , were boarded and sunk by explosives . With these ten ships , the August tally for Steinbrinck and UB @-@ 10 was 7 @,@ 309 tons , which accounted for nearly all of the 7 @,@ 709 tons sunk by Flanders Flotilla boats that month . In addition , counting the ships sunk at the end of July , UB @-@ 10 sank 23 ships in a 13 @-@ day span , nearly half the 55 ships sunk by the flotilla in both July and August .
= = = End of the first submarine offensive = = =
On 18 August , the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , issued orders suspending the first offensive . The suspension was in response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 , along with other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . UB @-@ 10 did not sink another ship for the next four months .
On 20 December , UB @-@ 10 sank the last two ships under Steinbrinck 's command . The 512 @-@ ton Belford and the 1 @,@ 153 @-@ ton Huntly were both torpedoed off Boulogne ; there were no casualties on Belford , but two men on Huntly died in the attack . The Huntly was the former German hospital ship Ophelia , which had been seized by English naval forces and renamed the previous year .
On 13 January 1916 , Steinbrinck was succeeded by Oblt.z.S. Reinhold Saltzwedel in command of UB @-@ 10 . Steinbrinck , who went on to command three more U @-@ boats during the war — UB @-@ 18 , UC @-@ 65 , and UB @-@ 57 — continued the successes he had in command of UB @-@ 10 . He was fifth among the top @-@ scoring German submarine commanders of the war , with a tally of 210 @,@ 000 tons of shipping to his credit . Saltzwedel , Steinbrinck 's 26 @-@ year @-@ old replacement , was an eight @-@ year veteran of the Kaiserliche Marine and a first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander .
= = Second submarine offensive = =
By early 1916 , the British blockade of Germany was beginning to have an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . As a result , the German Imperial Navy began a second offensive against merchant shipping on 29 February . The final ground rules agreed upon by the German Admiralstab were that all enemy vessels in Germany 's self @-@ proclaimed war zone would be destroyed without warning , that enemy vessels outside the war zone would be destroyed only if armed , and — to avoid antagonizing the United States — that enemy passenger steamers were not to be attacked , regardless of whether in the war zone or not .
UB @-@ 10 's first victim in the new offensive ( and Saltzwedel 's first as a commander ) , came on 19 March when the U @-@ boat torpedoed Port Dalhousie , a 1 @,@ 744 @-@ ton Canadian steamer , 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ; 2 @.@ 3 mi ) from the Kentish Knock Lightvessel . Nineteen men on the ship — headed from Middlesbrough to Nantes with a cargo of steel billets — were lost in the attack ; the mate , a pilot , and five crewmen were rescued . About two weeks later , UB @-@ 10 torpedoed and sank the Norwegian steamer Peter Hanre in nearly the same location ; fourteen men on the 1 @,@ 081 @-@ ton cargo ship were lost . Near the end of April 1916 , Admiral Reinhardt Scheer , the newest commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the High Seas Fleet , called off the merchant shipping offensive and ordered all boats at sea to return , and all boats in port to remain there . Port Dalhousie and Peter Hanre were the only ships sunk by UB @-@ 10 during the six @-@ week offensive .
= = Grand Fleet ambush attempts = =
In mid @-@ May , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . In support of the operation , UB @-@ 10 and five other Flanders boats set out at midnight 30 / 31 May to form a line 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) east of Lowestoft . This group was to intercept and attack the British light forces from Harwich , should they sortie north to join the battle . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions .
A delayed departure of the German High Seas Fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of several of the U @-@ boats stationed to the north to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . UB @-@ 10 sighted the Harwich forces , but they were too far away to mount an attack . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June .
In mid @-@ June , Saltzwedel was transferred to UC @-@ 10 , and — as was the case with Steinbrinck — went on become one of the top @-@ scoring U @-@ boat commanders of the war , placing eleventh on the list with 150 @,@ 000 tons to his credit . After Saltzwedel , UB @-@ 10 was assigned a new commander about every two to three months through the end of the war . Saltzwedel 's immediate replacement on UB @-@ 10 was Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Gustav Buch , who led the boat in sinking her only warship , the British destroyer Lassoo on 13 August ; Lassoo was torpedoed off the Maas Lightvessel and sank with the loss of six men . Later in August , UB @-@ 10 was fortunate enough to avoid attack by a British submarine when departing Zeebrugge . On the morning of 21 August , the outbound UB @-@ 10 had a rendezvous with the homeward @-@ bound UC @-@ 10 off the North Hinder Lightship and exchanged information . UC @-@ 10 parted company with UB @-@ 10 at about 13 : 30 and resumed her course for Zeebrugge , but was torpedoed and sunk by HMS E54 , which had been lurking about the Schouwen Bank off Zeebrugge .
= = Unrestricted submarine warfare = =
Since the early stages of the war , the Royal Navy had blockaded Germany , preventing neutral shipping from reaching German ports . By the time of the so @-@ called " turnip winter " of 1916 – 17 , the blockade had severely limited imports of food and fuel into Germany . Among the results were an increase in infant mortality and as many as 700 @,@ 000 deaths attributed to starvation or hypothermia during the war . With the blockade having such dire consequences , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare to begin on 1 February 1917 to help force the British to make peace . The new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat .
Under these new rules of engagement , UB @-@ 10 , now under the command of Kptlt . Erich von Rohrscheidt , first sank the Dutch steamer Amstelstromm on 27 March . When encountered by UB @-@ 10 , Amstelstromm was found " derelict and badly damaged " after shelling by German destroyers V44 , G86 , and G87 ; von Rohrscheidt launched a coup de grâce at the stricken ship and sent it down 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) east @-@ northeast of the North Hinder Lightvessel .
As UB @-@ 10 was returning to Zeebrugge in early April , she was attacked by a British submarine near the area where she had escaped from HMS E54 the previous August . HMS C7 , which had been waiting off the Schouwen gas buoy , launched a torpedo at a U @-@ boat at 03 : 30 on 5 April . Although authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast report that C7 sank UC @-@ 68 with that torpedo , C7 had in fact fired upon UB @-@ 10 , and the explosion noted by C7 was her own torpedo prematurely exploding ; UB @-@ 10 was able to continue on and make port in Zeebrugge . Later in the month , von Rohrscheidt sank two Dutch ships on the 24th and 25th : Minister Tak Van Poortvliet , a 1 @,@ 106 @-@ ton steamer headed for Harlingen was sent down 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) off Ymuiden ; the sailing ship Elizabeth was sunk between Lowestoft and Zeebrugge the following day .
On 20 August , UB @-@ 10 — with Oblt.z.S. Fritz Gregor at the helm — sank Edernian , a British vessel , 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) from Southwold . The 3 @,@ 588 @-@ ton ship , sent down with her cargo of steel and 14 of her crew , was the second largest sunk by UB @-@ 10 . Early the next month , Gregor led the boat in sinking three more fishing vessels : the Belgian Jeannot and the British Unity on the 5th ; and the British Rosary on the 6th . These were the last ships sunk by UB @-@ 10 .
= = Conversion to minelayer = =
UB @-@ 10 and three sister boats , UB @-@ 12 , UB @-@ 16 , and UB @-@ 17 , were all converted to minelaying submarines by 1918 . The conversion involved removing the bow section containing the pair of torpedo tubes from each U @-@ boat and replacing it with a new bow containing four mine chutes capable of carrying two mines each . In the process , the boats were lengthened to 105 feet ( 32 m ) , and the displacement increased to 147 t ( 145 long tons ) on the surface , and 161 t ( 158 long tons ) below the surface . Exactly when this conversion was performed on UB @-@ 10 is not reported , but UB @-@ 12 was converted in late 1916 .
From late February to mid @-@ May 1918 , UB @-@ 10 was commanded by Oblt.z.S. Hans Joachim Emsmann . The 25 @-@ year @-@ old Emmsman would later be notable as the commander of UB @-@ 116 , the last U @-@ boat sunk during the war , and as the namesake of the 5th U @-@ boat Flotilla ( German : 5 . Unterseebootsflottille " Emmsman " ) of the Kriegsmarine in World War II .
On 2 July , UB @-@ 10 and UB @-@ 88 were both seriously damaged during a heavy British air raid on German @-@ held bases in Flanders . During other raids , considerable damage to harbour facilities delayed repairs and impaired the flotilla 's ability to operate at full strength . Although sources do not indicate whether the damage to UB @-@ 10 's was repaired after this attack or not , by early September the boat was considered unfit for service and was decommissioned on the 12th .
After the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive started on 26 September and the Allies began to drive back the German lines , plans were made to evacuate Flanders and dismantle the naval facilities at Bruges , Zeebrugge , and Ostende . All the vessels that were seaworthy were ordered to depart Flanders for Germany on 1 October ; those unable to make the journey under their own power were to be destroyed . UB @-@ 10 was one of four U @-@ boats left behind . On 5 October , a maintenance crew scuttled UB @-@ 10 off the Zeebrugge Mole at position 51 ° 21 ′ N 3 ° 12 ′ E.
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= Pennsylvania @-@ class battleship =
The Pennsylvania class consisted of two super @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy just before the First World War . The ships were named Pennsylvania and Arizona , after the American states of the same names . They constituted the United States ' second battleship design to adhere to the " all or nothing " armor scheme , and were the newest American capital ships when the United States entered the First World War .
The Nevada @-@ class battleships represented a marked increase in the United States ' dreadnought technology , and the Pennsylvania class was intended to continue this with slight increases in the ships ' capabilities , including two extra 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber guns and improved underwater protection . The class was the second standard type battleship class to join the United States Navy , along with the preceding Nevada and the succeeding New Mexico , Tennessee and Colorado classes .
In service , the Pennsylvania class saw limited use in the First World War , as a shortage of oil fuel in the United Kingdom meant that only the coal @-@ burning ships of Battleship Division Nine were sent . Both were sent across the Atlantic to France after the war for the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , and were then transferred to the Pacific Fleet before being significantly modernized from 1929 to 1931 . For the remainder of the inter @-@ war period , the ships were used in exercises and fleet problems . Both Pennsylvania and Arizona were present during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Arizona was sunk in a massive magazine explosion and was turned into a memorial after the war , while Pennsylvania , in dry dock at the time , received only minor damage . After a refit from October 1942 to February 1943 , Pennsylvania went on to serve as a shore bombardment ship for most of the remainder of the war , an exception being the October 1944 Battle of Surigao Strait , the last battle ever between battleships . Pennsylvania was severely damaged by a torpedo on 12 August 1945 , the day before the cessation of hostilities . With minimal repairs , she was used in Operation Crossroads , part of the Bikini atomic experiments , before being expended as a target ship in 1948 .
= = Background = =
The preceding Nevada @-@ class battleships represented a leap forward from previous American battleship technology and from most contemporary foreign designs . These ships were the first in the world to employ the " all or nothing " armor scheme that characterized every succeeding American battleship . Devised with the knowledge that engagement ranges between battle fleets was growing greater as main battery sizes increased , the system moved away from previous designs that used heavy , medium , and light armor , in favor of using only heavy armor to protect vital areas on the ship . The new system envisioned that , at long ranges , ships would be attacked with only armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles , stoppable only by heavy armor . Medium or light armor would only serve to detonate the shells . By removing gun turrets and reducing the overall protected length of the ship , the navy 's designers were able to devote the weight savings to the belt , as well as extra deck armor to protect against plunging shells .
In issuing desired specifications for the design that would become the Nevada class , the navy 's General Board asked for triple gun turrets , i.e. three guns mounted per turret . They were very unsatisfied with the awkward placement required on classes preceding the Nevadas , which had five and six two @-@ gun turrets — yet moving back to the four two @-@ gun turrets of the South Carolina class would be a significant loss in firepower . Although a triple turret was first proposed in American professional magazines in 1901 and briefly considered for the South Carolinas , it was not even in the experimental stage — the first turret was authorized in 1911 and would not be ready until months after contracts for the new ships would be signed with the shipbuilders . The decision to go ahead with the turret was a calculated gamble , but proved to be a qualified success : the only issue came with shell interference when the center and outside guns were fired simultaneously , which was easily solved by delaying the firing of the center barrel by a small fraction of a second . The major benefit , though , came from the weight savings from the reduction of an armored barbette and turret . These gains were used in heavier armor , making the " all or nothing " concept a reality .
The Nevadas were also the first American battleships to use exclusively oil fuel , which had greater thermal efficiency than firing with coal or coal sprayed with oil . The cumulative effect of the change was measured by the navy as a fifty @-@ five percent increase in steam production per pound of fuel ( in a design for an oil @-@ fired version of the New York class ) . This would give oil @-@ fired vessels additional range , an important consideration for ships based in the Pacific Ocean , but the United States Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) pointed out what it saw as the unfortunate side effects , including a lower center of gravity , higher metacentric height , and the loss of coal bunkers , which were employed as part of the armor protection . However , just a few years later oil tanks below the waterline were considered indispensable parts of the underwater armor scheme employed in American dreadnoughts .
= = Design = =
The General Board 's call for a new 1913 fiscal year battleship design was sent in June 1911 with the recent Nevada innovations in mind . They desired a ship with a main battery of twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in triple turrets , a secondary battery of twenty @-@ two 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns , a speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , and armor equivalent to that of the Nevadas . C & R 's first sketch was unsatisfactory ; their lengthy design of 625 feet ( 191 m ) and 30 @,@ 000 long tons ( 30 @,@ 000 t ) actually had less armor than the Nevadas , with a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 320 mm ) belt .
The design process was marked by various efforts to meet the General Board 's specifications with only a moderate increase in tonnage over the Nevada class . Between January and March 1912 , thirteen sketches were prepared for consideration by C & R with reciprocating or turbine engines that traded either speed or metacentric height for armor . Some later designs gave up a half knot of speed to free up about 500 long tons ( 510 t ) , enough to thicken the belt from 13 @.@ 5 to 15 inches ( 340 to 380 mm ) and the barbettes to 14 inches . The choice between double or triple turrets was also still an issue , as the Nevada class had not been completed yet . The Bureau of Ordnance was in favor of waiting for test results , rather than risking reverting to two @-@ gun 14 @-@ inch turrets or moving up to two @-@ gun 16 @-@ inch turrets .
In March 1912 , C & R proposed their seventh , eighth , ninth , and tenth designs to the General Board for approval . The eighth and ninth designs were the ones to give up a half knot of speed , while the tenth was a design with four triple turrets and 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) lighter than the Nevada class ships . In April , the General Board chose the seventh design , which satisfied all of their requirements , albeit on the largest displacement , 31 @,@ 300 long tons ( 31 @,@ 800 t ) . The length was fixed at 630 feet ( 190 m ) , the beam at 93 feet ( 28 m ) , and the draft at 28 @.@ 5 feet ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) . Steam turbines gave the design 30 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 700 kW ) and 21 knots , while the main armor belt was 13 @.@ 5 inches tapering to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) at the ends . This design was further refined and emerged in a completed state in September . The delay was partially due to tests on the proposed armor , which were completed in June 1912 and resulted in significant alterations to the Pennsylvania class ' underwater protection .
= = Specifications = =
The Pennsylvania @-@ class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Nevada class . They had a waterline length of 600 feet ( 182 @.@ 9 m ) , an overall length of 608 feet ( 185 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 97 feet ( 29 @.@ 6 m ) ( at the waterline ) , and a draft of 29 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . This was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) longer than the older ships . Its designed standard and full load displacements were 31 @,@ 400 long tons ( 31 @,@ 900 t ) and 32 @,@ 440 long tons ( 32 @,@ 960 t ) , respectively , but they actually displaced 29 @,@ 158 long tons ( 29 @,@ 626 t ) standard and 31 @,@ 917 long tons ( 32 @,@ 429 t ) at full load , over 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 060 t ) more than the older ships . The class had a metacentric height of 7 @.@ 82 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) at full load .
The ships had four direct drive Parsons steam turbine sets with geared cruising turbines , each of which drove a propeller 12 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter . They were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 31 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 500 kW ) , but only achieved 29 @,@ 366 shp ( 21 @,@ 898 kW ) during Pennsylvania 's sea trials , when it slightly exceeded its designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . However , Pennsylvania reached 21 @.@ 75 knots ( 40 @.@ 28 km / h ; 25 @.@ 03 mph ) during full @-@ power trials in 1916 , and Arizona reached 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) in September 1924 . The class was designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 548 long tons ( 1 @,@ 573 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 2 @,@ 305 long tons ( 2 @,@ 342 t ) . At full capacity , they could steam at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) for an estimated 6 @,@ 070 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 990 mi ) , though this could be extended to 7 @,@ 585 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 050 km ; 8 @,@ 730 mi ) with a clean bottom . They had four 300 @-@ kilowatt ( 402 hp ) turbo generators .
The Pennsylvania class carried twelve 14 @-@ inch / 45 caliber guns in triple gun turrets . The guns could not elevate independently and were limited to a maximum elevation of + 15 ° which gave them a maximum range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . The ships carried 100 shells for each gun . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by twenty @-@ two 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns mounted in individual casemates in the sides of the hull ; these proved vulnerable to sea spray and could not be worked in heavy seas . At an elevation of 15 ° , they had a maximum range of 14 @,@ 050 yards ( 12 @,@ 850 m ) . Each gun was provided with 230 rounds of ammunition . The ships mounted four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , although only two were fitted when completed . The other pair were added shortly afterward on top of Turret III . The class also mounted two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes and carried 24 Bliss @-@ Leavitt Mark 3 torpedoes for them .
The Pennsylvania @-@ class design continued the all @-@ or @-@ nothing principle of armoring only the most important areas of the battleships , which began in the preceding Nevada class . The waterline armor belt of Krupp armor measured 13 @.@ 5 inches thick and only covered the class ' machinery spaces and magazines . It had a total height of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) , of which 8 feet 9 @.@ 75 inches ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) was below the waterline ; beginning 2 feet 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline , the belt tapered to its minimum thickness of 8 inches . The transverse bulkheads at each end of the ships ranged from 13 to 8 inches in thickness . The faces of the gun turrets were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) thick while the sides were 9 – 10 inches ( 230 – 250 mm ) thick and the turret roofs were protected by 5 inches of armor . The armor of the barbettes was 18 to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 457 to 114 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of armor and had a roof eight inches thick .
The main armor deck was three plates thick with a total thickness of 3 inches ; over the steering gear the armor increased to 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 159 mm ) in two plates . Beneath it was the splinter deck that ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) in thickness . The boiler uptakes were protected by a conical mantlet that ranged from 9 to 15 inches ( 230 to 380 mm ) in thickness . A three @-@ inch torpedo bulkhead was placed 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) inboard from the side , and the class was provided with a complete double bottom . Testing in mid @-@ 1914 revealed that this system could withstand 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) of TNT .
= = Authorization and construction = =
The authorization for the two Pennsylvania class ships faced political opposition for being too weak and expensive . Senator Benjamin Tillman believed that a much more capable warship was needed because of the shocking increase in battleship size over the previous few years — between 1907 ( the Delaware class ) and 1912 , the displacement of American battleships increased by about fifty percent , from around 20 @,@ 000 long tons ( 20 @,@ 000 t ) to 30 @,@ 000 long tons ( 30 @,@ 000 t ) . Tillman proposed a " maximum battleship " in a Senate resolution in July 1912 , which was adopted unanimously :
Resolved : That the Committee on Naval Affairs [ is ] instructed to investigate and report to the Senate ... the object being to find out from official sources the maximum size and maximum draft , the maximum armament , and the maximum armor to make the best battleship or cruiser the world has ever seen or ever will see ; to have this country own the greatest marine engine of war ever constructed or ever to be constructed under known conditions ; and to report whether one such overpowering vessel would not in its judgement be better for this country to build than to continue by increasing taxation to spend the millions and millions of dollars now in prospect in the race for naval supremacy . ... Let us leave some money in the Treasury for other more necessary and useful expenditures , such as good roads , controlling the floods in the Mississippi , draining swamp land in the South , and irrigating the arid land in the West . ( S 361 , 62nd Cong . , 2nd sess . )
Tillman 's proposal , however , was treated in his own words as a " joke " ; the Advocate of Peace stated that " it is nearly impossible to read this ... without having an inextinguishable bout of laughter . " Still , C & R completed multiple studies of a maximum battleship constrained only by technological limitations . The first design submitted by C & R was a severely enlarged Nevada , or a 38 @,@ 000 long tons ( 39 @,@ 000 t ) ship with twelve 14 @-@ inch guns , 17 to 9 inches ( 430 to 230 mm ) belt armor , and a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) for a price of $ 19 @.@ 5 million . A later sketch dropped the speed to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) to see the effect on displacement and cost , which it dropped to 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) and $ 17 million , respectively , and the consequent shortening of the ship would allow it to enter the dry docks in New York and Norfolk . Tillman was concerned with this speed , however , and another study increased the speed to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , trading it for four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) guns , or one @-@ third of the main battery , and much of the armor .
Political opposition in Congress also made it difficult to build the Pennsylvania class . The United States ' House of Representatives refused to fund any new battleships for the fiscal year 1913 , though the Senate would fund two in its comparable bill . They eventually compromised on one , and the battleship that would become Pennsylvania was authorized on 22 August 1912 . The ship 's plans were given to prospective builders on 20 December ; bids were opened on 18 February 1913 ; and the contract was awarded to the lowest bidder , Newport News , on 27 February 1913 at the quoted price of $ 7 @,@ 260 @,@ 000 without armor or armament . The independent bidding process led the navy to claim $ 750 @,@ 000 in savings , but the final cost actually came in at $ 7 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 ( $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with armor and armament ) .
Arizona was the one approved battleship for the fiscal year 1914 . Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer had requested three battleships for that fiscal year , citing the former policy of building two per year , plus an additional ship to make up for authorizing only Pennsylvania in the previous year , but congressional compromises once again approved only one new battleship . Arizona was authorized on 4 March 1913 , but to avoid a lengthy delay between the two , the ship was ordered much more quickly ( on 24 June ) by giving the contract to a navy @-@ owned shipyard .
Pennsylvania was laid down on 27 October 1913 , with goals of fourteen months until launch , and thiry @-@ two until completion . The as @-@ yet unnamed Arizona was laid down on the morning of 16 March 1914 with Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt in attendance , and the builders intended to set a world @-@ record ten months between keel @-@ laying and launch , These ambitious goals — Pennsylvania 's anticipated completion date was a full two months earlier than the American record — were set by Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels , who wanted the United States to compete with British and German building achievements .
The constructors were not able not meet these goals , though . Pennsylvania was launched on 16 March 1915 — seventeen months from keel @-@ laying to launch , and just over two @-@ thirds complete — while Arizona was launched on 19 June 1915 , about fifteen months after keel laying . Arizona weighed 12 @,@ 800 long tons ( 13 @,@ 000 t ) at launch . Movie cameras were used to film the launch , in order to provide data for future launches . After their launch , both ships went through the necessary fitting @-@ out period and sea trials . On Pennsylvania 's trials , the ship attained a top speed of 21 @.@ 75 knots ( 40 @.@ 28 km / h ; 25 @.@ 03 mph ) , averaged 21 @.@ 38 knots ( 39 @.@ 60 km / h ; 24 @.@ 60 mph ) , and was also able to steam for twelve hours at 21 @.@ 05 knots ( 38 @.@ 98 km / h ; 24 @.@ 22 mph ) in 50 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 80 km / h ) winds . These attributes pleased the navy 's Board of Inspection , but Scientific American lamented the ship 's low speed compared to the Italian Andrea Dorias , Russian Ganguts , and British Queen Elizabeths , which they ( somewhat inaccurately ) stated had top speeds of 22 @.@ 5 , 23 , and 25 knots , respectively . Pennsylvania was commissioned on 12 June 1916 , its sister ship followed on 17 October 1916 .
= = Ships = =
= = Service histories = =
Pennsylvania and Arizona were commissioned during the First World War , but prior to the United States ' entry on the side of the Allies . During their first year , the ships were cleaned and readied for full active duty . Pennsylvania became the flagship of the US Atlantic Fleet on 12 October 1916 . Arizona first fired its main guns on 23 December , but issues with the propulsion system , specifically a stripped turbine , kept the ship almost exclusively in the New York Navy Yard from December 1916 to March 1917 . Both ships were based in the United States for the duration of the war , owing to a shortage of fuel oil in the United Kingdom , and only the coal @-@ burning battleships of Battleship Division Nine were sent . After the armistice , both Pennsylvania @-@ class battleships were sent to the other side of the Atlantic . Arizona was sent first , leaving on 18 November and arriving in Portsmouth on the 30th . Pennsylvania escorted the American President Woodrow Wilson 's transport , George Washington , across the Atlantic for the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 . In 1921 and 1922 , during the inter @-@ war period , both ships took part in a mission to Peru and were transferred to the Pacific Fleet .
Pennsylvania and Arizona were given extensive modernizations from 1929 through 1931 ; the expenditure came in the fiscal year 1930 . As part of the rebuilding , Pennsylvania , which had been designed as a fleet flagship , had its conning tower expanded . Aside from that , Pennsylvania and Arizona received similar treatment : the elevation of the main batteries was increased to 30 ° , new fire control systems on tripod masts were added , the secondary armament and directors were replaced and overhauled , ten 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns ( five per side ) were mounted on the weather deck which was above the secondary anti @-@ ship 5 @-@ inch gun battery , and their bridges were enlarged to hold elevated antiaircraft directors . Armor additions were comparatively minimal beyond anti @-@ torpedo bulges , which were standard additions on all major warships in this period : 1 @.@ 75 to 2 inches ( 44 to 51 mm ) of armor were added to the second armored deck , and a torpedo bulkhead was added to the engine room . The propulsion system of the two Pennsylvanias received perhaps the most attention . The boiler system was entirely replaced with six small @-@ tube boilers and new turbines , the latter partially from the canceled South Dakota @-@ class battleship Washington . The new machinery allowed the ships to come close to their old design speed of 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) , even with the added bulk of bulges : Pennsylvania made 20 @.@ 89 knots and Arizona 20 @.@ 7 knots on full @-@ power trials .
After their modernization , both ships participated in the normal activities of the fleet , including fleet problem exercises , and then joined the entire Pacific Fleet in their new base in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , after the beginning of the Second World War in Europe . Two years later , on 7 December 1941 , the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor sank Arizona in a tremendous explosion and slightly damaged Pennsylvania , which was in dry dock at the time .
Pennsylvania came back into service more quickly than many of the other battleships present during the attack ; it left on 20 December and was under repair in San Francisco until 30 March 1942 . For the next several months , Pennsylvania was stationed on the United States ' West Coast , before being reassigned to Pearl Harbor as the fleet flagship for a short time ( August to October ) . After another refit in San Francisco , which lasted until February 1943 , the ship was sent to assist American forces engaged in the Aleutian Islands Campaign . During this time , Pennsylvania was nearly hit by a torpedo from Japanese submarine I @-@ 31 , which was later sunk .
For the next year , Pennsylvania was utilized in shore bombardment in the Battles of Makin , Kwajalein , Eniwetok , and Saipan , along with the Palau Islands Campaign . The ship also participated in the landings on Leyte and the Battle of Leyte Gulf . During this time , Pennsylvania was present at the last battle ever between battleships , the Battle of Surigao Strait . The ship did not fire any salvos because the Japanese vessels were turned away or sunk at long range , beyond Pennsylvania 's outdated fire control but within range of other , radar @-@ directed battleships .
In 1945 , Pennsylvania was sent for another refit in San Francisco , and the guns in its main battery , worn out from the frequent shore bombardments , were replaced by those from Nevada and Oklahoma . After its completion in July , the ship bombarded Wake Island on 1 August en route to Okinawa , where it was struck by an air @-@ dropped torpedo . It hit near the starboard propeller shaft , killing twenty men and knocking out three of the ship 's four shafts . The area near the shafts , though , was also a vital area , and the opened seals around the shafts led to large amounts of flooding that nearly sank the battleship . Pennsylvania was towed to shallower waters , where local repairs were made . The ship 's last action was to fire at a kamikaze on 13 August ; it was then towed to Guam beginning on the 18th , where temporary repairs were effected , before being sent to Navy Yard Puget Sound for more permanent repairs . Pennsylvania arrived on 24 October only after a torturous journey , which saw the ship lose all but one of its remaining propeller shafts while taking on water through the temporary patch put over the torpedo hole in Guam .
With the Japanese surrender on 2 September , the Puget Sound repairs were limited to those necessary to ensure Pennsylvania 's delivery to Bikini Atoll for atomic experiments in July 1946 . The old battleship survived the tests , but was decommissioned on 29 August and used for radiological studies before being sunk as a target ship on 10 February 1948 . Pennsylvania was struck from the Navy Vessel Register nine days later .
= = Images = =
= = Endnotes = =
= Southampton Castle =
Southampton Castle was located in the town of Southampton in Hampshire , England . Constructed after the Norman conquest of England , it was located in the north @-@ west corner of the town overlooking the River Test , initially as a wooden motte and bailey design . By the late 12th century the royal castle had been largely converted to stone , playing an important part in the wine trade conducted through the Southampton docks . By the end of the 13th century the castle was in decline , but the threat of French raids in the 1370s led Richard II to undertake extensive rebuilding . The result was a powerfully defended castle , one of the first in England to be equipped with cannon . The castle declined again in the 16th century and was sold off to property speculators in 1618 . After being used for various purposes , including the construction of a Gothic mansion in the early 19th century , the site was flattened and largely redeveloped . Only a few elements of the castle still remain visible in Southampton .
= = History = =
= = = 11th – 13th centuries = = =
Southampton Castle was first constructed in the late 11th century , at some point after the Norman conquest of England . Southampton at this time was a relatively large town , but not as significant as in the later medieval period . The royal castle was erected within the existing town on the site of a probable large English hall , and considerable damage was caused to the surrounding local buildings as space was opened up for the new fortification . The town of Southampton was protected by water on most sides , surrounded by protective ditches and banks , and the castle was built on rising ground in the north @-@ west corner of the town , overlooking the mouth of the River Test , an important medieval waterway . The initial castle was a timber motte and bailey design , with a motte 45 feet ( 14 metres ) across ; at least some of the bailey walls were rebuilt in stone during the first half of the 12th century . The wealthiest parts of Southampton were in the west of the town , just to the south of the castle , with some of the poorest districts just beyond the castle to the north @-@ east . The castle was positioned so as to adjoin the town 's quays .
During the years of the Anarchy , in which the Empress Matilda and Stephen fought for control of England , the castle was held by William le Gros , the bishop of Winchester and supporter of Stephen . When Henry II came to the throne in 1153 , he took back the castle and took steps to improve the condition of Southampton castle , as part of his attempt to improve the general standard of security in the south . At this time , Southampton was considered a key fortification , classed alongside other important castles such as the Tower of London , Windsor , Oxford , Lincoln and Winchester .
By the second half of the 12th century , Southampton Castle was valued more for its role in coastal defence and as a coastal base for operations on the continent than for its value in ensuring internal security . Following the threat of French invasion in the 1170s , Henry II invested modest additional resources in the castle , and in 1187 the wooden keep was converted into a stone shell @-@ keep . John increased spending on the castle during his reign . Royal visits to Southampton were quite common , and additional royal accommodation , called the King 's House , was built outside the castle .
Southampton was an important trading port in the 12th century , with trade routes to Normandy , the Levant and Gascony . The castle played an important role in this trade , in part forming a warehouse for the king 's imports , this process being managed by a Crown Bailiff . Royal purchases of wine were particularly important for the castle , being stored and distributed to royal properties across the south of England . The former castle hall was turned into a subterranean vault in the 13th century , probably for storing wine .
= = = 14th – 15th centuries = = =
By 1300 , Southampton was a major port and a large provincial town , with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 . In 1338 there was a successful French attack on Southampton , burning various buildings down and damaging the castle . Edward III responded by improving the quality of the town defences , including building walls along the old ditch and bank defences , and particularly focusing on improving the west side of the town , but little work appears to have been done to improve the castle itself . By the middle of the 14th century , Southampton Castle sat alongside one and a quarter miles ( 2 km ) of town walls , although the castle and the walls were kept administratively separate .
In 1370 the French made a successful attack on Portsmouth , commencing a new sequence of raids along the English coast . In due course first Edward , then Richard , responded with a new building programme of castles , including work at Southampton , where the castle was in a poor condition , owing in part to the theft of building materials , including stone and lead , by the citizens of the town . Henry Yevele and architect William Wynford rebuilt the keep from 1378 to 1382 , whilst additional defences were added between 1383 and 1388 , including a barbican and a protective mantlet wall . Thomas Tredynton was appointed to the castle as the chaplain , being paid an unusually high wage of £ 10 a year , reflecting his other skills as a military engineer . Southampton Castle was equipped with its first cannon in 1382 , making it one of the first castles in the country to be so equipped . At this time cannon were still unreliable , only capable of reaching relatively short ranges and required the construction of specialist gunports ; once again , the decision was driven by the fears of French attack . An " expert in guns and the management of artillery " was retained during the 15th century to manage the new weaponry .
After the scare of 1457 , when French troops successfully attacked the town of Sandwich on the south coast , Southampton Castle was once again put on alert , and one of Henry VI 's more " dependable captains " , Nicholas Carew , was given control of the castle for life . Despite investment in the castle declining , the antiquarian John Leland could describe the new keep in the early 16th century as being " the glory of the castle , both large and fair and very strong , both by works and by the site of it " .
= = = 16th – 19th centuries = = =
The castle began a second period of decline in the 16th century . After 1518 , no more money was spent repairing the castle . The inner bailey became used first as a rubbish tip , then for small @-@ scale agriculture . By 1585 , the castle was " very ruynaise and in greete decaye " . In contrast to many royal castles , Southampton Castle was never converted into a gaol , with Southampton 's two prisons instead being built in the town at the Bargate and on Fish Street . In 1618 James I sold the castle to property speculators ; it was then sold on to George Gollop , a local merchant , and a windmill was subsequently built on the motte . The castle played no role in the subsequent English Civil War , although some of the masonry was used to strengthen the town walls in 1650 . Two of the entrances to the castle , Southgate and Castle Eastgate , were demolished in the late 18th century ; and the remaining castle buildings fell into significant disrepair .
Several short @-@ lived buildings were later constructed on top of the motte . The first of these around the turn of the 19th century was a banqueting house constructed by Lord Stafford . In 1808 Marquess of Landsdowne built a mansion in a Gothic style on top of the motte using some of the stone remains of the old keep ; it became known as Landsdowne Castle , providing famous views across the town . Landsdowne Castle was pulled down in either 1815 or 1818 , and most of the motte was subsequently flattened .
From the late 19th century onwards the castle site was subject to considerable development . A new road – Upper Bugle Street – was built through the old bailey site , and various local council buildings constructed . Development continued after the Second World War , in which large parts of the city around the castle were significantly damaged by bombing .
= = Today = =
Only fragments of the medieval castle survive today , with most of the original site covered by modern buildings and dominated by the block of flats built in 1962 over the remaining part of the castle motte . The castle hall and the castle vaults can still be seen , along with surviving parts of the south bailey wall , the Castle Watergate and fragments of the north wall . A sequence of archaeological investigations between 1973 and 1983 excavated around 10 % of the total castle area , and more limited work has occurred since , including a " watching brief " excavation carried out in Forest View road in 2001 .
= Guyana at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Guyana sent a team to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Four representatives of Guyana qualified to take part in the Beijing Games – Adam Harris , Marian Burnett , and Aliann Pompey in track , and Niall Roberts in swimming – and Pompey advanced past the first round in her event , progressing to semifinals . Meanwhile , Alika Morgan ( track & field ) and Geron Williams ( cycling ) took part in the Games ’ Youth Olympics camp , held in Beijing at the same time as the Olympics . Along with coaches and administrative members , Guyana sent a total of ten people to Beijing . The appearance of Guyana 's delegation in Beijing marked the fifteenth Guyanese Olympic delegation to appear at an Olympic games , which started with their participation as British Guiana in the 1948 Summer Olympics . There were no medalists from Guyana at the Beijing Olympics . Roberts was Guyana 's flagbearer at the ceremonies in Beijing .
= = Background = =
Guyana is a former British colony that extends from the northern coast of South America . It is adjacent to Venezuela , Brazil , and Suriname , and is within the vicinity of the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago . Athletes from Guyanese delegations have appeared at the Olympics since the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , and have participated at every Summer Olympic games between 1948 and 2008 except for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montréal . Guyana declared independence from the British Empire in 1966 , and participated in all previous games ( from 1948 to 1964 ) under its colonial name , British Guiana . Overall , Guyana 's appearance in Beijing marked its fifteenth Olympic appearance . The country has not sent delegations to participate in any Winter Games .
In all of its history , the only case in which a Guyanese athlete has medaled at the Olympics was when Michael Anthony won a bronze medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics in the Soviet Union . The size of Guyana 's delegation peaked at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles when it sent ten athletes , but ( as of Beijing ) had never risen past seven athletes other than in the 1980s . In Beijing , swimmer Niall Roberts bore Guyana 's flag at the ceremonies .
A total of ten people constituted the Guyanese delegation to Beijing : the four Olympic athletes , two Youth Olympic athletes ( sprinter Alika Morgan and cyclist Geron Williams ) , chef @-@ de @-@ mission Noel Adonis , swimming coach Stephanie Fraser , track and field team manager Cornel Rose , and track and field coach Joseph Ryan . Six of the delegation 's members were based in Guyana and departed from their nation on 2 August 2008 for Beijing .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
= = = = Men 's 200 meters = = = =
Adam Harris , who was 21 at the time of the Beijing Olympics , was the sole male track athlete participating on Guyana 's behalf in 2008 . Born in the Chicago area , Harris previously participated as an athlete at the University of Michigan . In Beijing , Adam Harris participated in the men 's 200 meters dash , marking the first time he ever participated in any Olympic event . Harris participated in the first heat during the 17 August qualification round of his event , and finished the race in sixth place at 21 @.@ 36 seconds . Harris placed ahead of Jordan 's Khalil Al Hanahneh ( 21 @.@ 55 seconds ) and behind Botswana 's Fanuel Kenosi ( 21 @.@ 09 seconds ) . The leaders of Harris ' heat included the United States ' Shawn Crawford ( 20 @.@ 61 seconds ) and Poland 's Marcin Jedrusinski ( 20 @.@ 64 seconds ) . Out of the 62 finishing athletes , Harris ranked 50th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = = Women 's competition = = =
= = = = Women 's 800 meters = = = =
Marian Burnett participated on Guyana 's behalf in the women 's 800 meters race at the Beijing Olympics . Born in Linden , Burnett has been affiliated with the athletics program at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge . His appearance at Beijing marked her second after her appearance in the same event at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , where she also represented Guyana . During the 14 August qualification round , Burnett was placed in the second heat . She completed the race in 2 : 02 @.@ 02 , placing fifth in a heat of seven people . Burnett placed ahead of the United States ' Alice Schmidt ( 2 : 02 @.@ 33 ) and behind Belarus ' Sviatlana Usovich ( 2 : 00 @.@ 42 ) in a heat led by the Ukraine 's Yuliya Krevsun ( 2 : 00 @.@ 21 ) and Russia 's Tatiana Andrianova ( 2 : 00 @.@ 31 ) . Out of the 40 finishing athletes , Burnett placed 23rd . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Women 's 400 meters = = = =
Manhattan College @-@ affiliated athlete Aliann Pompey , ( or Allann Pompey ) a runner who was born in the capital city of Georgetown and has trained with the Shore Aquatics Club in New Jersey , represented Guyana at the Beijing Olympics in the women 's 400 meters race . Pompey had run this race for Guyana both in Athens and during the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney and had advanced past the first round each time . During the 16 August qualification round , Pompey competed in the fifth heat and finished the race in 50 @.@ 99 seconds , placing second behind the United States ' Sanya Richards ( 50 @.@ 43 seconds ) and ahead of Nigeria 's Folashade Abugan ( 51 @.@ 45 seconds ) . Out of the 50 participating athletes , Pompey ranked sixth . She advanced to the semifinal round .
At semifinals , which took place on 17 August , Pompey was placed in the first heat . She finished the race in 50 @.@ 93 seconds and placed fourth out of the eight athletes in the heat , ahead of the United States ' Mary Wineberg ( 51 @.@ 13 seconds ) but behind Russia 's Tatiana Firova ( 50 @.@ 31 seconds ) . The leaders of Pompey 's semifinal heat were Great Britain 's Christine Ohuruogu ( 50 @.@ 14 seconds ) and Jamaica 's Shericka Williams ( 50 @.@ 28 seconds ) . Out of the 24 athletes who advanced to the semifinal round , Pompey ranked 11th . She did not advance to the final round .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
= = Swimming = =
Then 17 @-@ year @-@ old Niall Roberts , who was born in the capital city of Georgetown , participated as the only swimmer representing Guyana in the Beijing Olympics . Roberts participated in the men 's 50 meter freestyle , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games . During the 14 August preliminary round , Roberts swam in the sixth heat of his event and completed his race in 25 @.@ 13 seconds . Roberts placed seventh , placing ahead of Mohamed Attoumane of the Comoros ( 29 @.@ 63 seconds ) and behind Mozambique 's Chakyl Camal ( 24 @.@ 93 seconds ) . The leaders of Roberts ' heat were Nigeria 's Yellow Yei Yah ( 24 @.@ 00 seconds ) and the Netherlands Antilles ' Rodion Davelaar ( 24 @.@ 21 seconds ) . Out of the 97 athletes who participated in the preliminary round , Roberts ranked 69th . He did not advance to later rounds .
Men
= Baths of Zeuxippus =
The Baths of Zeuxippus were popular public baths in the city of Constantinople , the capital of the Byzantine Empire . They were built between 100 to 200 , destroyed by the Nika revolt of 532 and then rebuilt several years later . They were so called because they were built upon the site where a Temple of Jupiter ( Zeus ) had formerly existed . They were built around 500 yards south of the much older baths of Achilles of the earlier Greek Acropolis in Byzantion . The baths were famed primarily for the many statues that were built within , and the famous people they each represented . However , they were later used for military purposes , during the seventh century . Excavations of the site and the Baths were made in 1928 .
= = Description = =
The original baths , which were founded and built by Septimius Severus , and decorated under Constantine I were adorned with numerous mosaics and over eighty statues , mostly those of historical figures , with Homer , Hesiod , Plato , Aristotle , Julius Caesar , Demosthenes , Aeschines and Virgil all among them , as well as the figures of gods and mythological heroes ; . These statues were taken from various places worldwide , including regions such as Asia and the surrounding areas , Rome , Greece and Asia Minor . The Baths did , indeed , follow a trend of architecture during the period ; places such as the Palace of the Senate , that of the Forums , the Palace of Lausus were all adorned with similar statues , of heroes ( mythological and not ) , historical figures , and powerful people , becoming part of a contemporary form of artful architecture .
For a relatively small fee , entrance could be gained by any member of the general public to the Bath complex . While the area was obviously primarily used for public bathing , one could exercise and enjoy a variety of recreational activities . Attendants were paid to oversee these activities , and the happenings of the complex , enforcing opening and closing times , and the rules of conduct . Men and women were not allowed to bathe together ; they would either be in separate baths , or bathe at different times of the day .
The popularity of the Baths of Zeuxippus was very great among the citizens , despite the numerous number of baths that had been available for public access at the time in Constantinople , and therefore , the great competition that existed in that commercial area . Even the likes of clergy and monks were seen there , despite the insistence by their superiors that the baths were places of impious behaviour .
= = Location = =
The 12th century scholar Zonaras tells of how Severus connected the baths to the Hippodrome and , in doing so , built it on the site of the Temple of Jupiter . However , Leontius , who was more accurate in his writings ( which also predate those of Zonaras ) , instead asserted that the baths were not actually joined to the Hippodrome , but was simply close to it :
Between Zeuxippus ' cool refreshing baths ,
And the famed Hippodrome 's swift course I stand .
Let the spectator , where he bathes himself
Or sees the struggling steed panting for breath
Pay a kind visit , to enhance his pleasures ;
He 'll find a hearty welcome at my table .
Or if more manly sports his mind affects ,
Practice the rough diversions of the stadia .
In addition to this , the Baths of Zeuxippus were also close ( most probably adjacent ) to the Great Palace grounds . This evidences their popularity , as such a location would have attracted many people , being in such great proximity to such significant places . The square of the Augustaeum and the basilica of Hagia Sophia were also close to the Baths .
The map to the right shows the Baths ' approximate location within Constantinople , as determined by excavations made there . As can be seen , the Baths were roughly quadrangular in shape , and were , indeed , very close to , or even " connected " to the Palace , as Zonaras indicated .
= = Destruction and later use = =
As a result of the Nika revolt of 532 , which constituted the worst uprising Constantinople had seen at the time , and which left half of the city in ruins and thousands of people dead , the original Baths of Zeuxippus were destroyed in blazing fire . While Justinian took action to rebuild the Baths , he could not recreate or restore the statues or the antiquities that were lost in 532 .
Soon after this however , in the early 7th century , as a result of extreme military and political pressure on the Byzantine Empire , public bathing changed from being a common luxury to a rare and infrequent one , and many public facilities and venues began to be used for the austere purposes of the military . They are last attested as being used as baths in 713 , before being converted to other uses : part of the building became the prison known as Noumera , while another part appears to have been used as a silk workshop .
Almost 1 @,@ 000 years later , in 1556 , the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan built the Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı on the same grounds . Later still , in 1927 @-@ 1928 , excavations were made at the site , and many historical relics were recovered , such as earthenware and glazed pottery , giving unique insights into the architectural designs and social interests of the people and culture of Constantinople at the time .
Most particular of the objects found at the site were two statues which were inscribed with the words Hekabe and Aeschenes [ sic ] on their bases , giving rise to the theory that tells of how Christodorus of Coptus effectively wrote the six epigrams on the many statues of the Baths , and lending further plausibility to the writings of both Zonaras and Leontius .
= = Inspired Literature = =
Christodorus of Coptus , an Egyptian poet and writer wrote a lengthy ( 416 lines long ) hexameter piece of poetry inspired by the glory of the statues housed within the halls of the Baths of Zeuxippus . This poem actually consisted of a number of short epigrams ( six in total ) , each focusing on one or a small group of statues within the Baths , designed to combine to form one work . While it has been suggested that the epigrams of Christodorus of Coptus may actually have been inscribed on the ( bases ) of the statues themselves , this is unlikely because of his use of the ekphrastic medium , and the presence of the past tense in the text .
= MediEvil =
MediEvil is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed by SCE Cambridge Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation . It was first released in Europe and North America on 1 October 1998 and in Japan on 17 June 1999 . It was followed by a sequel , MediEvil 2 , released in 2000 , and a PlayStation Portable remake released in 2005 titled MediEvil : Resurrection . It was also re @-@ released on the PlayStation Network in 2007 . The game is set in the medieval Kingdom of Gallowmere and centres around the charlatan protagonist , Sir Daniel Fortesque , as he makes an attempt to stop antagonist Zarok 's invasion of the kingdom whilst simultaneously redeeming himself .
Development began in 1995 at Millenium Interactive in Cambridge under the working title of " Dead Man Dan " . The game 's visuals are heavily influenced by Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas . Originally conceived as an arcade @-@ style shooter for platforms such as Windows and the Sega Saturn , Sony 's purchase of SCE Cambridge Studio evolved the game into a PlayStation title . The game received mostly positive praise from critics upon release , with praise including its blend of Hallowe 'en themed visuals but was criticised for its controls and cumbersome camera work .
= = Gameplay = =
The game takes place across a variety of levels , many of which require certain objectives to be performed to progress . Sir Daniel Fortesque can use a variety of weapons , consisting of close range weapons such as swords and clubs to long range weapons such as crossbows . Many of these weapons can be charged for a powerful attack and some weapons , such as the club , can be used to access areas that are otherwise inaccessible . When not possessing any items , Dan is able to rip his own arm off and use it for both melee and ranged attacks . Dan can equip a shield alongside weapons to defend against attacks ; though they can only take several hits of damage before breaking . Throughout the game , Dan can visit gargoyle heads of two varieties ; green ones offer Dan information while blue ones allow Dan to buy services or ammunition by using the treasures he finds .
Dan 's health is determined by a single health bar , which reduces when Dan is hit . It will deplete completely if Dan drowns or falls from a great height . If Dan completely runs out of health , the game will end . Dan can extend his maximum health by collecting Life Bottles , which will automatically refill his health bar if it drops to zero . Also hidden throughout the game are Life Vials and Life Fountains that can replenish Dan 's health and fill up any empty Life Bottles Dan has . In each level , there is a hidden Chalice of Souls , which can be collected if the player fills it with enough souls from defeated enemies ( some Chalices are awarded via other means ) . If the player clears a level with a Chalice in hand , Dan is warped to the Hall of Heroes , where he can speak to a legendary hero who will give him rewards , such as weapons . If the player finishes the game with all the Chalices , the game 's true ending is revealed .
= = Plot = =
In the year 1286 , an evil sorcerer named Zarok plotted to take over the kingdom of Gallowmere with his undead army . It is told in legend that the King of Gallowmere 's champion , Sir Daniel Fortesque , led his army to victory and managed to kill Zarok before succumbing to his mortal wounds . In reality however , Dan was in fact struck down by the first arrow fired in the battle , with the king choosing to cover it up and declare Dan the " Hero of Gallowmere " . Zarok , meanwhile , was forced into hiding and was presumed dead . 100 years later , in 1386 , Zarok reappears , casting a spell over Gallowmere to awaken his undead army and steal the souls of the living . However , in the process , he unwittingly revives the corpse of Dan , who has over time become a skeletal corpse , missing his jaw and the eye he lost in the battle of Gallowmere . Having been unable to
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It was the first pay @-@ per @-@ view of the In Your House series and consisted of ten professional wrestling matches .
In the main event WWF World Heavyweight Champion Diesel defeated Sid to retain his title . In the undercard Bret Hart defeated Hakushi , but lost to Jerry Lawler , whereas Razor Ramon defeated Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie in a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match .
The pay @-@ per @-@ view received a 0 @.@ 83 buyrate , equivalent to approximately 332 @,@ 000 buys .
= = Background = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view was the first ever under the In Your House banner , which signaled the beginning of the WWF 's monthly pay @-@ per @-@ views . The In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ views were promoted at US $ 14 @.@ 95 , which was cheaper than WWF 's other pay @-@ per @-@ views , in an effort to increase its revenue from the pay @-@ per @-@ view market after several years out of the spotlight .
The most prominent rivalry heading into the pay @-@ per @-@ view was between then @-@ WWF Champion Diesel and his storyline rival Sid . At the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view , WrestleMania XI , Diesel defeated Shawn Michaels to retain the WWF Championship , partly due to an interference by Michaels ' bodyguard Sid backfiring . The following night , Michaels stated that for a potential rematch , he would give Sid the night off , causing the bodyguard to turn on Michaels by powerbombing him three times . Diesel eventually came out to help Michaels . Michaels was legitimately injured , and this sidelined him for six weeks , effectively shelving plans for a rematch between Diesel and Michaels . Diesel was then scheduled to defend his title against Bam Bam Bigelow , a member of the Million Dollar Corporation stable , after a staged confrontation between the two on the April 16 , 1995 episode of Action Zone , a secondary television program for the WWF . On the same day , on Wrestling Challenge , another secondary television program , in a segment featuring the Corporation , Bigelow was noticeably snubbed , signaling a turn . Over the weekend of April 16 , a match between Sid and Diesel was scheduled for In Your House , in which Sid could potentially face Diesel for the WWF Championship , depending on whether he retained or lost his title against Bigelow . On the April 24 episode of Raw , Sid stated he was unhappy about this stipulation , as it meant that if Bigelow won , Sid would not get a shot at the title . Diesel retained the title when the Corporation turned on Bigelow , with Tatanka tripping Bigelow as he ran off the ropes . Diesel hit Bigelow with a big boot and executed a powerbomb for the win . After the contest , Bigelow was insulted by Ted DiBiase and attacked by the Corporation . Diesel , who had gone back to the locker room , came to Bigelow 's aid . In Sid 's match with Razor Ramon on the May 1 episode of Raw , Diesel approached the ring ready to fight Sid , who , along with the Corporation 's manager DiBiase , left the arena abruptly . The following week on Raw , DiBiase revealed that he and Sid had been working together for a while , admitting that it was him who told Shawn Michaels to get a bodyguard .
Prior to the event , the feud between Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler , which dated back to King of the Ring 1993 , was revived to also include Hakushi . After Hart won the WWF Magazine " Award of the People " on the February 20 , 1995 episode of Raw , Jerry Lawler suggested that Japanese votes had been excluded and that Hart was a racist . Lawler persuaded Hakushi that Hart was a racist , and on the March 25 episode of Superstars of Wrestling , Hakushi attacked Bret after he received a separate award from the Japanese media . On the April 10 episode of Raw , Bret teamed up with the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Bob Holly to take on Hakushi and the WWF Tag Team Champions , Owen Hart and Yokozuna . Bret 's team won the match as Holly pinned Owen . On the April 23 episode of Wrestling Challenge a match between Bret and Hakushi was set for In Your House . On the same day , on Action Zone , Bret teamed with Razor Ramon to take on WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett ( accompanied by The Roadie ) and Hakushi . Bret and Ramon won the match , with Ramon pinning Jarrett . On the May 1 episode of Raw , Bret offered to face Lawler at In Your House after his scheduled match with Hakushi . Bret dedicated his match with Lawler at In Your House to his mother , as the pay @-@ per @-@ view was going to take place on Mother 's Day . Lawler also responded that on the May 8 episode of Raw that his mother was going to be at ringside for their encounter .
The most prominent rivalry on the undercard was for the WWF Intercontinental Championship . The feud took place between Razor Ramon , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid , the Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett , and his personal enforcer , The Roadie . Ramon and Jarrett faced each other at WrestleMania XI , but Jarrett was disqualified . Jarrett faced Aldo Montoya on the April 8 episode of Superstars of Wrestling in a non @-@ title match , where Jarrett accidentally pinned himself ( he never lifted his shoulder off the ground after being slammed to the mat by Montoya ) . Jarrett was initially announced the winner , but Montoya was later declared the winner . Jarrett and Montoya faced each other again two weeks later , on the April 22 episode of Superstars of Wrestling . During the match , Razor Ramon came to ringside and chased The Roadie backstage . Despite this , Jarrett managed to gain the victory , making Montoya submit to the figure four leglock . The next day on Wrestling Challenge , Ramon and the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid were scheduled to square off against Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House . After the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid a legit neck injury rendered Kid unable to wrestle , the match was changed into a Handicap match , in which Ramon would face both Jarrett and The Roadie by himself .
The other main rivalry on the undercard was for the WWF Tag Team Championship between the team of Owen Hart and Yokozuna and The Smoking Gunns ( Billy and Bart ) . The Smoking Gunns dropped their WWF Tag Team Championship to Hart and Yokozuna at WrestleMania XI , the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event . Their rivalry was reignited on the April 23 episode of Action Zone , when the Blu Brothers ( Don and Ron Harris ) faced the New Headshrinkers ( Sionne and Fatu ) . Hart and Yokozuna interfered in the contest , attacking the New Headshrinkers , causing a disqualification . The Smoking Gunns ran to the ring , attacking Hart and Yokozuna . The Headshrinkers posed with Hart and Yokozuna 's tag team belts and celebrated with the Smoking Gunns . The following night , on Raw , the Smoking Gunns were awarded a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at the In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ view . They made their intentions of winning the title clear by quickly defeating Barry Horowitz and the Brooklyn Brawler . In their last encounter before the event , Bart defeated Hart via pinfall on the May 8 episode of Raw .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Jean @-@ Pierre Lafitte defeated Bob Holly in a standard dark match . In the weeks preceding the event , the WWF ran a competition to win a house in Orlando , Florida . Todd Pettengill and Stephanie Wiand showed footage of the home and later hand @-@ picked one of the entries . They phoned Matt Pomposelli of Henderson , Nevada and told him that he and his family had won the vacant home . The home was officially presented to Pomposelli on the May 22 episode of Raw .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was a standard match between Bret Hart and Hakushi ( managed by Shinja ) . Bret announced before the contest that he was dedicating his performances to his mother because it was Mother 's Day . Jerry Lawler , who faced Bret later in the pay @-@ per @-@ view , watched the match backstage on a monitor . Bret won the contest , when he rolled @-@ up Hakushi to gain a pinfall and end Hakushi 's six @-@ month @-@ long undefeated streak . As Hart jumped to the arena floor after the contest , he appeared to legitimately injure his knee .
A two @-@ on @-@ one Handicap match was next as Razor Ramon faced Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie . During the match , Jarrett went to perform the figure four leglock submission hold , but Ramon blocked the maneuver , sending Jarrett to collide with his partner . Ramon performed his " Razor 's Edge " finishing move and pinned Jarrett for the victory . After the contest , Ramon tried to perform the " Razor 's Edge " on The Roadie , but Jarrett attacked him and applied the figure four leglock . Aldo Montoya went to ringside and attempted to help Ramon , but Jarrett and The Roadie threw him to the arena floor . An " unknown man " ran to the ring and attacked both Jarrett and The Roadie , and several people escorted the " unknown man " backstage . Later in the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Ramon introduced the " unknown man " as Savio Vega during an interview in the " WWF Hotline Room " , a fictitious interview room for the WWF .
A qualifying match for the 1995 King of the Ring tournament took place next as Mabel faced Adam Bomb in a standard match . The contest was one @-@ sided and ended in two minutes when Mabel pinned Bomb after he powerslamed him down to the mat . Mabel advanced to the next round of the tournament , beginning a push for the superstar .
Next , Jerry Lawler went to the ring to give a promotional interview before his scheduled match with Bret Hart , declaring that he wanted his match with Bret to take place despite Bret 's injury . Lawler was then sent backstage by Tony Garea and Rene Goulet , and Bret was shown icing down his knee .
Next was a tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship , where the team of Owen Hart and Yokozuna ( managed by Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji ) defended their titles against The Smoking Gunns ( Bart and Billy Gunn ) . Owen pinned Bart for the victory after Yokozuna delivered a leg drop to Bart 's chest , therefore retaining the championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
Before his match with Bret Hart , Lawler introduced a woman obviously younger than himself as his mother , and wished her a happy Mother 's Day . Moments before the contest , Hart revealed that his knee injury was fake . During the contest , referee Earl Hebner became tied upside down in the ropes after being distracted by Shinja . While Hebner was tied upside down , Hakushi interfered and performed a diving headbutt to Hart . Lawler won the match when he rolled @-@ up Hart for the pinfall .
The pay @-@ per @-@ view 's main event was a standard match for the WWF Championship , where the champion Diesel defended the title against Sid ( managed by Ted DiBiase ) . Late in the contest , Diesel performed a Jacknife Powerbomb on Sid and went for the pinfall . Tatanka came out and attacked Diesel , which resulted in Diesel retaining the championship via disqualification . Tatanka , along with DiBiase , attacked Diesel . Sid attempted to perform a powerbomb , but Bam Bam Bigelow ran to the ring , forcing the villains to go to the outside .
= = = Dark matches = = =
After the live pay @-@ per @-@ view went off the air there were 3 more dark matches . The first was between The Undertaker and Kama in a standard match , which The Undertaker won after giving Kama a " Tombstone Piledriver " . While this match was not shown on pay @-@ per @-@ view , it was included as a bonus match on the VHS home video release .
The next dark match was between Bigelow and Tatanka , which Bigelow won after diving off the top rope and hitting a sunset flip for the pin . This match was also included on the VHS home video release .
The final dark match of the night was a qualifier for the King of the Ring tournament between Davey Boy Smith and Owen Hart ( managed by Jim Cornette ) . The match went to a fifteen @-@ minute time @-@ limit draw . Unlike the other dark matches , this was taped for the June 5 episode of Raw .
= = Aftermath = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view garnered 332 @,@ 000 buys , which is equivalent to a 0 @.@ 83 buyrate , a large number that generally surprised many pay @-@ per @-@ view providers . It had more buys than all the other In Your House pay @-@ per @-@ views , with In Your House : Good Friends , Better Enemies receiving the second highest buyrate of 324 @,@ 000 buys .
At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , King of the Ring , Diesel teamed up with Bam Bam Bigelow to defeat Sid and Tatanka . Sid faced Diesel in a rematch for the WWF Championship at the In Your House 2 pay @-@ per @-@ view in a Lumberjack match . Diesel retained the title after hitting Sid with his boot . Mabel 's push culminated with him winning the King of the Ring tournament by defeating Savio Vega in the finals . With this , Mabel went on to face Diesel at SummerSlam for the WWF Championship , where Diesel retained the title . The rivalry between Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler also continued into King of the Ring , with the two facing each other at the event in a " Kiss My Foot " match . Hart won the match despite outside interference from Hakushi , making Lawler submit to the Sharpshooter . After the match , Hart forced Lawler to kiss his feet .
= = Results = =
= Battle of Osijek =
The Battle of Osijek ( Croatian : Bitka za Osijek ) was the artillery bombardment of the Croatian city of Osijek by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) which took place from August 1991 to June 1992 during the Croatian War of Independence . Shelling peaked in late November and December 1991 , then diminished in 1992 after the Vance plan was accepted by the combatants . Airstrikes and attacks by JNA infantry and armored units against targets in the city accompanied the bombardment , which caused approximately 800 deaths and resulted in a large portion of the city 's population leaving . Croatian sources estimated that 6 @,@ 000 artillery shells were fired against Osijek over the period .
After the JNA captured Vukovar on 18 November 1991 , Osijek was the next target for its campaign in Croatia . The JNA units subordinated to the 12th ( Novi Sad ) Corps , supported by the Serb Volunteer Guard , achieved modest advances in late November and early December , capturing several villages south of Osijek , but the Croatian Army maintained its defensive front and limited the JNA 's advances .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Osijek , Croatian authorities charged thirteen JNA officers with war crimes against civilians , but no arrests have been made to date . Croatian authorities also charged the wartime commander of Osijek 's defence , Branimir Glavaš , and five others with war crimes committed in the city in 1991 . The five were convicted and received sentences ranging between eight and ten years , and as of March 2015 , judicial proceedings against Glavaš are in progress .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) to minimize potential resistance . On 17 August 1990 , the escalating tensions turned into open revolt by the Croatian Serbs . The revolt took place in the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin and in parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , made two unsuccessful attempts to obtain approval from the Yugoslav Presidency to deploy the JNA to disarm Croatian security forces .
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the federal Presidency to grant it wartime powers and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March 1991 , and the JNA came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević in the summer of 1991 as the Yugoslav federation started to fall apart . By the end of the month , the conflict had escalated , resulting in the first fatalities of the war . The JNA then stepped in to support the insurgents and prevent Croatian police from intervening . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia announced their intention to integrate the areas under their control with Serbia . The Government of Croatia considered this an act of secession .
= = Timeline = =
The JNA intervened directly against Croatia for the first time on 3 July 1991 , driving Croatian forces out of Baranja , north of the city of Osijek , and out of Erdut , Aljmaš and Dalj east of Osijek . The advance was followed by intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci . At several points , JNA positions approached to within several hundred yards of Osijek city limits .
The JNA units near Osijek were subordinated to the 12th ( Novi Sad ) Corps , commanded by Major General Andrija Biorčević . In the city itself , the JNA had several barracks which housed the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade and the 12th Mixed Artillery Regiment . The 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade contained one of a handful battalions maintained by the JNA at full combat readiness . Osijek was established as their starting point in a planned westward offensive toward Našice and Bjelovar .
Croatian forces in the area were formally subordinated to the Operational Zone Command in Osijek headed by Colonel Karl Gorinšek . In practice , the city 's defense was overseen by Branimir Glavaš , then head of the National Defence Office in Osijek , according to information presented at Glavaš trial in the 2000s . Glavaš formally became commander of city defenses on 7 December 1991 .
= = = Bombardment of the city = = =
The JNA first attacked Osijek by mortar fire on 31 July 1991 , and heavily bombarded the city 's center on 19 August 1991 . The attacks came from positions north , east and south of Osijek , and were supported by JNA garrisons stationed in Osijek itself . On 7 – 9 September , an inconclusive battle was fought in Tenja , within three kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 miles ) of the city . The JNA garrisons were besieged by Croatian forces in mid @-@ September . After a barracks in the city centre was captured on 15 September 1991 , the remaining JNA garrison tried to break through the Croatian troops besieging the barracks and , after heavy fighting , reached JNA positions south of Osijek on 17 September 1991 . The intensity of the shelling increased thereafter , peaking through November and December . After a ceasefire was arranged in January 1992 , following the acceptance of the Vance plan , the artillery attacks dropped off and became intermittent , and ceased by June .
During its height , the intensity of the bombardment was reported to reach as high as one shell per minute , and the artillery attacks were compounded by Yugoslav Air Force strikes against the city . According to Croatian sources , a total of 6 @,@ 000 artillery shells were fired against Osijek in the period . Prior to the start of the bombardment , the civilian population of Osijek totaled 104 @,@ 761 city residents and 129 @,@ 792 municipal residents . These numbers were significantly reduced as civilians fled the fighting . It is estimated that only about a third of the population remained in the city by the end of November , with some sources placing the estimate even lower , suggesting that the population of the city was reduced to just 10 @,@ 000 civilians during the most intense periods of the bombardment . Those who remained in Osijek through the fighting generally slept in bomb shelters .
= = = Ground offensive = = =
After JNA captured Vukovar on 18 November , the JNA 12th ( Novi Sad ) Corps , supported by the Serbian Ministry of Interior @-@ trained Serb Volunteer Guard paramilitaries , started to advance west between Vinkovci and Osijek on 20 November . The city of Osijek appeared to be the next target of the JNA , which was later confirmed by General Života Panić , commander of the JNA 1st Military District .
On 21 November 1991 , the JNA captured the villages of Stari Seleš , Novi Seleš and Ernestinovo situated approximately ten kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) south of Osijek . Laslovo , five kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) south of Ernestinovo , was captured three days later . Those developments threatened Đakovo and pointed to the potential encirclement of Osijek . On 4 December 1991 , the Special Envoy of Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Cyrus Vance visited Osijek to inspect the damage .
In early December , the JNA made modest advances , capturing Antunovac located six kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) south of Osijek on 5 December 1991 . On the same day , an armoured JNA force unsuccessfully attacked positions held by the Croatian 106th Brigade in Rosinjača Forest near Nemetin , approximately two kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) east of Osijek . On 6 December , the JNA pushed Croatian troops out from Tenja , followed by a heavy attack against Osijek repulsed by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) on 7 December . On 11 December , HV personnel entered the frontline village of Paulin Dvor , less than three kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 miles ) kilometers west of Ernestinovo , and summarily executed 19 civilians ( 18 Serbs and one Hungarian ) . The JNA captured Paulin Dvor five days later , on 16 December , and attacked Osijek once again . The HV managed to contain the attack , though fighting continued south of Osijek until January 1992 .
= = = Operation Devil 's Beam = = =
Advances of the JNA north of Osijek threatened HV control of a narrow bridgehead held across the Drava River skirting the city 's northern edge . By mid @-@ December the bridgehead was reduced to a strip of land opposite Osijek , encompassing suburban settlements of Podravlje and Tvrđavica . In order to remove the threat , the HV launched an offensive codenamed Operation Devil 's Beam ( Croatian : Operacija Đavolja greda ) on 17 – 18 December . The offensive , involving the 1st Battalion of the 135th Brigade , elements of the special forces Frankopan Battalion and the Osijek @-@ based Orao special police unit , Drava River flotilla , artillery of the 106th Brigade , and personnel of the 4th Beli Manastir Police Station , successfully pushed the JNA north , across Stara Drava oxbow lake located approximately four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 miles ) north of Osijek . The JNA also withdrew from the village of Kopačevo towards Darda and Vardarac , but the HV did not have sufficient resources to exploit the development . The HV lost eight killed in the offensive , but the JNA 's advance towards Osijek from the north was halted .
= = Aftermath = =
By June 1992 , approximately 800 people had been killed by the bombardment . By the end of the Croatian War of Independence in 1995 , a total of 1 @,@ 724 people from Osijek had been killed , including 1 @,@ 327 soldiers and 397 civilians . The city itself suffered great damage during the war , with the bulk of direct damage occurring as a consequence of the 1991 – 92 bombardment . Direct war damage sustained by the city was estimated at a total of US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The damage was regularly recorded by 400 volunteers during the bombardment .
Although media reported on the bombardment of Osijek , journalists in the city itself felt that it was receiving an unduly low level of media coverage compared to wartime events elsewhere in Croatia . The attacks on Osijek were welcomed by the Pravoslavlje newspaper published by the Serbian Orthodox Church , which appeared to give a blessing to the attack as a part of a " holy war " , setting it in the context of World War II massacres and concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia .
The JNA withdrew from Croatia in 1992 , but continued to contribute personnel and equipment to the Army of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( ARSK ) which controlled the areas previously held by the JNA . Although the United Nations Protection Force peacekeepers deployed to the area on the basis of the Vance plan and placed most of the ARSK heavy weapons in storage , Osijek was intermittently bombarded throughout the war — the last artillery strike occurred in September 1995 . The hostilities ceased in November 1995 through the Erdut Agreement securing restoration of Croatian rule in the region .
In November 2010 , then @-@ Croatian President Ivo Josipović officially apologized for the Paulin Dvor massacre , shortly after his Serbian counterpart Boris Tadić issued a formal apology for the massacre at Vukovar .
= = = War crime trials = = =
In 2008 , Croatian authorities formally charged Colonel Boro Ivanović , commanding officer of the JNA 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade , and twelve other JNA officers with war crimes against the civilian population . The charges include causing the deaths of 307 civilians in Osijek and surrounding areas , injuries to another 171 civilians , and the destruction of at least 1 @,@ 188 different structures . As of 2013 , all of the indicted officers remain at large in Serbia .
In 2005 , the Osijek District Court convicted former Croatian soldier Nikola Ivanković for his involvement in the killings at Paulin Dvor , and sentenced him to 15 years in prison . In 2012 , Enes Vitesković was also convicted for his involvement in the atrocity , and given an eleven @-@ year sentence .
After the war , five Croatian fighters were charged and convicted of eleven counts of murder , one of attempted murder , and one of torture of Serb civilians found in the JNA barracks , which surrendered on 15 September 1991 . They received prison sentences of between five and eight years . Glavaš , who was tried alongside them for the same crimes , received a ten @-@ year sentence . Before the conviction became final in 2009 , and to avoid extradition , Glavaš fled to Bosnia and Herzegovina , where he had granted citizenship . His sentence was reduced to eight years and became final in 2010 , when he was arrested and imprisoned in Bosnia and Herzegovina . In January 2015 , the conviction was set aside by the Constitutional Court of Croatia , pending a new trial before the Supreme Court of Croatia .
= Cubs Win Flag =
The Cubs Win Flag is a victory flag that is flown at Wrigley Field after every Chicago Cubs home win . The flag is variously referred to by approximately a dozen names , combining ; either Cubs or Chicago Cubs ; Win , W , White , White W , or W Win ; and flag , banner or banner flag . Other common names for the symbol include Chicago Cubs W Win Flag and Chicago Cubs Win Banner Flag . It has become an important symbol for fans that one retailer describes as a fan banner instead of flag , or banner flag . In addition , days when the win flag is flown are known as " White Flag Days " . The tradition of flying a win or loss flag over the stadium began soon after the construction of the scoreboard in 1937 .
The flag has used two different color schemes with the letter " W " on a solid background , and there is a loss indicator flag with a letter " L " . Additionally , the flags have been complemented by different color schemes of indicator lights . The flag is also changed after each Cubs win . The flag has become a very symbolic emblem for devout Cubs fans . Some retailers sell slightly different versions that also have the Cubs logo at the bottom .
= = Detail = =
Flying a flag over Wrigley field to denote wins and losses is a longstanding tradition . Currently , the Win Flag is composed of a large blue letter " W " on a white background while the Loss Flag is a large white letter " L " on a blue background . The phrase " White flag time at Wrigley ! " is therefore used to explain that the Cubs have just won that day 's home game . The flag is raised by a scoreboard crew member immediately after the completion of a game , and in the case of a doubleheader split , both flags are flown .
It is customary to fly flags from sunrise until sunset , unless they are directly illuminated . At the beginning of each day , the cross @-@ shaped " masthead " atop the center field scoreboard displays the American flag at the top , and three strands of flags bearing the colors and nicknames of each of the National League clubs , one strand per Division in order of that day 's standings . Immediately after the game , one of the strands of flags is lowered , and either the W or the L @-@ lettered flag is raised in its place . The W @-@ lettered flag is raised on the left field side of the board , above the blue light that also indicates a win . The L @-@ lettered flag is raised on the right field side of the board , above the white light that indicates a loss . Once the Win or Loss Flag has been raised , the other flags are lowered and also stowed away inside the scoreboard .
The symbolism of the flag now serves a wide variety of purposes . It is commonly reproduced in 3 by 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 by 1 @.@ 52 m ) dimensions , and car flag versions are also sold . The flag is also available in 2 by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 by 0 @.@ 91 m ) dimension versions . The flag has become a celebratory symbol for Chicago Cubs fans who purchase reproductions and take them to games at home and on the road to show support . The fans wave them after victories at Wrigley Field , and they hang them in the stands during playoff series . Some fans fly a win flag in place of or in addition to the Flag of the United States on days when the Cubs win . Since 1998 , the flags have become ever more popular , with demand reaching a level where they are sold at Wrigley field . In 2007 , with the Cubs in playoff contention for the first time in 3 years , the Cubs ' victory tune , Go Cubs Go ! became more popular among the fans . Due to the song 's growing popularity , after wins at home , Cubs TV broadcasters Len Kasper and Bob Brenly would have their microphones shut off , while the camera pans around the stadium to view the jubilant fans as Go Cubs Go ! plays in the background . After fans discovered this , they started purchasing " W " flags and waving them after wins at home as an attempt to get on TV . However , in seasons when the Cubs are performing poorly the tradition has led to parody and satire , such as stories of the Cubs retiring the win flag due to signs of neglect . While not having the popularity of the Win Flag , the Loss Flag has become increasingly popular with clubs who traditionally have rivalries with the Cubs , such as the St. Louis Cardinals , Milwaukee Brewers or Chicago White Sox . Fans of those teams wave the blue flag after their team defeats the Cubs at Busch Stadium or U.S. Cellular Field . However , because of the enormous fan base that the Cubs hold , it isn 't un @-@ common to see fans at games on the road waving their " W " flags during Cubs wins on the road .
The flag is known by many names , with none being more prevalent than the rest , and may often be referred to by more than one name by the same manufacturer . " Chicago Cubs W Win Flag " is the name used on Amazon.com , however the company also refers to the flag as Chicago Cubs ' W ' Banner Flag in their marketplace section . CubWorld.com also refers to the flag by the name Chicago Cubs ' W ' Banner Flag . Other retailers use the names Cubs Win W Flag , Chicago Cubs Win 3 ' x 5 ' Flag , Cubs W Flag , or ( Chicago Cubs ) W Flag in the case of Sports Fan Warehouse . One retailer even sells an item called the Chicago Cubs W Fan Banner . Another retailer sells two versions of the flag listed as Chicago Cubs Win W Flag and Chicago Cubs Win Flag , yet its advertisements mentions celebrating a Cub win with the Chicago Cubs White " W " Flag . An alternate version that has the Chicago Cubs logo beneath the W can be found under the name Chicago Cubs Win W Banner .
= = History = =
The Cubs ' then @-@ owner Philip K. Wrigley ordered the reconstruction of the bleachers and the building of the manually operated scoreboard in 1937 . The scoreboard 's " masthead " was in place by 1938 , displaying the American flag at the top and flags representing the eight clubs of the National League on the left and right strands of the masthead , four apiece . In the 1940s , the practice of raising the Win / Loss flags was begun .
The flags were originally a white " W " on a blue flag and a blue " L " on a white flag . This matched what was then the color scheme of the Cubs " team flags " that flew on the foul poles , and the many little " W.F. " flags that flew on the grandstand roof ( all of them serving to give the players a sense of the wind speed and direction ) . Ernie Banks was the first Cub to have his number retired on August 22 , 1982 , and his number 14 has been flown in blue on a white flag ( echoing the pattern of a Cubs home uniform shirt ) on the left field foul pole ever since . On August 13 , 1987 , Billy Williams had his number retired and it flew with the same color scheme , on the right field foul pole . The scheme of the Cubs Win flag was reversed in the early 1980s . The change in the flag color scheme matched the Win flag color with the honored colors of the retired number flags , as the white @-@ on @-@ blue Cubs " team flag " was retired . Subsequent retired Cubs numbers for Ron Santo , Ryne Sandberg and Ferguson Jenkins / Greg Maddux also match this color scheme .
In addition to the flags , Wrigley authorized Bill Veeck , the leader of the bleacher reconstruction project , to add colored lights on the crossbar of the masthead so that the Chicago ' L ' passengers would be able to see the outcome of Cubs home games after sunset . In his autobiography , Veeck remembered the colors as green for a win and red for a loss . Hartell 's book acknowledges Veeck 's comments , but reports that contemporary newspapers stated that the colors of the lights were blue and white , as they are now . Eventually the original lights on the masthead were replaced by lights directly on the top of scoreboard , still visible from outside Wrigley field . The lights complement the flags by helping night time passersby learn the result of that day 's Cubs game at a glance . The current blue and white Win / Loss lights were added atop the scoreboard in 1978 .
On April 23 , 2008 the Cubs won for the 10,000th time in the history of the franchise on the road against the Colorado Rockies . Like the 9,000th win , the 10,000th win came in a 7 – 6 victory at Coors Field . The Cubs were the second franchise to achieve 10 @,@ 000 regular season wins ; the San Francisco Giants / New York Giants were the first . The franchise flew a special 10,000th win flag along with a Cubs Win flag to commemorate the landmark achievement for the franchise . This was unusual not just for the 10,000th win , but also for flying the flag in reference to a road game . The special flag flew from the afternoon of April 24 , 2008 until immediately prior to the next home game on April 29 , 2008 at 7 : 05pm against the Milwaukee Brewers . After the flag was taken down , it was autographed by all members of the 2008 Chicago Cubs and auctioned off for charity .
= The Amazing Maleeni =
" The Amazing Maleeni " is the eighth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 16 , 2000 . It was written by Vince Gilligan , John Shiban , and Frank Spotnitz and directed by Thomas J. Wright . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " The Amazing Maleeni " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 4 , being watched by 16 @.@ 18 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , The Amazing Maleeni , a small @-@ time magician , performs an amazing feat to impress a heckler — he turns his head 360 degrees . So when he is later found without a head at all , Mulder and Scully arrive on the case and discover an angry ex @-@ con , an unimpressed rival , and Maleeni ’ s twin brother . All seem to have something to do with a plan to rob a major bank .
Although written by Gilligan , Shiban , and Spotnitz , the story for " The Amazing Maleeni " was conceived largely by executive producer Frank Spotnitz , who had wanted to do an episode dealing with " magic and illusion " since the show 's second season . Real @-@ life magician Ricky Jay , who also was Spotnitz 's favorite , was brought in to play the part of the titular Maleeni .
= = Plot = =
In Santa Monica , California , a magician , The Amazing Maleeni , twists his head completely around at a carnival , while Billy LaBonge , another magician , heckles Maleeni during the event . As he 's leaving , his severed head falls completely off . Billy LaBonge is later questioned by Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) ; he tells the agents that he thought Maleeni was a ripoff . During the autopsy , Scully finds that , although Maleeni 's head was cleanly cut off , he died of a heart attack . She also finds that he was dead for at least a month and refrigerated , even though the carnival manager spoke to him mere moments leading up to his head falling off .
Meanwhile , LaBonge finds a man named Cissy Alvarez whom Maleeni owed money . LaBonge admits that he caused Maleeni 's head to fall off , and says that he will give Alvarez the money he is owed if he helps him with his magic . Mulder and Scully learn that Maleeni has an identical twin brother , Albert . Albert , interestingly enough is even wearing a neckbrace , which he says he got in a car accident in Mexico . Mulder tells him he thinks he did the magic act , but the man shows that he has no legs , which he also lost in Mexico in the car accident . Back at work , Alvarez threatens Pinchbeck that he will kill him if he does not get his money . LaBonge then frames Alvarez for a robbery by attacking a security truck disguised as Alvarez . Mulder soon finds out that Pinchbeck is the real Maleeni and that he faked having no legs . After confronting Pinchbeck , he admits that he faked his own death in order to get out of Alvarez 's debt . Pinchbeck admits that he found his brother dead of a heart attack at home and used his body as a double . Pinchbeck is promptly arrested , as is LaBonge , who brings a gun to a bar , in an attempt to purposely get arrested . In addition , Alvarez is arrested because of the attempted robbery LaBonge did earlier .
The vault at Pinchbeck 's work is emptied and the money is found above Alvarez ' bar . Later Mulder and Scully confront LaBonge and Maleeni as they are released on bail , where Mulder explains that he figured out their plan - LaBonge and Pinchbeck were not , in fact , enemies , and that they had been working together to put Alvarez in prison for making LaBonge 's life miserable in prison 8 years prior , and that , as masters of sleight of hand and escape tricks , the two of them easily escaped , performed the robbery , and returned to their cells before being noticed .
After the two magicians make their exit , confident in the lack of evidence against them , Mulder reveals to Scully the true trick being performed — that everything involving Alvarez was purely misdirection . Earlier , when checking whether Pinchbeck had stolen funds from the bank , the manager had told Mulder they would need his badge number and thumb print to gain access to the Electronic Fund Transfer ( EFT ) system . Mulder shows Scully Maleeni 's wallet , which he had collected from evidence before confronting him and LaBonge . When the agents first met LaBonge , he had surreptitiously pickpocketed their badges as an example of his skill with sleight of hand , which gave him Mulder 's badge number . Upon their first meeting with Pinchbeck impersonating his brother , Pinchbeck did a card trick with Mulder , leaving Mulder 's prints on the card , which as Mulder displays , is securely in Maleeni 's wallet . Mulder explains that the pair purposely acted in a high profile manner to draw the attention of the FBI , and that if they had collected the badge number and thumbprint , they would have been able to perform EFTs . As Mulder and Scully leave the jail , Scully shows that she , too , has learned a trick , and turns her hand around 360 degrees in a similar fashion as LaBonge had done with his hand before . Mulder asks Scully to explain how , and she brushes him off , saying simply " magic " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The idea behind " The Amazing Maleeni " started with executive producer Frank Spotnitz . When pitching ideas for the seventh season episodes , Spotnitz wanted an episode to deal solely on " magic and illusion " and have nothing to do with the paranormal . Spotnitz had been petitioning the writers of The X @-@ Files for a magic @-@ based episode since season two , but nothing ever came to light . Eventually , during the seventh season , Vince Gilligan was assigned to write the episode , something he described as " agony " . Gilligan explained , " The episode started with Frank , because he — for several years — had wanted to write an episode about magicians . Frank was a fan of the TV show The Magician with Bill Bixby so I believe that was part of it , but Frank was interested in the idea of magic and the idea of fooling people who wished to be fooled . "
Spotnitz 's favorite magician was Ricky Jay , and so , for the episode , Jay was brought in to play the part of The Amazing Maleeni . Initially , however , the episode hit a snag . The production crew discovered that Jay 's production agency had not been informed and that he would be unable to guest star in the episode . The staff 's back @-@ up magician , David Blaine , was unavailable for shooting as well . Series creator Chris Carter , however , later stated that the show would not take no for an answer : " We got on the phone with him . He agreed to come to our offices to talk about the script and ended up doing some card tricks for us that reduced Frank and I to being six @-@ year @-@ olds again . " Jay eventually agreed to do the part , but requested that he only do the tricks he was accustomed to doing . Thus , many of Jay 's trademark tricks were included in the episode 's script . Gilligan , in retrospect , later noted , " There was no choice other than Ricky Jay as far as we were concerned . He was not looking forward to the idea of playing a magician because I think he felt that magicians were never portrayed very realistically in movies or television shows . "
The cast and crew of the episode enjoyed the " amusement park " feel of the story . Gillian Anderson later noted , " Because of all the magic , I was constantly being entertained . The difficulty with something like this is you have tendency to forget that people are still having bad things happen to them . " Anderson later stated that , because many of the lines were written in a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek style , she and David Duchovny said them in a humorous style ; the two had to keep reminding themselves that the story revolved around a murder .
= = = Special effects = = =
The episode used several special effects . However , in order to ensure that the episode felt " camera @-@ real " to preserve the theme of magic and illusions , many of the more intense effects were replaced with more conventional effects . For instance , the scene wherein Bill LaBonge 's hand erupted into flames was created through the use of stunt man , rather than through expensive and , ultimately , " less convincing " CGI effects . The scene featuring The Amazing Maleeni turning his head 360 degrees was created using a prosthetic head , courtesy of John Vulich 's Optic Nerve Studios .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Amazing Maleeni " first aired in the United States on January 16 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , with a 14 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 18 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 79 million viewers , making it the fourth most watched episode that week .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode 's intricacy , writing , " ' The Amazing Maleeni ' is a convoluted episode that ultimately lacks verve and excitement . Even if one can figure out what is going on , there remains the question of how much , or even whether , to care . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated it two stars out of five . The two noted that , had the episode used real magic tricks instead of " resort [ ing ] to CGI , the episode would have been much more than a simple " cheat " . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson criticized the fact that the explanation behind Maleeni turning his head around 360 degrees was never satisfactorily explained . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris compared the episode 's plot to the 1999 movie Arlington Road , noting that while " the scheme is fun to watch while it unfolds , [ … ] in the end , it 's not credible ; too much is left open to chance for it really to happen . "
Not all reviews were so critical . Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 4 out of 5 stars . Although he noted that the episode was " not Gilligan 's best work " and that the writing was " a little spotty " , he said " the vibe [ of ' The Amazing Maleeni ' ] is very well done . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a moderately positive review , writing " My heart wasn 't racing and I wasn 't sitting on the edge of my seat as Mulder and Scully unmasked our two magicians [ … ] But it was fun to put the clues together to see what it all added up to . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and wrote that he " love [ d ] it " . He praised the episode 's " good @-@ naturedness " , which he felt was due to Mulder and Scully 's interaction . Handlen also enjoyed the writing , noting that the " script also does a good job at doling out its secrets in a way that never makes either the magicians or our heroes come off as idiots " . Paul Spragg of Xposé wrote positively of the episode , describing it as a " rather fun tale " .
= Billy Joe Tolliver =
Billy Joe Tolliver ( born February 7 , 1966 ) is a former American football quarterback who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) and Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for twelve seasons . He played for the San Diego Chargers , Atlanta Falcons , Houston Oilers , Shreveport Pirates , Kansas City Chiefs , and New Orleans Saints . Over the course of his career , he played in 79 games , completed 891 of 1 @,@ 707 passes for 10 @,@ 760 yards , threw 59 touchdowns and 64 interceptions , and retired with a passer rating of 67 @.@ 7 .
A graduate of Boyd High School and Texas Tech University , Tolliver was selected 51st in the 1989 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers . He started 19 games in two seasons at San Diego before being traded to Atlanta , where he saw playing time as a backup for three seasons . In 1994 , he became one of three starting quarterbacks for Houston and then served as quarterback of the Shreveport Pirates in the CFL during their final season of activity in 1995 . After not competing in 1996 , Tolliver played for both Atlanta and Kansas City in 1997 . He then started 11 games for New Orleans in two seasons but did not take the field in 2000 . A stint with Green Bay in the 2001 offseason concluded his professional career .
= = High school and college = =
Descended from the Anglo @-@ Italian Taliaferro colonists in 17th @-@ century Virginia , Tolliver was born in Boyd , Texas , where he attended local schools . He played high school football at Boyd High School . During his senior season , he led the Boyd Yellow Jackets to a 15 – 0 – 1 record and the 2 – A state championship . He amassed more than 1 @,@ 000 rushing and passing yards and was named Player of the Year by the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram . Tolliver was a three – sport athlete in high school , averaging 15 points and 17 rebounds in basketball and throwing 14 no @-@ hitters in baseball .
After graduating from high school , Tolliver played college football at Texas Tech University and was a member of the Delta Tau Delta Fraternity . His hard throwing style led Texas Tech head coach David McWilliams to say , " He throws the ball harder , and with more velocity , than anyone I 've ever seen . " He redshirted his freshman season in 1984 and became the starting quarterback in 1985 . On November 9 , 1985 , Tolliver had his first breakout performance at Texas Tech as he threw for a record @-@ setting 422 yards and five touchdowns in a 63 – 7 win over Texas Christian University ( TCU ) , a feat that helped him become a household name in Texas . As he began his sophomore season , he was considered the lone bright spot on Texas Tech 's offense . Tolliver struggled at the start of the year ; by the end of September he had only completed 54 of 123 passes . After throwing five interceptions in a game against Baylor , he shrugged off the bad game , saying , " even Betty Crocker burns a cake every now and then . " His fortunes continued to sink when in a game in late October against the Rice Owls , he was benched and backup quarterback Monte McGuire rallied the team to a victory . However , Tolliver regained his starting job and brought his team to the 1986 Independence Bowl as Texas Tech won six games for the first time since 1978 . He finished the season with 1 @,@ 802 passing yards and seven touchdowns .
Tolliver began his junior year facing Florida State , a game where he suffered a hairline fracture in his foot , leaving him doubtful for the match . He missed the first three games of the season but returned in Texas Tech 's fourth game against Baylor , completing 14 of 25 passes for 189 yards , a touchdown and an interception in a 36 – 22 loss . Tolliver 's next big performance came against TCU , the same team he defeated 63 – 7 as a freshman . He threw a touchdown pass to Wayne Walker in the last minute to beat TCU , 36 – 35 . He finished the season having passed for 1 @,@ 422 yards and seven touchdowns in eight games . The next season , his senior year , Tolliver and Texas Tech sought to win the Southwest Conference . He started the season strong , throwing an 85 @-@ yard pass against Arizona — it was the third @-@ longest pass in school history — but the Red Raiders started with two losses . By the end of the season , Tolliver had set 16 school records and was awarded the Southwest Conference Sportsmanship Award by the league 's officials . After four seasons with the Texas Tech Red Raiders , he set the school record for career passing yards ( 6 @,@ 756 ) , career pass attempts ( 1 @,@ 008 ) , career pass completions ( 493 ) , career touchdown passes ( 38 ) , season passing yards in 1988 ( 2 @,@ 869 ) , and single game passing yards ( 446 ) against Oklahoma State University in 1988 . Tolliver was inducted into Texas Tech 's Hall of Honor in 2002 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Diego Chargers = = =
Tolliver was selected by the San Diego Chargers in the second round of the 1989 NFL Draft . The Chargers traded third , fourth , and seventh @-@ round picks in exchange for the New York Giants ' second @-@ round pick in order to draft him . Tolliver was signed on July 31 , 1989 , after a short holdout . He was to compete for the starting job alongside Mark Malone and David Archer , a spot which eventually went to Jim McMahon after the Chargers traded for him . As the 1989 season began with McMahon as the helm , Tolliver was slated to play the second half of the final preseason game against the Phoenix Cardinals . After 13 completions in 23 attempts , Tolliver ran the ball late in the game and broke his collarbone , sidelining him for at least six weeks . After spending the first seven games on the injured reserve list , Tolliver was taken off the list and named the starter for the game against the Seattle Seahawks on October 29 , replacing McMahon who had disappointed at quarterback . In Tolliver 's first start , he played three quarters , throwing six completed passes in 17 attempts for 41 yards and throwing an interception in a 10 – 7 loss . Tolliver subsequently lost the starting job back to McMahon . However , in late November , Tolliver was given the starting job back , remaining the starting quarterback the rest of the season . Tolliver finished the season having played five games with 89 completions in 185 attempts , 1097 yards , five touchdowns , eight interceptions , and a 57 @.@ 9 quarterback rating .
As the 1990 season began , McMahon was released by the team , leaving Tolliver as the starting quarterback at training camp . After training camp and a preseason in which Tolliver started and was relieved by quarterbacks Mark Vlasic and rookie John Friesz , Chargers head coach Dan Henning named Vlasic as the starting quarterback against the Dallas Cowboys in the season opener , saying that he was " steadier " than Tolliver . After a loss against Dallas , Tolliver regained his starting job during the game two against the Cincinnati Bengals . Despite some shaky performances in the following weeks , the Chargers ' coaching staff stuck by their quarterback , saying that " the last thing we need around here is more change . " Tolliver played nearly the rest of the season as the starting quarterback but was replaced by Friesz for the final game of the season against the Los Angeles Raiders . The Chargers made this move because , according to Henning , " Tolliver has to work on his shortcomings . " Tolliver finished the season having completed 216 of 410 passes , thrown for 2 @,@ 574 yards , 16 touchdowns , and 16 interceptions , and posting a QB rating of 68 @.@ 9 .
Although Tolliver had the confidence of Dan Henning , Chargers GM Bobby Beathard and owner Alex Spanos were unsatisfied with his production during the 1990 season , and they were looking towards Friesz as the future quarterback . Tolliver was the leading man for the starting quarterback position as training camp for the 1991 season began , with Friesz battling Bob Gagliano for the backup spot . However , after training camp ended , Friesz was named the starting quarterback for the 1991 season opener against the Pittsburgh Steelers .
= = = Falcons and Oilers = = =
Just a few days after losing the starting job , Tolliver was traded to the Atlanta Falcons for a fifth @-@ round draft pick . In Atlanta , Tolliver was the backup quarterback behind Chris Miller and alongside rookie Brett Favre , and played part of seven games throughout the season . Tolliver 's breakthrough as a Falcon came against the San Francisco 49ers on November 3 , 1991 . Miller was injured in the second quarter , and Tolliver was brought in for the rest of the game . With one second left , he threw a 44 @-@ yard Hail Mary pass to Michael Haynes , which was caught for a touchdown and sealing a 17 – 14 upset victory . Due to his performance and Miller 's injury , Tolliver was given his first start the following week against the Washington Redskins . Tolliver 's first start with the Falcons was a 56 – 17 blowout loss . Afterwards , Tolliver got his second and last start of the season against the Green Bay Packers as a result of Miller suddenly running a fever . Tolliver finished the regular season having completing 40 of 82 passes with four touchdowns , two interceptions , and a QB rating of 75 @.@ 8 .
After the Falcons traded Favre to the Packers , Miller and Tolliver were the only quarterbacks on the roster . Before the season started , Wade Wilson signed with the team , and the two shared the role of backup to Miller . Tolliver played two of the first eight games , then was named the starting quarterback when the Falcons lost Miller for the season as a result of reconstructive surgery on his left knee . Tolliver 's first start of the season came against the 49ers . He completed 16 of 25 passes , but threw three interceptions in a 41 – 3 loss . The next week against the Cardinals , Tolliver was benched for the final series as Wilson led the team to victory and Tolliver argued with coach Jerry Glanville . Despite the conflict and a shoulder injury , Glanville gave Tolliver the start the following week against the Buffalo Bills . He played a few more games before being replaced by Wilson for the rest of the season , partially as a result of Wilson throwing five touchdown passes in his first start en route to a 35 – 7 Falcons victory . Tolliver finished the season with five touchdowns , five interceptions , a 55 @.@ 7 % completion percentage , and a 70 @.@ 4 QB rating .
After the 1992 season , Tolliver was a restricted free agent . Wilson signed a contract with the Saints , and to replace him the Falcons signed Bobby Hebert . Tolliver signed a one @-@ year contract in August , after holding out for a time . Tolliver started the 1993 season as the third @-@ string quarterback behind Hebert and Miller . However , Miller re @-@ injured his left knee in late September , making Tolliver the main backup to Hebert . Tolliver made his first start against the Los Angeles Rams , but was injured in his second start against the Saints ; the Falcons signed Chris Hakel as a result of the injury . Tolliver finished the season in occasional relief for Hebert , who remained bothered by injuries . Over the course of the year , Tolliver played in seven games and threw for just under 500 yards , and became a free agent after the season ended .
In early September 1994 , Tolliver was signed to a contract by the Houston Oilers . He was originally the third @-@ string quarterback , but ineffectiveness by Bucky Richardson led Tolliver to relieve him in a game against the Cleveland Browns . Tolliver played well enough to be considered for the starting job the following week due to Cody Carlson dealing with injuries . Tolliver made his first start in a game against the Raiders , but played inconsistently over seven starts and was replaced by Richardson in the season finale against the New York Jets . After finishing the season , Tolliver became a free agent and left the NFL .
Tolliver signed a three @-@ year contract worth about $ 1 million with the Shreveport Pirates of the Canadian Football League before the 1995 season began . Early in the season , Tolliver got to compete against former teammate David Archer in the San Antonio Texans ' CFL debut . He finished the season having thrown for 3 @,@ 767 yards , 16 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions . After the team folded following a 5 – 13 season , Tolliver was again without a team . In October 1996 , Tolliver rejoined the Falcons as the third @-@ string quarterback , this time sitting behind Bobby Hebert and Browning Nagle . He spent the 1996 season on the bench , and did not take a snap in a game . He was re @-@ signed by Atlanta in April and given a one @-@ year contract worth $ 325 @,@ 000 .
Tolliver was slated to compete with Tommy Maddox for the backup quarterback spot at Atlanta as training camp rolled around . Halfway through August , Maddox was released , and Tolliver was made the primary backup behind Chris Chandler . Tolliver played his first NFL game since 1994 on September 7 , 1997 against the Carolina Panthers . He completed 7 of 17 passes for 79 yards . After relieving Chandler again the following week , Tolliver was slated to start the next game against the 49ers , in what became his only starting appearance of the season . He was slated to start again against the Denver Broncos , but instead came in late in the game . He was almost able to lead the Falcons to a comeback victory over the Broncos , completing six of nine passes for 85 yards and a touchdown , but he instead lost to the then @-@ undefeated Broncos as the team remained winless . When Chandler went down with an injury in late October , coach Dan Reeves chose to start Tony Graziani . Shortly afterwards , Tolliver was released by the Falcons . In early November , Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Elvis Grbac was lost for the season due to a broken collarbone . As a result , the Chiefs signed Tolliver to a two @-@ year contract as the third @-@ string quarterback to replace him . Tolliver finished the season having completed 64 passes in 116 attempts for 677 yards , five touchdowns , and one interception . Only one of the 116 attempts came as a Kansas City quarterback . The 1998 preseason began with Tolliver competing with Pat Barnes for the third @-@ string quarterback job , but this ended when Tolliver was released by the Chiefs in August .
= = = Later career = = =
After Saints quarterback Billy Joe Hobert was lost for the season with a ruptured Achilles tendon , the Saints signed Tolliver to a two @-@ year deal . After four starts by Danny Wuerffel , Saints coach Mike Ditka gave Tolliver the start against the Atlanta Falcons . After starting for four weeks and having a few impressive performances , Tolliver was benched in favor of Kerry Collins , who finished the season as starting quarterback . Tolliver finished the year with one of his most statistically impressive seasons , completing 110 of 199 passes for 1 @,@ 427 yards , eight touchdowns , four interceptions , and finishing with a QB rating of 83 @.@ 1 .
Tolliver started the 1999 season as Hobert 's backup . Hobert started the first four games but was injured , leaving Tolliver to start against the Tennessee Titans on October 17 and the Giants the week after . Hobert started the next game , but suffered a pinched nerve in his neck , resulting in Tolliver 's third start of the season against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Against the 49ers , he scored the third and fourth rushing touchdowns of his career en route to a 24 – 6 win . However , the next week against the Jacksonville Jaguars , Tolliver suffered a torn MCL , and he was considered likely to miss the rest of the season . A couple of weeks later , Tolliver had bounced back from his injury by " treating himself with some WD @-@ 40 " and was named the starter in the December 12 game against the St. Louis Rams . Tolliver was again injured the following week against the Baltimore Ravens , putting an end to his season , which he finished with a 51 @.@ 9 completion percentage , 1 @,@ 916 yards , seven touchdowns , 16 interceptions , and a QB rating of 58 @.@ 9 .
Throughout the 1999 season , Tolliver remained a vocal supporter of coach Ditka despite the Saints ' 3 – 13 record , saying " I think he 's a heck of a football coach , a great motivator . We just got to start buying what he 's selling . " Ditka was fired by the Saints , but as training camp for the 2000 season began , Tolliver was the Saints ' backup quarterback behind Jeff Blake . On August 1 , the Saints traded for quarterback Aaron Brooks , which left Tolliver to compete for the third @-@ string spot alongside Jake Delhomme . The Saints ' roster was reduced to 53 players , and Tolliver was among those cut . When the Saints lost Jeff Blake for the season in mid @-@ November due to a dislocated foot , Tolliver was re @-@ signed by the Saints , though he did not play a game that season . In July 2001 , Tolliver was signed by the Green Bay Packers . This briefly reunited him with Brett Favre , with whom he was teammates in Atlanta . However , he was cut in the preseason when Doug Pederson won the backup job , and this stint marked the end of Tolliver 's professional career .
= = Personal life = =
Tolliver was named after his uncle Joe and aunt Billie . He and his wife , Sheila , have five children , Charles , Austin , Mackenzie , Bryce , and Brody .
Tolliver is an avid golfer and has played many celebrity tournaments . He is a four @-@ time winner of the American Century Celebrity Golf Championship and won the $ 75 @,@ 000 Isuzu Celebrity Golf Challenge in 1996 . He is a regular competitor at the American Century Championship , the annual competition to determine the best golfers among American sports and entertainment celebrities . He won the tournament in 1996 , 2005 , 2010 ( with a new point record of 84 points ) , and 2013 and has a total of fourteen top ten finishes .
= Bad Blood ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Bad Blood " is the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written by Vince Gilligan , directed by Cliff Bole , and featuring guest appearances from Luke Wilson and Patrick Renna it aired in the United States on February 22 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , being watched by 19 @.@ 25 million viewers . In addition , " Bad Blood " received largely positive reviews , with many critics praising the episode 's humor .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully must report to their supervisor , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) after Mulder kills a young man he believes to be a vampire . After each recollecting their takes on the event , they realize that they have very different memories of the investigation .
" Bad Blood " was inspired by an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show wherein the main characters tell different versions of a fight they have had . According to critical analysis of the episode , " Bad Blood " explores the dynamics of the relationship between Mulder and Scully . In addition , some scholars argue that by Scully telling the tale from a perspective opposed to Mulder 's , the episode subverts the male gaze ( a feminist concept arguing that films tend to cater to male viewers and perspectives ) . The episode 's makeup and special effect coordinators used various techniques to create many of the effects seen in the episode , such as the vampire teeth , the glowing eyes , and the bite marks .
= = Plot = =
One night , FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) kills a young man , who Mulder believes is a vampire but has pointed dentures instead of actual fangs . Afterwards , he and his FBI partner , Special Agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) must report to their supervisor , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) . Before they do so , they attempt to get their stories straight .
Scully tells her version of the story via a flashback to the previous day . She arrives at work and Mulder tells her about a murder in Texas , which he believes to be the work of vampires . In her version , Mulder is exuberant , insensitive , and irritating , while she is calm and mindful of her thoughts . The agents travel to the small town of Cheney , Texas where they meet Sheriff Hartwell ( Luke Wilson ) , whom Scully finds highly charming . Mulder and Hartwell leave to investigate further while Scully autopsies the body . She discovers that the victim , whose last meal had been pizza , was incapacitated with chloral hydrate . She returns to the motel room and orders a pizza , but Mulder soon appears and sends her back to autopsy another body . She leaves him just as her food is delivered . When she finds that the second victim had also ingested chloral hydrate in a pizza , she realizes Mulder is in danger and returns to the motel room . She finds him about to be attacked by the pizza delivery boy , Ronnie Strickland ( Patrick Renna ) . She shoots at Ronnie , who runs off into the woods . When she catches up to him , Mulder has gotten there first and hammered a stake into Ronnie 's heart .
Mulder tells Scully his version . In his recollection , he is sensitive and polite to Scully , while she is dismissive and irritable , and clearly enamored with Sheriff Hartwell ( who , in Mulder 's version , is far less refined and has obvious buck teeth ) . While Scully is performing the autopsy , Mulder and Hartwell get a call to go to the local RV park , where there is " a situation " . They find another dead body , apparently a victim of the same attacker . Mulder returns to the motel room ; after Scully has left , he eats her pizza and realizes that he has been drugged . Ronnie enters , with glowing green eyes , and prepares to attack Mulder , but Mulder manages to postpone his demise by scattering sunflower seeds all over the floor , which Ronnie compulsively starts to pick up . Scully enters and shoots Ronnie , but the bullets have no effect , and Ronnie runs out with Scully in pursuit . Mulder recovers from being drugged and chases after Ronnie .
Back in the office , Scully says that no one will believe his story given their diverging statements and the fact that Ronnie was apparently a human . Meanwhile , a Texas coroner prepares to perform an autopsy on Ronnie 's body . When he removes the stake , Ronnie wakes up and escapes . Skinner sends Mulder and Scully back to Texas to investigate . Scully stakes out the cemetery with Sheriff Hartwell , while Mulder goes to the RV park . As they wait , Sheriff Hartwell gives Scully a hot drink , apologizes to her on behalf of Ronnie , and says that he makes them all look bad . He makes it clear that he too is a vampire and Scully realizes she has been drugged . Before she loses consciousness , she sees Sheriff Hartwell 's eyes turning green .
At the RV park , Mulder finds Ronnie . As he tries to arrest him , Mulder is surrounded and overwhelmed by a group of people with glowing green eyes . He wakes up the next morning in the RV park , in his car , where he is rejoined by Scully . They are both unharmed and the vampires have disappeared . Back in Washington , they give Skinner their unified report .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
" Bad Blood " was written by Vince Gilligan , who had already written a number of episodes for the series ; this was his fifth writing credit of the season . Aware that he had an episode to be filmed soon after the Christmas period of 1997 , he had been working on a script that would involve a story being presented by Robert Stack of Unsolved Mysteries , with unknown actors playing Mulder and Scully . Under pressure to complete the script , Gilligan decided his idea would not work . He said , " I just couldn 't figure out how to do it " . The series would later explore the idea of an X @-@ Files crossover in the guise of non @-@ fiction with the seventh season episode " X @-@ Cops " , also penned by Gilligan .
With the help of co @-@ executive producer Frank Spotnitz , he came up with a new idea . Spotnitz was inspired by an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show , called " The Night the Roof Fell In " , in which the characters of Rob and Laura Petrie tell different versions of a fight they have had . Gilligan said of the idea , " I just thought it was a cool way to tell a story . " With two versions of the same story taking up much of the episode , Gilligan knew that he would have to keep the plot simple and settled on a vampire story , that everyone would easily understand . Both Mulder and Scully 's version of the episode were filmed back to back , utilizing the " exact same sets and camera angles " . The RV park that was featured in the episode was formerly the site of a sawmill that had previously been used in the fourth season episode " Gethsemane " that had burned down .
= = = Casting and effects = = =
Luke Wilson guest starred as Sheriff Hartwell ; he had previously worked on 1998 comedy film Home Fries , which had been scripted by Vince Gilligan . Former child actor Patrick Renna played Ronnie Strickland . He said of the part , " before we started I asked if Ronnie was pretending to be a moron . They told me , ' No . He 's really just a moron . ' "
The out of control RV was created by the show 's special effects coordinator , David Gauthier ; an auxiliary steering wheel was rigged up in the vehicle so that the driver would be able to steer the car from the back window , out of the camera 's sight . Wilson and Renna were fitted with faux vampire teeth – which were sardonically labeled " funny fangs " — courtesy of special effects makeup coordinator Toby Lindala . Wilson later recounted that they fit comfortably in the actor 's mouth , musing that " the retainers I had to wear as a kid never fit as well . " In order to create the glowing green eyes , fluorescent material was glued to the actors ' eyelids . However , because they were unable to see , this gave the vampires a " somewhat vacant " stare . The various corpses with fangs marks were created by makeup artist Laverne Basham . In order to create a suitable model , Gilligan bit the back of his hand to give Basham something to work with .
= = Themes = =
According to Susanne Kord and Elisabeth Krimmer , " Bad Blood " explores the dynamics of the relationship between Mulder and Scully by " develop [ ing ] the dysfunctional potential of [ their ] routine interactions . " In " Scully Hits the Glass Ceiling : Postmodernism , Postfeminism , Posthumanism and The X @-@ Files " , Linda Badley suggests that The X @-@ Files often subverts the concept of the male gaze through the whole series and " Bad Blood " includes an example of this , allowing Scully to be the one that gazes at Sheriff Hartwell .
Michelle Bush , in her book Myth @-@ X , described the episode as allowing the viewer " a peek inside [ Mulder and Scully 's ] heads " by showing how they see themselves and each other , as well as " their insecurities about their attractiveness to the other " . The title " Bad Blood " can be applied to the tension between the two characters in the episode . She described how in each of their stories they try to describe themselves in the way the other would find attractive .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Bad Blood " was first broadcast in the United States on February 22 , 1998 , on the Fox network . In its original broadcast , it was watched by 19 @.@ 25 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 12 @.@ 0 rating / 17 share among viewers meaning that 12 @.@ 0 percent of all households in the United States , and 17 percent of all people watching television at the time , viewed the episode . The episode was one of eight featured on Revelations , a DVD released prior to the release of the 2008 movie , The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Bad Blood " received largely positive reviews from critics . In a 2000 review of season five for the New Straits Times , Francis Dass called the episode " an absolute gem . The most hilarious X @-@ Files episode I have ever seen . " Rebecca Traister of Salon.com called it " possibly the best X @-@ Files episode of all time " . In a 2008 review of the Revelations DVD , which contained " Bad Blood " , Erik Henriksen of The Portland Mercury praised the way the writers " managed to tweak their genre formulas " and said of the episode , " It 's witty and quick and features a great performance from Luke Wilson " . In a review of Revelations for the Reading Eagle , Gina McIntyre called the episode " a hilarious riff on how [ Mulder and Scully ] view each other " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote a positive review of what he described as one of his " top five favorite X @-@ Files " . He called the script " very smart " and compared the story to the plot of Rashomon . He said " Yes , ' Bad Blood ' can be goofy , but it 's a good kind of goofy , the kind that pokes holes in characters in ways that just make them more lovable . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five and wrote " Now that 's how you tell a vampire story ! " The two praised Gilligan 's use of humor as well as the episode 's examination of both Mulder and Scully 's differing points of views . Shearman and Pearson noted that " the gimmick here isn 't supernatural , but structural " , and called the episode 's framing device " subtly done " , which resulted in its " brilliance " . Review website IGN named it the eighth best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series . Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named " Bad Blood " the funniest X @-@ Files episode . An article in The Montreal Gazette listed " Bad Blood " as the ninth best stand @-@ alone episode of the series . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , named the episode one of the " Top 25 Episode of All Time " of The X @-@ Files , ranking it at number 19 . He called the episode " a satiric X @-@ File at is finest . " Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named it the " finest " stand @-@ alone episode of season 5 and wrote , " for sheer fun and narrative playfulness , the winner has to be Bad Blood " .
Not all reviews were so glowing . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Although she enjoyed the comedic elements of the episode , she was somewhat critical of the underlying issues , most notably the way Mulder and Scully viewed each other in the episode . She wrote that , " their relationship seems to be a strangely passive @-@ aggressive one " . Vitaris also was critical of the fact that Mulder was not guilty over the fact that he may have killed an innocent boy .
Gillian Anderson has described " Bad Blood " as one of her favorites of the series , commenting " Oh , yes ! I loved that episode . As far as I 'm concerned it 's one of our best ever . I think it really showed how well David and I can work together " .
= Oliver Typewriter Company =
The Oliver Typewriter Company was an American typewriter manufacturer headquartered in Chicago , Illinois . The Oliver Typewriter was the first effective " visible print " typewriter , meaning text was visible to the typist as it was entered . It was however preceded by the Daugherty typewriter , which was also an effective visible typewriter . Oliver typewriters were marketed heavily for home use , utilizing local distributors and sales on credit . Oliver produced more than one million machines between 1895 and 1928 and licensed its designs to several international firms .
Competitive pressure and financial troubles resulted in the company 's liquidation in 1928 . The company ’ s assets were purchased by investors who formed The British Oliver Typewriter Company , which manufactured and licensed the machines until its own closure in the late 1950s . The last Oliver typewriter was produced in 1959 .
= = History = =
= = = Thomas Oliver = = =
Thomas Oliver was born in Woodstock , Ontario , Canada , on August 1 , 1852 . Having become interested in religion , Oliver moved to Monticello , Iowa , after the death of his mother , to serve as a Methodist minister . In 1888 , Oliver began to develop his first typewriter , made from strips of tin cans , as a means of producing more legible sermons . He was awarded his first typewriter patent , US Patent No. 450 @,@ 107 , on April 7 , 1891 . After four years of development , a " crude working model " composed of 500 parts had been produced . Oliver resigned his ministry and moved to Epworth , Iowa , where he found investors willing to provide $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 427 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) of capital , and leased a building in which to manufacture his machines .
While visiting Chicago to promote the machine , Oliver encountered businessman Delavan Smith , who became interested in the typewriter and bought the stock held by the Iowa investors . Oliver was given a 65 % interest in the company and retained to continue development of the typewriter , at an annual salary of $ 3 @,@ 000 ( $ 85 @,@ 000 per year in 2016 ) . Oliver died suddenly of heart disease on February 9 , 1909 , aged 56 .
= = = Illinois years = = =
The Oliver Typewriter Company had begun operating in 1895 , with its headquarters on the ninth floor of a building on the corner of Clark and Randolph Street in Chicago . In 1896 , manufacturing moved from Iowa to Woodstock , Illinois , when the City of Woodstock donated a vacant factory once used by the Wheeler and Tappan Company on the condition that the Oliver Typewriter Company remain there at least five years . Manufacturing was divided into six departments : type bar , carriage , assembly , tabulators and adjustment , inspection , and an aligning room . The company 's headquarters moved to the Oliver Building , now a Chicago landmark on the National Register of Historic Places , when it was completed in 1907 .
Starting in 1899 , the company established sales networks by encouraging customers to become local distributors . This method of marketing relied on word of mouth and emphasized sales made directly to neighbors ( door @-@ to @-@ door ) and , after 1905 , sales on credit . In response to increased competition in the late 1910s , however , the company eliminated its network of local salesman and used the resulting savings in commissions to reduce the typewriter 's $ 100 ( $ 1 @,@ 400 in 2016 ) price by half . Sales increased and , at its peak , the company 's labor force of 875 was producing 375 machines daily .
In addition to its offices in Illinois , the company had branch offices in Baltimore , Buffalo , Cleveland , Kansas City , Minneapolis , New York City , Omaha , St. Louis , San Francisco and Seattle , all of which closed when Oliver shifted to mail order sales in March 1917 . A minor recession in 1921 – 22 caused a large number of customers to default on their payments , resulting in the repossession of their typewriters . The company opted not to borrow money and , in 1926 , the board of directors voted to liquidate the company . Only one employee , Chester Nelson , was retained to oversee the company 's liquidation .
= = = British Oliver Typewriter Company = = =
In 1928 , the Oliver Typewriter Company was sold to investors who formed the British Oliver Typewriter Company in Croydon , England . Production of Oliver ’ s original , three @-@ rowed keyboard design was discontinued in 1931 when the company began to produce a rebranded model of the " Fortuna " typewriter , a four @-@ rowed German design . In 1935 , the company began to produce the Halda @-@ Norden standard typewriter , another licensed design , as model No. 20 . The company , however , had to retool its machines and return to the original Oliver design when the British government placed large orders for the three @-@ rowed No. 15 at the outbreak of World War II .
Production of the No. 20 resumed around 1947 , at which time the company began to license the Oliver name to several European manufacturing companies . The standard desktop machine was eventually discontinued in favor of portable models ; the company began to sell a German design , the Siemag Standard , as the Oliver standard . In 1958 , Oliver purchased the Byron Typewriter Company , previously the Barlock Typewriter Company , of Nottingham . The licensing ventures were ultimately unsuccessful , and the company 's machine tools were transferred to a factory in Germany . Production of all Oliver typewriters ended in May 1959 .
= = Typewriters = =
= = = Design = = =
The general design of Oliver typewriters remained mostly unchanged throughout the company 's history . The Olivers are " down strike " typewriters , meaning the typebars strike the platen ( also known as the roller ) from above , rather than from below ( " up strike " ) or from the front ( " front strike " ) . Unlike the " up strike " method , which prints text out of sight on the underside of the platen , the " down strike " is a " visible print " design , meaning the full page is visible to the typist as the text is being entered . The relatively greater striking power of the " down strike " design led Olivers to be preferred for specialty uses such as stencil cutting or " manifolding " ( copying using carbon paper ) . The " front strike " method , a competing " visible print " design , was patented around the same time ( 1889 – 91 ) , but an effective machine that did not interfere with the typist ’ s line of sight was not available until 1897 when , roughly three years after the introduction of the Oliver No. 1 , the Underwood No. 1 appeared on the market .
The Oliver ’ s typebars are bent in a bow ( forming an inverted " U " shape ) and rest in " towers " on the sides of the typewriter . This design limited the machine to a three @-@ row QWERTY keyboard as the typebars were stacked such that they grew progressively larger as more were added . The size and usability implications of adding additional keys and thus , more typebars , precluded the addition of a fourth keyboard row dedicated to numbers . Although a four @-@ row prototype was designed in 1922 , it was shelved due to the company ’ s financial troubles at that time . The No. 20 , No. 21 and portable models produced by the British Oliver Typewriter Company had four @-@ row keyboards .
= = = Color = = =
Oliver typewriters were finished with olive green paint or nickel @-@ plating and white or black keyboards , depending on customer preference . Beginning with model No. 3 , machines were painted green except some variants to be exported to warm or damp regions , which were chrome @-@ plated . The color was changed from green to black on the introduction of model No. 11 . Oliver typewriters made for the British war effort were supplied with a " war finish " .
= = = Models = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
The following models were produced in the United States between 1894 and 1928 :
With the exception of model No. 2 , even @-@ numbered models were produced with extra keys ( 32 versus 28 keys ) for sale in countries with accented languages .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
The following models were produced by the British Oliver Typewriter Company between 1930 and 1942 :
= = = = International = = = =
Oliver typewriter designs were licensed for production in several countries . Variants of model No. 3 were produced by The Linotype Company of Montreal and A. Greger & Co. of Vienna . Models produced by licensees were marketed under various names including " Courier " ( Austria ) , " Fiver " ( Germany ) , " Stolzenberg " ( continental Europe ) and " Revilo " ( Argentina ) . The Argentinian licensee used Revilo , Oliver backwards , to avoid royalty payments on the Oliver name , which had already been registered in Argentina .
= Pennsylvania Route 563 =
Pennsylvania Route 563 ( PA 563 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The route runs 21 @.@ 1 mi ( 33 @.@ 96 km ) from PA 63 in Upper Salford Township northeast to PA 412 in Nockamixon Township . The road runs through mostly rural areas in the northern parts of Montgomery and Bucks counties . Along the way , the route passes through the northern part of Perkasie and forms a concurrency with PA 313 in East Rockhill Township . North of here , PA 563 runs through Nockamixon State Park , running to the north of Lake Nockamixon .
PA 563 was first created in 1928 to connect Bergey to Harrow , following its current alignment to PA 313 before continuing straight along Ridge Road and continuing to PA 412 . By 1940 , construction of the road into a state highway was completed . In the early 1970s , PA 563 was moved to its current alignment north of PA 313 as a result of the creation of Lake Nockamixon , which severed the original alignment .
= = Route description = =
PA 563 begins at an intersection with PA 63 in Upper Salford Township , Montgomery County and heads in an easterly direction on two @-@ lane , undivided Ridge Road . The route passes through wooded areas with some homes , turning southeast at the Township Line Road intersection and forming the border between Salford Township to the northeast and Upper Salford Township to the southwest . PA 563 makes a northeast turn at the Barndt Road – Moyer Road junction , continuing northeast on Ridge Road into Salford Township .
The road passes over the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 476 ) and PA 563 turns east and heads into the community of Tylersport , where it crosses Allentown Road . After leaving Tylersport , the route heads northeast into more rural areas .
Upon crossing County Line Road , PA 563 enters West Rockhill Township in Bucks County and heads into a mix of farms and woods . After running to the southeast of James Memorial Park , the route intersects Lawn Avenue , which provides access to the PA 309 freeway at an interchange . PA 563 passes over the freeway a short distance after this intersection . The route continues east @-@ northeast and crosses Bethlehem Pike and Old Bethlehem Pike in a commercial area . A short distance past the intersection with the latter , the road crosses into Perkasie and passes near residential neighborhoods , running along the top of a ridge . Farther to the northeast , PA 563 passes to the southeast of Pennridge Airport . At this point , the road continues into East Rockhill Township and heads through a mix of farmland , woodland , and a few residences .
PA 563 comes to an intersection with PA 313 , where it turns northwest to form a concurrency with that route on Dublin Pike , with Ridge Road continuing northeast . The two routes head through more rural land before PA 563 splits from PA 313 by turning northeast onto Mountain View Drive . Along this road , the route heads into forested areas with occasional homes and enters Nockamixon State Park , a park which contains Lake Nockamixon . Upon crossing the Tohickon Creek , the road continues into Haycock Township . In this area , PA 563 skits along the northwest edge of the state park . A short distance following the Deerwood Lane intersection , the road passes the main entrance to the park . PA 563 crosses an arm of the lake into Nockamixon Township . In this township , the route leaves the state park and passes through rural areas before ending at PA 412 .
= = History = =
When Pennsylvania first legislated routes in 1911 , present @-@ day PA 563 was not given a number . In 1928 , PA 563 was designated to run from PA 63 near Bergey northeast to PA 412 near Harrow , following its current alignment south of PA 313 . From this point , it continued northeast on Ridge Road , passing near Weisel and eventually continuing northeast to Harrow . At this time , the route was unpaved . By 1930 , the route was paved south of PA 313 . At this time , the sections of the route between Tylersport and southwest of Perkasie and north of PA 313 were under construction as state highways . All of PA 563 was completed by 1940 .
In the 1960s , construction began to create Lake Nockamixon along the Tohickon Creek near PA 563 in northern Bucks County . The Secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters , Maurice K. Goddard , proposed the lake as part of a goal for every Pennsylvania resident to be within 25 miles ( 40 km ) of a state park . Lake Nockamixon was intended to fill a gap in between the Philadelphia and Lehigh Valley areas . As a result of building the dam and creating the lake , the northernmost portion of PA 563 had to be relocated to a new alignment to the north of the planned lake as it would sever a portion of the route north of Kellers Church . Between 1970 and 1972 , construction took place on the new alignment of the route . As a result , PA 563 was routed to follow PA 313 to get from Ridge Road to its new alignment .
= = Major intersections = =
= Witold Lutosławski =
Witold Roman Lutosławski ( Polish : [ ˈvitɔld lutɔsˈwafski ] ; 25 January 1913 – 7 February 1994 ) was a Polish composer and orchestral conductor . He is one of the major European composers of the 20th century , and one of the preeminent Polish musicians during his last three decades . He earned many international awards and prizes . His compositions ( of which he was a notable conductor ) include four symphonies , a Concerto for Orchestra , a string quartet , instrumental works , concertos , and orchestral song cycles .
During his youth , Lutosławski studied piano and composition in Warsaw . His early works were influenced by Polish folk music . His style demonstrates a wide range of rich atmospheric textures . He began developing his own characteristic composition techniques in the late 1950s . His music from this period onwards incorporates his own methods of building harmonies from small groups of musical intervals . It also uses aleatoric processes , in which the rhythmic coordination of parts is subject to an element of chance .
During World War II , after escaping German capture , Lutosławski made a living by playing the piano in Warsaw bars . After the war , Stalinist authorities banned his First Symphony for being " formalist " — allegedly accessible only to an elite . Lutosławski believed such anti @-@ formalism was an unjustified retrograde step , and he resolutely strove to maintain his artistic integrity . In the 1980s , Lutosławski gave artistic support to the Solidarity movement . Near the end of his life , he was awarded the Order of the White Eagle , Poland 's highest honour .
= = Biography = =
Lutosławski 's parents were both born into the Polish landed nobility . His family owned estates in the area of Drozdowo . His father Józef was involved in the Polish National Democratic Party ( " Endecja " ) , and the Lutosławski family became intimate with its founder , Roman Dmowski ( Witold Lutosławski 's middle name was Roman ) . Józef Lutosławski studied in Zürich , where in 1904 he met and married a fellow student , Maria Olszewska , who later became Lutosławski 's mother . Józef pursued his studies in London , where he acted as correspondent for the National @-@ Democratic newspaper , Goniec . He continued to be involved in National Democracy politics after returning to Warsaw in 1905 , and took over the management of the family estates
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in 1908 . Witold Roman Lutosławski , the youngest of three brothers , was born in Warsaw shortly before the outbreak of World War I. In 1915 , with Russia at war with Germany , Prussian forces drove towards Warsaw . The Lutosławskis travelled east to Moscow , where Józef remained politically active , organising Polish Legions ready for any action that might liberate Poland ( which was divided according to the 1815 Congress of Vienna — Warsaw was part of Tsarist Russia ) . Dmowski 's strategy was for Russia to guarantee security for a new Polish state . However , in 1917 , the February Revolution forced the Tsar to abdicate , and the October Revolution started a new Soviet government that made peace with Germany . Józef 's activities were now in conflict with the Bolsheviks , who arrested him and his brother Marian . Thus , although fighting stopped on the Eastern Front in 1917 , the Lutosławskis were prevented from returning home . The brothers were interned in Butyrskaya prison in central Moscow , where Lutosławski — by then aged five — visited his father . Józef and Marian were executed by a firing squad in September 1918 , some days before their scheduled trial .
After the war , the family returned to the newly independent Poland , only to find their estates ruined . After his father 's death , other members of the family played an important part in his early life , especially Józef 's half @-@ brother Kazimierz Lutosławski – priest and politician .
Lutosławski started piano lessons in Warsaw for two years from the age of six . After the Polish @-@ Soviet War the family left Warsaw to return to Drozdowo , but after a few years of running the estates with limited success , his mother returned to Warsaw . She worked as a physician , and translated books for children from English . In 1924 Lutosławski entered secondary school ( Stefan Batory Gymnasium ) while continuing piano lessons . A performance of Karol Szymanowski 's Third Symphony deeply affected him . In 1925 he started violin lessons at the Warsaw Music School . In 1931 he enrolled at Warsaw University to study mathematics , and in 1932 he formally joined the composition classes at the Conservatory . His only composition teacher was Witold Maliszewski , a renowned Polish composer who had been a pupil of Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . Lutosławski was given a strong grounding in musical structures , particularly movements in sonata form . In 1932 he gave up the violin , and in 1933 he discontinued his mathematics studies to concentrate on the piano and composition . As a student of Jerzy Lefeld , he gained a diploma for piano performance from the Conservatory in 1936 , after presenting a virtuoso program including Schumann 's Toccata and Beethoven 's fourth piano concerto . His diploma for composition was awarded by the same institution in 1937 .
= = = World War II = = =
Military service followed — Lutosławski was trained in signalling and radio operating in Zegrze near Warsaw . He completed his Symphonic Variations in 1939 , and the work was premiered by the Polish Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Grzegorz Fitelberg , and this performance was broadcast on radio on 9 March 1939 . Like most young Polish composers , Lutosławski wanted to continue his education in Paris . His plans for further musical study were dashed in September 1939 , when Germany invaded western Poland and Russia invaded eastern Poland . Lutosławski was mobilised with the radio unit for the Kraków Army . He was soon captured by German soldiers , but he escaped while being marched to prison camp , and walked 250 miles ( 400 km ) back to Warsaw . Lutosławski 's brother was captured by Russian soldiers , and later died in a Siberian labour camp .
To earn a living , Lutosławski joined as an arranger @-@ pianist " Dana Ensemble " , the first Polish revellers , singing in " Ziemiańska Cafe " . Then he formed a piano duo with friend and fellow composer Andrzej Panufnik , and they performed together in Warsaw cafés . Their repertoire consisted of a wide range of music in their own arrangements , including the first incarnation of Lutosławski 's Paganini Variations , a highly original transcription of the 24th Caprice for solo violin by Niccolò Paganini . Defiantly , they even sometimes played Polish music ( the Nazis banned Polish music in Poland — including Chopin ) , and composed Resistance songs . Listening in cafés was the only way in which the Poles of German @-@ occupied Warsaw could hear live music ; putting on concerts was impossible since the Germans occupying Poland prohibited any organised gatherings . In café Aria , where they played , Lutosławski met his future wife Maria Danuta Bogusławska , a sister of the writer Stanisław Dygat .
Lutosławski left Warsaw in July 1944 with his mother , merely a few days before the Warsaw Uprising , salvaging only a few scores and sketches — the rest of his music was lost during the complete destruction of the city by Germans after the fall of uprising , as were the family 's Drozdowo estates . Of the 200 or so arrangements that Lutosławski and Panufnik had worked on for their piano duo , only Lutosławski 's Paganini Variations survived . Lutosławski returned to the ruins of Warsaw after the Polish @-@ Soviet treaty in April 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
During the postwar years , Lutosławski worked on his first symphony — sketches of which he had salvaged from Warsaw — which he had started in 1941 and which was first performed in 1948 , conducted by Fitelberg . To provide for his family , he also composed music that he termed functional , such as the Warsaw Suite ( written to accompany a silent film depicting the city 's reconstruction ) , sets of Polish Carols , and the study pieces for piano , Melodie Ludowe ( " Folk Melodies " ) .
In 1945 , Lutosławski was elected as secretary and treasurer of the newly constituted Union of Polish Composers ( ZKP — Związek Kompozytorów Polskich ) . In 1946 , he married Danuta Bogusławska . The marriage was a lasting one , and Danuta 's drafting skills were of great value to the composer : she became his copyist , and she solved some of the notational challenges of his later works .
In 1947 , the Stalinist political climate led to the adoption and imposition by the ruling Polish United Workers ' Party of the tenets of Socialist realism , and the authorities ' condemnation of modern music which was deemed to be non @-@ conformist . This artistic censorship , which ultimately came from Stalin personally , was to some degree prevalent over the whole Eastern bloc , and was reinforced by the 1948 Zhdanov decree . By 1948 , the ZKP was taken over by musicians willing to follow the party line on musical matters , and Lutosławski resigned from the committee . He was implacably opposed to the ideas of Socialist realism . His First Symphony was proscribed as " formalist " , and he found himself shunned by the Soviet authorities , a situation that continued throughout the era of Khrushchev , Brezhnev , Andropov and Chernenko . In 1954 , the climate of musical oppression drove his friend Andrzej Panufnik to defect to the United Kingdom . Against this background , he was happy to compose pieces for which there was social need , but in 1954 this earned Lutosławski — much to the composer 's chagrin — the Prime Minister 's Prize for a set of children 's songs . He commented : " [ I ] t was for those functional compositions of mine that the authorities decorated me .... I realised that I was not writing indifferent little pieces , only to make a living , but was carrying on an artistic creative activity in the eyes of the outside world . "
It was his substantial and original Concerto for Orchestra of 1954 that established Lutosławski as an important composer of art music . The work , commissioned in 1950 by the conductor Witold Rowicki for the newly reconstituted Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra , earned the composer two state prizes in the following year .
= = = Maturity = = =
Stalin 's death in 1953 allowed a certain relaxation of the cultural totalitarianism in Russia and its satellite states . By 1956 , political events had led to a partial thawing of the musical climate , and the Warsaw Autumn Festival of Contemporary Music was founded . Originally intended to be a biennial festival , it has been held annually ever since 1958 ( except under Martial law in 1982 when , in protest , the ZKP refused to organise it ) . The year 1958 saw the first performance of his Musique funèbre ( in Polish , Muzyka żałobna , English Funereal Music or Music of Mourning ) , which was written to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the death of Béla Bartók , but which took the composer four years to complete ; this work brought international recognition , the annual ZKP prize and the International Rostrum of Composers prize in 1959 . This work , together with the Five songs of 1956 – 57 , saw the significant development of Lutosławski 's harmonic and contrapuntal thinking as he introduced his twelve @-@ note system , the fruits of many years of thought and experiment . He established another feature of his compositional technique , which became a Lutosławski signature , when he began introducing randomness into the exact synchronisation of various parts of the musical ensemble in Jeux vénitiens ( " Venetian games " ) . These harmonic and temporal techniques became part of every subsequent work , and integral to his style .
In a departure from his usually serious compositions , the years 1957 – 63 saw Lutosławski also composing light music under the pseudonym Derwid . Mostly waltzes , tangos , foxtrots and slow @-@ foxtrots for voice and piano , these pieces are in the genre of Polish actors ' songs . Their place in Lutosławski 's output may be seen as less incongruous given his own performances of cabaret music during the war , and in the light of his relationship by marriage to the famous Polish cabaret singer Kalina Jędrusik ( who was his wife 's sister @-@ in @-@ law ) .
In 1963 , Lutosławski fulfilled a commission for the Music Biennale Zagreb , his Trois poèmes d 'Henri Michaux for chorus and orchestra . It was the first work he had written for a commission from abroad , and brought him further international acclaim . It earned him a second State Prize for music ( Lutosławski was not cynical about the award this time ) , and Lutosławski gained an agreement for the international publication of his music with Chester Music , then part of the Hansen publishing house . His String Quartet was first performed in Stockholm in 1965 , followed the same year by the first performance of his orchestral song @-@ cycle Paroles tissées . This shortened title was suggested by the poet Jean @-@ François Chabrun , who had originally published the poems as Quatre tapisseries pour la Châtelaine de Vergi . The song cycle is dedicated to the tenor Peter Pears , who first performed it at the 1965 Aldeburgh Festival with the composer conducting . The Aldeburgh Festival was founded and organised by Benjamin Britten , with whom the composer formed a lasting friendship .
Shortly after this , Lutosławski started work on his Second Symphony , which had two premieres : Pierre Boulez conducted the second movement , Direct , in 1966 , and when the first movement , Hésitant , was finished in 1967 , the composer conducted a complete performance in Katowice . The Second Symphony is very different from a conventional classical symphony in structure , but Lutosławski used all of his technical innovations up to that point to build a large @-@ scale , dramatic work worthy of the name . In 1968 , the work earned Lutosławski first prize from the International Music Council 's International Rostrum of Composers , his third such award , which confirmed his growing international reputation . In 1967 Lutosławski was awarded the Sonning Award , Denmark 's highest musical honour .
= = = International renown = = =
The Second Symphony , and Livre pour orchestre and the Cello Concerto which followed , were composed during a particularly traumatic period in Lutosławski 's life . His mother died in 1967 , and the period 1967 – 70 saw a great deal of unrest in Poland . This sprang first from the suppression of the theatre production Dziady , which sparked a summer of protests ; later , in 1968 , the use of Polish troops to suppress the liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia 's Prague Spring , and the Gdańsk Shipyards strike of 1970 — which led to a violent clampdown by the authorities , both caused significant political and social tension in Poland . Lutosławski did not support the Soviet regime , and these events have been postulated as reasons for the increase in antagonistic effects in his work , particularly the Cello Concerto of 1968 – 70 for Rostropovich and the Royal Philharmonic Society . Indeed , Rostropovich 's own opposition to the Soviet regime in Russia was just coming to a head ( he shortly afterwards declared his support for the dissident Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ) . Lutosławski himself did not hold the view that such influences had a direct effect on his music , although he acknowledged that they impinged on his creative world to some degree . In any case , the Cello Concerto was a great success , earning both Lutosławski and Rostropovich accolades . At the work 's première with the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra , Arthur Bliss presented Rostropovich with the Royal Philharmonic Society 's gold medal .
In 1973 , Lutosławski attended a recital given by the baritone Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau with the pianist Sviatoslav Richter in Warsaw ; he met the singer after the concert and this inspired him to write his extended orchestral song Les espaces du sommeil ( " The spaces of sleep " ) . This work , Preludes and Fugue , Mi @-@ Parti ( a French expression that roughly translates as " divided into two equal but different parts " ) , Novelette , and a short piece for cello in honour of Paul Sacher 's seventieth birthday , occupied Lutosławski throughout the 1970s , while in the background he was working away at a projected third symphony and a concertante piece for the oboist Heinz Holliger . These latter pieces were proving difficult to complete as Lutosławski struggled to introduce greater fluency into his sound world and to reconcile tensions between the harmonic and melodic aspects of his style , and between foreground and background . The Double Concerto for oboe , harp and chamber orchestra — commissioned by Paul Sacher — was finally finished in 1980 , and the Third Symphony in 1983 . In 1977 he received the Order of the Builders of People 's Poland . In 1983 he received the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize .
During this period , Poland was undergoing yet more upheaval : in 1978 , John Paul II was elected Pope , providing a national figurehead of world importance ; in 1980 , the influential movement Solidarność was created , led by Lech Wałęsa ; and in 1981 , martial law was declared by General Wojciech Jaruzelski . From 1981 – 89 , Lutosławski refused all professional engagements in Poland as a gesture of solidarity with the artists ' boycott . He refused to enter the Culture Ministry to meet any of the ministers , and was careful not be photographed in their company . In 1983 , as a gesture of support , he sent a recording of the first performance ( in Chicago ) of the Third Symphony to Gdańsk to be played to strikers in a local church . In 1983 , he was awarded the Solidarity prize , of which Lutosławski was reported to be more proud than any other of his honours .
He also bought a house in Oslo and had a cabin in the Norwegian countryside . He and his wife would stay here several times a year to be near her son from an earlier marriage , who was a Norwegian citizen .
= = = Final years = = =
Through the mid @-@ 1980s , Lutosławski composed three pieces called Łańcuch ( " Chain " ) , which refers to the way the music is constructed from contrasting strands which overlap like the links of a chain . Chain 2 was written for Anne @-@ Sophie Mutter ( commissioned by Paul Sacher ) , and for Mutter he also orchestrated his slightly earlier Partita for violin and piano , providing a new linking Interlude , so that when played together the Partita , Interlude and Chain 2 form his longest work .
The Third Symphony earned Lutosławski the first Grawemeyer Prize from the University of Louisville , Kentucky , awarded in 1985 . The significance of the prize lay not just in its prestige — other eminent nominations have included Elliott Carter and Michael Tippett — but in the size of its financial award ( then US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) . The intention of the award is to remove recipients ' financial concerns for a period to allow them to concentrate on serious composition . In a gesture of altruism , Lutosławski announced that he would use the fund to set up a scholarship to enable young Polish composers to study abroad ; Lutosławski also directed that his fee from the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra for Chain 3 should go to this scholarship fund .
In 1987 Lutosławski was presented ( by Michael Tippett ) with the rarely awarded Royal Philharmonic Society 's Gold Medal during a concert in which Lutosławski conducted his Third Symphony ; also that year a major celebration of his work was made at the Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival . In addition , he was awarded honorary doctorates at several universities worldwide , including Cambridge .
Lutosławski was at this time writing his Piano Concerto for Krystian Zimerman , commissioned by the Salzburg Festival . His earliest plans to write a piano concerto dated from 1938 ; he was himself in his younger days a virtuoso pianist . It was a performance of this work and the Third Symphony at the Warsaw Autumn Festival in 1988 that marked the composer 's return to the conductor 's podium in Poland , after substantive talks had been arranged between the government and the opposition .
Lutosławski also , around 1990 , worked on a fourth symphony and his orchestral song @-@ cycle Chantefleurs et chantefables for soprano . The latter was first performed at a Prom concert in London in 1991 , and the Fourth Symphony in 1993 with the composer conducting the Los Angeles Philharmonic . In between , and after initial reluctance , Lutosławski took on the presidency of the newly reconstituted " Polish Cultural Council " . This had been set up after the reforms in 1989 in Poland brought about by the almost total support for Solidarity in the elections of that year , and the subsequent end of communist rule and the reinstatement of Poland as an independent republic rather than the communist state of the People 's Republic of Poland .
He continued his busy schedule , travelling to the United States , England , Finland , Canada and Japan , and sketching a violin concerto , but by the first week of 1994 it was clear that cancer had taken hold , and after an operation the composer weakened quickly and died on 7 February at the age of eighty @-@ one . He had , a few weeks before , been awarded Poland 's highest honour , the Order of the White Eagle ( only the second person to receive this since the collapse of communism in Poland — the first had been Pope John Paul II ) . He was cremated ; his devoted wife Danuta died shortly afterwards .
= = Music = =
Lutosławski described musical composition as a search for listeners who think and feel the same way he did — he once called it " fishing for souls " .
A complete list of Lutosławski 's compositions in chronological order can be found at The Polish Music Center .
= = = Folk influence = = =
Lutosławski 's works up until and including the Dance Preludes clearly show the influence of Polish folk music , both harmonically and melodically . Part of his art was in transforming folk music , rather than quoting it exactly . In some cases , folk music is unrecognisable as such without careful analysis , for example , in the Concerto for Orchestra . As Lutosławski developed the techniques of his mature compositions , he stopped using folk material explicitly , although its influence remained as subtle features until the end . As he said , " [ in those days ] I could not compose as I wished , so I composed as I was able " , and about this change of direction he said , " I was simply not so interested in it [ using folk music ] " . Also , Lutosławski was dissatisfied with composing in a " post @-@ tonal " idiom : while composing the first symphony , he felt that this was for him a cul @-@ de @-@ sac .
= = = Pitch organisation = = =
In Five Songs ( 1956 – 57 ) and Musique funèbre ( 1958 ) Lutosławski introduced his own brand of twelve @-@ tone music , marking his departure from the explicit use of folk music . His twelve @-@ tone technique allowed him to build harmony and melody from specific intervals ( in Musique funèbre , augmented fourths and semitones ) . This system also gave him the means to write dense chords without resorting to tone clusters , and enabled him to build towards these dense chords ( which often include all twelve notes of the chromatic scale ) at climactic moments . Lutosławski 's twelve @-@ note techniques were thus completely different in conception from Arnold Schoenberg 's tone @-@ row system , although Musique funèbre ' does happen to be based on a tone row . This twelve @-@ note intervallic technique had its genesis in earlier works such as Symphony No. 1 , and Paganini Variations .
= = = Aleatory technique = = =
Although Musique funèbre was internationally acclaimed , his new harmonic techniques led to something of a crisis for Lutosławski , during which he still could not see how to express his musical ideas . Then on 16 March 1960 , listening to Polish Radio broadcast on new music , he happened to hear John Cage 's Concert for Piano and Orchestra . Although he was not influenced by the sound or the philosophy of the music , Cage 's explorations of indeterminacy set off a train of thought which resulted in Lutosławski finding a way to retain the harmonic structures he wanted while introducing the freedom for which he was searching . His Three Postludes were hastily rounded off ( he originally intended to write four ) and he moved on to compose works in which he explored these new ideas .
In works from Jeux vénitiens , Lutosławski wrote long passages in which the parts of the ensemble are not to be synchronised exactly . At cues from the conductor each instrumentalist may be instructed to move straight on to the next section , to finish their current section before moving on , or to stop . In this way the random elements within compositionally controlled limits defined by the term aleatory are carefully directed by the composer , who controls the architecture and harmonic progression of the piece precisely . Lutosławski notated the music exactly ; there is no improvisation , no choice of parts is given to any instrumentalist , and there is thus no doubt about how the musical performance is to be realised .
For his String Quartet , Lutosławski originally produced only the four instrumental parts , refusing to bind them in a full score , because he was concerned that this would imply that he wanted notes in vertical alignment to coincide , as is the case with conventionally notated classical ensemble music . The LaSalle Quartet , however , specifically requested a score from which to prepare for the first performance . Bodman Rae relates that Danuta Lutoslawska solved this problem by cutting up the parts and sticking them together in boxes ( which Lutosławski called mobiles ) , with instructions on how to signal in performance when all of the players should proceed to the next mobile . In his orchestral music , these problems of notation were not so difficult , because the instructions on how and when to proceed are given by the conductor .
Lutosławski 's called this technique of his mature period " limited aleatorism " . This controlled freedom given to the individual musicians is contrasted with passages where the orchestra is asked to synchronise their parts ; the score for these passages is notated conventionally using bars ( measures ) and time signatures .
Both Lutosławski 's harmonic and aleatory processes are illustrated by example 1 , an excerpt from Hésitant , the first movement of the Symphony No. 2 . At number 7 , the conductor gives a cue to the flutes , celesta and percussionist , who then play their parts in their own time , without any attempt to synchronise with the other instrumentalists . The harmony of this section is based on a 12 @-@ note chord built from major seconds and perfect fourths . After all the instrumentalists have finished their parts , a two @-@ second general pause is indicated . The conductor then gives a cue at number 8 ( and indicates the tempo of the following section ) for two oboes and the cor anglais . They each play their part , again with no attempt to synchronise with the other players . The harmony of this part is based on the hexachord F ♯ – G – A ♭ – C – D ♭ – D , arranged in such a way that the harmony of the section never includes any sixths or thirds . When the conductor gives another cue at number 9 , the players each continue until they reach the repeat sign , and then stop : they are unlikely to end the section at the same time . This " refrain " ( from numbers 8 to 9 ) recurs throughout the movement , slightly altered each time , but always played by double @-@ reed instruments which do not play elsewhere in the movement : Lutosławski thus also carefully controls the orchestral palette .
= = = Late style = = =
The combination of Lutosławski 's aleatory techniques and his harmonic discoveries allowed him to build up complex musical textures . According to Bodman Rae , in his later works Lutosławski evolved a more mobile , simpler , harmonic style , in which less of the music is played with an ad libitum coordination . This development first appeared in the brief Epitaph for oboe and piano , around the time Lutosławski was struggling to find the technical means to complete his Third Symphony . In chamber works for just two instrumentalists the scope for aleatory counterpoint and dense harmonies is significantly less than for orchestra , but these developments also influenced his orchestral style in late works including the Piano Concerto , Chantefleurs et Chantefables , Chain 2 and the Fourth Symphony , which require mostly conventional coordination .
Lutosławski 's formidable technical developments grew out of his creative imperative ; that he left a lasting body of major compositions is a testament to his resolution of purpose in the face of the anti @-@ formalist authorities under which he formulated his methods .
Lutosławski 's life as well as detailed and thorough discussion of Lutosławski 's music and compositional techniques can be found in both Stucky ( 1981 ) and Bodman Rae ( 1994 , 1996 , 1999 ) , but also in Witold Lutosławski – Guide to Warsaw ( 2013 ) by the National Institute of Fryderyk Chopin .
= Coral catshark =
The coral catshark ( Atelomycterus marmoratus ) is a species of catshark , and part of the family Scyliorhinidae . It is common on shallow coral reefs across the Indo @-@ West Pacific , from Pakistan to New Guinea . Reaching up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) in length , the coral catshark has an extremely slender body , a short head and tail , and two dorsal fins that are angled backwards . It can be identified by the numerous black and white spots on its back , sides , and fins , which often merge to form horizontal bars . Furthermore , adult males have distinctively long and thin claspers .
Reclusive and inactive during the day , at dusk and at night the coral catshark actively forages for small , bottom @-@ living invertebrates and bony fishes . Its slender form allows it to access tight spaces on the reef . It is oviparous : females lay purse @-@ shaped egg capsules two at a time on the bottom , and the young hatch after 4 – 6 months . This small , harmless shark adapts well to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium ; it is regarded as one of the most suitable shark species for private aquarists . The coral catshark is a minor bycatch of reef fisheries , with minimal commercial value . There is increasing fishing activity and extensive habitat degradation within its range , leading to concern over its population and its assessment as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The coral catshark was first described by an anonymous author , usually referred to English zoologist Edward Turner Bennett , in the 1830 Memoir of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles . Its original name was Scyllium marmoratum , from the Latin marmoratus meaning " marbled " . Hence , another common name for this species is marbled catshark . In 1913 , Samuel Garman placed it in his newly created genus Atelomycterus . The type specimen was caught off Sumatra and is suspected to have been lost .
= = Description = =
The coral catshark has a very slender , cylindrical , firm body and a short , narrow head . The snout is short and slightly flattened , with a blunt tip . The eyes are horizontally oval and protected by rudimentary nictitating membranes ; behind are spiracles of moderate size . The large nostrils are mostly covered by broad , triangular flaps of skin on their anterior margins , leaving small incurrent and excurrent openings . The nasal flaps reach the mouth , obscuring a pair of broad grooves connecting the excurrent openings and the mouth . The long , angular mouth has very long furrows at the corners extending onto both the upper and lower jaws . The small teeth have a narrow central cusp flanked by 1 – 2 cusplets on both sides . There are five pairs of gill slits .
The pectoral fins are fairly large . The first dorsal fin is angled backwards and originates over the rear of the pelvic fin bases ; the second dorsal fin is similarly shaped and slightly smaller than the first , and originates over the front quarter of the anal fin base . Adult males have thin , tapering claspers that extend about two @-@ thirds of the distance between the pelvic and anal fins . The anal fin is much smaller than the dorsal fins . The caudal fin is relatively short and broad , with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The skin is thick and covered by well @-@ calcified dermal denticles . Extremely variable in coloration , the coral catshark lacks prominent saddle markings but rather has many black and white spots on a grayish background . These spots often run together to form horizontal dashes , which include white tips on the dorsal fins and a white stripe through the gill slits . The underside is plain white . This species grows up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The most widely distributed member of its genus , the coral catshark can be found from Pakistan and India to Southeast Asia and Taiwan , including the Philippines and New Guinea . Its range extends as far north as the Ryukyu Islands . Early records from Australian waters are in fact of the related Australian marbled catshark ( A. macleayi ) and banded sand catshark ( A. fasciatus ) . Common and bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the coral catshark inhabits inshore coral reefs at depths not exceeding 15 m ( 49 ft ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The elongated body of the coral catshark allows it to move into and through small spaces in the reef environment , though it does not " crawl " using its pectoral and pelvic fins like the epaulette shark ( Hemiscyllium ocellatum ) . It is primarily crepuscular and nocturnal , with active foraging activity beginning in the afternoon and ending before sunrise . During the day , it generally hides under shelter such as reef overhangs or sunken logs , either singly or in groups . Individual sharks may return to the same hiding place on successive days . This species feeds on small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes ; captive specimens have been observed lying still and lunging at prey that come into range .
The coral catshark is oviparous , with the female producing eggs two at a time . Each egg is enclosed in a purse @-@ shaped capsule roughly 6 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide , with two constricted " waists " ; one end of the capsule is squared off while the other bears two short " horns " that may terminate in short tendrils . The female deposits the eggs on the bottom , rather than attaching them to vertical structures . The capsule is light brown when freshly laid and darkens over time . The eggs hatch in 4 – 6 months at 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Newly hatched sharks measure 10 – 13 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) long and have a contrasting dorsal pattern of light and dark vertical bars , sometimes with black and white dots . At three months old , the young have grown by 4 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) and their coloration has faded to match that of the adults . Males and females attain sexual maturity at around 47 – 62 cm ( 19 – 24 in ) and 49 – 57 cm ( 19 – 22 in ) respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Common in the aquarium trade , the coral catshark is regarded as well @-@ suited to home aquariums because of its small size , hardiness , and attractive appearance . It requires a tank at least 2 metres long , with sufficiently deep hiding places . This shark tends to be more aggressive than other small sharks , often attacking tankmates larger than it can consume . Captive individuals have been known to live up to 20 years , and the species has reproduced in the aquarium . Small numbers of coral catsharks are caught incidentally by artisanal reef fishers in eastern Indonesia and likely elsewhere ; it may be sold for meat or processed for fishmeal and liver oil , but its size limits its economic importance . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened , and notes that with more data it may meet the criteria for Vulnerable . It is likely threatened by the rising fishing pressure throughout its range , as well as by widespread habitat degradation from blast fishing , pollution , and the mining of coral for use as building material .
= Operation Flavius =
Operation Flavius ( also referred to as the " Gibraltar killings " ) was a controversial military operation in which three members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) were shot dead by the British Special Air Service ( SAS ) in Gibraltar on 6 March 1988 . The three — Seán Savage , Daniel McCann , and Mairéad Farrell — were believed to be mounting a bombing attack on British military personnel in Gibraltar . SAS soldiers challenged them in the forecourt of a petrol station , then opened fire , killing them . All three were found to be unarmed , and no bomb was discovered in Savage 's car , leading to accusations that the British government had conspired to murder them . However keys found on Farrel matched a hire car later found in Marbella ( 80km away ) which was found to contain 64 kg of Semtex and detonators . An inquest in Gibraltar ruled that the SAS had acted lawfully , while the European Court of Human Rights held that , although there had been no conspiracy , the planning and control of the operation was so flawed as to make the use of lethal force almost inevitable . The deaths were the first in a chain of violent events in a fourteen @-@ day period ; they were followed by the Milltown Cemetery attack and the corporals killings in Belfast .
From late 1987 , the British authorities were aware that the IRA was planning to detonate a bomb at the changing of the guard ceremony outside the governor 's residence in the British Dependent Territory of Gibraltar . When Savage , McCann and Farrell — known IRA members — travelled to Spain in preparation for the attack , they were tracked at the request of the British government . On the day of the shootings , Savage was seen parking a white Renault in the car park used as the assembly area for the parade ; McCann and Farrell were seen crossing the border shortly afterwards .
After a military bomb @-@ disposal officer reported that Savage 's car should be treated as a suspected bomb , the police handed over control of the operation to the SAS . As soldiers were moving into position to intercept the trio , Savage split from McCann and Farrell and began running south . Two soldiers pursued Savage while two approached McCann and Farrell ; as they did so , the pair were said to make threatening movements , as a result of which the soldiers opened fire , shooting them multiple times . As soldiers caught up with Savage , he was alleged to have turned around to face them while reaching into his jacket ; he was also shot multiple times . All three were subsequently found to be unarmed , and Savage 's car was found to contain no explosives ; enquiries resulting from keys found on Farrell led authorities to a second car , containing a large quantity of explosives , in a car park in Spain . Almost two months after the shootings , the documentary Death on the Rock was broadcast on British television . Using reconstructions and eyewitness accounts , it presented the possibility that the three IRA members had been unlawfully killed . The documentary proved extremely controversial ; several British newspapers described it as " trial by television " .
The inquest into the deaths began in September 1988 . It heard from British and Gibraltar authorities that the IRA team had been tracked to Málaga Airport , where they were lost by the Spanish police , and that the three did not re @-@ emerge until Savage was sighted parking his car in Gibraltar . The soldiers each testified that they had opened fire in the belief that the suspected bombers were reaching for weapons or a remote detonator . Among the civilians who gave evidence were the eyewitnesses discovered by " Death on the Rock " , who gave accounts of seeing the three shot without warning , with their hands up , or while they were on the ground . Kenneth Asquez , who told the documentary that he had seen a soldier fire at Savage repeatedly while the latter was on the ground , retracted his statement at the inquest , claiming that he had been pressured into giving it . On 30 September , the inquest jury returned a verdict of " lawful killing " . Dissatisfied , the families took the case to the European Court of Human Rights . Delivering its judgement in 1995 , the court found that the operation had been in violation of Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights as the authorities ' failure to arrest the suspects at the border , combined with the information given to the soldiers , rendered the use of lethal force almost inevitable . The decision is cited as a landmark case in the use of force by the state .
= = Background = =
The Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , now inactive , is a paramilitary organisation which aimed to establish a united Ireland and end the British administration of Northern Ireland through the use of force . The organisation was the result of a 1969 split within the previous Irish Republican Army , also known as " the IRA " ( the other resulting group , known as the Official IRA , ceased military activity during the 1970s ) . During its campaign , the IRA killed members of the armed forces , police , judiciary and prison service , including off @-@ duty and retired members , and bombed businesses and military targets in both Northern Ireland and England , with the aim of making Northern Ireland ungovernable . Daniel McCann , Seán Savage , and Mairéad Farrell were , according to journalist Brendan O 'Brien , " three of the IRA 's most senior activists " . Savage was an explosives expert and McCann was " a high @-@ ranking intelligence operative " ; both McCann and Farrell had previously served prison sentences for offences relating to explosives .
The Special Air Service ( formally 22 Special Air Service Regiment , or 22 SAS ) is a regiment of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom 's special forces . The SAS was sporadically assigned to operations in Northern Ireland in the early stages of the British Army 's deployment in the province , during which they were confined to South Armagh . The first large @-@ scale deployment of SAS soldiers in the Troubles was in 1976 , when the regiment 's D Squadron was committed . The SAS soon began to specialise in covert , intelligence @-@ based operations against the IRA , using more aggressive tactics than regular army and police units operating in Northern Ireland .
= = Build @-@ up = =
From late 1987 , the British authorities were aware that the IRA was planning an attack in Gibraltar and launched Operation Flavius . The intelligence appeared to be confirmed in November 1987 , when several known IRA members were detected travelling from Belfast to Spain under false identities . MI5 — the British Security Service — and the Spanish authorities became aware that an IRA active service unit was operating from the Costa del Sol and the members of the unit were placed under surveillance . After a known IRA member was sighted at the changing of the guard ceremony at " the Convent " ( the governor 's residence ) in Gibraltar , the British and Gibraltarian authorities began to suspect that the IRA was planning to attack the British soldiers with a car bomb as they assembled for the ceremony in a nearby car park . In an attempt to confirm the IRA 's intended target , the government of Gibraltar suspended the ceremony in December 1987 , citing a need to repaint the guardhouse . They believed their suspicions were confirmed when the IRA member re @-@ appeared at the ceremony when it resumed in February 1988 , and the Gibraltar authorities requested special assistance from the British government .
In the weeks after the resumption of the changing of the guard ceremony , the three IRA members who were to carry out the attack — Seán Savage , Daniel McCann , and Mairéad Farrell — travelled to Málaga ( 90 miles [ 140 kilometres ] along the coast from Gibraltar ) , where they each rented a car . Their activities were monitored and by early March , the British authorities were convinced that an IRA attack was imminent ; a special projects team from the SAS was despatched to the territory , apparently with the personal approval of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher . Before the operation , the SAS practised arrest techniques , while the Gibraltar authorities searched for a suitable place to hold the would @-@ be bombers after their arrest . The plan was that the SAS would assist the Gibraltar Police in arresting the IRA members — identified by MI5 officers who had been in Gibraltar for several weeks — if they were seen parking a car in Gibraltar and then attempting to leave the territory .
= = Events of 6 March = =
According to the official account of the operation , Savage entered Gibraltar undetected in a white Renault 5 at 12 : 45 ( CET ; UTC + 1 ) on 6 March 1988 . An MI5 officer recognised him and he was followed , but he was not positively identified for almost an hour and a half , during which time he parked the vehicle in the car park used as the assembly area for the changing of the guard . At 14 : 30 , McCann and Farrell were observed crossing the frontier from Spain and were also followed . They met Savage in the car park at around 14 : 50 and a few minutes later the three began walking through the town . After the three left the car park , " Soldier G " , a bomb @-@ disposal officer , was ordered to examine Savage 's car ; he returned after a few minutes and reported that the vehicle should be treated as a suspect car bomb . This soldier 's suspicion was conveyed as certainty to Soldiers " A " , " B " , " C " , and " D " , who were ordered into positions to intercept Savage , McCann , and Farrell as they walked north towards the Spanish border . " Soldier G " ' s information convinced Gibraltar Police Commissioner Joseph Canepa , who was controlling the operation , to order the arrest of the three suspects . To that end , he signed over control of the operation to " Soldier F " , the senior SAS officer , at 15 : 40 . Two minutes after receiving control , " Soldier F " ordered Soldiers " A " , " B " , " C " , and " D " to apprehend the IRA operatives , by which time they were walking north on Winston Churchill Avenue towards the airport and the border . As the soldiers approached , the suspects appeared to realise that they were being followed . Savage split from the group and began heading south , brushing against " Soldier A " as he did so ; " A " and " B " decided to continue approaching McCann and Farrell , leaving Savage to Soldiers " C " and " D " .
At the same time as the police handed control over to the SAS , they began making arrangements for the IRA operatives once they were in custody , including finding a police vehicle in which to transport the prisoners . A patrol car containing Inspector Luis Revagliatte and three other uniformed officers , apparently on routine patrol and with no knowledge of Operation Flavius , was ordered to return to police headquarters as a matter of urgency . The police car was stuck in heavy traffic travelling north on Smith Dorrien Avenue , close to the roundabout where it meets Winston Churchill Avenue . The official account states that at this point , Revagliatte 's driver activated the siren on the police car in order to expedite the journey back to headquarters , intending to approach the roundabout from the wrong side of the road and turn the vehicle around . The siren apparently startled McCann and Farrell , just as Soldiers " A " and " B " were about to challenge them , outside the Shell petrol station on Winston Churchill Avenue . " Soldier A " stated at the inquest that Farrell looked back at him and appeared to realise who " A " was ; " A " testified that he was drawing his pistol and intended to shout a challenge to her , but " events overtook the warning " : that McCann 's right arm " moved aggressively across the front of his body " , leading " A " to believe that McCann was reaching for a remote detonator . " A " shot McCann once in the back ; " A " went on to tell the inquest that he believed Farrell then reached for her handbag , and that he believed Farrell may also have been reaching for a remote detonator . " A " also shot Farrell once in the back , before returning to McCann — he shot McCann a further three times ( once in the body and twice in the head ) . " Soldier B " testified that he reached similar conclusions to " A " , and shot Farrell twice , then McCann once or twice , then returned to Farrell , shooting her a further three times . Soldiers " C " and " D " testified at the inquest that they were moving to apprehend Savage , who was by now 300 feet ( 91 metres ) south of the petrol station , as gunfire began behind them . " Soldier C " testified that Savage turned around while simultaneously reaching towards his jacket pocket at the same time as " C " shouted " Stop ! " ; " C " stated that he believed Savage was reaching for a remote detonator , at which point he opened fire . " Soldier C " shot Savage six times , while " Soldier D " fired nine times . All three IRA members died . One of the soldiers ' bullets , believed to have passed through Farrell , grazed a passer @-@ by .
Immediately after the shootings , the soldiers donned berets to identify themselves . Gibraltar Police officers , including Inspector Revagliatte and his men , began to arrive at the scene almost immediately . At 16 : 05 , only 25 minutes after assuming control , the SAS commander handed control of the operation back to the Gibraltar Police in a document stating :
A military assault force completed the military option in respect of the terrorist ASU in Gibraltar and returns control to the civil power .
Shortly after the shootings , soldiers and police officers evacuated buildings in the vicinity of the Convent , while bomb @-@ disposal experts got to work ; four hours later , the authorities announced that a car bomb had been defused , after which Savage 's white Renault was towed from the car park by an army truck . The SAS personnel , meanwhile , left Gibraltar on a Royal Air Force aircraft .
When the bodies were searched , a set of car keys was found on Farrell . Spanish and British authorities conducted enquiries to trace the vehicle , which — two days after the shootings — led them to a red Ford Fiesta in a car park in Marbella ( 50 miles [ 80 kilometres ] from Gibraltar ) . The car contained a large quantity of Semtex surrounded by 200 rounds of ammunition , along with four detonators and two timers .
= = Reaction = =
Within minutes of the military operation ending , the British Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) issued a press release , stating that " a suspected car bomb has been found in Gibraltar , and three suspects have been shot dead by the civilian police " . That evening , both the BBC and the ITN ( Independent Television News ) reported that the IRA team had been involved in a " shootout " with the authorities . The following morning , BBC Radio 4 reported that the alleged bomb was " packed with bits of metal and shrapnel " , and later carried a statement from Ian Stewart , Minister of State for the Armed Forces , that " military personnel were involved . A car bomb was found , which has been defused " . Each of the eleven British daily newspapers reported the alleged finding of the car bomb , of which eight quoted its size as 500 pounds ( 230 kilograms ) . The IRA issued a statement later on 7 March to the effect that McCann , Savage , and Farrell were " on active service " in Gibraltar and had " access to and control over 140 pounds ( 64 kg ) " of Semtex .
According to one case study of the killings , the events " provide an opportunity to examine the ideological functioning of the news media within [ the Troubles ] " . The British broadsheet newspapers all exhibited what the authors called " ideological closure " by marginalising the IRA and extolling the SAS . Each of the broadsheets focused , for example , on the alleged bomb and the potential devastation it could have caused without questioning the government 's version of events .
At 15 : 30 ( GMT ) on 7 March , the foreign secretary , Sir Geoffrey Howe , made a statement to the House of Commons :
Shortly before 1 : 00pm yesterday , afternoon [ Savage ] brought a white Renault car into Gibraltar and was seen to park it in the area where the guard mounting ceremony assembles . Before leaving the car , he was seen to spend some time making adjustments in the vehicle
An hour and a half later , [ McCann and Farrell ] were seen to enter Gibraltar on foot and shortly before 3 : 00pm , joined [ Savage ] in the town . Their presence and actions near the parked Renault car gave rise to strong suspicions that it contained a bomb , which appeared to be corroborated by a rapid technical examination of the car .
About 3 : 30pm , all three left the scene and started to walk back towards the border . On their way to the border , they were challenged by the security forces . When challenged , they made movements which led the military personnel , operating in support of the Gibraltar Police , to conclude that their own lives and the lives of others were under threat . In light of this response , they [ the IRA members ] were shot . Those killed were subsequently found not to have been carrying arms .
The parked Renault car was subsequently dealt with by a military bomb @-@ disposal team . It has now been established that it did not contain an explosive device .
Press coverage in the following days , after Howe 's statement that no bomb had been found , continued to focus on the act planned by the IRA ; several newspapers reported a search for a fourth member of the team . Reports of the discovery of the bomb in Marbella appeared to vindicate the government 's version of events and justify the killings . Several MPs made statements critical of the operation , while a group of Labour MPs tabled a condemnatory motion in the House of Commons .
= = Aftermath = =
The IRA notified the McCann , Savage , and Farrell families of the deaths on the evening of 6 March . In Belfast , Joe Austin , a senior local member of Sinn Féin , was assigned the task of recovering the bodies for burial . On 9 March , he and Terence Farrell ( one of Mairéad Farrell 's brothers ) travelled to Gibraltar to identify the bodies . Austin negotiated a charter aircraft to collect the corpses from Gibraltar and fly them to Ireland on 14 March . Two thousand people waited to meet the coffins in Dublin , which were then driven north to Belfast . Northern Irish authorities flooded the neighbourhoods where McCann , Farrell and Savage had lived with soldiers and police to try to prevent public displays of sympathy for the dead . Later that evening , a local IRA member , Kevin McCracken , was shot and allegedly then beaten to death by a group of soldiers he had been attempting to shoot at . At the border , the authorities met the procession with a large number of police and military vehicles , and insisted on intervals between the hearses , causing tensions between the police and the members of the procession and leading to accusations that the police rammed Savage 's hearse .
The animosity between the mourners and the police continued until the procession split to allow the hearses to travel to the respective family homes , and then on to Milltown cemetery . The Royal Ulster Constabulary ( RUC ) agreed to maintain a minimal presence at the funeral in exchange for guarantees from the families that there would be no salute by masked gunmen . This agreement was leaked to Michael Stone . During the funeral , Stone , who described himself as a " freelance Loyalist paramilitary " , threw several hand grenades into the congregation , before firing an automatic pistol at the gathered mourners , injuring 60 people . After initial confusion , several of the mourners began to pursue Stone , throwing rocks and shouting abuse . Stone fired on his pursuers , hitting and killing three . He was eventually captured by members of the crowd , who had chased him onto a road , and beaten him with rocks and makeshift weapons until the RUC arrived to extract him and arrest him .
The funeral of Caoimhín Mac Brádaigh ( né Kevin Brady ) , the third and last of the Milltown attack victims to be buried , was scheduled for 19 March . As his cortège proceeded along Andersontown Road , a car being driven by two British Army corporals , David Howes and Derek Wood , entered the street and sped past two teams of stewards , who were attempting to direct traffic out of the procession 's path . As the corporals continued along Andersontown Road , they came across the cortège , and mounted the footpath to avoid colliding with it . They continued until blocked by parked cars , at which point they attempted to reverse , but were blocked by vehicles from the cortège and a hostile crowd surrounded their vehicle .
As members of the crowd began to break into the vehicle , some using makeshift weapons , one of the corporals drew and fired a pistol , which momentarily subdued the crowd , before both men were dragged from the car , beaten and disarmed . Shortly afterwards , the corporals were dragged across the road to Casement Park , where they were beaten further . A local priest intervened to stop the beating , but was pulled away when a military identity card was discovered , raising speculation that the corporals were members of the SAS . The two were bundled semi @-@ conscious over a wall by IRA operatives , who jumped over the wall and forced the corporals into the back of a black taxi and sped away . The taxi took the corporals and the IRA men to an area of waste ground in West Belfast , the IRA men continuing to beat the soldiers en route . Six men were seen leaving the vehicle . The two corporals , apparently dazed from their injuries , staggered from the taxi , but were quickly restrained . Another IRA man arrived with a pistol taken from one of the soldiers , with which he repeatedly shot each of the corporals before handing the weapon to another man , who shot the corporals ' bodies multiple times . Margaret Thatcher described the corporals ' killings as the " single most horrifying event in Northern Ireland " during her premiership .
The shootings sparked the largest criminal investigation in Northern Ireland 's history , which created fresh tension in Belfast as republicans saw what they believed was a disparity in the efforts the RUC expended in investigating the corporals ' murders compared with those of republican civilians . Over four years , more than 200 people were arrested in connection with the killings , of whom 41 were charged with a variety of offences . The first of the so @-@ named " Casement Trials " concluded quickly ; two men were found guilty of murder and given life sentences in the face of overwhelming evidence . Of the trials that followed , many were based on weaker evidence and proved much more controversial .
= = " Death on the Rock " = =
On 28 April 1988 , almost two months after the Gibraltar shootings , ITV broadcast an episode of its current affairs series This Week , produced by Thames Television , entitled " Death on the Rock " . This Week sent three journalists to investigate the circumstances surrounding the shootings from both Spain and Gibraltar . Using eyewitness accounts , and with the cooperation of the Spanish authorities , the documentary reconstructed the events leading up to the shootings ; the Spanish police assisted in the reconstruction of the surveillance operation mounted against the IRA members as they travelled around Spain in the weeks before 6 March , and the journalists hired a helicopter to film the route . In Gibraltar , they located several new eyewitnesses to the shootings , who each said they had seen McCann , Savage , and Farrell shot without warning or shot after they had fallen to the ground ; most agreed to be filmed and provided signed statements . One witness , Kenneth Asquez , provided two near @-@ identical statements through intermediaries , but refused to meet with the journalists or sign either statement . After failing to persuade Asquez to sign his statement , the journalists eventually incorporated his account of seeing Savage shot while on the ground into the programme .
For technical advice , the journalists engaged Lieutenant Colonel George Styles GC , a retired British Army officer who was regarded as an expert in explosives and ballistics . Styles believed that it would have been obvious to the authorities that Savage 's car was unlikely to contain a bomb as the weight would have been obvious on the vehicle 's springs ; he also expressed his opinion that a remote detonator could not have reached the car park from the scenes of the shootings given the number of buildings and other obstacles between the locations . As the government refused to comment on the shootings until the inquest , the documentary concluded by putting its evidence to a leading human rights lawyer , who expressed his belief that a judicial inquiry was necessary to establish the facts surrounding the shootings .
The documentary attracted considerable controversy . On 26 April , two days before the programme was scheduled for broadcast , Sir Geoffrey Howe telephoned the chairman of the Independent Broadcasting Authority ( IBA ) to request that the authority delay the broadcast until after the inquest on the grounds that it risked prejudicing the proceedings . After viewing the programme and taking legal advice , the IBA decided on the morning of 28 April that " Death on the Rock " should be broadcast as scheduled , and Howe was informed of the decision . Howe made further representation to the IBA that the documentary would be in contempt of the inquest ; after taking further legal advice , the IBA upheld its decision to allow the broadcast . The programme was broadcast at 21 : 00 ( GMT ) on 28 April . The following morning , the British tabloid newspapers lambasted the programme , describing it as a " slur " on the SAS and " trial by television " , while several criticised the IBA for allowing the documentary to be broadcast . Over the following weeks , newspapers repeatedly printed stories about the documentary 's witnesses , in particular Carmen Proetta , who gave an account of seeing McCann and Farrell shot without warning by soldiers who arrived in a Gibraltar Police car . Proetta subsequently sued several newspapers for libel and won substantial damages . The Sunday Times conducted its own investigation and reported that " Death on the Rock " had misrepresented the views of its witnesses ; the witnesses involved later complained to other newspapers that " The Sunday Times " had distorted their comments .
= = Inquest = =
Unusually for Gibraltar , there was a long delay between the shootings and the setting of a date for the inquest ( the usual method for investigating sudden or controversial deaths in the United Kingdom and its territories ) ; eight weeks after the shootings , the coroner , Felix Pizzarello , announced that the inquest would begin on 27 June . Two weeks later ( unknown to Pizzarello ) , Margaret Thatcher 's press secretary announced that the inquest had been indefinitely postponed . The inquest began on 6 September . Pizzarello presided over the proceedings , while eleven jurors evaluated the evidence ; representing the Gibraltar government was Eric Thislewaite , the Gibraltar attorney general . The interested parties were represented by John Laws , QC ( for the British government ) , Michael Hucker ( for the SAS personnel ) , and Patrick McGrory ( for the families of McCann , Farrell , and Savage ) . Inquests are non @-@ adversarial proceedings aimed at investigating the circumstances of a death ; the investigation is conducted by the coroner , while the representatives of interested parties can cross @-@ examine witnesses . Where the death occurred through the deliberate action of another person , the jury can return a verdict of " lawful killing " , " unlawful killing " , or an " open verdict " ; though inquests cannot apportion blame , in the case of a verdict of unlawful killing the authorities will consider whether any prosecutions should be brought . There was initially doubt as to whether the SAS personnel involved in the shootings would appear at the inquest . Inquests have no powers to compel witnesses to appear if the witness is outside the court 's jurisdiction , although the soldiers apparently volunteered after Pizzarello declared that the inquest would be " meaningless " without their evidence . The soldiers and MI5 officers gave their evidence anonymously and from behind a screen . As the inquest began , observers including Amnesty International expressed concern that McGrory was at a disadvantage , as all of the other lawyers were privy to the evidence of the SAS and MI5 personnel before it was given . The cost of the transcript for each day 's proceedings was increased ten @-@ fold the day before the inquest began .
In total , the inquest heard evidence from 79 witnesses , including the Gibraltar Police officers , MI5 personnel , and SAS soldiers involved in the operation , along with technical experts and civilian eyewitnesses .
= = = Police , military , and MI5 witnesses = = =
The first witnesses to testify were the Gibraltar Police officers involved in the operation and its aftermath . Following them , on 7 September , was " Mr O " , the senior MI5 officer in charge of Operation Flavius . " O " told the inquest that , in January 1988 , Belgian authorities found a car being used by IRA operatives in Brussels . In the car were found a quantity of Semtex , detonators , and equipment for a radio detonation device , which , " O " told the coroner , led MI5 to the conclusion that the IRA might use a similar device for the planned attack in Gibraltar . MI5 further believed that the IRA had been unlikely to use a " blocking car " ( an empty vehicle used to hold a parking space until the bombers bring in the vehicle containing the explosives ) as this entailed the added risk of multiple border crossings . Finally , " O " told the coroner that McCann , Savage , and Farrell had been observed by Spanish authorities arriving at Málaga Airport , after which he claimed the trio had been lost , and that the British and Gibraltarian authorities did not detect them crossing the border .
Joseph Canepa , commissioner of the Gibraltar Police , was the next senior figure to testify . He told the inquest that ( contrary to McGrory 's assertions ) there had been no conspiracy to kill McCann , Savage , and Farrell . Canepa told the coroner that , upon learning of the IRA plot from MI5 , he set up an advisory committee , which consisted of MI5 officials , senior military officers , and the commissioner himself ; as events developed , the committee decided that the Gibraltar Police was not adequately equipped to counter the IRA threat , and Canepa requested assistance from London . The commissioner gave assurances that he had been in command of the operation against the IRA at all times , except for the 25 minutes during which he signed over control to the military . In his cross @-@ examination , McGrory queried the level of control the commissioner had over the operation ; he extracted from Canepa that the commissioner had not requested assistance from the SAS specifically . Canepa agreed with " O " that the Spanish police had lost track of the IRA team , and that Savage 's arrival in Gibraltar took the authorities by surprise . Although a police officer was stationed in an observation post at the border with instructions for alerting other officers to the arrival of the IRA team , Canepa told the inquest that the officer had been looking for the three IRA members arriving at once . When pressed , he told McGrory he was " unsure " whether or not the officer had the details of the false passports the trio were travelling under . Two days after Canepa 's testimony concluded , Detective Constable Charles Huart , the Gibraltar Police officer in the observation post at the border on 6 March , appeared . When cross @-@ examined , Huart denied knowing the pseudonyms under which the IRA team were travelling . On cross @-@ examination , Huart acknowledged having been provided with the pseudonyms at a briefing the night before the shootings . Detective Chief Inspector ( DCI ) Joseph Ullger , head of the Gibraltar Police Special Branch , offered a different account when he gave evidence the following day . He told the coroner that the Spanish border guards had let Savage through out of carelessness , while the regular border officials on the Gibraltar side had not been told to look for the IRA team .
" Soldier F " , a British Army colonel who was in command of the SAS detachment involved in Operation Flavius , took the stand on 12 September . " F " was followed the next day by " Soldier E " , a junior SAS officer who was directly responsible for the soldiers who carried out the shootings . After the officers , the inquest heard from Soldiers " A " , " B " , " C " , and " D " , the SAS soldiers who shot McCann , Savage , and Farrell . The SAS personnel all told the coroner that they had been briefed to expect the would @-@ be bombers to be in possession of a remote detonator , and that they had been told that Savage 's car definitely contained a bomb . Each soldier testified that the IRA team made movements which the soldiers believed to be threatening , and this prompted the soldiers to open fire . McGrory asked about the SAS 's policy on lethal force during cross @-@ examination ; he asked " D " about allegations that Savage was shot while on the ground , something " D " strenuously denied . McGrory asked " D " if he had intended to continue shooting Savage until he was dead , to which " D " replied in the affirmative .
Several Gibraltar Police officers , including Special Branch officers , gave evidence about the aftermath of the shootings and the subsequent police investigation . Immediately after the shootings , the soldiers ' shell casings were removed from the scene ( making it difficult to assess where the soldiers were standing when they fired ) ; two Gibraltar Police officers testified to collecting the casings , one for fear that they might be stolen and the other on the orders of a superior . Statements from other police and military witnesses revealed that the Gibraltar Police had lost evidence and that the soldiers did not give statements to the police until over a week after the shootings .
= = = Civilian witnesses = = =
One of the first witnesses with no involvement in Operation Flavius to give evidence to the inquest was Allen Feraday , Principal Scientific Officer at the Royal Armaments Research and Development Establishment . He posited that a remote detonator could reach from the scenes of the shootings to the car park in which Savage had left the white Renault and beyond . On cross @-@ examination , he stated that the aerial on the Renault was not the type he would expect to be used for receiving a detonation signal , adding that the IRA had not been known to use a remote @-@ detonated bomb without a direct line of sight to their target . The following day , " Soldier G " ( who had made the determination that the white Renault contained a bomb ) told the coroner that he was not an explosives expert , and that his assessment was based on his belief that the vehicle 's aerial looked " too new " . Dissatisfied , McGrory called his own expert witness — Dr Michael Scott , an expert in radio @-@ controlled detonation — who disagreed with government witnesses that a bomb at the assembly area could have been detonated from the petrol station where McCann and Farrell were shot , having conducted tests prior to testifying . The government responded by commissioning its own tests , conducted by British Army signallers , which showed that radio communication between the petrol station and the car park was possible , but not guaranteed .
Professor Alan Watson , a British forensic pathologist , carried out a post @-@ mortem examination of the bodies . Watson arrived in Gibraltar the day after the shootings , by which time the bodies had been taken to the Royal Navy Hospital ; he found that the bodies had been stripped of their clothing ( causing difficulties in distinguishing entry and exit wounds ) , that the mortuary had no X @-@ ray machine ( which would have allowed Watson to track the paths of the bullets through the bodies ) , and that he was refused access to any other X @-@ ray machine . After the professor returned to his home in Scotland , he was refused access to the results of blood tests and other evidence which had been sent for analysis and was dissatisfied with the photographs taken by the Gibraltar Police photographer who had assisted him . At the inquest , McGrory noted and questioned the lack of assistance given to the pathologist , which Watson told him was " a puzzle " . Watson concluded that McCann had been shot four times — once in the jaw ( possibly a ricochet ) , once in the head , and twice in the back ; Farrell was shot five times ( twice in the face and three times in the back ) . Watson was unable to determine exactly how many times Savage was shot — he estimated that it was possibly as many as eighteen times . McGrory asked Watson whether the pathologist would agree that Savage 's body was " riddled with bullets " ; Watson 's answer made headlines the following morning : " I concur with your word . Like a frenzied attack " . Watson agreed that the evidence suggested the deceased were shot while on the ground ; a second pathologist called by McGrory offered similar findings . Two weeks later , the court heard from David Pryor — a forensic scientist working for London 's Metropolitan Police — who had analysed the clothes of the dead ; he told the inquest his analysis had been hampered by the condition of the clothing when it arrived . Pryor offered evidence contradictory to that given by Soldiers " A " and " B " about their proximity to McCann and Farrell when they opened fire — the soldiers claimed they were at least six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 metres ) away , but Pryor 's analysis was that McCann and Farrell were shot from a distance of no more than two or three feet ( 0 @.@ 6 or 0 @.@ 9 metres ) .
Aside from experts and security personnel , several eyewitnesses gave evidence to the inquest . Three witnessed parts of the shootings , and gave accounts which supported the official version of events — in particular , they did not witness the SAS shooting any of the suspects while they were on the floor . Witnesses uncovered by the journalists making " Death on the Rock " also appeared : Stephen Bullock repeated his account of seeing McCann and Savage raise their hands before the SAS shot them ; Josie Celecia repeated her account of seeing a soldier shooting at McCann and Farrell while the pair were on the ground . Hucker pointed out that parts of Celecia 's testimony had changed since she spoke to " Death on the Rock " , and suggested that the gunfire she heard was from the shooting of Savage rather than sustained shooting of McCann and Farrell while they were on the ground , a suggestion Celecia rejected ; the SAS 's lawyer further observed that she was unable to identify the military personnel in photographs her husband had taken . Maxie Proetta told the coroner that he had witnessed four men ( three in plain clothes and one uniformed Gibraltar Police officer ) arriving opposite the petrol station on Winston Churchill Avenue ; the men jumped over the central reservation barrier and Farrell put her hands up , after which he heard a series of shots . In contrast to his wife 's testimony , he believed that Farrell 's gesture was one of self @-@ defence rather than surrender , and he believed that the shots he heard did not come from the men from the police car . The government lawyers suggested that the police car the Proettas saw was the one being driven by Inspector Revagliatte , carrying four uniformed police officers rather than plain @-@ clothed soldiers , but Proetta was adamant that the lawyers ' version did not make sense . His wife gave evidence the following day . Contrary to her statement to " Death on the Rock " , Carmen Proetta was no longer certain that she had seen McCann and Savage shot while on the ground . The government lawyers questioned the reliability of Proetta 's evidence based on her changes , and implied that she behaved suspiciously by giving evidence to " Death on the Rock " before the police . She responded that the police had not spoken to her about the shootings until after " Death on the Rock " had been shown .
Asquez , who provided an unsworn statement to the " Death on the Rock " team through an intermediary , which the journalists included in the programme , reluctantly appeared . He retracted the statements he made to " Death on the Rock " , which he claimed he had made up after " pestering " from Major Bob Randall ( another " Death on the Rock " witness , who had sold the programme a video recording of the aftermath of the shootings ) . The British media covered Asquez 's retraction extensively , while several members of parliament accused Asquez of lying for the television ( and " Death on the Rock " of encouraging him ) in an attempt to discredit the SAS and the British government . Nonetheless , Pizzarello asked Asquez if he could explain why his original statement mentioned the Soldiers " C " and " D " donning berets , showing identity cards , and telling members of the public " it 's okay , it 's the police " after shooting Savage ( details which were not public before the inquest ) ; Asquez replied that he could not , because he was " a bit confused " .
= = = Verdict = = =
The inquest concluded on 30 September , and Laws and McGrory made their submissions to the coroner regarding the instructions he should give to the jury ( Hucker allowed Laws to speak on his behalf ) . Laws asked the coroner to instruct the jury not to return a verdict of " unlawful killing " on the grounds that there had been a conspiracy to murder the IRA operatives within the British government , as he believed that no evidence had been presented at the inquest to support such a conclusion . He did also allow for the possibility that the SAS personnel had individually acted unlawfully . McGrory , on the other hand , asked the coroner to allow for the possibility that the British government had conspired to murder McCann , Savage , and Farrell , which he believed was evidenced by the decision to use the SAS for Operation Flavius . The decision , according to McGrory was
wholly unreasonable and led to a lot of what happened afterwards ... it started a whole chain of unreasonable decisions which led to the three killings , which I submit were unlawful and criminal killings .
When the coroner asked McGrory to clarify whether he believed there had been a conspiracy to murder the IRA operatives , he responded
that the choice of the SAS is of great significance ... If the killing of the ASU was , in fact , contemplated by those who chose the SAS , as an act of counter @-@ terror or vengeance , that steps outside the rule of law and it was murder ... and that is a matter for the jury to consider .
After listening to both arguments , Pizzarello summarised the evidence for the jury and instructed them that they could return a verdict of " unlawful killing " under any of five circumstances , including if they were satisfied that there had been a conspiracy within the British government to murder the three suspected terrorists . He also urged the jury to return a conclusive verdict , rather than the " ambiguity " of an " open verdict " , and instructed them not to make recommendations or add a rider to their verdict .
The jury retired at 11 : 30 to start their deliberations . Pizzarello summoned them back after six hours with the warning that they were " at the edge " of the time in which they were allowed to come to a verdict . Just over two hours later , the jury returned . By a majority of nine to two , they returned a verdict of lawful killing .
Following the inquest , evidence came to light to contradict the version of events presented by the British government at the inquest . Six weeks after the conclusion of the inquest , a Gibraltar Police operations order leaked ; the document listed Inspector Revagliatte , who had claimed to be on routine patrol , unaware of Operation Flavius , and whose siren apparently triggered the shootings , as the commander of two police firearms teams assigned to the operation . In February 1989 , British journalists discovered that the IRA team operating in Spain must have contained more members than the three killed in Gibraltar . The staff at the agencies from which the team rented their vehicles gave the Spanish police descriptions which did not match McCann , Savage , or Farrell ; Savage 's white Renault , meanwhile , was rented several hours before Savage himself arrived in Spain .
It emerged that the Spanish authorities knew where McCann and Savage were staying ; a senior Spanish police officer repeatedly told journalists that the IRA cell had been under surveillance throughout their time in Spain , and that the Spanish told the British authorities that they did not believe that the three were in possession of a bomb on 6 March . Although the Spanish government remained silent about the claims and counter @-@ claims , it honoured 22 police officers at a secret awards ceremony for Spanish participants in Operation Flavius in December 1988 , and a government minister told a press conference in March 1989 that " we followed the terrorists . They were completely under our control " . The same month , a journalist discovered that the Spanish side of the operation was conducted by the Foreign Intelligence Brigade rather than the local police as the British government had suggested . The Independent and Private Eye conjectured as to the reason for the Spanish government 's silence — in 1988 , Spain was attempting to join the Western European Union , but was opposed by Britain ( which was already a member ) ; the papers ' theory was that Margaret Thatcher 's government placed political pressure on the Spanish , and that Britain later dropped its opposition in exchange for the Spanish government 's silence on Operation Flavius .
= = Legal proceedings = =
In March 1990 , almost two years after the shootings , the McCann , Savage , and Farrell families began proceedings against the British government at the High Court in London . The case was dismissed on the grounds that Gibraltar was not part of the United Kingdom , and was thus outside the court 's jurisdiction . The families launched an appeal , but withdrew it in the belief that it had no prospect of success . The families proceeded to apply to the European Commission of Human Rights for an opinion on whether the authorities ' actions in Gibraltar violated Article 2 ( the " right to life " ) of the European Convention on Human Rights ( ECHR ) . Issuing its report in April 1993 , the commission criticised the conduct of the operation , but found that there had been no violation of Article 2 . Nevertheless , the commission referred the case to the European Court of Human Rights ( ECtHR ) for a final decision .
The British government submitted that the killings were " absolutely necessary " , within the meaning of Article 2 , paragraph 2 , to protect the people of Gibraltar from unlawful violence , because the soldiers who carried out the shootings genuinely believed that McCann , Savage , and Farrell were capable of detonating a car bomb , and of doing so by remote control . The families contested the government 's claim , alleging that the government had conspired to kill the three ; that the planning and control of the operation was flawed ; that the inquest was not adequately equipped to investigate the killings ; and that the applicable laws of Gibraltar were not compliant with Article 2 of the ECHR . The court found that the soldiers ' " reflex action " in resorting to lethal force was excessive , but that the soldiers ' actions did not — in their own right — give rise to a violation of Article 2 . The court held that the soldiers ' use of force based on an honestly held belief ( that the suspects were armed or in possession of a remote detonator ) could be justified , even if that belief was later found to be mistaken . To hold otherwise would , in the court 's opinion , place too great a burden on law @-@ enforcement personnel . It also dismissed all other allegations , except that regarding the planning and control of the operation . In that respect , the court found that the authorities ' failure to arrest the suspects as they crossed the border or earlier , combined with the information that was passed to the soldiers , rendered the use of lethal force almost inevitable . Thus , the court decided there had been a violation of Article 2 in the control of the operation .
As the three suspects had been killed while preparing an act of terrorism , the court rejected the families ' claims for damages , as well as their claim for expenses incurred at the inquest . The court did order the British government to pay the applicants ' costs incurred during the proceedings in Strasbourg . The government initially suggested it would not pay , and there was discussion in parliament of the UK withdrawing from the ECHR . It paid the costs on 24 December 1995 , within days of the three @-@ month deadline which had been set by the court .
= = Long @-@ term impact = =
A history of the Gibraltar Police described Operation Flavius as " the most controversial and violent event " in the history of the force , while journalist Nicholas Eckert described the incident as " one of the great controversies of the Troubles " and academic Richard English posited that the " awful sequence of interwoven deaths " was one of the conflict 's " most strikingly memorable and shocking periods " . The explosives the IRA intended to use in Gibraltar were believed to have come from Libyan ruler Muammar Gaddafi who was known to be supplying arms to the IRA in the 1980s ; some sources speculated that Gibraltar was chosen for its relative proximity to Libya , and the targeting of the territory was intended as a gesture of gratitude to Gaddafi .
Maurice Punch , an academic specialising in policing issues , described the ECtHR verdict as " a landmark case with important implications " for the control of police operations involving firearms . According to Punch , the significance of the ECtHR judgement was that it placed accountability for the failures in the operation with its commanders , rather than with the soldiers who carried out the shooting itself . Punch believed that the ruling demonstrated that operations intended to arrest suspects should be conducted by civilian police officers , rather than soldiers . The case is considered a landmark in cases concerning Article 2 , particularly in upholding the principle that Article 2 , paragraph 2 , defines circumstances in which it is permissible to use force which may result in a person 's death as an unintended consequence , rather than circumstances in which it is permissible to intentionally deprive a person of their life . It has been cited in later ECtHR cases concerning the use of lethal force by police .
After the inquest verdict , the Governor of Gibraltar , Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Terry declared " Even in this remote place , there is no place for terrorists . " In apparent revenge for his role in Operation Flavius , Terry and his wife , Lady Betty Terry , were shot and seriously injured in front of their daughter when IRA paramilitaries opened fire on the Terry home in Staffordshire two years later , in September 1990 .
Following Kenneth Asquez 's retraction of the statement he gave to " Death on the Rock " and his allegation that he was pressured into giving a false account of the events he witnessed , the IBA contacted Thames Television to express its concern and to raise the possibility of an investigation into the making of the documentary . Thames eventually agreed to commission an independent inquiry into the programme ( the first such inquiry into an individual programme ) , to be conducted by two people with no connection to either Thames or the IBA ; Thames engaged Lord Windlesham and Richard Rampton , QC to conduct the investigation . In their report , published in January 1989 , Windlesham and Rampton levelled several criticisms at " Death on the Rock " , but found it to be a " trenchant " piece of work made in " good faith and without ulterior motives " . In conclusion , the authors believed that " Death on the Rock " proved " freedom of expression can prevail in the most extensive , and the most immediate , of all the means of mass communication " .
= Ōkami =
Ōkami ( Japanese : 大神 , literally " great god " , " great spirit " or " wolf " if written as 狼 ) is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Clover Studio and published by Capcom . It was released for Sony Computer Entertainment 's PlayStation 2 video game console in 2006 in Japan and North America , and in 2007 in Europe and Australia . Despite the closure of Clover Studio a few months after the game 's initial release , a version for Nintendo 's Wii console was developed and produced by Ready at Dawn , Tose and Capcom , which was released in North America in April 2008 , in Europe in June 2008 , and in Japan in October 2009 .
Set sometime in classical Japanese history , the game combines several Japanese myths , legends and folklore to tell the story of how the land was saved from darkness by the Shinto sun goddess , named Amaterasu , who took the form of a white wolf . It features a distinct sumi @-@ e @-@ inspired cel @-@ shaded visual style and the Celestial Brush , a gesture @-@ system to perform miracles .
Ōkami was one of the last PlayStation 2 games selected for release prior to the release of the PlayStation 3 . Although it suffered from poor sales , the game received critical acclaim , earning the title of IGN 's 2006 Game of the Year . The Wii version has earned similar praise , though the motion control scheme has received mixed reviews .
A high @-@ definition port of the game was released on the PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network in October 2012 and for retail in Japan in November 2012 , supporting the use of the PlayStation Move motion controller . A sequel for the Nintendo DS titled Ōkamiden was released in Japan in September 2010 , followed by North America and Europe in March 2011 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game has the player controlling the main character , Amaterasu , in a woodcut , watercolor style , cel @-@ shaded environment , which looks like an animated Japanese ink @-@ illustration ( known as ink wash painting , sumi @-@ e ) with other styles of art . The gameplay style is a mix of action , platform , and puzzle gaming genres , and has been noted by many reviewers to have numerous similarities in overall gameplay style to The Legend of Zelda series , an inspiration that director Hideki Kamiya , a self @-@ proclaimed Zelda @-@ fan , has admitted has influenced his general game design . The main story is primarily linear , directed through by Amaterasu 's guide Issun , though numerous side quests and optional activities allow for players to explore the game world and take the story at their own pace . By completing quests , side quests and small additional activities ( such as making trees bloom into life or feeding wild animals ) , Amaterasu earns Praise , which can then be spent to increase various statistics of the character , such as the amount of health and number of ink wells for Celestial Brush techniques .
Combat is staged in a ghostly virtual arena , and Amaterasu can fight enemies using a combination of weapons , fighting techniques and Brush methods to dispatch the foes . At the end of combat , money ( as yen ) is rewarded to Amaterasu , with bonuses for completing a battle quickly and without taking damage . The money can be spent on numerous items from merchants across the land , including healing goods , better weapons , tools and key items for completing quests . The money can also be used to buy new combat techniques at dojos throughout the land .
Additionally , rare Demon Fangs can be earned through combat which can be traded for additional , unique items that are beneficial in gameplay but not required to complete the game . Weapons inspired by the Imperial Regalia of Japan ( the Reflector , the Rosaries and the Glaive ) can be equipped on Amaterasu as either main or sub @-@ weapons ( one each ) , and used in addition to other melee attacks that the player can have Amaterasu learn through the course of the game .
= = = Celestial Brush = = =
Unique to Ōkami is the Celestial Brush . Players can bring the game to a pause and call up a canvas , where the player can draw onto the screen , either using the left analog stick on the DualShock controller , or pointing with the Wii Remote or PlayStation Move controller in subsequent remakes . This feature is used in combat , puzzles and as general gameplay . For example , the player can create strong wind by drawing a loop , cut enemies by drawing a line through them or fix bridges by painting on the broken one , amongst many other abilities . These techniques are learned through the course of the game by completing constellations to release the Celestial Brush gods ( inspired by the Chinese zodiac ) from their hiding spots . It is also possible to upgrade or modify certain Brush powers later in the game ; for example , the Celestial Brush power " Inferno " can gain a new power called " Fireburst " , which has a different drawing pattern , and allows players to create flames without relying on torches or other related items . The player 's ink for drawing is limited by the amount available in special ink wells , preventing the player from solely using Brush techniques to defeat enemies ; ink is restored in the wells over time when the Brush is not used .
= = Plot = =
( Please note that most character names below are the shortened names of the U.S. version . )
= = = Story = = =
The game is set in a Nippon ( Japan ) based on Japanese folklore , and begins with a flashback to events 100 years prior to the game 's present ; the narrator describes how Shiranui , a pure white wolf , and Nagi , a swordsman , together fought the eight @-@ headed demon Orochi to save Kamiki Village and Nagi 's beloved maiden Nami . Shiranui and Nagi seal Orochi at the cave .
In the game 's present , Susano , a descendant of Nagi and self @-@ proclaimed greatest warrior , breaks Orochi 's seal because he does not believe in the legend and wants to prove it false ; Orochi escapes and curses the lands , sapping the life from every living being . Sakuya , the wood sprite and guardian of Kamiki Village , calls forth Amaterasu , the sun goddess , known to the villagers as the reincarnation of the white wolf Shiranui , and pleads for her to remove the curse that covers the land . Accompanied by the artist Issun ( an inch @-@ high creature known as a Poncle ) , Amaterasu restores the land to its normal state .
Throughout her journey , Amaterasu is hounded by Waka , a handsome and strange but powerful individual who seems to have the gift of foresight and further teases Amaterasu and Issun to his own mysterious ends . Additionally , Amaterasu locates several Celestial Gods who have hidden in the constellations ; the gods bestow upon the goddess powers of the Celestial Brush to aid in her quest .
Soon , Amaterasu and Susano defeat Orochi to protect Kamiki Village and rescue Susano 's maiden , Kushi , recreating events from 100 years prior . This time , the duo are able to fully conquer the demon , causing a black , evil spirit to float northward . Amaterasu and Issun then embark on a journey across Nippon , befriending many people along the way through their good deeds , and removing Orochi 's curse from the land through defeating other demons that release similar dark presences , all of which float northward .
As Amaterasu travels to find the source of these evil spirits , she is brought to the wreckage of a ship able to travel through the stars : the " Ark of Yamato " , trapped in the frozen plains of Kamui . Waka appears and reveals himself as a member of the Moon Tribe , a long @-@ living race who used the Ark to escape from Orochi 's assault on the Celestial Plain and sail from the heavens – unaware of the evil spirits imprisoned on the Ark ; the demons attacked and killed all but Waka himself , resulting in the Ark crashing to earth . Amaterasu enters the Ark , where she defeats all of the demons again , before entering the deepest part of the Ark . Within the bowels , Yami , the demon controlling all the evil spirits , appears and strips the Celestial Brush powers from Amaterasu , before engaging her in battle . Amaterasu also fails to recover her powers from Yami , who destroys the Celestial Gods , destroying her power and leaving her near death . Issun takes up his role as the Celestial Envoy and encourages all those they have helped to send their thoughts and prayers to Amaterasu , causing her to regain her powers and allowing her to destroy Yami , ridding all of the demons from both the Ark and Nippon . Amaterasu and Waka take control on the Ark and sail back to the Celestial Plain .
= = = Characters = = =
The player controls Ōkami Amaterasu , the goddess of the sun , in the form of a white wolf . Amaterasu is referred to in the Japanese and European version of the game as a female , while in the North American version she was genderless . While Amaterasu , when endowed with ink power , is seen by the player with red markings , cloud @-@ like fur on her shoulders , and weapons on her back , most of the human characters in the game only see her as a plain white wolf ; some believe Amaterasu to be the reincarnation of Shiranui ( the white wolf that fought Orochi 100 years prior to the game 's present ) , and do not recognize her spiritual nature . If the player depletes their power by overuse of the celestial brush , Amaterasu will temporarily revert to this mundane white form . Issun , an arrogant , inch @-@ tall " wandering artist " seeking out the thirteen Celestial Brush techniques for himself , accompanies Amaterasu ( whom he calls " Ammy " or " furball " ) , and serves as a guide , dialogue proxy and as comic relief . He grows in character along with Ammy throughout the game , becoming her true friend , inspiration , and eventually her savior .
At the end of the game , Amaterasu encounters Yami , the main antagonist and final boss of the game who resembles a small fish inside a huge sphere , whose design is altered through the different stages of the battle . Yami is also the ruler of the demons . Before battle , he drains Amaterasu of her powers and leaves her as a plain white wolf . Amaterasu regains her powers throughout the fight , but , after the fourth round , Yami destroys them all again and leaves Amaterasu in a near @-@ dead state . However , when Issun gets everyone to believe in Amaterasu before the fifth and final round , she changes into her most powerful form and battles Yami , vanquishing him forever . In the final battle , Yami also has a huge clawed hand , which demonstrates the evil which comes from Humans ' hands . The word ' Yami ' means ' darkness ' in Japanese .
Two other characters also reappear several times within the quest . Waka appears to Amaterasu several times in the game as a beautiful young flute @-@ playing man in costume resembling a tengu ( more precisely , a tengu dressed like a yamabushi , which is a frequent tengu appearance ) . He is aware of the goddess 's true identity and foretells her future and at times battles with her . He leads the Tao Troopers whose members Abe and Kamo are based on the two famous onmyōji Abe no Seimei and Kamo no Yasunori . Waka 's dialogue , dropping French affectionate terms at times , conveys a sense of familiarity with Amaterasu , as it turns out that Waka is much older than he appears and has walked with Amaterasu on the Celestial Plain hundreds of years ago . The other is Orochi , the eight @-@ headed demon and a major villain within the game which the player will encounter several times . Orochi repeatedly has threatened Kamiki village , demanding a sacrifice of a young woman . Each of its eight heads is infused with a different elemental magic power , but the entire demon is susceptible to a special brew of sake available only at Kamiki Village , allowing Amaterasu to defeat it while in its stupor . Amaterasu trusts Queen Himiko , the ruler of " Sei @-@ an City " who is killed by one of the demons .
Throughout the game , the player encounters several other characters that are inspired from Japanese folklore .
= = Development = =
Ōkami resulted from the combined ideas of Clover Studio . The game was originally built around " depict [ ing ] a lot of nature " , but had no central concept or theme , according to lead designer Hideki Kamiya . Kamiya eventually created a minute @-@ long demonstration movie showing a wolf running about a forest , with flowers blossoming in its wake , but still lacked any gameplay . Kamiya and other members of the team introduced ideas around the nature aspect and eventually led to the game 's initial prototype , which Kamiya admitted was " incredibly boring to play " . Kamiya suggested that he allowed so many ideas from the team that resulted in the development moving off @-@ target , including creating more of a simulation . Eventually , they settled onto the gameplay found in the final product .
The art in Ōkami is highly inspired by Japanese watercolor and wood carving art of the Ukiyo @-@ e style , such as the work of Hokusai . Ōkami was originally planned to be rendered in a more photorealistic 3D style . However , Clover Studio determined that the more colorful sumi @-@ e style allowed them to better convey Amaterasu 's association with nature and the task of restoring it . The change was also influenced by limitations in the PS2 hardware to render the photorealistic 3D graphics . As a result of the switch to the watercolor style , the idea of the Celestial Brush came about . Atsushi Inaba , CEO of Clover , noted that " Once we fixed ourselves on a graphical style and got down to the brushwork , we thought ' Wouldn 't it be great if we could somehow get the player involved and participate in this artwork instead of just watching it ? ' That 's how the idea of the Celestial Brush was born " . Original concepts for enemies included the use of dinosaurs , but the designs settled onto more demon @-@ like characters .
Amaterasu 's initial designs were aimed to avoid having the character look like " your pet wearing clothing " . The developers had considered having Amaterasu change into a dolphin when in the water and a falcon when jumping off a cliff , but dropped these ideas . Sakuya , designed around a peach motif , was envisioned with what were called " level 2 " and " level 3 " designs where the character would wear less clothing as the story progressed , but the " level 3 " appearance , effectively naked , was vetoed by Inaba . Waka 's character was aimed to be a Tatsunoko @-@ like character , with the hood designed to be reminiscent of those worn by the Gatchaman . Orochi in Japanese mythology is a gigantic creature , so lead character designer Takeyasu Sawaki designed the back of the demon to include a garden and palace ; this inspired the game designers to include a bell in those structures that would be Orochi 's fatal weakness in the game .
The localization team had to translate 1500 pages of text to make sure it made sense in a " native check " , because of lack of plurals in the Japanese language and the large number of characters and conditional conversations that the player could interact with . The team recognized that certain elements of the game would not be recognized by Western audiences , but left enough text and details to allow the players to look up the information for themselves . Only one puzzle in the game had to be changed as it required knowledge of the steps in drawing a kanji character which would be readily known for Japanese audiences ; for the Western release , these steps were demonstrated in the game . The team noted that personalities of characters could be easily conveyed in Japanese text simply by the way sentences were constructed or slurred , a feature that could not directly be applied to localization . Instead , working with Kamiya , the team scripted the localization to either recreate the personality to match the Japanese version , or to create a whole new set of mannerisms for the characters as appropriate .
Ōkami was shown at the 2005 E3 Convention , approximately 30 % complete , with a planned release in 2006 . At this point , the game had much of the core gameplay , including the Celestial Brush and the combat system in place . The game was released a year later in 2006 . However , just a few weeks following its release in North America to strong critical reception , Capcom announced the closure of Clover Studio .
The Ōkami : Official Complete Works art book was published by Udon in May 2008 . The game was re @-@ released under Sony 's " Greatest Hits " in Japan in August 2008 .
= = = Naming and allusions = = =
The title of the game is a pun ; the word ōkami ( 狼 ) in Japanese means " wolf " . However , the kanji characters used as the title of this game ( 大神 ) , pronounced identically , mean " great deity " , so the main character is a great wolf deity . The same characters ( 大神 ) are also used to write the full name of the sun goddess Amaterasu @-@ ōmikami . The localization team opted to use shorter versions of Japanese names ( for example , a boy named " Mushikai " was localized as " Mushi " ) instead of replacing the names with Western @-@ style ones . Issun 's informal name for Amaterasu in the Western translation , " Ammy " , was inspired by Kamiya , and is similar in tone with the Japanese informal name , " Ammako " .
Throughout the game , Ōkami includes several references ( in visual effects , animation , or dialogue ) to other Capcom titles such as Viewtiful Joe , which Clover Studios also developed . For example , Mrs. Orange 's technique for making cherry cake parodies Street Fighter 's Akuma 's Shun Goku Satsu , complete with a kanji word displayed on screen with her back @-@ facing the screen .
= = = Audio = = =
The music in Ōkami was inspired by classical Japanese works . The final song , played over the credit sequence , " Reset " , is sung by Ayaka Hirahara . In May 2006 , Capcom released an official 5 @-@ disc soundtrack for Ōkami in Japan . In the North American and European release , the player can unlock a jukebox to hear the in @-@ game music upon completion of the game . Ōkami won the best score award at the 2007 BAFTA Video Games Awards .
Suleputer has also published another album , a piano arrangement , entitled Ōkami Piano Arrange . It was released on 30 March 2007 . Mika Matsura both arranged the 10 songs , and performed it on the piano .
The characters ' speech in the game is actually created by scrambling samples of voice actors ' speech , with more emotional lines being created from voice work given in that emotion .
= = = Wii port = = =
The gameplay function of " drawing " or " painting " strokes on the screen led several journalists and gamers alike to believe that Ōkami would be well @-@ suited for the Nintendo DS or Wii , both of which feature controls capable of creating drawing motions freely . After the game 's release , industry rumors of the game being ported to either console persisted , despite Atsushi Inaba of Clover Studio feeling that Ōkami 's action @-@ based gameplay would not translate well to the console and statements from Capcom that there were " no plans for Ōkami on Wii " .
However , at the 2007 UK Gamers Day , Capcom announced that Ready at Dawn would oversee porting and development of a Wii version of Ōkami originally scheduled for release in March 2008 but subsequently pushed back to April 2008 . Christian Svensson , Capcom 's Vice @-@ President of Strategic Planning and Business Development , stated that Capcom had received numerous requests from fans for the development of the Wii version , and that the ported game " specifically exists because of that direct communication , especially those we receive on our message boards ( even if they 're sometimes mean to us ) . " Ready at Dawn president Didier Malenfant has stated that , aside from the control scheme , the Wii version will be " an exact port of the PS2 version . " The lack of enhancements for the game caused several complaints from gamers , which Svensson addressed , stating that
Svensson reported that the original game assets given to them from Capcom Japan were incomplete , and even after requesting old hard drives and computers to recover more assets , Ready at Dawn was still required to recreate some from scratch . Furthermore , the game had to be recoded to change optimizations that were made for the PlayStation 2 version ; Svensson stated that " part of the reason we didn 't show it until we started showing it was because , if we showed it in a form that was anything less than near @-@ perfect , people were going to freak out " . Ready at Dawn 's creative director Ru Weerasuriya later reflected that porting Ōkami to the Wii was a challenging task — " we started with no assets and literally reverse @-@ engineered the whole thing back onto the Wii " — they did out of love for the game , but the level of effort would preclude them from attempting such a port again .
In November 2007 , Svensson noted that the engine had been ported to the Wii , writing that " There are still several systems getting set up properly but there 's most definitely a Wii @-@ driven Amaterasu running around Wii @-@ rendered environments as we speak . " A listing posted at Capcom 's website for the game on 15 February 2008 revealed that the Wii version would support 480p and widescreen output , and IGN confirmed that the motion sensing of the Wii Remote would be used to perform the Celestial Brush features within the game . IGN 's hands @-@ on also cited small changes to the game such as additional motion @-@ sensing controls using both the Wii Remote and Nunchuck attachment , and the ability to skip cutscenes , but reported no other changes in content of the game .
Svennson noted that Capcom would not use television advertising for Ōkami on the Wii , but would use online marketing , including art contests and a new website with " all sorts of things for fans to use to make stuff " . This site was made live on 3 April 2008 , featuring wallpapers , character artwork and fan @-@ created art for the game . Svennson further noted that " If [ Ōkami for the Wii ] did the numbers that we did on the PS2 , I 'd be very happy . This doesn 't need to be a mainstream success for this to be a success for the company . "
A " paper parchment " filter applied to all on @-@ screen elements that was readily apparent in the PlayStation 2 version was still included in the Wii port , but the effect was made much less significant . To help with drawing with the Celestial Brush , two different buttons on the Wii controllers were given brush functionality ; one button was assigned to provide free @-@ form strokes , while the other was set to draw a straight line from the starting point .
The final credits movie that was in the PlayStation 2 version of the game was removed from the Wii version , much to Kamiya 's regret as it removed the omoi — " a combination of thoughts , emotions , and messages " — from the game : " [ The staff roll was ] the omoi of everyone who worked on the project , put together in a moment of bliss held out just for those who completed the journey . It was a special staff roll for a special moment . And now it is gone . All of it . ... It 's incredibly disappointing and sad . " A Capcom representative stated that the credits , a pre @-@ rendered movie , had the Clover Studio logo within it , and they had " no legal right to use the Clover logo in a game they were not involved with directly " . Since they also lacked the source to the credits , they opted to remove them entirely from the game . Ready at Dawn 's co @-@ founder Didier Malenfant also claimed that the Wii version of Ōkami took up much more space on the game media than the PlayStation 2 version , and that the movie was cut in order to fit everything on a single game disk , however despite these claims , the credit sequence was restored in the Japanese release of the Wii version and revealed that the port was co @-@ developed by Tose , having provided additional planners , designers , programmers and test players . The images from the credits , although not the credits themselves , are still available as unlockable art .
Players have discovered that the cover of the North American Wii version of Ōkami includes a watermark from IGN , and traced the source to an image taken from IGN 's site . To make up for the error , Capcom offered for a limited time to replace the cover with one of three high @-@ resolution covers free of charge to users in North America . Because of delays in fulfilling the offer , Capcom shipped copies of all three covers to those that registered . They have since discontinued the offer , but have made the cover images available worldwide in high @-@ quality PDF files for users to download and print themselves . The European PAL version of the cover has no such error .
= = = High @-@ definition remaster = = =
In June 2012 , Capcom announced that a high @-@ definition remastering of the game , Ōkami HD ( Ōkami Zekkei @-@ ban ; roughly translated , Ōkami Magnificent Version ) , would be released worldwide for PlayStation 3 in October 2012 ; a retail product was released in Japan , while the game is available for download through the PlayStation Network in Europe and North America only . The decision boggled players , considering that the HD Japanese version of the physical copy of the game also came with the English , French and German languages respectively . The remastered edition supports the PlayStation Move peripheral , and Trophy support has been added . The remastering was done between Capcom and HexaDrive , who had previously worked on the high @-@ definition remastering of Rez .
= = = Sequel = = =
Sales of Ōkami were considered somewhat poor for justifying a sequel ; in July 2009 , in response to users ' questions on the possibility of a sequel , Svensson stated that " I think we need a lot more people buying the current version before we seriously consider a sequel " . However , after the appearance of a Japanese trademark by Capcom on the word " Ōkamiden " a few months before the Wii version of Ōkami in Japan , many speculated that a sequel was pending . The September 2009 issue of Famitsu announced that Ōkamiden was indeed a sequel to Ōkami for the Nintendo DS , to be released by Capcom in Japan in 2010 , though without the input of the Clover staff . The game takes place nine months after the end of Ōkami , with the player in control of Chibiterasu , a wolf puppy with the same powers as Amaterasu , but not yet at his full potential , and features the same style of gameplay , including the Celestial Brush using the DS ' touchscreen controls .
At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016 during an interview with Metro , Kamiya , now at Platinum Games , stated that he had ideas for Ōkami 2 and Bayonetta 3 , though did not confirm if either game was in active development .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Ōkami was acclaimed by critics , with a score of 92 @.@ 65 % on GameRankings , making it the eighth highest overall game of 2006 and second for the PlayStation 2 , behind Konami 's Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence .
GameSpot gave it a 9 out of 10 and selected it as an Editor 's Choice , citing that its " visual design instantly stands out , but it turns out to be just one of many inspired aspects of this impressive action adventure game . " IGN gave the game a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 , as being " beautiful , charismatic , engaging and one of the most original games you 'll play anytime soon . " Electronic Gaming Monthly 's three reviewers gave it a 9 , 9 @.@ 5 , and 9 out of ten , one saying : " I 'll be surprised if you can find a better game on any system this fall . " Newtype USA named Ōkami its Game of the Month for October 2006 , heralded the pacing as " nearly flawless " and proclaimed " Ōkami is that rarest of beasts : a game without any obvious flaws . Clover 's creativity and attention to detail are on full display here . Shame on any gamer who passes up this divine adventure . " Eurogamer scored the game 10 / 10 saying " Right from the start it conjures an atmosphere of being something special , but to keep that level of quality up consistently over 60 hours ensures that this will be a game that will be talked about for years to come " . In 2007 , Ōkami was named eighteenth best PlayStation 2 game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the PlayStation 2 's long lifespan . Famitsu gave the game a near perfect score of 39 out of 40 , the 15th game to date to receive this score from the publication .
However , the game was noted to have some flaws . The game was criticized for its uneven difficulty . Reviewers have also noted some difficulty in getting the game to recognize the correct Celestial Brush patterns , as well as excessive amounts of dialog , particularly at the introduction , which was also hampered by the computer @-@ generated voices used instead of voice acting .
The Wii version of Ōkami has received generally similar praise to the PlayStation 2 version , with GameSpot stating that the support for widescreen and the Wii controls " make it even more relevant today than it was in 2006 " . The use of the Wii Remote for the Celestial Brush was well received ; in GameSpot 's review , they noted that the Wii functionality with the Brush " improves the pace of the game " . However , other aspects to the controls
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were found to be weaker , particularly in combat . In their review , Nintendo Power recommended the PlayStation 2 version of the game over the Wii , stating that " Though you can overcome the drawing and attacking issues with practice ( and by sticking to whip @-@ style weapons ) , it 's a hurdle you shouldn 't have to leap . " The Wii version was given the Game of the Month award from IGN for April 2008 . It was a nominee for multiple awards from IGN in its 2008 video game awards , including Best Artistic Design and Best Use of the Wii @-@ Mote .
The high @-@ definition release on the PlayStation 3 was praised for being the " definitive " version of the game , with the rendering in 1080p helping to make the graphics style of the game stand out . Cam Shae of IGN did express some disappointment that the PlayStation 3 version did not attempt to address the " pop up " of far @-@ off objects due to draw distance , a limitation of the PlayStation 2 version . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer considered that the game remains as relevant as it was when it was first released in 2006 , being one of the few video games of the Zelda style .
= = = Awards = = =
Ōkami 's initial showing at the 2005 E3 Convention garnered severals awards and recognition , including 1UP 's " Best PS2 Game " , " Best Game of Show " ( second place ) , and " Best Action Game " ( third place ) ; IGN 's " Best PS2 Game of Show " , and runner @-@ up for " Best of Show " and " Most Innovative Design " ; and X @-@ Play 's " Most Original Game " . GameSpy recognized it as the fifth best game showing for the convention .
Upon release , Ōkami appeared as the " Game of the Month " for IGN , Electronic Gaming Monthly , and Game Informer . IGN , Edge Magazine and Game Revolution rated it as the best overall game of 2006 , while Game Trailers and Official PlayStation Magazine , named it best PS2 game for 2006 . IGN further awarded the game the " Best Overall " and " PS2 Adventure Game " , the " Best Overall " and " PS2 Artistic Design " , the " Overall " and " PS2 Most Innovative Design " , and the " Best Overall Story " . GameSpot awarded the game for the " Best Artistic Graphics " for 2006 . IGN named Ōkami the 19th top game of all time in a 2007 list . In 2010 , GamePro ranked it as the fifth best game for the PlayStation 2 .
Ōkami has also won awards from outside the mainstream gaming press . The game earned the " Best Character Design " and only one of three Innovation Awards at the 2007 Game Developers Choice Awards . Ōkami won the Grand Prize in the Entertainment Division of the 2006 Japan Media Arts Festival . On 13 August 2007 . It was also awarded the best " Animation in a Game Engine " , " Art Direction in a Game Engine " , " Outstanding Original Adventure Game " , and " Game of the Year " in the 2006 awards by the National Academy of Video Game Testers and Reviewers ( NAVIGaTR ) . Ōkami was given an " Award for Excellence " from the Japanese Computer Entertainment Supplier ’ s Association ( CESA ) at the Japan Game Awards 2007 and was later given 2009 CESA Developers Conference ( CEDEC ) award for " Visual Arts " . The game was awarded the " Best Anthropomorphic Video Game " in the 2006 Ursa Major awards . It also won the 2007 BAFTA awards for " Artistic Achievement " and " Original Score " .
= = = Sales = = =
Ōkami sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in North America in 2006 , grossing approximately US $ 8 million and ranking as the 100th best selling game of the year in the region . By March 2007 , the total sales of the PlayStation 2 version were near 270 @,@ 000 . By comparison , Ōkami sold 66 @,@ 000 copies in Japan for 2006 . While it was initially thought that poor sales of Ōkami and God Hand ( another Clover title released in the same time frame ) were the cause of the closure of Clover Studio , it was later revealed that three key developers within Capcom and Clover Studios , Shinji Mikami ( Resident Evil series ) , Hideki Kamiya ( Devil May Cry series ) , and Inaba , had left the company , and the studio was dissolved , such that " now all the resources should be used more effectively and more efficiently since they are centralized . " Inaba , Mikami , and Kamiya went on to form the video game development company " Seeds Inc " , later merging with a company called " ODD " to become " Platinum Games " .
On 30 July 2008 , Capcom revealed that the Wii version of Ōkami had sold approximately 280 @,@ 000 copies in North America and Europe since its release date . The Wii version debuted in Japan with a modest 24 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week in the region . It was the sixth @-@ bestselling game in Japan on 23 October 2009 . Total sales for the game remained under 600 @,@ 000 total units by March 2009 , and was named the " least commercially successful winner of a game of the year award " in the 2010 version of the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition .
= = = Legacy = = =
Ben Mattes , producer for the 2008 Prince of Persia video game , cited Ōkami as well as Ico and Shadow of the Colossus as influences on the gameplay and artwork for the game . Capcom 's Street Fighter IV is also stated to have character designs influenced by Ōkami with hand @-@ drawn images and brushstroke @-@ like effects . The Disney video game , Epic Mickey , uses similar drawing aspects as Ōkami , allowing the player to draw and modify parts of levels to proceed . The final boss , Yami , appears as the main antagonist and final boss in the crossover fighting game , Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars . Amaterasu appears as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds and Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . After Clover 's dissolution and most of its staff 's subsequent reformation as Platinum Games , one of their next games , Bayonetta , contains several references to Ōkami ; the most notable of these is when the title character transforms into a panther and , like Amaterasu , a trail of flowers and plant life follows her . For the 2010 San Diego Comic Con , Capcom raffled a limited run of T @-@ shirts designed by Gerald de Jesus and iam8bit that placed Amaterasu and Chibiterasu ( from Ōkamiden ) into a homage to the Three Wolf Moon t @-@ shirt .
In 2009 , GamesRadar included Okami among the games " with untapped franchise potential " , commenting : " Seriously , if Nintendo can make the same Zelda game every few years , then why can 't Capcom release Ōkami 2 ? " . In 2015 , Amaterasu was featured in Archie Comics ' Worlds Unite crossover between its Sonic the Hedgehog comic lines and Mega Man series . An Ōkami costume was included in Monster Hunter Generations .
= Eccles , Greater Manchester =
Eccles ( / ˈɛkəlz / ; pop . 38 @,@ 756 ( 2011 ) ) is a town in Greater Manchester , England , 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) west of Salford and 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) west of Manchester city centre , between the M602 motorway to the north and the Manchester Ship Canal to the south .
Historically part of Lancashire , Eccles grew up around the 13th century Parish Church of St Mary . Evidence of pre @-@ historic human settlement has been discovered locally but the area was predominantly agricultural until the Industrial Revolution , when a textile industry was established in the town . The arrival of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , the world 's first passenger railway , led to the town 's expansion along the route of the track linking those two cities .
Eccles cakes , first produced and sold in the town in 1793 , are now exported across the world .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The derivation of the name is uncertain , but several ideas have been proposed . One is that the " Eccles " place – name is derived from the Romano @-@ British Ecles or Eglys , itself derived from the Ancient Greek Ecclesia . Following the arrival in AD 613 of the invading Anglo @-@ Saxons at Lancashire , many existing British place – names , especially rivers and hills ( the River Irwell for example ) , survived intact . The root " Ecles " , found in several village names , is an exception to this . A popular theory is that the word denoted the site of a building recognised by the Anglo @-@ Saxons as a church and feature of the landscape . Eccles appears to have been such a village , and Ecles may be the likely source of the modern name . In Kenyon 's " Origins of Lancashire " ( 1991 ) however the author suggests that this may not be the case as there is not an exact correlation between " Eccles " place – names and pre @-@ Domesday hundreds in south Lancashire .
= = = Early history = = =
Pre @-@ historic finds in the parish of Eccles include dugout boats found at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell , an arrowhead , a spear and axes at Winton , which taken together appear to suggest the existence of a hunting and travelling society . Human habitation in the area may extend as far back as 6000 BC , with two separate periods of settlement on Chat Moss , the first around 500 BC and the second during the Romano @-@ British period .
The village may have been founded by refugees from Manchester ( Mamucium ) during the Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century , although excavations in 2001 – 05 revealed that the civilian settlement at Manchester had probably been abandoned by the mid @-@ 3rd century . Throughout the Dark Ages the parish appears to have been remote enough to be untouched by any local conflicts , while absorbing successive waves of immigrants from nearby towns .
The Manor of Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell once covered a large area ; in 1276 it included townships such as Asphull , Halghton , Halliwelle , Farnword , Eccles , Workedele , Withington ( latterly Winton ) , Irwelham , Hulm , Quicklewicke , Suynhul and Swinton . Before this date it would appear to have been even larger , but by 1320 the manor boundaries were described as " Tordhale Siche descending to Caldebroc , then to the pit near Preste Platteforde and then to another pit , then to the ditch of Roger the Clerk , then to the hedge of Richard the Rimeur , then following the hedge to Caldebroc . " The manor was originally controlled by the Barton family until about 1292 when by marriage it came into the ownership of the Booth family , who retained it for almost 300 years . In 1586 the Trafford family assumed control of the manor , and established themselves in 1632 at Whittleswick , which was renamed Trafford Park .
The parish of Eccles contained the townships of Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell , Clifton , Pendlebury , Pendleton and Worsley . Toward the end of the Middle Ages the parish had an estimated population of about 4 @,@ 000 Communicants . Agriculture remained an important local industry , with little change from the Medieval system due to a lack of adequate drainage and fertiliser . No evidence exists to demonstrate the layout of the area , but it would likely have been the same as the surrounding areas of Salford , Urmston and Warrington where oats and barley would have been grown . Local cottage industries included blacksmiths , butchers , thatching , basket weaving , skinning and tanning . Weaving was popular , using linen and wool . Merchants traded in corn and badgers bought and sold local produce .
Although the local gentry supported the Royalists , the English Civil War had little effect on the area . Troops would occasionally pass through the parish and there was a skirmish at Woolden , but the only other mention of local involvement was the burial of two ( probably ) local soldiers in 1643 . The Jacobite army passed through in 1745 , in its advance and subsequent retreat .
= = = Textiles and the Industrial Revolution = = =
In 1795 John Aikin described the area :
The agriculture of the parish is chiefly confined to grazing , and would be more materially benefited by draining ; but the tax upon brick , a most essential article in this process , has been a very great hindrance to it . The use of lime — imported from Wales , and brought by the inland navigations to the neighbourhood of our collieries — has become very general in the improvement of the meadow and pasture lands .
During the 18th century the predominance of textiles in the region is partly demonstrated in the parish registers of 1807 , which show that 46 children were baptised with 34 fathers employed as weavers . In Memoirs of seventy years of an eventful life ( 1852 ) Charles Hulbert wrote :
The principal employment of the working population of Eccles and vicinity at that time , was the manufacture of Cotton Goods on the home or domestic plan . These were not then , according to my present recollection , more than two Spinning Manufactories in Manchester , Arkwright 's with its loft chimney , and Douglas 's extensive Works , on the River Irwell , near the Broken bank ... At the period of my first residence in Eccles Parish , I believe the above Mills chiefly supplied the Weavers of Eccles and other parishes with twist for warps , which were purchased by the Master Manufacturers .
During the early 19th century the growth of industry meant the majority of the area 's inhabitants were employed in textiles or trade , while a minority worked in agriculture . The factory system was also introduced ; in 1835 1 @,@ 124 people were employed in cotton mills , and two mills used power looms . Local hand @-@ produced specialities included striped cotton ticks , checks , Nankeens and Camrays . Two cotton mills are visible on the 1845 Ordnance Survey map of the area . The area also became renowned for its production of silk , with two mills at Eccles and one at Patricroft . Many factory workers were children under 12 years of age .
In 1830 James Nasmyth ( son of Alexander Nasmyth ) visited the newly opened Liverpool and Manchester Railway , and on his return to Manchester noted the suitability of a site alongside the canal at Patricroft for an engineering works . He and his brother leased the land from Thomas de Trafford , and established the Bridgewater Foundry in 1836 . The foundry was completed the following year with a design based upon assembly line production . In 1839 Nasmyth invented the Steam Hammer , which enabled the manufacture of forgings at a scale and speed not seen before . In the same year the foundry started to manufacture railway locomotives , with 109 built by 1853 . Nasmyth died a wealthy man in 1890 .
The Eccles Spinning and Manufacturing Company came into being following a meeting called by the Mayor of Eccles , in which concern was expressed at the decline in local industry . Two earlier Eccles mills had been destroyed by fire , resulting in significant local unemployment . Designed by Potts , Son and Hennings of Manchester , Bolton and Oldham , it was opened in 1906 . The imposing mill contained a multi @-@ storey spinning mill , engine house and extensive weaving sheds .
Early housing in the village consisted of groups of thatched cottages clustered around and near the parish church . The influx of workers from areas around the village accompanied an increased demand for extra housing . Even after the establishment of the local board of health new properties were often built in the gardens of existing dwellings , leading to severe overcrowding . In 1852 the streets were paved with boulders , sewerage was non @-@ existent , and water supply was a local well . During the latter half of the 19th century new housing was erected alongside the railway , and large areas of open land were soon occupied with new housing estates built for the area 's more wealthy residents .
The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal provided many local residents with jobs . 1 @,@ 888 people were employed on the section of the new canal at Barton . A stone aqueduct over the River Iwell dating from 1761 and designed by James Brindley was demolished and replaced by a new moveable aqueduct : the Barton Swing Aqueduct .
= = = Post @-@ industrial history = = =
Eccles was not immune to the general decline of the textile industry in the 20th century . The Bridgewater Foundry ceased operations in 1940 , taken over by the Ministry of Supply and converted into a Royal Ordnance Factory . The factory closed in the late 1980s , and is now part of the Nasmyth Business Centre .
Eccles is included in the City of Salford 's Unitary Development Plan 2004 – 2016 as part of the western gateway , a major focus for economic development during the plan period . Areas to be developed include the Barton Strategic Regional Site , Dock 9 at Salford Quays , Weaste Quarry near Eccles , and remaining land at Northbank , and the plan provides for improvements which include the A57 – Trafford Park link at Barton and provisional support for a further expansion of the Metrolink system through the area and a link between the A57 and M62 at Barton . Under this plan the town 's retail environment would also be maintained and enhanced .
= = Governance = =
In 1854 the Barton , Eccles , Winton and Monton Local Board of Health was established for the northern part of the township of Barton . Eccles was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1892 , part of which was in Barton poor law union , an inter @-@ parish unit established to provide social security , and in 1933 this was expanded to include most of Barton Moss civil parish , and part of Worsley Urban District . A small part of the borough was transferred in 1961 to the County Borough of Salford . In 1974 the borough was abolished and its area transferred to Greater Manchester to form part of the City of Salford .
The Eccles area incorporates the wards of Barton , Winton , and Eccles .
Following its review of parliamentary representation in Greater Manchester , the Boundary Commission for England recommended that Eccles be split between two new constituencies ; Salford and Eccles , from the existing Salford constituency and the central / eastern part of Eccles , and Worsley and Eccles South , from the existing Worsley constituency and the southern / western part of Eccles .
= = Geography = =
Eccles is situated 4 ¾ miles west of Manchester , on the north bank of the Manchester Ship Canal . The area is along a gentle slope from 160 feet ( 49 m ) above sea level to the north , to 60 feet ( 18 m ) above sea at the south , near the Irwell . The underlying geology is made up of New Red Sandstone and pebble beds . The coal measures of the Lancashire coalfield extend south to Monton and Winton . On the surface deposits of clay and loose sands are prevalent throughout the area , along with vegetable moulds formed by rotted vegetation from the previous ice age . These areas have , when drained , provided fertile soil for local agriculture , benefited by the 19th century practice of dumping nightsoil from nearby Manchester .
Parts of the area are within an indicated floodplain . Eccles ' climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .
= = Demography = =
= = = Overall = = =
At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Sub @-@ division of Eccles was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 36 @,@ 610 , of which 17 @,@ 924 ( 48 @.@ 96 % ) were male and 18 @,@ 686 ( 51 @.@ 04 % ) were female . The settlement occupied 812 hectares , compared with 783 in the 1991 census . Its population density was 45 @.@ 09 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population is 37 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales .
The majority of the population of Eccles was born in England ( 91 @.@ 94 % ) ; 2 @.@ 61 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 70 % within the rest of the European Union , and 2 @.@ 99 % elsewhere in the world .
Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 77 @.@ 07 % declared themselves to be Christian , 12 @.@ 05 % said they held no religion , and 2 @.@ 26 % reported themselves as Muslim .
Eccles is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone , and the Manchester Travel to Work Area .
= = = By ward = = =
The Eccles area consists of the wards of Barton , Winton , and Eccles .
According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the ward of Eccles had a population of 11 @,@ 413 , of which 5 @,@ 546 were male , and 5 @,@ 867 female . The ward of Winton had a population of 12 @,@ 752 , and the ward of Barton had a population of 10 @,@ 434 , giving the larger administrative area of Eccles a total population of 34 @,@ 599 .
Eccles is the ninth most densely populated ward in Salford , and has the highest number and proportion of people aged 75 and over of all wards in Salford . Levels of crime are below the average for the city . The adult population tends to be more qualified than the city average , and primary and secondary education results are also slightly higher than average for Salford . Unemployment is below average , with people tending to work longer hours . More residents live in purpose @-@ built and converted flats than do in the city as a whole , with a minority occupying detached houses or bungalows . Between 1994 and 2004 , 367 homes were added to the ward , above the average for Salford .
Neighbouring Winton is the sixth most densely populated ward in the region and in 2001 had proportionally more children than the city as a whole . Crime is generally below average , with falling rates of burglary in 2005 . Education standards for both adults and children are below city average with minor improvements to GCSE results between 2005 and 2006 . Unemployment is higher than average for Salford , with areas of severe income deprivation both to the north and south of the ward . Residents are on average more likely to live in semi @-@ detached housing , with 208 homes added between 1994 and 2004 .
To the south , the ward of Barton is the third most densely populated in Salford with little population change between 1991 and 2001 . It has proportionally more over @-@ 85 @-@ year olds than the city as a whole , with low adult and primary school education standards , but significant improvements in GCSE results of late . Some parts of Barton are amongst the worst 20 % of areas in the country for child poverty , with below city @-@ average childcare provision . Unemployment is higher than average for Salford . Almost half the homes in the ward are terraced housing , with an extra 300 properties built between 1994 and 2004 .
= = Economy = =
To the east of the town centre , the West One retail park was opened in November 2001 at a cost of £ 53M . It is in competition with the nearby Trafford Centre and Lowry Outlet Mall , and as a result has suffered a loss of trade . Most of its units were abandoned but following the decision by Tesco to scrap plans for a £ 30m Tesco Extra store in 2013 a number of new openings have improved the retail offering ; The Range , Home Bargains and Smyths Toys Superstore . A Morrisons supermarket is near the town centre ,
Until shortly after its closure was announced on 9 May 2006 , the Great Universal Stores group used the former Eccles Spinning and Manufacturing Company building in Winton . Operations have since been transferred to a site in Shaw and Crompton . The town still has a manufacturing industry . Ackros Chemicals , a leading chemical additive supplier and its predecessors have occupied a site on Lankro Way since 1937 , the Global HQ in Eccles employs more than 100 people working in manufacturing , research , administrative and business management roles . Americhem Europe manufactures colouring for plastics and nylon fibres , employing 75 staff with a turnover of £ 10M . The Eccles @-@ based insurance broker and financial services specialist CBG Group , which worldwide employs 180 people , has its head office near the town centre . The employment agency Morson Group has its headquarters in Eccles and supplies thousands of employees to various hi @-@ tech employers .
= = = Population = = =
= = Landmarks = =
The Parish Church of St Mary the Virgin is the only Grade I Listed building in Eccles . There are two Grade II * listed buildings in the Eccles area . The Church of St Andrew was completed by the architect Herbert Edward Tijou in 1879 . Monton Unitarian Church was completed in 1875 by Thomas Worthington .
The town 's war memorial was erected in 1925 . Local sculptor John Cassidy was commissioned to design the structure . Built from Portland stone and topped with a bronze figure , it was unveiled by Lord Derby in August 1925 . It is now a Grade II listed building . Eccles Library was built on a slum clearance site in the town centre . The building was funded by Andrew Carnegie and designed by Edward Potts ( who also designed the canalside mill picture above ) , and opened on 19 October 1907 . Designed in the Renaissance style , it is now a Grade II listed building . Potts had hoped that the building would become " the Eccles University " .
Salford City Council is currently bidding for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway to be included in UNESCO 's list of World Heritage Sites . Eccles railway station has recently undergone restoration work by the Friends of Eccles Railway Station , including clean @-@ ups , renovation of the station garden , and a mural . Both Monton Green and Ellesmere Park are designated conservation areas , and a Site of Biological Importance is located near Rutland Road and Chatsworth Road .
= = Transport = =
The Salford to Warrington turnpike trust was formed in 1752 and assumed control of the road from Pendleton to Irlam . Opinions as to the quality of the road were mainly negative ; writing in 1795 , John Aikin said " Much Labour and a very great expense of money have been expended on the roads of this parish , but they still remain in a very indifferent state , and from one plain and obvious cause , the immoderate weights drawn in carts and waggons . " On the poor quality roads , the Liverpool to Manchester stagecoach took almost an entire day to make the journey . Matters appear to have improved by the 19th century , along with the opening of several more trust roads throughout the parish . In the early part of the 19th century some existing routes were widened and straightened , including the modern @-@ day Regent Road in Salford . All the roads except one were surfaced with boulders . In 1832 a daily omnibus service from Manchester reached Eccles and Pendleton . In 1877 , following the laying of tracks in the road , horse @-@ drawn trams were used ; these eventually gave way in 1902 to electric trams under the control of the Salford Corporation . Motorised buses were introduced in 1938 .
The opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway on 15 September 1830 was a pivotal moment in transport history . The world 's first railway constructed to carry passengers as well as freight , it signalled the beginning of the end for both the turnpike trusts and the canal system . Stagecoach services ceased as passengers started to use the faster railway . The opening day was historic for more than one reason though ; Eccles became a part of an early railway accident . During a stop at Parkside railway station near Newton @-@ le @-@ Willows , Member of Parliament for Liverpool William Huskisson was seriously injured by an approaching locomotive . He was taken to the vicarage in Eccles for treatment , but died of his injuries . There have been two further serious railway incidents in Eccles , the first in 1941 , and the second in 1984 . The line was widened in 1882 , and improvements were made to the station infrastructure , however in 1971 a fire destroyed the wooden station building , which has never been rebuilt .
The Tyldesley Loopline was opened by the London and North Western Railway on 1 September 1864 with stations at Monton Green ( opened 1887 ) , Worsley , Tyldesley , and Leigh . The railway provided a link between Eccles ( located on the existing Liverpool and Manchester line ) , and Wigan . In 1870 an additional branch line from this , the Roe Green Loopline , was opened to Bolton to support the surrounding collieries , the largest of which was at Mosley Common . The London and North Western Railway also built a line from Patricroft railway station to Molyneux Junction , via Clifton Hall Tunnel ( built in 1849 ) . The line connected with the East Lancashire Railway to Radcliffe and Bury . Clifton Hall Tunnel collapsed on 28 April 1953 . The Tyldesley Loopline was closed on 5 May 1969 under the Beeching axe , and the closure of the Roe Green branch line followed in October 1969 .
In 1851 the Earl of Ellesmere hosted a visit to Manchester by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . They stayed at Worsley Hall , with a view of the canal , and were given a trip between Patricroft railway station and Worsley Hall , on state barges . Large crowds had gathered to cheer the royal party , which apparently frightened the horses drawing the barge so much that they fell into the canal .
The M602 motorway was opened throughout on 3 November 1971 . The Borough Council had previously formed the Eccles Borough Council 's General Purposes Committee , which from December 1962 began to purchase land for the route of the new road , while overseeing a powerful public relations scheme . A demolition programme commenced in January 1967 , with some residents re @-@ housed in newly built housing stock . The council also had to arrange for the purchase of land at the interchange with the present @-@ day M60 , and to re @-@ route part of the Thirlmere Aqueduct . Construction began on 8 December 1969 , along a route limited by the existence of housing estates , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , the M62 junction at Worsley , and the Bridgewater Canal . Consideration was given to the route of the disused Eccles @-@ Tyldesley @-@ Wigan railway line ; the height of the motorway was lowered to accommodate a new railway bridge in case the line was ever re @-@ instated . The nearby bridge for the Clifton Junction branch railway was demolished with explosives .
In addition to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , the town is now served by the Eccles Line of the Metrolink light rail system which , along with regular bus services , terminates at Eccles Interchange . Work on the Metrolink branch to Eccles began in July 1997 and was completed by July 2000 , with the official opening ceremony in January 2001 ; trams leave every twelve minutes .
= = Education = =
One of the early schools in Eccles was the 18th century day school in the parish of St. Mary 's , south of the Irwell on the de Trafford estate . A Catholic Sunday school was opened in Eccles during the 19th century , in a building in Back Timothy Street ( now the location of Eccles Library ) . Another Day School was also opened in cottages on Barton Lane . The first substantial school in the area however was opened in 1851 along Church Street . A Boy 's School was opened in 1888 .
St Patrick 's RC High School is currently the best performing secondary school in Salford , with one of the highest scores in England . The Eccles area contains a number of primary and secondary schools , including ( but not limited to ) St. Mary 's R.C. Primary School , Branwood Preparatory School , New Park High School , and Monton Green Primary School .
Eccles College is a further education college . It opened in 1973 and provides a wide range of A @-@ level and vocational course for school @-@ leavers .
= = Religion = =
As the population of Eccles increased during the Industrial Revolution the medieval parish of Eccles was gradually divided into smaller parishes , and surrounding townships gained their own churches . Roman Catholics living in Eccles originally attended worship at a chapel on the de Trafford estate , south of the Irwell , however the chapel was demolished and replaced by All Saints Church . The first Rector of the Roman Catholic Parish of Eccles parish was , from 1879 , a Father Sharrocks . The first public Catholic procession in Eccles since the Reformation of the 1530s took place on 18 August 1889 .
The Grade II * listed St Andrew 's church in St Andrew 's Parish was built in the 1870s and opened in 1879 ( the tower was added in 1889 ) . Over the next 40 years various decorative improvements were made to the building , including stone carvings , stained glass , and wall paintings ( covered in 1965 ) . Four months after the church was consecrated a church school was opened , the forerunner of the present St Andrew 's Primary School . A second school in Monton ( then part of the parish ) opened in 1881 . In 1912 Monton became a separate parish with its own church , St Paul 's .
The area has a variety of other churches , including the Church of St James at nearby Hope , and a Baptist church , Other denominations catered for include Methodist New Connexion , Zion Methodist New Connexion , and Wesleyan .
= = Sports = =
The amateur rugby league club Salford City Roosters , formerly known as the Eccles Roosters , are based in Eccles .
Eccles Rugby Football Club ( rugby union ) is on the inside of the circular M60 motorway , south of the railway . The club 's first registration as a member of the Lancashire County Rugby Football Union was in 1886 . To the west of Eccles lies the City of Salford Stadium , along with new transport infrastructure around the motorway and Trafford Centre . Immediately west of the new stadium site is Boysnope Park Golf Club , an 18 @-@ hole par 72 parkland course with floodlit driving range .
Eccles is home to City of Salford Volleyball Club https : / / sites.google.com / site / cityofsalfordvolleyballclub / home One of English volleyball 's premier women 's teams , the club competes in Volleyball England 's Women 's SUPER8 's competition as well as having a number of development teams
= = Public services = =
Eccles became the first municipal corporation in England to operate a motorised fire engine in 1901 . It was supplied to Eccles Corporation by a local firm , the Protector Lamp and Lighting Co . , also known for manufacturing Miners ' Safety Lamps . Barton Aerodrome , the first municipal aerodrome in the UK to be licensed by the Air Ministry , was opened on 29 January 1930 on a site at Barton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Moss .
The first Power Station in Eccles was built along Cawdor Street , and opened on 14 December 1896 by Alderman W. D. Kendall . The second and much larger Barton Power Station was built in 1920 alongside the Manchester Ship Canal and Bridgewater Canal . It was opened on 11 October 1923 by the Earl of Derby , and supplied electricity to Manchester and the South East Lancashire Electricity District . It ceased generation in March 1974 , operating from thereon only as a switching station , and was demolished in June 1979 .
Salford Royal hospital opened in 1882 as the Salford Union Infirmary , a hospital for sick paupers , in association with the union workhouse . It was later renamed as Hope Hospital , taking the name of the nearby medieval Hope Hall , demolished in 1956 . The hospital was given its current name in 2007 .
= = Notable people = =
Edward Potts was a renowned architect born on 2 March 1839 in Bury . He moved to Oldham and designed many of the town 's mills and was ranked with P. S. Stott as the greatest mill architect of Victorian Lancashire . He moved to Eccles in 1891 and was responsible for the design of the town 's library . He was a Liberal member of the borough council from 1902 to 1905 , the first chairman of the town 's library committee ( 1904 ) , and a Justice of the Peace in 1906 . He inaugurated popular Saturday @-@ night concerts during the winter months and , keen to reduce the incidence of infant mortality , gave a sovereign to the mother of every child who reached the age of one . He died on 15 April 1909 and was buried at Chadderton Cemetery .
The hymn @-@ writer William Cooke was born in Eccles in 1821 .
= = Culture = =
Eccles is perhaps best known for the Eccles cake . Dating from the 18th century , they were first sold from a shop owned by James Birch in 1793 . Traditionally made in the town from a recipe of flaky pastry , butter , nutmeg , candied peel , sugar and currants , they are sold across the country and exported across the world . They are sometimes referred to as " dead fly pies " .
Eccles Wakes ( a holiday to celebrate the dedication of the Parish Church ) were celebrated annually until 1877 , when the tradition was abolished by the Home Secretary .
= Our Man Bashir =
" Our Man Bashir " is the 82nd episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the tenth of the fourth season . It originally aired on November 27 , 1995 @.@ in broadcast syndication . Directed by Winrich Kolbe , the story originated from a pitch by Assistant Script Coordinator Robert Gillan and was turned into a script by producer Ronald D. Moore . Both hairdressing in the episode and the score by Jay Chattaway were later nominated for Emmy Awards .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Dr. Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) plays a 1960s secret agent alongside Garak ( Andrew Robinson ) in a holosuite . After a transporter accident makes several other crew members appear as characters in the program , the duo must prevent any of them from dying in the game or else they will be killed in real life .
The production team deliberately avoided holodeck malfunction related episodes as they felt they had been overused on Star Trek : The Next Generation . However , Gillian pitched the circumstances that caused the issue seen in the episode and Moore came up with the 1960s setting . One of the influences for the episode was the James Bond films , which was also raised by several reviewers . This obvious influence resulted in Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer contacting the studio and the later references to it in the episode " A Simple Investigation " were toned down . " Our Man Bashir " received Nielsen ratings of 6 @.@ 8 percent , and while the episode was mostly praised by reviewers with particular attention paid to the performance of Avery Brooks , there was some criticism levelled at the depiction of women .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) is in the holosuite playing a secret agent program in the 1960s . Elim Garak ( Andrew Robinson ) intrudes and convinces Bashir to let him tag along . Meanwhile , Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) , Lt Cmdr. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) , Lt. Cmdr. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) , Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) , and Chief Petty Officer Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) are on a runabout , returning to Deep Space Nine . As they arrive they find that their vessel has been sabotaged and that a warp core breach is imminent . Lt. Cmdr. Michael Eddington beams them out , but the ship is destroyed during transport and Eddington is forced to store their patterns while he repairs the transporter , but doing so uses almost all of the station 's memory , putting many station systems off @-@ line . Their physical patterns end up in the computer controlling the holosuite , where they appear as characters in Bashir 's program .
Bashir is startled to see Kira appear as a Russian spy , who introduces herself as Colonel Anastasia Komananov , KGB . She has no idea who Major Kira is . Eddington informs Bashir and Garak that they can 't shut down the program or let the characters die or else they will lose the patterns of the other crew members . Komananov explains that a scientist called Dr. Noah is planning to take over the world using lasers to cut into the Earth 's crust resulting in the shrinking of the tectonic plates sinking and causing global flooding . Bashir 's orders are to rescue Professor Honey Bare ( Dax ) from Noah . Falcon ( O 'Brien ) attempts to assassinate Bashir , who must stop Komananov from killing him or else O 'Brien 's pattern will be lost . Bashir , Garak and Komananov go to a casino in Paris to speak to Duchamps ( Worf ) , an associate of Noah . Bashir manages to buy his way into a meeting with Noah after winning the money at cards but the trio are knocked out by Duchamps using a powdered drug .
They awake in Dr. Noah 's lair at the pinnacle of Mount Everest . Noah ( Sisko ) enters and gives a monologue about how he will destroy the world , and shows a big red button he will push to do it . He has Bashir and Garak taken below ground , where they are handcuffed to a laser . As the time ticks down before the laser is activated , Bare performs a final check of the laser . Bashir flirts for her , and she slips him a key and hurries out . Bashir unlocks himself and Garak , who protests that it is too dangerous to continue as the safeties are turned off in the program which could result in their deaths . Garak is about to close the program and kill the other crew members when Bashir shoots him , grazing him with a bullet . Garak is shocked , but impressed and agrees to continue the programme . Bashir is concerned as he knows the program will end with either the death of Professor Bare or Colonel Komananov following the defeat of Noah .
The duo burst into Noah 's study and Bashir hits the button to activate the lasers around the world . The room 's occupants gasp as they realize he just annihilated the entire population of Earth except for the top of Mount Everest . Dr. Noah is not prepared to spare Bashir , and just as he is about to execute Bashir , Eddington is able to transfer the crew 's patterns into the computers aboard the USS Defiant . They are then simply beamed aboard , returning to their normal selves . In the holosuite , Bashir and Garak end the program with relief : Bashir " saved the day " by " destroying the world " , Garak notes ; Bashir jibes Garak that they never taught him that in the Obsidian Order .
= = Production = =
Story editor René Echevarria was keen not to have a damaged holodeck story appear , as he felt it had been overdone in Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was specified in the information sheet sent to freelance writers that Deep Space Nine was not accepting stories involving malfunctioning holodecks . Producer Ira Steven Behr explained that the show had been looking for a unique holodeck story that would be specifically for Deep Space Nine rather than Sherlock Holmes and Dixon Hill detective stories seen in The Next Generation . Whilst Bashir and O 'Brien 's adventures in the holosuites in the Battle of Britain and the Battle of Bannockburn have been mentioned in episodes , they were simply too expensive to be shown on screen effectively . But Behr felt that the story for " Our Man Bashir " was within the budget of the show .
The story was initially pitched to Echevarria by Robert Gillan , who was on the staff of Deep Space Nine as Assistant Script Coordinator . Echevarria was immediately convinced , and told Behr about the story who was equally as enthusiastic . In Gillan 's original pitch , there wasn 't a specific setting clearly set out , but Behr and Echevarria were sold on the idea that nothing went wrong with the holosuites — it was simply where the computer decided to store the information following a transporter accident . Producer Ronald D. Moore came up with the 1960s setting , as he felt it was appropriate since Garak was a spy for the Cardassian Obsidian Order . He wrote the teleplay , and based it on a variety of sources including James Bond , Our Man Flint , The Man from U.N.C.L.E. and The Wild Wild West . He later explained that he " loved all of them as a kid . They had a certain panache . I loved writing that episode . "
Some of the elements were suggested by other staff members , with Robert Wolfe naming Colonel Anastasia Komananov and Behr changing Suzie Luvsitt to Mona Luvsitt . Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer was later not pleased with the James Bond @-@ style approach , and when Bashir 's spy program appeared in the later episode " A Simple Investigation " , the references were more generic . Dennis Madalone managed to save some time during the production as one of the shots involved Bashir seeing Falcon approach him from behind by seeing his reflection in a bottle of champagne . After time was already scheduled to attempt the shot , Madalone explained to the director that he could take the filmed sequence and digitally manipulate it onto the bottle . Madalone was also responsible for firing a cork from a bottle at Colm Meaney 's head from off screen to make it appear as if Bashir did it , and managed to do it on the first take .
" Our Man Bashir " was the longest shoot of any single episode of Deep Space Nine , taking nine days to film instead of the normal seven . The episode required a great deal of stunt work and special equipment , such as stuntmen going through tempered glass instead of sugar glass because of the better glass breaking effect . There was a great deal of new sets used as well , which each took longer to set up camera and lighting for as the crew were not as familiar with them as the standing sets . The backdrop used for Mount Everest was rented , but the crew realised it lacked snow so they had to modify it and then return it to the original condition afterwards . The majority of the 1960s style technologies such as Dr. Noah 's base , were all custom built in house and where parts moved they were generally manually operated off screen . Art director Herman Zimmerman said that " Everything that could be manually operated was , because the brain is still smarter than most computers and you can still do some things faster by hand . "
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Our Man Bashir " was first broadcast on November 27 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 6 @.@ 8 percent , placing it in eighth place in its timeslot and lower than the episode that aired the previous week , " The Sword of Kahless " , which gained a rating of 6 @.@ 9 percent . " Our Man Bashir " was the final new episode of Deep Space Nine to air in 1995 , with repeats running until " Homefront " aired on January 1 , 1996 with ratings of 6 @.@ 8 percent . The episode was nominated for two Emmy Awards , one for the score by Jay Chattaway and another for hairdressing in a television episode .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club compared " Our Man Bashir " to " Little Green Men " from earlier in the season , saying that this episode was " better paced " . Another comparison made was to The Next Generation 's " Hollow Pursuits " , saying that " instead of [ Reginald ] Barclay using the holodeck to enact his fantasies with people he can 't bear to deal with in real life , Bashir is forced to keep his made up world going if he wants to save the lives of his friends " . Handlen also praised the relationship between Bashir and Garak in the episode , and said " Our Man Bashir " demonstrates their characterisation . In Michelle Erica Green 's review for TrekNation , she criticised the role of women in the episode , saying that they fared better in the James Bond movies . She also thought that taking the out @-@ of @-@ character element of the episode repeated elements seen in several episodes during the previous season , but praised the acting on the part of Avery Brooks and that Garak was " born to play a Bond sidekick " .
Keith DeCandido , writing for Tor.com , said that it was obvious that the actors enjoyed their new parts in this episode and said of the episode , " holy crap is it fun " . In particular , he praised both Avery Brooks and Nana Visitor in their Bond @-@ esque roles , saying that Brooks made a villain on par with those played by Donald Pleasence , Christopher Lee , and Javier Bardem . DeCandido gave " Our Man Bashir " a rating of nine out of ten . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Our Man Bashir " was placed in 77th place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
The first home media release of " Our Man Bashir " was as a two @-@ episode VHS cassette alongside " The Sword of Kahless " in the United Kingdom on June 13 , 1996 , followed in the United States and Canada by a single @-@ episode release on October 3 , 2000 . It was later released on DVD as part of the season four box set on August 5 , 2003 .
= 2009 Astana season =
The 2009 season for the Astana cycling team began in January with the Tour Down Under and ended in October with the Giro di Lombardia . As a UCI ProTour team , they were automatically invited to and obliged to attend every UCI ProTour event , and were invited to every event in the inaugural UCI World Calendar as well .
With a strong identity as a stage racing team , Astana 's leaders in 2009 were Alberto Contador , Levi Leipheimer , and Lance Armstrong , who returned to competitive cycling in 2009 after a four @-@ year absence . The team 's manager up through the Tour de France was Johan Bruyneel .
The team 's biggest success in 2009 was Contador 's overall victory in the Tour de France . Elsewhere , their main successes in 2009 were in small stage races , with Contador winning the Volta ao Algarve and the Vuelta al País Vasco as well as two stages in Paris – Nice , and Leipheimer winning the Tour of California and the Vuelta a Castilla y León . The team also won the team classification at numerous events . The team failed to live up to lofty expectations in the Giro d 'Italia ; Leipheimer was widely considered a favorite for victory , as was Armstrong before a collarbone injury sustained weeks before , but Leipheimer finished sixth overall and the team did not win any stage .
Away from competition , the team 's season was marked by financial troubles with their sponsors in the Kazakhstani government , which threatened the team 's makeup and very existence for a time . The return of Alexander Vinokourov from retirement and a ban for doping , which ended just as the 2009 Tour de France did , changed the team 's makeup for 2010 .
= = 2009 team roster = =
Ages as of January 1 , 2009
= = One @-@ day races = =
= = = Spring classics = = =
By their own admission , Astana did not aim for the classics . Astana 's first one @-@ day race of the season was Omloop Het Nieuwsblad . Their best @-@ placed rider was Michael Schär in 35th . Aside from their one podium finish , with Maxim Iglinsky in E3 Prijs Vlaanderen , the seventh place attained by Daniel Navarro in the Gran Premio di Lugano was the team 's best result in a one @-@ day race in the spring season . Through Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne , Milan – San Remo ( which saw the participation of Armstrong ) , the Tour of Flanders , Gent – Wevelgem , Paris – Roubaix , the Amstel Gold Race , La Flèche Wallonne , and Liège – Bastogne – Liège they did not have a rider finish higher than 16th ( Assan Bazayev in Milan – San Remo )
= = = Fall races = = =
Astana raced a light schedule in the fall , with the pinnacle of their season having come at the Tour de France . The team sent squads to the Clásica de San Sebastián , Vattenfall Cyclassics , the GP Ouest @-@ France , the Giro dell 'Emilia , the GP Beghelli , the Giro del Piemonte , and the Giro di Lombardia . Their best results from this crop of races came from Alexander Vinokourov , who finished seventh in Lombardy and fifth in the Giro dell 'Emilia .
= = Stage races = =
The first event in which the team participated in 2009 was the Tour Down Under . As it was Armstrong 's first event back after four years of retirement , he made lots of headlines and was even specially promoted on the event 's webpage , though neither he nor the team were especially competitive in the event . Armstrong finished 29th overall , with the same time as Jesús Hernández in 28th as the best @-@ placed Astana riders . The team did not finish in the top ten in any stage . In February , the team competed in the Tour of California , where Leipheimer won the individual time trial in Solvang and the Tour itself for the third straight year . The team also won the teams classification . While the Tour of California was ongoing , the team sent another eight @-@ man squad including Contador and Andreas Klöden to the Volta ao Algarve . Contador and Klöden were first and third , respectively , in the time trial in Stage 4 , giving Contador the overall lead which he retained through the conclusion of the race the next day .
At Paris – Nice in March , Contador appeared well in line to repeat his victory there from two years prior , winning the opening individual time trial and the mountainous sixth stage . He dramatically faltered in Stage 7 , however , losing the yellow jersey and three minutes to Luis León Sánchez , and ultimately finishing fourth . He was unable to chase down Sánchez because of what was later blamed on dietary problems . The team experienced both success and hardship in the Vuelta a Castilla y León later in the month . Leipheimer won the event overall , with Contador having ridden the event in support for him . The first day , however , Armstrong was involved in a crash and taken to the hospital with was later revealed as a fractured clavicle . The injury was thought to take away from Armstrong 's previously high odds to win the Giro d 'Italia , and there was briefly speculation that he would even pull out of the Giro because of the injury .
In April , Contador claimed a convincing victory in the Vuelta al País Vasco , taking the race lead by winning the mountainous Stage 3 and dominating the final time trial . Though they did not race as Astana due to UCI rules , Armstrong , Leipheimer , and Chris Horner took part in the Tour of the Gila at the end of April and early May in what was Armstrong 's first race back from the collarbone injury , with Leipheimer and Armstrong finishing in the top two places . With a squad made up of riders that normally ride in support for others , the team took a stage win ( Klöden ) and second overall ( Janez Brajkovič ) in the Giro del Trentino , also in April .
Astana participated in the Volta a Catalunya in May , while the Giro d 'Italia was ongoing . The team did not win any stage , but Haimar Zubeldia took third overall in the event , and the team won the teams classification . In the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré in June , Contador was thought to be a favorite for victory , but he did not seem to try his hardest to win , not attacking or taking any pulls on the mountainous Stage 5 and seeming to work for Alejandro Valverde on the race 's last two days . The team next took part in the Tour de Suisse , with Klöden in fourth their highest @-@ placed rider .
Astana sent squads to the Brixia Tour , the Tour de Pologne , the Tour of Ireland , the Eneco Tour , the Tour of Missouri , and Franco – Belge , but did not obtain a stage win , podium finish , or classification victory in any of them . The squad sent to the Tour de l 'Ain was more successful . Chris Horner obtained the race lead after the individual time trial in stage 3B , which was won by Alexander Vinokourov riding for the Kazakh national team . Though Horner fell to second behind Tour de l 'Ain champion Rein Taaramäe the next day as the race concluded , he did win the points classification .
= = Grand Tours = =
= = = Giro d 'Italia = = =
Astana was one of 22 teams which participated in the Giro d 'Italia . Contador chose to skip the Giro , despite his status as reigning champion , in order to concentrate on the Tour de France . The squad Astana sent to the Giro included Armstrong , in his first Grand Tour since the 2005 Tour de France and first ever Giro , and Leipheimer , who was considered to be a favorite to win the event . Support riders on the squad included Yaroslav Popovych , Chris Horner , and Janez Brajkovič .
The team started well , coming in third place in the team time trial in Stage 1 , putting Leipheimer and Armstrong 13 seconds off the race lead . In the first mountain stage three days later , Leipheimer finished with Popovych and Horner with the same time as stage winner Danilo Di Luca , while Armstrong lost 15 seconds . The next day , Armstrong lost nearly three minutes and effectively lost any chance in the General Classification , while Leipheimer remained within ten seconds of stage winner Denis Menchov . Leipheimer was fourth overall after that stage and remained there until Stage 12 , the very long and irregular individual time trial in Cinque Terre , where he was the only rider within a minute of the winning time put up by Menchov and moved to third overall . Horner withdrew from the race after Stage 10 , after sustaining a leg injury that for a time prevented him from even being able to stand .
Leipheimer would fall from a podium position days later , though . After stages won by sprinters and breakaways , Stage 16 , with a summit finish at Monte Petrano , was the next real test for riders aiming for the General Classification . Leipheimer was dropped by other leading riders on the climb and wound up losing almost three minutes on the stage , to fall to sixth overall . With their GC hopes all but dashed , Astana decided to try for stage wins on the remaining mountain days in the Giro . Armstrong attacked on Stage 17 and got clear of the leading group , but was unable to bridge to the man in first position on the road , Franco Pellizotti , who went on to win the stage . Ultimately , Astana did not win any stage at the Giro , but they did win the Trofeo Fast Team , beating Team Columbia – High Road by over 24 minutes .
= = = Tour de France = = =
The team was one of 20 to receive an invitation to the Tour de France . Contador , Leipheimer , and Armstrong were all named to the team . There was much speculation and controversy , which began when Armstrong first signed with the team , over who would be the team 's protected rider in the Tour . Though Armstrong 's express goal in returning from retirement was to win an eighth Tour de France , Contador had won his last three Grand Tours and insisted that he deserved leadership of the team and hinted that he might leave if forced to support Armstrong . Bruyneel assured Contador that he would be the leader before the season began . Contador was also publicly named team leader shortly before the Tour began .
The team showed well in the Stage 1 individual time trial , with Contador , Klöden , Leipheimer , and Armstrong all finishing in the top ten , and Contador just 19 seconds off the time put up by stage winner Fabian Cancellara . Two days later , a surprising move made by Team Columbia – HTC resulted in the field being split , as eight members of that team pushed a 28 @-@ man breakaway toward the finish line ahead of the main peloton . Armstrong , Popovych , and Zubeldia were in the first group , as Popovych and Zubeldia had helped to drive the break , while Leipheimer , Contador , and the other members of the team were in the second group 41 seconds back . This resulted in Armstrong rising to third overall and displacing Contador as the team 's best @-@ placed rider . Speculation ensued that this move was meant to firmly install Armstrong as the team 's leader , and Contador was visibly stunned by the stage result when interviewed afterward .
Astana won the Stage 4 team time trial the next day , putting Armstrong a mere 22 / 100ths of a second off the race lead and Contador , Klöden , and Leipheimer behind him third through fifth , with Zubeldia also in the top ten at seventh . After a couple of sprinter @-@ friendly stages where the main contenders stuck together out of trouble , the high mountain Stage 7 shook the standings , and Astana , again . Coming to the finish line , a group of overall contenders was in ninth position on the road , as remnants of the morning 's breakaway were scattered ahead of them . Instead of finishing as a cohesive group , Contador attacked from this group and gained 21 seconds , putting him ahead of Armstrong as Astana 's best @-@ placed rider again , though both were within 8 seconds of new race leader Rinaldo Nocentini . Armstrong said of Contador 's attack that it " wasn 't really the plan , " but that he was nonetheless unsurprised by it . The team was dealt a major blow in Stage 12 , when Leipheimer , after crashing with Cadel Evans in the final kilometers of the stage , was forced to leave the Tour with a broken wrist .
Stage 15 proved to be a crucial one , as the Tour entered Switzerland in a stage with many high mountain climbs . With about three kilometers gone by in an 8 @.@ 8 km final climb to Verbier , Contador attacked and got free of the leading group , that included Klöden and Armstrong , soloing to the line for the stage win and the yellow jersey . Armstrong said after the stage that he had given it everything he had in the climb and Contador was simply the stronger rider ; it was seen as settling any lingering controversy over the squad 's leader and protected rider . Contador all but cemented the Tour title by winning the time trial in Annecy in Stage 18 , just beating out Cancellara to post the day 's best time . Armstrong gained a little over a minute on Fränk Schleck by finishing 16th , and climbed back into a podium position , third , with the result . The two finished the Tour in those positions after holding them on Mont Ventoux , and then riding home safely in the Tour 's largely ceremonial finale in Stage 21 .
= = = Vuelta a España = = =
The team was one of 22 to receive an invite to the Vuelta a España . After having first been named only as a reserve , the returning Alexander Vinokourov was named to the squad five days before the race began .
Astana 's Vuelta was a quiet one . Vinokourov placed in the top ten of the opening individual time trial but he fell out of the top ten of the overall standings the next day due to a crash . Haimar Zubeldia 's 18th @-@ place finish on stage 8 , which was the Vuelta 's first high mountain stage , propelled him into eighth overall until the next day , when he lost time and fell to ninth . In stage 10 , Vinokourov figured in a winning breakaway , but his poor positioning in the four @-@ man sprint finish meant the stage victory went to Cervélo TestTeam 's Simon Gerrans . Before stage 12 , Astana held ninth overall . They continued to hold it after the stage , but the rider in that position changed ; Zubeldia had been in the top ten , but finished further behind stage winner Ryder Hesjedal than Daniel Navarro , so it was Navarro who was the team 's highest @-@ placed rider after the stage . After the next two stages , Navarro also fell from the top ten , and the team did not achieve anything further , with Navarro in 13th their highest @-@ placed rider in the race 's final standings .
= = Away from competition = =
= = = Financial troubles = = =
Shortly before the beginning of the Giro d 'Italia , it was reported that many of the team 's sponsors in Kazakhstan had not paid their full obligations to the team , and that most of the riders had been underpaid to that point in the season as a result . One sponsor , the Kazkhstani state carrier Air Astana , dropped its sponsorship entirely . There was concern that the team itself may fold , as UCI ProTour teams must meet certain financial parameters to stay active , or risk losing their UCI license .
In protest to the underpayment by the team 's sponsors , the team decided to change their jersey a week into the Giro . The new jersey was revealed on May 15 , the date of Stage 7 when the Giro returned to Italy from Austria , as having the names of the underpaying sponsors faded out to the point of being unreadable . Of the nine Astana riders in the Giro , eight wore the new jerseys - Andrey Zeits , who is from Kazakhstan , was the only one to stay with the original jersey . The squad at the concurrent Volta a Catalunya did not wear the faded jerseys .
It was announced on June 19 that the situation had been resolved , with the Kazakh Cycling Federation agreeing to pay what the sponsors were indebted to the team . The team reverted to its normal jerseys in the Tour de France , with nothing faded out .
Shortly after this announcement , rumors circulated that Garmin – Slipstream had been close to signing Contador away from the team , should the Kazakhstani government have failed to pay its obligations and the team defaulted to the ownership of Armstrong or Bruyneel . Other unspecified Spanish Astana riders were also said to be close to jumping to the American team to follow Contador . Garmin team manager Jonathan Vaughters refused to address the rumors , saying that all negotiations are confidential until finalized , but Contador himself commented in September that he had been close to switching before the 2009 Tour began .
= = = Return of Alexander Vinokourov and departure of Johan Bruyneel = = =
While riding for Astana in the 2007 Tour de France , Alexander Vinokourov tested positive for blood doping , causing the entire team to be removed from the race and Vinokourov to retire after being banned from the sport by his national federation and the UCI . After confirming in October 2008 his intention to return to competitive cycling , Vinokourov stated on the eve of the 2009 Tour de France that he would rejoin Astana , the team he believes was created expressly for him , at the expiration of his two @-@ year ban on July 24 . He indicated that Astana manager Johan Bruyneel will be bound by the team 's sponsors to accept him , or else Bruyneel would be forced from the team . Bruyneel publicly stated in April 2008 that he did not want Vinokourov on a team he ran .
The next day , it was further revealed that not only Bruyneel stood to be forced from the team according to Vinokourov , but also Armstrong and other riders from the former Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team . The team would be built around Vinokourov and Contador , who would be able to choose which riders he wanted his teammates . It would contain almost exclusively Kazakhstani and Spanish riders , in the image of the former Liberty Seguros team , for which Contador previously rode . The matter was even addressed by the President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev . The new team organization would be in place by the Vuelta a España , which Vinokourov would ride .
On 21 July , with Contador , Armstrong and Klöden holding three of the top four places in the Tour de France , Bruyneel told Belgian channel VRT that Astana as currently constituted was " finished " and that he would be leaving the team , as Vinokourov and the Kazakh federation had discussed , after the season .
= = = = Disposition of riders for 2010 = = = =
In the wake of Bruyneel 's announcement about leaving Astana during the Tour , Contador said that he would not consider his future until after the race was over . On 23 July , Lance Armstrong announced the formation of a new U.S. cycling team , Team RadioShack , for 2010 . Whether Bruyneel would take part in this venture was not addressed at the time , but Armstrong then announced Bruyneel 's participation on 25 August .
On 31 July , Contador 's agent announced that Contador had turned down an offer to remain with Astana under a new four @-@ year contract because he had felt uncomfortable being caught between the Kazakhs on one side and Bruyneel on the other , and he was hoping to leave Astana before his contract expired in 2010 . However , on 11 August , Contador 's close friend Sergio Paulinho accepted a two @-@ year contract with Team RadioShack , indicating that Contador might not be able to leave Astana as he and his agent wished . This was confirmed on 15 August , when a spokesperson for the Kazakh sponsors of Astana said that they intended to sponsor the Astana team on the UCI ProTour through 2013 and that they intended to enforce the last year of Contador 's contract with Astana in 2010 .
Once Bruyneel 's move to Team RadioShack was confirmed , the squad began filling with transfers from the 2009 Astana team . In addition to Armstrong and Paulinho , Tomas Vaitkus and Gregory Rast joined Team RadioShack as one @-@ day classics specialists , and Jose Luis " Chechu " Rubiera joined for Grand Tour support . On September 1 , Levi Leipheimer 's move to Team RadioShack was confirmed and on October 2 , Andreas Klöden 's move was confirmed . On October 4 , Chris Horner also signed with Team RadioShack for two years . On October 15 , Yaroslav Popovich 's move was also confirmed . It was also reported that Haimar Zubeldia was to remain with Astana , on order from Contandor , though for unclear reasons this changed , as Zubeldia 's transfer to Team RadioShack was confirmed weeks later . With Dimitry Muravyev 's transfer , Astana 's entire 2009 Tour de France squad , Contador aside , had moved to Armstrong 's new team .
Two other Astana riders moved with former Discovery Channel rider George Hincapie to team BMC for 2010 : Steve Morabito and Michael Schär .
= = Season victories = =
= I Never Met the Dead Man =
" I Never Met the Dead Man " is the second episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on April 11 , 1999 . The episode follows Peter Griffin as he teaches his daughter Meg how to drive . Due to his horrible advice they crash into a satellite dish , knocking out the city 's cable . Peter begins to suffer from television withdrawal but finds new life in outdoor activities , driving his family to exhaustion . Meanwhile , Stewie plots to destroy the world 's supply of broccoli with a weather control device so Lois cannot force him to eat the vegetable .
" I Never Met the Dead Man " was written by Chris Sheridan and directed by Michael Dante DiMartino , both firsts in the Family Guy series . Much of the episode 's humor , in standard Family Guy fashion , is structured around cutaway sequences that parody popular culture , including those centered on Wile E. Coyote and The Road Runner , Star Trek , Wizard of Oz , ALF , Gilligan 's Island , Bewitched , and Beverly Hills , 90210 . The title " I Never Met the Dead Man " was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder . The episode featured guest performances by Erik Estrada , Butch Hartman , Aaron Lustig and Joey Slotnick , along with several recurring voice actors for the series . This episode was rated TV @-@ 14 .
Critical responses to the episode were favorable ; several television critics singled it out as among the " most memorable " episodes in the series and considered it to be an improvement over " Death Has a Shadow " .
= = Plot = =
Annoyed that Peter spends more time watching television than with his own family , Lois suggests he teach Meg how to drive . Peter reluctantly agrees , and unwittingly gives Meg a series of bad driving tips , including instructing her to " rev " her engine twice at stop lights and challenge other drivers to a race , which causes her to ultimately fail her driving test . As Peter drives them home from the DMV he notices that a show he wanted to watch is on television in a nearby house . Distracted by the show , he crashes the car into a main cable television transmitter , knocking out reception for the whole entire town of Quahog . Panicking , Peter makes a promise to Meg so that if she takes the blame for knocking down the cable transmitter , she would get a new convertible when she finally gets her licence . Once they arrive home with the transmitter still attached to the car , Lois becomes furious with Peter for placing the blame on his own daughter . Meg , of course , is blamed , and is about to admit the truth , but then decides to keep quiet , reflecting with an inner voice , a reference to The Wonder Years , at school . This shows an incredible lack of good judgment and morals by Peter . Meanwhile , Stewie , ( seeing the opportunity of the dish attached to car ) , steals the satellite dish in a plan to create a weather control device capable of destroying the world 's supply of broccoli , since Lois had forced him to eat the vegetable earlier that day .
Suffering withdrawal syndrome from the lack of cable , Peter straps a television @-@ sized cardboard cutout to himself , making it appear as though his whole world is actually a television program . When Meg can no longer deal with the public scorn , she reveals that her father is really responsible for Quahog 's loss of television , causing the town to turn against him . In an attempt to save Peter from further scorn and verbal attacks , Lois gives a heartfelt speech to the community about how television has kept them all from enjoying one another . Inspired by the speech , Peter drags the family to one outdoor activity after another , which quickly exhausts them . Once the family can no longer keep up with him , Peter decides to go off with William Shatner , who has appeared on the Griffin family doorstep after experiencing a flat tire , to a nearby festival . Meanwhile , Stewie 's weather machine creates a huge rainstorm . The storm 's lightning strike destroys Stewie 's weather machine and blows Stewie off the roof and on the ground . While Meg is practicing driving with Lois , the storm causes her to accidentally hit Shatner and Peter , killing Shatner and hospitalizing Peter . As her father recovers , in a full @-@ body cast , he is forced to watch television , causing him to become addicted once again , much to his family 's relief .
During the credits , Stewie tries ( and fails ) to make believe he is eating his broccoli by pouring it onto Brian 's plate .
= = Production = =
" I Never Met the Dead Man " was the first episode of Family Guy for both writer Chris Sheridan and director Michael Dante DiMartino . For the first months of production , the writers shared one office lent to them by the King of the Hill production crew . As with the remaining first four episodes of the season , the title of the episode was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology " Suspense " , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder . This convention was later dropped following the fourth episode of the season . In addition to the regular cast , actor Erik Estrada , writer and animator Butch Hartman , actor Aaron Lustig , actor Joey Slotnick and voice actor Frank Welker guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actress Lori Alan also made minor appearances . The episode originally aired on April 11 , 1999 , nearly three months after the series premiere .
= = Cultural references = =
When Meg asks her mother to help teach her how to drive , Lois suggests Peter take her driving instead . With Peter refusing in order to continue watching an episode of Star Trek , actor William Shatner , as portrayed by series creator Seth MacFarlane , then appears on the screen .
Going on to suggest her father is not the best driver , Brian recalls a previous driving incident Peter had with Wile E. Coyote , in which he accidentally ran over the Road Runner in the middle of the desert . When Peter is concerned about the " Ostrich " he just hit Wiley tells him to keep going .
In school , when Meg is about to confess that her dad was actually the one who crashed the car , she reflects with an inner voice , a reference to the 1990s hit TV Show The Wonder Years .
Continuing to suffer a withdrawal from not being able to watch television , Peter has a Wizard of Oz @-@ inspired nightmare featuring Alf from the 1986 NBC sitcom ALF , Gilligan from the 1964 CBS series Gilligan 's Island , The Robot from " Lost in Space " , and Jeannie from " I Dream of Jeannie , " who promptly transforms into Samantha from the 1964 ABC series Bewitched .
After creating a cardboard cutout in the shape of a television , Peter walks around town with the contraption strapped to his waist , perceiving the actions around him as television . Two women talking over lunch suggests that he is watching the television station Lifetime , two elderly people out walking reminds him of CBS , a group of African Americans playing basketball suggests UPN , and James Woods High School reminds him of Beverly Hills , 90210 .
After TV service is restored and most of the Griffin family is watching Star Trek , James T. Kirk tells his crew that there is a dangerous mission in that someone will surely be killed . He says the landing party will consist of himself , Mr. Spock , Dr. McCoy , and " Ensign Ricky " ( a redshirt ) , who , upon being called , cynically says " Oh crap ! " , due to the television trope of oft @-@ related instances of redshirt ensigns being killed on the show . At the end of the episode , after Meg accidentally hits and kills Shatner with the Griffin family car , the group of people looking over includes the actor who played " Ensign Ricky " stating " Wow , I did not see that one coming . "
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the episode were generally favorable . A 2008 review of the episode by Ahsan Haque of IGN was positive , calling the storyline involving Stewie " elaborate [ and ] creative . " He gave the episode a perfect score of ten , calling it one of the most " memorable " episodes in the entire series . Haque went on to note that " the tightly woven and hilarious storyline , combined with a constant barrage of cleverly inserted random jokes , and some truly unique imagery help make this episode one of the finest in the series . This is Family Guy at its best , and definitely sets a very high bar for animated comedy . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic rated the episode a 70 out of 100 , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of Family Guy on the site . Pierson described the episode as " A really fun twenty two minutes of television . There are so many jokes to enjoy and they are more focussed than the pilot , " in particular praising the Fast Animals , Slow Children sequence .
In 2008 , Haque later listed Stewie 's plan to freeze broccoli crops as number one on his list of " Stewie 's Top 10 Most Diabolical Evil Plans " and placed Peter 's idea to pretend the world is a television program by attaching a cardboard cutout of a television set around his waist in fifth place on his list of " Peter Griffin 's Top 10 Craziest Ideas " .
= Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl =
Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl , 570 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2013 ) , was a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States that held that several sections of the Indian Child Welfare Act ( ICWA ) do not apply to Native American ( Indian ) biological fathers who are not custodians of an Indian child . The court held that the procedures required by the ICWA to end parental rights do not apply when the child has never lived with the father . Additionally , the requirement to make extra efforts to preserve the Indian family also does not apply , nor is the preferred placement of the child in another Indian family required when no other party has formally sought to adopt the child .
In 2009 , a couple from South Carolina , Matthew and Melanie Capobianco , sought to adopt a child whose father , Dusten Brown , was an enrolled member of the Cherokee Nation and whose mother , Christina Maldonado , was predominantly Hispanic . Brown contested the adoption on the grounds that he was not properly notified in accordance with the ICWA , and won both in trial court and on appeal to the South Carolina Supreme Court , and in December 2011 , the father was given custody of the child . The case received extensive coverage in the national media , and spurred calls for Congress to review and make amendments to the 1978 law .
In October 2012 , the adoptive couple petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States to review the case . In January 2013 , the court granted certiorari and heard the case in April . In June , the Supreme Court issued a 5 – 4 decision , holding that a non @-@ custodial father did not have rights under the ICWA , and sent the case back to the South Carolina courts for further hearings on the issue . In July 2013 , the South Carolina trial court finalized the adoption of the child to the adoptive couple , but this was prohibited in August by the Oklahoma Supreme Court . The stay was lifted in September 2013 , and the child was turned over to her adoptive parents the same month .
= = Background = =
= = = Indian Child Welfare Act = = =
Prior to the adoption of ICWA in 1978 , Indian children were often forcibly removed from their homes and placed in either Native American boarding schools or in non @-@ Indian foster and adoptive homes . Studies conducted in 1969 and in 1974 indicated that many as 25 to 35 percent of tribal children were being removed from their homes , and consequently from tribal culture . Testimony in the House Committee for Interior and Insular Affairs showed that in some states , the per capita rate of Indian children in foster care was nearly 16 times higher than the rate for non @-@ Indians . In some cases , the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) paid the states to remove tribal children and to place them with non @-@ Indian families and religious groups . Congress determined that if Indian children continued to be removed from Indian homes at this rate , tribal survival would be threatened and stated that tribal stability was as important as the best interests of the child . One of the factors in this judgment was that , because of the differences in culture , what was in the best interest of a non @-@ Indian child was not necessarily what was in the best interest of an Indian child , especially due to the influence of extended families and tribal relationships . The Indian Child Welfare Act ( ICWA ) was enacted in 1978 to protect Indian tribes and their children .
The ICWA applies to " Indian children " , defined as " any unmarried person who is under age eighteen and is either ( a ) a member of an Indian tribe or ( b ) is eligible for membership in an Indian tribe and is the biological child of a member of an Indian tribe . " Additionally , in the case of a voluntary adoption of an Indian child , the courts must follow specific guidelines for the Indian birth parents to waive their parental rights or have them terminated . The ICWA provides that to relinquish parental rights , an Indian parent must :
do so in writing ,
do so before a judge ,
who must certify that the parent understood his or her actions ,
understands spoken English or has a translator available , and
a relinquishment may not be executed prior to ten days after the child 's birth .
The Indian parent may also withdraw their consent to an adoption at any time prior to a final order , or within two years of the final order if their consent was obtained through fraud or under duress . If involuntary termination occurs , it must be " supported by evidence beyond a reasonable doubt . " When consent is withdrawn or if the ICWA procedures are not followed , the Indian child is to be immediately returned to the Indian parent .
Tribal rights are also covered by the act . Tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction for cases arising on Indian reservations and concurrent jurisdiction elsewhere . The case may be removed from a state court to a tribal court at the request of the tribe unless one of the Indian child 's parents object . In any case , the tribe has a right to intervene in the proceeding and to act to protect the tribal rights of the child .
= = = Case history = = =
Dusten Brown is a member of the Cherokee Nation . Brown served in the United States Army at Fort Sill , Oklahoma . Christina Maldonado was a non @-@ Indian single mother of two . Brown and Maldonado became engaged to be married in December 2008 , and Maldonado informed Brown that she was pregnant in January 2009 . On learning that Maldonado was pregnant , Brown began to press her to go ahead and marry him , and refused to provide any financial support until after the two had married . In May 2009 , Maldonado broke off the engagement by text message and cut all communications with Brown . In June , Maldonado sent Brown a text message asking if he would rather pay child support or relinquish his parental rights . Brown responded via text message that he relinquished his rights . No child support order was in place at this time . Furthermore , while laws vary from state to state , it is generally impossible for any parent , male or female , to surrender their parental rights without a court hearing that determines the best interest of the child . A father cannot terminate his parental rights by contract , much less by more informal means ( such as by text message ) .
A few months prior to the baby 's birth , Maldonado began to work with an adoption attorney to place the child with Matthew Capobianco and Melanie Duncan Capobianco of James Island , South Carolina . Although Oklahoma law requires that an Indian tribe be informed if an Indian child is to be adopted , Maldonado 's attorney misspelled Brown 's name and provided an incorrect date of birth . As a result , the tribe was not notified about the proposed adoption . After receiving permission from Oklahoma authorities , based in part on the identification of the child as Hispanic rather than Native American , the Capobiancos took the child to South Carolina . Four months after the birth of the child and just days before deployment to Iraq , Brown was served with notice of the proposed adoption . Brown signed the document , believing that he was relinquishing rights to Maldonado . Brown , once he realized what he had signed , immediately tried to retrieve the document , and after that failed , contacted the Judge Advocate General at Fort Sill for assistance . Seven days after being notified of the proposed adoption by the Capobiancos , Brown obtained a stay of the adoption proceedings under the Servicemembers Civil Relief Act and he deployed with his Army unit to Iraq .
= = = Trial court = = =
The adoption case was heard in Charleston County Family Court in September 2011 . Brown contested the adoption , and the Cherokee Nation intervened as a party in its own right in the case . The court denied the Capobiancos ' petition to adopt the child , and ordered that the child be returned to Brown as the biological father . Under South Carolina law , a father 's parental rights were terminated if he did not provide pre @-@ birth support and become involved with the child shortly after birth , but the court noted that the ICWA preempts state law . On November 25 , 2011 , the court issued a ruling , holding that :
the ICWA applied and was not unconstitutional ,
the " Existing Indian Family " exception was inapplicable in this case ,
Brown did not consent to the termination of his parental rights or the adoption of his child , and
the Capobiancos had failed to show by clear and convincing evidence that Brown 's parental rights should be terminated .
On December 31 , 2011 the Capobiancos turned over the child to Brown in accordance with the trial court order . The Capobiancos then appealed to the Supreme Court of South Carolina .
= = = State Supreme Court = = =
Chief Justice Jean H. Toal delivered the opinion of the court on July 26 , 2012 . The five members of the court split 3 @-@ 2 , with Justices Costa M. Pleicones and Donald W. Beatty joining the majority opinion , while Justice John W. Kittredge , joined by Justice Kaye G. Hearn , dissented . The opinion decided three issues : First , whether the Capobiancos had improperly removed the child from Oklahoma ; second , whether state law or the ICWA is determinative of Brown 's status as a parent ; and third , whether the Capobiancos met their burden of proof to terminate the parental rights of Brown .
Toal noted that the Capobiancos were correct that the removal of the child from Oklahoma did not create an unsafe environment for the child , but they were incorrect on the legal issue . Had Oklahoma been properly notified that this was an Indian child , the Cherokee Nation would have been alerted , and the child 's interests as a member of the tribe would have been protected . She noted that at this point , the case was properly before the court , and proceeded to address the second issue .
The Capobiancos argued that it takes more than mere biology to invoke the provisions of the ICWA , and under South Carolina law , a father must reside with the mother for the six @-@ month period preceding the birth of the child and to contribute to pregnancy @-@ related expenses in order to have paternity rights . However , the Court determined that the ICWA does not defer to state law , and the trial court properly determined that the ICWA grants Indian fathers greater rights than state law .
Toal then turned to the last issue , the trial court 's refusal to terminate Brown 's parental rights . The Capobiancos could not show that Brown had agreed to consent to the adoption . The court noted that the ICWA set out clear procedural guidelines and the Capobiancos did not comply with those requirements . The Capobiancos also failed to show by clear and convincing evidence that Brown 's parental rights should be terminated . Under the ICWA , prior to terminating an Indian parent 's rights to the Indian child , the party seeking to terminate parental rights " shall satisfy the court that active efforts have been made to provide remedial services and rehabilitative programs designed to prevent the breakup of the Indian family and that these efforts have proved unsuccessful . " The court noted that the Capobiancos made no efforts to comply with this requirement of federal law , but had actively sought to prevent the father from obtaining custody since the child was four months old .
The court then addressed the best interests of the child . Toal said , quoting Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield , " Where an Indian child 's best interests are at stake , our inquiry into that child 's best interests must also account for his or her status as an Indian , and therefore , we must also inquire into whether the placement is in the best interests of the Indian child , " that this was " based on the fundamental assumption that it is in the Indian child 's best interest that its relationship to the tribe be protected . " Toal stated that the best interest of the child was to be with her father , which also preserved her tribal affiliation .
Finally , Toal addressed the placement requirements of the ICWA , which requires that placement preference be given , in this order , to : 1 ) another member of the child 's family , 2 ) another member of the child 's tribe , and 3 ) another Indian family . The court stated that neither Maldonado nor the Capobiancos had intended to comply with the statute , and that the Capobiancos could not thereby claim that the breaking of the bond formed by the child with the Capobiancos are grounds to ignore the statute .
The court affirmed the decision of the Charleston County Family Court in returning the Indian child to her father , and reiterated that the ICWA preempts state law in the termination of parental rights for Indian parents .
= = = = Dissent = = = =
Justice John W. Kittredge , joined by Justice Kaye G. Hearn , dissented . Kittredge argued that the state standards for best interest of the child should trump those of the ICWA , and concluded that the trial court judge erred in her findings of fact . He noted that Brown had an income of approximately $ 23 @,@ 000 in 2010 , had paid nothing to assist with pre @-@ birth expenses , and had indicated that he did not intend to do so . In addition , Kittredge stated that the record reflected that Maldonado informed both the adoption agency and the adoption attorney of the child 's Cherokee heritage , but the notification to the tribe did not have the correct identifying information for the father . At the child 's birth , the Capobiancos were present , and Matt Capobianco cut the umbilical cord .
Kittredge then evaluated the ICWA , noting that South Carolina law did not allow a father in Brown 's position to contest an adoption . Brown acknowledged paternity , and a DNA test conclusively proved that he was the biological father . Because Brown met the definition of an Indian parent , the ICWA does apply to the case . Even if Brown had not acknowledged paternity , the child was still an Indian and the federal law would apply . However , Kittredge then stated that even though the ICWA applied , Congress did not intend the ICWA to replace state law with regard to a child 's best interests .
Kittredge concluded that Brown had " abandoned " his child and should therefore not be allowed to contest the adoption . He noted that the Capobiancos provided the child with a loving and stable home . Finally , he would have ruled that termination of Brown 's parental rights was in the best interest of the child , and would have reversed the decision of the trial court .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Arguments = = =
After the South Carolina Supreme Court declined to rehear the case , the Capobiancos filed a petition with the United States Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari . Seven entities filed amici curiae briefs with the Supreme Court in support of hearing the case . This included amici briefs by two former U.S. Solicitors General : Paul Clement on behalf of the guardian ad litem , and Greg Garre on behalf of the birth mother . The American Academy of Adoption Attorneys , the National Council for Adoption , the California State Association of Counties and the Center for Adoption Policy were also among those that submitted briefs .
On January 4 , 2013 , the Court granted certiorari and agreed to hear the case . This was only the second time that a case involving the ICWA had been granted review by the U.S. Supreme Court , Holyfield being the first . On April 1 , 2013 , the court decided to allow some of the amici to participate in oral argument and divided the time allowed for oral argument as follows : 20 minutes for petitioners , 10 minutes for respondent Guardian ad Litem , 20 minutes for respondent Birth Father , and 10 minutes for the Solicitor General . Brown was represented by Charles Rothfeld , who was a director at the Yale Law School Supreme Court Clinic and Supreme Court litigator with the Washington , D.C. , office of the international law firm Mayer Brown . The Cherokee Nation was represented by Carter Phillips of Sidley Austin , LLP . The Capobiancos were represented by Lisa Blatt and Mark Fiddler . Blatt headed the Appellate and Supreme Court practice with international law firm Arnold & Porter . Fiddler was a registered Native American attorney and the founder of the Indian Child Welfare Law Center
The issues presented to the court were " ( 1 ) Whether a non @-@ custodial parent can invoke the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 ( ICWA ) , 25 U.S.C. § § 1901 – 63 , to block an adoption voluntarily and lawfully initiated by a non @-@ Indian parent under state law ; and ( 2 ) whether ICWA defines " parent " in 25 U.S.C. § 1903 ( 9 ) to include an unwed biological father who has not complied with state law rules to attain legal status as a parent . "
Three parties filed merit briefs : the Capobiancos as petitioners , and both Brown and the Cherokee Nation as respondents . 32 different amici curiae briefs were filed arguing the merits of the case . Nine were in favor of reversal and the remainder , including the United States Department of Justice , supported the respondents generally and / or affirmation .
= = = Opinion of the Court = = =
Justice Samuel Alito delivered the opinion of the Court . Alito noted that three provisions of the ICWA were relevant to the case , § 1912 ( f ) , § 1912 ( d ) , and § 1915 ( a ) . He also noted it is undisputed under South Carolina law that Brown would not be able to object to the adoption . Alito stated that the heightened standard required under § 1912 ( f ) does not apply when the parent in question never had custody of the child , focusing on the phrase " continued custody " in the statute . Alito continued that § 1912 ( d ) does not require remedial efforts be made when the parent did not have custody . Since Brown never had either physical or legal custody , no remedial efforts were required . Finally , § 1915 ( a ) does not prevent a non @-@ Indian couple from adopting when no preferred individuals or entities have formally sought to adopt the child .
= = = Concurring opinions = = =
= = = = Justice Thomas = = = =
Justice Clarence Thomas issued a concurring opinion . Thomas stated that the canon of constitutional avoidance required the outcome reached by the majority . Thomas contended that there was no constitutional authority for Congress to enact the ICWA . Since the application of the ICWA to the adoption would be unconstitutional , and the result of the majority avoids this issue , Thomas concurred with the majority .
= = = = Justice Breyer = = = =
Justice Stephen Breyer also issued a very short concurring opinion . Breyer stated that since the ICWA does not address how to treat absentee fathers , the Court 's decision may be too broad . He also noted that the preferential placement order required under § 1915 ( a ) could be changed by the tribe under § 1915 ( c ) and a tribe could , by resolution , grant the absentee father a place in preferential placement .
= = = Dissenting opinions = = =
= = = = Justice Scalia = = = =
Justice Antonin Scalia issued a very short dissenting opinion . He stated that , in his opinion , the phrase " continued custody " could refer to " custody in the future " – in other words , even if the biological father had no custody of the child in the past , he could have it in the future , and therefore USC § 1912 ( f ) would still apply . Scalia also noted that biological parents also had legal rights and that there was no reason in law or policy to dilute those rights .
= = = = Justice Sotomayor = = = =
Justice Sonia Sotomayor dissented from the majority opinion . Sotomayor stated that " continued custody " in § 1912 ( f ) is " most sensibly read to refer generally to the continuation of the parent @-@ child relationship that an ICWA " parent " has with his or her child . " She also stated that even a non @-@ custodial father @-@ child relationship was a " family " for the purposes of § 1912 ( d ) and therefore efforts needed to be made to prevent its breakup . She stated that the majority turned the law " upside down " to reach their result . She indicated that the narrow interpretation of the statute by the majority destroyed the unified federal standard established by Congress in favor of a piecemeal system of state control . Finally , Sotomayor stated that the majority ignored the primary purpose of the ICWA in its interpretation of § 1915 ( a ) , and noted that there was nothing to prevent the grandparents from filing a petition to adopt the child . She noted that nothing in the opinion mandated the return of the child to the Capobiancos .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Media coverage = = =
= = = = Prior to Supreme Court decision = = = =
Coverage in the mainstream media was extensive . Charleston 's Post and Courier ran a series of articles on the case , and the news was picked up by other media outlets . These included local television stations , distant television stations , Cable News Network ( CNN ) , Fox News Channel , national magazines , U.S. News , and the New York Times . Additionally , Dr. Phil McGraw featured the Capobiancos on his television show in an episode that aired on October 18 , 2012 . The show immediately sparked controversy , with some Indian newspapers and internet news sources calling for a boycott of his show due to what they alleged was a one @-@ sided attack on Native Americans . It has also been alleged that the mainstream media has disseminated incorrect and false information that portrayed the Capobiancos in a good light and Brown in a bad light .
Terry Cross of the National Indian Child Welfare Association ( NICWA ) commented that despite all the negative press , the ICWA was needed to protect Indian children from having their tribal rights taken from them . He noted that a failure to comply with the ICWA was what caused the controversy in the case . The author of the ICWA , Senator Jim Abourezk initially stated that this is " something totally different than what we intended at the time " but two weeks later said that the main intent of the law was to ensure that tribes had an opportunity to sign off on the adoption of tribal children .
= = = = Post @-@ opinion = = = =
After the Supreme Court decision , most media outlets stated that the Capobiancos won the case , although some correctly noted that they did not gain custody , nor receive an order of adoption . Some noted that even with the decision , the return of the child to the Capobiancos was not " foreordained " and that the case had to return to South Carolina state courts for additional hearings .
= = = = Social media = = = =
The case received a great deal of coverage in social media . A friend of Melanie Duncan Capobianco , Jessica Munday , is a publicist who had previously done contracted work for Melanie Duncan 's employer MST Services [ Multisystemic Therapy ] in South Carolina . Munday started a " Save Veronica " campaign aimed at gathering grassroots support for the couple 's efforts to overturn both the Charleston Family Court and the South Carolina Supreme Court decisions . Munday , who runs the marketing firm Trio Solutions Inc . [ TRIO ] in Mount Pleasant , South Carolina , is responsible for making the case well known according to at least one source . Responses from the Native American community pointed out the irony in the campaign , with an editorial cartoon depicting " Veronica " puzzling over a campaign to save her ( an Indian child ) from other Indians . In addition , a movement supporting Dusten Brown and the Cherokee , " Stand Our Ground , " said that the Baby Veronica case has become a strong example of systemic problems in the adoption industry and has pushed for adoption reform . Stand Our Ground started on Facebook then swelled in protests and rallies across several states .
= = = Legal developments = = =
Maldonado filed suit in the South Carolina U.S. District Court on July 24 , 2013 , asking that the ICWA be declared unconstitutional . On July 31 , 2013 , the Capobiancos legally adopted the child . Concurrently with the South Carolina court finalizing the adoption , the Native American Rights Fund filed a civil rights lawsuit in U.S. District Court on behalf of the child , alleging that her rights had been violated by the South Carolina court . In addition , a South Carolina court order cannot be enforced in Oklahoma without the agreement of an Oklahoma court , and Brown stated that he would fight the order in Oklahoma , with the aid of the Cherokee Nation . Prior to the South Carolina adoption being finalized , the Cherokee Nation District Court granted temporary guardianship to Brown 's wife and parents while Brown was in military training out of state . At the same time , a judge in South Carolina ordered Brown to immediately turn over the child to the Capobiancos , which representatives of the Cherokee Nation said was impossible while Brown was performing his military duties .
On August 30 , 2013 , the Oklahoma Supreme Court stayed an order of a district court that the child be immediately be transferred from the custody of Brown to the Capobiancos . The Capobiancos had court @-@ ordered visits with the girl in Oklahoma , while the Brown family celebrated the girl 's fourth birthday at a party on September 15 . A court @-@ ordered mediation hearing took place between the Browns and the Capobiancos between September 16 and September 20 , but failed to produce a resolution . The Oklahoma Supreme Court lifted its stay of the district court order on September 23 , 2013 , clearing the way for custody of the child to be returned to the Capobiancos . The girl was turned over to her adoptive parents on the evening of September 23 , 2013 . On September 25 , 2013 , the Charleston County Family Court began contempt proceedings against Brown and the Cherokee Nation for withholding Veronica in the face of the South Carolina adoption decree , which was finalized in July . Both parties may face financial sanctions that could include defraying living and legal expenses for the Capobiancos during the period that Brown and the Cherokee Nation were allegedly in contempt of court . In October 2013 , Brown announced that he was dropping his appeals to give his daughter a chance at a normal life .
In November 2013 , Matt and Melanie Capobianco filed a lawsuit in Nowata County , Oklahoma , demanding more than $ 1 million in court costs , accrued during their custody battle . The lawsuit is against Veronica 's biological father , Dusten Brown , and the Cherokee Nation . The Cherokee Nation issued a forceful response , saying " it is not responsible for paying the fees and costs for the Capobiancos because of its Eleventh Amendment sovereign immunity from suits without its express consent . " The Cherokees also " made clear the tribe 's displeasure with the Capobianco 's very public media appearances , interviews and various fundraising schemes during the same time in which all the parties were under statutory gag order in South Carolina " .
= Epikleros =
An epikleros ( ἐπίκληρος ; plural epikleroi ) was an heiress in ancient Athens and other ancient Greek city states , specifically a daughter of a man who had no male heirs . In Sparta , they were called patrouchoi ( πατροῦχοι ) , as they were in Gortyn . Athenian women were not allowed to hold property in their own name ; in order to keep her father 's property in the family , an epikleros was required to marry her father 's nearest male relative . Even if a woman was already married , evidence suggests that she was required to divorce her spouse to marry that relative . Spartan women were allowed to hold property in their own right , and so Spartan heiresses were subject to less restrictive rules . Evidence from other city @-@ states is more fragmentary , mainly coming from the city @-@ states of Gortyn and Rhegium .
Plato wrote about epikleroi in his Laws , offering idealized laws to govern their marriages . In mythology and history , a number of Greek women appear to have been epikleroi , including Agariste of Sicyon and Agiatis , the widow of the Spartan king Agis IV . The status of epikleroi has often been used to explain the numbers of sons @-@ in @-@ law who inherited from their fathers @-@ in @-@ law in Greek mythology . The Third Sacred War originated in a dispute over epikleroi .
= = Etymology = =
The term epikleros ( a feminine adjective acting as noun ; from the proverb ὲπί , epí , " on , upon " , and the noun κλῆρος , klēros , " lot , estate " ) was used in ancient Greece to describe the daughter of a man who had died leaving no male heir . It translates to " attached to the family property " , or " upon , with the estate " . In most ancient Greek city states , women could not own property , and so a system was devised to keep ownership within the male @-@ defined family line . Epikleroi ' were required to marry the nearest relative on their father 's side of the family , a system of inheritance known as the epiklerate . Although epikleros is often mistranslated as " heiress " , strictly speaking the terms are not equivalent , as the woman never owned the property and so was unable to dispose of it . Raphael Sealey argues that another translation could be " female orphan " . The term was used interchangeably , both of the woman herself , and of the property that was the inherited estate . The entire system of the epiklerate was unique to Ancient Greece , and mainly an Athenian institution .
= = Athens = =
Athens is the city @-@ state that is best documented , both in terms of epikleroi and in all aspects of legal history . Athenian law on epikleroi was attributed to Solon ; women with no brothers had to marry their nearest male relative on their paternal side of the family , starting with their father 's brother and moving from there to the next nearest male relative on the paternal side . The historian John Gould notes that the order of relatives that were required to marry the epikleros coincided with the relatives required to avenge a murder . This set of relatives was known as the anchisteia ( ἀγχιστεία ) in Athens . The anchisteia was also the group of relatives who would inherit property in the absence of legal heirs . If there was more than one possible spouse in a set of relatives , the right to marry the epikleros went to the eldest one . The property that was inherited could also be in debt , which would not affect the epikleros ' status .
= = = Definition of the term in Athens = = =
Although epikleros was most often used in the case of a daughter who had no living brothers when her father died , the term was also used for other cases . The Suda , a 10th @-@ century CE lexicon and encyclopedia , gives other definitions , including an heiress who was married at the time of her father 's death and an unmarried daughter without brothers still living with her father . The Suda also stated that the term could be used of a daughter who had living sisters . Although the Suda indicates that in normal usage , the mother of the heiress was also dead , this is incorrect : whether or not the mother was alive had no bearing on the status of the epikleros . Occasionally the term is also used as a feminine form of the Greek term orphanos , or " orphan " . Although a scholiast of Aeschines , or a later writer amending the text , stated that the term could also be used of a daughter who was given to a man in marriage on her father 's deathbed , there is no extant use of the term in that sense in literature , and the scholiast has probably misunderstood a scenario from the comic playwright Aristophanes .
The term in Athens seems to have always been somewhat loosely used in legal proceedings . Apollodorus , an Athenian politician and litigant from the 4th century BCE , in one of his speeches attempted to use an Athenian law about betrothal to make his mother an epikleros . He claimed that the law defined an epikleros as a female without father , a brother who shared a father with her , or a paternal grandfather . His opponent , however , seems to have disputed this interpretation of the law . A speech by Isaeus , a 4th @-@ century BCE speechwriter , rests on the claim that the speaker 's mother only became an epikleros after her young brother died following their father 's death . Whether the legal authorities recognized the speaker 's claim as valid is unknown . It appears , at least according to some plays , that a woman with a brother who died after their father was considered the epikleros of her brother , not her father .
= = = Development of the practice = = =
It is unclear if there were laws dealing with epikleroi prior to Solon 's legislative activity around 594 BCE . According to the 1st century CE writer Plutarch , Solon authored legislation covering the epikleros . Solon 's laws attempted to prevent the combination of estates by the marriage of heiresses . Modern historians have seen this as part of an effort by Solon to maintain a stable number of households . According to Plutarch , Solon also legislated that the husband of an epikleros must have sexual intercourse with her at least three times a month in order to provide her with children to inherit her father 's property , but by the time of Pericles ( d . 429 BCE ) this law is definitely attested . It is unclear whether or not the nearest relative had the power to dissolve an epikleros ' previous marriage in order to marry her himself in all cases . The historian Sarah Pomeroy states that most scholars lean towards the opinion that the nearest relative could only dissolve the previous marriage if the heiress had not yet given birth to a son , but Pomeroy also states that this opinion has not yet been definitely proven . Roger Just disagrees and has argued that even if the epikleros had a son she could still be forced to marry her nearest relative . Athenian law also required that if the next of kin did not marry the heiress , he had to provide her with a dowry . It may have been Solon who legislated that if the new spouse was unable to fulfill his thrice monthly duties to his wife , she was entitled to have sex with his next of kin so that she could produce an heir to her father 's property . Alternatively , she might have been required to divorce and marry the next nearest relative .
= = = Legal procedures = = =
When a man died leaving an epikleros , the heiress was felt to be epidikos , or as it literally translates , " adjudicable " . This made her available for the specialized procedure for the betrothal of an epikleros , a type of court judgement called epidikasia . The proceedings took place in the archon 's court , for citizen epikleroi . For the epikleroi of resident aliens in Athens , the metics , the polemarch was in charge of their affairs . It was also the case that if a man made a will , but did not give any of his daughters their legal rights as epikleroi in the will , then that will was held to be invalid . A young Athenian male , prior to coming of age and serving his time as an ephebe , or military trainee , was allowed to claim epikleroi , the only legal right an ephebe was permitted in Aristotle 's day , besides that of taking office as a priest in an hereditary priesthood . It is also unclear if a man who was eligible to marry an epikleros but was already married could keep his previous wife while also claiming the epikleros . While all evidence points to the ancient Athenians being monogamous , there are two speeches by Demosthenes implying that men did indeed have both a wife acquired through the normal betrothal procedure and another who was adjudicated to them through the epidikasia ( ἐπιδικασία ) procedure . The archon was also responsible for overseeing the treatment of epikleroi , along with widows , orphans , widows who claimed to be pregnant and households that were empty .
When sons of an epikleros came of age , they gained the ownership of the inheritance . In Athens , this age was given in an extant law , and was two years past the age of puberty of the son . In Solon 's laws , it appears that the eldest son of the epikleros was considered the heir of his maternal grandfather , with any further sons being considered part of their father 's household . The son 's inheritance of his maternal grandfather 's property happened whether or not his father and mother were alive , unlike most other inheritances . And the son of an epikleros did not inherit anything from his father , and was named after his grandfather . The heir could further consolidate his position by being posthumously adopted by his maternal grandfather , but this was not required . By the 4th century BCE , legal practices had changed , and the son could also inherit from his father , as well as from his maternal grandfather . And if there was more than one son , they divided the estate passed by the epikleros between themselves . After the heir secured possession of his inheritance , the law specified that he was to support his mother . It is likely that the debts of the grandfather were also inherited along with any property .
Although the law did not rule on who exactly owned the property before the son took possession , it appears from other sources that it was not actually owned by the husband of the epikleros , in contrast to the usual procedure in Athens where the husband owned any property of the wife and could do with it as he willed . A number of speeches imply that the property was considered to be owned by the epikleros herself , although she had little ability to dispose of it . The husband probably had day to day control of the property and administered it , but was responsible for the management to the epikleros ' heirs when they came of age . The position of the husband of an epikleros was closest to that of an epitropos , or the guardian of an orphan 's property , who was likewise responsible to the orphan for his care of the property when the orphan came of age . Another parallel with the orphan was that an epikleros ' property was exempt from liturgies ( leitourgia ) , or the practice of requiring citizens to perform public tasks without compensation , as was the orphan 's .
It may have been possible for the husband of an epikleros to allow the posthumous adoption of the son of an epikleros as the son of the epikleros ' father . This would prevent the inheritance of the newly adopted son of any property from his natural father , but it had the advantage of preserving the adoptee 's oikos , commonly translated as " household " but incorporating ideas of kinship and property also . Although the preservation of the paternal oikos is usually felt to be the reason behind the whole practice of the epiklerate , the historian David Schaps argues that in fact , this was not really the point of the practice . Instead , he argues , that it was the practice of adoption that allowed the preservation of an oikos . Schaps feels that the reason the epiklerate evolved was to ensure that orphaned daughters were married . Other historians , including Sarah Pomeroy , feel that the children of an epikleros were considered to transmit the paternal grandfather 's oikos . The historian Cynthia Patterson agrees , arguing that adoption may have seemed unnecessary , especially if the epikleros and her husband gave their son the name of the maternal grandfather . She argues that too much attention has been paid to the patrilineal aspects of the oikos , and that there was probably less emphasis on this in actual Athenian practice and more on keeping a household together as a productive unit .
The historian Roger Just states the main principle of the epiklerate was that no man could become the guardian of the property without also becoming the husband of the epikleros . Just uses this principle to claim that any man adopted by the father of an epikleros was required to marry the epikleros . Just states that the forcible divorce and remarriage of an epikleros was based on this principle , arguing that if the father of the epikleros had not adopted the first husband , the husband was not really the heir . Just sees the development of the epiklerate as flowing from Solon 's desire to keep the number of Athenian households constant . According to Just , before Solon 's legislation , the epikleros was just treated as part of the property , but that Solon 's reforms transformed the epikleros into a transmitter of the property and her son the automatic heir to her father 's estate .
Taking as a wife an epikleros who had little estate was considered a praiseworthy action , and was generally stressed in public speeches . Such an heiress was called an epikleros thessa . If the nearest male relative did not wish to marry an epikleros who belonged to the lowest income class in Athens , he was required to find her a husband and provide her with a dowry on a graduated scale according to his own income class . This dowry was in addition to her own property and the requirement was designed to ensure that even poor heiresses found husbands . The law also did not stipulate what was to happen if the epikleros was still an infant or too young for consummation of the marriage when she was claimed .
= = = Sequence of the anchisteia = = =
The first set of relatives that had claim to an epikleros were the paternal uncles and any heirs of the uncles . Next in line were any sons of the sisters of the father and any of their heirs . Third in line were the grandsons of the father 's paternal uncles , and following them the grandsons of the paternal aunts of the father . After these paternal relatives were exhausted , then the half @-@ brothers of the father by the same mother were in line , then sons of the maternal half @-@ sisters of the father . Seventh in line were the grandsons of maternal uncles of the father and then grandsons of maternal aunts of the father . It appears that if there were two or more relatives that were related in the same degree , the eldest of the similarly @-@ related relatives had priority in claiming the epikleros .
= = = Chances of becoming an epikleros = = =
Modern estimates of the odds of an Athenian woman becoming an epikleros say that roughly one out of seven fathers died without biological sons . However , Athenian law allowed for a man to adopt another male as a son in his will , so not all daughters without brothers would have become epikleroi . Most modern historians estimate that 20 % of families would have had only daughters , and another 20 % would have been childless . The modern historian Cynthia Patterson said of the epikleros that although " she was distinctive , she was not rare " .
= = = Already married epikleroi = = =
Whether an epikleros who was married at the time of her father 's death was required to divorce her current spouse and marry the anchisteia is unclear . Most modern historians have come to the conclusion that this was only required if the epikleros had not yet had a son that could inherit the grandfather 's estate . The clearest evidence is from the Roman playwright Terence , in his play Adelphoe , which includes a plot element involving a claim that a girl is actually an epikleros . Although the play was written in the 2nd century BCE , Terence adapted most of his plays from earlier Athenian comedies , which makes it slightly more reliable as a source . And common sense argues that if a son had already been born to an epikleros , there was no need to parcel out the epikleros to a relative in order to provide a male heir to the grandfather 's estate . Although the anchisteia had the right to marry the epikleros , he was not required to do so , and could refuse the match or find another spouse for the heiress . It was also possible for the husband of an epikleros , who was not her anchisteia , to buy off the anchisteia in order to remain married to his wife . Such cases were alleged by the speaker of Isaeus ' speech Isaeus 10 as well as a
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track on Danger Mouse 's The Grey Album in 2004 . For the Beatles ' 2006 remix album Love , the track 's horn parts were mixed into " Drive My Car " . Dhani Harrison performed " Savoy Truffle " at the George Fest tribute concert , held at the Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles on 28 September 2014 .
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
The Beatles
George Harrison – double @-@ tracked vocal , rhythm guitar , lead guitars
Paul McCartney – harmony vocal , bass guitar
Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine
Additional musicians
Chris Thomas – electric piano , organ , horn arrangement
Art Ellefson – tenor saxophone
Danny Moss – tenor saxophone
Derek Collins – tenor saxophone
Ronnie Ross – baritone saxophone
Harry Klein – baritone saxophone
Bernard George – baritone saxophone
= Bart 's Friend Falls in Love =
" Bart 's Friend Falls in Love " is the twenty @-@ third episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 7 , 1992 . In the episode , Bart 's best friend Milhouse falls in love with the new girl in school , Samantha Stankey . Milhouse and Samantha spend all their free time together , leaving Bart feeling jealous and excluded . In order to ruin their relationship , Bart tells Samantha 's strict father about it . As a punishment , Samantha is sent to an all @-@ girls Catholic school , while Milhouse is left behind heartbroken . Meanwhile , Homer orders a subliminal cassette tape to help him lose weight , but is accidentally sent one that helps him increase his vocabulary after the weight @-@ loss tapes sell out .
The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , and directed by Jim Reardon . American actress Kimmy Robertson guest starred in the episode as Samantha . The opening sequence of " Bart 's Friend Falls in Love " is a parody of the film Raiders of the Lost Ark , while the closing sequence parodies the film Casablanca . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
While riding the bus to school , Milhouse shows Bart his new fortune @-@ telling toy , a Magic 8 ball . Bart asks the ball whether he and Milhouse will still be friends by the end of the day , and the ball predicts they will not . Both are puzzled by how this could happen . A new girl from Phoenix , Samantha Stanky , starts at Springfield Elementary School the same day , and Milhouse instantly falls in love with her . To Bart 's dismay and anger , Milhouse and Samantha start a relationship and , rather than playing with Bart after school in his treehouse , Milhouse brings Samantha with him and spends the entire time hugging and kissing her . They ignore Bart , leaving nothing for him to do but leave in tears .
Milhouse and Samantha spend all their free time together . Jealous and feeling excluded , Bart reveals their relationship to Samantha 's father . Before Samantha can explain , Mr. Stanky rushes to Bart 's treehouse and sends her to Saint Sebastian 's School for Wicked Girls , an all @-@ girls convent school run by French @-@ Canadian nuns . After seeing Milhouse heartbroken , Bart begins to feel guilty for what he did . Bart and Milhouse start fighting after Bart reveals that he snitched to Samantha 's father . After calming down , the two boys visit Samantha at the convent school , and Bart apologizes to her . Samantha says she loves Saint Sebastian 's , but she still has feelings for Milhouse and gives him a goodbye kiss , despite knowing it is violating the school rules .
In the subplot , Lisa worries that Homer 's obesity will lead to an early death . On Lisa 's suggestion , Marge orders a subliminal weight loss tape for Homer . However , the company is out of weight loss tapes and sends Homer a " Vocabulary Builder " tape instead , unbeknownst to Marge and the family . Homer puts on the headphones in bed and falls asleep . When he wakes up , he is suddenly articulate , but ends up eating more food than ever . Once he realizes the tape has not helped him lose weight , Homer gets rid of it and his vocabulary quickly returns to normal .
= = Production and allusions = =
The episode was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky , and directed by Jim Reardon . American actress Kimmy Robertson guest starred in the episode as Samantha . She recorded all of her lines separately , instead of acting them out with the cast of the show in the recording studio as it is usually done . Robertson said of the role : " I had no idea how popular I was going to be after I did that . All my friends think I 'm the bee 's knees now . I 've made it . " The physical appearance of Samantha is based on Kogen 's niece , who is also named Samantha .
The episode 's opening sequence parodies that of the Steven Spielberg film Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) . Bart , in the role of Indiana Jones , steals a penny jar ( instead of a Fertility Idol ) from Homer before heading to school on the bus . Homer , standing in for the boulder and the Hovitos tribe , angrily runs after Bart. While Bart runs through the house , Maggie fires suction darts instead of arrows . Bart is able to narrowly pass through the closing garage door and escape . As Bart steps onto the bus , Homer is seen the distance shouting after him . John Williams 's theme song from Raiders of the Lost Ark , " Raiders March " , plays throughout the sequence . The producers had to contact Spielberg in order to clear the rights for the song so that they could use it in the episode . Paul Wee was the layout artist for the sequence . Marge 's voice actor , Julie Kavner , praised it for focusing on the animation and not having any dialog in it .
The episode 's closing sequence in which Bart and Milhouse visit Samantha at Saint Sebastian 's is a reference to the film Casablanca . One nun leads a group of children and sings " Dominique " , a song by The Singing Nun . Cast member Maggie Roswell provided the voice of the nun , but did she not know the actual French lyrics to the song so she made up her own . The writers had difficulties coming up with an idea for the end of the episode . Executive producer James L. Brooks pitched the idea of Samantha getting shipped off to a Catholic school with " fun nuns " that are like The Singing Nun . Other references in the episode include a scene in which Lisa reads a magazine with the headline " The Year 2525 - were Zager & Evans Right ? " , referring to musicians Zager and Evans and their song " In the Year 2525 " . In reference to the play Romeo and Juliet , Milhouse says that Samantha and his relationship started like Romeo and Juliet , but ended in tragedy , unaware that the play also ends in tragedy . Milhouse 's original line in the scene was " It feel like somebody gave my heart a wedgie . " Milhouse has a poster in his room featuring an X @-@ wing from the Star Wars franchise .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart 's Friend Falls in Love " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of May 4 – 10 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 , In Living Color , and Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said the episode was " a fitting end to a season that had seen The Simpsons consolidate its success and become even more daring and intelligent . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that " from the ingenious and hilarious Raiders of the Lost Ark parody at the show ’ s start , ' Bart 's Friend Falls in Love ' is a keeper . It actually develops the characters and gets into pre @-@ teen emotions but never becomes sappy . The ' B ' -plot in which Lisa tries to get Homer to lose weight provides terrific laughs as well . "
Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 rating and commented that " It 's tough to view Milhouse in a romantic relationship , especially since the most recent seasons have made a point of hinting at Milhouse being gay . Still , the love triangle makes for some interesting drama and the script 's observations about childhood infatuations are right on point . " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict , however , thought the plot seemed drawn out and " only Homer 's eating disorder and subliminal tape attempts at weight loss have lasting appeal . Since the tape turns out to be a vocabulary builder , hearing Homer expound in flowery language is a real , rare treat . " The Santa Fe New Mexican 's Jeff Acker also preferred the subplot over the main plot .
The episode 's Raiders of the Lost Ark parody was named the greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film . Empire 's Colin Kennedy also named it the best film parody in the show , calling it the series ' " most famous opening sequence . " He noted Homer played " both his roles – half @-@ naked native ; big fat boulder – with consummate aplomb . " The Canadian television series The Hour , hosted by George Stroumboulopoulos , ranked the Raiders of the Lost Ark parody as the greatest in the " Top Five Male Underwear Moments of All Time " . The list referred to scenes in film and television portraying men in underwear , and Homer wore underwear in the relevant scene .
= 2011 – 12 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team =
The 2011 – 12 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team represented Princeton University during the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The Tigers , led by first year head coach Mitch Henderson , played their home games at Jadwin Gymnasium and are members of the Ivy League . The team captains were seniors Douglas Davis and Patrick Saunders . They finished the season 20 – 12 , 10 – 4 in Ivy League play to finish in third place . They were invited to the 2012 College Basketball Invitational where they defeated Evansville in the first round before falling in the quarterfinals to Pittsburgh . The season was highlighted by wins over a ranked Harvard team and the Florida State Seminoles . The team was led by unanimous first team All @-@ Ivy League selection Ian Hummer and second team selection Douglas Davis .
= = Preview = =
Princeton entered the season having won the 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season championship and having earned the resulting 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament invitation . The team entered the season having lost senior captains Dan Mavraides and Kareem Maddox . Maddox was the reigning Ivy League Defensive Player of the Year and a unanimous first team All @-@ Ivy selection . Mavraides had been a second team All @-@ Ivy selection . The team returned second team All @-@ Ivy selection Hummer .
Entering the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season head coach Mitch Henderson began his tenure at Princeton , taking over for Sydney Johnson . With the move that resulted from Johnson taking a new coaching job , Princeton has six alumni who are active Division I head coaches , a total second only to eight by the North Carolina Tar Heels men 's basketball program . The Ivy League media poll selected Princeton to be tied with Yale for second place behind Harvard . Princeton had been the preseason favorite the year before .
= = Roster = =
= = Schedule = =
With a new first @-@ time head coach , the team got off to slow starts . It started the season with a 1 – 5 record , but won 18 of its final 24 games and started its conference schedule with a 2 – 3 record , but won 8 of its final 9 games . The recovery enabled the team to qualify for its 32nd post season appearance ( 24 NCAA , 5 NIT and 2 CBI ) .
Princeton earned its first home win against a ranked opponent since the 1976 – 77 team 's January 3 , 1977 victory over Notre Dame by defeating Harvard ( No. 21 Coaches / 25 AP ) on February 11 , 2012 . The win was also its first against a ranked opponent on any court since November 11 , 1997 , which is when the 1997 – 98 team opened its season with a victory over a ranked Texas team at Meadowlands Arena ( now named Izod Center ) in East Rutherford , NJ . Princeton also defeated eventual 2012 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament Champion Florida State five weeks after Harvard did as well as Big East Conference member and New Jersey rival Rutgers . In addition , the team 's schedule included the ACC 's NC State . Its results against Harvard , Florida State and NC State give the team a 2 – 2 record against teams in the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
For the 18th consecutive season , the Ivy League men 's basketball schedule concluded with a Tuesday Penn – Princeton basketball rivalry game against the 2011 – 12 Quakers . Princeton 's 62 – 52 victory enabled it to retain slim 26 – 25 and 24 – 23 leads in terms of Ivy League Championships and Ivy League team NCAA Tournament appearances , respectively .
In the first round of the 2012 CBI Tournament , senior Douglas Davis scored a career @-@ high 31 points to lead Princeton to a 95 – 86 victory over Evansville . Although Davis posted another 20 points in the subsequent quarterfinal game against Pittsburgh to surpass Kit Mueller for second place on the Princeton scoring list , Princeton lost 82 – 61 to end the season . Davis ' appearance in the March 19 contest also enabled him to surpass Ryan Wittman as the Ivy League 's all @-@ time leader in games played ( 122 ) . Pittsburgh eventually went on to win the tournament .
= = = All @-@ Ivy = = =
The following players earned Ivy League postseason recognition :
First Team All @-@ Ivy
^ Ian Hummer , Princeton ( Jr . , F , Vienna , Va . )
Second Team All @-@ Ivy
Douglas Davis , Princeton ( Sr. , G , Philadelphia )
^ Unanimous Selection
= = = Other = = =
The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District District 13 team on March 14 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Ian Hummer was a second team selection .
= Return the Favor =
" Return the Favor " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Keri Hilson . The song features Timbaland , who wrote the song with Hilson and her songwriting / production team The Clutch , as well as Walter Milsap . Following the moderate international chart success of Hilson ’ s lead single , " Energy " , " Return the Favor " was released from Hilson 's debut album , In a Perfect World ... , serving as the international second single while the urban single , " Turnin Me On " was released in the US .
As Hilson 's second vocal collaboration with mentor Timbaland , Hilson stated the purpose of the song 's initial conception was to re @-@ create the success of their worldwide hit , " The Way I Are " , as Timbaland called the " Return the Favor " bigger and better . Contemporary critics gave the song mixed reviews , noting the production and vocal similarities to " The Way I Are " , preferring the latter track .
The song reached the top twenty in the United Kingdom , Ireland , and Germany , while appearing in the top thirty of Austria and Sweden , charting in Australia and the tip charts in Belgium . The accompanying music video implements a futuristic concept and features Hilson sporting several extravagant outfits .
= = Background = =
When Hilson talked to Digital Spy about the song , she said that Timbaland called her and said , " I 've got a song that I think 's better than ' The Way I Are ' . I think it 's bigger . " They took the track and wrote " Return the Favor " over the beat . According to Hilson , she said that song was partially inspired by " that conversational , back @-@ and @-@ forth thing " they did on " The Way I Are " , stating , " We got a great response from that that we wanted to do it again . " The initial draft of the hook featured the line " If you kiss me then I ’ ll kiss you back " , but according to Hilson in an interview with That Grape Juice , it was changed by unknown reason by Timbaland . After it was reported that In a Perfect World ... would be pushed back to October 2008 , " Return the Favor " surfaced online , and it was rumored to be the follow @-@ up to " Energy . " The sample was later removed by Hilson 's management , before it was announced as the album 's second single . The song was featured on December 15 , 2008 episode of The Hills .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Return the Favor " is described as an electro @-@ dance @-@ pop record , with a future @-@ like sound , including euro @-@ style synths . Dan Nishimoto of Prefix Magazine noted that the song includes Timbaland 's " signature dizzying 22nd @-@ century flair that he 's been employing ever since 2006 . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic noted the song as a standout track from In a Perfect World .... According to J.K. Glei of Cincinnati Metromix said the song has " cascading synths , " and a " classic pop structure . " However Glei said that Hilson 's vocals " feel flat against the driving beat " and that Timbaland " fully phones it in . " While noting the song " follows the same blueprint " of Nelly Furtado 's " Promiscuous " , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said it was a " satisfying pop romp " and said even though Hilson lacked Furtado 's distinctiveness , that it " shouldn 't have a problem striking a chord at radio . "
Nick Levine of Digital Spy said , the song was " a perfectly decent slice of midtempo Timba @-@ pop , but it 's not really in the same league as the brilliant ' The Way I Are ' . " MTV Buzzworthy said " slightly less out @-@ there are the beats -- which sound an awful lot like Hilson and Timbaland 's first collaboration , " The Way I Are " — and the cameo from Timba himself .. " Sophie Bruce of BBC Music thought that the song lacked the a catchy hook such as in " The Way I Are . " Less than impressed with Timbaland 's rapping and " less than sexy " vocal appeal , Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said the " unfortunate pairing " was reprised , and the song " encapsulates the record ’ s shortcomings . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Return the Favor " was the most successful in the United Kingdom and Ireland , peaking at nineteen in both countries . In Austria , the song debuted and peaked at twenty @-@ five on the Austrian Singles Chart , before falling off after six weeks . On the Swedish Singles Chart , It debuted and peaked at thirty , before falling off after six weeks on the chart . In Belgium , " Return the Favore " appeared on Belgian Tip Charts , peaking at six in Flanders , and seventeen Wallonia . While debuting and peaking at twenty @-@ one on the German Singles Chart , it completed nine weeks on the chart before falling off . It made the lower regions of the ARIA Singles Chart appearing at eighty .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Melina , who directed Hilson 's video for " Energy . " A preview of the video was released on October 14 , 2008 , and the full video premiered on October 23 , 2008 . Featuring a futuristic concept , the video begins with a small clip from Timbaland and Hilson 's " The Way I Are " , before it cuts to Hilson dancing in a future @-@ like room while scenes are shown on a wall behind Timbaland , who is seated in a chair . Hilson is then show in a pink ruffled bra and dress dancing in front of mirrors , and then rises out of a pool in a blue swimsuit while scenes continue to be broadcast behind a seated Timbaland . Intercut with scenes with previous attire , Hilson performs ensemble choreography with dancers while wearing a black bra and pants , whilst the video ends with several different scenes .
MTV Buzzworthy commended the video , stating , " while her ensemble 's slightly more unwearable ( we 're looking at YOU , futuristic metallic onesie ! ) Hilson still manages to look beyond gorge . But then again , this chick could look cutting @-@ edge in a giant pickle barrel . " The review also compared Timbaland 's look a cross between Run D.M.C. and The Matrix .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Songwriters - Timothy Mosley , Keri Hilson , Ezekiel Lewis , Bulewa Muhammed , Patrick Smith , Candice Nelson , Walter Millsap III
Production - Timbaland
Editors - Walter Millsap III , Dave ( d @-@ lo ) , Marcella Araica
Recording - Scott Naughton
Mixing - Demacio Castellon
Vocal arrangement - The Clutch
Additional production , vocal production - Walter Millsap III
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Isaac Davis ( soldier ) =
Isaac Davis ( February 23 , 1745 – April 19 , 1775 ) was a gunsmith and a militia officer who commanded a company of Minutemen from Acton , Massachusetts , during the first battle of the American Revolutionary War . In the months leading up to the Revolution , Davis set unusually high standards for his company in terms of equipment , training , and preparedness . His company was selected to lead the advance on the British Regulars during the Battle of Concord because his men were entirely outfitted with bayonets . During the American advance on the British at the Old North Bridge , Davis was among the first killed and was the first American officer to die in the Revolution .
Davis is memorialized through the Isaac Davis Monument on the Acton Town Common . He was also the inspiration behind The Minute Man ( 1875 ) , the sculpture at the Old North Bridge by Daniel Chester French . The sculpture , which French attempted to model after Isaac Davis , is now an iconic national symbol .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Davis was born February 23 , 1745 in the village of West Acton to Ezekial Davis ( b . 1717 ) and Mary ( nee Gibson ) Davis ( 1725 @-@ 1773 ) . He married Hannah Brown ( born 1746 ) on October 24 , 1764 . They had four children — two boys and two girls .
= = = Preparations for war = = =
During the early 1770s , many inhabitants of the Province of Massachusetts Bay protested taxation policies established by British Parliament . These protests eventually resulted in the military occupation of the provincial capital of Boston , Massachusetts which , consequently caused further unrest . In September 1774 , the military governor , General Thomas Gage , dissolved the Massachusetts General Court , placing the province under martial law . Citizens of Massachusetts formed an extra @-@ legal Massachusetts Provincial Congress to govern the province outside of the rule of the King . In October 1774 , the Massachusetts Provincial Congress recommended that each town establish a company of Minutemen — specially trained militia who could be ready at short notice in the event that the British Regulars in Boston attempted any warlike movements .
In November 1774 , Acton formed a company of Minutemen , and Davis was elected captain . He was determined that his company be as well @-@ equipped as the British soldiers . Most provincial Minuteman companies , unlike professional soldiers , were not equipped with bayonets for use in close combat and they typically re @-@ loaded using powder horns , a slow method more suited to hunting than to battle . Davis employed his skills as a gunsmith to outfit nearly every man in his company with a bayonet and saw that his men were supplied with cartridge boxes , allowing his company to re @-@ load as quickly as the British . Finally , Davis emphasized marksmanship , training his company on an improvised shooting range behind his house . These high standards in terms of equipment and training made the Acton company one of the best prepared in Massachusetts .
According to tradition , Davis was a superstitious man who believed he had seen numerous omens that indicated that he would die if forced into battle . In 1851 , Rev. James Woodbury , Acton 's representative to the Massachusetts General Court , delivered a speech about Davis to the House of Representatives . During this speech , Woodbury described an incident that allegedly took place a few days before the Battle of Concord in which Davis and his family returned home to find an owl perched on Davis 's musket . According to Woodbury , " It was an ill omen , a bad sign . The sober conclusion was that the first time that Davis went into battle , he would lose his life . "
= = = Concord = = =
During the early spring of 1775 , Gage planned an expedition to confiscate a large stockpile of gunpowder and weapons kept by the provincials in Concord , Massachusetts . On April 15 , he issued orders to hand @-@ picked companies of British Regulars in Boston , relieving them from their usual duties . Concluding that a British movement was imminent , Paul Revere , a messenger for the provincial Sons of Liberty , was sent to Concord on April 16 to warn the inhabitants . Most of the supplies were removed from Concord , and the Minuteman companies were on alert days before the British marched from Boston .
On the night of April 18 , 1775 , Gage dispatched approximately 800 British Regulars under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith . The Sons of Liberty in Boston were convinced that the British troops would also attempt to capture the provincial leaders , John Hancock and Samuel Adams , who were in Lexington , Massachusetts . Messengers Paul Revere and William Dawes therefore rode again on the night of April 18 to warn Hancock and Adams that the soldiers were marching from Boston . In Lexington , the British force encountered resistance from the Lexington militia , and a skirmish ensued on Lexington Green ; eight provincials were killed , and one British soldier was wounded . Following the action on Lexington Green , the British marched on to Concord .
Word of the British movement reached Acton just before dawn on April 19 , most likely delivered by Dr. Samuel Prescott , a resident of Concord and one of the Sons of Liberty . As the alarm spread , the Acton Minutemen began to gather at Davis 's home . While waiting for others to arrive , the men made paper cartridges and some powdered their hair with flour so as to appear more like gentlemen when they met the British in battle . As the Minutemen prepared , Davis 's wife noticed that he seemed especially somber and said very little . As some of his men joked about getting shot at by a British soldier , Davis rebuked them , reminding them that some of them would soon be killed .
Davis formed up his company and ordered them to march at about 7 a.m. According to his wife and other witnesses , shortly after stepping off , Davis ordered his company to halt , then returned to his front door to tell his wife , " Take good care of the children . " Soon after crossing into Concord , the Acton company passed the farm of Colonel James Barrett who commanded the provincial troops in Concord that morning . A small detachment of British soldiers were searching Barrett 's farm for supplies , and Davis considered attacking them . His orders , however , were to muster with the rest of the provincial militia and Minutemen near the Old North Bridge by the Concord River . He then diverted his company off the road , avoiding the British at Barrett 's farm and marching past a tavern belonging to a Widow Brown . A boy named Charles Handley , who lived at Widow Brown 's Tavern , saw Davis 's company pass the tavern . He recalled many years later that a fifer and drummer played a song called " The White Cockade " , a reference to the white ribbon worn on their bonnets by Scots revolutionaries during The ' 45 . Tradition persists that this was Davis 's favorite marching song , but there is little evidence to support this notion . There is also a tradition that the Acton musicians played the White Cockade later when Davis 's company led the advance on the British at the Old North Bridge , although this too is not supported by primary source accounts .
Davis 's company reached the area of the Old North Bridge at approximately 9 a.m. Several other companies of militia and Minutemen , consisting of about 500 men from Concord , Lincoln , and Bedford , had already gathered on a small hill overlooking the bridge . Approximately 100 British Regulars occupied the bridge . Shortly after Davis arrived , Barrett called a council of the officers present to determine whether or not to attack the Regulars at the bridge . In Concord , the majority of the British force was searching for supplies , but they found little . When they decided to burn some wooden gun carriages they discovered , the provincials near the Old North Bridge saw the smoke and thought the British were burning the town . Barrett then made the decision to attack the soldiers holding the bridge .
Davis 's company had taken their designated position at the left of the provincial line . This would have placed the Acton company in the rear of the attack when the line advanced . The company in the lead would have been Captain David Brown 's company from Concord . When Barrett asked Brown if he would lead the attack , Brown responded that he would rather not . Knowing that Davis 's company was well equipped with bayonets and cartridge boxes , Barrett asked Davis if his company would lead the advance . Several slight variations of Davis 's response have been recorded . His response is most often given as , " I have not a man that is afraid to go . " Following Barrett 's orders , Davis then moved his company to the right of the line . Around 10 : 30 , the provincials faced to the right and advanced on the Old North Bridge in a column of two men abreast . At the head of the column was Davis , Major John Buttrick of Concord , and Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford . Barrett remained behind on the hill , cautioning his men as they marched by him not to fire first . The British at the bridge , watching the provincials approach , were surprised to see , as one soldier later said , that they " advanced with the greatest regularity " .
When the provincials were within about 75 yards of the bridge , the Regulars fired a few warning shots . Luther Blanchard , the fifer from Acton , was hit and wounded by one of these warning shots . The British then fired a disorganized volley . Isaac Davis was shot through the heart . Private Abner Hosmer of Acton was also killed in this volley . Seeing these casualties , Buttrick commanded , " Fire , fellow soldiers , for God 's sake fire ! " and the provincials returned fire , causing the British to immediately retreat back to Concord .
= = Legacy = =
In February 1851 , shortly after the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Concord , Rev. James Woodbury of Acton petitioned the Massachusetts General Court for funds to build a large monument to Isaac Davis in Acton . After the legislature appropriated $ 2 @,@ 000 for the project , the 75 @-@ foot tall stone obelisk was completed that fall and dedicated on October 29 , 1851 . The remains of Davis , Hosmer , and James Hayward ( an Acton soldier who was killed in Lexington later in the battle ) were moved and re @-@ interred beneath the monument . At the base of the monument is a stone brought from the vicinity of the Old North Bridge in Concord which is , according to an inscription , the stone upon which Davis 's head fell when he was killed .
In 1875 , on the centennial of the Battle of Concord , a statue called " The Minute Man " was placed on the approximate site of Isaac Davis 's death . The statue was the first public work of sculptor Daniel Chester French , best known for his 1920 statue , " Abraham Lincoln " , in the Lincoln Memorial . Although commissioned to sculpt a generic provincial soldier , French was inspired by the story of Isaac Davis and modeled the facial features of his statue after photographs of Isaac Davis 's descendants . Davis 's plow , which is currently on display in Acton 's Town Hall , was used as the model for the plow on the statue .
On the base of the statue is inscribed the first stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's Concord Hymn written in 1836 :
By the rude bridge that arched the flood , Their flag to April 's breeze unfurled , Here once the embattled farmers stoodAnd fired the shot heard round the world .
Representing Davis , the statue of " The Minute Man " with a musket in one hand and the other resting on a plow remains an iconic symbol , and can be found on the Massachusetts state quarter , corporate logos , and the seal of the National Guard of the United States .
The route of the Acton Minutemen is retraced every Patriots ' Day in April by today 's recreated company of Acton Minutemen , and by citizens and visitors . Now called the Isaac Davis Trail , the seven mile route from Acton to Concord traverses roads still in use as well as woodland trails . The path was established in 1957 by a group of Acton Boy Scouts who researched the historic route , cleared the portions of the path no longer in use , and placed markers . The trail was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 .
= Paul Kelly ( Australian musician ) =
Paul Maurice Kelly ( born 13 January 1955 ) is an Australian rock music singer @-@ songwriter , guitarist , and harmonica player . He has performed solo , and has led numerous groups , including the Dots , the Coloured Girls , and the Messengers . He has worked with other artists and groups , including associated projects Professor Ratbaggy and Stardust Five . Kelly 's music style has ranged from bluegrass to studio @-@ oriented dub reggae , but his core output straddles folk , rock , and country . His lyrics capture the vastness of the culture and landscape of Australia by chronicling life about him for over 30 years . David Fricke from Rolling Stone calls Kelly " one of the finest songwriters I have ever heard , Australian or otherwise . " Kelly has said , " Song writing is mysterious to me . I still feel like a total beginner . I don 't feel like I have got it nailed yet " .
After growing up in Adelaide , Kelly travelled around Australia before settling in Melbourne in 1976 . He became involved in the pub rock scene and drug culture , and recorded two albums with Paul Kelly and the Dots . Kelly moved to Sydney by 1985 , where he formed Paul Kelly and the Coloured Girls . The band was renamed Paul Kelly and the Messengers , initially only for international releases , to avoid possible racist interpretations . At the end of the 1980s , Kelly returned to Melbourne , and in 1991 he disbanded the Messengers . Kelly has been married and divorced twice ; he has three children and resides in St Kilda , a suburb of Melbourne . Dan Kelly , his nephew , is a singer and guitarist in his own right . Dan performed with Kelly on Ways and Means and Stolen Apples . Both were members of Stardust Five , which released a self @-@ titled album in 2006 . On 22 September 2010 Kelly released his memoir , How to Make Gravy , which he described as " it 's not traditional ; it 's writing around the A @-@ Z theme – I tell stories around the song lyrics in alphabetical order " . His biographical film , Paul Kelly : Stories of Me , directed by Ian Darling , was released to cinemas in October 2012 .
Kelly 's Top 40 singles include " Billy Baxter " , " Before Too Long " , " Darling It Hurts " , " To Her Door " ( his highest @-@ charting local hit in 1987 ) , " Dumb Things " ( appeared on United States charts in 1988 ) , and " Roll on Summer " . Top @-@ 20 albums include Gossip , Under the Sun , Comedy , Songs from the South ( 1997 compilation , his best @-@ charting album ) , ... Nothing but a Dream , and Stolen Apples . Kelly has won ten Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Music Awards , including his induction into their Hall of Fame in 1997 . In 2001 the Australasian Performing Rights Association ( APRA ) listed the Top 30 Australian songs of all time , which included Kelly 's " To Her Door " , and " Treaty " , written by Kelly and members of Yothu Yindi . Aside from " Treaty " , Kelly has written or co @-@ written several songs on Indigenous Australian social issues and historical events . He has provided songs for many other artists , tailoring them to their particular vocal range . The album Women at the Well from 2002 had 14 female artists record his songs in tribute .
= = Early life = =
Paul Maurice Kelly was born on 13 January 1955 in Adelaide , to John Erwin Kelly , a lawyer , and Josephine ( née Filippini ) , the sixth of eight surviving children . According to Rip It Up magazine , " legend has it " that Kelly 's mother gave birth to him " in a taxi outside North Adelaide 's Calvary Hospital " . In the lyrics for his Comedy ( 1991 ) album track , " It 's All Downhill from Here " Kelly wrote :
I was born in a crowded taxi
Daddy scooped me right up off the floor
And he carried me up the path through the big swinging doors
Although Kelly was raised as a Roman Catholic , he later described himself as a non @-@ believer in any religion . He is the great great grandson of Jeremiah Kelly , who emigrated from Ireland in 1852 and settled in Clare , South Australia . His paternal grandfather , Francis Kelly , established a law firm in 1917 , which his father , John , joined in 1937 . John Kelly died in 1968 at the age of 52 , after being diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease three years earlier . Paul Kelly was thirteen years old when his father died . Kelly described his father : " I have good memories , he was the kind of father that , well , I missed him when he died very much . The older children were growing into him at the time he died . He was not well enough to play sport with me " . In his song , " Adelaide " , from Post ( 1985 ) , he wrote :
Dad 's hands used to shake but I never knew he was dying
I was 13 I never dreamed he could fall
And all the great aunts were red in the eyes from crying
I rang the bells I never felt nothing at all
All the king 's horses all the king 's men
Cannot bring him back again
Kelly 's maternal grandfather was an Argentine @-@ born , Italian @-@ speaking opera singer , Count Ercole Filippini , a leading baritone for the La Scala Opera Company in Milan . Filippini was touring Australia in 1914 with a Spanish opera company when World War I broke out ; Filippini stayed and later married Anne McPharland , one of his students . As Countessa Anne Filippini , she was Australia 's first female symphony orchestra conductor . She sang the role of Marguerite in Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) Radio Perth 's performance of Faust in 1928 . Kelly 's grandparents started the Italo @-@ Australian Opera Company , which toured the country in the 1920s .
Josephine raised the younger children alone after John 's death , but found time to assist others in need . Paul 's oldest sister , Anne , became a nun and went on to write hymns , while a younger sister , Mary @-@ Jo , plays piano in Latin bands and teaches music . An older brother , Martin , works for Edmund Rice International , with another brother , Tony , a drug and alcohol counsellor , who ran as an Australian Greens candidate in the 2001 and 2004 federal elections . Josephine Kelly moved to Brisbane , where she died in 2000 , at the age of 76 .
Kelly attended Rostrevor College , a Christian Brothers school , where he played trumpet and studied piano , became the first XI cricket captain , played in the first XVIII football ( Australian rules ) , and he was named dux of his senior year . Kelly studied arts at Flinders University in 1973 , but left after a term , disillusioned with academic life . He began writing prose and started a magazine with some friends . Kelly spent several years working odd jobs , travelling around the country and learning guitar before he moved to Melbourne in 1976 .
= = 1974 – 84 : Early career and with the Dots = =
While travelling around Australia , Paul Kelly made his first public performance in 1974 in Hobart . He later recalled :
I was living there at the time and there was a folk club at Salamanca Place . They had a night , I think a Monday night , where anyone could get up . I sang Dylan 's " Girl from North Country " and " Streets of Forbes " , a traditional Australian song about Ben Hall . I can 't really remember how it went – I remember I had a lot to drink afterwards from relief . I was incredibly nervous .
His first published song , " It 's the Falling Apart that Makes You " , was written after listening to Van Morrison 's Astral Weeks at the age of 19 , although in an interview with Drum Media he recalled writing his first unpublished song : " It was an open @-@ tuning and had four lines about catching trains . I have got a recording of it somewhere . It was called ' Catching a Train ' . I wrote a lot of songs about trains early on , trains and fires , and then I moved on to water " . In 1976 , Kelly appeared on Debutantes , a compilation album featuring various Melbourne @-@ based artists , and joined pub @-@ rockers The High Rise Bombers from 1977 to 1978 . The High Rise Bombers included Kelly ( vocals , guitar , songwriter ) , Martin Armiger ( guitar , vocals , songwriter ) , Lee Cass ( bass guitar ) , Chris Dyson ( guitar ) , Sally Ford ( saxophone , songwriter ) , John Lloyd ( drums ) , and Keith Shadwick ( saxophone ) . Chris Langman ( guitar , vocals ) replaced Dyson in early 1978 . In August , after Armiger left for The Sports and Ford for The Kevins , Kelly formed Paul Kelly and the Dots with Langman and Lloyd . The High Rise Bombers recorded two tracks , " She 's Got It " and " Domestic Criminal " , which appeared on The Melbourne Club , a 1981 compilation by various artists on Missing Link Records .
Kelly had already established himself as a respected songwriter — other Melbourne musicians would go to see him on their nights off . Richard Guilliatt , writing for The Monthly , later described Kelly from a 1979 performance at Richmond 's Kingston Hotel , the singer was " a skinny guy with a head of black curls framing a pale face and a bent nose ... singing with his eyes closed , one arm outstretched and the other resting on the body of the Fender Telecaster " . Kelly was introduced to Hilary Brown at one of the Dots ' gigs and they later married – the relationship is described in " When I First Met Your Ma " ( 1992 ) . Brown 's father supplied Kelly with a gravy recipe – used on " How to Make Gravy " ( 1996 ) . Their son , Declan , was born in 1980 .
The Dots included various line @-@ ups from 1978 to 1982 . The band released their debut single " Recognition " in 1979 , which did not reach the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart top 50 . Paul Kelly and the Dots signed to Mushroom Records and issued " Billy Baxter " in November 1980 , which peaked at No. 38 . Rock music historian , Ian McFarlane described it as a " delightful , ska @-@ tinged " track . Kelly 's first television performance was " Billy Baxter " on the national pop show Countdown . Their debut album , Talk , followed in March 1981 , which reached No. 44 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart . Late in 1981 Paul Kelly and the Dots recorded their second album , Manila , in the Philippines ' capital . It was issued in August 1982 , but had no chart success . Release was delayed by line @-@ up changes and because Kelly was assaulted in Melbourne – he had his jaw broken .
In an October 1982 interview with The Australian Women 's Weekly , Kelly indicated he was more pleased with Manila than Talk as " It has more unity ... with this one we didn 't have people dropping into the studio to play . " Years later Kelly disavowed both Dots albums : " I wish I could grab the other two and put ' em in a big hole " . The 1982 film , Starstruck , was directed by Gillian Armstrong and starred Jo Kennedy . Paul Kelly and the Dots supplied " Rocking Institution " for its soundtrack and Kelly added to the score . Kennedy released " Body and Soul " , a cover of Split Enz ' " She Got Body , She Got Soul " as a shared single with " Rocking Institution " . Acting in a minor role in Starstruck was Kaarin Fairfax , who later became Kelly 's second wife . Kelly was without a recording contract after the Dots folded in 1982 .
Paul Kelly Band was formed in 1983 with Michael Armiger ( Martin Armiger 's younger brother , bass guitar ) , Chris Coyne ( saxophone ) , Maurice Frawley ( guitar ) and Greg Martin ( drums ) . By 1984 Michael Barclay replaced Martin on drums and Graham Lee ( guitar , pedal steel guitar ) joined . Kelly 's involvement in the Melbourne drug culture — he described his heroin addiction as " a long period of occasional use " — resulted in erratic performances . Problems with his marriage and drug use disrupted his career , and by 1984 the marriage had broken up . Hilary had moved to Sydney , leaving their young son with Kelly . He disbanded the group three months later and relocated to Sydney so he could share parenting responsibilities with Hilary while Declan grew up .
= = 1985 – 91 : Coloured Girls to Messengers = =
Paul Kelly stayed with Don Walker ( Cold Chisel ) in Kings Cross – Walker had lived with Hilary 's sister – and wrote new songs on Walker 's piano . Kelly then moved into a flat with Paul Hewson ( Dragon ) in Elizabeth Bay . Both Walker and Hewson encouraged Kelly to continue with his song @-@ writing . By January 1985 , he recorded the self @-@ funded album — at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 500 — Post . Session musicians included Michael Barclay ( Weddings Parties Anything ) on harmonies , guitarist Steve Connolly ( The Zimmermen ) , and bass guitarist Ian Rilen ( Rose Tattoo , X ) . They spent two weeks recording at Clive Shakespeare 's studio . Shakespeare engineered the album and co @-@ produced with Kelly . It was released in May 1985 on the independent label White Records , and licensed to Mushroom Records .
Kelly dedicated Post to his former flatmate , Hewson , who had died of a heroin overdose in January . According to McFarlane : " [ it 's ] a stark , highly personalised collection of acoustic songs that showcased the extraordinary breadth of Kelly 's songwriting skills . " Rolling Stone ( Australia ) hailed Post as the best record of 1985 . AllMusic 's Mike DeGagne felt " While he focuses on life 's daily tragedies and tribulations , there is a missing element in the music , as it lacks any vigor or flash " . A single , " From St. Kilda to King 's Cross " , was released from the album , but did not chart . Russell Crowe , during his first trip to the US , visited the tourist venue of Death Valley and used Post to refocus himself : " [ his ] concise insights and acerbic wisdom are exactly the music for strolling the bottom of ancient oceans , both literal and metaphoric " . After recording Post , Kelly established a full @-@ time band , which included Armiger , Barclay , and Connolly , bass guitarist Jon Schofield , and keyboardist Peter Bull .
Paul Kelly and the Coloured Girls were named through a joke based on Lou Reed 's song " Walk on the Wild Side " . Armiger soon left , and the Coloured Girls line @-@ up stabilised in late 1985 as Barclay , Bull , Connolly , and Schofield . Stuart Coupe , Kelly 's manager , advised him to sign with Regular Records due to difficulty re @-@ signing with Mushroom 's Michael Gudinski . Michelle Higgins , Mushroom 's public relations officer , was a Kelly supporter and locked herself into a Sebel Townhouse Hotel room — at Mushroom 's expense — for nearly a week in mid @-@ 1986 , and refused to leave until Gudinski had signed Kelly to a two @-@ album recording contract . Kelly performed for The Rock Party , a charity project initiated by The National Campaign Against Drug Abuse , which included other Australasian musicians . The Rock Party released a 12 " single , " Everything to Live For " , which was produced by Joe Wissert , Phil Rigger , and Phil Beazley .
In September , Paul Kelly and the Coloured Girls released a 24 @-@ track double LP , Gossip . The album included remakes of four songs from Post , and also featured " Maralinga ( Rainy Land ) " , a song about the effects of British nuclear tests on the Maralinga Tjarutja ( indigenous people of Maralinga , South Australia ) . Gossip peaked at No. 15 , with singles chart success for " Before Too Long " which peaked at No. 15 , and " Darling It Hurts " which reached No. 25 . A single LP version of Gossip featuring 15 songs was issued in the United States by A & M Records in July 1987 . DeGagne noted that " [ it ] bursts at the seams with blustery , distinguished tunes captivating both the somberness and the intrigue thrown forward from this fine Australian storyteller " .
Gossip was co @-@ produced by Kelly and Alan Thorne ( Hoodoo Gurus , The Stems ) who , according to music journalist Robert Forster ( former The Go @-@ Betweens singer @-@ songwriter ) , helped the band create " a sound that will not only influence future roots @-@ rock bands but , through its directness , sparkle and dedication to the song , will also come to be seen as particularly Australian . Ultimately , it means the records these people made together are timeless " . Due to possible racist connotations , the band changed its name for international releases to Paul Kelly and the Messengers . They made a US tour , initially supporting Crowded House and then headlining , travelling across the US by bus . " Darling It Hurts " peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart in 1987 . The New York Times rock critic Jon Pareles wrote " Mr. Kelly sang one smart , catchy three @-@ minute song after another – dozens of them – as the band played with no @-@ frills directness " following the band 's performance at the Bottom Line Club in New York .
Paul Kelly and the Coloured Girls ' second album , Under the Sun , was released in late 1987 in Australia and New Zealand , and in early 1988 in North America and Europe ( under the name Paul Kelly and the Messengers ) . On the Kent Music Report Albums Chart , it reached No. 19 . The lead single " To Her Door " , written by Kelly , peaked at No. 14 on the related singles chart . Forster indicated that the song demonstrated one of Kelly 's finest qualities as a songwriter which is his unforced empathy . DeGagne observed a style similar to Elvis Costello and Steve Forbert , and said the album provided " acoustically bright story songs and character @-@ based tales with unlimited substance " .
Another single , " Dumb Things " , was released in early 1989 and attained No. 36 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Singles Chart . In the US , it reached No. 16 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart . The song was included on the soundtrack for the 1988 Yahoo Serious film Young Einstein . The video , directed by Claudia Castle , won an ARIA Award for ' Best Video ' . Kelly met Kaarin Fairfax , his second wife , in 1988 and they married in 1993 . From 1989 to 1992 Fairfax supplied backing vocals on tracks by Paul Kelly and the Messengers . In 1990 , as country music artist Mary @-@ Jo Starr , she released three singles and an album , Too Many Movies , using the Messengers and Kelly as session musicians . Michael Armiger , Connolly , and Frawley were in her backing tour band , The Drive @-@ in Motel . Fairfax and Kelly 's two children are Madeleine ( born 1991 ) and Memphis ( born 1993 ) .
So Much Water So Close to Home was released in 1989 by Paul Kelly and the Messengers in all markets . It peaked at No. 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart , but none of its singles reached the ARIA Top 40 Singles Chart . Forster stated that , with " Everything 's Turning to White " , Kelly shows mastery in condensing a Raymond Carver tale of fishermen who discover a dead woman 's body but continue to fish before reporting their find . The same short story was used for the 2006 film , Jindabyne , for which Kelly composed the soundtrack . DeGagne preferred " Everything 's Turning to White " and " Sweet Guy " to the other album tracks , which " seem a little weak in the content department " . Kelly relocated back to Melbourne after having lived in Sydney for six years . Another US tour was undertaken , but there was no further chart success for albums or singles released in the US market .
In 1991 the band released Comedy , which peaked at No. 12 on the ARIA Albums Chart . DeGagne noticed " a folk @-@ filled tinge to each song , but the occasional quickened pace balances out these tunes rather nicely " . " From Little Things Big Things Grow " , a seven @-@ minute track from the album , was co @-@ written by Kelly and Kev Carmody . It highlights the Gurindji Strike and Vincent Lingiari as part of the Indigenous Australian struggle for land rights and reconciliation . Forster indicates it has Dylanesque influences , and shows Kelly " honing the skills of a fine balladeer and storyteller " . A cover version that was released in May 2008 by The GetUp Mob , part of the GetUp ! advocacy group , peaked at No. 4 on the ARIA singles charts . This version included samples from speeches by Prime Ministers Paul Keating in 1992 and Kevin Rudd in 2008 . It featured vocals by Carmody and Kelly , as well as other Australian artists . Kelly collaborated with members of indigenous band Yothu Yindi to write " Treaty " , which peaked at No. 11 in September 1991 .
" To Her Door " and " Treaty " were voted into the APRA Top 30 Australian songs of all time in 2001 . Paul Kelly and the Messengers gave their last performance in August 1991 , with Kelly set to pursue a solo career . He justified his decision : " We forged a style together . But I felt if we had kept going it would have got formulaic and that 's why I broke it up . I wanted to try and start moving into other areas , start mixing things up " . Paul Kelly and the Messengers ' final album , Hidden Things , was a collection of previously released B @-@ sides , stray non @-@ LP tracks , radio sessions , and other rarities . It was released in May 1992 , and reached No. 29 . One track , " Rally Around the Drum " , written with Archie Roach , was about an indigenous tent boxing man .
= = 1992 – 99 : Solo career and with others = =
Since 1992 Paul Kelly has had a solo career , fronted the Paul Kelly Band , and worked in occasional collaborations with other songwriters and performers . In 1992 he was asked to compose songs for Funerals and Circuses , a Roger Bennett play about racial tensions in small @-@ town Australia . Kelly took the role of a petrol attendant when the play premiered at the Adelaide Fringe Festival that year and was directed by his wife , Fairfax . Kelly co @-@ wrote " Hey Boys " with Mark Seymour ( Hunters & Collectors ) for the soundtrack of the 1992 Australian film , Garbo ; when released as a single it peaked at No. 62 . Kelly contributed songs and vocals to the soundtrack of the 1993 television series Seven Deadly Sins .
Kelly 's first post @-@ Messengers solo release was the live double CD Live , May 1992 , released in November 1992 . AllMusic 's Brett Hartenbach noted that Kelly 's band had fleshed out his songs in the studio , but he was still able to show " his vignettes of life , love , and the underbelly of both have plenty of power on their own " . Kelly had relocated to Los Angeles and signed with Vanguard Records to tour the US as a solo artist . While in Los Angeles he produced fellow Australian Renée Geyer 's album Difficult Woman ( 1994 ) . Kelly returned to Australia in 1993 and wrote a collection of lyrics , aptly titled Lyrics , which opens with a quote from Anton Chekhov : " I don 't have what you would call a philosophy or coherent world view so I shall have to limit myself to describing how my heroes love , marry , give birth , die and speak . "
His next album Wanted Man , released in 1994 , reached No. 11 . Kelly also composed music for the 1994 film Everynight ... Everynight , directed by Alkinos Tsilimidos . It is set in the notorious H division of Victoria 's Pentridge Prison . Kelly 's next solo releases were Deeper Water in 1995 and Live at the Continental and the Esplanade in 1996 . Between March and May 1995 Kelly undertook a seven @-@ week tour of North America , appearing on several dates with Liz Phair and Joe Jackson .
By 1996 , Paul Kelly Band members included Stephen Hadley ( bass , ex @-@ Black Sorrows ) , Bruce Haymes ( keyboards ) , Peter Luscombe ( drums , ex @-@ Black Sorrows ) , and Shane O 'Mara ( guitar ) . Spencer P. Jones ( Beasts of Bourbon ) was guest guitarist on some performances . This line @-@ up issued the CD @-@ EP How to Make Gravy , with the title track earning Kelly a ' Song of the Year ' nomination at the 1998 Australasian Performing Rights Association ( APRA ) Music Awards . APRA 's Debbie Kruger noted Kelly 's " attraction to the theatrical " where the same protagonist is described in " To Her Door " , " Love Never Runs on Time " ( from Wanted Man ) and " How to Make Gravy " .
In 1997 , Kelly released his compilation album , Songs from the South : Paul Kelly 's Greatest Hits , on Mushroom Records . The 20 @-@ track album peaked at No. 2 , and has achieved quadruple platinum certification , indicating sales of over 280 @,@ 000 . Kelly won the ARIA Award in 1997 for ' Best Male Artist ' , having been previously nominated in 1993 , 1995 , and 1996 . At 20 September 1997 ceremony , he was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame . Kelly won the ' Best Male Artist ' award again in 1998 , and has been nominated for the same award a further seven times .
Kelly 's next album , Words and Music , appeared in 1998 , which peaked at No. 17 , and included three singles that did not reach the Top 40 . Andrew Ford interviewed Kelly for ABC radio 's The Music Show in May . Ford found the album " very exciting , very visceral ... you can almost smell the sex " . Kelly admitted that he preferred R & B music which deals with sex , love , and joy without becoming " either banal or smug " . He finds such songs more difficult to write but believes he has started to do so . 1998 also saw Kelly undertaking a three @-@ week tour of Canada and the US to promote Words and Music .
Smoke was released by Paul Kelly with Uncle Bill ; the latter is a Melbourne bluegrass band comprising Gerry Hale on guitar , dobro , mandolin , fiddle , and vocals ; Adam Gare on fiddle , mandolin , and vocals ; Peter Somerville on banjo and vocals ; and Stuart Speed on double bass . The album featured a mix of old and new Kelly songs treated in classic bluegrass fashion . " Our Sunshine " , newly written , was a tribute to Ned Kelly , a famous Australian outlaw ( not related ) . Kelly had previously recorded a Slim Dusty track with Uncle Bill , " Thanks a Lot " , for the compilation Where Joy Kills Sorrow ( 1997 ) . Smoke was issued on Kelly 's new label , Gawdaggie , through EMI Records in October 1999 , and peaked at No. 36 . It won three awards from the Victorian Country Music Association : ' Best Group ( Open ) ' , ' Best Group ( Victorian ) ' , and ' Album of the Year ' in 2000 . In September Kelly performed at the Spiegeltent at the Edinburgh Festival , as well as shows in London and Dublin .
In 1999 Kelly formed the band Professor Ratbaggy with Hadley ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) , Haymes ( keyboards , organ , backing vocals ) and Luscombe ( drums ) . Kelly provided guitars and vocals for their debut album , Professor Ratbaggy , on EMI Records . Songs were written jointly by all group members and their work was a more groove @-@ oriented style compared to Kelly 's usual folk or rock formula , using samples , synthesiser and percussion . Kelly 's second anthology of lyrics entitled Don 't Start Me Talking was first published in 1999 , with subsequent songs appended in the 2004 edition . This second edition was added to the Victorian Certificate of Education English reading list for Year 12 ( final year of secondary schooling ) in 2006 .
= = 2000 – 09 : Soundtracks and tribute albums = =
During the 2000s Paul Kelly worked as a composer for film and TV scores and soundtracks , including Lantana ( also as a member of Professor Ratbaggy ) , Silent Partner , and One Night the Moon in 2001 , Fireflies in 2004 , and Jindabyne in 2006 . These works have resulted in five award wins : ARIA ' Best Original Soundtrack ' for Lantana ( with Hadley , Haymes and O 'Mara ) ; Australian Film Institute ( AFI ) ' Open Craft Award ' , Film Critics Circle of Australia Awards ' Best Music Score ' , and Screen Music Award ' Best Soundtrack Album ' for One Night the Moon ( with Mairead Hannan , Carmody , John Romeril , Deirdre Hannan , and Alice Garner ) ; Valladolid International Film Festival ' Best Music ' award for Jindabyne ; and six further nominations .
Kelly also acted in One Night the Moon alongside his then wife , Fairfax , and with their younger daughter Memphis . All three sing on the soundtrack , including together for the lullaby , " One Night the Moon " ( see pictured ) . According to Romaine Moreton , Australian Screen Online curator , the " lullaby that the family sings , written by Paul Kelly , sets the tone of the film ... The song is used in this film as a vehicle to explore the characters ' interior worlds , something very unusual for a film " . Kelly and Fairfax separated before the film 's release .
Roll on Summer was released in 2000 as a four @-@ track EP , which peaked at No. 40 on the ARIA singles charts . Kelly issued ... Nothing but a Dream in 2001 , returning to his core singer @-@ songwriter style . It peaked at No. 7 on the albums chart , and achieved gold record status . The North American version of ... Nothing but a Dream added all four tracks from the Roll on Summer EP as bonus tracks . Murray Bramwell appraised four Kelly @-@ related works in Adelaide Review , " each of them indicative of the rich variety of his gift " . On the album ... Nothing but a Dream , he preferred the opening track , " If I Could Start Today Again " , to the radio single , " Somewhere in the City " , and found the album generally to be " full of familiar Kelly riffs and trademarks " . On Silent Partner Kelly 's songwriting with Hale provides " some splendid instrumentals " with " a delightfully airy sound " . The Lantana soundtrack showed Kelly 's " confidence as a composer and his strong grasp of a wide range of musical styles " . Finally , One Night the Moon included Mairead Hannan 's " richly melodic Irish airs " which " beautifully counterpoint Kelly 's work " and Carmody 's " distinctive ballads " .
In March 2001 Kelly was a support act for Bob Dylan 's tour of Australia . Between August and November Kelly performed a series of acoustic shows in New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Ireland , Spain , and France ( the latter supporting Ani DiFranco ) . In 2002 he undertook a six @-@ week tour of North America , which was followed by a tour of the UK and Ireland later that year . In 2002 and 2003 two tribute albums of Kelly 's songs were released : Women at the Well featured songs performed by female artists , including Bic Runga , Jenny Morris , Renée Geyer , Magic Dirt , Rebecca Barnard ( Rebecca 's Empire ) , Christine Anu , and Kasey Chambers ; and Stories of Me , which featured fellow songwriters James Reyne , Mia Dyson , and Jeff Lang . Chambers , a country music artist , sees Kelly as a role model : " He 's the perfect example of the storyteller that I would love to be " . In 2003 Kelly undertook a tour of North America , the UK , and Ireland , performing at the Edmonton International Fringe Festival and again at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe .
Ways & Means was issued in 2004 and peaked at No. 13 . Though identified as a solo record , it was more of a group effort , with a backing band , later dubbed the Boon Companions , co @-@ writing most of the tracks . The Boon Companions consisted of Kelly 's nephew Dan Kelly on guitar , Peter Luscombe on drums , his brother Dan Luscombe on guitar and keyboards , and Bill McDonald on bass guitar . Bramwell was impressed with their live performance in May : " Kelly steers and shapes not only his music , but the way he presents it . A live show is never just knocked together ... the details are always careful " . In February ABC Television started broadcasting the series Fireflies , which featured a score by Kelly and Stephen Rae . The associated soundtrack CD , Fireflies : Songs of Paul Kelly , included tracks by Kelly , Paul Kelly and the Boon Companions , Professor Ratbaggy , and Paul Kelly with Uncle Bill . Sian Prior sang with the Boon Companions on the Fireflies track " Los Cucumbros " , which later appeared on Stardust Five . Prior , an opera singer , became Kelly 's girlfriend in 2002 . They met when she interviewed him for Sunday Arts on ABC Radio . Prior is also a journalist and university lecturer .
In March 2004 Kelly performed across North America , including New York , Boston , Chicago , Seattle , and Los Angeles . This was followed by a more extensive series of shows between July and September throughout North America and Europe . In December , in Melbourne , Kelly performed 100 of his songs in alphabetical order over two nights . A similar set of shows were performed in a studio at Sydney Opera House in December 2006 , these and similar sets became known as his A to Z shows . Foggy Highway was a second bluegrass @-@ oriented album for Kelly , credited to Paul Kelly and the Stormwater Boys and issued in 2005 . It peaked at No. 23 on the ARIA albums charts . The line @-@ up for the majority of the tracks was Kelly , Mick Albeck ( fiddle ) , James Gillard ( bass guitar ) , Rod McCormack ( guitar ) , Ian Simpson ( banjo ) , and Trev Warner ( mandolin ) . As with Smoke ( his previous bluegrass release ) , Foggy Highway consisted of a mix of new compositions and rearranged Kelly classics . The Canadian edition of the release included a four @-@ song bonus EP of out @-@ takes .
In June 2005 Kelly put together Timor Leste – Freedom Rising , a collaboration of Australian artists donating new recordings , unreleased tracks , and b @-@ sides to make connections between a wide range of music to raise money for environmental , health , and education projects in East Timor ( Timor @-@ Leste ) . Funds raised from the album went to Life , Love and Health and The Alola Foundation . On 26 March 2006 Kelly performed at the Commonwealth Games closing ceremony in Melbourne , singing " Leaps and Bounds " and " Rally Around the Drum " . On 8 October Paul Kelly and the Boon Companions , Hoodoo Gurus , and Sime Nugent performed at the Athenaeum Theatre in Melbourne to again raise funds for Life , Love and Health , and to help support their ongoing programs in Timor @-@ Leste in response to the needs of the people during the humanitarian crisis .
Kelly formed Stardust Five in 2006 , with the same line @-@ up as Paul Kelly and the Boon Companions from Ways & Means . They released their self @-@ titled debut album in March , with each member contributing by composing the music and Kelly providing lyrics . The album has backing vocals by Prior on two tracks . Kelly toured North America again in 2006 , appearing together with The Waifs at clubs and festivals in several US states and the Canadian province of Alberta . In November – December Kelly undertook his A @-@ Z tour , a series of solo acoustic performances playing 100 of his songs in alphabetical order over four nights , at the Brisbane Powerhouse , Melbourne 's Spiegeltent , and at the Sydney Opera House .
In 2007 Kelly released Stolen Apples , containing songs based on religious themes ; it peaked at No. 8 , and achieved gold record status . Following the album 's recording , Dan Luscombe left to join The Drones . He was replaced by Ashley Naylor ( Even ) on guitar and Cameron Bruce ( The Polaroids ) on keyboards . A tour in support of the album saw Kelly perform the entire album plus selected hits from his catalogue . One of the last performances , on 20 September 2007 in Toowoomba , was filmed and released on DVD as Live Apples : Stolen Apples Performed Live in its Entirety Plus 16 More Songs , in April 2008 .
Kelly made his first appearance at the Big Day Out concerts across Australia in early 2008 , while in March he performed at the South by Southwest music festival in Austin , Texas . Kelly released Stolen Apples in Ireland and the UK in July , and followed with a tour there in August . In June The Age newspaper commemorated 50 years of Australian rock ' n ' roll ( the anniversary of the release of Johnny O 'Keefe 's " Wild One " ) by selecting the Top 50 Australian Albums . Kelly 's albums Gossip and Post rated at No. 7 and No. 30 on the list . Kelly was nominated as ' Best Male Artist ' for " To Her Door ( Live ) " and ' Best Music DVD ' for Live Apples at the 2008 ARIA Awards . In September he announced that he had reacquired the rights to his old catalogue , including those originally released by Mushroom Records — later bought out by Warner Bros. Records .
In November , as a result of the acquisition EMI released Songs from the South – Volume 2 , a collection of Kelly 's songs from the last decade , following on from Songs from the South – Volume 1 . The new compilation featured the first physical release of Kelly 's song , " Shane Warne " . Volume 1 and Volume 2 are available separately but also as a combined double album . EMI released a DVD , Paul Kelly – The Video Collection 1985 – 2008 , a collection of Kelly 's home videos made over the past 23 years . Also included are several live performances . Songs from the South – Volume 2 included one new song , " Thoughts in the Middle of the Night " , which he described as " It 's a band song , we all wrote it together . There 's a poem by James Fenton , a British poet , called " The Mistake " , which is probably an influence on the lyrics . It 's a waking up in the middle of the night song , for anyone who 's woken up at 3 am and not been able to get back to sleep " .
In the beginning of 2009 he supported Leonard Cohen 's tour of Australia – his first return in 24 years . Kelly 's duet with country singer Melinda Schneider , " Still Here " , won ' Vocal Collaboration of the Year ' at the 2009 CMAA Country Music Awards of Australia . In February , in response to hearing about the devastation to the Yarra Valley region of Victoria in Australia , Cohen and Kelly donated $ 200 @,@ 000 to the Victorian Bushfire Appeal in support of those affected by the extensive Black Saturday bushfires that razed the area just weeks after their performance at the Rochford Winery for the A Day on the Green concert . Kelly performed at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on 14 March for Sound Relief , a multi @-@ venue rock music concert in support of victims of the bushfires . The event was held simultaneously with a concert at the Sydney Cricket Ground . All proceeds from the Melbourne concert went to the Red Cross Victorian Bushfire relief . Also performing at the Melbourne concert were Augie March , Bliss n Eso with Paris Wells , Gabriella Cilmi , Hunters & Collectors , Jack Johnson , Chambers and Shane Nicholson with Troy Cassar @-@ Daley , Kings of Leon , Jet , Midnight Oil , Liam Finn , Split Enz , and Wolfmother .
On 13 and 14 November , radio station Triple J presented a Kelly tribute concert — marking his 30th anniversary as a solo artist — at the Forum Theatre in Melbourne , and highlighted his contribution to Australian music . The line @-@ up included Missy Higgins , John Butler , Paul Dempsey ( Something for Kate ) , Katy Steele ( Little Birdy ) , Bob Evans , Ozi Batla ( The Herd ) , Dan Kelly , Clare Bowditch , Jae Laffer ( The Panics ) , Adalita Srsen ( Magic Dirt ) , Dan Sultan , and Megan Washington interpreting Kelly 's songs , with members of Augie March as the backing band and Ashley Naylor as musical director . A recording of the concerts was released by ABC Music as a DVD and a double CD , Before Too Long , with a bonus CD featuring original songs by Kelly , on 19 February 2010 . Kelly 's national ' More Songs from the South ' tour in December 2009 included band members Vika Bull on vocals , Peter Luscombe on drums , Bill McDonald on bass guitar and backing vocals , Naylor on guitar , and Cameron Bruce on keyboards . Kelly contributed to the national magazine , The Monthly , from 2009 to 2010 .
= = 2010 – present : Memoir to biopic = =
Paul Kelly has written a memoir , How to Make Gravy , which was published by Penguin Books ( Australia ) on 22 September 2010 . " It 's a mongrel memoir . It 's a bit hard to describe at the moment . It 's not traditional ; it 's writing around the A @-@ Z theme – I tell stories around the song lyrics in alphabetical order . It 's slow , so it will be a while coming , but I 'll get there " . As a companion to his memoir , he issued an 8 × CD box set , A – Z Recordings , with live performances from his A – Z Tours from 2004 to 2010 . The 105 tracks are listed alphabetically , and were typically performed over four nights . The set includes a booklet of photographs . The related audio book on 16 × CDs has Kelly joined by Australian actors , Cate Blanchett , Russell Crowe , Judy Davis , Hugh Jackman and Ben Mendelsohn each reading a chosen chapter .
Maurice Frawley , a guitarist for Kelly in various groups who co @-@ wrote " Look So Fine , Feel So Low " ( 1987 ) , died of cancer in May 2009 . Kelly worked with Charlie Owen and others to create a 3 × CD tribute album , Long Gone Whistle – The Songs of Maurice Frawley , which was released in August 2010 . In July that year , Kelly performed at Splendour in the Grass . On 15 December he was inducted into The Age EG Awards Hall of Fame . In April 2011 Kelly performed at the East Coast Blues & Roots Music Festival ( Bluesfest ) , which was followed by appearances as a special guest on Dylan 's concerts in Sydney and Melbourne . Later that month , Kelly co @-@ headlined a show with Neil Finn at Red Hill Auditorium in Perth ; it was the first music concert at the new venue . In May his memoir , How to Make Gravy , was short @-@ listed for the Prime Minister 's Literary Award in the non @-@ fiction category ; while in July it was co @-@ winner of ' Biography of the Year ' at the Australian Book Industry Awards – with Ahn Do 's The Happiest Refugee .
On 29 September 2012 Kelly performed " How to Make Gravy " and " Leaps and Bounds " at the AFL Grand Final although most of the performance was not broadcast on Seven Network 's pre @-@ game segment . Nui Te Koha of Sunday Herald Sun declared " Kelly , an integral part of Melbourne folklore and its music scene , and a noted footy tragic , deserved his place on the Grand Final stage – which has been long overdue ... broadcaster Seven 's refusal to show Kelly 's performance , except the last verse of ' Leaps and Bounds ' , was no laughing matter " . On 19 October that year , Kelly issued a new studio album , Spring and Fall , which debuted at No. 8 . It was recorded with Dan Kelly and Machine Translations ' J Walker . Guest musicians include former band members Peter and Dan Luscombe , Vika and Linda Bull , and new collaborator , Laura Jean .
Also in October , a biographical film , Paul Kelly : Stories of Me , directed by Ian Darling , was released . Darling had worked on the project for two years and it included " insights from family , friends , musicians and music journalists , as well as Kelly himself " . The Australian Financial Review 's Katrina Strickland described the documentary as " not a critique of his music , nor an intrusive look at his personal life " which uses a " much less linear approach to the life of a musician whose career has spanned four decades " . After it appeared on ABC @-@ TV in October of the following year , Andrew P. Street of The Guardian noted it " brings an ambitious , complex young Kelly to life – making a relisten of his work essential " .
During February and March 2013 Kelly and Neil Finn undertook a collaborative tour of Australia . Their performance on 10 March at the Sydney Opera House was recorded for the live album , Goin ' Your Way ( 8 November 2013 ) . It was issued as a 2 × CD , which peaked at No. 5 on the ARIA Albums Chart ; and also as a DVD , which peaked at No. 1 on the related ARIA Music DVD Chart . Later in March he toured New Zealand with his nephew to promote Spring and Fall by playing in church venues .
= = Musical style and song writing = =
Paul Kelly has been acknowledged as one of Australia 's best singer @-@ songwriters . His music style has ranged from bluegrass to studio @-@ oriented dub reggae , but his core output comfortably straddles folk , rock , and country . His lyrics capture Australia 's vastness both in culture and landscape ; he has chronicled life about him for over 30 years and is described as the poet laureate of Australia . According to music writer Glenn A. Baker , his Australian @-@ ness may be a reason Kelly has not achieved international success . David Fricke from Rolling Stone calls Kelly " one of the finest songwriters I have ever heard , Australian or otherwise . "
Fellow songwriter Neil Finn ( Crowded House ) has said , " There is something unique and powerful about the way Kelly mixes up everyday detail with the big issues of life , death , love and struggle – not a trace of pretence or fakery in there " . Ross Clelland , writing for Rolling Stone , described Kelly : " [ W ] hile he was ( rightly ) lauded for his ability to sing of injustice without ranting , or deal with the darker sides of human nature non @-@ judgementally , often overlooked was the fact he could write a damn fine melodic hook to go with those words " . Tim Freedman ( The Whitlams ) acknowledges Kelly , Peter Garrett ( Midnight Oil ) , and John Schumann ( Redgum ) as inspiring him by " [ furnishing ] our suburbs with our own myths and social history " . However , Kelly has been quoted as saying " Song writing is mysterious to me . I still feel like a total beginner . I don 't feel like I have got it nailed yet " . In 2007 Kelly donated his ' Lee Oskar ' harmonica to the Sydney Powerhouse Museum . The museum 's statement of significance cites Kelly 's talent as a songwriter , his distinctive voice , and his harmonica playing , particularly on Live , May 1992 .
Kelly described his songwriting as " a scavenging art , a desperate act . For me it 's a bit from here , a bit from there , fumbling around , never quite knowing what you 're doing ... Song writing is like a way of feeling connected to mystery . " He has resisted the label of ' storyteller ' and insists that his songs are not strictly autobiographical ; " they come from imagining someone in a particular situation . Sometimes a sequence of events happens which makes it more a story , but other times it 's just that situation " . Sometimes the same character is found in different songs , such as in " To Her Door " , " Love Never Runs on Time " , and " How to Make Gravy " .
Kelly has also provided songs for many other artists , tailoring them to their particular vocal range . Women at the Well ( 2002 ) had 14 female artists record his songs in tribute . According to Kelly , he adapted his song " Foggy Highway " for Renée Geyer because " I admired her deep soul singing , ferocious and vulnerable ... When I heard the finished version ... the hairs rose up on the back of my neck . " Kelly and The Stormwater Boys recorded it in a bluegrass style as the title track for the 2005 album Foggy Highway . Divinyls ' lead singer Christina Amphlett recorded " Before Too Long " — she was attracted by the lyrics — she interpreted the song 's narrator as being a stalker , and provided a female perspective in a darkly menacing manner à @-@ la Fatal Attraction .
Kelly has written songs with and for numerous artists , including Mick Thomas , Geyer , Kate Ceberano , Vika and Linda Bull , Nick Cave , Nick Barker , Kasey Chambers , Yothu Yindi , Archie Roach , Gyan , Monique Brumby , Kelly Willis , Missy Higgins , and Troy Cassar @-@ Daley . He has described how some songs he writes are suited to other vocal ranges . " Quite often , I 'm trying to write a certain kind of song and it 's more ambitious than what my voice will get to . That 's how I started writing songs with other people in mind " . Kelly and Carmody 's " From Little Things Big Things Grow " was analysed by Sydney University 's Linguistics professor James R Martin . " [ They ] render the story as a narrative ... with the familiar Orientation , Complication , Evaluation , Resolution and Coda staging " . Martin finds that Kelly and Carmody made the point that when people exert their rights with support from friends , they may defeat those with prestige .
Kelly understands that co @-@ writing with other songwriters lends power to his songs . " You often write songs with collaborators that you would never write by yourself . It 's a way of dragging a song out of you that you wouldn 't have come up with " . One of his collaborators , Linda Bull , described Kelly 's process : they would start with a simple chat . " We 'd just chuck ideas around and he 'd pick the best bits . He 'd take all the bluntness and crudeness out of it and make it beautiful ; that 's his magic ... It 's conversations that you have everyday [ sic ] " . Forster summarised his 2009 review of Kelly 's compilation , Songs from the South , with " [ his songs ] sound easy and approachable ... Then you think : If the songs are so simple and the ideas behind them so clear , why aren 't more people writing like Paul Kelly and sounding as good as he does ? " In 2010 Carmody and Kelly 's " From Little Things Big Things Grow " was added to the National Film and Sound Archive 's Sounds of Australia Registry .
= = Personal life = =
Paul Kelly 's first marriage ( 1980 – 84 ) was to Hilary Brown ; the couple had a son , Declan , who later worked as a radio presenter on 3RRR 's Against the Arctic from 2006 . As of 2007 , he was a DJ around Melbourne and played the drums . For Paul Kelly : Stories of Me Declan recalled his feelings whenever he hears " When I First Met Your Ma " , which describes Kelly 's courtship of Hilary . Hilary remembered " songs written especially for and about her " but also about other women , she quipped " [ t ] here are too many girls out there ! One for every song ! "
Kelly 's second marriage ( 1993 – 2001 ) was to Australian actress Kaarin Fairfax . The Monthly 's Richard Guilliatt travelled with Kelly , his band and " his new love and future wife , the diminutive " Fairfax on a section of the group 's US tour prior to the release of Under the Sun . The couple have two daughters , Madeleine ( born 1991 ) and Memphis ( born 1993 ) . From 1989 – 92 , Fairfax supplied backing vocals on tracks by Paul Kelly and the Messengers . In 1990 , as Mary @-@ Jo Starr , a country music artist , Fairfax released three singles , and an album , Too Many Movies . Memphis Kelly starred alongside her parents in the Rachel Perkins short film , One Night the Moon ( 2001 ) , for which Paul Kelly composed the score . After the couple separated in 2001 , Madeleine and Memphis stayed with Fairfax , but Kelly maintained contact with his daughters . In 2010 Madeleine and Memphis formed a pop indie trio , Wishful , with Sam Humphrey ; they were later joined by Harley Hamer and Caleb Williams . In March 2014 , Wishful performed at the Port Fairy Folk Festival .
Kelly was in a relationship with Sian Prior , a journalist , university lecturer and opera singer , from 2002 to 2011 . They met when Kelly was interviewed on her Sunday Arts ABC radio program . Kelly wrote " You 're 39 , You 're Beautiful and You 're Mine " for Prior who was already 40 by the time he finished . Prior has played clarinet and provided backing vocals on some of Kelly 's songs , as well as with the Stardust Five . She has performed live with Kelly on several occasions including clarinet on six tracks of his A – Z Recordings boxed set . In his memoir , Kelly credited Prior with inspiring him to give up his long @-@ term heroin addiction , " I got lucky , I met a woman who said : ' It 's me or it ' . She gave me the number of a counsellor ... I thought about ' it ' every day for a long time . Less now " . The couple had separated during the making of Kelly 's biopic , however the separation is not mentioned and Prior is not interviewed in the film .
Kelly 's brother , Martin , is the father of Dan Kelly , a singer @-@ guitarist . Dan has performed with his uncle on several of Kelly 's albums , including Ways and Means , as a member of Paul Kelly and the Boon Companions , and on Stolen Apples ; Dan and Paul were both members of Stardust Five , which released Stardust Five . Dan has released three albums , two of which received ARIA Award nominations . Kelly 's younger sister , Mary Jo Kelly , is a Melbourne @-@ based pianist who performed with him on the track " South of Germany " for Paul Kelly Live at the Athenaeum , May 1992 ( 1992 ) . She has performed in Latin bands and worked as a music teacher at the Victorian College of the Arts Secondary School . Mary Jo provided piano on Archie Roach 's album Charcoal Lane ( 1990 ) , which was produced by Kelly and Connolly .
= = Awards = =
Paul Kelly has won several awards , including ten ARIA Awards from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and three APRA Awards from either the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) alone or together with the Australian Guild of Screen Composers . APRA named " To Her Door " , solely written by Kelly , and " Treaty " , written by Kelly and members of Yothu Yindi , in their Top 30 best Australian songs of all time in 2001 . Kelly was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 1997 , alongside the Bee Gees and Graeme Bell . He has won six Country Music Awards from the Country Music Association of Australia , and four Mo Awards ( Australian entertainment industry ) . Kelly was a Victorian State Finalist for the 2012 Australian of the Year Award .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Talk ( 1981 )
Manila ( 1982 )
Post ( 1985 )
Gossip ( 1986 )
Under The Sun ( 1987 )
So Much Water So Close to Home ( 1989 )
Comedy ( 1991 )
Hidden Things ( 1992 )
Wanted Man ( 1994 )
Deeper Water ( 1995 )
Words and Music ( 1998 )
Smoke ( 1999 )
Professor Ratbaggy ( 1999 )
... Nothing but a Dream ( 2001 )
Ways & Means ( 2004 )
Foggy Highway ( 2005 )
Stardust Five ( 2006 )
Stolen Apples ( 2007 )
Spring and Fall ( 2012 )
The Merri Soul Sessions ( 2014 )
Seven Sonnets and a Song ( 2016 )
= = Films = =
Paul Kelly : Stories of Me ( 1 October 2012 ) is an Australian documentary by Shark Island Productions . The film is an intimate portrait of Kelly that follows his 40 @-@ year career as Australia 's foremost singer @-@ songwriter .
The film won the Film Critics Circle Award in 2012 for Best Documentary , and the ASE Award in 2013 for Best Documentary Editing . Nominations include the ADG Award in 2013 for Best Documentary Feature and AACTA Award 2013 for Best Sound in a Documentary .
The film was part of the Official Selection at the Melbourne International Film Festival 2012 and the Canberra International Film Festival 2012
= Belgian Resistance =
The Belgian Resistance ( French : Résistance belge , Dutch : Belgisch verzet ) collectively refers to the resistance movements opposed to the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Within Belgium , resistance was fragmented between a large number of separate organizations , divided by region and political stances . The resistance included both men and women from both Walloon and Flemish parts of the country . Aside from sabotage of military infrastructure in the country and assassinations of collaborators , these groups also published large numbers of underground newspapers , gathered intelligence and maintained various escape networks that helped Allied airmen trapped behind enemy lines escape from German @-@ occupied Europe .
During the war , it is estimated that approximately five percent of the national population were involved in some form of resistance activity , while some estimates put the number of resistance members killed at over 19 @,@ 000 ; roughly 25 percent of its " active " members .
= = Background = =
German forces invaded Belgium , which had been following a policy of neutrality , on 10 May 1940 . After 18 days of fighting , Belgium surrendered on 28 May and was placed under German occupation . During the fighting , between 600 @,@ 000 and 650 @,@ 000 Belgian men ( nearly 20 percent of the country 's entire male population ) served in the military . Many were made prisoners of war and detained in camps in Germany , although some were released before the end of the war . Leopold III , king and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army , also surrendered to the Germans on 28 May along with his army and was also held as prisoner by the Germans . The Belgian government fled first to Bordeaux in France , and then to London where it formed a government in exile .
= = = Growth of resistance = = =
Among the first members of the Belgian resistance were former soldiers , and in particular officers , who , on their return from prisoner of war camps , wished to continue the fight against the Germans out of patriotism . Nevertheless , resistance was slow to develop in the first few months of the occupation because it seemed that German victory was imminent . The German failure to invade Great Britain , coupled with aggravating German policies within occupied Belgium , especially the persecution of Belgian Jews and conscription of Belgian civilians into forced labour programmes increasingly turned patriotic Belgian civilians from liberal or Catholic backgrounds against the German regime and towards the resistance . With the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , members of the Communist Party , which had previously been ambivalent towards both Allied and Axis sides , also joined the resistance en masse , forming their own separate groups calling for a " national uprising " against Nazi rule . During the First World War , Belgium had been occupied by Germany for four years and had developed an effective network of resistance , which provided key inspiration for the formation of similar groups in 1940 .
Most of the resistance was focused in the French @-@ speaking areas of Belgium ( Wallonia and the city of Brussels ) , although Flemish involvement in the resistance was also significant . Around 70 percent of underground newspapers were in French , while 60 percent of political prisoners were Walloon .
= = Resistance during the German occupation = =
= = = Passive resistance = = =
The most widespread form of resistance in occupied Belgium was non @-@ violent . Listening to Radio Belgique broadcasts from London , which was officially prohibited by the German occupiers , was a common form of passive resistance , but civil disobedience in particular was employed . This was often carried out by Belgian government institutions that were forced to carry out the administration of the territory on behalf of the German military government . In June 1941 , the City Council of Brussels refused to distribute Star of David badges on behalf of the German government to Belgian Jews .
Striking was the most common form of passive resistance and often took place on symbolic dates , such as the 10 May ( anniversary of the German invasion ) , 21 July ( National Day ) and 11 November ( anniversary of the German surrender in World War I ) . The largest was the so @-@ called " Strike of the 100 @,@ 000 " , which broke out on 10 May 1941 in the Cockerill steel works in Seraing . News of the strike spread rapidly and soon at least 70 @,@ 000 workers came out on strike across the province of Liège . The Germans increased workers ' salaries by eight percent and the strike finished rapidly . Future large @-@ scale strikes were repressed by the Germans , although further important strikes occurred in November 1942 and February 1943 .
King Leopold III , imprisoned in the palace in Laeken , became a focal point for passive resistance , despite having been condemned by the government @-@ in @-@ exile for his decision to surrender .
= = = Active resistance = = =
Active resistance within Belgium developed from early 1941 and took several directions . Armed resistance , in the forms of sabotage or assassinations , took place , but was only part of the " active " resistance 's scope of activity . Some groups had very specific forms of resistance and became extremely specialized . The Service D group , for example , had many members in the national postal service and used them to intercepting letters of denunciation , warning the denounced person to flee . In this way , they succeeded in intercepting over 20 @,@ 000 letters .
Membership of the active resistance , which had been quite low in the early years of the resistance , swelled exponentially during 1944 as it was joined by so @-@ called " resistors of the eleventh hour " ( résistants de la onzième heure ) who could see that Allied victory was close , particularly in the months after D @-@ Day . It is estimated that approximately five percent of the national population were involved in some form of " active " resistance during the war .
= = = = Structure and organisation = = = =
The Belgian resistance effort was extremely fragmented between various groups and never became a unified organization during the German occupation . The danger of infiltration posed by German informants meant that some cells were extremely small and localized , and although nationwide groups did exist , they were split along political and ideological lines . They ranged from the very left @-@ wing , like the Communist Partisans Armés or Socialist Front de l 'Indépendance , to the far @-@ right , like the monarchist Mouvement National Royaliste and the Légion Belge which had been created by members of the pre @-@ war Fascist Légion Nationale movement . However , there were also other groups like Groupe G which , though without an obvious political affiliation , recruited only from very specific demographics .
= = Forms of active resistance = =
= = = Sabotage and assassination = = =
Belgium 's strategic location meant that it constituted an important supply hub for the whole German army in Northern Europe and particularly northern France . Sabotage was therefore an important duty of the resistance . Following the Normandy landings in June 1944 on orders from the Allies , the Belgian resistance began to step up its sabotage against German supply lines across the country . Between June and September alone , 95 railroad bridges , 285 locomotives , 1 @,@ 365 wagons and 17 tunnels were all blown up by the Belgian resistance . Telegraph lines were also cut and road bridges and canals used to transport material sabotaged . In one notable action , 600 German soldiers were killed when a railway bridge between La Gleize and Stoumont in the Ardennes was blown up by 40 members of the resistance , including the writer Herman Bodson . Indeed , more German troops were reportedly killed in Belgium in 1941 than in all of Occupied France . Through its sabotage activities alone , one resistance group , Groupe G , required the Germans to expend between 20 and 25 million man @-@ hours of labour on repairing damage done , including ten million in the night of 15 – 16 January 1944 alone .
Assassination of key figures in the hierarchy of German and collaborationist hierarchy became increasingly common through 1944 . In July 1944 , the Légion Belge assassinated the brother of Léon Degrelle , head of the collaborationist Rexist Party and leading Belgian fascist . Informants and suspected double agents were also targeted ; the Communist Partisans Armés claimed to have killed over 1 @,@ 000 traitors between June and September 1944 .
= = = Clandestine press = = =
During the occupation an underground press flourished in Belgium from soon after the Belgian defeat , with eight newspapers appearing by October 1940 alone . Much of the resistance 's press focused around producing newspapers in both French and Dutch language as alternatives to collaborationist newspapers like Le Soir . At its peak , the clandestine newspaper La Libre Belgique was relaying news within five to six days ; faster than the BBC 's French @-@ language radio broadcasts , whose coverage lagged several months behind events . Copies of the underground newspapers were distributed anonymously , with some pushed into letterboxes or sent by post . Since they were usually free , the costs of printing were financed by donations from sympathisers . The papers achieved considerable circulation , with La Libre Belgique reaching a regular circulation of 40 @,@ 000 by January 1942 and peaking at 70 @,@ 000 , while the Communist paper , Le Drapeau Rouge , reached 30 @,@ 000 . Dozens of different newspapers existed , often affiliated with different resistance groups or differentiated by political stance , ranging from nationalist , Communist , Liberal or even Feminist . The number of Belgians involved in the underground press is estimated at anywhere up to 40 @,@ 000 people . In total , 567 separate titles are known from the period of occupation .
The resistance also printed humorous publications and material as propaganda . In November 1943 , on the anniversary of the German surrender in the First World War , the Front de l 'Indépendance group published a spoof edition of the collaborationist newspaper Le Soir , satirizing the Axis propaganda and biased information permitted by the censors , which was then distributed to newsstands across Brussels and deliberately mixed with official copies of the newspaper . 50 @,@ 000 copies of the spoof publication , dubbed the " Faux Soir " ( or " Fake Soir " ) , were distributed .
= = = Intelligence gathering = = =
Intelligence gathering was one of the first forms of resistance to grow after the Belgian defeat and eventually developed into complex and carefully structured organizations . The Allies were also deeply reliant on the resistance to provide intelligence from the occupied country . This information focused both on German troop movements and other military information , but was also essential for keeping the allies abreast of the attitudes and popular opinion of the Belgian public . Each network was closely organized and carried a codename . The most significant was " Clarence " , led by Walthère Dewé , which had over 1 @,@ 000 members feeding it information which was then communicated to London by radio . Other notable networks were " Luc " ( renamed " Marc " in 1942 ) and " Zéro " . In total 43 separate intelligence networks existed in Belgium , involving some 14 @,@ 000 people . The Belgian resistance provided around 80 percent of all information received by the Allies from all resistance groups in Europe .
= = = Resistance to the Holocaust = = =
The Belgian resistance was instrumental in saving Jews and Roma from deportation to death camps . In April 1943 , members of the resistance group , the Comité de Défense des Juifs successfully attacked the " Twentieth convoy " carrying 1 @,@ 500 Belgian Jews by rail to Auschwitz in Poland . Many Belgians also hid Jews and political dissidents during the occupation : one estimate put the number at some 20 @,@ 000 people hidden during the war . There was also significant low @-@ level resistance : for instance , in June 1941 , the City Council of Brussels refused to distribute Stars of David badges . Certain high profile members of the Belgian establishment , including Queen Elizabeth and Cardinal van Roey , Archbishop of Malines , spoke out against the German treatment of Jews .
In total , 1 @,@ 612 Belgians have been awarded the distinction of " Righteous Among the Nations " by the State of Israel for risking their lives to save Jews from persecution during the occupation .
= = = Escape routes = = =
As the Allies intensified their strategic bombing campaign from 1941 , the resistance began to experience a significant increase in the number of Allied airmen from the RAF and USAAF who had been shot down but evaded capture . The resistance 's aim , assisted by the British MI9 organization , was to escort them out of occupied Europe and over the Pyrenees to neutral Spain where they might return to England . The best @-@ known of these networks , " Comet " , organized by Andrée de Jongh , involved some 2 @,@ 000 resistance members and was able to escort 700 Allied servicemen to Spain . The line not only fed and provided civilian clothing for the pilots , but also forged French identity cards and rail fares . Since the airmen also needed to be hidden in civilian houses for prolonged periods of time , escape lines were particularly vulnerable . During the course of the war , 800 members of the " Comet " line alone were arrested by the Gestapo of whom 140 were executed .
= = German response = =
The German Geheime Staatspolizei ( " Secret state police " ) , known as the Gestapo , was responsible for targeting resistance groups in Belgium . Resistance fighters who were captured could expect to be interrogated , tortured and either summarily executed or sent to a concentration camp . The Gestapo was effective at using informants within groups to betray whole local resistance network and in examining resistance publications for clues about its place of production . 2 @,@ 000 resistance members involved in underground press alone were arrested during the war . In total , 30 @,@ 000 members of the resistance were captured during the war , of whom 16 @,@ 000 were executed or died in captivity .
The Germans requisitioned the former Belgian army Fort Breendonk , near Mechelen , which was used for torture and interrogation of political prisoners and members of the resistance . Around 3 @,@ 500 inmates passed through the camp at Breendonk where they were kept in extremely degrading conditions . Around 300 people were killed in the camp itself , with at least 98 of them dying from deprivation or torture .
Towards the end of the war , the militias of collaborationist political parties also began to participate actively in reprisals for attacks or assassinations by the resistance . These included both reprisal assassinations of leading figures suspected of resistance involvement or sympathy ( including Alexandre Galopin , head of the Société Générale , who was assassinated in February 1944 ) or retaliatory massacres against civilians . Foremost among these was the Courcelles Massacre , a reprisal by Rexist paramilitaries for the assassination of a Burgomaster , in which 20 civilians were killed . A similar massacre also took place at Meensel @-@ Kiezegem , where 67 were killed .
= = Relations with the Allies and Belgian government in exile = =
The Belgian government in exile made its first call for the creation of organized resistance in the country from its first place of exile in Bordeaux , before its flight to London after the French surrender :
We trust fully in the power of Britain to deliver us from German bondage ... We claim the right to share in the burden and honour of this fight in the measure of our modest but not altogether negligible resources We are not defeatists ... We will have nothing to do with those faint @-@ hearted countrymen of ours , who , despairing of the victory of the allied cause , would be willing to come to terms with the invader . We know that neither Belgium nor the Congo will be saved until Hitlerism is crushed .
Nevertheless , the apparent isolation of the government in exile from the day @-@ to @-@ day situation in Belgium meant that it was viewed with suspicion by many resistance groups , particularly those whose politics differed from that of the established government . The government , for its part , was afraid that resistance groups would turn into ungovernable political militias after liberation , challenging the government 's position and threatening political stability . Nevertheless , the resistance was frequently reliant on finance and drops of equipment and supplies which both the government @-@ in @-@ exile and the British Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) were able to provide . During the course of the war , the government @-@ in @-@ exile delivered between 124 @-@ 245 million francs , dropped by parachute or transferred via bank accounts in neutral Portugal , to the Armée Secrète group alone , with smaller sums also distributed to other organisations .
In the early years of the war , contact with the government in exile was difficult to establish . The Légion Belge dispatched a member to try to establish contact in May 1941 , it took a full year to reach London . Radio contact was briefly established in late 1941 , however , the contact was extremely intermittent between 1942 and 1943 , with a permanent radio connection to the Armée Secrète ( codenamed " Stanley " ) only established in 1944 .
In May 1944 , the government @-@ in @-@ exile attempted to rebuild its relationship with the resistance by establishing a " Coordination Committee " of representatives of the major groups , including the Légion Belge , Mouvement National Belge , Groupe G and the Front de l 'Indépendance . However , the committee was rendered redundant by the liberation in September .
= = The Resistance during the Liberation = =
After the Normandy Landings in June 1944 , the Belgian resistance increased in size dramatically . In April 1944 , the Armée Secrète began to adopt an official rank hierarchy and uniform ( of white overalls and armband ) to be worn on missions in order to give their organization the status of an " official army " .
Though they usually lacked the equipment and training to fight the Wehrmacht openly , the resistance played a key role in assisting the Allies during the liberation of Belgium in September 1944 , providing information on German troop movements , disrupting German evacuation plans and participating in fighting . The resistance was particularly important during the liberation of the city of Antwerp , where the local resistance from the Witte Brigade and Nationale Koninklijke Beweging , in an unprecedented display of inter @-@ group cooperation , assisted Canadian forces in capturing the highly strategic port of Antwerp intact , before it could be sabotaged by the German garrison . Across Belgium , 20 @,@ 000 German soldiers ( including two generals ) were taken prisoner by the resistance , before being handed over to the Allies .
The Free Belgian 5th SAS was dropped by parachute into the Ardennes where it linked up with members of the local resistance during the liberation and the Battle of the Bulge .
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= = = Disarmament = = =
Soon after the liberation , the reestablished government in Brussels attempted to disarm and demobilize the resistance . In particular , the government feared the organizations would degenerate into armed political militias which could threaten the country 's political stability . In October 1944 the government ordered members of the resistance to surrender their weapons to the police and , in November , threatened to search the houses and fine those who had retained them . This provoked significant anger among resistance members , who had hoped that they would be able to continue fighting alongside the Allies in the invasion of Germany . On 25 November , a large demonstration of former resistance members took place in Brussels . As the crowds moved towards the Parliament , British soldiers fired on the crowd , which they suspected to be trying to make left @-@ wing coup d 'état . 45 people were wounded .
Nevertheless , large numbers of former members of the resistance enlisted into the regular army , where they formed around 80 % of the strength of the Belgian Fusilier Battalions which served on the Western Front until VE Day .
= = Legacy = =
The Belgian resistance was praised by contemporaries for its contribution to the Allied war effort ; particularly during the later period . In a letter to Lieutenant @-@ General Pire , commander of the Armée Secrète , General Eisenhower praised the role that the Belgian resistance had played in disrupting German supply lines after D @-@ Day . The continuing actions of the resistance stopped the Germans ever being able to use the country as a secure base , never fully becoming pacified .
The attempt of the resistance to enter mainstream politics with a formal party , the Belgian Democratic Union , failed to attract the level of support that similar parties had managed in France and elsewhere . Associations of former members were founded in the years immediately after the war and campaigned for greater recognition of the role of the resistance . The largest association , the Fondation Armée Secrète , continues to fund historical research on the role of the resistance and defending the interests of its members .
In December 1946 , the government of Camille Huysmans inaugurated a medal to be awarded to former members of the resistance and bestowed various other benefits on other members , including pensions and a scheme of state @-@ funded apprenticeships . Individuals were accorded military rank equivalent to their status in the movement during the war , entitling them to title and other privileges . Today the role of the resistance during the conflict is commemorated by memorials , plaques and road names across the country , as well as by the National Museum of the Resistance in Anderlecht .
= Thermal low =
Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non @-@ frontal low @-@ pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north @-@ west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north @-@ west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau .
Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3 @,@ 100 metres ( 10 @,@ 200 ft ) in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .
= = Formation = =
In deserts , lack of ground and plant moisture that would normally provide evaporative cooling can lead to intense , rapid solar heating of the lower layers of air . The hot air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in a low pressure area called a thermal low . Over elevated surfaces , heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level , which creates an associated heat low over the terrain and enhances any thermal lows which would have otherwise existed . During the cold season , ( winter ) , warm water bodies such as the Great Lakes can induce an instability low . Thermal lows which develop near sea level can build in height during the warm season , or summer , to the elevation of the 700 hPa pressure surface , which lies near 3 @,@ 100 metres ( 10 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level . Heat lows normally are stationary and have a weak cyclonic circulation . As they are strongest at the surface and warm near their center , and weaker aloft where the air is more stable , the thermal low is considered warm core . The strongest versions of these features globally are over Arabia , the northern portion of the Indian subcontinent , Arizona , Mexican plateau , northwest Argentina , southwestern Spain , Australia , and northern Africa . The formation of the heat low over northern Africa leads to a low @-@ level westerly jet stream from June into October .
= = Role in the monsoon regime = =
Monsoons are caused by the larger amplitude of the seasonal cycle of land temperature compared to that of nearby oceans . This differential warming happens because heat in the ocean is mixed vertically through a " mixed layer " that may be fifty meters deep , through the action of wind and buoyancy @-@ generated turbulence , whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly , with the seasonal signal penetrating perhaps a meter or so . Additionally , the specific heat capacity of liquid water is significantly higher than that of most materials that make up land . Together , these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land , with the consequence that the air over the land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than the air over the ocean . The hot air over the land tends to rise , creating an area of low pressure . This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land , bringing the moist near @-@ surface air over the oceans with it . Similar rainfall is caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains , surface heating , convergence at the surface , divergence aloft , or from storm @-@ produced outflows at the surface . However the lifting occurs , the air cools due expansion in lower pressure , which in turn produces condensation .
In winter , the land cools off quickly , but the ocean keeps the heat longer due to its higher specific heat . The hot air over the ocean rises , creating a low pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land , increased by wintertime cooling . Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes , a term usually referring to the localized , diurnal ( daily ) cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere , but they are much larger in scale , stronger and seasonal .
= = Role in sea breeze formation = =
The sea is warmed by the sun to a greater depth than the land due to its greater specific heat . The sea therefore has a greater capacity for absorbing heat than the land , so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land 's surface . As the temperature of the surface of the land rises , the land heats the air above it . The warm air is less dense and so it rises . This rising air over the land lowers the sea level pressure by about 0 @.@ 2 % . The cooler air above the sea , now with higher sea level pressure , flows towards the land into the lower pressure , creating a cooler breeze near the coast . The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land and the sea . If the environmental wind field is greater than 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) and opposing the direction of a possible sea breeze , the sea breeze is not likely to develop .
Along the California coast , the cooler water sets up a surface marine layer that is much cooler than inland areas during the summer . At the same time , the intense heating inland creates a pronounced thermal trough aligned with the Great Central Valley and typically linked to the broader thermal low across the North American deserts . As a consequence , a strong pressure gradient is created which draws cool marine air landward . As temperatures plummet , fog and stratus stream in and through the gaps of the Coast Ranges , and especially through the Golden Gate at San Francisco ( see San Francisco fog ) . The same thermal trough is sometimes pushed toward the coast , especially in late Fall as higher pressure develops to the east due to cooling further east . This setup often brings the warmest temperatures of the year to the normally cool coastline as the seabreeze stops or is even replaced by a dangerously dry land breeze .
= = Role in air pollution = =
In areas where it is hilly or mountainous near the coastline , thermally @-@ forced sea breezes combined with wind circulations up the sides of the mountains can encourage the production of chemicals which can lead to the development of smog . Pollution has been tracked into the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere in the form of ozone , which is concentrated over the circulation of the thermal low as well as adjacent oceanic areas .
= Nick Stuart =
Nick Stuart ( April 10 , 1904 - April 7 , 1973 ) was an Austro @-@ Hungarian @-@ born American actor and bandleader . His career spanned five decades , during which he appeared in over 50 films , more than half of them features , as well as film shorts , serials , and even one television appearance . He rose to stardom in such films as Girls Gone Wild and Chasing Through Europe , prior to expanding his business interests by creating a talent agency , and a popular upscale club in Hollywood .
After being introduced to music by Guy Lombardo , he established his own band , " The Man with the Band from Movieland " , which played for over twenty years . When he dissolved the band in 1961 , he opened a haberdashery in Biloxi , Mississippi . He met his first wife , Sue Carol , while working on a film , and the two had a daughter , actress Carol Lee Ladd . While his first marriage was short @-@ lived , his second marriage to Martha Burnett lasted over thirty years , until his death from cancer in 1973 .
= = Early life and family = =
Stuart was born Niculae Pratza on April 10 , 1904 , in Abrud ( Abrudbánya ) , Transylvania , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary . He immigrated to the United States as a child in 1913 , growing up in Dayton , Ohio .
Stuart was married twice . The first time was to Sue Carol on November 28 , 1929 ; the two had a child , actress Carol Lee Ladd ( born July 18 , 1932 ) . The " Lee " in Carol Lee was named for Carol 's best friend , Dixie Lee , the wife of Bing Crosby . Initially , the couple attempted to hide their marriage from the public , with the help of the Crosbys . Stuart would make public appearances with Dixie Lee , while Bing Crosby would feign romantic interest with Sue Carol in public . While on a personal appearances tour in 1931 , the couple had $ 35 @,@ 000 of jewelry stolen . The jewelry was taken from their parked car on Michigan Avenue in Chicago .
Less than a year after the birth of their child , reports began to circulate that their marriage was in trouble . By August 1933 Stuart and Carol were estranged and living separate lives , and divorced in 1934 . After the divorce , Stuart was romantically linked with several other women , including nightclub singer Bobbe Arnst ( recently divorced from Johnny Weissmuller ) , and Dorothy Lee .
= = Career = =
= = = Film = = =
In the mid @-@ 1920s Nick Prata ( as he was then known ) began working in the film industry , doing odd jobs around the set for Fox Film , such as prop boy , script clerk , and assistant cameraman . While working as an assistant on Raoul Walsh 's What Price Glory ? in 1926 , Prata was given a screen test , after which his name was changed to Nick Stuart . Shortly after , he became Howard Hawks 's personal assistant . He appeared in minor roles in two film shorts , before being given an opportunity to act in a featured role by Hawks , in 1927 's , The Cradle Snatchers . After the success of The Cradle Snatchers , Stuart would star in several shorts , many of which again paired him with his Snatchers co @-@ star , Sally Phipps , which included Gentlemen Prefer Scotch , and Cupid and the Clock ( based on a short story by O. Henry ) . The two would star in Stuart 's next three films in 1927 and 1928 : High School Hero , Why Sailors Go Wrong , and News Parade . Stuart 's next role was that of Sandy , starring alongside Victor McLaglen in William K. Howard 's The River Pirate in 1928 . Stuart and Sue Carol had been linked together romantically since early in 1928 , and would co @-@ star in Stuart 's next project , Girls Gone Wild .
Stuart and Phipps appeared together in his next film , although Phipps was in a secondary role . Stuart 's co @-@ star in 1929 's Joy Street , was Lois Moran , who had also been his love interest in The River Pirate . Stuart and Phipps were again slated to co @-@ star in Chasing Through Europe , the sequel to their successful film , News Parade . However , she was replaced by June Collyer in July 1928 , who was replaced in turn by Sue Carol in September . Stuart and Carol appeared in several films together over the next few years , including 1933 's Secret Sinners .
= = = Agency days = = =
In 1933 Stuart , along with David Kay , opened an agency in Hollywood , which represented actors , writers , and directors . Later that year , their company signed an agreement with the Canadian film company , British Commonwealth Productions , to cast all of their films . The first film they cast was The Crimson West ( released in the United States as Fighting Playboy ) , which would be the first full @-@ length talking film produced in Canada . The following year , he became the founder of the Bath and Tennis Club in Hollywood . The club was modeled on upscale clubs in the east , particularly those in Palm Beach and Long Island , New York , and included recreational facilities for tennis , squash , swimming , badminton , and handball .
= = = Entrance into music and later acting career = = =
In the midst of his film career , after Guy Lombardo got him interested in music , Stuart began his own big band , and became known as " The Man with the Band from Movieland " . Stuart had become friendly with Lombardo when he and his wife , Carol , had helped Lombardo 's brother adopt a child in 1932 . By 1937 , Stuart 's band had achieved a modicum of fame , and had appeared in several film shorts , including 1938 's Twenty Girls and a Band . After the creation of his band , Stuart would only sporadically appear in films over the next 20 years . In the 1940s , he appeared in two of the Bowery Boys films , starring Leo Gorcey and Huntz Hall , Mr. Muggs Steps Out ( 1943 ) , and Pride of the Bowery ( 1946 ) . Stuart 's last starring role would be in the 1946 film , Gunsmoke .
From 1946 through 1963 Stuart would appear in only four more films , although he appeared in several film serials , such as The Lost Planet ( 1953 ) , Blackhawk : Fearless Champion of Freedom ( 1952 ) , and King of the Congo ( 1952 ) . Stuart 's one and only television appearance came in a featured role in the final episode of Navy Log , which aired on September 11 , 1958 . In the 1960s , he would make his final appearance in a small role in Sydney Pollack 's drama This Property Is Condemned , starring Natalie Wood , Robert Redford , and Charles Bronson .
= = Later life and death = =
Stuart married Martha Burnett in 1942 , with whom he remained married until his death in 1973 . Stuart dissolved his band in 1961 , after which he opened a haberdashery in Biloxi , Mississippi , located in the Broadwater Beach Hotel . Stuart died from cancer on April 7 , 1973 in Biloxi , Mississippi . He was buried in Southern Memorial Park in Biloxi , where his wife would be buried next to him upon her death in 1991 .
= = Filmography = =
( Per AFI database , and imdb.com. Feature films except as noted . )
= Chess in Armenia =
Chess has been played in Armenia since the early Middle Ages ; however , it was institutionalized during the early Soviet period . Highly popular in Armenia today , chess gained widespread recognition during the 1960s , when Soviet Armenian grandmaster Tigran Petrosian became the World Chess Champion . A country of about three million people , Armenia is considered one of the strongest chess nations today . Among countries , Armenia has one of the most chess grandmasters per capita .
Since the country 's independence , the Armenian men 's chess team has won the European Team Championship ( 1999 ) , the World Team Championship ( 2011 ) and the Chess Olympiad ( 2006 , 2008 , 2012 ) . The women 's team had its crowning victory at the 2003 European Championship . As of February 2016 , Armenia ranks seventh in the world by the average rating of its top players . Levon Aronian , Armenia 's best chess player , is currently world No. 4 in the FIDE rankings . Aronian was a World Champion candidate several times .
Since the 2011 – 12 school year , chess lessons have been made part of the curriculum in every public school in Armenia , making it the first country in the world to make chess mandatory in schools .
Garry Kasparov has compared the popularity of chess in Armenia with the popularity of football ( soccer ) in Latin America .
= = Name = =
Until the early 20th century , chess was known in Armenian as čatrak ( ճատրակ ) , from Middle Persian Chatrang . Today , that term — pronounced jadrag — is only used in Western Armenian , which is spoken in the Armenian diaspora . In modern Eastern Armenian , which is the variation of Armenian used in the Republic of Armenia , chess is known as šaxmat շախմատ [ ʃɑχmɑt ] . It is derived from Russian šáxmaty ( шахматы ) , itself a derivative from Persian šâh mât ( شاه مات ) , literally meaning " the king is at a loss . "
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In Shatrang : The Book of Chess ( 1936 ) , orientalists Joseph Orbeli and Kamilla Trever suggest that chess was known in Armenia since at least the 9th century , when Armenia was under Arab rule . According to them , the game was brought to Armenia by the Arabs from India , where the game is believed to have been originated in the 6th century as Chaturanga . In 1967 , chess figures were found in the citadel of Dvin , the medieval Armenian capital . Chess is mentioned in manuscripts from the 12th century – 13th century kept in the Matenadaran Institute of Ancient Manuscripts in Yerevan , including a 13th @-@ century manuscript by Vardan Areveltsi . Until the mid @-@ 20th century villagers in Shenavan near Aparan were using homemade chess figures similar to medieval ones .
= = = Soviet period = = =
Chess in Armenia was institutionalized after the establishment of Soviet rule in 1920 . In 1926 – 27 , by the initiative of chemist Simon Hovyan ( 1869 – 1942 ) , sections about chess started appearing in many Armenian newspapers . Hovyan contributed to the popularization of chess in Armenia by giving lectures about it . He translated books by Emanuel Lasker , Ilya Maizelis ( ru ) , and Yakov Rokhlin ( ru ) into Armenian .
The first chess competitions were held in 1927 , when the Armenian Chess Federation was founded . Until 1934 chess players from Armenia competed in the Transcaucasian championship . In 1934 the first Armenian Chess Championship was held in Yerevan . Genrikh Kasparyan became its winner . In later years Kasparyan won the championship nine times and became the most @-@ titled Armenian chess player with ten national championship wins . The women 's championship was also held the same year , Sirush Makints and Margarita Mirza @-@ Avagian shared the champion title . The first Armenian chess club was founded in 1936 . Chess clubs were also founded in Leninakan ( now Gyumri ) and Kirovakan ( now Vanadzor ) in the 1950s .
Chess became particularly popular with the unprecedented success of Tigran Petrosian in the 1960s . Born in Tiflis , the current capital of Armenia 's neighbor Georgia , he started his ascent in Armenia with a 1946 victory at the national championship . He then won the Soviet champion title four times ( 1959 , 1961 , 1969 , 1975 ) . In 1963 Petrosian became the World Chess Champion , defeating Mikhail Botvinnik , another Soviet representative . Petrosian 's victory not only popularized the game of chess , but also " led to an outpouring of patriotic fervour " in the smallest Soviet republic . " From that moment on , chess became a national obsession . " Many couples named their sons Tigran , after Petrosian . Besides being World Champion for six years ( 1963 to 1969 ) , Petrosian won the Chess Olympiad nine times with the Soviet team ( 1958 to 1974 ) .
In 1962 , there were 30 @,@ 000 chess players in Soviet Armenia , as well as 3 @,@ 000 instructors and judges . By 1986 the number of chess players had increased to 50 @,@ 000 , including three grandmasters : Rafael Vaganian , Smbat Lputian , and Arshak Petrosian . In the late Soviet period , Rafael Vaganian ( 1989 ) and Artashes Minasian ( 1991 ) became Soviet Champions . Vaganian also won the Olympiad with the Soviet team twice in 1984 and 1986 .
In 1985 , Garry Kasparov , born in Baku , Soviet Azerbaijan to an Armenian mother and Russian Jewish father , became World Champion . Although he never represented Armenia and is only half @-@ Armenian , some sources preferred to call him Armenian , partly because his last name is the Russified form of his mother 's Armenian last name Kasparyan .
= = = Independent Armenia = = =
Armenia gained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 . Since then , Armenian chess players have had the opportunity to represent the Republic of Armenia . Three major chess tournaments have taken place in independent Armenia : the 32nd Chess Olympiad was held at the Sports & Music Complex in Yerevan in 1996 ; the 2001 World Team Chess Championship and the 2014 European Individual Chess Championship were held at the Yerevan Opera Theater .
Armenia earned its first medal at the 1992 Chess Olympiad , finishing third . Armenia won bronze medals at the 2002 and 2004 Olympiads as well . The Armenian team made a breakthrough with the sensational victory at the 2006 Chess Olympiad . They also won the 2008 and 2012 Chess Olympiads . Their record at the World Team Championships has been similarly outstanding , finishing third in 1997 , 2001 , and 2005 , and winning in 2011 . At the European championships the team performed somewhat more poorly , placing third in 1997 , first in 1999 , and second in 2007 .
= = = = Teaching of chess in schools = = = =
In 2011 , the Ministry of Education of Armenia made chess part of the primary school curriculum along with such standards as math and history for children over the age of 6 . Chess is compulsory for second , third and fourth graders . Over $ 1 @.@ 5 million was spent on the program . The inclusion of chess in schools was generally received positively by the public , but some parents claimed that their children 's school program was already complicated and overloaded . Grandmaster Smbat Lputian argues that " bringing chess into schools is the best way to build the future . "
The decision was widely reported in the international media . Journalists , chess experts and officials in various countries praised the program and advised its adoption in their respective countries . During his visit to Armenia in 2014 Magnus Carlsen stated : " I think Armenia 's experience of teaching chess in schools is a great example for the whole world . "
= = Institutions = =
The national governing body for chess , the Armenian Chess Federation , was founded in 1927 . President of Armenia Serzh Sargsyan was elected its president in 2004 ( when he was Defence Minister ) and was reelected in 2011 . Sargsyan " is known for enthusiastically supporting Armenian chess players . " On one occasion , Sargsyan stated that " We don 't want people to know Armenia just for the earthquake and the genocide . We would rather it was famous for its chess . " The Armenian government provides grandmasters with salaries and perks .
The Chess Academy of Armenia ( Հայաստանի շախմատի ակադեմիա ) , " one of the leading chess @-@ teaching institutions in the country " , was " founded in 2002 in Yerevan by the initiative of grandmaster Smbat Lputian , supported by the Prime Minister Andranik Margaryan " . The academy has organized international and national chess tournaments .
= = National championship = =
The first Armenian championship occurred in 1934 when it was part of the Transcaucasian SFSR . Championships were held sporadically in the Armenian SSR until 1945 , when they became an annual event ; this practice has been continued in independent Armenia . Genrikh Kasparyan has won it the most times ( 10 times ) , followed by Ashot Anastasian ( 8 times ) , Levon Grigorian ( 6 times ) and Artashes Minasian ( 6 times ) .
The first woman 's championship also took place in 1934 , but was not held again till 1939 . Some of the most notable women champions include Elina Danielian ( 6 times ) , Lilit Mkrtchian ( 4 times ) and Siranush Andriasian ( 3 times ) .
= = Media = =
In 1972 , the magazine Chess in Armenia ( Շախմատային Հայաստան Shakhmatayin Hayastan ) was founded by Gaguik Oganessian . It was published monthly until 1997 , when it became a weekly magazine . In 1972 , the TV show Chess @-@ 64 ( originally named Chess School ) started to be aired by the Public Television of Armenia . Hosted by Gaguik Oganessian , it is the " longest lived program series " in the channel 's history . Another more recently created show , Chess World , is aired after the First News .
= = Individual statistics = =
FIDE , the World Chess Federation , lists 24 active Armenian grandmasters , 4 woman grandmasters , 17 international masters and 4 woman international masters .
= = = Men = = =
The Top 10 Armenian grandmasters as of May 2016 are listed below .
Levon Aronian is currently No. 7 in the FIDE World Rankings . In 2005 he won the Chess World Cup .
= = = Women = = =
The Top 10 women Armenian chess players are listed below as of May 2016 .
= = Team records = =
= = = Chess Olympiads = = =
Men 's
Women 's
= = = World Team Championships = = =
Men 's
Women 's
= = = European Team Championships = = =
Men 's
Women 's
= = = Club championships = = =
In 1995 , the Yerevan city club won the European Chess Club Cup men 's tournament . In 2006 , the Yerevan MIKA club won the European Club Cup women 's tournament .
= Netley Abbey =
Netley Abbey is a ruined late medieval monastery in the village of Netley near Southampton in Hampshire , England . The abbey was founded in 1239 as a house for Roman Catholic monks of the austere Cistercian order . Despite being a royal abbey , Netley was never rich , produced no influential scholars nor churchmen , and its nearly 300 @-@ year history was quiet . The monks were best known to their neighbours for the generous hospitality they offered to travellers on land and sea .
In 1536 , Netley Abbey was closed by Henry VIII of England during the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the building was converted into a mansion by William Paulet , a wealthy Tudor politician . The abbey was used as a country house until the beginning of the eighteenth century , after which it was abandoned and partially demolished for building materials . Subsequently the ruins became a tourist attraction , and provided inspiration to poets and artists of the Romantic movement . In the early twentieth century the site was given to the nation , and it is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument , cared for by English Heritage . The extensive remains consist of the church , cloister buildings , abbot 's house , and fragments of the post @-@ Dissolution mansion . Netley Abbey is one of the best preserved medieval Cistercian monasteries in southern England .
= = Foundation = =
Netley was founded in 1239 by Peter des Roches , a powerful politician , government official , and Bishop of Winchester from 1205 – 1238 . The abbey was one of a pair the bishop conceived as a memorial to himself ; the other is La Clarté @-@ Dieu in Saint @-@ Paterne @-@ Racan , France . Des Roches began to purchase the lands for Netley 's initial endowment in about 1236 , but he died before the project was finished and the foundation was completed by his executors . According to the Chronicle of Waverley Abbey , the first monks arrived to settle the site on 25 July 1239 from neighbouring Beaulieu Abbey , a year after the bishop 's death . As its founder had died before the vital task of collecting the endowment was complete , the abbey started its life in a difficult financial situation . It is thought that little work took place on the permanent stone monastery until the house was taken under the wing of Henry III , who became interested in the abbey in the mid @-@ 1240s and eventually assumed the role of patron in 1251 .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Church = = =
The fruits of royal patronage were demonstrated by the construction of a large church ( 72 metres ( 236 ft ) long ) , built in the fashionable French @-@ influenced Gothic style pioneered by Henry 's masons at Westminster Abbey . The high quality and elaborate nature of the church 's decoration , particularly its mouldings and tracery , indicate a move away from the deliberate austerity of the early Cistercian churches towards the grandeur appropriate to a secular cathedral . Construction of the church proceeded from east to west . The presbytery and transepts were built first to allow the monks to hold services , and the nave was filled in over time . It is not known precisely when the building work began , but major gifts by King Henry of roofing timber and lead from Derbyshire in 1251 and 1252 indicate that some of the eastern parts of the church , and probably of the east cloister range too , had by then reached an advanced stage . The presence of a foundation stone at the base of the southeast pier of the crossing inscribed " H. DI . GRA REX ANGE " ( Latin for Henry by the Grace of God King of the English ) shows that the foundations of the centre of the church reached ground level after 1251 , the year Henry III formally became the abbey 's patron . The church took many decades to complete , and was probably finished between 1290 and 1320 . Dating the various parts of the building is predominantly done on stylistic grounds .
The church was vaulted and cruciform in shape , with a square presbytery and a low central tower containing bells . It was aisled throughout , with a pair of chapels on the east side of each transept . There was no triforium , but a narrow gallery surmounted by a clerestory of triple lancet windows ran above each bay of the arcade , as can be seen in the surviving section in the south transept . The vaulting sprang directly from the top of the arcade . The wall at the eastern end the presbytery , probably built after 1260 , has a large window which features an upper rose and elaborate tracery ; the aisle windows are simple paired lancets recessed within an arch . In the nave , the south aisle has plain triple lancets set high in the wall to avoid the cloister roof . The north aisle windows by contrast have richly decorated cusped tracery , reflecting the changes in taste over the long period of construction , and suggesting that this was among the last parts of the church to be finished , probably in the very late thirteenth or early fourteenth centuries . The west wall of the church also has a large window , the tracery of which was destroyed in a collapse during the eighteenth century . Surviving fragments show that it was built in a " freer and more advanced style " than other parts of the church , and suggest a date around the turn of the fourteenth century .
Internally , the church was subdivided into several areas . The high altar was against the east wall of the presbytery , flanked by two smaller altars on the side walls . To the west , under the tower , were the monks ' choir stalls where they sat during services , and further west was a pulpitum or rood screen , which blocked access to the ritual areas of the church . In the nave , the lay brothers had their own choir stalls and altar for services . The monks of Netley kept up a schedule of services and prayer both day and night following the canonical hours ; a staircase in the south transept went up to the monks ' dormitory , allowing them to conveniently attend night services . The lay brothers had their own entrance to the church at the west end via a covered gallery from their accommodation .
Unlike rival orders such as the Benedictines , who allowed the nave to be used by parishioners and visitors , the Cistercians officially reserved their churches solely for the use of the monastic community . Others had to worship in a separate chapel in the abbey grounds close to the main gate . Over time this rule was relaxed to allow pilgrims to visit shrines , as at Hailes Abbey with its relic of the Holy Blood , and to allow the construction of tombs and chantries for patrons and wealthy benefactors of the house , as in the churches of other orders . Excavated sculpture shows that the church at Netley featured a number of elaborate tombs and monuments .
The interior of the church was richly decorated . The walls were plastered and painted in white and maroon with geometric patterns and lines designed to give the impression of ashlar masonry . Architectural detail was also picked out in maroon . The floors were covered in polychrome encaustic tiles featuring foliage , heraldic beasts , and coats of arms including those of England , France , the Holy Roman Empire , Queen Eleanor of Castile , Richard of Cornwall and many powerful noble families . The chapels in the south transept had tiles with symbols of Edward the Confessor and the Virgin Mary . The windows of the church were filled with painted glass , six panels of which have been discovered . They show scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary , the Crucifixion , monks , monsters and humorous animals .
= = = Cloister and east range = = =
South of the church stands a cloister surrounded by ranges of buildings on three sides , the church forming the fourth . The cloister was the heart of the abbey , where the monks spent most of their time when not in church , engaged in study , copying books and the creation of illuminated manuscripts . The monks ' desks were placed in the north walk of the cloister , and a cupboard for books in current use was carved into the external wall of the south transept .
The east range , which was started at the same time as the church and probably took about 10 years to build , contained many of the abbey 's most important rooms . The vaulted library and sacristy were on the ground floor , adjacent to the church . To the south was the chapter house , where the government of the abbey took place and the monks met to transact business and to listen to a daily reading of a chapter of the Rule of St Benedict . It was a magnificent apartment divided into three aisles with vaults springing from four columns ; a stone bench ran around the walls for the monks to sit on , and the abbot 's throne was in the centre of the east wall . The entrance to the chapter house from the cloister is via an elaborately moulded arched doorway , flanked on each side by a window of similar size . The windows had sills and columns of Purbeck Marble , the whole forming an impressive composition appropriate to the second most important space in the abbey after the church . The windows on either side of the door would have been unglazed , so as to allow representatives of the laybrothers ( who were not members of chapter ) to listen to debates . The chapter house was also used for burials , traditionally those of the abbots of a monastery . When the room was excavated , archaeologists discovered scattered human remains and evidence of graves beneath the medieval floor level , indicating that a number of people were once buried there .
The parlour lies south , an austere , barrel vaulted room little more than a passageway through the building . Here the monks could talk without disturbing the silence in the cloister , which Cistercian rules insisted on . South of this runs a long vaulted hall with a central row of pillars supporting the roof . This room was much altered over time and probably served several purposes during the life of the abbey . Initially , it may have served as the monks ' day room and accommodation for novices , but as time went on it may have been converted into the misericord where the monks — initially only the sick , but by the later middle ages the whole convent — could eat meat dishes not normally allowed in the main dining hall .
The monks ' dormitory was on the top floor of the east range , a long room with a high pitched roof ( the mark of which can still be seen on the transept wall ) which ran the length of the building . This was entered by two staircases : the day stair went down into the cloister in the south @-@ east corner ; the night stair led into the south transept of the church to allow the monks to get easily from bed to choir at night . Initially the dormitory was an open hall , with the monks ' beds placed along the walls , one under each of the small , slit @-@ like windows . During the fourteenth century , when views of the necessity of sleeping together for the common life changed , the dormitory at Netley would , as at other houses , have been divided into panelled chambers to give every monk his own private room , each leading off a central corridor . The treasury , a tiny vaulted room , was at the north end of the dormitory , probably placed there so the brothers could guard it at night .
= = = Reredorter and infirmary = = =
Another large building lies crosswise at the south end of the east range . The lower level consists of a vaulted hall . It is equipped with a grand thirteenth century hooded fireplace and has its own garderobe . It is not clear what this chamber was used for , but it may have been the monastic infirmary — if so , it was a most unusual , perhaps unique , arrangement . Normally in a medieval Cistercian monastery an infirmary with its own kitchens , chapel and ancillary buildings would have been located east of the main buildings around a second , smaller cloister , but at Netley these seem to be absent . So far , excavations have not revealed whether Netley had a separate infirmary complex .
The upper floor of this building was the reredorter or latrine . It is a large room with a door conveniently leading into the monks ' dormitory . The stalls were in the south wall and the effluent dropped into an underground stream which runs in a vaulted passage underneath the building .
To the west of the reredorter block was the buttery , a room where the monks ' wine ( some of it direct from the king 's cellars at Southampton ) and beer were stored . Excavations in this area have revealed fragmentary remains which may be part of a separate kitchen for the richer meat diet allowed to the residents of the infirmary .
= = = South range = = =
During the Tudor conversion of the abbey to a house the south range was extensively rebuilt , and only the north wall of the medieval structure remains , which makes tracing the monastic layout difficult . Going east to west , first came the day stair , then the warming house where the communal fire burned constantly to allow the monks to warm themselves after long hours of study in the unheated cloister . The room was probably vaulted and had its great fireplace on the west wall to allow heat to go to the refectory or dining hall next door . It is likely that , as at Netley 's great sister house of Fountains Abbey , the chamber above the warming house was the muniment room , where the abbey 's charters , records and title deeds , as well as those of local lords , were kept .
The refectory projected south from the centre of the range , as was usual in Cistercian monasteries . It has been almost completely demolished save for the north wall , although the foundations survive underground and have been excavated . It was a long hall with a dais for the abbot and important guests at the south end . There was a pulpit in the west wall to allow a monk to read to the brothers while they ate . The kitchen lies west ; it had a central fireplace , as was Cistercian custom , and was placed to allow food to be served through hatches both to the monks ' refectory and to the separate dining hall for the lay brothers on the west side .
= = = West range = = =
The west range at Netley is small and does not run the full length of the west side of the cloister . It is divided in two by the original main entrance to the abbey , with an outer parlour where the monks could meet visitors . North of this on the ground floor were cellars for food storage , and to the south was the lay brothers ' refectory . The upper floor , reached by a stair from the cloister , was the dormitory for the lay brothers . Netley was a late foundation , built at a time when the lay brothers were a declining part of the Cistercian economy , and it is probable that they were few in number , hence the small size of the accommodation needed . By the time the west range was completed in the fourteenth century they were rapidly disappearing , and had all but vanished by the end of the century . During the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries most Cistercian houses took advantage of the large area of the monastery then left empty and converted the lay brothers ' quarters to new uses . At some houses , such as Sawley Abbey , a series of comfortable chambers for the use of monastic officials or guests were built ; elsewhere , such as Hailes Abbey , the west range was turned into a luxurious private home for the abbot . The ruins of the west range at Netley are too fragmentary to be sure of the use these buildings were put to in the latter part of the medieval period .
All the buildings around the cloister were finished in the fourteenth century . There were subsequently few major structural changes during the monastic period aside from the re @-@ vaulting of the south transept of the church at the end of the fifteenth century . It is likely , however , that there were many internal changes to match the rising standards of living during the later Middle Ages ( as seen at Cleeve Abbey ) that have left no evidence on the surviving remains .
= = = Precinct = = =
A stone building to the east of the main complex is thought to have been the abbot 's house . It contains two levels of vaulted apartments consisting of two halls , bedchambers , a private chapel and service rooms . The upper level was reached by an external staircase , which allowed this floor to be used independently if needed .
The central core of the monastery was surrounded by a precinct containing an outer ( public ) courtyard and an inner ( private ) courtyard , gardens , barns , guesthouses for travellers , stables , fishponds , the home farm and industrial buildings . The site was defended by a high bank and moat , part of which remains east of the abbey . Entrance was strictly controlled by an outer and inner gatehouse . A chapel , known as the capella ante portas ( Latin for chapel outside the gates ) was placed by the outer gatehouse for the use of travellers and the local community . Of the precinct buildings , only the abbot 's house , the moat and the fishponds have left visible remains .
Netley 's fresh water was supplied by two aqueducts which ran for several miles east and west of the abbey , up into the areas of modern Southampton and Eastleigh . The remains of the eastern aqueduct , now known as Tickleford Gully , can be seen in Wentworth Gardens , Southampton .
= = Monastic history = =
Henry III added to the endowment left by Peter des Roches . The king donated farmland , urban property in Southampton and elsewhere , and spiritual revenues from churches . By 1291 , taxation returns show that the abbey had a clear annual revenue of £ 81 , a comfortable income . However , shortly afterwards a period of bad management resulted in the abbey accruing substantial debts , and it was soon almost bankrupt . In 1328 the government was forced to appoint an administrator , John of Mere , to address the crisis . Despite forcing the abbot to apply revenues to debt repayment and to sell many of the estates , he was only partly successful . Ten years later the abbey was again appealing to the king for help with a disastrous financial situation . The monks blamed their problems on the cost of providing hospitality to the many travellers by sea , and the king 's sailors who landed at the abbey . The king provided some small grants enabling the abbey to overcome its difficulties but the property sales meant that the abbey 's income never recovered and it settled into what has been described as genteel poverty .
Nevertheless , Netley remained a much respected institution by its neighbours until the end of its life as a monastery . It was not known for scholarship , wealth , or particular fervour , but it was highly regarded for its generosity to travellers and sailors , and for the devout lives ( " by Raporte of good Religious conversation " ) led by its monks . The abbot was summoned on many occasions to sit in Parliament with fellow prelates in the House of Lords as one of the Lords Spiritual . Surviving reports indicate the abbey had a peaceful and scandal @-@ free domestic life .
= = Dissolution = =
In 1535 the abbey 's income was assessed in the Valor Ecclesiasticus , Henry VIII 's great survey of church finances , at £ 160 gross , £ 100 net , which meant the following year that it came under the terms of the First Suppression Act , Henry 's initial move in the Dissolution of the Monasteries . At the beginning of the following year , the king 's commissioners , Sir James Worsley , John Paulet , George Paulet and William Berners , delivered a report to the government on the monasteries of Hampshire which provides a snapshot of Netley on the eve of the Dissolution . The commissioners noted that Netley was inhabited by seven monks , all of them priests , and the abbey was :
A hedde house of Monkes of thordre of Cisteaux , beinge of large buyldinge and situate upon the Ryvage of the Sees . To the Kinge 's Subjects and Strangers travelinge the same Sees great Relief and Comforte .
In addition to the monks , Netley was home to 29 servants and officials of the abbey , plus two Franciscan friars of the strict Observant part of that order who had been put into the abbot 's custody by the king , presumably for opposing his religious policies . The royal officers also found plate and jewels in the treasury worth £ 43 , " ornaments " worth £ 39 , and agricultural produce and animals worth £ 103 . The abbey 's debts were moderate at £ 42 .
Abbot Thomas Stevens and his seven monks were forced to surrender their house to the king in the summer of 1536 . Abbot Thomas and six of his brethren — the seventh opted to resign and become a secular priest — crossed Southampton Water to join their mother house of Beaulieu . Abbot Thomas was appointed abbot of Beaulieu in 1536 and administered it for two years until it in turn was forced to surrender to the king in April 1538 . The monks received pensions after the fall of Beaulieu ; Abbot Thomas ended his days as treasurer of Salisbury Cathedral , and died in 1550 .
= = Country house = =
Following the dissolution of Netley , on 3 August 1536 , King Henry granted the abbey buildings and some of its estates to Sir William Paulet , his Lord Treasurer and subsequently Marquess of Winchester . As soon as he took over , Sir William started the process of turning the abbey into a palace suitable for one of the most important politicians in England . He converted the nave of the church into his great hall , kitchens and service buildings , the transepts and crossing became a series of luxurious apartments for his personal use , the presbytery was retained as the chapel of the mansion . The monks ' dormitory became the long gallery of the mansion and the latrine block became several grand chambers . He demolished the south range and refectory and built a new one with a central turreted gatehouse to provide the appropriate seigneurial emphasis needed for a classic Tudor courtyard house . He likewise demolished the cloister walks to make a central courtyard for his house and placed a large fountain in the centre . The precinct buildings were demolished to create formal gardens and terraces .
His eventual successor William Paulet , 4th Marquess of Winchester ( c.1560 @-@ 1629 ) of Basing House , Hampshire , on encountering financial difficulties , sold Basing and Hound in 1602 to Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford ( 1539 @-@ 1621 ) , of Tottenham House in Wiltshire , who used it as a residence , and died there in 1621 . His eventual descendant William Seymour , 3rd Duke of Somerset ( 1652 @-@ 1671 ) died aged 19 without progeny when his title passed by law to his heir male but his unentailed estates including Netley and Hound , passed top his sister Elizabeth Seymour , wife of Thomas Bruce , 2nd Earl of Ailesbury ( 1656 @-@ 1741 ) , who sold Netley in 1676 to Henry Somerset , 3rd Marquess of Worcester ( 1629 @-@ 1700 ) , later Duke of Beaufort .
Theophilus Hastings , 7th Earl of Huntingdon , inhabited the abbey until the close of the seventeenth century .
= = Romantic ruin = =
Around 1700 , Netley Abbey came into the hands of Sir Berkeley Lucy ( also spelled Sir " Bartlet " ) who decided in 1704 to demolish the by now unfashionable house in order to sell the materials . Sir Berkeley made an agreement with a Southampton builder , Mr Walter Taylor , to take down the former church . However , during the course of the demolition , the contractor was killed by the fall of tracery from the west window of the church and the scheme was halted .
The abbey was subsequently abandoned and allowed to decay . In the 1760s Thomas Dummer , who owned estates in the area , moved the north transept to his estate at Cranbury Park near Winchester where it can be still be seen as a folly in the gardens of the house ( at 51 ° 00 ′ 08 ″ N 01 ° 21 ′ 49 ″ W ) .
By the second half of the eighteenth century , the abbey , by then partially roofless and overgrown with trees and ivy , had become a famous ruin that attracted the attention of artists , dramatists and poets . In the nineteenth century , Netley became a popular tourist attraction ( the novelist Jane Austen was among those who visited ) and steps were taken to conserve the ruins . Archaeological excavations directed by Charles Pink and Reverend Edmund Kell took place in 1860 . During the same period the owners decided to remove many of the Tudor additions to the building to create a more medieval feel to the site , resulting in the loss of much evidence of the abbey 's post @-@ Dissolution story .
In 1922 , the abbey was passed into state care by the then owner , Tankerville Chamberlayne , one time M.P. for Southampton . Conservation and archaeological work on the abbey has continued .
= = In literature and art = =
Soon after the abbey had been allowed to fall into ruin , it began to attract the attention of artists and writers , and was a popular subject throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . In 1755 , the antiquarian Horace Walpole praised the ruins in his letters following a visit with the poet Thomas Gray , claiming they were " In short , not the ruins of Netley , but of Paradise " . In 1764 , George Keate wrote The Ruins of Netley Abbey , A poem , which showed a romantic appreciation of the ruins and evoked sympathy for the life formerly led there by the monks . He prefaced his poem with a heartfelt plea for the preservation of the remains .
Keate was followed by other romantic poets including William Sotheby ( Ode , Netley Abbey , Midnight , 1790 ) . Sotheby 's view of the abbey was gothic ; he peoples the ruins with spectral processions and ghostly Cistercians . Nor was he the only one ; in 1795 Richard Warner wrote a potboiler entitled Netley Abbey , a Gothic Story in two volumes , featuring skullduggery at the abbey during the middle ages . Dark deeds before the Dissolution also appeared in the section of Richard Harris Barham 's Ingoldsby Legends ( 1847 ) covering Netley . This complex satire pokes fun at the medieval church and the monks ( whom he accuses of having walled up an erring nun in one of the vaults and ensuring God ’ s revenge upon them ) and the tourists who crowded contemporary Netley , while at the same time showing appreciation of the beauty of the ruins .
Netley Abbey , an Operatic Farce , by William Pearce , was first performed in 1794 at Covent Garden . The set of the first production featured an elaborate mockup of the abbey ruins seen in the moonlight .
The earliest surviving depiction of the abbey is by the engravers Samuel and Nathaniel Buck , who specialised in landmarks and great ruins . Their engraving ( 1733 ) shows the church of the abbey much as it is today , with the exception of the high vault of the south transept still present . The picture has notable errors and was clearly done from memory and rough sketches . The most famous artist to paint the ruins was John Constable , whose 1833 painting of the west end of the church shows it among trees .
= = Present day = =
= = = Condition = = =
The visitor today will find the shell of the church and monastic buildings around the cloister plus the abbot 's house . Little of the post @-@ Dissolution mansion remains aside from the south range , foundations , alterations to the medieval structure in red Tudor brick and traces of the formal gardens . In most places the abbey stands close to its original height . The sacristy / library , the south transept chapels , the treasury , the reredorter undercroft and the lower floor of the abbot 's house still have their vaults intact . Medieval heraldic polychrome tiles found on the site can be seen in the sacristy , and Henry III 's foundation stone remains in the church . The abbey ruins are set in wooded parkland to the west of the village of Netley and constitute the most complete surviving Cistercian monastery in southern England . The site is maintained by English Heritage , and is open to the public . Netley is an Ancient Monument protected by law .
= = = Events = = =
During the summer months the abbey is occasionally host to events such as open @-@ air theatre and was the site of a flashmob wedding on 25 June 2011 .
= = Local legends = =
= = = Walter Taylor = = =
Over the years several legends have grown up around the abbey , the best attested of which is that of Walter Taylor , the builder contracted to demolish the church . Legend has it that before starting the work he was warned in a dream that he would be punished if he committed sacrilege by damaging the building . The story is recounted by the eighteenth century antiquary Browne Walters :
The earl ( sic ) , it is said , made a contract with a Mr. Walter Taylor , a builder of Southampton , for the complete demolition of the Abbey ; it being intended by Taylor to employ the materials in erecting a town house at Newport and other buildings . After making this agreement , however , Taylor dreamed that , as he was pulling down a particular window , one of the stones forming the arch fell upon him , and killed him . His dream impressed him so forcibly that he mentioned the circumstance to a friend , who is said to have been the father of the well @-@ known Dr. Isaac Watts , and in some perplexity asked his advice . His friend thought it would be the safest course for him to have nothing to do with the affair , respecting which he had been so alarmingly forewarned , and endeavoured to persuade him to desist from his intention . Taylor , however , at last decided upon paying no attention to his dream , and accordingly began his operations for the pulling down of the building ; in which he had not proceeded far , when , as he was assisting at the work , the arch of one of the windows , but not the one he had dreamed of ( which was the east window still standing ) , fell upon his head and fractured his skull . It was thought at first that the wound would not prove mortal ; but it was aggravated through the unskilfulness of the surgeon , and the man died .
= = = Blind Peter = = =
Another local legend states that during the dissolution of the monasteries the abbey 's treasure was hidden down a secret tunnel with a lone monk to guard it . After many years of searching a treasure hunter called Slown is said to have entered an underground passage he had discovered only to return a few moments later screaming , " In the name of God , block it up , " before dropping dead .
= = = The walled up nun = = =
The story of the nun walled up in a small room recounted in Barham 's Ingoldsby Legends was a creation of the author and has no basis in fact or genuine folklore , as the author himself admits with a smile in his notes to the poem , attributing his story to one James Harrison :
a youthful but intelligent cab driver of Southampton , who " well remembers to have heard his grandmother say that ' Somebody told her so ' . "
= Children of Men =
Children of Men is a 2006 British @-@ American science fiction thriller film directed and co @-@ written by Alfonso Cuarón . The screenplay , based on P. D. James ' 1992 novel of the same name , was credited to five writers , with Clive Owen making uncredited contributions . The film takes place in 2027 , where two decades of human infertility have left society on the brink of collapse . Illegal immigrants seek sanctuary in the United Kingdom , where the last functioning government imposes oppressive immigration laws on refugees . Owen plays civil servant Theo Faron , who must help a refugee ( Clare @-@ Hope Ashitey ) escape the chaos . Children of Men also stars Julianne Moore , Michael Caine , Chiwetel Ejiofor , and Charlie Hunnam .
A co @-@ production of the United Kingdom and the United States , the film was released on 22 September 2006 in the UK and on 25 December in the U.S. Critics noted the relationship between the U.S. Christmas opening and the film 's themes of hope , redemption , and faith . Despite the limited release and low earnings at the box office compared to its budget , Children of Men received wide critical acclaim and was recognised for its achievements in screenwriting , cinematography , art direction , and innovative single @-@ shot action sequences . It was nominated for three Academy Awards : Best Adapted Screenplay , Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing . It was also nominated for three BAFTA Awards , winning Best Cinematography and Best Production Design , and for three Saturn Awards , winning Best Science Fiction Film .
= = Plot = =
In 2027 , after 18 years of global human infertility , civilization is on the brink of collapse as humanity faces extinction . The United Kingdom , one of the very few stable nations with a functioning government , is deluged by asylum seekers fleeing the chaos and war which have taken hold around the world . In response , the UK has become a militarized police state as British government forces round up and detain immigrants . Theo Faron , a former activist turned cynical bureaucrat , is kidnapped by the Fishes , a militant immigrants ' rights group . They are led by Theo 's estranged wife , Julian Taylor , from whom he separated after their son Dylan 's death during a 2008 flu pandemic .
Julian offers Theo money to acquire transit papers for a young refugee named Kee , which Theo obtains from his cousin Nigel , a government minister who runs a state @-@ sponsored collection of salvaged art from around the world . The transit papers require that the bearer must be accompanied , so Theo agrees to escort Kee in exchange for a large sum . Luke , a Fishes member , drives them and former midwife Miriam towards the coast to a boat . They are ambushed by an armed gang and Julian is killed . Luke kills two police officers who stop their car , and they bury Julian in the forest as Theo breaks down crying over her death , ditching their car for another to escape to a Fishes safe house .
Kee reveals to Theo that she is pregnant as Julian had told her to trust only Theo , intending to hand Kee to the " Human Project " , a supposed scientific group in the Azores dedicated to curing infertility . However , Luke persuades Kee to stay , and he is later voted as the new leader of the Fishes . That night , Theo eavesdrops on a meeting of Luke and other Fishes , discovering that Julian 's death was orchestrated by the Fishes so Luke could take over as leader , that they intend to kill Theo in the morning , and that they intend to use the baby as a political tool to support the coming revolution . Theo wakes Kee and Miriam and they steal a car , escaping to the secluded hideaway of Theo 's aging friend Jasper Palmer , a former political cartoonist turned pot dealer .
The group plans to board the Human Project ship Tomorrow , which will arrive offshore from the Bexhill refugee camp . Jasper proposes getting Syd , a camp guard to whom he frequently sells drugs , to smuggle them into Bexhill masquerading as refugees . The Fishes discover Jasper 's house , and the group flees while Jasper stays behind to stall the Fishes , before being brutally murdered by Luke as Theo watches on . They wait for Syd in an abandoned school , where Miriam confides in Theo how many children were lost at the beginning of the infertility crisis , and her sadness of how " as the sound of the playgrounds faded , the despair set in . Very odd , what happens in a world without children 's voices " . The group then meets with Syd , who transports them to Bexhill , where they see refugees being beaten , tortured , robbed and executed by camp guards and police . When Kee 's contractions begin on a bus , Miriam distracts a suspicious guard by feigning mania and is taken away and hooded .
At the camp , Theo and Kee meet a Romanian woman , Marichka , who provides a room where Kee gives birth to a girl . The next day , Syd finds them in their room and informs Theo and Kee that war has broken out between the British Army and the refugees , including the Fishes . Having learned that they have a bounty on their heads , he attempts to capture them , but Marichka and Theo fight him off and the group escapes . Amidst the fighting , the Fishes capture Kee and the baby . Theo tracks them to an apartment under heavy fire , and confronts Luke who is then killed by a tank shell , and escorts her out . Awed by the baby , the combatants temporarily stop fighting , staring at the screaming baby and allowing them to leave . Marichka leads Theo , Kee , and the baby to a boat in a sewer and Theo rows away . As they watch the bombing of Bexhill by the Royal Air Force from a distance , Theo reveals that he had been shot by Luke . He tells Kee how to wind her baby to sooth her crying , and Kee tells him that she will name the baby after Theo and Julian 's lost son , because " Dylan can be a girl 's name too " . He loses consciousness from his wounds as the Tomorrow approaches through the fog and it is uncertain whether or not he dies .
The film ends with the movie title played on a black screen , accompanied by the sound of happy children playing in the background , suggesting perhaps that infertility had been cured and that world repopulation was possible once again .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
= = = Hope = = =
Children of Men explores the themes of hope and faith in the face of overwhelming futility and despair . The film 's source , the novel The Children of Men by P. D. James , describes what happens when society is unable to reproduce , using male infertility to explain this problem . In the novel , it is made clear that hope depends on future generations . James writes , " It was reasonable to struggle , to suffer , perhaps even to die , for a more just , a more compassionate society , but not in a world with no future where , all too soon , the very words ' justice , ' ' compassion , ' ' society , ’ ' struggle , ' ' evil , ' would be unheard echoes on an empty air . "
The film switches the infertility from male to female , but never explains its cause : environmental destruction and divine punishment are considered . This unanswered question ( and others in the film ) have been attributed to Cuarón 's dislike for expository film : " There 's a kind of cinema I detest , which is a cinema that is about exposition and explanations ... It 's become now what I call a medium for lazy readers ... Cinema is a hostage of narrative . And I 'm very good at narrative as a hostage of cinema . " Cuarón 's disdain for back @-@ story and exposition led him to use the concept of female infertility as a " metaphor for the fading sense of hope " . The " almost mythical " Human Project is turned into a " metaphor for the possibility of the evolution of the human spirit , the evolution of human understanding . " Without dictating how the audience should feel by the end of the film , Cuarón encourages viewers to come to their own conclusions about the sense of hope depicted in the final scenes : " We wanted the end to be a glimpse of a possibility of hope , for the audience to invest their own sense of hope into that ending . So if you 're a hopeful person you 'll see a lot of hope , and if you 're a bleak person you 'll see a complete hopelessness at the end . "
= = = Contemporary references = = =
Children of Men takes an unconventional approach to the modern action film , using a documentary , newsreel style . Film critics Michael Rowin , Jason Guerrasio and Ethan Alter observe the film 's underlying touchstone of immigration . Alter notes that the film " makes a potent case against the anti @-@ immigrant sentiment " popular in modern societies like the United Kingdom and the United States , with Guerrasio describing the film as " a complex meditation on the politics of today " .
For Alter and other critics , the structural support and impetus for the contemporary references rests upon the visual nature of the film 's exposition , occurring in the form of imagery as opposed to conventional dialogue . Visually , the refugee camps in the film intentionally evoke Abu Ghraib prison , Guantanamo Bay detention camp , and The Maze . Other popular images appear , such as a sign over the refugee camp reading " Homeland Security " . The similarity between the hellish , cinéma vérité stylized battle scenes of the film and current news and documentary coverage of the Iraq War , is noted by film critic Manohla Dargis , describing Cuarón 's fictional landscapes as " war zones of extraordinary plausibility " .
In the film , refugees are " hunted down like cockroaches " , rounded up and put into cages and camps , and even shot , leading film critics like Chris Smith and Claudia Puig to observe symbolic " overtones " and images of the Holocaust . This theme is reinforced in the scene where an elderly refugee woman speaking German is seen detained in a cage , and in the scene where British Homeland Security strips and beats illegal immigrants ; a song by The Libertines , " Arbeit macht frei " , plays in the background . " The visual allusions to the Nazi roundups are unnerving , " writes Richard A. Blake . " It shows what people can become when the government orchestrates their fears for its own advantage . "
Cuarón explains how he uses this imagery to propagate the theme by cross @-@ referencing fictional and futuristic events with real , contemporary , or historical incidents and beliefs :
They exit the Russian apartments , and the next shot you see is this woman wailing , holding the body of her son in her arms . This was a reference to a real photograph of a woman holding the body of her son in the Balkans , crying with the corpse of her son . It 's very obvious that when the photographer captured that photograph , he was referencing La Pietà , the Michelangelo sculpture of Mary holding the corpse of Jesus . So : We have a reference to something that really happened , in the Balkans , which is itself a reference to the Michelangelo sculpture . At the same time , we use the sculpture of David early on , which is also by Michelangelo , and we have of course the whole reference to the Nativity . And so everything was referencing and cross @-@ referencing , as much as we could .
In the closing credits , the Sanskrit words " Shantih Shantih Shantih " appear as end titles . Writer and film critic Laura Eldred of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill observes that Children of Men is " full of tidbits that call out to the educated viewer " . During a visit to his house by Theo and Kee , Jasper says " Shanti , shanti , shanti . " Eldred notes that the " shanti " used in the film is also found at the end of an Upanishad and in the final line of T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , a work Eldred describes as " devoted to contemplating a world emptied of fertility : a world on its last , teetering legs " . " Shanti " is also a common beginning and ending to all Hindu prayers , and means " peace , " referencing the invocation of divine intervention and rebirth through an end to violence .
= = = Religion = = =
Like Virgil 's Aeneid , Dante 's Divine Comedy , and Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , the crux of the journey in Children of Men lies in what is uncovered along the path rather than the terminus itself . Theo 's heroic journey to the south coast mirrors his personal quest for " self @-@ awareness " , a journey that takes Theo from " despair to hope " .
According to Cuarón , the title of P. D. James ' book ( The Children of Men ) is a Catholic allegory derived from a passage of scripture in the Bible . ( Psalm 90 ( 89 ) : 3 of the KJV : " Thou turnest man to destruction ; and sayest , Return , ye children of men . " ) James refers to her story as a " Christian fable " while Cuarón describes it as " almost like a look at Christianity " : " I didn 't want to shy away from the spiritual archetypes , " Cuarón told Filmmaker Magazine . " But I wasn 't interested in dealing with dogma . "
This divergence from the original was criticised by some , including Anthony Sacramone of First Things , who called the film " an act of vandalism " , noting the irony of how Cuarón had removed religion from P.D. James ' fable , in which morally sterile nihilism is overcome by Christianity .
The film has been noted for its use of Christian symbolism ; for example , British terrorists named " Fishes " protect the rights of refugees . Opening on Christmas Day in the United States , critics compared the characters of Theo and Kee with Joseph and Mary , calling the film a " modern @-@ day Nativity story " . Kee 's pregnancy is revealed to Theo in a barn , alluding to the manger of the Nativity scene , when Theo asks Kee who the father of the baby is she jokingly states she is a virgin , and when other characters discover Kee and her baby , they respond with " Jesus Christ " or the sign of the cross . Also the Archangel Gabriel ( among other religious figures ) is invoked in the bus scene .
To highlight these spiritual themes , Cuarón commissioned a 15 @-@ minute piece by British composer John Tavener , a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church whose work resonates with the themes of " motherhood , birth , rebirth , and redemption in the eyes of God . " Calling his score a " musical and spiritual reaction to Alfonso 's film " , snippets of Tavener 's " Fragments of a Prayer " contain lyrics in Latin , German and Sanskrit sung by mezzo @-@ soprano , Sarah Connolly . Words like " mata " ( mother ) , " pahi mam " ( protect me ) , " avatara " ( saviour ) , and " alleluia " appear throughout the film .
= = Production = =
The adaptation of the P. D. James novel was originally written by Paul Chart , and later rewritten by Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby . The studio brought director Alfonso Cuarón on board in 2001 . Cuarón and screenwriter Timothy J. Sexton began rewriting the script after the director completed Y tu mamá también . Afraid he would " start second guessing things " , Cuarón chose not to read P. D. James ' novel , opting to have Sexton read the book while Cuarón himself read an abridged version . Cuarón did not immediately begin production , instead directing Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban . During this period , David Arata rewrote the screenplay and delivered the draft which secured Clive Owen and sent the film into pre @-@ production . The director 's work experience in the United Kingdom exposed him to the " social dynamics of the British psyche " , giving him insight into the depiction of " British reality " . Cuarón used the film The Battle of Algiers as a model for social reconstruction in preparation for production , presenting the film to Clive Owen as an example of his vision for Children of Men . In order to create a philosophical and social framework for the film , the director read literature by Slavoj Žižek , as well as similar works . The film Sunrise was also influential .
= = = Location = = =
A Clockwork Orange helped contribute to the futuristic , yet battered patina of 2027 London . Children of Men was the second film Cuarón made in London , with the director portraying the city as a character itself , shooting single , wide shots of the city . While Cuarón was preparing the film , the London bombings occurred , but the director never considered moving the production . " It would have been impossible to shoot anywhere but London , because of the very obvious way the locations were incorporated into the film , " Cuarón told Variety . " For example , the shot of Fleet Street looking towards St. Paul 's would have been impossible to shoot anywhere else . " Due to these circumstances , the opening terrorist attack scene on Fleet Street was shot a month and a half after the London bombing .
Cuarón chose to shoot some scenes in East London , a location he considered " a place without glamour " . The set locations were dressed to make them appear even more run @-@ down ; Cuarón says he told the crew " ' Let 's make it more Mexican ' . In other words , we 'd look at a location and then say : yes , but in Mexico there would be this and this . It was about making the place look run @-@ down . It was about poverty . " He also made use of London 's most popular sites , shooting in locations like Trafalgar Square and Battersea Power Station . The power station scene ( whose conversion into an art archive is a reference to the Tate Modern ) , has been compared to Antonioni 's Red Desert . Cuarón added a pig balloon to the scene as homage to Pink Floyd 's Animals . Other art works visible in this scene include Michelangelo 's David , Picasso 's Guernica , and Banksy 's British Cops Kissing . London visual effects companies Double Negative and Framestore worked directly with Cuarón from script to post production , developing effects and creating " environments and shots that wouldn 't otherwise be possible " .
The Historic Dockyard in Chatham was used to film the scene in the empty activist safehouse .
= = = Style and design = = =
" In most sci @-@ fi epics , special effects substitute for story . Here they seamlessly advance it , " observes Colin Covert of Star Tribune . Billboards were designed to balance a contemporary and futuristic appearance as well as easily visualizing what else was occurring in the rest of the world at the time , and cars were made to resemble modern ones at first glance , although a closer look made them seem unfamiliar . Cuarón informed the art department that the film was the " anti @-@ Blade Runner " , rejecting technologically advanced proposals and downplaying the science fiction elements of the 2027 setting . The director focused on images reflecting the contemporary period .
= = = Single @-@ shot sequences = = =
Children of Men used several lengthy single @-@ shot sequences in which extremely complex actions take place . The longest of these are a shot in which Kee gives birth ( 199 seconds ; 3 : 19 ) ; an ambush on a country road ( 247 seconds ; 4 : 07 ) ; and a scene in which Theo is captured by the Fishes , escapes , and runs down a street and through a building in the middle of a raging battle ( 378 seconds ; 6 : 18 ) . These sequences were extremely difficult to film , although the effect of continuity is sometimes an illusion , aided by CGI effects .
Cuarón had experimented with long takes in Great Expectations , Y tu mamá también , and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban . His style is influenced by the Swiss film Jonah Who Will Be 25 in the Year 2000 , a favorite of Cuarón 's . Cuarón reminisces : " I was studying cinema when I first saw [ Jonah ] , and interested in the French New Wave . Jonah was so unflashy compared to those films . The camera keeps a certain distance and there are relatively few close @-@ ups . It 's elegant and flowing , constantly tracking , but very slowly and not calling attention to itself . "
The creation of the single @-@ shot sequences was a challenging , time @-@ consuming process that sparked concerns from the studio . It took fourteen days to prepare for the single shot in which Clive Owen 's character searches a building under attack , and five hours for every time they wanted to reshoot it . In the middle of one shot , blood splattered onto the lens , and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki convinced the director to leave it in . According to Owen , " Right in the thick of it are me and the camera operator because we 're doing this very complicated , very specific dance which , when we come to shoot , we have to make feel completely random . "
Cuarón 's initial idea for maintaining continuity during the roadside ambush scene was dismissed by production experts as an " impossible shot to do " . Fresh from the visual effects @-@ laden Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban , Cuarón suggested using computer @-@ generated imagery to film the scene . Lubezki refused to allow it , reminding the director that they had intended to make a film akin to a " raw documentary " . Instead , a special camera rig invented by Gary Thieltges of Doggicam Systems was employed , allowing Cuarón to develop the scene as one extended shot . A vehicle was modified to enable seats to tilt and lower actors out of the way of the camera , and the windshield was designed to tilt out of the way to allow camera movement in and out through the front windscreen . A crew of four , including the director of photography and camera operator , rode on the roof .
However , the commonly reported statement that the action scenes are continuous shots is not entirely true . Visual effects supervisor Frazer Churchill explains that the effects team had to " combine several takes to create impossibly long shots " , where their job was to " create the illusion of a continuous camera move . " Once the team was able to create a " seamless blend " , they would move on to the next shot . These techniques were important for three continuous shots : the coffee shop explosion in the opening shot , the car ambush , and the battlefield scene . The coffee shop scene was composed of " two different takes shot over two consecutive days " ; the car ambush was shot in " six sections and at four different locations over one week and required five seamless digital transitions " ; and the battlefield scene " was captured in five separate takes over two locations " . Churchill and the Double Negative team created over 160 of these types of effects for the film . In an interview with Variety , Cuarón acknowledged this nature of the " single @-@ shot " action sequences : " Maybe I 'm spilling a big secret , but sometimes it 's more than what it looks like . The important thing is how you blend everything and how you keep the perception of a fluid choreography through all of these different pieces . "
Tim Webber of VFX house Framestore CFC was responsible for the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute single take of Kee giving birth , helping to choreograph and create the CG effects of the childbirth . Cuarón had originally intended to use an animatronic baby as Kee 's child with the exception of the childbirth scene . In the end , two takes were shot , with the second take concealing Clare @-@ Hope Ashitey 's legs , replacing them with prosthetic legs . Cuarón was pleased with the results of the effect , and returned to previous shots of the baby in animatronic form , replacing them with Framestore 's computer @-@ generated baby .
= = = Sound = = =
Cuarón uses sound and music to bring the fictional world of social unrest and infertility to life . A creative yet restrained combination of rock , pop , electronic music , hip @-@ hop and classical music replaces the typical film score . The mundane sounds of traffic , barking dogs , and advertisements follow the character of Theo through London , East Sussex and Kent , producing what Los Angeles Times writer Kevin Crust calls an " urban audio rumble " . For Crust , the music comments indirectly on the barren world of Children of Men : Deep Purple 's version of " Hush " blaring from Jasper 's car radio becomes a " sly lullaby for a world without babies " while King Crimson 's " The Court of the Crimson King " make a similar allusion with their lyrics , " three lullabies in an ancient tongue " .
Amongst a genre @-@ spanning selection of electronic music , a remix of Aphex Twin 's " Omgyjya Switch 7 " , which includes the ' Male This Loud Scream ' audio sample by Thanvannispen , not present on the original ( nor indeed on the official soundtrack ) can be heard during the scene in Jasper 's house , where Jasper 's " Strawberry Cough " ( a potent , strawberry @-@ flavoured blend of marijuana ) is being sampled . During a conversation between the two men , Radiohead 's " Life in a Glasshouse " plays in the background .
A number of dubstep tracks , most notably Anti @-@ War Dub by Digital Mystikz , as well as tracks by Kode9 & The Space Ape and Pressure are also featured .
For the Bexhill scenes during the film 's second half , the director makes use of silence and cacophonous sound effects such as the firing of automatic weapons and loudspeakers directing the movement of " fugees " ( illegal immigrants ) . Here , classical music by George Frideric Handel , Gustav Mahler , and Krzysztof Penderecki 's " Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima " complements the chaos of the refugee camp . Throughout the film , John Tavener 's Fragments of a Prayer is used as a spiritual motif to explain and interpret the story without the use of narrative .
A few times during the film , a loud , ringing tone evocative of tinnitus is heard . This sound generally coincides with the death of a major character ( Julian , Jasper ) and is referred to by Julian herself , who describes the tones as the last time you 'll ever hear that frequency . In this way , then , the loss of the tones is symbolic of the loss of the characters .
= = Release = =
Children of Men had its world premiere at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival on 3 September 2006 . On 22 September 2006 , the film debuted at number 1 in the United Kingdom with $ 2 @.@ 4 million in 368 screens . It debuted in a limited release of 16 theaters in the United States on 22 December 2006 , expanding to more than 1 @,@ 200 theaters on 5 January 2007 . As of 6 February 2008 , Children of Men had grossed $ 69 @,@ 612 @,@ 678 worldwide , with $ 35 @,@ 552 @,@ 383 of the revenue generated in the United States .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Children of Men received critical acclaim ; on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a 92 % approval rating based on 237 reviews from critics ; the consensus states : " Children of Men works on every level : as a violent chase thriller , a fantastical cautionary tale , and a sophisticated human drama about societies struggling to live . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 84 out of 100 , based on 38 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Dana Stevens of Slate called it " the herald of another blessed event : the arrival of a great director by the name of Alfonso Cuarón . " Stevens hailed the film 's extended car chase and battle scenes as " two of the most virtuoso single @-@ shot chase sequences I 've ever seen . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film a " superbly directed political thriller " , raining accolades on the long chase scenes . " Easily one of the best films of the year " said Ethan Alter of Film Journal International , with scenes that " dazzle you with their technical complexity and visual virtuosity . " Jonathan Romney of The Independent praised the accuracy of Cuarón 's portrait of the United Kingdom , but he criticized some of the film 's futuristic scenes as " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill future fantasy . " Film Comment 's critics ' poll of the best films of 2006 ranked the film number 19 while the 2006 readers ' poll ranked it number two . On their list of the best movies of 2006 , The A.V. Club , the San Francisco Chronicle , Slate and The Washington Post placed the film at number one . Entertainment Weekly ranked the film seventh on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , top ten list , saying , " Alfonso Cuarón 's dystopian 2006 film reminded us that adrenaline @-@ juicing action sequences can work best when the future looks just as grimy as today . "
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone ranked it number 2 on his list of best films of the decade , writing :
I thought director Alfonso Cuarón 's film of P.D. James ' futuristic political @-@ fable novel was good when it opened in 2006 . After repeated viewings , I know Children of Men is indisputably great ... No movie this decade was more redolent of sorrowful beauty and exhilarating action . You don 't just watch the car ambush scene ( pure camera wizardry ) — you live inside it . That 's Cuarón 's magic : He makes you believe . "
According to Metacritic 's analysis of the most often and notably noted films on the best @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade lists , Children of Men is considered the eleventh greatest film of the 2000s .
= = = Top ten lists = = =
The film appeared on many critics ' top ten lists as one of the best films of 2006 :
In 2012 , director Marc Webb included the film among his list of Top 10 Greatest Films when asked by Sight & Sound for his votes for the BFI The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time . In 2015 , the film was named Number One on an all time list of Top 10 Movies by the blog Pop Culture Philosopher .
= = = Accolades = = =
P. D. James , who was reported to be pleased with the film , and the screenwriters of Children of Men were awarded the 19th annual USC Scripter Award for the screen adaptation of the novel ; Howard A. Rodman , chair of the USC School of Cinematic Arts Writing Division , described the book @-@ to @-@ screen adaptation as " writing and screen writing of the highest order " , although Gerschatt , writing in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , noted that the screenplay bore very little resemblance to the novel , in the gender of the baby , and the character who was pregnant ( Julian , in the novel ) and the death of Theo , who in fact , did not die in the novel . The film was also nominated in the category of Best Adapted Screenplay at the 79th Academy Awards .
Children of Men also received Academy Award nominations for Best Cinematography ( Emmanuel Lubezki ) and Best Film Editing ( Alfonso Cuarón and Alex Rodríguez ) . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts nominated Children of Men for Best Visual Effects and honored the film with awards for Best Cinematography and Best Production Design at the 60th British Academy Film Awards . Cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki won the feature film award for Best Cinematography at the 21st American Society of Cinematographers Awards . The Australian Cinematographers Society also awarded Lubezki the 2007 International Award for Cinematography for Children of Men .
The Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films bestowed the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film on Children of Men , and it received the nomination for Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form by the members of the World Science Fiction Convention .
= = = Home media = = =
The HD @-@ DVD and DVD were released in Europe on 15 January 2007 and in the United States on 27 March 2007 . Extras include a half @-@ hour documentary by director Alfonso Cuarón entitled " The Possibility of Hope " . The documentary explores the intersection between the film 's themes and reality with a critical analysis by eminent scholars : the Slovenian sociologist and philosopher Slavoj Žižek , anti @-@ globalization activist Naomi Klein , environmentalist futurist James Lovelock , sociologist Saskia Sassen , human geographer Fabrizio Eva , cultural theorist Tzvetan Todorov , and philosopher and economist John N. Gray ; " Under Attack " features a demonstration of the innovative techniques required for the car chase and battle scenes ; Clive Owen and Julianne Moore discuss their characters in " Theo & Julian " ; " Futuristic Design " opens the door on the production design and look of the film ; " Visual Effects " shows how the digital baby was created . Deleted scenes are included . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United States on 26 May 2009 .
= Harry Glicken =
Harry Glicken ( March 7 , 1958 – June 3 , 1991 ) was an American volcanologist . He researched Mount St. Helens in the United States before and after its famous 1980 eruption , and blamed himself for the death of fellow volcanologist David A. Johnston , who had switched shifts with Glicken so that the latter could attend an interview . In 1991 , while conducting avalanche research on Mount Unzen in Japan , Glicken and fellow volcanologists Katia and Maurice Krafft were killed by a pyroclastic flow . His remains were found four days later , and were cremated in accordance with his parents ' request . Glicken and Johnston remain the only American volcanologists known to have died in volcanic eruptions .
Despite a long @-@ term interest in working for the United States Geological Survey , Glicken never received a permanent post there because employees found him eccentric . Conducting independent research from sponsorships granted by the National Science Foundation and other organizations , Glicken accrued expertise in the field of volcanic debris avalanches . He also wrote several major publications on the topic , including his doctoral dissertation based on his research at St. Helens titled " Rockslide @-@ debris Avalanche of May 18 , 1980 , Mount St. Helens Volcano , Washington " that initiated widespread interest in the phenomenon . Since being published posthumously by Glicken 's colleagues in 1996 , the report has been acknowledged by many other publications on debris avalanches . Following his death , Glicken was praised by associates for his love of volcanoes and commitment to his field .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Glicken was born in 1958 to Milton and Ida Glicken . He graduated from Stanford University in 1980 . Later that year , while a graduate student at the University of California , Santa Barbara , he was temporarily hired by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) to help monitor the volcano Mount St. Helens in Washington state . St. Helens , dormant since the 1840s and 1850s , resumed activity in March 1980 .
As seismic and volcanic activity increased , volcanologists working for the USGS in its Vancouver branch prepared to observe any impending eruption . Geologist Don Swanson and others placed reflectors on and around the growing lava domes , and , on May 1 , 1980 , established the Coldwater I and II observation posts to use laser ranging to measure how the distances to these reflectors changed over time as the domes deformed . Glicken monitored the volcano for two weeks , taking shelter in a trailer at the Coldwater II site located a little more than 5 miles ( 8 km ) northwest of the volcano . On May 18 , 1980 , after working for six days straight , Glicken took the day off to attend an interview for his graduate work with his professor , Richard V. Fisher , in Mammoth , California . His research adviser and mentor David A. Johnston replaced him at his post , despite expressing concerns about its safety given indications of mobile magma within the volcano . After a magnitude 5 @.@ 1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide at 8 : 32 a.m. , Mount St. Helens erupted . Johnston was killed after he was enveloped by swift pyroclastic flows that traveled down the mountain 's flanks at near supersonic speeds .
After the eruption , Glicken went to Toutle High School , the center for relief efforts , where he joined Air Force Reserve Rescue Squadron officials in a helicopter to look for Johnston or any sign of his post . Despite searching with three separate crews over a span of nearly six hours
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5th edition = = =
With the release of the Dungeons & Dragons 5th Edition , Wizards of the Coast announced that the Forgotten Realms would continue to serve as the official campaign setting for its upcoming published adventure materials . To date four officially licensed products set in the Forgotten Realms have been published : Hoard of the Dragon Queen ( September 2014 ) , Rise of Tiamat ( October 2014 ) , Princes of the Apocalypse ( April 2015 ) and Out of the Abyss ( September 2015 ) . The official campaign guide , Sword Coast Adventurer 's Guide , was released in November 2015 . With the 5th edition the world of Forgotten Realms was again returned to its previous , 3rd edition geography , and the event called The Sundering resulted in the worlds of Abeir @-@ Toril to be split in two . Wizards of the Coast has also announced that its upcoming adventure series will also be set in the Forgotten Realms .
= = Reception = =
In his book The Fantasy Roleplaying Gamer 's Bible , Sean Patrick Fannon describes the Forgotten Realms as being " the most ambitious fantasy game setting published since Tekumel " , and that it " may be the most widely played @-@ in game setting in RPG history . " Similarly , in literature , the novels written in the Forgotten Realms setting have formed one of " the industry 's leading fantasy series " . Over time these novels have gained " unprecedented popularity " , which led , as Marc Oxoby noted in his book , The 1990s , to the novels having an " extraordinary shelf life " , remaining in print for many years . This popular reception has also been reflected in public libraries . For example , Joyce Saricks states in The Readers ' Advisory Guide to Genre Fiction that the novels have been among the most requested books by fans of the fantasy genre .
= Central Recreation Ground =
The Central Recreation Ground was a cricket ground in Hastings , East Sussex , used for first @-@ class and List A cricket between 1864 and 1996 . The ground was frequently used by Sussex County Cricket Club as one of their outgrounds from 1865 ; in total , Sussex played 143 first @-@ class and 17 List A matches at the ground . Between 1887 and the 1960s , the Central Recreation Ground also played host to the Hastings & St Leonards cricket festival , which attracted many other teams and notable players . In the early twentieth century , the ground hosted seven Gentlemen v Players matches , and notable players to have played at the ground include W.G. Grace , Don Bradman , Jack Hobbs and Denis Compton . Grace made over 40 appearances at the ground , whilst both Hobbs and Compton broke the record for most first @-@ class centuries in a season at the Central Recreation Ground . The ground also hosted a women 's one @-@ day international between England and New Zealand in 1984 . In the 1980s , planning permission was given for the ground be demolished , and the land used to build a shopping centre . After the demolition of the ground in 1996 , the Priory Meadow Shopping Centre was built on the site .
= = Cricket history = =
In total , the Central Recreation Ground hosted 228 first @-@ class matches , and 14 List A matches . The ground was initially leased from the Cornwallis family ( the descendants of Charles Cornwallis , 1st Marquess Cornwallis ) , until 1869 when the ground was purchased by the cricketing trust . Between 1887 and the 1960s , the ground hosted the Hastings & St. Leonards Festival in September , which was the southern equivalent of the Scarborough Festival . During these festivals , seven Gentlemen v Players matches were played on the ground between 1889 and 1903 , and in 1907 & 1909 , matches took place between Gentlemen of the South and Players of the South . The 1909 match was the only first @-@ class match played by British Army officer Leonard Slater , and was a victory for the Players of the South by 228 runs .
W. G. Grace played at the ground over forty times , and during the 1894 Hastings Festival , he scored his 98th first @-@ class century for the Gentleman against the Players . Grace had captained a South of England team against an 18 of Hastings team in 1877 , a match which was described as " a great success , and revived the game in Hastings " . In 1900 , a match took place between a combined Sussex and Surrey team against a Rest of England team containing Grace ; the Rest of England team scored 355 in 3 hours 50 minutes . In 1902 , a joint Sussex and Kent team played a Rest of England team , this time captained by Grace . In the 1902 Gentlemen v. Players match , Grace and Walter Reed made a partnership of 99 as the Gentleman scored 211 ; Reed top @-@ scored with 56 , whilst Grace 's score of 53 was the only other score above 30 .
During the 1925 Hastings Festival , Jack Hobbs scored 266 , in a Gents v Players match ; this was his record first @-@ class score , and was also his 15th first @-@ class century in the season , a new record . At the 1947 Hastings Festival , Denis Compton broke Hobbs ' record by scoring a 17th first @-@ class century of the season , in a match against South Africa . Compton was eventually dismissed for 101 , although South Africa won the match by 9 wickets . In 1948 , Don Bradman scored his 115th first @-@ class century in a Hastings Festival match against a South of England team ; his innings lasted 133 minutes .
The Central Recreation Ground also hosted many games aside from Hastings Festival matches . Australian teams played at the ground 18 times , with one match in 1878 involving a side with eighteen Hastings players , of whom six played for Kent , three played for Sussex and three played for Surrey . In a 1902 match between Sussex and Surrey at the ground , C.B. Fry and Joe Vine scored an opening partnership of 238 runs , and KS Ranjitsinhji scored the first double @-@ century at the ground , as Sussex scored 705 – 8d , the highest total in a first @-@ class match at the ground . The match also saw Surrey batsmen Bobby Abel and Thomas Hayward score an opening partnership of 246 , the highest partnership ever for the first wicket in a match at the Central Recreation Ground . In 1908 , a match took place at the ground between an English 11 and the Melbourne Cricket Club . A first @-@ class match between Sussex and Kent in 1984 ended in a tie . In the same year , the England women 's cricket team played a 55 overs a side One Day International match against New Zealand . Jan Brittin scored 101 , as England scored 194 – 8 , and in reply New Zealand made 148 – 7 . The last Sussex first @-@ class match at the ground took place in 1996 .
In 1954 , The Cricketer magazine noted that Sussex and Kent used to frequently play their matches at Nevill Ground , Tunbridge Wells and the Central Recreation Ground in Hastings ; the article saying " amongst typical considerations which affect the issue are county weeks and festivals " . The players ' tea @-@ room at the Ground had graffito saying " Victoria 1066 " ; Guardian cricket correspondent Matthew Engel joked that " Since the cricket ground is the only place in town not full of French students , this must have been put there by one of William 's soldiers and could well constitute the longest @-@ running gloat in history " .
= = Other history = =
In 1869 , the ground hosted an archery meeting for the Royal St. Leonards Archers . During the 1890s , the ground hosted local football matches for Rock @-@ a @-@ Nores ( now Hastings United ) ; in 1895 , it hosted Rock @-@ a @-@ Nores ' matches in the Hastings Carlisle Cup Competition . In 1896 , the ground hosted a charity match between Hastings and Eastbourne , to raise money for Hastings Rowing Club ; Hastings won the match 3 – 1 , and the match raised almost £ 10 , which was most of the money needed for the rowing club 's new galley . Later in the year , it hosted another match between Hastings and Eastbourne , which Eastbourne won 7 – 2 .
In 1905 , the ground hosted a circus , in which American tight rope champion Hermann Davidson fell 60 feet ( 18 m ) to his death after falling off the balancing pole during a performance . Davidson was 45 years old , and had begun training to be a tight @-@ rope walker at the age of 10 .
In September 1922 , the ground held a Grand Fete , to raise money to repair the tower of Blacklands Church . In 1948 , the ground was flooded , and the Public Health Committee report into the storm floods had to be withdrawn after a magistrate appeared to provide misinformation in his statutory declaration . In his declaration , he had claimed to have been at the Central Recreation Ground for two 15 minute time periods during the flooding period and claimed to have seen the flooding , but at those times , the ground had not yet been flooded . The ground had previously flooded in 1866 , when one resident noted that it had been underwater many times within their memory .
= = Demolition = =
In 1982 , Hastings Council voted to relocate the Central Recreation Ground to Summerfields , and use the ground 's current location for a shopping centre . However , this proposal was rejected by the Government in 1984 , before the Central Cricket Ground Committee decided to move in 1986 . Planning permission for the shopping centre was granted in 1988 , and the ground was eventually demolished between 1996 and 1997 , being replaced by Priory Meadow Shopping Centre . The shopping centre has a 10 @-@ foot sculpture entitled " The Spirit of Cricket " , with an inscription about the location of the ground there for 130 years .
= = Ground records in first @-@ class matches = =
Highest total : 705 – 8d Sussex v Surrey , 1902
Lowest total : 53 England XI v Australians , 1888
Highest individual score : 246 KS Duleepsinhji , Sussex v Kent , 1929
Best bowling figures : 9 – 28 DL Underwood , Kent v Sussex , 1964
Best match figures : 17 – 50 CTB Turner , Australians v England XI , 1888
= The X @-@ Files ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on September 16 , 1994 , concluded on the same channel on May 19 , 1995 , after airing all 25 episodes . The series follows Federal Bureau of Investigation special agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively , who investigate paranormal or supernatural cases , known as X @-@ Files by the FBI .
The second season of The X @-@ Files takes place after the closure of the department following the events of the first season finale . In addition to stand @-@ alone " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " episodes , several episodes also furthered the alien conspiracy mythology that had begun to form . Season two introduced several recurring characters — X ( Steven Williams ) , an informant to Mulder ; Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , Mulder 's partner @-@ turned @-@ enemy ; and the Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) , a shape @-@ shifting assassin .
The storylines were widely affected by the pregnancy of actress Gillian Anderson ; it was decided that Scully would be kidnapped and abducted by aliens , explaining her absence and allowing her to appear comatose two episodes later , which ultimately added more intricacies to the mythology . The season earned seven Primetime Emmy Award nominations . The premiere " Little Green Men " , debuted with a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 9 @.@ 8 million households , marking a noticeable increase in viewership since the previous year . The series rose from number 111 to number 63 for the 1994 – 95 television year . In addition , the show 's second season has generally received positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot overview = =
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is reassigned to teach at the FBI Academy while Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is given lowly surveillance assignments . After he investigates extraterrestrial cases at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico , Mulder is given a new partner , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , and meets a secretive informant , X ( Steven Williams ) . Mulder is recruited to assist in a hostage negotiation when Duane Barry , an alien abductee , captures four people . Barry eventually kidnaps Scully , believing that if he brings her to his original abduction site , Skyland Mountain , aliens will take her instead of him . Mulder follows but is delayed by Krycek , who is revealed to be a mole working for Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . When Mulder reaches Skyland Mountain , Scully is gone . Barry , who insists that aliens took him , dies soon after an interrogation by Krycek . When Krycek vanishes , Skinner re @-@ opens the X @-@ Files , claiming that is what the conspirators will fear most .
Scully turns up comatose in a hospital three months later with no explanation about how she got there . X provides Mulder with information allowing him to take revenge on her captors , but Mulder is instead convinced by Scully 's sister Melissa to visit her bedside . Scully recovers and returns to work shortly thereafter . The agents later investigate a case involving alien biology being injected into teenagers in Wisconsin , and once again they encounter Deep Throat 's killer , who is killed by the local sheriff .
When investigating a case involving the murder of identical doctors , the agents come across a shapeshifting Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) responsible for executing a series of alien clones . During this case a grown woman claiming to be Mulder 's sister Samantha appears , telling Mulder of the Bounty Hunter 's objectives and that she has the ability to identify him . When Scully is kidnapped by the Bounty Hunter , Mulder is forced to trade Samantha for her . During a botched attempt to kill the Bounty Hunter , Samantha is killed . However , it is discovered that this was simply one of many alien clones of Samantha . With the help of X , Mulder pursues the Bounty Hunter to a submarine in the Arctic . Mulder is nearly killed when exposed to the Bounty Hunter 's toxic blood , but is saved by Scully .
When a hacker downloads decades ' worth of classified information about aliens onto a digital tape , he gives it to Mulder , who finds that the entire tape is written in Navajo . Cigarette Smoking Man begins searching for the tape and visits Mulder 's father , who calls Mulder to see him shortly afterwards . Before he can reveal anything to Mulder however , he is murdered by Alex Krycek . Scully brings Mulder to New Mexico where she introduces him to Albert Hosteen , a code @-@ talker who can translate the digital tape . Albert 's grandson shows Mulder a boxcar filled with alien corpses . Cigarette Smoking Man tracks Mulder 's location however and orders the boxcar burned .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and development = = =
The season premiere was originally supposed to have been written by series creator Chris Carter . In his initial pitch , Mulder would have been sent to Moscow . In fact , the producers wanted to film the episode in Russia , but they were not able to secure the appropriate arrangements . In the end , Carter was unable to complete the script idea , which would have also featured the reopening of the X @-@ Files . Instead , co @-@ executive producers Glen Morgan , James Wong and Howard Gordon penned the opening premiere , " Little Green Men " ; the episode was the first entry to actually show an alien in the series . This delay gave Carter time to write " Duane Barry " , the start of the first two @-@ parter and also the entry wherein the X @-@ Files are re @-@ opened .
As the series ended its first season , a problem had arisen for the producers : the pregnancy of Gillian Anderson , who played Dana Scully . Some network executives wanted the role recast , which Carter refused to do . Though they considered having Scully giving birth to an alien child , the producers decided to work around Anderson 's pregnancy by having her abducted and appearing comatose several episodes later . This was described by executive producer Frank Spotnitz as " the best thing that ever happened to the series " as it helped form the intricate mythology that would run throughout the show . The writers decided to close the X @-@ Files at the end of the first season and thus separate Mulder and Scully in the earlier episodes of the season . To hide Anderson 's pregnancy in the early episodes , the producers disguised it with " very fancy trick angles , trench coats , and scenes where she is seated rather than standing " . Anderson was not featured at all in the episode " 3 " , as she was giving birth to her daughter at the time .
= = = Casting = = =
The season introduced the character X , played by Steven Williams , who replaced Deep Throat as Mulder 's informant , following Deep Throat 's assassination in the first season finale , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . X was originally intended to be a woman with Natalija Nogulich already cast in the role , but was replaced by Williams as the writers did not believe she had the " right chemistry " with her co @-@ stars . X was written to be different than Deep Throat ; Deep Throat had been selfless , while X was intended to be selfish and scared . Nicholas Lea , who had previously appeared in a small part in the season one 's " Gender Bender " , was cast as Alex Krycek . Krycek was originally intended as a temporary replacement for Scully when she was abducted , but grew into a character who would last seven seasons on the show .
During the production of the season , Duchovny asked Carter " wouldn 't it be great if we had like an alien bounty hunter ? " Carter was positive towards the idea and acted upon it , creating with Spotniz the character of the Alien Bounty Hunter for the two @-@ part episodes " Colony " and " End Game " . Actor Brian Thompson auditioned for the role in a casting session , where he was competing with another actor . Spotnitz and Carter did not have much time to cast the character , but they knew this casting would be important since they intended the character to become a recurring character . Thompson was chosen according to Spotnitz because he had a very " distinctive look " about him , most notably his face and mouth . Megan Leitch also appeared in " Colony " and " End Game " as a grown @-@ up clone version of Samantha Mulder , and would return to play Samantha or one of her clones over the other seasons . Carter did not want it to be the real Samantha , since that would have been " straight science fiction " and it was too " ridiculous " to give too many answers . Darren McGavin , star of Kolchak : The Night Stalker , was sought out for the part of Senator Matheson in " Little Green Men " and Mulder 's father in " Colony " and " End Game " , but the roles went to Raymond J. Barry and Peter Donat respectively , while McGavin agreed to play X @-@ Files founder Arthur Dales in season five .
= = = Crew = = =
Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote seven episodes . Co @-@ executive producers and writing team Glen Morgan and James Wong wrote five episodes for their final season as regular writers for the series , although they would both return as consulting producers for part of season four . Supervising producer Howard Gordon wrote five episodes . Frank Spotnitz joined the series , writing two episodes . Cast member David Duchovny collaborated with Carter for two episodes receiving story credit . Glen Morgan 's younger brother Darin Morgan joined the series , contributing the story for an episode written by his older brother and James Wong , and writing another script solo . Paul Brown joined the series as a producer and wrote two episodes . Sara B. Charno wrote two freelance episodes . Vince Gilligan joined the series , writing one episode . Former supervising producer Alex Gansa returned to co @-@ wrote one episode with writing partner Howard Gordon . Chris Ruppenthal returned to write one more freelance episode after last season . Steve De Jarnatt also contributed one freelance episode for the season . Line producer and production manager Joseph Patrick Finn was promoted to producer with this season . Paul Rabwin continued to serve as co @-@ producer for the show .
Producing @-@ directors for the show included Rob Bowman , David Nutter , Kim Manners and co @-@ executive producer R. W. Goodwin , who all directed the most of the season ; Bowman with seven , Nutter with five , and Manners and Goodwin each with two . Series creator Chris Carter directed one episode , making his directorial debut , while Daniel Sackheim , Michael Lange , James Contner , James Whitmore , Jr . , Michael Vejar , Nick Marck , Stephen Surjik and Win Phelps each directed one episode .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 25 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 24 episodes ) a
a ^ She does not appear in " 3 " .
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The second season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " Little Green Men " on September 16 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 8 million households , an increase from the first season 's finale , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " , which was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million households . " Little Green Men " was , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air . As the season continued , ratings began to grow . The season hit a high with the fifteenth episode , " Fresh Bones " , which was viewed by 10 @.@ 8 million households . The season hit a low with the twenty @-@ first episode , " The Calusari " , which was viewed by 7 @.@ 9 million households and received a rating of 8 @.@ 3 / 16 . The season finale , " Anasazi " , earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 1 , with an 18 share , and was viewed by 9 @.@ 6 million households , marking a 13 @.@ 5 percent increase in households when compared to the previous season finale . The series was ranked as number 63 during the 1994 – 95 television season , a significant increase in ratings when compared to the first season , which finished at number 111 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The DVD Journal gave the season four out of four stars , calling it a " memorable season " . The review highlighted " The Host " , " Duane Barry " and " Ascension " , the cliffhanger finale " Anasazi " , the " unforgettable " " Humbug " , and meeting Mulder and Scully 's families in " Colony " and " One Breath " . IGN gave the season a rating of 9 out of 10 , with the reviewer noting it was an improvement upon the first as it had " started to explore a little " and the " evolution of the characters makes the product shine even though the plotlines have begun to seem familiar " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated several episodes across the season highly , awarding five stars out of five to " Little Green Men " , " Duane Barry " , " One Breath " , " Irresistible " , " Die Hand Die Verletzt " , and " Anasazi " . However , several episodes rated poorly , with " 3 " , " Excelsis Dei " , and " The Calusari " being considered particularly poor .
Many critics considered the " Duane Barry " / " Ascension " / " One Breath " story arc to be the best part of the season . Shearman singled out the three @-@ parter as the highlight of the season , noting that the " intimacy " and " sincerity [ of ] the emotion " of the episodes allowed the mythology of The X @-@ Files to play out for a further seven seasons . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files named the story arc the top episode of The X @-@ Files and wrote , " to this day , this remains the defining moment in the series run . So much sprang forth from this trio of episodes . ... Sensational . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The second season earned the series seven Primetime Emmy Award nominations , including its first for Outstanding Drama Series . The episode " Duane Barry " received four nominations for different categories ; CCH Pounder for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series ; Chris Carter for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing for a Drama Series ; James Coblentz for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production ; and for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Editing for a Series . Other nominations included John S. Bartley for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Cinematography for a Series for " One Breath " and Stephen Mark for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production for " Sleepless " . This season would also earn the series its first of three wins for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama .
= = DVD release = =
= The Swimming Hole =
The Swimming Hole ( also known as Swimming and The Old Swimming Hole ) is an 1884 – 85 painting by the American artist Thomas Eakins ( 1844 – 1916 ) , Goodrich catalog # 190 , in the collection of the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth , Texas . Executed in oil on canvas , it depicts six men swimming naked in a lake , and is considered a masterpiece of American painting . According to art historian Doreen Bolger it is " perhaps Eakins ' most accomplished rendition of the nude figure " , and has been called " the most finely designed of all his outdoor pictures " . Since the Renaissance , the human body has been considered both the basis of artists ' training and the most challenging subject to depict in art , and the nude was the centerpiece of Eakins ' teaching program at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . For Eakins , this picture was an opportunity to display his mastery of the human form .
In this work , Eakins took advantage of an exception to the generally prudish Victorian attitude to nudity : swimming naked was widely accepted , and for males was seen as normal , even in public spaces . Eakins was the first American artist to portray one of the few occasions in 19th @-@ century life when nudity was on display . The Swimming Hole develops themes raised in his earlier work , in particular his treatment of buttocks and his ambiguous treatment of the human form ; in some cases it is uncertain as to whether the forms portrayed are male or female . Such themes had earlier been examined in his The Gross Clinic ( 1875 ) and William Rush ( 1877 ) , and would continue to be explored in his paintings of boxers ( Taking the Count , Salutat , and Between Rounds ) and wrestlers ( Wrestlers ) .
Although the theme of male bathers was familiar in Western art , having been explored by artists from Michelangelo to Daumier , Eakins ' treatment was novel in American art at the time . The Swimming Hole has been " widely cited as a prime example of homoeroticism in American art " . In 2008 , the art critic Tom Lubbock described Eakins ' work as :
a classic of American painting . It shows a scene of healthy , manly , outdoor activity : a group of young fellows having stripped off for a dip . It is based on the swimming excursions that were enjoyed by the artist and his students . Eakins himself appears in the water at bottom right – in signature position , so to speak . "
= = Title and composition = =
Eakins referred to the painting as Swimming in 1885 , and as The Swimmers in 1886 . The title The Swimming Hole dates from 1917 ( the year after Eakins died ) , when the work was so described by the artist 's widow , Susan Macdowell Eakins . Four years later , she titled the work The Old Swimming Hole , in reference to the 1882 poem The Old Swimmin ' -Hole ; by James Whitcomb Riley . The Amon Carter Museum has since returned to Eakins ' original title , Swimming .
The painting shows Eakins and five friends or students bathing at Dove Lake , an artificial lake in Mill Creek outside Philadelphia . Each of the men is looking at the water , in the words of Martin A. Berger , " apparently lost in a contemplative moment " . Eakins ' precise rendering of the figures has enabled scholars to identify all those depicted in the work . They are ( from left to right ) : Talcott Williams ( 1849 – 1928 ) , Benjamin Fox ( c . 1865 – c . 1900 ) , John Laurie Wallace ( 1864 – 1953 ) , Jesse Godley ( 1862 – 1889 ) , Harry the dog ( Eakins ' Irish Setter , c . 1880 – 90 ) , George Reynolds ( c . 1839 – 89 ) , and Eakins himself . The rocky promontory on which several of the men rest is the foundation of the Mill Creek mill , which was razed in 1873 . It is the only sign of civilization in the work — no shoes , clothes , or bath houses are visible . The foliage in the background provides a dark background against which the swimmers ' skin tones contrast .
The composition is pyramidal . The figure reclining at left leads the viewer 's eye to the seated figure , whose gesture in turn points to Godley at the apex of the compositional pyramid . The diving figure at right leads to the swimming form of Eakins , who painted himself into the scene and whose leftward movement directs attention back into the painting . Eakins enforces this pyramidal structure by manipulating the focus of the painting : the center area containing the swimmers is extremely precise , while the outer areas are diffuse , with " virtually no moderating zones in between " . The lighting within the picture is unnatural — too bright in some places , and too dark in others — although the effect , which tends to accentuate the body lines of the swimmers , is generally subtle .
The composition is notable for both its adherence to academic tradition ( the mastery of the figure as an end in itself ) , and its uniqueness in transposing the male nude to an outdoor setting . The depiction of someone diving into water was very rare in the history of Western art . The other figures are artfully arranged to imply a continuous narrative of movement , the poses progressing " from reclining to sitting to standing to diving " ; at the same time , each figure is carefully positioned so that no genitalia are visible . As in his previous works , Eakins chose to include a self @-@ portrait , here as the swimmer at bottom @-@ right . Unlike his appearances in The Gross Clinic or Max Schmitt in a Single Scull , here the artist 's presence is more ambiguous — he may be seen as companion , teacher , or voyeur . The ripple in the water next to Eakins , and the bubbles around the diver , are the only indications of movement in a painting where motion is otherwise arrested ; the water next to the red @-@ headed figure in the lake is still enough to offer a clear reflection . This contrast underscores the tension in the picture between classical prototypes and scientific naturalism .
The positioning of the bodies and their musculature refers to classical ideals of physical beauty and masculine camaraderie evocative of Greek art . The reclining figure is a paraphrase of the Dying Gaul , and is juxtaposed with the far less formal self @-@ depiction by the artist . It is possible that Eakins was seeking to reconcile an ancient theme with a modern interpretation ; the subject was contemporary , but the poses of some of the figures recall those of classical sculpture . One possible influence by a contemporary source was Scène d 'été , painted in 1869 by Frédéric Bazille ( 1841 – 70 ) . It is not unlikely that Eakins saw the painting at the Salon while studying in Paris , and would have been sympathetic to its depiction of male bathers in a modern setting .
In Eakins ' oeuvre , The Swimming Hole was immediately preceded by a number of similar works on the Arcadian theme . These correspond to lectures he gave on Ancient Greek sculpture and were inspired by the Pennsylvania Academy 's casts of Phidias ' Pan @-@ Athenaic procession from the Parthenon marbles . A series of photographs , relief sculptures , and oil sketches culminated in the 1883 Arcadia , a painting that also featured nude figures — posed for by a student , a nephew , and the artist 's fiancée — in a pastoral landscape .
= = Studies = =
Eakins made several on @-@ site oil sketches and photographic studies before painting The Swimming Hole . It is unknown whether the photographs were taken before the oil sketches were produced or vice versa ( or , indeed , whether they were created on the same day ) .
By the early 1880s , Eakins was using photography to explore sequential movement and as a reference for painting . Some time in 1883 or 1884 , he photographed his students engaged in outdoor activities . Four photographs of his students swimming naked in Dove Lake have survived , and bear a clear relationship to The Swimming Hole . The swimmers are seen in the same spot and from the same vantage point , although their positions are entirely different from those in the painting . None of the photographs closely matches the poses depicted in the painting ; this was unusual for Eakins , who typically adhered closely to his photographic studies . " The divergence between these sets of images may hint at lost or destroyed pictures , or it may tell us that the photographs came first , before Eakins ' mental image had crystallized , and before the execution of his first oil sketch . " The poses in the photographs are more spontaneous , while those of the painting are deliberately composed with a classical " severity " . Although no photographic studies have survived that would suggest a more direct connection between the photographs and the painting , recent scholarship has proposed that marks incised onto the canvas and later covered by paint indicate that Eakins made use of light @-@ projected photographs .
Eakins combined his studies into a final oil sketch in 1884 , which became the basis for the finished painting . The basic composition remained unchanged , as all six men and the dog appeared in the sketch ; however , Eakins , who usually adhered closely to his sketches when developing a final work , made several uncharacteristic alterations to the specific movements and positions of the figures . A friend and student , Charles Bregler , described the process :
... For a picture ... like the Swimming Hole , a small sketch was made 8 x 10 inches [ 20 x 25 cm ] , then separate studies of the landscape and figures , to get the true tone and color , etc . The diving figure being the most difficult to paint , was first modelled in wax . This gave him a thorough knowledge of every form .
= = Commission and reception = =
The painting was commissioned in 1884 by Edward Hornor Coates , a Philadelphia businessman who chaired the Committee on Instruction at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts , where Eakins taught . Coates intended to pay Eakins $ 800 ( $ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , which at the time was the largest commission Eakins had been offered .
Coates intended the painting for an exhibition at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts , and it was shown at the Academy 's exhibition in the fall of 1885 . However , Coates rejected it as unrepresentative of Eakins ' oeuvre . In a November 27 , 1885 letter to Eakins , Coates reasoned :
as you will recall one of my chief ideas was to have from you a picture which might some day become part of the Academy collection . The present canvas is to me admirable in many ways but I am inclined to believe that some of the pictures you have are even more representative , and it has been suggested would be perhaps more acceptable for the purpose which I have always had in view . You must not suppose from this that I depreciate the present work - such is not the case .
It is not known precisely why Coates failed to purchase the painting ; however , it seems likely that Coates felt the work was too controversial to acquire . Coates , as Head of Instruction at Eakins ' academy , would have been familiar with the subject matter of Eakins ' works , and thus it seems unlikely that the nudity in the painting would have surprised or shocked him . Rather , it seems certain that Coates would have recognized the majority of men in the painting , as all but one were students of Eakins at the academy . He was undoubtedly familiar with the site depicted in the painting too , as it was only a half a mile ( 800 m ) from Haverford College , where Coates studied as an undergraduate . The depiction of a professor and his students together in the nude would have been a sensitive subject for the academy 's directors , who had forbidden Eakins from using Academy students as models , as modeling was considered indecent . Coates chose to exchange The Swimming Hole for the " less controversial genre scene " of Eakins ' The Pathetic Song — today housed in the Corcoran Gallery of Art — and paid Eakins the $ 800 he had offered for the original commission .
On February 9 , 1886 , Eakins was forced to resign from the Academy because of his removal of a loincloth from a male model in a class where female students were present . In a letter to Coates on February 15 in which Eakins explained his reasons for resigning , he addressed the issue of nudity in his artwork :
My figures at least are not a bunch of clothes with a head and hands sticking out but more nearly resemble the strong living bodies that most pictures show . And in the latter end of a life so spent in study , you at least can imagine that painting is with me a very serious study . That I have but little patience with the false modesty which is the greatest enemy to all figure painting . I see no impropriety in looking at the most beautiful of Nature 's works , the naked figure . If there is impropriety , then just where does such impropriety begin ? Is it wrong to look at a picture of a naked figure or at a statue ? English ladies of the last generation thought so and avoided the statue galleries , but do so no longer . Or is it a question of sex ? Should men make only the statues of men to be looked at by men , while the statues of women should be made by women to be looked at by women only ? Should the he @-@ painters draw the horses and bulls , and the she @-@ painters like Rosa Bonheur the mares and cows ? Must the poor old male body in the dissecting room be mutilated before Miss Prudery can dabble in his guts ? ... Such indignities anger me . Can not anyone see into what contemptible inconsistencies such follies all lead ? And how dangerous they are ? My conscience is clear , and my suffering is past .
= = Provenance = =
Following its rejection by Coates , the painting remained in Eakins ' possession until his death . It was exhibited just twice more during Eakins ' lifetime : at the 1886 Southern Exposition in Louisville , Kentucky , and in 1887 at Chicago 's Inter @-@ State Industrial Exposition , and ignored by critics on both occasions . The painting then disappears from the historical record — there is no further reference to the painting in any records from Eakins or his circle of friends during Eakins ' lifetime . Following Eakins ' death , the painting was exhibited in Philadelphia and New York at memorial exhibitions in 1917 .
In 1925 , The Swimming Hole was purchased from the artist 's widow by the community of Fort Worth , Texas for $ 750 ( $ 10 @,@ 100 in 2016 dollars ) . Thereafter it was in the collection of the Fort Worth Art Association , the institutional predecessor of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth , and was displayed in the city 's public library . In 1990 , the museum announced it intended to sell the painting to build an endowment for the purchase of contemporary art . A public outcry ensued , prompting the museum to search for a local buyer . Eventually , after tumultuous negotiations , the Amon Carter Museum agreed to purchase The Swimming Hole for $ 10 million ( $ 18 million in 2016 dollars ) .
= = Restorations = =
Before its purchase by the Amon Carter Museum , The Swimming Hole appears to have undergone seven different conservatory treatments . It may have been restored prior to its inclusion in Eakins ' memorial exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1917 . A photograph from that time reveals cracks in the glazes and a drip mark , possibly caused by the splash of a caustic liquid . After the painting was acquired by the Fort Worth Art Association , it was often lent out for exhibitions and was damaged as a result . In 1937 it was relined by a private gallery in New York City and the drip was painted out . In 1944 it was relined and restored and in 1947 it was restored again , both times by a private New York dealer . The Brooklyn Museum performed two minor restorations in 1954 and 1957 . Although it continued to travel frequently , The Swimming Hole received no comprehensive treatment until 1993 .
Following its purchase by the Amon Carter Museum , in June 1993 , Claire M. Barry and staff from the Amon Carter and the Kimbell Art Museums began a major restoration of the painting . According to Barry , " The restoration revealed relatively little significant damage or deterioration not previously visible . Several layers of discolored varnish and overpaint were removed , exposing a rich and varied surface with brushwork ranging from the controlled , almost miniaturistic strokes forming the figures to the freer treatment of the landscape elements . "
Much effort went into distinguishing the original glazes from those added during subsequent restorations . Previous retouches were removed and a natural resin varnish was applied . The painting 's original frame , long missing , was located in 1992 . It too was cleaned , restored , and reinstalled to the painting .
During the restoration , it was discovered that a long @-@ standing ascription of the painting 's date to 1883 was the result of a misinterpretation : the artist 's original inscription of 1885 was painted in a fugitive red @-@ lake pigment that had faded , and was mistakenly repainted by a conservator to the earlier date .
= = Interpretation = =
The Swimming Hole represented the full range of Eakins ' techniques and academic principles . He used life study , photography , wax studies , and landscape sketches to produce a work that manifested his interest in the human form . Lloyd Goodrich ( 1897 – 1987 ) believed the work was " Eakins ' most masterful use of the nude " , with the solidly conceived figures perfectly integrated into the landscape , an image of subtle tonal construction and one of the artist 's " richest pieces of painting " . Another biographer , William Innes Homer ( b . 1929 ) , was more reserved and described the poses of the figures as rigidly academic . Homer found inconsistencies in paint quality and atmospheric effect , and wrote that the painting was unsuccessful in reconciling antique and naturalistic ideals . For him , " it is as though these nudes had been abruptly transplanted from the studio into nature " .
Before the mid @-@ 19th century , the subject of the nude male figure in Western art had long been reserved for classical subject matter . In the 19th century , it was not unusual for boys and men to swim without clothing in public , but there was no precedent for this subject in American painting . Although there was an informal convention for multiple @-@ figure compositions featuring female nudes , in America such paintings were exhibited in saloons rather than galleries ; Eakins altered the gender and presented the subject as fine art . Viewed in a broader context , The Swimming Hole has been cited as one of the few 19th @-@ century American paintings that " engages directly with a newly emerging European tradition " — that of the male bather . Eakins ' picture , although not as stylistically progressive as the works of his French contemporaries , parallels the novel thematic direction taken by Bazille in Summer Scene , Georges Seurat ( 1859 – 91 ) ( Bathers at Asnières , 1884 ) and Paul Cézanne ( 1839 – 1906 ) in his numerous explorations of the subject .
Eakins ' work influenced the subsequent generation of American realists , particularly the artists of the Ashcan School . George Bellows ' ( 1882 – 1925 ) Forty @-@ two Kids , painted in 1907 , bears obvious similarity to The Swimming Hole , although Bellows ' painting has been interpreted as a parody of the Eakins , and the many naked children of the title are playing in the urban Hudson River of New York City rather than in a rural setting . In a sentiment that reflected Eakins ' philosophy , Bellows later explained his motivation for painting Forty @-@ two Kids : " Prizefighters and swimmers are the only types whose muscular action can be painted in the nude legitimately . "
Eakins ' widow 's retitling of the picture after his death reinforced the popular association with the nostalgic sentiment of Riley 's poem . More recently , the painting 's subject has been compared to the poem " Song of Myself " by Walt Whitman ( 1819 – 92 ) , particularly the section " Twenty @-@ Eight Young Men Bathe by the Shore " , given the shared interest in the imagery of men bathing in the nude . Whitman may have provided inspiration : the celebration of nudity , which in Whitman 's case was an open expression of his homosexuality , informs the art of both men . In 1895 , one of Eakins ' male students reminisced about " us Whitman fellows " , which has been interpreted as a reference to homosexuality . " But for their marital status , however , virtually nothing concrete is known of the private realms or sexual propensities of any of the men depicted ( in The Swimming Hole ) , with the exception of Eakins . "
Although the painting has been viewed as a platonic vision of the male nude seen unselfconsciously in a natural setting , by the 1970s some American writers were beginning to see Eakins ' work , and specifically The Swimming Hole , as having homoerotic implications . Critics have paid particular attention to the compositional prominence of the standing figure 's buttocks , which has been interpreted as suggestive of " homoerotic interests " . According to Jonathan Weinberg , The Swimming Hole marked the beginning of homoerotic imagery in American art . Eakins left a record simultaneously provocative and ambiguous on matters of sex . On the basis of the same visual evidence , that of the photographs , oil sketches , and the finished painting of swimmers , art historians have drawn markedly varying conclusions as to the artist 's intent .
= Samlesbury witches =
The Samlesbury witches were three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury – Jane Southworth , Jennet Bierley , and Ellen Bierley – accused by a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl , Grace Sowerbutts , of practising witchcraft . Their trial at Lancaster Assizes in England on 19 August 1612 was one in a series of witch trials held there over two days , among the most famous in English history . The trials were unusual for England at that time in two respects : Thomas Potts , the clerk to the court , published the proceedings in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster ; and the number of the accused found guilty and hanged was unusually high , ten at Lancaster and another at York . All three of the Samlesbury women were acquitted however .
The charges against the women included child murder and cannibalism . In contrast , the others tried at the same assizes , who included the Pendle witches , were accused of maleficium – causing harm by witchcraft . The case against the three women collapsed " spectacularly " when the chief prosecution witness , Grace Sowerbutts , was exposed by the trial judge to be " the perjuring tool of a Catholic priest " .
Many historians , notably Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper , have suggested that the witch trials of the 16th and 17th centuries were a consequence of the religious struggles of the period , with both the Catholic and Protestant Churches determined to stamp out what they regarded as heresy . The trial of the Samlesbury witches is perhaps one clear example of that trend ; it has been described as " largely a piece of anti @-@ Catholic propaganda " , and even as a show @-@ trial , to demonstrate that Lancashire , considered at that time to be a wild and lawless region , was being purged not only of witches but also of " popish plotters " ( i.e. Catholics ) .
= = Background = =
King James I , who came to the English throne from Scotland in 1603 , had a keen interest in witchcraft . By the early 1590s , he was convinced that Scottish witches were plotting against him . His 1597 book , Daemonologie , instructed his followers that they must denounce and prosecute any supporters or practitioners of witchcraft . In 1604 , the year following James 's accession to the English throne , a new witchcraft law was enacted , " An Act against Conjuration , Witchcraft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits " , imposing the death penalty for causing harm by the use of magic or the exhumation of corpses for magical purposes . James was , however , sceptical of the evidence presented in witch trials , even to the extent of personally exposing discrepancies in the testimonies presented against some accused witches .
The accused witches lived in Lancashire , an English county which , at the end of the 16th century , was regarded by the authorities as a wild and lawless region , " fabled for its theft , violence and sexual laxity , where the church was honoured without much understanding of its doctrines by the common people " . Since the death of Queen Mary and the accession to the throne of her half @-@ sister Elizabeth in 1558 , Catholic priests had been forced into hiding , but in remote areas like Lancashire they continued to celebrate mass in secret . In early 1612 , the year of the trials , each justice of the peace ( JP ) in Lancashire was ordered to compile a list of the recusants in their area – those who refused to attend the services of the Church of England , a criminal offence at that time .
= = = Southworth family = = =
The 16th @-@ century English Reformation , during which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church , split the Southworth family of Samlesbury Hall . Sir John Southworth , head of the family , was a leading recusant who had been arrested several times for refusing to abandon his Catholic faith . His eldest son , also called John , did convert to the Church of England , for which he was disinherited , but the rest of the family remained staunchly Catholic .
One of the accused witches , Jane Southworth , was the widow of the disinherited son , John . Relations between John and his father do not seem to have been amicable ; according to a statement made by John Singleton , in which he referred to Sir John as his " old Master " , Sir John refused even to pass his son 's house if he could avoid it , and believed that Jane would probably kill her husband . Jane Southworth ( née Sherburne ) and John were married in about 1598 , and the couple lived in Samlesbury Lower Hall . Jane had been widowed only a few months before her trial for witchcraft in 1612 , and had seven children .
= = Investigations = =
On 21 March 1612 , Alizon Device , who lived just outside the Lancashire village of Fence , near Pendle Hill , encountered John Law , a pedlar from Halifax . She asked him for some pins , which he refused to give to her , and a few minutes later Law suffered a stroke , for which he blamed Alizon . Along with her mother Elizabeth and her brother James , Alizon was summoned to appear before local magistrate Roger Nowell on 30 March 1612 . Based on the evidence and confessions he obtained , Nowell committed Alizon and ten others to Lancaster Gaol to be tried at the next assizes for maleficium , causing harm by witchcraft .
Other Lancashire magistrates learned of Nowell 's discovery of witchcraft in the county , and on 15 April 1612 JP Robert Holden began investigations in his own area of Samlesbury . As a result , eight individuals were committed to Lancaster Assizes , three of whom – Jane Southworth , Jennet Bierley , and Ellen Bierley – were accused of practising witchcraft on Grace Sowerbutts , Jennet 's granddaughter and Ellen 's niece .
= = Trial = =
The trial was held on 19 August 1612 before Sir Edward Bromley , a judge seeking promotion to a circuit nearer London , and who may therefore have been keen to impress King James , the head of the judiciary . Before the trial began , Bromley ordered the release of five of the eight defendants from Samlesbury , with a warning about their future conduct . The remainder – Jane Southworth , Jennet Bierley , and Ellen Bierley – were accused of using " diverse devillish and wicked Arts , called Witchcrafts , Inchauntments , Charmes , and Sorceries , in and upon one Grace Sowerbutts " , to which they pleaded not guilty . Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Grace was the chief prosecution witness .
Grace was the first to give evidence . In her statement she claimed that both her grandmother and aunt , Jennet and Ellen Bierley , were able to transform themselves into dogs and that they had " haunted and vexed her " for years . She further alleged that they had transported her to the top of a hayrick by her hair , and on another occasion had tried to persuade her to drown herself . According to Grace , her relatives had taken her to the house of Thomas Walshman and his wife , from whom they had stolen a baby to suck its blood . Grace claimed that the child died the following night , and that after its burial at Samlesbury Church Ellen and Jennet dug up the body and took it home , where they cooked and ate some of it and used the rest to make an ointment that enabled them to change themselves into other shapes .
Grace also alleged that her grandmother and aunt , with Jane Southworth , attended sabbats held every Thursday and Sunday night at Red Bank , on the north shore of the River Ribble . At those secret meetings they met with " foure black things , going upright , and yet not like men in the face " , with whom they ate , danced , and had sex .
Thomas Walshman , the father of the baby allegedly killed and eaten by the accused , was the next to give evidence . He confirmed that his child had died of unknown causes at about one year old . He added that Grace Sowerbutts was discovered lying as if dead in his father 's barn on about 15 April , and did not recover until the following day . Two other witnesses , John Singleton and William Alker , confirmed that Sir John Southworth , Jane Southworth 's father @-@ in @-@ law , had been reluctant to pass the house where his son lived , as he believed Jane to be an " evil woman , and a Witch " .
= = = Examinations = = =
Thomas Potts , the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes , records that after hearing the evidence many of those in court were persuaded of the accused 's guilt . On being asked by the judge what answer they could make to the charges laid against them , Potts reports that they " humbly fell upon their knees with weeping teares " , and " desired him [ Bromley ] for Gods cause to examine Grace Sowerbutts " . Immediately " the countenance of this Grace Sowerbutts changed " ; the witnesses " began to quarrel and accuse one another " , and eventually admitted that Grace had been coached in her story by a Catholic priest they called Thompson . Bromley then committed the girl to be examined by two JPs , William Leigh and Edward Chisnal . Under questioning Grace readily admitted that her story was untrue , and said she had been told what to say by Jane Southworth 's uncle , Christopher Southworth aka Thompson , a Jesuit priest who was in hiding in the Samlesbury area ; Southworth was the chaplain at Samlesbury Hall , and Jane Southworth 's uncle by marriage . Leigh and Chisnal questioned the three accused women in an attempt to discover why Southworth might have fabricated evidence against them , but none could offer any reason other than that each of them " goeth to the [ Anglican ] Church " .
After the statements had been read out in court Bromley ordered the jury to find the defendants not guilty , stating that :
God hath delivered you beyond expectation , I pray God you may use this mercie and favour well ; and take heed you fall not hereafter : And so the court doth order that you shall be delivered .
Potts concludes his account of the trial with the words : " Thus were these poore Innocent creatures , by the great care and paines of this honourable Judge , delivered from the danger of this Conspiracie ; this bloudie practise of the Priest laid open " .
= = The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster = =
Almost everything that is known about the trials comes from a report of the proceedings written by Thomas Potts , the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes . Potts was instructed to write his account by the trial judges , and had completed the work by 16 November 1612 . Bromley revised and corrected the manuscript before its publication in 1613 , declaring it to be " truly reported " and " fit and worthie to be published " . Although written as an apparently verbatim account , the book is not a report of what was actually said at the trial , but instead a reflection on what happened . Nevertheless , Potts " seems to give a generally trustworthy , although not comprehensive , account of an Assize witchcraft trial , provided that the reader is constantly aware of his use of written material instead of verbatim reports " .
In his introduction to the trial , Potts writes ; " Thus have we for a time left the Graund Witches of the Forrest of Pendle , to the good consideration of a very sufficient jury . " Bromley had by then heard the cases against the three Pendle witches who had confessed to their guilt , but he had yet to deal with the others , who maintained their innocence . He knew that the only testimony against them would come from a nine @-@ year @-@ old girl , and that King James had cautioned judges to examine carefully the evidence presented against accused witches , warning against credulity . In his conclusion to the account of the trial , Potts says that it was interposed in the expected sequence " by special order and commandment " , presumably of the trial judges . After having convicted and sentenced to death three witches , Bromley may have been keen to avoid any suspicion of credulity by presenting his " masterful exposure " of the evidence presented by Grace Sowerbutts , before turning his attention back to the remainder of the Pendle witches .
= = Modern interpretation = =
Potts declares that " this Countie of Lancashire ... now may lawfully bee said to abound asmuch in Witches of divers kinds as Seminaries , Jesuites , and Papists " , and describes the three accused women as having once been " obstinate Papists , and now came to Church " . The judges would certainly have been keen to be regarded by King James , the head of the judiciary , as having dealt resolutely with Catholic recusants as well as with witchcraft , the " two big threats to Jacobean order in Lancashire " . Samlesbury Hall , the family home of the Southworths , was suspected by the authorities of being a refuge for Catholic priests , and it was under secret government surveillance for some considerable time before the trial of 1612 . It may be that JP Robert Holden was at least partially motivated in his investigations by a desire to " smoke out its Jesuit chaplain " , Christopher Southworth .
The English experience of witchcraft was somewhat different from the European one , with only one really mass witchhunt , that of Matthew Hopkins in East Anglia during 1645 . That one incident accounted for more than 20 % of the number of witches it is estimated were executed in England between the early 15th and mid @-@ 18th century , fewer than 500 . The English legal system also differed significantly from the inquisitorial model used in Europe , requiring members of the public to accuse their neighbours of some crime , and for the case to be decided by a jury of their peers . English witch trials of the period " revolved around popular beliefs , according to which the crime of witchcraft was one of ... evil @-@ doing " , for which tangible evidence had to be provided .
Potts devotes several pages to a fairly detailed criticism of the evidence presented in Grace Sowerbutts ' statement , giving an insight into the discrepancies that existed during the early 17th century between the Protestant establishment 's view of witchcraft and the beliefs of the common people , who may have been influenced by the more continental views of Catholic priests such as Christopher Southworth . Unlike their European counterparts , the English Protestant elite believed that witches kept familiars , or companion animals , and so it was not considered credible that the Samlesbury witches had none . Grace 's story of the sabbat , too , was unfamiliar to the English at that time , although belief in such secret gatherings of witches was widespread in Europe . Most demonologists of the period , including King James , held that only God could perform miracles , and that he had not given the power to go against the laws of nature to those in league with the Devil . Hence Potts dismisses Sowerbutts ' claim that Jennet Bierley transformed herself into a black dog with the comment " I would know by what means any Priest can maintaine this point of Evidence " . He equally lightly dismisses Grace 's account of the sabbat she claimed to have attended , where she met with " foure black things ... not like men in the face " , with the comment that " The Seminarie [ priest ] mistakes the face for the feete : For Chattox [ one of the Pendle witches ] and all her fellow witches agree , the Devill is cloven @-@ footed : but Fancie [ Chattox 's familiar ] had a very good face , and was a proper man . "
It is perhaps unlikely that the accused women would have failed to draw the examining magistrate 's attention to their suspicions concerning Grace Sowerbutts ' motivations when first examined , only to do so at the very end of their trial when asked by the judge if they had anything to say in their defence . The trial of the Samlesbury witches in 1612 may have been " largely a piece of anti @-@ Catholic propaganda " , or even a " show @-@ trial " , the purpose of which was to demonstrate that Lancashire was being purged not only of witches , but also of " popish plotters " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Bromley achieved his desired promotion to the Midlands Circuit in 1616 . Potts was given the keepership of Skalme Park by King James in 1615 , to breed and train the king 's hounds . In 1618 he was given responsibility for " collecting the forfeitures on the laws concerning sewers , for twenty @-@ one years " . Jane Southworth 's eldest son , Thomas , eventually inherited his grandfather 's estate of Samlesbury Hall .
= Emilie de Ravin =
Emilie de Ravin ( / ˈɛməli də ˈrævɪn / ; born 27 December 1981 ) is an Australian actress . She has played Tess Harding on Roswell and Claire Littleton on the ABC drama Lost . In 2012 she guest @-@ starred as Belle on the ABC drama Once Upon a Time and became a series regular beginning with season two .
De Ravin 's film credits include Santa 's Slay ( 2005 ) , The Hills Have Eyes ( 2006 ) and Ball Don 't Lie ( 2008 ) . She starred as Emily , the heroin @-@ addicted ex @-@ girlfriend of Brendan Frye , in the neo @-@ noir film Brick ( 2005 ) . She had a cameo in Public Enemies ( 2009 ) and more recently starred in Remember Me ( 2010 ) . De Ravin was included on Maxim 's Hot 100 list three times : in 2005 , on No. 47 , the next year on No. 65 , and in 2008 on No. 68 .
= = Early life = =
De Ravin was born in Mount Eliza , Victoria , Australia , an outer southeastern suburb of Melbourne . Having studied ballet since the age of nine at Christa Cameron School of Ballet in Melbourne , and being home schooled by her mother , she was accepted into the Australian Ballet School at fifteen , where she performed in productions with The Australian Ballet as well as Danceworld 301 .
She studied acting at Australia 's National Institute of Dramatic Art , and with the Prime Time Actors Studio in Los Angeles .
= = Career = =
De Ravin 's first major role was a recurring part as Curupira in the TV series Beastmaster . She went on to appear as alien / human hybrid Tess Harding in the teen television series , Roswell . She landed this role one month after moving to Los Angeles at the age of 18 .
In 2004 , De Ravin was cast to portray Claire Littleton on the hit ABC drama Lost . Speaking about the success of Lost , she said : " It 's sort of hard to say . You read something and have a good feeling about it , it sounds great , ties nicely together and then shooting something , editing it , the music , the actors involved , everything sort of plays a huge part . Everyone involved had a great feeling towards it , but you never really know . " She was a series regular for the first four seasons and the sixth and final season . She was not a regular in season five but was under a holding contract with ABC Network .
In 2005 , De Ravin was cast to portray Emily Kostich , the heroin @-@ addicted ex @-@ girlfriend of Brendan Frye ( Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt ) , in the neo @-@ noir film Brick . In an interview about the film , Ravin told that she was attracted by the script because it was original and the teens in the film are very deep and emotional for their age .
A year later , De Ravin had a lead role and was cast as Brenda Carter in the remake of The Hills Have Eyes . The film performed well at the box office . In 2007 , Variety reported that she would be starring in the film Ball Don 't Lie , which premiered at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival , which arrived in cinemas early 2009 . De Ravin appeared in William Dear 's The Perfect Game , and appeared in the 2009 film Public Enemies as a bank teller named Barbara Patzke .
De Ravin was cast in the movie adaption of the video game Onimusha , but due to producer Samuel Hadida 's other project The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus , and star Heath Ledger 's death , Hadida was forced to push back the release date of the film . Onimusha is postponed for an unknown amount of time and there is not any confirmation if De Ravin will continue the project . De Ravin filmed Remember Me in the summer of 2009 . The film received its wide release on 12 March 2010 . She was a regular on the sixth and final season of Lost .
In 2012 she guest @-@ starred as Belle on the ABC fantasy drama , Once Upon a Time . After sporadic appearances in the first season , she was promoted to a series regular in the second .
De Ravin starred in the Finnish film Love and Other Troubles , directed by Samuli Valkama . The film tells the story of Ville ( Jussi Nikkilä ) and his father ( Ville Virtanen ) , who both fall in love with the same woman , played by De Ravin .
She was to star as Anthony LaPaglia 's character 's daughter in the new drama series Americana in 2012 , but ABC passed on the pilot .
= = Personal life = =
After three years of dating , actor Josh Janowicz proposed to De Ravin on New Year 's Day 2003 in Melbourne , which she said " was very impromptu and very sweet " . She met Janowicz in Los Angeles , and said that " our life together always comes before work . You can 't buy love or family . " While filming Lost , De Ravin flew to and from Hawaii " once or twice a week " to return to her home in Burbank , California , which she shared with Janowicz and their poodle .
The couple married 19 June 2003 ( not 2006 , when they had a public celebration ) in Melbourne , Australia . They separated six months after they married , and then reconciled . In June 2009 , it was reported that they were living separately and had filed for divorce . In October 2009 , she called off the divorce after a trip to Japan with her husband . On 8 July 2014 , de Ravin filed for divorce from Janowicz .
According to court documents , the pair wed on 19 June 2003 , despite their wedding ceremony on 26 June 2006 ; the documents further confirm that the couple separated on 1 November 2013 . On 3 October 2015 , de Ravin announced via Twitter that she was expecting her first child with her boyfriend Eric Bilitch . On March 12 , 2016 , she gave birth to a baby girl named Vera Audrey de Ravin @-@ Bilitch . The couple announced their engagement on July 6 , 2016 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= New York State Route 344 =
New York State Route 344 ( NY 344 ) is a state highway located in Columbia County , New York , in the United States . The route is 1 @.@ 90 miles ( 3 @.@ 06 km ) in length and serves primarily as an access road to the Bash Bish Falls state parks on both sides of the New York – Massachusetts border . The western terminus of NY 344 is at NY 22 in Copake Falls . Its eastern terminus is at the Massachusetts state line , where it continues into Bash Bish Falls State Park as Falls Road , a locally maintained highway . NY 344 was assigned c . 1932 and extended to its current length by 1953 after NY 22 was rerouted to bypass Copake Falls .
= = Route description = =
NY 344 begins at an intersection with NY 22 in the hamlet of Copake Falls . The road heads to the southeast , turning eastward into Taconic State Park . NY 344 intersects with a few local roads at the border of the park , where it runs along the south base of Sunset Rock , an 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) high , dual @-@ state mountain . The route continues eastward , along the base of Cedar Mountain before beginning to ascend the mountain . While climbing Cedar Mountain , NY 344 crosses into Massachusetts and becomes the unnumbered Falls Road , a local roadway providing access to Bash Bish Falls State Park .
= = History = =
NY 344 was assigned c . 1932 to a 1 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 45 km ) long highway extending from Copake Falls in the west to the Massachusetts state line in the east . At the time , NY 22 served Copake Falls directly instead of bypassing it . NY 22 was rerouted to bypass Copake Falls on a new roadway to the west of the hamlet between 1947 and 1953 . NY 344 was then extended northward on NY 22 's former alignment to meet the new bypass north of Copake Falls . The southern half of NY 22 's old routing into the hamlet remained state @-@ maintained as well and is now NY 980F , an unsigned reference route .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Copake , Columbia County .
= Interstate 29 in Iowa =
In the U.S. state of Iowa , Interstate 29 ( I @-@ 29 ) is a north – south Interstate Highway which closely parallels the Missouri River . I @-@ 29 enters Iowa from Missouri near Hamburg and heads to the north @-@ northwest through the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs and the Sioux City areas . It exits the state by crossing the Big Sioux River into South Dakota . For its entire distance through the state , it runs on the flat land between the Missouri River and the Loess Hills .
I @-@ 29 was built in sections over a period of 15 years . When there was a shortage of male workers , female workers stepped in to build a twenty @-@ mile ( 32 km ) section near Missouri Valley . Between Council Bluffs and Sioux City , I @-@ 29 replaced U.S. Route 75 ( US 75 ) as the major route in western Iowa . As a result of I @-@ 29 's creation , US 75 south of Sioux City was relocated into Nebraska .
= = Route description = =
Interstate 29 enters Iowa south of Hamburg . The interstate heads northwest , where it meets Iowa Highway 333 ( Iowa 333 ) at a diamond interchange . From Hamburg , I @-@ 29 continues to the northwest for seven miles ( 11 km ) where it meets Iowa 2 three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Nebraska City , Nebraska . North of the Iowa 2 interchange , the interstate straightens out to the north ; interchanges serving Percival , Thurman , and Bartlett are spaced out every four and a half miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) . At the US 34 interchange near Glenwood , I @-@ 29 is joined by US 275 .
North of Glenwood , I @-@ 29 / US 275 continue north towards Council Bluffs . The two routes meet Iowa 370 , which crosses into Nebraska providing access to Offutt Air Force Base in Bellevue , Nebraska . Near Lake Manawa , US 275 splits away from I @-@ 29 at the Iowa 92 interchange. three @-@ quarters mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of the split , the interstate is joined from the east by Interstate 80 . The two interstates head west together through southern Council Bluffs for three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . When the two interstates split at a Y interchange , I @-@ 80 immediately crosses the Missouri River into Nebraska , and I @-@ 29 immediately turns to the north . Two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the north is a modified Y interchange with US 6 and the eastern end of I @-@ 480 .
North of Council Bluffs , I @-@ 29 is joined by I @-@ 680 near Crescent . The two interstates travel north together for nine miles ( 14 km ) before I @-@ 680 splits off to the east near Loveland . I @-@ 29 continues north for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to Missouri Valley , where it intersects US 30 . North of Missouri Valley , the interstate turns to the northwest towards Modale and then straightens out again south of Mondamin , where I @-@ 29 meets the western end of Iowa 127 . From Mondamin , it travels north for 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the Iowa 175 interchange at Onawa , passing Little Sioux and Blencoe .
North of Onawa , I @-@ 29 continues northwest for fifteen miles ( 24 km ) towards Sloan , where it meets the western end of Iowa 141 . As it approaches the Sioux City metro area , it passes the Sioux Gateway Airport at Sergeant Bluff . At the Singing Hills Boulevard interchange , northbound is joined by southbound U.S. Route 75 Business ( US 75 Bus . ) . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , US 75 Bus. ends at the cloverleaf interchange with US 20 / US 75 , which is also the eastern end of Interstate 129 .
For the next three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the I @-@ 129 interchange , I @-@ 29 runs closely , as close as 200 feet ( 61 m ) , to the Missouri River . The interstate follows the curve of the river and turns to the west . It meets Gordon Drive , which carries US 20 Bus . US 20 Bus. traffic is directed onto the interstate for one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) before it exits via a volleyball interchange which represents the national northern end of U.S. Route 77 . I @-@ 29 continues west along the Missouri River , and after the Big Sioux River converges into the Missouri , I @-@ 29 follows the Big Sioux . Shortly before it crosses the Big Sioux into South Dakota , Iowa 12 splits away to the north .
= = History = =
Construction of Interstate 29 began in the late 1950s in the Sioux City area . The first section to open , a three @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) stretch from the Big Sioux River to the then @-@ US 20 / US 77 bridge across the Missouri River , opened around October 1 , 1958 . In September 1961 , I @-@ 29 was extended across the Big Sioux River to South Dakota . On April 1 , 1962 , some of the northbound directional spans collapsed into the Big Sioux River at the South Dakota state line as a result of flooding and bridge scour .
North of Council Bluffs , a twenty @-@ mile ( 32 km ) section to Missouri Valley opened in November 1958 . By December 1967 , the two sections were connected , creating 100 miles ( 160 km ) of continuous interstate highway . Due to a shortage of male workers , at least 20 women were enlisted to help build this section of I @-@ 29 . The women were paid $ 2 @.@ 00 hourly ( $ 14 @.@ 00 hourly in 2016 dollars ) , the same wage as men would have earned .
Construction of I @-@ 29 in the Council Bluffs area was completed in 1970 and the route was open to Glenwood in the same year . Additional interchanges were added in the Sioux City and Council Bluffs areas between 1970 and 1971 . The last thirty miles ( 48 km ) of interstate were constructed and opened in sections over the next two years ; the last section opened on December 15 , 1972 .
In 1973 , US 34 was expanded to four lanes near Glenwood , which resulted in US 34 being rerouted onto I @-@ 29 for three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . In 2003 , US 275 was rerouted onto I @-@ 29 from the same interchange near Glenwood northward to Iowa 92 at Council Bluffs . The former US 275 alignment was turned over to Mills and Pottawattamie Counties .
Much of I @-@ 29 was built next to existing highways , most notably US 75 . When the section of I @-@ 29 opened between Council Bluffs and Missouri Valley , US 75 was rerouted onto I @-@ 29 . When construction connecting the Sioux City and Council Bluffs segments was completed , US 75 was again rerouted onto I @-@ 29 . In the mid @-@ 1980s , US 75 , from Council Bluffs to Sioux City , was completely rerouted out of Iowa , instead extending up the former US 73 corridor in Nebraska .
= = Exit list = =
= Rembrandt ( horse ) =
Rembrandt ( 1
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@ amazing climax which puts it in a different league altogether . " Sukanya Verma for Rediff too gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , and commented , " Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu is neither on the epic side like Dharma Productions ' great , grand ancestors nor weighed down by an overload of pop culture references of those that define the genre . " Komal Nahta for Koimoi , too , gave 3 out of 5 stars , saying Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu is an entertaining and enjoyable fare for the city audience . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave it 3 out of 5 stars and said " Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu is a narrative that unfolds mainly through dialogue , and the lighter moments come at you as the odd couple gets to know each other . The humor hits the mark many times and falls flat occasionally , but the movie doesn 't grate because the characters aren 't trying too hard to be cute . "
The Economic Times gave 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and said " It 's perfect in whatever it offers . But what it offers is quite average in volume . " Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and said " The film passes by pleasantly enough past all its expected roadsigns , providing a smile and an occasional chuckle but making you wish for more newness . "
On the contrary , Kunal Guha of Yahoo ! gave 2 stars out of 5 , saying " this film doesn 't subscribe to every cliché associated with this auspicious day for getting Main and Tu to become Hum . "
= = = Box office = = =
Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu had a decent opening at the box office . The film opened well in multiplexes in North India , while other areas had an average opening at multiplexes . On its first day , it earned about ₹ 52 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 780 @,@ 000 ) nett , with major collections coming from Mumbai , Delhi NCR , Punjab and Mysore . It collected ₹ 72 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) nett on Saturday , while ₹ 85 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) on Sunday , hence totaling its first weekend collection around ₹ 210 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 1 million ) .
On Monday , the film netted around ₹ 25 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) , with a 50 % drop in collections as compared to first day . On Tuesday , Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu had a jump and earned around ₹ 45 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 670 @,@ 000 ) nett , owing to Valentine 's Day . At the end of its first week , Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu earned a total of ₹ 308 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 6 million ) . It added ₹ 75 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) and ₹ 15 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 220 @,@ 000 ) during its second and third week respectively , taking its total to around ₹ 398 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) nett .
Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu had a decent opening at the international box office . In the UK , in its opening weekend , the film collected £ 242 @,@ 177 in 53 screens . It fared even better in the United States , collecting $ 1 @.@ 7 million from 111 screens in its opening weekend .
= Red Dress ( song ) =
" Red Dress " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their fourth studio album , Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . The group 's members wrote the song in collaboration with its producers , the British songwriting and production team Xenomania , based on the perception that women must expose their body to be noticed " Red Dress " was released in the United Kingdom on 6 March 2006 as the album 's third single , and is the first to feature vocals by Amelle Berrabah , following the departure of Mutya Buena in December 2005 . The Sugababes performed a cover of the Arctic Monkeys ' song " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " as the single 's B @-@ side .
The song is an uptempo pop record that contains a sample from " Landslide " , a Northern soul recording by Tony Clarke . It received positive reviews from critics , who commended its composition and Xenomania 's contribution in particular . " Red Dress " peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , number seven on the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 chart , and inside the top twenty on the singles charts of Ireland , New Zealand and Norway . The song 's music video was directed by Tim Royes in January 2006 and features the group 's members in red dresses . The Sugababes performed the single as part of the set lists for their Taller in More Ways , Overloaded : The Singles Collection and Change tours , and at the Liverpool Summer Pops and Oxegen Festival music festivals .
= = Background and composition = =
" Red Dress " was written by the Sugababes — Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena and Heidi Range — in collaboration with Brian Higgins , Miranda Cooper , Tim Powell , Nick Coler , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , and Bob Bradley , for the group 's fourth studio album Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) . According to Range , the song was inspired by the perception that women must expose their body to be noticed . It was produced by Higgins and Xenomania , who also produced the album track " Ace Reject " . " Red Dress " was mixed by Jeremy Wheatley and Powell with assistance from Richard Edgeler , and programmed by Powell and Higgins . The accompanying keyboards for the track were provided by Powell , Higgins , Tim Larcombe and Jon Shave . The bass was provided by Bradley , while the guitars were provided by Coler and Lee . " Red Dress " was recorded by Dario Dendi at Eden Studios , London , with assistance from Chris Poulter and Zoe Smith .
" Red Dress " is an uptempo pop song with elements of funk . Its instrumentation consists of keyboards , bass and guitars . The song 's main riff is sampled from " Landslide " , a Northern soul recording by Tony Clarke . " Red Dress " features two choruses , as well as verses that are reminiscent of " Rapture " by American pop band Blondie . Talia Kraines of BBC noted that the song has a " foot @-@ tapping " vibe to it . " Red Dress " features a girl power theme , and is lyrically about a woman who uses her sexuality to gain power over men . The Sugababes repeatedly sing the line " Cause I 'm cooler than the red dress " during the beginning of the song and in the first chorus . Ross Hoffman of AllMusic noted that " Red Dress " is evocative of Xenomania 's " frisky " productions for British girl group Girls Aloud .
= = Release = =
On 21 December 2005 it was announced that Buena had left the Sugababes . Amelle Berrabah was revealed as her replacement one day later . As a result of the line @-@ up change , Taller in More Ways was re @-@ released to feature Berrabah 's vocals on three tracks , which included " Red Dress " , " Gotta Be You " and " Follow Me Home " . " Red Dress " was subsequently chosen as the third single from the album . Buena later revealed that she had been uncomfortable with the original version of the song after recording it , clarifying that she " absolutely hated " it . Upon hearing the new version with Berrabah , she became " quite happy they did it . " The song was released as a CD single and digital download on 6 March 2006 by Island Records . It is featured on the Sugababes ' greatest hits album , Overloaded : The Singles Collection ( 2006 ) , and the soundtrack for the 2006 film It 's a Boy Girl Thing . The Sugababes confirmed in January 2006 that the B @-@ side to " Red Dress " would be a cover version of Arctic Monkeys ' debut single " I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor " , which replaced the group 's 2005 single " Push the Button " at number one on the UK Singles Chart . Upon the recording of the B @-@ side , the Sugababes said : " When our bosses asked us to think of covers for the B @-@ side , we knew which song we would all love to do . " Ben Thompson of The Observer praised Berrabah 's " bluesy rasp " as a novelty , while Jimmy Draper of Time Out wrote : " It transforms the punky rave @-@ up into a disco stomper that could make even the staunchiest pop @-@ hater get up and dance " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical response for " Red Dress " was generally positive . Stuart McCaighy of This Is Fake DIY described the song as " top of the range pop " , and considered it an example that Xenomania " don 't keep all their best songs for Girls Aloud . " Peter Robinson of The Observer called the track a " thumping tour de force from Xenomania " , and noted that it " flirts vivaciously with pop songwriting convention " . A journalist from Virgin Media regarded " Red Dress " as an " irresistibly funky effort from the amorphous trio and their producers " . AllMusic critic K. Ross Hoffman praised the bassline sampled from Tony Clarke 's " Landslide " , while Fiona Edwards of Digital Spy applauded the song 's bass , beats , and chorus . Nick Southall of Stylus Magazine described the song as an " up @-@ tempo floor @-@ filler " with a " maximalist stomp . " Writing for The Daily Telegraph , Joe Muggs praised " Red Dress " as a dancefloor hit ; similarly , Digital Spy critics Nick Levine and David Balls considered it one of the group 's most danceable singles . A journalist from The Scotsman characterised the track as " mechanically groovy " , while a Birmingham Mail critic described it as " a stomping anthem with attitude @-@ drenched verses and killer chorus " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian characterised " Red Dress " as a " brilliant , immaculately written pop song " . However , Andrew Mueller of the same publication called it " a lazy and rather too obvious retread " of the group 's 2004 single , " In the Middle " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Red Dress " debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated 18 March 2006 with 18 @,@ 210 copies sold . It was the highest @-@ ranked debut for that week . Taller in More Ways subsequently became the first album by the Sugababes to produce three UK top @-@ five hits . " Red Dress " spent ten weeks on the chart and has sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in the country , ranking as the group 's fourteenth best @-@ selling single in the UK . The song debuted and peaked at number twelve on the Irish Singles Chart . " Red Dress " appeared on the Dutch Top 40 chart at number nine , and peaked at number seven the following week for two non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was the chart 's 66th best @-@ performing single of 2006 . The single reached the top twenty on the charts in Denmark and Norway , and the top forty on the charts in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Germany , Hungary , and Switzerland . It reached number 41 on the Austrian Singles Chart , and number 61 on the Czech Singles Chart . The song 's performance throughout Europe allowed it to chart on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , where it peaked at number fourteen . " Red Dress " debuted and peaked at number 22 on the Australian Singles Chart , where it charted for twelve weeks . The single peaked at number sixteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart and was the group 's third consecutive top @-@ twenty hit in the country . A writer from the Coventry Evening Telegraph noted that the line @-@ up change did not affect the song 's commercial performance .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for " Red Dress " was directed by Tim Royes and filmed in January 2006 . Berrabah revealed details about the music video during an interview that was published on the group 's official website , saying : " We 're shooting the vid this week with director Tim Royce . We 're really looking forward to it as there are going to be lots of costume changes . It 's going to have a catwalk show theme with lots of mad outfits – very over the top and extravagant – we can 't wait ! " Royes went on to direct the music video for Sugababes ' single " Easy " in the same year . The Sugababes wore endorsed hosiery in scenes for the video as part of their endorsement with Pretty Polly .
The video begins with close @-@ up shots of Berrabah , Buchanan and Range ; all three are wearing red dresses , while Berrabah is also wearing a black mask . Buchanan drops two large , blue feathers on the floor and begins strutting . Berrabah later removes her mask and is shown lying on a red chair . The next scene shows all three members on a fluffy , white couch in hosiery ; Range , Buchanan and Berrabah are wearing blue , pink and white tops , respectively . The trio begin strutting together in a linear motion , resembling a catwalk . Range is shown on a bubble chair , and later on a red floor , resting her leg on a disco ball . Throughout the video , the Sugababes continue to strut in red dresses , corresponding with the song 's theme . The video ends with Range , Buchanan and Berrabah posing with their hands on their hips . The music video for " Red Dress " earned the Sugababes a 2006 Music Vision Award nomination . The video peaked at number two on the UK TV airplay chart for three weeks .
= = = Live performances = = =
The Sugababes performed " Red Dress " in Turin , Italy , in February 2006 for Top of the Pops at the Winter Olympics . To promote the song 's release , they performed it on 6 March 2006 at the HMV store on Oxford Street , London . The single appeared in the set list for the group 's Taller in More Ways tour in 2006 , and served as the shows ' encore in conjunction with " Push the Button " . According to Craig Hope of Chronicle Live , the song " came amid a sea of manic applause " . " Red Dress " was featured in the set list for their 2007 tour in support of Overloaded : The Singles Collection . The Sugababes performed the single at the Aintree Pavilion in July 2007 as part of the Liverpool Summer Pops music event . It was the opening song of the gig , and the trio was backed by a five @-@ piece band . The single was performed on 14 September 2007 during their gig at indig02 , a live club for smaller music events . Nick Levine of Digital Spy described the performance as " one of the night 's pulsating highlights " .
" Red Dress " was also included on the set list for the Sugababes ' Change Tour in 2008 . During the performance , the song was mashed with Frankie Goes to Hollywood 's 1984 single " Two Tribes " . Corresponding with the title of the song , the trio wore red , cellophane dresses for the performance . Berrabah named the outfit one of her favourites to wear during the tour . " Red Dress " was performed at the 2008 Oxygen Festival as part of a set list which included numerous of the group 's previous singles . In June 2009 , the band performed " Red Dress " at the Cannock Chase Forrest as part of a 75 @-@ minute show , and at Canterbury , Kent as the thirteenth song on the set list . " Red Dress " was one of many songs that the group performed on 10 July 2009 at the Riverside Ground in County Durham , England . The fourth line @-@ up of the Sugababes , consisting of Range , Berrabah and Jade Ewen , performed the single in November 2010 at the Yas Hotel in Abu Dhabi , as part of a set list . The trio played the song in September 2011 during their gig at London 's nightclub , G @-@ A @-@ Y , in which they wore coordinating , pastel rubber outfits .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded by Dario Dendi at Eden Studios , London
Assisted by Chris Poulter and Zoe Smith
Personnel
Songwriting – Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena , Heidi Range , Brian Higgins , Miranda Cooper , Tim Powell , Nick Coler , Shawn Lee , Lisa Cowling , Bob Bradley
Production – Brian Higgins , Xenomania
Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley , Tim Powell
Mixing ( assistant ) – Richard Edgeler
Keyboards – Tim Powell , Brian Higgins , " Rolf " Larcombe , Jon Shave
Programming – Tim Powell , Brian Higgins
Bass – Bob Bradley
Guitars – Nick Coler , Shawn Lee
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Overloaded : The Singles Collection .
= = Charts = =
= Piel Castle =
Piel Castle , also known as Fouldry Castle or the Pile of Fouldray , is a castle situated on the south @-@ eastern point of Piel Island , off the coast of the Furness Peninsula in north @-@ west England . Built in the early @-@ 14th century by John Cockerham , the Abbot of neighbouring Furness Abbey , it was intended to oversea the trade through the local harbour and to protect against Scottish raids . The castle was built using stones from the local beach , and featured a large keep with surrounding inner and outer baileys . It was used as a base by the Yorkist pretender Lambert Simnel in 1487 , but by 1534 it had fallen into ruin and passed into the hands of the Crown . Sea erosion began to cause significant damage to the castle in the early 19th century . In the 1870s the castle 's owner , the Duke of Buccleuch , carried out extensive restoration work and erected outworks to protect it against further damage from the sea . In 1920 the castle was given to the town of Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness and is now in the care of English Heritage .
= = History = =
Piel Castle was built on Piel Island , overlooking the deep water port of Piel Harbour outside of Barrow Haven , now called Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness . There may have been an earlier 12th @-@ century fortification on the island , possibly built by the local monks in the reign of King Stephen , but this is uncertain . The castle was built by the John Cockerham , the Abbot of Furness Abbey around 1327 , when Edward III gave the abbey a licence to crenellate on the site . Comprising a keep with an inner and outer bailey , the castle was intended to oversee the trade through the harbour , and to provide defence , as the Abbey had faced raids from Scotland in 1316 and 1322 .
Architectural historian Anthony Emery argues that the castle was built in three phases , starting with the central keep , which he believes was intended as a largely unfortified summer residence for the Abbot . With the increased threat from Scotland and the granting of the licence to crenellate , Emery suggests that the inner bailey wall was then constructed to better defend the keep , followed by the outer bailey wall in a final phase of work .
In 1408 , the Abbot John Bolton decided that the cost of maintaining the castle was excessive , and attempted to pull down the defences , but was prevented from doing so by Henry IV ; this was followed by a period of rebuilding around 1429 . The castle was used for smuggling by the Abbey , leading to complaints from merchants in English @-@ controlled Calais that they were illegally trafficking wool , which in this period could only legally be sold through the French port . In 1487 the Yorkist pretender Lambert Simnel landed on Piel Island . He sought help from potential local supporters and held court at the castle , before advancing inland and ultimately being defeated at the Battle of Stoke Field . By 1534 the castle had fallen in ruin and was described in a report as " sore decayed " . In 1537 , on the dissolution of the Abbey , it became the property of the Crown , and after 1660 , was given to the Duke of Albermarle .
By the late 18th century , the island had become used as a base for maritime pilots , and the castle passed into the possession of the Dukes of Buccleuch . In 1811 , the poet William Wordsworth visited the area and wrote a poem entitled " Peele Castle " describing the site . The sea caused significant erosion during this period , and one side of the keep collapsed in the early 19th century . Walter Scott , the Duke of Buccleuch , purchased the rest of the island and carried out an extensive and expensive restoration of the castle between 1877 and 1878 , destroying most traces of the medieval occupation of the site in the process . The restoration involved constructing outworks to prevent further sea erosion , replacing damage to the ashlar stone features of the castle and protecting the tops of the stone walls .
In 1919 John Scott decided to sell the island and castle ; the local mayor , Alfred Barrow , intervened and the following the year the Duke instead agreed to give the castle and island to the local authorities as a memorial to those who had lost their life in World War I. The castle passed into the care of central government in 1973 , and is now controlled by English Heritage , who operate the site as a tourist attraction . An archaeological survey was commissioned by English Heritage in 1984 , carried out by Rachel Newman of Lancaster University ; the findings of the survey led to a program of restoration work , completed in 1991 . It is protected by law as a grade I listed building .
= = Architecture = =
The castle is built to an Edwardian concentric design , with a keep in the south @-@ eastern corner , protected by an inner and outer bailey with stone curtain walls extending out to the north @-@ west . The castle is built using stones from the local beach bonded with a liquid mortar , with the finer stonework , such as the doorways and windows , made from red ashlar sandstone imported from the mainland . Much of the surrounding island has been eroded by the sea and some of the castle has been lost , with fallen stone fragments still visible on the beach below .
The three @-@ storey keep stands on a low mound of clay , similar to that making up the base of the rest of the castle , and is 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) high , 76 feet ( 23 m ) by 74 feet ( 23 m ) across , reinforced with protruding buttresses , and a tower on the south @-@ eastern corner . The original entrance would have been at ground level , but a gatehouse , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) by 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , was then built along on the north side , raising this to the first floor . A carved female figure can be seen above the entrance arch , which may have been a representation of Salome . The keep had large windows on the first and second floors , although the lower level of these was later blocked up , and was unusually divided into three sections , creating a central hallway on each level . The eastern side of the keep has collapsed as a consequence of land erosion . Anthony Emery argues that the term " keep " is inappropriate for the building , which should be seen more as a residential tower house , similar to that at Langley Castle .
The inner and outer bailey walls have also been damaged by sea erosion , but they originally formed concentric squares around the keep and were protected by ditches . The outer bailey wall , 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) thick in places , is no longer very substantial , but even when first built it may have been quite weak ; it is protected by a moat , up to 13 metres ( 43 ft ) wide and 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep . Both the baileys are protected by towers ; the outer bailey towers are each 15 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The inner bailey wall is 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) thick , protected by a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide moat . Its towers were a later addition to the original design , and a gatehouse in the inner bailey wall was also built shortly after the construction of the castle . The fortifications would have been slightly old fashioned for the period . The outer bailey holds a stone building called " the chapel " , 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) by 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in size . Its original use is unknown and it appears to have been built late in the castle 's history , possibly after it became ruinous .
Local legends exist of a tunnel between the castle and Furness Abbey , allegedly used by the monks as escape route from the mainland . No such passageway exists .
= Typhoon Mireille =
Typhoon Mireille , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Oniang , was the costliest typhoon on record , striking Japan in September 1991 . The 20th named storm of the 1991 Pacific typhoon season , Mireille formed on September 13 from the monsoon trough near the Marshall Islands . It moved westward for several days as a small system , steered by the subtropical ridge to the north . The storm rapidly intensified to typhoon status on September 16 , and several days later passed north of Saipan in the Northern Marianas Islands . Mireille intensified further after deleterious effects from a nearby tropical storm subsided . On September 22 , the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated maximum 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , and on the next day , the official Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon weakened slightly while turning northward , passing just east of Miyako @-@ jima and later to the west of Okinawa . On September 27 , Mireille made landfall near Nagasaki in southwestern Japan with winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , the strongest since Typhoon Nancy in 1961 . The storm accelerated to the northeast through the Sea of Japan , moving over Hokkaido before becoming extratropical on September 28 . The remnants of Mireille continued to the east , passing through the Aleutian Islands of Alaska on October 1 .
The typhoon first threatened Guam , although it passed well to the north of the island , bringing damaging winds to northern Saipan . The first part of Japan affected was Miyako @-@ jima , where heavy rainfall and high winds damaged crops . Mireille lashed Okinawa with strong waves , while strong winds up to 189 km / h ( 118 mph ) damaged power lines and trees . The typhoon ultimately caused damage in 41 of 47 prefectures of Japan , with overall damage estimated at $ 10 billion ( USD ) , making it the costliest typhoon on record as of 2014 . Mireille produced record wind gusts at 26 locations , with a peak gust of 218 km / h ( 136 mph ) in western Honshu . The winds caused record power outages across Japan that affected 7 @.@ 36 million people , or about 13 % of total customers . Mireille also left extensive crop damage totaling $ 3 billion , mostly to the apple industry , after 345 @,@ 000 tons of apples fell to the ground and another 43 @,@ 000 were damaged on the trees . The storm damaged over 670 @,@ 000 houses , of which 1 @,@ 058 were destroyed , and another 22 @,@ 965 were flooded . Throughout Japan , Mireille killed 66 people and injured another 2 @,@ 862 people , including ten deaths on a capsized freighter . Elsewhere , the typhoon killed two people in South Korea , and its remnants brought strong winds to Alaska .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Mireille were from a poorly @-@ organized area of convection , or thunderstorms , associated with the monsoon trough near the Marshall Islands on September 13 . That day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began tracking the system as a tropical depression . The system moved westward , developing a large increase in thunderstorms over the center on September 15 . That day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , and issued their first advisory on Tropical Depression 21W at 00 : 00 UTC , estimating 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . About six hours later , the agency upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Mireille , after satellite imagery indicated the storm was very compact and intensifying quickly . The JTWC later determined in a post @-@ storm analysis that Mireille had attained tropical storm status 12 hours earlier on the previous day . Also at the time of it attaining tropical storm status , Mireille was one of three storms in the basin , along with Tropical Storm Luke to the northwest and Typhoon Nat to the west in the South China Sea .
Only 12 hours after the JTWC issued the first warning , Mireille attained typhoon status at 12 : 00 UTC on September 16 , and several hours later reached an initial peak intensity of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The small storm moved west @-@ northwestward due to the influence of the subtropical ridge to the north . On September 17 , the track shifted to the west @-@ southwest , threatening Guam . The small typhoon turned more to the west , passing about 20 km ( 12 mi ) north of Saipan on September 19 , part of the Northern Marianas Islands north of Guam . For several days , Mireille failed to intensify due to wind shear from the larger Tropical Storm Luke to the north . After Luke weakened and progressed northward , Mireille was able to strengthen more gradually , as well as increase in size . On September 22 , the typhoon strengthened into a super typhoon , which is an unofficial category used by the JTWC for storms reaching 1 ‑ minute winds of at least 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . According to the JMA , Mireille attained 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on September 23 .
Around the time of reaching peak intensity , Mireille turned more to the northwest along the southwestern periphery of the subtropical ridge . The increasing size began to impart wind shear in Typhoon Nat to the west , and the two storms underwent the Fujiwhara effect , in which Nat turned sharply southward while Mireille progressed toward the Ryukyu Islands of Japan . After maintaining peak winds for about 30 hours , Mireille began weakening , passing just east of Miyako @-@ jima on September 26 with 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , according to the JMA . That day , the typhoon accelerated to the northeast due to increasing mid @-@ level winds from the southwest , passing west of Okinawa . According to the JMA , Mireille re @-@ intensified slightly on September 27 to a secondary peak of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , aided by unusually warm water temperatures in the East China Sea . The typhoon made landfall at that strength at 07 : 00 UTC between Saikai and Nagasaki along southwest Kyushu . The pressure at landfall was 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , the lowest in the country since Typhoon Trix in 1971 .
The typhoon quickly weakened while continuing northeastward through Kyushu and western Honshu , and started to become an extratropical cyclone ; during the process , the wind field expanded , aided by moist air from the southwest and cold air from the northwest . It accelerated further over the Sea of Japan , and late on September 27 , Mireille made a second landfall in Japan along southwestern Hokkaido at 22 : 00 UTC , with 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) still at typhoon status . Crossing the island , the typhoon weakened to tropical storm status early on September 28 , and shortly thereafter became fully extratropical in the Sea of Okhotsk . The powerful remnants of Mireille continued eastward , crossing the Aleutian Islands on September 29 and crossed the International Date Line shortly thereafter . That day , a pressure of 954 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) was observed in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska . Powerful winds battered vessels in the region , with the Merchant Pride reporting peak sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . After crossing the dateline , Mireille 's remnants turned northeast and struck the Seward Peninsula on October 3 before moving over Arctic Alaska . The system then moved over the Arctic Ocean where it was last noted on October 4 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early tropical cyclone computer models anticipated Mireille would pass close to Guam , prompting officials to undergo preparations for the storm . The storm ultimately passed north of Saipan , causing damage along the island 's northern portion . Mireille knocked over trees and damaged over 70 % of Saipan 's crops while also eroding coastal roads .
In South Korea , two people were killed with two others reported missing . A South Korean freighter rode out the storm at the port in Hakata Bay . It breached along the breakwater , causing it to sink , killing all 10 crew members . The Japan Coast Guard launched a search and rescue mission for two days .
Later , the remnants of Mireille moved through the Aleutian Islands toward the end of September , bringing strong winds to the islands , including gusts over 112 km / h ( 70 mph ) at Amchitka .
= = = Japan = = =
Ahead of the storm , the JMA issued 99 typhoon bulletins , warning residents about Mireille . There were 236 warnings related to storm surge , high winds , waves , and flooding . In Hiroshima , most residents were aware of the approaching storm , about 70 % of residents did not expect significant effects . In general , residents were unprepared for the storm , partly due to the lack of recent storms . Transportation in Japan was disrupted after 480 domestic flights cancelled , stranding 58 @,@ 000 , and road , rail , and ferry traffic was halted . In Hokkaido , 207 schools were closed due to the storm .
Mireille was the strongest typhoon to hit Japan since Typhoon Nancy in 1961 , causing heavy damage in 41 of 47 prefectures . It was the third storm to strike Japan in two weeks . Damage was heaviest on Kyushu where the storm made landfall . Because the storm moved northeastward through the Sea of Japan , the eastern quadrant of the storm crossed over much of the country , which is where the strongest winds in tropical cyclones are located . The high winds downed trees , damaged roofs , and left record power outages , affecting 7 @.@ 36 million people , or about 13 % of total customers . In some areas , the power outages lasted as little as three minutes . The storm damaged over 670 @,@ 000 houses , of which 1 @,@ 058 were destroyed , and another 22 @,@ 965 were flooded . Power outages caused at least five factories to shut down production . Along the coast , the typhoon damaged 930 ships , with dozens sunk or blown ashore . Most of the damage was related to agriculture or forests . Sea spray heavily damaged fruit trees and rice paddies . Crop damage amounted to $ 3 billion , mostly to the apple industry , after 345 @,@ 000 tons of apples fell to the ground and another 43 @,@ 000 were damaged on the trees . Most farms lost 80 % of their crop , potentially taking 10 years to regrow . Persistent cloudiness and rainfall following the storm diminished sunlight by 50 % , furthering crop damage . There were 62 deaths in Japan and 2 @,@ 862 injuries , including the deaths on the South Korean freighter , making it the deadliest typhoon there in 10 years . About 80 % of the deaths were male , and 70 % were over 60 years old . Most of the deaths were related to wind @-@ blown debris , falling due to the wind , or being trapped or struck by fallen objects . The $ 6 billion in insured losses and $ 10 billion in overall damage made Mireille the costliest typhoon on record as of May 2014 , according to Munich Re .
When Mireille moved through western Japan , it brought strong winds and heavy rainfall . The highest sustained wind was 162 km / h ( 101 mph ) at Nomozaki , Nagasaki , and gusts nearby peaked at 218 km / h ( 136 mph ) . Misawa Air Base along northern Honshu reported winds of at least 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) for five hours , with a peak gust of 152 km / h ( 94 mph ) . This was the highest wind report at the station since records began in 1946 . The strongest wind gusts occurred concurrently with a sudden drop in atmospheric pressure , primarily from Kyushu and extending east @-@ northeastward into the Chūgoku region of Honshu . Mireille produced record wind gusts at 26 locations and record sustained winds at 12 locations . At landfall , Mireille produced winds of at least 54 km / h ( 34 mph ) across a diameter of 600 km ( 375 mi ) . About two @-@ thirds of the wind stations reported the strongest winds from the west after Mireille passed the area . Winds were lightest in eastern Honshu , Mireille also dropped heavy rainfall , mostly on Shikoku , peaking at 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) at Kito , Tokushima . In nearby Kōchi Prefecture , the heaviest hourly rainfall total was 72 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) , the highest in the nation for the storm . The rains caused at least 13 landslides and flooded rivers in four locations . However , effects from rainfall were limited due to the storm 's fast forward motion . Mireille also struck around the time of high tide , causing extensive storm surge along the coast .
Mireille first passed near Miyako @-@ jima , dropping 273 mm ( 10 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall there . Wind gusts on the island reached 176 km / h ( 110 mph ) , which caused some crop damage to sugar cane and vegetables . All flights were canceled as Mireille passed the island . Later , the typhoon bypassed Okinawa to the west . The island experienced winds of at least 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) for 27 hours , with gusts of 152 km / h ( 92 mph ) at Kadena Air Base . The capital city , Naha , reported gusts of 180 km / h ( 112 mph ) , while the highest gust in the region was 189 km / h ( 118 mph ) on Kume Island . Mireille produced heavy rainfall on Okinawa , totaling 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 14 in ) , which allowed water restrictions there to be lifted for the rest of the year . The precipitation fell in a short amount of time ; 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) dropped in just 10 minute , and 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) dropped in an hour , both at Naha . Waves reached 13 @.@ 7 m ( 50 ft ) along the coast of Okinawa . On Kume Island , the combination of high waves and tides produced damaging storm surge . The storm flooded 74 houses and damaged another 37 . Mireille damaged roads in two locations , while winds damaged 157 power lines , which cut communications to 3 @,@ 123 people . The storm also left heavy damage to the agriculture and forest industries . In the region , Mireille caused 44 flights to be canceled . Two people were injured on Okinawa , and overall damage in the prefecture totaled ¥ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 11 @.@ 4 million USD ) .
In Kyushu , the heavy rainfall caused flooding and landslides , which buried several houses in Miyazaki Prefecture and forced 75 people to evacuate . The high wind knocked over many cypress or cedar trees , totaling 22529 hectares ( 55 @,@ 670 acres ) and accounting for ¥ 64 billion ( $ 530 million USD ) in damage in Ōita Prefecture alone . Damage was heaviest near Nagasaki , where 16 people were killed , including five after a warehouse collapsed during the storm . A construction worker in nearby Isahaya was killed when the winds struck him with a prebuilt hut , and airborne debris killed five people in Kumamoto Prefecture and seven in Fukuoka Prefecture . Throughout Kyushu , about 2 million people lost power . High winds and waves in Kagoshima Prefecture overturned several cars , killing one person in Ōshima . Throughout Kyushu , about 2 million people lost power . On nearby Shikoku island , high winds and rains caused ¥ 4 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 35 @.@ 7 million USD ) in damage in Tokushima , mostly related to fisheries , crops , and houses . A record storm surge , in conjunction with high winds , damaged a school in Sakaide , as well as a floating pier and coastal road in nearby Ehime Prefecture . Rough surf swept away a women in Matsuyama .
The storm track brought Mireille west of the most populated island of Honshu , limiting damage there compared to Kyushu . At Misawa Air Base , the strong winds knocked over trees and blew off the roofs of several warehouses , and also knocked off storage sheds off their foundation . Ahead of the storm , advance warning allowed the American military to shelter aircraft and warn the population . Damage was estimated between $ 500 @,@ 000 – $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Two of Mazda 's loading docks in Hiroshima were completely destroyed , affecting American inventories of 1992 Mazda 929 's until the end of November 1991 . Also in the city , 1 @.@ 1 million residents , or 80 % of households , lost power due to winds and storm surge . In Yamaguchi Prefecture , the Takeda Pharmaceutical Company was flooded with 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft ) of waters , forcing workers to move to another plant in the United States . The strong winds and waves damaged the Itsukushima Shrine near Hiroshima and Kenroku @-@ en northwest of Tokyo . In Okayama Prefecture , salt spray damaged railways and shut down lines for three days . High winds in Naka @-@ ku collapsed scaffolding from a parking garage , and another damaged scaffolding nearby forced a road to shut down . There were extensive crop losses in northern Honshu . In Toyama Prefecture , the winds destroyed 192 greenhouses and exasperated a fire that caused further crop damage .
Striking Hokkaido with much of its former intensity , Mireille produced strong winds across the island . Hakodate Airport reported a peak gust of 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) , and the highest sustained wind was 79 km / h ( 49 mph ) in Urakawa . Along the coast , waves reached 7 @.@ 7 m ( 25 ft ) high at Matsumae , killing one person in Kushiro who was mooring his boat . Light rains occurred on the island , reaching 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in Hidaka . In Hakodate , the storm damaged five buildings , and about 3 @,@ 000 houses lost power . There was scattered roof damage across Hokkaido , and flying glass injured one person .
= = Aftermath = =
By a day after the storm made landfall , the record power outages were largely restored . However , salt damage prevented restoration in some areas for several days . The outages left residents temporarily without water after water pumps were shut down . In Hiroshima , lack of power caused traffic congestion , shut down banks , and disrupted hospitals . The widespread power outages related to Mireille prompted the government to reconstruct transmission towers with anemometer , or wind measurement devices . Following the storm , insurance companies paid $ 6 billion to policy holders in Japan , which was a world record related to wind damage ; this was surpassed less than a year later by Hurricane Andrew striking Florida . The typhoon still holds the title as the costliest non @-@ Atlantic hurricane .
Due to the severity of damage and loss of life caused by the storm , the name Mireille was retired and replaced with Melissa .
= Johns Hopkins – Maryland rivalry =
The Johns Hopkins – Maryland rivalry is an intercollegiate sports rivalry between the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays , which represent Johns Hopkins University , and the Maryland Terrapins , which represent the University of Maryland . The most prominent event has been the men 's lacrosse series , which is widely regarded as the greatest rivalry in the sport . More than 100 contests in the series have been played since the schools first met in 1895 . The competition is intensified by each programs ' status as a traditional lacrosse powerhouse . As such , the game has often held national championship implications , and twice the teams played to represent the United States in the Olympics .
The schools currently meet only in lacrosse , as all other Johns Hopkins athletics fall under NCAA Division III and all Maryland athletics are Division I. From the late 19th into the 20th century , however , their football teams also competed regularly . More recently , the schools have played in women 's lacrosse .
= = NCAA alignment = =
In 1971 , the National Collegiate Athletic Association instituted a three @-@ tier classification system , which created Division I , Division II , and Division III . The third tier , Division III , is the one in which no athletic scholarships are awarded to student @-@ athletes . Johns Hopkins , as a perennial lacrosse power , chose to continue competition in Division I in that sport , while all of its other athletic teams were relegated to Division III . In 2004 , the NCAA upheld the decision to allow Division III schools to " play up " , and grant scholarships , in a sport at the Division I level ( usually ice hockey ) . Since Maryland competes strictly at the Division I level , the two schools currently meet only in men 's and women 's lacrosse .
= = Men 's lacrosse = =
= = = Background = = =
The media and both schools have called Johns Hopkins – Maryland the greatest and most historic rivalry in men 's lacrosse . Sports Illustrated ranked it among the best all @-@ time college rivalries , and before the teams ' 100th meeting , called it " the equivalent of Michigan – Ohio State in football . " A 2003 Harris Interactive poll found that Marylanders considered it the state 's fourth biggest rivalry after the Cowboys – Redskins , Ravens – Redskins , and Duke – Maryland . The Hopkins – Maryland all @-@ time record differs based upon whether games played before Maryland had a varsity team are counted . Johns Hopkins recognizes those games and records the series as 68 – 38 – 1 in its own favor . Maryland , however , recognizes only games played since the formation of their varsity team in 1924 , which puts the all @-@ time record at 61 – 38 – 1 , also in favor of Hopkins .
The rivalry , which is the oldest in the sport , is fueled by history , competitiveness , and cultural reasons . Both schools are located in the state of Maryland , a historical hotbed for lacrosse , and have traditionally been two of the sport 's powerhouses . Many of the opposing players have had past associations in grade school , high school , or youth club sports . Hopkins ' current coach and former player Dave Pietramala said , " Everybody knew each other ; we had all played together at some point or another . It was a fierce , intense game and there was no love lost on the field . " Additionally , Johns Hopkins is a private university , while Maryland is a public institution . Former Terrapins coach Dick Edell said :
" To get the juices flowing before the game , [ we 'd tell the Maryland ] kids that it was the blue @-@ collar guys against the future executives — that this was their only chance to get them before they got into the real world . Plus , you have all the kids who came from the same high school , or worked the camps together , so there was that closeness that you have to live with for the other 364 days , no matter who wins . "
= = = Early years = = =
The two teams first played in 1895 and met six more times through 1923 . In those early matches , Johns Hopkins scored a combined sixty points to Maryland 's three . In 1924 , Maryland fielded its first varsity @-@ level lacrosse team , which defeated Hopkins , 4 – 2 , but the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) awarded the Blue Jays the co @-@ national championship ( along with Syracuse ) . Since that season , the teams have met annually with the exception of a two @-@ year hiatus due to World War II . Johns Hopkins won three straight national titles from 1926 to 1928 , where each season culminated with a victory over Maryland . In 1928 , Maryland had a perfect 9 – 0 record until Johns Hopkins defeated the Terps in the season finale , 6 – 3 . At season 's end , a single @-@ elimination tournament was held to determine which team would represent the United States in a trial lacrosse competition during the Summer Olympics . Maryland defeated Navy and Rutgers to advance to the final game , where they were again bested by Johns Hopkins .
The following season , the Terrapins embarked upon a three @-@ year run in which they lost only four games , and they defeated the Blue Jays each season including a shutout , 6 – 0 , in 1930 . In 1932 , however , Hopkins defeated Maryland twice during the regular season and once more in a postseason game to decide participation in the Olympics . Between 1930 and 1934 , the Blue Jays won three national championships and lost only two games , both of which were to the Terrapins . Maryland captured national titles in 1936 , 1937 , and 1939 . That year , however , Hopkins managed to break a four @-@ game losing streak against them . The Terrapins won the 1940 title by beating the undefeated Blue Jays , 7 – 6 , in the series ' first game decided by one goal . Maryland finished the season with a perfect 10 – 0 record . The following year , Hopkins finished 12 – 0 and captured the national championship after a convincing victory over Maryland , 10 – 3 . Johns Hopkins secured four more national titles from 1947 to 1950 , and defeated Maryland each year , three times by a margin of at least six goals .
Several days before the game in 1947 , Hopkins supporters stole " Testudo " , a 300 @-@ pound bronze statue of a diamondback terrapin , from the Maryland campus . Approximately 200 Terrapins fans drove to Baltimore to retrieve it , and a riot erupted before the city police intervened . The Hopkins dean ordered the students to return the statue , which they did after painting a blue ' H ' on its back .
= = = Maryland dominance = = =
In the 1950s , the two teams won a combined six national championships , with Maryland dominating the first part of the decade and Johns Hopkins the latter . Between 1951 and 1956 , Maryland posted a 5 – 0 – 1 record against Hopkins , with three games won by at least six points . The Terps won consecutive national titles in 1955 and 1956 , while posting a combined record of 21 – 0 . In 1957 , the Blue Jays snapped the Terrapins ' 31 @-@ game winning streak with an upset win , 15 – 10 . Two years later , both teams shared the national title with Army . Between 1955 and 1959 , Maryland compiled a 48 – 3 record , with all three losses at the hands of Johns Hopkins .
In 1960 , Navy became the first team other than Hopkins to defeat Maryland since 1954 . That same year marked the start of Navy 's eight @-@ year national championship streak that lasted through 1967 . That season , Navy beat Maryland 10 – 8 , before traveling to Homewood Field . There , Johns Hopkins upset Navy , 9 – 6 , for the first time in their last ten meetings . The Blue Jays and Terrapins met for the season finale where Hopkins needed a victory to win the national title outright . Maryland acted as a spoiler , however , and beat Johns Hopkins , 9 – 5 , to take a share of the championship . Hopkins went on to win or share the next four national titles .
= = = Advent of the NCAA tournament = = =
In 1971 , the NCAA replaced the USILA as the awarding authority for the men 's lacrosse championship with the introduction of a tournament . Since then , the Blue Jays and Terrapins have appeared in the finals a combined 27 times and have met each other in the finals three times . In 1972 , Maryland beat Johns Hopkins in the regular season , 13 – 12 , to earn the number @-@ one seed . The two teams met again in the semifinals , where Hopkins eliminated Maryland , 9 – 6 , and advanced to the finals before losing to Virginia by one goal . The following two years , Hopkins and Maryland met in the finals .
In 1973 , Maryland routed Hopkins during the regular season , 17 – 4 . That year 's Terrapins , led by future Hall of Fame inductee and four @-@ time All @-@ American Frank Urso , are considered one of the all @-@ time best college lacrosse teams and averaged almost 18 goals a game . When the teams met in the championship game , however , the Blue Jays employed a possession game to offset Maryland 's offensive firepower , and the first shot on goal did not take place until 8 : 38 . At halftime , Johns Hopkins had taken a 5 – 2 lead . Time expired with the score tied , 9 – 9 , which forced the game into overtime . Urso scored for the Terrapins to take a 10 – 9 lead and Maryland goalie Bill O 'Donnell made several impressive saves to secure the win .
The following year , Maryland was again named the top @-@ seed , despite having lost to second @-@ seed Johns Hopkins during the regular season . In the championship game , Hopkins quickly took the lead , led by Hall of Fame attackman Jack Thomas and entered halftime with a 10 – 4 advantage . In the second half , Maryland outscored them 8 – 7 , but the effort fell short . In 1975 , Maryland defeated Hopkins , 19 – 11 , before winning the national title , and won again the following year , 21 – 13 , on their way to finish as national championship runners @-@ up after an overtime loss to Cornell in the final . In 1977 , the Blue Jays edged the Terrapins , 21 – 20 , in the regular season and began a run in the series . Hopkins eliminated Maryland in the tournament semifinals in both 1977 and 1978 , before beating them in the 1979 championship game at home in College Park , Maryland . During that game , the Blue Jays were able to limit the Terrapins ' second all @-@ time leading scorer and 1979 attackman of the year Bob Boneillo . During the 1970s , Maryland participated in six NCAA title games , including four in a row from 1973 to 1976 . During that span , the Terps won two national titles and lost four .
= = = Hopkins dominance = = =
During the 1980s , Johns Hopkins dominated the series , winning 12 of 13 games , including nine by an average margin of 5 @.@ 6 points . During this period Hopkins , led by head coach Henry Ciccarone , won three national titles . By 1987 , Maryland 's fourth @-@ year head coach Dick Edell had helped revitalize the Terrapins as a national power . Maryland posted an 11 – 0 record during the regular season , where the win over Hopkins , 11 – 7 , was the only game decided by less than six goals . In the NCAA tournament , Maryland defeated Penn in the quarterfinals , 12 – 8 , and advanced to again meet Hopkins in the semifinals . Despite having recorded its first three @-@ loss season in over a decade , and having edged North Carolina in the quarterfinals , the Blue Jays upset the Terrapins , 13 – 8 . Hopkins , led by goalkeeper Quint Kessenich , advanced to win the national title against then undefeated Cornell in the final .
= = = Relative parity = = =
In 1995 , Johns Hopkins narrowly retained an undefeated regular season by winning four one @-@ goal games , which included an edging of Maryland , 16 – 15 . Hopkins entered the tournament as the number @-@ one seed , and again met Maryland in the semifinals . Edell helped guide the Terps to an early lead , and they ended the half with an advantage , 10 – 4 , with the final result a rout , 16 – 8 . The performance of Maryland goalie Brian Dougherty earned him the title of the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player , despite the Terps ' loss in the final against Syracuse .
The following season , Maryland earned a number @-@ two seeding after defeating Hopkins , 12 – 9 . The teams met again in the tournament quarterfinals , where , playing at home , Hopkins gained a 7 – 0 lead against heavily favored Maryland . The Terrapins rallied , but the Blue Jays held them off to preserve victory , 9 – 7 . In 1998 at Homewood Field , Hopkins upset first @-@ ranked Maryland , 10 – 6 during the regular season . This time when they met in the tournament quarterfinals , Maryland had the homefield advantage at Byrd Stadium . The Terps led 10 – 6 in the fourth quarter before the Blue Jays rallied to force overtime . Maryland , however , won the ensuing faceoff and scored after several shots on goal , never allowing Hopkins to gain possession of the ball . The Terps eventually advanced to the final , where they were defeated by Princeton .
= = = Recent years = = =
From 2001 to 2003 , each match @-@ up was decided by one goal . Maryland won coach Dick Edell 's final , and Hopkins coach Dave Pietramala 's first , game of the series in 2001 . The Blue Jays won the following two seasons , with both games decided in overtime . In 2004 , the teams played their 100th anniversary game and both sides wore special " throwback " jerseys . Hopkins scored five times before the first television timeout , then took an 8 – 1 first period lead on the way to a victory , 14 – 10 . Hopkins extended their streak to four wins in 2005 , before Maryland 's new head coach Dave Cottle took away his first victory in 2006 . In 2009 , the teams played in the inaugural Day of Rivals double @-@ header , where Hopkins preserved victory , 10 – 9 , when a final @-@ second Maryland shot on the crease was deflected . The two met for the event again in 2010 , with Maryland coming out on top , 10 – 9 , due in part to a perfect four @-@ for @-@ four extra @-@ man offense .
The rivalry became a conference matchup in the 2014 – 15 academic year when both schools joined the new men 's lacrosse league formed by Maryland 's new all @-@ sports home , the Big Ten Conference , with Johns Hopkins as an associate member . The first Big Ten game between the two was an upset for Johns Hopkins 15 @-@ 12 with a rematch in NCAA semi @-@ finals May 22 , 2015 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia which went to Maryland 12 @-@ 11 .
= = = Lacrosse Results = = =
= = Football = =
In 1892 , the Maryland Agricultural College fielded its first officially @-@ recognized football team . In the third game of that season , they played Johns Hopkins at Clifton Park in Baltimore , and the more experienced " Hoppies " routed the " Aggies " , 62 – 0 . In 1894 , both schools became charter members of the Maryland Intercollegiate Football Association , which formed for the purpose of awarding the official Maryland state football championship . The Hoppies and Aggies , however , did not meet again until 1897 , when Johns Hopkins defeated Maryland in College Park , 30 – 0 . Johns Hopkins won the series ' first eight games without allowing a single Maryland score , for a combined margin of 190 – 0 .
The Aggies broke the losing streak in 1910 with a stalemate , 11 – 11 . In the final minutes of the game , Hopkins was on the Maryland eight @-@ yard line , second down with two yards to go . A Johns Hopkins guard named Schrieber then ran from the field to their bench to leave a knocked @-@ out tooth for safekeeping . The referee penalized the Blue and Black ten yards , and when their field goal attempt was blocked , the game ended in a tie .
In 1915 , the teams played their first game on Thanksgiving , which thereafter became an annual tradition . That game was held in front of 13 @,@ 000 fans , the largest crowd in the history of Homewood Field . It was a defensive struggle with both teams having great difficulty in gaining yardage . A Johns Hopkins halfback named Hoffman missed eight field goal attempts in succession before the ninth met its mark for a Blue Jays win , 3 – 0 . From that day forward , Johns Hopkins and Maryland played all but two Thanksgiving Days through 1934 . Eleven of the series ' last twelve games were held in Baltimore Municipal Stadium . By 1928 , the series ' tide had turned heavily in Maryland 's favor , and H.C. " Curley " Byrd coached the Terrapins to convincing victories in each of the final seven games .
= = = Results = = =
= = Women 's lacrosse = =
The Johns Hopkins and Maryland women 's lacrosse teams first played in 1979 in Arnold , Maryland , a game which the Lady Terps won handily , 17 – 1 . They did not meet again until after the Johns Hopkins women 's team was promoted from Division III to Division I in 1999 . The following year , the teams met and played each season through 2009 , but did not play again until 2015 . As of the last meeting between the teams in 2016 , the Maryland women held a perfect record against Hopkins , having won all 13 meetings by a combined margin of 212 – 105 .
Hopkins and Maryland will become conference rivals in women 's lacrosse in the 2017 season ( 2016 – 17 school year ) when Hopkins joins the Big Ten in women 's lacrosse .
= William Middleton Wallace =
William " Willie " Middleton Wallace ( 23 September 1892 – 22 August 1915 ) was a rugby union player . He played fullback for Cambridge University RFC and was capped for Scotland in 1913 – 14 .
Having grown up in Edinburgh , Willie Wallace went to King 's College , Cambridge in 1912 , where he was immediately noticed for his rugby @-@ playing ability . He was selected to play against Oxford in the Varsity Match in his first term . Later in the season , in March 1913 , Scotland picked him to play away against England , in a close game , which England won by just three points . The following season he played in all three Home Nations matches against Wales , Ireland and England .
He was commissioned second lieutenant in The Rifle Brigade ( Prince Consort 's Own ) at the start of the First World War and departed for the Western Front a few weeks later . In February 1915 , he was attached to the Royal Flying Corps and soon became No. 2 Squadron 's senior observer . In August 1915 , while on a photographic reconnaissance mission , his aircraft was shot down in northern France , near Lille . At the time of his death , it was suggested that he might have been the first undergraduate to see action in the war .
= = Early life = =
Wallace was born in Edinburgh , the son of Robert and Mary Wallace , on 23 September 1892 . He went to school at Edinburgh Academy from 1899 to 1912 then studied at King 's College , Cambridge until 15 July 1914 . At school , he was in the rugby team for his final three years and vice @-@ captain in the final year . He also played cricket , captaining the school team in 1911 , as wicket @-@ keeper .
= = Rugby career = =
According to the rugby journalist and author E. H. D. Sewell , Wallace was the best fullback in the United Kingdom between 1912 and 1914 . On arriving at Cambridge in 1912 , his performance in the freshers ' rugby match earned him his place on the Cambridge XV to play Oxford in the Varsity Match .
He was selected to play for Scotland against England in 1913 ; and Wales , Ireland , and England in 1914 .
Scotland 's first Five Nations Championship match of 1914 was on 7 February , played away to Wales at Cardiff . Scotland had not won in Cardiff since 1890 and Wales were favourites , having ' lost so unluckily ' against England . The match pitted Welsh forward strength against the swift threequarter line of the Scots . The first points came from a try for Scotland by W. A. Stewart , converted by Hamilton , giving the visitors a five @-@ point lead after four minutes . These were the only points they scored . Wales then attacked repeatedly and Wallace was kept busy in defence . With a 7 – 5 lead at half time , the Welsh pressed their advantage and ended the game 24 – 5 winners .
In the country 's final game before the outbreak of the First World War , on 21 March Scotland played host to an English team that had already defeated Wales and Ireland . The Scots , with the wind behind them , opened the scoring in the first half with a try but England equalised just before half time . After the break , England got up a lead of 6 – 16 and the visitors seemed certain to win . Scotland responded and closed the gap to one point . The English were then playing with fourteen men after Cherry Pillman 's leg was broken in a tackle , since substitutions at the time were not allowed . They managed to hold on , beating Scotland 15 – 16 , thereby winning both the Triple Crown and the Calcutta Cup , as well as the Five Nations . It was England 's last international test on British soil before the First World War : of the 30 players in the match , 11 went on to be killed in it , including the Englishman Arthur James Dingle , who died the same day as Wallace .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military service and death = =
Wallace , who was a cadet of the Officers Training Corps , was commissioned second lieutenant in the 5th Battalion , The Rifle Brigade ( Prince Consort 's Own ) on 5 August 1914 , while still an undergraduate . There were suggestions at the time that he was the first undergraduate to go into action but they were not substantiated . After two weeks ' training at Sheppey , he departed for France on 30 August . There , he participated in the First Battle of the Aisne and was active on the Western Front at Frelinghien and Ploegsteert Wood .
Wallace was attached to No. 2 Squadron , 1st Wing Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) on 14 February 1915 as an observer , alongside William Barnard Rhodes @-@ Moorhouse , the first serviceman of the RFC to be awarded the Victoria Cross . By July he was the squadron 's senior observer and was made up to lieutenant on 21 July 1915 . On 22 August 1915 , Wallace was on a photographic reconnaissance mission in a B.E.2c piloted by his friend 2Lt Charles Gallie . The plane was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and came straight down at Sainghin , near Lille , northern France .
Both men were buried near to where they fell , but after the war their bodies were reinterred at the Cabaret @-@ Rouge British Cemetery ( Grave reference XII . D. 11 ) , Souchez , near Arras , France .
= Joseph Maxwell =
Joseph " Joe " Maxwell , VC , MC & Bar , DCM ( 10 February 1896 – 6 July 1967 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of British and Commonwealth armed forces . Often described as Australia 's second most decorated soldier of the First World War , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 8 February 1915 , and served at Gallipoli before being transferred to the Western Front . In just over twelve months he was commissioned and decorated four times for his bravery .
An apprentice boilermaker before the war , Maxwell returned to Australia in 1919 and worked as a gardener . In 1932 , he published Hell 's Bells and Mademoiselles , a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his war experiences . Attempting to enlist for service during the Second World War , Maxwell was rejected on the grounds of his age before enlisting under an alias in Queensland ; his identity was discovered , and after a short period in a training position , he sought discharge . In 1967 , aged 71 , he died of a heart attack .
= = Early life = =
Maxwell was born in the Sydney suburb of Forest Lodge , New South Wales , on 10 February 1896 to John Maxwell , a labourer , and his wife Elizabeth , née Stokes . A member of the Senior Australian Army Cadets for three years , he worked as an apprentice boilermaker at an engineering works near Newcastle upon leaving school . For two years , he served as a member of the Citizens Military Forces , and on 6 February 1915 , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force enticed by the prospects of better pay .
= = First World War = =
= = = Training , February 1915 to Western Front , May 1917 = = =
Having received his initial training at Liverpool Camp , Maxwell was allotted to " B " Company of the 18th Battalion as a lance corporal , and embarked for Egypt aboard HMAT Ceramic on 25 May 1915 . The 18th Battalion trained in Egypt from mid @-@ June until mid @-@ August , before proceeding to Gallipoli , where they landed at Anzac Cove on 22 August . The battalion fought its first battle on the same day , staging an attack on the Turkish @-@ held Hill 60 . The engagement lasted until 29 August , with half of the battalion becoming casualties , and Maxwell briefly assuming the duties of a stretcher bearer .
Maxwell served at Gallipoli with his unit until 2 December , when he was admitted to 5th Field Ambulance and evacuated from the peninsula suffering from jaundice . Admitted to 3rd Auxiliary Hospital , Heliopolis , he remained there until 11 December , when he was posted to a convalescent camp at Ras el Tin . He rejoined the 18th Battalion on 5 January 1916 , which had been evacuated from the Gallipoli Peninsula on 20 December the previous year and posted to Egypt . On 4 February , Maxwell was admitted to the Australian Dermatological Hospital , Abbassia with venereal disease . He returned to his battalion four days before it embarked for France , and the Western Front on 18 March .
Arriving in Marseilles , France , Maxwell was admitted to 7th Australian Field Ambulance and then transferred to the 3rd Canadian General Hospital following wounds sustained during battle . He was moved to the 1st Convalescent Depot on 2 May , and then discharged to Base Details eleven days later . He was later found guilty of breaking ranks at the 07 : 30 parade on the same day and being absent without leave from 08 : 00 until 13 : 00 on 24 May ; for this transgression , he was reduced to the ranks . Rejoining his battalion on 1 June , he took part in the Battle of Pozières and received a promotion to sergeant in October .
Suffering synovitis to his right knee , Maxwell was hospitalised for two days and posted to a training battalion in England on 28 November 1916 . He stayed there for five months before embarking for France on 9 May 1917 and rejoining the 18th Battalion five days later . Maxwell was only briefly in France before being selected for officer training . Shortly after arriving in England , he attended a boisterous party with a group of soldiers . The military police raided the party and called the local police for assistance after confronting Maxwell 's group . Maxwell was fined £ 20 and sent back to his unit for his actions .
= = = Western Front : May 1917 to August 1918 = = =
Maxwell was again selected for officer training , and on 5 July , he was posted to No. 6 Officers ' Cadet Battalion . He was promoted to company sergeant major on 7 August , before rejoining the 18th Battalion on 11 September . Nine days later , he was engaged in action near Westhoek during the Third Battle of Ypres when he performed the deeds that earned him the Distinguished Conduct Medal . In the battle , the commander of a platoon was killed ; Maxwell took command and led it into attack . Noticing that one of the newly captured positions was under heavy fire , Maxwell dashed to it and led the men to a safer and more tactically secure position , thus minimizing casualties .
Commissioned in the field as a second lieutenant on 29 September 1917 , Maxwell took part in the engagements around Poelcappelle , Belgium , the following month . He earned promotion to lieutenant on 1 January 1918 and was admitted to the 7th Australian Field Ambulance on 10 January suffering scabies . Having been discharged from the hospital , he rejoined the 18th Battalion on 17 January .
On 8 March 1918 , Maxwell commanded a scouting patrol that was operating to the east of Ploegsteert . Having obtained the required information , he ordered the patrol to withdraw . He and three of his men were covering the withdrawal of the main body when he noticed about thirty Germans nearby . Recalling the patrol , he led an attack against the party , which had sheltered in an old trench ; the Germans quickly withdrew , leaving three dead and one wounded prisoner of war . Maxwell was awarded the Military Cross for his actions during this engagement , news of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 13 May 1918 .
Throughout the spring of 1918 , the 18th Battalion was involved in operations to repel the German offensive . Maxwell took part in these actions until he was granted leave and went back to England on 17 July . He returned to France and rejoined the 18th Battalion on 1 August , before taking part in the Battle of Amiens where he was to earn a Bar to his Military Cross . On 9 August , the battalion was preparing to attack near Rainecourt . Maxwell took command of the company after all of its other officers became casualties . Under his leadership , the company was able to attack on time , despite being subjected to heavy fire . A tank that preceded the advance immediately became the object of enemy fire and was knocked out by a 77 mm gun . Maxwell , who was in close proximity , rushed over and opened the hatch , allowing the crew to escape . After escorting the tank commander to safety , Maxwell returned to lead the company in the attack , which succeeded in reaching and consolidating their objective . The award of the bar was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 1 February 1919 .
= = = Victoria Cross , October 1918 to repatriation , August 1919 = = =
On 3 October 1918 , the 5th Brigade — of which the 18th Battalion was part — became engaged in its last battle of the First World War when breaching the Hindenburg Line close to Beaurevoir and Montbrehain . While taking part in this battle , Maxwell was a member of the attacking party along the Beaurevoir @-@ Fonsomme line when he performed the acts for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross .
Early in the advance , Maxwell 's company commander was severely wounded , resulting in Maxwell assuming control . Reaching the German barbwire defences under intense machine @-@ gun fire , the company suffered heavy casualties , including all of the officers except Maxwell . Pushing forward alone through a narrow passageway in the wire , Maxwell captured the most dangerous machine gun , killed three Germans and took another four as prisoners ; thereby enabling the company to move through the wire and reach their objective . Shortly afterwards , it was noticed that the company on their left flank was held up and failing to advance . Gathering a party of men , Maxwell led the group in an attempt to attack the German force from the rear . They soon came under heavy machine gun fire , and , single @-@ handedly , Maxwell dashed forward and attacked the foremost gun . Firing his revolver , he managed to shoot five of the crew and silence the gun .
Later in the advance , Maxwell learnt from an English @-@ speaking prisoner that a group of Germans in the adjacent post wished to surrender , but were afraid to give themselves up . Accompanied by two privates and the prisoner — who was to act as an interpreter — Maxwell approached the post . The three Australians , however , were immediately surrounded by a group of twenty German soldiers and disarmed . They seemed set to become prisoners themselves , before an artillery barrage fell on the position . Taking advantage of the resulting confusion , Maxwell pulled out a concealed revolver and shot two of the Germans before escaping with his men under heavy rifle fire ; one of the privates was subsequently wounded . Organising a party of men , he immediately attacked and captured the post .
The full citation for Maxwell 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 6 January 1919 , it read :
War Office , 6th January , 1919
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : —
Lt. Joseph Maxwell , M.C. , D.C.M. , 18th Bn . , A.I.F.
For most conspicuous bravery and leadership in attack on the Beaurevoir @-@ Fonsomme line near Estates , North of St. Quentin , on the 3rd October , 1918 .
His company commander was severely wounded early in the advance , and Lt. Maxwell at once took charge . The enemy wire when reached under intense fire was found to be exceptionally strong and closely supported by machine guns , whereupon Lt. Maxwell pushed forward single @-@ handed through the wire and captured the most dangerous gun , killing three and capturing four enemy . He thus enabled his company to penetrate the wire and reach the objective . Later , he again dashed forward and silenced , single @-@ handed , a gun which was holding up a flank company . Subsequently , when with two men only he attempted to capture a strong party of the enemy , he handled a most involved situation very skilfully , and it was due to his resource that he and his comrades escaped .
Throughout the day Lt. Maxwell set a high example of personal bravery , coupled with excellent judgment and quick decision .
The 18th Battalion was training away from the frontline when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . On 8 March 1919 , Maxwell was invested with his Victoria Cross by King George V in the ballroom of Buckingham Palace . He headed for Australia on 1 May aboard HT China , disembarking at Melbourne on 8 June and proceeding to Sydney , where he was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 20 August .
= = Later life = =
Following demobilisation , Maxwell worked as a gardener in Canberra , Moree and the Maitland district . Having described himself as a reporter , Maxwell married 19 @-@ year @-@ old tailoress Mabel Maxwell ( unrelated ) in a Catholic ceremony at Bellevue Hill , Sydney on 14 February 1921 . The marriage produced a daughter , Jean , before being dissolved in 1926 upon Mabel 's instigation .
On 11 November 1929 , Maxwell attended the New South Wales Dinner for recipients of the Victoria Cross in Sydney , and 1932 saw the publication of Hell 's Bells and Mademoiselles , a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his experiences in the war . At the time , Maxwell was working as a gardener with the Department of the Interior in Canberra . The book was a success , but Maxwell soon spent what money he made from it . In the late 1930s , he wrote the manuscript for a second book entitled From the Hindenburg Line to the Breadline . The book was never published and the manuscript was lost when it was lent to someone to read .
In 1933 , Maxwell acted as a defence witness in the trial of Alfred Jamieson , who was accused of housebreaking . Maxwell was Jamieson 's former platoon commander and testified that Jamieson had been of good character but had been strongly affected by the war .
After the outbreak of the Second World War , Maxwell made several attempts to enlist , but was unsuccessful due to his age , and deteriorating health . He eventually travelled to Queensland , where he enlisted under the alias of Joseph Wells on 27 June 1940 . However , his identity was soon discovered and he was given a training position ; dissatisfied , he took his discharge on 9 September 1940 .
In 1952 , Maxwell joined the contingent of Victoria Cross recipients invited to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . On 6 March 1956 , describing himself as a journalist from Bondi , Maxwell married widow Anne Martin , née Burton , in Sydney . Three years later , he attended the Victoria Cross centenary celebrations in London , before later re @-@ visiting the battlefields in France . In 1964 , together with his wife , Maxwell attended the opening of the VC Corner in the Australian War Memorial , Canberra . He was determined that his Victoria Cross would not wind up in the collection , believing that the award would be devalued by " lumping " them together .
On 6 July 1967 , Maxwell collapsed and died of a heart attack in a street in his home town Matraville , New South Wales . He had been an invalid pensioner for some time . His funeral service took place with full military honours at St Mathias Anglican Church , Paddington . Having been cremated , his ashes were interred at the Eastern Suburbs Crematorium in Botany . Anne Maxwell presented her husband 's medals to the Army Museum of New South Wales at Victoria Barracks , Paddington , and subsequently the medals , together with a portrait and a brass copy of his VC citation , were unveiled by the Minister of Defence , Allan Fairhall . In 2003 , Maxwell 's medals were presented to the Australian War Memorial on a permanent loan basis .
= Lee Hughes =
Lee Hughes ( born 22 May 1976 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for National League North side Worcester City as a striker . A former England semi @-@ pro international , he is a strong striker with excellent finishing abilities . After being released as a youth footballer , Hughes worked as a roofer alongside his father .
He started his career in the Football Conference with Kidderminster Harriers , before winning a £ 380 @,@ 000 move to boyhood club West Bromwich Albion in August 1997 . He finished as the club 's top @-@ scorer for four seasons running , earning a place on the PFA Team of the Year in 1998 – 99 after finishing as the highest scorer in the top four divisions of English football . He was sold to Coventry City for £ 5 million in August 2001 , before returning to West Brom for half that figure 12 months later . He failed to impress in the Premier League as Albion suffered relegation , though helped the club to make an immediate return to the top @-@ flight by securing the runners @-@ up spot in the First Division in 2003 – 04 .
In August 2004 , he was sentenced to six years imprisonment for causing death by dangerous driving following a fatal crash on 23 November 2003 . He returned to the professional game after being released half @-@ way through his sentence in August 2007 , and was offered a contract by Oldham Athletic . Playing one level below where he was playing before his prison sentence , he continued his impressive scoring rate for Oldham . He left the club in May 2009 , following a brief loan spell at Blackpool . He signed for Notts County in July 2009 , and was named on the PFA Team of the Year after scoring 30 league goals as the club won the League Two title in 2009 – 10 . He left Notts County to sign for Port Vale in January 2013 , and helped the club to secure promotion out of League Two in 2012 – 13 . On 3 January 2014 , he signed for Forest Green Rovers on an
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18 @-@ month deal . In January 2015 , he returned to Kidderminster Harriers , and moved on to Ilkeston and then Worcester City in the summer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Kidderminster Harriers = = =
Hughes spent four years at West Bromwich Albion as a schoolboy from ages 11 to 15 , though was not offered a youth team contract . He instead started his career playing semi @-@ professionally for Football Conference club Kidderminster Harriers , whilst holding down a part @-@ time job as a roofer . Although Hughes scored 34 goals in the 1996 – 97 season , Kidderminster failed to gain promotion to the Football League after finishing five points behind champions Macclesfield Town . At this point in his career Hughes was regarded as one of England 's finest semi @-@ professionals and was called up to the England national football C team . In total , Hughes scored 70 goals in 139 games for Kidderminster in all competitions .
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Hughes was sold to West Bromwich Albion for an initial £ 200 @,@ 000 – incentives later took the final sum up to £ 380 @,@ 000 – in August 1997 . He said " It was a dream to join the team I have supported all my life " . The Daily Mirror printed that " Hughes has red hair , tattoos of a Tasmanian devil and a British bulldog on his forearms , dynamite in his boots and Albion in his blood . " Fans affectionately nicknamed him the " Ginger Ninja " .
He made his debut at The Hawthorns as a substitute in a 2 – 1 win over Tranmere Rovers on 9 August 1997 . Seven days later he scored two goals from the bench in a 3 – 2 win over Crewe Alexandra at Gresty Road . Though signed by Ray Harford , he came to the fore under new boss Denis Smith . Smith handed Hughes his first start on 28 December , in a 1 – 1 home draw with Stoke City . He finished his debut season as the club 's top @-@ scorer with 14 goals in 41 appearances , and was rewarded with a new four @-@ year contract .
He started the 1998 – 99 season in fine form , and claimed his first ever hat @-@ trick in a 3 – 0 win over Port Vale at Vale Park on 22 August . Despite having recently signed a long @-@ term contract , his form and goal record led to constant rumours of a big money move to a host of Premier League clubs . West Brom eventually issued a " hands @-@ off " warning to other clubs . He claimed further hat @-@ tricks against Crystal Palace and Huddersfield Town , and finished the season with 32 goals in 45 games . This tally left him as the country 's top @-@ scorer . He was named on the PFA Team of the Year for the First Division . He then submitted a written transfer request , and his spokesman told the press that there have " been a number of things going on behind the scenes which have unsettled him recently " . In particular , his £ 1 @,@ 400 a week salary was compared with the £ 5 @,@ 000 a week salary of under @-@ performing teammate Fabian de Freitas .
He remained at the club for the 1999 – 2000 season , and scored 17 goals in 43 appearances . Albion struggled in the First Division under new manager Brian Little , though improved after Gary Megson replaced Little as manager in March and avoided relegation despite Hughes missing the final five matches of the season due to a knee injury .
He was partnered with Jason Roberts for the 2000 – 01 season ; the pair went on to score 40 goals between them to help secure the " Baggies " a play @-@ off place . With 23 goals to his name , he again attracted interest from other clubs . He claimed two hat @-@ tricks in seven days against Gillingham and Preston North End . Hughes converted a penalty in a 2 – 2 draw with Bolton Wanderers in the first leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , before a 3 – 0 defeat at the Reebok Stadium ended Albion 's play @-@ off hopes . He refused to sign a new contract in July 2001 , and was placed on the transfer list .
= = = Coventry City = = =
Hughes was sold to Gordon Strachan 's Coventry City for a club record transfer fee of £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 001 ( the unusual figure was because any offer exceeding £ 5 million would trigger an escape clause in his West Brom contract ) in August 2001 . His wages at Highfield Road were reported to be £ 15 @,@ 000 a week . Hughes scored 14 goals in 40 games , including a hat @-@ trick in a 6 – 1 win at Crewe Alexandra , and finished the 2001 – 02 season as the club 's top @-@ scorer . Coventry rejected a loan offer from West Bromwich Albion in March 2002 , and ended the season outside the play @-@ offs .
= = = Return to West Bromwich Albion = = =
In August 2002 , Hughes returned to West Bromwich Albion for a club record £ 2 @.@ 5 million – half the fee Albion had received for him a year earlier – and signed a four @-@ year deal with the club . Despite being a regular in the first team , Hughes failed to score a single Premier League goal in the 2002 – 03 season and Albion were relegated in 19th place with just six wins and 26 points from 38 matches . Hughes was criticised by several team @-@ mates following the club 's 1 – 0 defeat by Everton at Goodison Park , though was publicly backed by manager Gary Megson . He told the press that " I want to establish myself in the Premiership and any accusations of me not pulling my weight should be made to my face . " He put his poor form down to him missing pre @-@ season training with injury problems . He rediscovered his form back in the First Division , scoring 12 goals in 36 games in 2003 – 04 as West Brom secured promotion with a second @-@ place finish . His contract at West Bromwich Albion was immediately terminated in August 2004 , following his conviction for causing death by dangerous driving . He spent the next three years in prison , serving half of his six @-@ year sentence .
= = = Oldham Athletic = = =
Upon his release from prison on 20 August 2007 , Hughes signed a two @-@ year contract with League One club Oldham Athletic ; the club asked supporters " not to pass moral judgement " . His reported salary of £ 1 @,@ 800 @-@ a @-@ week at Boundary Park was less than a 10th of what he earned at the peak of his career with West Bromwich Albion . Hughes made his debut for Oldham in a 4 – 1 defeat by Hartlepool United at Victoria Park on 1 September 2007 . He failed to find the net in his first seven games , and underwent an operation to correct a hernia problem . He recovered quickly from the procedure , and registered his first two goals for the Latics in a 3 – 0 win over Bournemouth at Dean Court on 25 November , before being named in the " League One Team of the Week " . He scored his first hat @-@ trick for the club against Millwall in a 3 – 2 victory at The Den on 15 December , and again made the " League One Team of the Week " . He picked up a groin injury in March 2008 , and was sidelined for the rest of the season . Hughes had scored eight goals by the end of the 2007 – 08 season , making him the club 's second highest goalscorer behind Craig Davies .
He opened his account for the 2008 – 09 season with a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 win over Cheltenham Town on 23 August . Stating his future ambitions as playing Championship football with Oldham , he was offered a new deal at the club on 30 December 2008 . He was linked with a move to Doncaster Rovers in January 2009 , but stayed put after talks with manager John Sheridan , who insisted Hughes was " very happy " at Oldham . In March 2009 it was widely reported that Hughes had been involved in a drunken brawl with Sheridan where Hughes was reported to have had him " in a headlock " . Sheridan later downplayed the incident as " jovial " , saying " people have made things up " . Sheridan was sacked , but insisted that the two incidents were not related , as " it was results that cost me the job " .
On 26 March 2009 , Hughes joined Championship club Blackpool on loan until the end of the season . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Plymouth Argyle at Bloomfield Road on 4 April . His first goal for the club came on 18 April against Charlton Athletic at the Valley , when after coming on as an 89th @-@ minute substitute , and with Blackpool 2 – 1 down , he scored four minutes later to make the score 2 – 2 . Hughes ended the campaign as Oldham 's highest scorer with 18 goals in 40 appearances . However he was one of a number of players released by the club 's new manager Dave Penney in May 2009 , and returned to Kidderminster Harriers for training in order to keep up his fitness levels whilst searching for a new club .
= = = Notts County = = =
Hughes signed for League Two team Notts County on a two @-@ year contract on 22 July 2009 , on the same day that Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson arrived at the club as director of football . He scored a hat @-@ trick on his debut in a 5 – 0 victory over Bradford City on the opening day of the season . He then got his second hat @-@ trick against Northampton Town in a 5 – 2 home win on 12 September . He claimed his third hat @-@ trick of the campaign on 28 December during a 4 – 1 win over Burton Albion at the Pirelli Stadium . However the club endured a turbulent time , with manager Ian McParland sacked and replaced by Hans Backe , who himself resigned after Qadbak Investments proved unable to fund Backe 's wages . New owner Ray Trew appointed Steve Cotterill as manager , and County entered April ten points behind league leaders Rochdale , though Hughes remained confident that they could reduce the deficit and win the league . On 17 April , Hughes scored two goals in a 4 – 1 victory over Morecambe as County won promotion to League One . He was named as League Two 's Player of the Month in April . On 1 May , Hughes added another two goals in County 's final home game of the season , making him the first Notts player to score 30 league goals since Tommy Lawton in the 1949 – 50 season . He finished as the division 's top @-@ scorer in 2009 – 10 with 30 league goals in 39 games , and was named on the PFA Team of the Year alongside teammates Kasper Schmeichel and Ben Davies . County won the league by a ten @-@ point margin . In July 2010 , Hughes signed a one @-@ year extension to his contract that would see him at Meadow Lane until the summer of 2012 .
On 23 September 2010 , Hughes revealed a ‘ Boing , Boing ’ T @-@ shirt in a League Cup tie with Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux – the slogan of Wolves ' rivals West Bromwich Albion – and was quizzed by police after angry Wolves fans retaliated to the message by attacking Notts County supporters ’ coaches . He was reported to be " angry " at being named as a substitute in a league game against Milton Keynes Dons on 11 December , though boss Paul Ince stated that " Hughesy is 34 and cannot play week in week out . But he 's never come and said ' I should be starting ' . He 's been different class . " On 8 January 2011 , he was on the scoresheet as County beat Premier League side Sunderland 2 – 1 in the FA Cup . Two weeks later he was confirmed to be a target of Sheffield Wednesday . He remained with the " Magpies " , and ended the 2010 – 11 season as the club 's top @-@ scorer with 16 goals in 37 appearances . The club again went through a succession of managers – Craig Short , Paul Ince and then Martin Allen – and ended the season three points above the relegation zone .
On 8 September 2011 , he played against Italian club Juventus in the inaugural game of the Juventus Stadium , and scored County 's goal in a 1 – 1 draw . The next month he accepted a pay cut to sign a new 18 @-@ month contract , and was quoted as saying he never planned to leave the club as " the fans have taken me in and I love it here " . He ended the 2011 – 12 campaign on 11 goals in 44 games . In summer 2012 , the club rejected offers for Hughes from Cheltenham Town and former club Oldham Athletic .
At the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season , new manager Keith Curle stated that " we know he is of an age where he won 't be playing for 46 games , so he needs to be managed " . New signing Yoann Arquin became the County 's first choice striker , and Hughes announced his intention to leave the club in order to find first team football . He was reported to have joined Port Vale on loan , with a view to a permanent move , on 22 November 2012 ; though the deal had yet to be ratified by the Football League . However , the next day it was revealed that the loan move would not go through as the relevant paperwork had not been sent in on time . Three weeks later Hughes provided the club with a sick note , saying that he was unavailable until January . His contract was terminated by mutual consent on 7 January 2013 .
= = = Port Vale = = =
Hughes joined Port Vale the day after securing his exit from Notts County , as the BBC reported that " promotion @-@ chasing boss Micky Adams wants to bring him in to add impetus to a Vale attack who have occasionally misfired this term " . He signed a contract to keep him at Vale Park until the end of the 2012 – 13 season , at which point his contract would be extended by 12 months if the " Valiants " were promoted . He marked his debut against the " Gills " with the winning goal that sent Vale to the top of the table . Being partnered with the country 's leading goalscorer Tom Pope allowed Hughes space in front of goal vacated by opposition defenders attempting to double up on Pope . Hughes scored his first hat @-@ trick for the " Valiants " in a 7 – 1 home victory over Burton Albion on 5 April , with two of his goals coming from the penalty spot as he took over from Jennison Myrie @-@ Williams as the club 's penalty taker . This performance won him a place on the League Two team of the week . Vale were promoted at the end of the season , with Hughes scoring ten goals in his 18 games , ensuring his contract was extended until summer 2014 .
He was not a regular starter in the 2013 – 14 season , especially as Jordan Hugill began to impress from the youth development squad , and so he decided to leave the club in the January transfer window .
= = = Later career = = =
On 3 January 2014 , he joined Conference Premier side Forest Green Rovers on an 18 @-@ month contract . Manager Adrian Pennock stated that " He 's come to play football , he 's not come for money and I 'm chuffed to have him on board . He has the experience we need and I believe he 'll score goals . " He made his debut six days later in a 1 – 1 draw with Hereford United at The New Lawn . On 25 January , he scored his first goals for the club , securing a brace in a 3 – 0 home win over Chester .
On the opening day of the 2014 – 15 season , Hughes scored Forest Green 's winning goal in a 1 – 0 away victory at Southport . He then scored his 300th career goal with his second strike of the season in a 2 – 0 win over Alfreton Town at The New Lawn on 16 August 2014 .
On 30 January 2015 , Hughes returned to Conference Premier club Kidderminster Harriers on a deal till the end of the season after having his contract with Forest Green Rovers mutually terminated . On his ' second debut ' for Kidderminster , he put his side ahead in a Worcestershire Senior Cup tie against Stourbridge . He also scored on his league return against Woking at Aggborough , scoring in the 39th minute in a 1 – 1 draw . He was released at the end of the season as manager Gary Whild 's playing budget was reduced by half for the 2015 – 16 campaign .
After impressing in pre season , Hughes signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Ilkeston , and was sent off on his debut against Skelmersdale United on 15 August 2015 .
In September 2015 , Hughes signed for Worcester City on non @-@ contract terms , who played at Aggborough , the home of Kidderminster Harriers where he started his career . He scored 19 goals in 29 appearances in the 2015 – 16 campaign .
= = Style of play = =
Describing Hughes 's attributes in January 2013 , former Notts County coach Dave Kevan said that he was a " fantastic finisher ... a clever player whose movement is good , whose intelligence is good , who uses his body well and who uses his strength well ... he plays with his brain and he 's adapted his game as he has got older ... he 's also clever enough to create opportunities for others " . He maintained a " natural goalscoring instinct " throughout his career , and has said " I always fancy myself to stick the ball in the back of the net if I get a chance " . He ended the 2013 – 14 season with eight goals in 21 appearances for Rovers .
= = Personal life = =
The son of Bill and Gail Hughes , older brother to Clint and Brett , Hughes worked with his father as a roofer in his home @-@ town of Smethwick before turning professional . In 1999 , Sharlene Gillies claimed that she and Hughes had a child together . DNA tests later proved that he was not the father , though by this time his engagement to lap dancer Donna Nisbet was called off . Hughes stated that " I don 't think Donna was particularly happy with all the limelight that comes with football " , though insisted that barracking from opposition fans only made him more determined to put in a good performance on the pitch . Hughes and Jason Roberts were questioned by police over allegations that they assaulted a man outside a pub in Brierley Hill ; the case was dropped in September 2000 . It was reported that he had converted to Islam during his time in prison , due in part to his friendship with Muslim prisoners and the fact that abuse of alcohol had helped to bring about his downfall – his father said that " this story is not true . " In 2005 Hughes was reported to be on suicide watch after learning that his wife had reportedly been seeing a younger man .
He married air hostess Anna Kuzmanic in June 2000 in the Croatian town of Trogir . The couple had two children together but split up in 2008 ; the split was described as " very amicable " . His eldest , Mia , was born in November 2000 .
= = = Causing death by dangerous driving conviction = = =
On 23 November 2003 , near his home in the Warwickshire village of Meriden , West Midlands , Hughes lost control of his Mercedes CL55 AMG and went onto the wrong side of the road before colliding with a Renault Scénic . A passenger in the Renault , Douglas Graham , was killed in the incident , whilst his wife Maureen and the driver Albert Frisby were severely injured . Hughes and passenger Adrian Smith left the scene , before turning themselves in to the police 36 hours later . He was arrested on suspicion of causing death by dangerous driving . He denied the charge , though later pleaded Guilty to charges of failing to stop and failing to report an accident .
During his trial at Coventry Crown Court , Hughes was accused of driving too fast in wet conditions and was described as driving " like a madman " . He claimed the brakes on his car had locked , though tests showed that the brakes were in perfect working order and had technology installed to prevent the driver from losing control . When asked where he had been in the 36 hours after leaving the scene of the incident Hughes said that " I would rather not say , really " , though later admitted he had travelled 20 miles to Smethwick . Prosecutor Melbourne Inman QC told the court Hughes had fled the scene to dodge a breath test . On 9 August 2004 , Hughes was found guilty of causing death by dangerous driving , and was sentenced to six years imprisonment . Frisby said that the sentence was not long enough . Hughes lodged an appeal against the sentence , but not the conviction . In January 2005 , his appeal for his sentence to be reduced was refused .
He served his time in Category C prisons . During his time in HM Prison Featherstone he played in the Staffordshire County Senior League for the prison football team . He also helped to organise a charity football match which raised £ 5 @,@ 000 for a children 's hospice . He was released in August 2007 , three years into his six @-@ year sentence .
" After today I do not intend to discuss or make comment about the events which led to my imprisonment . I have made this decision , not out of protection for myself , but with regard to the privacy and respect for the families involved . I made dreadful mistakes and decisions that will live with me for the rest of my life . It also greatly affected my immediate family , including my wife and children , and I will never forgive myself for this . "
= = = Assault conviction = = =
On 3 December 2011 , Hughes was arrested and bailed on charges of sexual assault after an incident in Croydon . He was then charged with the offence on 30 January 2012 . In May 2012 Hughes was found guilty of common assault and fined £ 500 , but the charge of sexual assault was dropped .
= = Statistics = =
As of 4 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Kidderminster Harriers
Football Conference runner @-@ up : 1996 – 97
West Bromwich Albion
Football League First Division runner @-@ up : 2003 – 04
Notts County
Football League Two : 2009 – 10
Port Vale
Football League Two third @-@ place promotion : 2012 – 13
Individual
PFA Team of the Year ( First Division ) : 1998 – 99
West Bromwich Albion F.C. Player of the Year : 1998 – 99
Football League Two Player of the Month : April 2010
PFA Team of the Year ( League Two ) : 2009 – 10
= History of St. Louis =
The history of St. Louis , Missouri began with the settlement of the St. Louis area by Native American mound builders who lived as part of the Mississippian culture from the 9th century to the 15th century , followed by other migrating tribal groups . Starting in the late 17th century , French explorers arrived . Spain took over in 1763 and a trading company led by Pierre Laclede and Auguste Chouteau established the settlement of St. Louis in February 1764 . It attracted French settlers leaving Illinois when Britain took control east of the Mississippi . The city grew in population due to its location as a trading post on the Mississippi River , as the western fur trade was lucrative . The city played a small role in the American Revolutionary War and became part of the U.S. through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 .
With its connection through the Ohio River to the east , the Mississippi to the south and north , and the Missouri to the west , St. Louis was ideally located to become the main base of interregional trade . In the 1840s , it became a destination for massive immigration by Irish and Germans . Some native @-@ born Americans reacted with fear to the newcomers , adopting nativist sentiments . Missouri was a slave state , but the city 's proximity to free states caused it to become a center for the filing of freedom suits . Many slaves gained freedom through such suits in the antebellum years . But , by the 1850s and the Dred Scott case , interpretations had changed and the US Supreme Court ruled against him . It also ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional , contributing to the tensions causing the American Civil War . During the War , St. Louis had a small skirmish on its outskirts , but was held under Union control .
After the war , the city expanded its railroad connections and industrial activity . It suffered a corresponding rise in pollution of the river and waterfront . During the early 1870s , the Eads Bridge was constructed over the Mississippi River , and the city established several large parks , including Forest Park . Due to local political and economic disputes , the city separated from St. Louis County in 1876 and became an independent city . Its limited geographic area has inhibited its success in the 20th and 21st centuries because of the small tax base . During the late 19th century , St. Louis became home to two Major League Baseball teams . Ragtime and blues music flourished in the city , with African Americans making major contributions also in jazz .
The city hosted the 1904 World 's Fair and the 1904 Summer Olympics , attracting millions of visitors . Part of the infrastructure for the fair was the basis for major city institutions in Forest Park . In the early part of the century , many African Americans migrated from the South to the city for industrial jobs , as part of the Great Migration . St. Louis did not escape the Great Depression and its high unemployment . During World War II the city hosted war industries that employed thousands of workers .
After the war , federal highway subsidies and postwar development encouraged outward migration as residents moved to gain newer housing ; this suburbanization significantly reduced the city 's middle @-@ class population . The city made efforts to create new attractions , such as the Gateway Arch , which construction became a focus of the civil rights movement to gain non @-@ segregated jobs in the skilled trades . The first litigation under the 1964 Civil Rights Act was against St. Louis unions . The city worked to replace substandard housing by new public housing projects such as Pruitt – Igoe . A combination of factors resulted in this being notoriously unsuccessful , and it was demolished in the late 20th century . Starting in the 1980s and continuing into the following century , construction and gentrification have increased in some areas of St. Louis , particularly downtown . City beautification and crime reduction have made progress , although St. Louis has continued to struggle with crime and perceptions of crime . The city saw modest population growth during the mid @-@ 2000s , but showed a decline in the 2010 U.S. Census .
= = Exploration and Louisiana before 1762 = =
The earliest settlements in the middle Mississippi Valley were built in the 10th century by the people of the Mississippian culture , who constructed more than two dozen platform mounds within the area of the future European @-@ American city . These were related to the center of the culture at the very large complex of Cahokia Mounds , on the east side of the Mississippi River . The Mississippian culture ended for unknown reasons in the 14th century and these sites were empty for some time . Siouan @-@ speaking groups such as the Missouria and the Osage migrated from the eastern Ohio Valley to the Missouri Valley . They lived in villages along the Missouri and Osage rivers . Both groups competed with northeastern tribes such as the Sauk and the Meskwaki , and all four groups confronted the earliest European explorers of the middle Mississippi Valley .
Extensive European exploration near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers began nearly a century before the city was officially founded . Explorer Louis Joliet and Jesuit priest Jacques Marquette traveled south on the Mississippi River in June 1673 , passed the future site of St. Louis and reached the mouth of the Arkansas River before turning back .
Nine years later , French explorer La Salle led an expedition south from the Illinois River to the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico , claiming the entire valley for France . La Salle named the Mississippi river basin La Louisiane ( Louisiana ) after King Louis XIV ; the region between and near the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers was named the Illinois Country . As part of a series of forts in the Mississippi valley , the French built settlements at Cahokia and Kaskaskia , Illinois . French trading companies also built towns during the 1720s and 1730s , including Fort de Chartres and Ste . Genevieve , Missouri , the first European town in Missouri west of the Mississippi . From 1756 to 1760 , fighting in the French and Indian War ( the North American front of the Seven Years ' War ) halted settlement building . The economy remained weak through 1762 due to the ongoing war , in which Britain defeated France the following year .
= = City founding and early history : 1763 – 1803 = =
The arrival in New Orleans of Jean @-@ Jacques Blaise d 'Abbadie as the new governor of Louisiana in June 1763 led to changes in colonial policies . D 'Abbadie quickly moved to grant trade monopolies in the middle Mississippi Valley to stimulate the economy . Among the new monopolists was Pierre Laclede , who along with his stepson Auguste Chouteau set out in August 1763 to build a fur trading post near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers . The settlement of St. Louis was established at a site south of the confluence on the west bank of the Mississippi on February 15 , 1764 , by Chouteau and a group of about 30 men . Laclede arrived at the site by mid @-@ 1764 and provided detailed plans for the village , including a street grid and market area .
French settlers began to arrive from settlements on the east bank of the Mississippi in 1764 due to fears of British control , given the transfer of eastern land to Great Britain after the Treaty of Paris . The local French lieutenant governor moved to St. Louis in 1765 and began awarding land grants . As part of the peace negotiations to end the Seven Years ' War , Spain gained control of Louisiana according to the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1762 . Due to travel times and the Louisiana Rebellion of 1768 , the Spanish took official control in St. Louis only in May 1770 . After the transfer , the Spanish confirmed French land grants , and Spanish soldiers provided local security .
The occupation of most settlers was farming , and by the 1790s nearly 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) were under cultivation around St. Louis . Fur trading was the major commercial focus of many residents , as it was much more lucrative than agriculture during that period . The residents were not particularly religious , in spite of their Roman Catholic faith . The first church was constructed in mid @-@ 1770 and St. Louis acquired a resident priest in 1776 , making Catholic religious observance a more customary component of life .
The French settlers brought both black and Indian slaves to St. Louis ; although the majority were used as domestic servants , others worked as agricultural laborers . In 1769 , the Spanish prohibited Indian slavery in Louisiana , but the practice was entrenched among the French Creoles in St. Louis . As a compromise , Spanish governors ended the Indian slave trade but allowed the retention of current slaves and any children born to them . In 1772 , a census determined the population of the village to be 637 , including 444 whites ( 285 males and 159 females ) and 193 African slaves , with no Indian slaves reported due to their technical illegality . During the 1770s and 1780s , St. Louis grew slowly and the Spanish commanders were replaced often .
= = = American Revolution = = =
Upon the beginning of the American Revolutionary War , Spanish governor , Bernardo de Galvez , in New Orleans assisted the American rebels with weapons , food , blankets , tents and ammunition . The Spanish lieutenant governors at St. Louis also aided the colonials , particularly the forces of George Rogers Clark during the Illinois campaign . After the official entry of Spain into the American Revolutionary War in June 1779 on the side of the Americans and the French , the British began preparing an invasion to attack St. Louis and other Mississippi outposts . However , St. Louis was warned of the plans , and residents began to fortify the town .
On May 26 , 1780 , British and Indian forces attacked the town of St. Louis , but were forced to retreat due to the fortifications and defections of some Indian forces . In spite of their defeat , the British and their allies destroyed much of St. Louis ' agricultural lands and cattle stock , killed 23 residents , wounded 7 , and captured between 25 and 75 as prisoners ( some might have been murdered after their capture ) . A subsequent counterattack launched from St. Louis against British forts in the Midwest ended the threat of another attack on the town .
After the British were defeated , more French Creole families evaded Anglo @-@ American rule by moving to the Spanish @-@ controlled land on the west bank , including wealthy merchants Charles Gratiot , Sr. and Gabriel Cerre . Both the Gratiot and Cerre families intermarried with the Chouteau family to create a Creole @-@ dominated society in the 1780s and 1790s . The families also had marital ties to Spanish government officials , including the lieutenant governors Piernas and Cruzat .
= = = Transfer to France and the United States = = =
During the 1790s , towns near St. Louis expanded as small farmers sold their lands to the Cerres , Gratiots , Soulards , or Chouteaus . These farmers moved to towns such as Carondelet , St. Charles , and Florissant . By 1800 , only 43 % of the district 's population lived within the village ( 1 @,@ 039 of 2 @,@ 447 ) .
The Spanish government secretly returned the unprofitable Louisiana territory to France in October 1800 in the Treaty of San Ildefonso . The Spanish officially transferred control in October 1802 ; however , Spanish administrators remained in charge of St. Louis throughout the time of French ownership . Shortly afterward , a team of American negotiators purchased Louisiana , including St. Louis . On March 8 or 9 , 1804 , the flag of Spain was lowered at the government buildings in St. Louis and , according to local tradition , the flag of France was raised . On March 10 , 1804 , the French flag was replaced by that of the United States .
= = Expansion , growth , and the Civil War : 1804 – 1865 = =
= = = Government and religion = = =
Initially , the governor of the Indiana Territory governed the Louisiana District ( which included St. Louis ) , and the district 's organizational law forbade the foreign slave trade and reduced the influence of St. Louis in the region . Wealthy St. Louisans petitioned Congress to review the system , and in July 1805 , Congress reorganized the Louisiana District as the Louisiana Territory , with its territorial capital at St. Louis and its own territorial governor . From the division of the Louisiana Territory in 1812 to Missouri statehood in 1821 , St. Louis was the capital of the Missouri Territory .
The population of the city expanded slowly after the Louisiana Purchase , but expansion increased desire to incorporate St. Louis as a town , allowing it to create local ordinances without the approval of the territorial legislature . On November 27 , 1809 , the first Board of Trustees were elected . The Board passed slave codes , created a volunteer fire department , and created an overseer to improve street quality . To enforce town ordinances , the Board created the St. Louis Police Department , and a town jail was established in the fortifications built for the Battle of St. Louis .
After the end of the War of 1812 , the population of St. Louis and the Missouri Territory began expanding quickly . During this expansion land was donated for the Old St. Louis County Courthouse . The population increase stirred interest in statehood for Missouri , and in 1820 , Congress passed the Missouri Compromise , authorizing Missouri 's admission as a slave state . The state constitutional convention and first General Assembly met in St. Louis in 1820 . Shortly thereafter , St. Louis incorporated as a city , on December 9 , 1822 . The first mayor of the city was William Carr Lane , and a Board of Aldermen replaced the earlier Board of Trustees . Early city government focused on improvements to the riverfront and health conditions . In addition to a street paving program , the aldermen voted to rename the streets .
After the transfer of Louisiana to the United States , the Spanish had ended subsidies to the Catholic Church in St. Louis . As a result , Catholics in St. Louis had no resident priest until the arrival of Louis William Valentine Dubourg in early January 1818 . Upon his arrival , he replaced the original log chapel with a brick church , recruited priests , and established a seminary . By 1826 , a separate St. Louis diocese was created . Joseph Rosati became the first bishop in 1827 .
Protestants had received services from itinerant ministers in the late 1790s , but the Spanish required them to move to American territory until after the Louisiana Purchase . After the purchase , the Baptist missionary John Mason Peck built the first Protestant church in St. Louis in 1818 . Methodist ministers reached the town during the early years after the purchase , but only formed a congregation in 1821 . The Presbyterian Church in St. Louis began as a Bible reading society in 1811 , and in December 1817 members organized a church and built a chapel late the next year . A fourth Protestant group to take root was the Episcopal Church , founded in 1825 .
During the 1830s and 1840s , other faith groups also came to St. Louis , including the first Jewish congregation in the area , the United Hebrew Congregation , which was organized in 1837 . Followers of Mormonism arrived in 1831 , and in 1854 , they organized the first LDS church in St. Louis . Despite these events , during the pre @-@ Civil War era most of the population were culturally Catholic or uninterested in organized religion .
= = = Commerce , the Panic of 1819 , and growth = = =
Commerce after the Louisiana Purchase remained focused on the fur trade ; operations in St. Louis were led by the Chouteau family and its alliance with the Osages and by Manuel Lisa and his Missouri Fur Company . Due to its role as a major trading post , the city was the departure point for the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804 .
American and other immigrant families began arriving in St. Louis and opening new businesses , including printing and banking , starting in the 1810s . Among the printers was Joseph Charless , who published the first newspaper west of the Mississippi , the Missouri Gazette , on July 12 , 1808 . In 1816 and 1817 , groups of merchants formed the first banks in the town , but mismanagement and the Panic of 1819 led to their closure .
The effect of the Panic of 1819 and subsequent depression slowed commercial activity in St. Louis until the mid @-@ 1820s . By 1824 and 1825 , however , St. Louis businesses began to recover , largely due to the introduction of the steamboat ; the first to arrive in St. Louis , the Zebulon M. Pike , docked on August 2 , 1817 . Rapids north of the city made St. Louis the northernmost navigable port for many large riverboats , and the Pike and other ships soon transformed St. Louis into a bustling inland port .
More goods became available in St. Louis during the economic recovery , largely as a result of the new steamboat power . Wholesalers , new banks , and other retail stores opened starting in the late 1820s and early 1830s . The fur trade continued as a major industry into the 1830s . In 1822 , Jedediah Smith joined William H. Ashley 's St. Louis fur trading company . Smith would later be known for his explorations of the West and for being the first American to travel overland to California . New fur trade companies such as the Rocky Mountain Fur Company pioneered trails west . Although beaver fur lost its popularity in the 1840s , St. Louis continued as a hub of buffalo hide and other furs .
Construction of the County Courthouse in the late 1820s also encouraged growth , with an addition of western lots to Ninth Street and a new City Hall adjacent to the river in 1833 . The military post far north of the city at Fort Bellefontaine moved nearer to the city to Jefferson Barracks in 1827 , and the St. Louis Arsenal was built in south St. Louis the same year . The 1830s included dramatic population growth : by 1830 , it had increased to 5 @,@ 832 from roughly 4 @,@ 500 in 1820 . By 1835 , it reached 8 @,@ 316 , doubled by 1840 to 16 @,@ 439 , doubled again by 1845 to 35 @,@ 390 , and again by 1850 to 77 @,@ 860 .
= = = Infrastructure and education improvements = = =
In large part due to the rapid population growth , cholera became a significant problem . In 1849 , a major cholera epidemic killed nearly 5 @,@ 000 people , leading to a new sewer system and the draining of a mill pond . Cemeteries were removed to the outskirts to Bellefontaine Cemetery and Calvary Cemetery to reduce groundwater contamination . In the same year , a large fire broke out on a steamboat on the levee , spread to 23 other boats , and destroyed a large portion of the center city . The St. Louis landing was significantly improved during the 1850s . Using the engineering planning of Robert E. Lee , levees were constructed on the Illinois side to direct water toward Missouri to eliminate sand bars that threatened the landing . Another infrastructure improvement was the city 's water system , which was begun in the early 1830s and was continually improved and expanded in the 1840s and 1850s .
Most early St. Louisans remained illiterate through the 1810s , although many wealthy merchants purchased books for private libraries . Early schools in St. Louis were all fee @-@ based and mostly conducted lessons in French . The first substantial educational effort came about under the authority of the Catholic Church , which in 1818 opened Saint Louis Academy , later renamed Saint Louis University . In 1832 , the college applied for a state charter , and in December 1832 , it became the first chartered university west of the Mississippi River . Its medical school opened in 1842 , with faculty that included Daniel Brainard ( founder of Rush Medical College ) , Moses Linton ( founder of the first medical journal west of the Mississippi River in 1843 ) , and Charles Alexander Pope ( later president of the American Medical Association ) . However , the university primarily catered to seminary students rather than the general public , and only in the 1840s did the Catholic Church offer large scale instruction at parochial schools . In 1853 , William Greenleaf Eliot founded a second university in the city — Washington University in St. Louis . During the 1850s Eliot founded Smith Academy for boys and Mary Institute for girls , which later merged and became Mary Institute and St. Louis Country Day School .
Public education in St. Louis , provided by St. Louis Public Schools , began in 1838 with the creation of two elementary schools , and the system quickly expanded during the 1840s . By 1854 , the system had 27 schools and served nearly 4 @,@ 000 students . In 1855 , the district opened a high school to considerable fanfare . The high school , now known as Central VPA High School , was the first public high school west of the Mississippi River . By 1860 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 students had enrolled in the district . The district also opened a normal school in 1857 , which later became Harris – Stowe State University .
Entertainment options increased during the pre – Civil War period ; in early 1819 , the first theatre production in St. Louis opened , including a musical accompaniment . In the late 1830s , a 35 @-@ member orchestra briefly played in St. Louis , and in 1860 , another orchestra opened that played more than 60 concerts through 1870 .
= = = Slavery , immigration and nativism = = =
Missouri was admitted as a slave state . During the 1840s , the number of slaves increased but their percentage relative to the population declined ; during the 1850s , both the number and percentage declined . Roughly 3 @,@ 200 free blacks and slaves lived in St. Louis in 1850 , working as domestic servants , artisans , crew on the riverboats and stevedores .
Some slaves were allowed to earn wages , and some were able to save money to purchase their freedom or that of relatives . Others were manumitted , which occurred relatively more frequently in St. Louis than in the surrounding rural areas . Still others attempted to escape via the Underground Railroad or attempted to gain their freedom through freedom suits . The first freedom suit in St. Louis was filed by Marguerite Scypion in 1805 . More than 300 suits were filed in St. Louis before the Civil War . Among the most famous was that of Dred Scott and his wife Harriet , in a case heard at the Old Courthouse . The suit was based on their having traveled and lived with their master in free states . Although the state ruled in his favor , an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in an 1857 ruling against them . The Court ruled that slaves could not be counted as citizens , overturning the basis of the Missouri Compromise and inflaming national debate about slavery .
During the economic expansion of the 1830s , Irish and German immigration to St. Louis increased substantially . In particular , the writings of Gottfried Duden encouraged German immigration . Many Irish were motivated by the Irish potato famine of 1845 – 1846 and the failed Irish uprising of 1848 . Other Irish settlers came because of its reputation as a Catholic city .
Nativist sentiment increased in St. Louis during the late 1840s , leading to mob attacks and riots in 1844 , 1849 , and 1852 . The 1844 riots derived from popular outrage and resentment toward human dissection , which was then taking place at the Saint Louis University Medical College . The discovery of human remains prompted rumors of grave robbing , and a mob of more than 3 @,@ 000 residents attacked the medical college , destroying most of its interior facilities . The worst nativist riot in St. Louis took place in 1854 . The local militia was used to end the fighting . 10 people were killed , 33 wounded , and 93 buildings were damaged . Regulations on elections prevented fighting in future elections in 1856 and 1858 .
= = = American Civil War = = =
Before the war , the core of St. Louis leadership had shifted from the Creole and Irish families to a new group , dominated by anti @-@ slavery Germans . Among this new class of leaders was Frank P. Blair , Jr . , who led an effort to create a local militia loyal to the Union after Missouri Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson hinted about secession . This local militia allied itself with the Union army forces at Jefferson Barracks under the leadership of Nathaniel Lyon , which on May 10 , 1861 cleared a Confederate encampment outside the city in what became known as the Camp Jackson Affair . While the Confederates were being marched back into town , a group of citizens attacked the Union and militia forces , costing 28 civilian lives .
Throughout the entirety of the Civil War , St. Louis was under pressure as it was considered a city on the borderline . Though many people were confident in abolition , many were concerned about the economic effect of losing their free work force . In addition , St. Louis was still a developing city , and so a war could lead to utter destruction and ruin . However , with all the necessity of ammunition , St. Louis survived and transformed into a leader among cities .
After the Camp Jackson Affair , there were no more military threats to Union control until 1864 , although guerrilla activity continued in rural areas for the duration of the war . Union General John C. Fremont placed the city under martial law in August 1861 to suppress sedition ; after Fremont 's dismissal , Union army forces continued to suppress pro @-@ Confederate demonstrations . The war significantly damaged St. Louis commerce , especially after the Confederacy blockaded the Mississippi shutting off St. Louis 's connection to eastern markets . War also slowed growth during the 1860s , with an increase of only 43 @,@ 000 residents from 1860 to 1866 .
= = Fourth city status : 1866 – 1904 = =
During the decades after the Civil War , St. Louis grew to become the nation 's fourth largest city , after New York City , Philadelphia , and Chicago . It also experienced rapid infrastructure and transportation development and the growth of heavy industry . The period culminated with the 1904 World 's Fair and 1904 Summer Olympics , which were held concurrently in St. Louis .
= = = Infrastructure , parks , and education = = =
During the Civil War , the infrastructure of St. Louis suffered from neglect ; another cholera epidemic struck in 1866 , and typhoid fever raged . In response , St. Louis improved its water system and established a Board of Health to regulate polluting industries . St. Louis 's park system was expanded during the 1860s and 1870s , with the creation of Tower Grove Park and Forest Park .
= = = Railroads = = =
Railroad connections with the southwest and Texas were improved during the 1870s , with the formation of the Cotton Belt Railroad . In addition to connecting St. Louis with the West , the railroads began to demand connections with the east across the Mississippi . Between 1867 and 1874 , work on the Eads Bridge over the Mississippi continued despite setbacks such as caisson disease . The bridge formally opened on July 4 , 1874 .
To accommodate increased rail traffic , a new railroad terminal was constructed in 1875 , but it was not large enough to consolidate all train service in one location . A replacement station , called Union Station , opened on September 1 , 1894 . Although Chicago , Illinois had a greater volume of traffic at its own Union Station , more railroads met at St. Louis than any other city in the United States . Union Station 's rail platform expanded in 1930 and operated as the passenger rail terminal for St. Louis into the 1970s .
= = = Education = = =
By 1870 the public and parochial education systems expanded , to 24 @,@ 347 and 4 @,@ 362 students respectively . St. Louis educators established the first public kindergarten in the United States , under the instruction of Susan Blow in 1874 . Proposals for a free library system originated prior to the Civil War , and after the conflict the St. Louis Public School Library was established . During the 1870s and 1880s , a variety of local fee @-@ based libraries consolidated with the school library system , and in 1894 , the school system divested the library system as an independent entity , which became the St. Louis Public Library .
Racially segregated schools had operated secretly and illegally in St. Louis since the 1820s , but in 1864 , an integrated group of St. Louisans formed the Board of Education for Colored Schools , which established schools without public finances for more than 1 @,@ 500 black pupils in 1865 . After 1865 , the St. Louis Board of Education appropriated funding for the black schools , but facilities and conditions were quite poor . In 1875 , after considerable effort and protest from the black community , high school classes began to be offered at Sumner High School , the first high school for black students west of the Mississippi . However , inequality remained rampant in St. Louis schools .
Radical historians in the 1960s , steeped in the anti @-@ bureaucratic ethos of the New Left , deplored the emergence of bureaucratic school systems . They argue its purpose was to suppress the upward aspirations of the working class . However , other historians have emphasized the necessity of building non @-@ politicized standardized systems . The reforms in St. Louis , according to historian Selwyn Troen , were . " born of necessity as educators first confronted the problems of managing a rapidly expanding and increasingly complex institutions . " Troen found that the bureaucratic solution remove schools from the bitterness and spite of ward politics . Troen argues :
In the space of only a generation , public education had left behind a highly regimented and politicized system dedicated to training children in the basic skills of literacy and the special discipline required of urban citizens , and had replaced it with a largely apolitical , more highly organized and efficient structure specifically designed to teach students the many specialized skills demanded in a modern , industrial society . In terms of programs this entailed the introduction of vocational instruction , a doubling of the period of schooling , and a broader concern for the welfare of urban youth .
= = = Separation from St. Louis County = = =
When Missouri became a state in 1821 , St. Louis County was created from the boundaries of the former St. Louis subdistrict of the Missouri Territory ; St. Louis city existed within the county but was not coterminous with it . Starting in the 1850s , rural county voters began to exert political influence over questions of taxation in the St. Louis County court . In 1867 , the county court was given power to assess and collect property tax revenue from St. Louis city property , providing a financial boon to the county government while depriving city government of revenues . After this power transfer , St. Louisans in the city began to favor one of three options : greater representation on the county court via charter changes , city – county consolidation , or urban secession to form an independent city .
At a Missouri state constitutional convention in 1875 , delegates from the region agreed on a separation plan . A Board of Freeholders from St. Louis county and city reorganized boundaries and proposed a final plan of separation in mid @-@ 1876 . The new city charter also tripled the size of the city to include the new rural parks ( such as Forest Park ) and the useful riverfront from the Missouri – Mississippi confluence to the mouth of the River Des Peres . After a fraudulent election initially showed a rejection of the plan , a recount in December 1876 showed voters had approved the separation .
= = = Industrial and commercial growth = = =
In 1880 , the leading industries of St. Louis included brewing , flour milling , slaughtering , machining , and tobacco processing . Other industries including the manufacture of paint , bricks , and iron . During the 1880s , the city grew in population by 29 percent , from 350 @,@ 518 to 451 @,@ 770 , making it the country 's fourth largest city ; it also ranked fourth as measured by value of its manufactured products , and more than 6 @,@ 148 factories existed in 1890 . However , during the 1890s , manufacturing growth slowed dramatically . The Panic of 1893 and subsequent depression and the overproduction of grain made St. Louis mills considerably less productive and valuable . Flour milling was halved and most other industries suffered similar declines .
The introduction of the railroad in St. Louis helped spread the fortune and initialize much of this industrial success . With the completion of the Municipal Railroad System , St. Louis ' manufacturers could get their products to consumers on the East Coast much faster than before .
The brewing small industry took off with the arrival of Adam Lemp from Germany in 1842 . He introduced lager beer , which quickly became the city 's most popular choice . The industry expanded rapidly in the late 1850s , from 24 breweries in 1854 to 40 in 1860 . Brewing became the city 's largest industry by 1880 , and St. Louis breweries were innovators . Anheuser @-@ Busch pioneered refrigerated railroad cars for beer transport and was the first company to market pasteurized bottled beer .
St. Louis became home to whiskey distilleries . Several were at the heart of the Whiskey Ring during the early 1870s , a conspiracy that began among St. Louis distillers and federal tax officials to avoid paying excise taxes . With the breakup of the ring in May 1875 , more than 100 conspirators were charged with fraud , including Grant 's private secretary , Orville E. Babcock . In early 1876 , 110 conspirators were convicted of fraud . Babcock was the only defendant who was acquitted .
The Ralston @-@ Purina company , headed by the Danforth family , was headquartered in the city , and Anheuser @-@ Busch , the world 's largest brewery , remained a fixture of the city 's economy into the 21st century . The city was home to both International Shoe and the Brown Shoe Company . The Desloge Consolidated Lead Company , the largest lead mining concern in the country , headed by the Desloge family , was headquartered downtown . In May 1874 , the insurance companies of St. Louis founded the Underwriters Salvage Corps to reduce the impact of fires in the city .
Among the downsides to rapid industrialization was pollution . Brick firing produced particulate air pollution and paint @-@ making created lead dust , while beer and liquor brewing produced grain swill . The worst pollution was coal dust and smoke , for which St. Louis was infamous by the 1890s . The greatest number of complaints to the St. Louis Board of Health were due to industries engaged in rendering , which produced noxious fumes . In spite of this , pollution control was hindered by a desire to promote growth . One of the few controls began in 1880 , in which regulations would be enforced strictly in some areas while little in others , thereby encouraging factories to concentrate in industrial districts .
In addition to industrial growth , the 1880s and 1890s were a period of significant growth in downtown commercial building . The retail district was centered at Fourth Street and Washington Avenue , while banking and business was centered to the south , at Fourth and Olive streets . During the 1890s , significant retailers and businesses moved westward ; among the new buildings constructed as a result of this movement was the Wainwright Building . Designed by Louis Sullivan in 1891 , the Wainwright was the tallest building in the city at the time of its construction and remains an example of early skyscraper design .
= = = Culture = = =
In September 1880 , the St. Louis Choral Society opened as a musical orchestra and choir ; the same organization provided annual concerts through 1906 , when it was renamed the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra . Starting in the 1890s , the district known as Chestnut Valley ( an area near the present @-@ day Scottrade Center ) became the home of St. Louis ragtime . Several well @-@ known ragtime and jazz composers lived or played in St. Louis , including W.C. Handy , Tom Turpin , Scott Hayden , Arthur Marshall , Joe Jordan , and Louis Chauvin . In addition to the early Chestnut Valley players , ragtime composer Scott Joplin moved to St. Louis from Sedalia , Missouri in 1901 , where he associated with Tom Turpin and composed music in the city until moving to Chicago in 1907 .
The sport of baseball began to be played in the years following the Civil War ; a team known as the St. Louis Brown Stockings was founded in 1875 . The Brown Stockings were a founding member of the National League and became a hometown favorite , defeating the Chicago White Stockings ( later the Chicago Cubs ) in their opener on May 6 , 1875 . The original Brown Stockings club closed in 1878 , and an unrelated National League team with the same name was founded in 1882 . This team repeatedly changed its name , shortening to the Browns in 1883 , becoming the Perfectos in 1899 , and settling on the St. Louis Cardinals in 1900 . In 1902 , a team moved to St. Louis from Milwaukee and adopted the name St. Louis Browns , although they had no relation to the previous Browns or Brown Stockings . From 1902 until the 1950s , St. Louis was home to two Major League teams .
Notable residents in the field of literature included poets Sara Teasdale and T. S. Eliot , as well as playwright Tennessee Williams .
= = = 1904 World 's Fair = = =
Beginning in the 1850s , St. Louis hosted annual agricultural and mechanical fairs at Fairground Park to connect with regional manufacturers and growers . By the 1880s , the connection to agriculture had declined , and in 1883 , a new St. Louis Exposition and Music Hall was built to house industrial exhibits . In 1890 , St. Louis attempted to host the World 's Columbian Exposition , but the project was awarded to Chicago , which hosted the exposition in 1893 . In 1899 , delegates from states that had been part of the Louisiana Purchase met in St. Louis , selecting it as the site of a world 's fair celebrating the centennial of the purchase in 1904 .
Company directors selected the western half of Forest Park as the fair site , sparking a real estate and construction boom . Streetcar and rail service to the area was improved , and a new filtration system was implemented to improve the St. Louis water supply . The fair consisted of an " Ivory City " of twelve temporary exhibition palaces , and one permanent exhibit palace which became the St. Louis Art Museum after the fair . The fair celebrated American expansionism and world cultures with exhibits of historical French fur @-@ trading , and Eskimo and Filipino villages . Concurrently , the 1904 Summer Olympics were held in St. Louis , at what would become the campus of Washington University in St. Louis .
= = Decline of the inner city and urban renewal : 1905 – 1980 = =
= = = Civic improvements and segregation policies = = =
During the early 1900s and 1910s , St. Louis began a building program that created parks and playgrounds in several deteriorating residential neighborhoods . Parks Commissioner ( and former professional tennis player ) Dwight F. Davis continued the development of recreational facilities during the early 1910s by expanding tennis facilities and building a public 18 @-@ hole golf course in northwest Forest Park . The St. Louis Zoo was constructed in Forest Park in the early 1910s under the leadership of Mayor Henry Kiel . Since the 1890s , St. Louis had attempted to control its air pollution problems with little success , but damage to buildings and flora made the issue more visible during the 1920s . Problems came to a head with the 1939 St. Louis smog , which blackened the sky and lasted for three weeks . A ban on burning low @-@ quality coal solved the problem in December 1939 , and the addition of natural gas for heating assisted homeowners in making the transition to cleaner fuels by the late 1940s .
During the 1904 World 's Fair , ballooning was demonstrated as a viable means of transportation ; in October 1907 , the second Gordon Bennett Cup , an international balloon racing event , was held in the city . The first airplane flight occurred in late 1909 , and by the next year , an airfield had been established in nearby Kinloch , Missouri . In October 1910 , St. Louis hosted President Theodore Roosevelt , who became the first president to fly in an airplane after departing from the field . In 1925 , local entrepreneur Albert Lambert purchased Kinloch Field , expanded its facilities , and renamed it Lambert Field . In May 1927 , Charles Lindbergh departed from Lambert Field en route to New York to begin his solo non @-@ stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean . In early 1928 , the city of St. Louis purchased the airport from Lambert , making it the first municipally owned airport in the United States ; Lambert remains the area 's primary airport .
Although St. Louis enforced a variety of Jim Crow laws , the area generally had a lower level of racial violence and fewer lynchings than the American South . The St. Louis black community was stable and relatively concentrated along the riverfront or near the railroad yards . Although informal discrimination had existed in the St. Louis housing market since the end of the Civil War , only in 1916 did St. Louis pass a residential segregation ordinance . The ordinance quickly was invalidated by court injunctions , but private restrictive covenants in St. Louis real estate transactions limited the ability of white owners to sell to blacks and were another form of racial discrimination . In 1948 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned such real estate limitations as unconstitutional in Shelley v. Kraemer , a court case based on the sale of a St. Louis house ( the Shelley House ) to a black family .
Despite segregationist and racist attitudes , St. Louis acted as a haven during the 1917 East St. Louis Riot , as St. Louis police shepherded fleeing blacks across the Eads Bridge to shelter and food provided by the city government and the American Red Cross . Leonidas C. Dyer , who represented part of St. Louis in the U.S. House , led a Congressional investigation into the events and eventually sponsored an anti @-@ lynching bill in response . Due to an influx of refugees from East St. Louis and the general effects of the Great Migration of blacks from the rural South to industrial cities , the black population of St. Louis increased more rapidly than the whole during the decade of 1910 to 1920 .
= = = World War I and the interbellum period = = =
Both the St. Louis German and Irish communities urged neutrality at the 1914 outbreak of World War I , which contributed to a resurgent nativism after U.S. entry into the war in 1917 . As a result , German St. Louisans suffered some discrimination during the war , and St. Louisans repressed elements of German culture . Commerce was not dramatically affected by the war . However , leading up to and before World War I , the population started to decrease as men were needed to work at the artillery plants and factories that were closer to the Atlantic .
After World War I , the nationwide prohibition of alcohol in 1919 brought heavy losses to the St. Louis brewing industry . Other industries , such as light manufacturing of clothing , automobile manufacturing , and chemical production , filled much of the gap , and St. Louis 's economy was relatively diversified and healthy during the 1920s .
St. Louis suffered as much or more than comparable cities in the early years of the Great Depression . Manufacturing output fell by 57 percent between 1929 and 1933 , slightly more than the national average of 55 percent , and output remained low until World War II . Unemployment during the Depression was high in most urban areas , and St. Louis was no exception ( see table ) . Black workers in St. Louis , as in many cities , suffered significantly higher unemployment than their white counterparts . To aid the unemployed , the city allocated funds starting in 1930 toward relief operations . In addition to city relief aid , New Deal programs such as the Public Works Administration employed thousands of St. Louisans . Civic improvement construction jobs also reduced the number of persons on direct relief aid by the late 1930s .
= = = World War II = = =
During World War II , St. Louis was the location of a large ammunition factory and the Curtiss @-@ Wright aircraft factory . Area factories also produced uniforms and footwear , K @-@ rations , and chemicals and medicines . The uranium used in the Manhattan Project was refined in St. Louis by Mallinckrodt Chemical Company starting in 1942 , and several atomic bomb scientists had ties to St. Louis , including Arthur Compton . At the start of the war , many German , Italian , and Japanese St. Louisans were interrogated or arrested , while the FBI investigated charges of sedition in the area . Residents engaged in civil defense drills and supported the war effort with scrap drives and war bond purchases . St. Louis produced several notable soldiers in the war , including Edward O 'Hare , who grew up in St. Louis and won the Medal of Honor for combat in the Pacific . St. Louis also was home to Wendell O. Pruitt , an African @-@ American pilot who shot down three enemy aircraft and destroyed multiple ground targets in June 1944 .
At the outbreak of war , African @-@ American workers gained greater acceptance in industry than previously , but discrimination remained a problem for many black workers . During the war , city officials passed the first municipal integration ordinance , allowing African Americans to eat at city @-@ owned ( but not private ) lunch counters . In May 1944 , when a black sailor in uniform was refused service at a privately owned lunch counter , the action prompted peaceful sit @-@ in protests at several downtown diners . No changes in Jim Crow segregation policies at lunch counters resulted , but Saint Louis University admitted its first black students starting in August 1944 .
More than 5 @,@ 400 St. Louisans became casualties of the war , listed as either missing or killed in action . The end of the war led to the closure of many St. Louis factories , with major layoffs beginning in May and continuing through August 1945 . By late 1945 , returning soldiers encountered a chronic housing and job shortage in the city . The GI Bill allowed many St. Louis veterans to purchase homes and pursue higher education , which encouraged sub @-@ urbanization that after the war reduced the city 's population .
= = = Sub @-@ urbanization and population loss = = =
Internal population migration westward was a feature of St. Louis since its earliest days , but it accelerated rapidly in the late 19th century . Starting in the 1890s , the St. Louis streetcar system and commuter railroad stations enabled commuters to travel from suburban towns bordering the city into the downtown . Towns such as Kirkwood , Maplewood , Webster Groves , Richmond Heights , University City , and Clayton grew rapidly between 1900 and 1930 . Extensive movement to these towns doubled the population of St. Louis County from 1910 to 1920 , while due to restrictions on immigration and outward migration the city grew only 12 percent in the same period . During the 1930s , the city 's population declined by a small amount for the first time , but St. Louis County grew by nearly 30 percent . Nearly 80 percent of new residential construction in the region occurred outside city limits during the late 1930s , and St. Louis planners were unable to combat the problem via annexation .
The city reached its highest recorded census population in 1950 , reaching 856 @,@ 796 , and its population peaked in the early 1950s with approximately 880 @,@ 000 residents . However , new highway construction and increased automobile ownership enabled further suburbanization and population began a long decline . Another factor in the city 's population loss was white flight , which began in earnest during the late 1950s and continued during the 1960s and 1970s . From 1950 to 1960 , the city population declined by 13 percent to 750 @,@ 026 , and from 1960 to 1970 , the city declined another 17 percent to 622 @,@ 236 . Of this decline , the white population declined primarily due to " massive outward migration , primarily to the suburbs . " Between 1960 and 1970 , a net 34 percent of white city residents moved out ; in addition , city white death rates exceeded birth rates . By the early 1970s , the white population of the city had decreased significantly , particularly among those of child @-@ bearing age . The black population of St. Louis saw a natural increase of 19 @.@ 5 percent during the 1960s , with no gain or loss through migration ; during that decade , the overall percentage of black city residents rose from 29 to 41 percent . However , the black population declined in size from 1968 to 1972 by nearly 20 @,@ 000 residents , representing significant black out @-@ migration from the city during the period . Many moved to suburban developments in St. Louis County .
= = = Urban renewal projects and the Arch = = =
Early urban renewal efforts in St. Louis coincided with efforts to plan a riverfront memorial to honor Thomas Jefferson , which would later include the famous Gateway Arch . Work began in the early 1930s on acquisition and demolition of the forty @-@ block area where the memorial would stand ; the only remnant of Laclede 's street grid that was preserved was north of the Eads Bridge ( in what is now known as Laclede 's Landing ) . The only building in the area to remain was the Old Cathedral . Demolition continued until the outbreak of World War II , when the area began to be used as a parking lot . The project stalled until a design competition for the memorial was launched . In 1948 , Finnish architect Eero Saarinen 's design for an inverted and weighted catenary curve won the competition ; however , groundbreaking did not occur until 1954 . The Arch topped out in October 1965 . A museum and visitors ' center was completed underneath the structure , opening in 1976 . In addition to attracting millions of visitors , the Arch ultimately spurred more than $ 500 million in downtown construction during the 1970s and 1980s .
Concurrent with plans to build the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial during the 1930s were plans to create subsidized housing in the city . Despite efforts at civic improvement starting in the 1920s and two significant housing projects built in 1939 , after World War II more than 33 @,@ 000 houses had shared or outdoor toilets , while thousands of St. Louisans lived in crowded , unsafe conditions . Starting in 1953 , St. Louis cleared the Chestnut Valley area in Midtown , selling the land to developers who constructed middle @-@ class apartment buildings . Nearby , the city cleared more than 450 acres ( 1 @.@ 8 km2 ) of a residential neighborhood known as Mill Creek Valley , displacing thousands . A residential mixed @-@ income development known as LaClede Town was created in the area in the early 1960s , although this was eventually demolished for an expansion of Saint Louis University . The majority of people displaced from Mill Creek Valley were poor and African American , and they typically moved to historically stable , middle @-@ class black neighborhoods such as The Ville .
In 1953 , St. Louis issued bonds that financed the completion of the St. Louis Gateway Mall project and several new high @-@ rise housing projects . The most famous and largest was Pruitt – Igoe , which opened in 1954 on the northwest edge of downtown and included 33 eleven @-@ story buildings with nearly 3 @,@ 000 units . Between 1953 and 1957 , St. Louis built more than 6 @,@ 100 units of public housing , and each opened with enthusiasm on the part of local leaders , the media , and new tenants . From the beginning problems plagued the projects ; it became quickly apparent that there was too little recreational space , too few healthcare facilities or shopping centers , and employment opportunities were scarce . Crime was rampant , particularly at Pruitt – Igoe , and that complex was demolished in 1975 . The other St. Louis housing projects remained relatively well @-@ occupied through the 1980s , in spite of lingering problems with crime .
Along with the housing projects , a 1955 urban renewal bond issue totaled more than $ 110 million . The bonds provided funds to purchase land to build three expressways into downtown St. Louis , which later became Interstate 64 , Interstate 70 , and Interstate 44 . In 1967 , the highway @-@ only Poplar Street Bridge opened to move traffic from all three expressways over the Mississippi River . The openings of the Arch in 1965 and the bridge in 1967 were accompanied by the opening of a new stadium for the St. Louis Cardinals . The Cardinals moved into Busch Memorial Stadium early in the 1966 season . Construction of the stadium required the demolition of Chinatown , St. Louis , ending the decades @-@ old presence of a Chinese immigrant community .
= = = Government consolidation attempts = = =
Due to the city 's population decline , beginning in the 1920s and accelerating through the 1950s , local government leaders made several attempts to consolidate services . A pre – Great Depression annexation attempt by the city failed due to opposition from county voters , and only after World War II would more efforts be made toward consolidation . The first ( and one of the few ) successful attempts at consolidation resulted in the creation of the Metropolitan Sewer District , a city – county water and sewer company formed in 1954 . The next year , however , a city – county mass transit agency was rejected by voters , followed by a failed charter revision in 1955 that would have unified the city and the county . As the County population grew , local subdivisions began multiplying and incorporating into cities and towns , producing more than 90 separate municipalities by the 1960s . Regional planning advocates succeeded in the 1965 creation of the East – West Gateway Coordinating Council , a group given the power to approve or deny applications for federal aid from cities .
= = Recent developments : 1981 – present = =
= = = Beautification and crime prevention projects = = =
By the late 1970s , urban decay had spread , as described by Kenneth T. Jackson , historian of suburban development :
[ St. Louis is ] a premier example of urban abandonment . Once the fourth largest city in America , the " Gateway to the West " is now twenty @-@ seventh , a ghost of its former self . In 1940 it contained 816 @,@ 000 inhabitants : in 1980 the census counted only 453 @,@ 000 . Many of its old neighborhoods have become dispiriting collections of burned @-@ out buildings , eviscerated homes , and vacant lots .... The air is polluted , the sidewalks are filthy , the juvenile crime is horrendous , and the remaining industries are languishing . Grimy warehouses and aging loft factories are landscaped by weed @-@ grown lots adjoining half @-@ used rail yards . Like an elderly couple no longer sure of their purpose in life after their children have moved away , these neighborhoods face an undirected future .
As of the election of Vincent Schoemehl as the city 's youngest mayor ever in 1981 , St. Louis 's problems were more significant than many other rustbelt cities . Several major development projects incomplete and the city 's economic base crumbling . However , Schoemehl developed two projects early in his three terms in office that assisted St. Louis : Operation Brightside provided city beautification through plantings and graffiti cleanup . Schoemehl also instituted a safety program to address crime , known as Operation SafeStreet , which blocked access to certain through streets and provided low @-@ cost security measures to homeowners . Crime declined starting in 1984 , and despite a small resurgence in 1989 , continued to decline through the 1990s .
= = = School desegregation and voluntary transfers = = =
Although de jure segregation in St. Louis public schools ended in 1954 after Brown v. Board of Education , St. Louis area educators continued to employ tactics to ensure de facto segregation during the 1960s .
In the 1970s , a lawsuit challenging this segregation led to a 1983 settlement agreement in which St. Louis County school districts agreed to accept black students from the city on a voluntary basis . State funds were used to transport students to provide an integrated education . The agreement also called for white students from the county to voluntarily attend city magnet schools , in an effort to desegregate the City 's remaining schools . Despite opposition from state and local political leaders , the plan significantly desegregated St. Louis schools ; in 1980 , 82 percent of black students in the city attended all @-@ black schools , while in 1995 , only 41 percent did so . During the late 1990s , the St. Louis voluntary transfer program was the largest such program in the United States , with more than 14 @,@ 000 enrolled students .
Under a renewed agreement in 1999 , all but one of the St. Louis County districts agreed to continue their participation , albeit with an opt @-@ out clause that allowed districts to reduce the number of incoming transfer students starting in 2002 . In addition , districts have been permitted to reduce available seats in the program . Since 1999 , districts have reduced availability by five percent annually . A five @-@ year extension of the voluntary transfer program was approved in 2007 , and another five @-@ year extension was approved in 2012 , allowing new enrollments to take place through the 2018 – 2019 school year in participating districts . Critics of the transfer program note that most of the desegregation under the plan is via transfer of black students to the county rather than transfer of white students to the city . Another criticism has been that the program weakens city schools by removing talented students to county schools . Despite these issues , the program will continue until all transfer students reach graduation ; with the last group of transfer students allowed to enroll in 2018 – 2019 , the program will end after the 2030 – 2031 school year .
= = = New construction , gentrification , and rehabilitation = = =
From 1981 to 1993 , new construction projects were initiated in downtown St. Louis at levels unseen since the early 1960s . Among these was the tallest building in the city , One Metropolitan Square , which was designed by Hellmuth , Obata and Kassabaum and built in 1989 . New retail projects began to take shape : Amtrak abandoned Union Station as a passenger rail terminal in 1978 , but in 1985 , it reopened as a festival marketplace under the direction of Baltimore developer James Rouse . The same year , downtown developers opened St. Louis Centre , an enclosed four @-@ story shopping mall costing $ 176 million with 150 stores and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space . By the late 1990s , however , the mall had fallen out of favor due to the expansion of the St. Louis Galleria in Brentwood , Missouri . The mall 's flagship Dillard 's store closed in 2001 . The mall closed in 2006 , and beginning in 2010 , developers began to convert the mall into a parking structure and an adjoining building into apartments , hotel , and retail .
The city sponsored a major expansion of the St. Louis Convention Center during the 1980s , and Schoemehl focused efforts on retaining professional sports teams . To that end , the city purchased The Arena , a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ seat venue for professional ice hockey that was home of the St. Louis Blues . In the early 1990s , Schoemehl worked with business groups to develop a new ice hockey arena ( now known as the Scottrade Center ) on the site of the city 's Kiel Auditorium , with the promise that the developer would renovate the adjacent opera house .
Although the arena opened in 1994 ( and the original arena was demolished in 1999 ) , renovations on the opera house did not begin until 2007 . This was more than 15 years after the initial development plan . The Peabody Opera House ( named for corporate contributor Peabody Energy ) reopened on October 1 , 2011 , with performances by Jay Leno and Aretha Franklin .
In January 1995 , Georgia Frontiere , the owner of the National Football League team known as the Los Angeles Rams ( now St. Louis Rams ) , announced she would move that team to St. Louis . The team replaced the St. Louis Cardinals ( now Arizona Cardinals ) , an NFL franchise that had moved to St. Louis in 1960 but departed for Arizona in 1988 . The Rams played their first game in their St. Louis stadium , the Edward Jones Dome , on October 22 , 1996 .
Starting in the early 1980s , more rehabilitation and construction projects began , some of which remain incomplete . In 1981 , the Fox Theatre , a movie theater in Midtown that closed in 1978 , was completely restored and reopened as a performing arts venue . Among the areas to undergo gentrification was the Washington Avenue Historic District , which extends along Washington Avenue from the Edward Jones Dome west almost two dozen blocks . During the early 1990s , garment manufacturers moved out of the large office buildings on the street , and by the end of that decade residential developers began to convert the buildings into lofts . Prices per square foot increased dramatically in the area , and by 2001 , nearly 280 apartments were built . Among the Washington Avenue projects to remain in development is the Mercantile Exchange Building , which is being converted to offices , apartments , retail , and a movie theater . The gentrification also has had the effect of increasing the downtown population , with both the central business district and Washington Avenue district more than doubling their population from 2000 to 2010 .
Other downtown projects include the renovation of the Old Post Office , which started in 1998 and was completed in 2006 . The Old Post Office and seven adjacent buildings had been vacant since the early 1990s ; as of 2010 this complex included a variety of tenants , including a branch of the St. Louis Public Library , a branch of Webster University , the St. Louis Business Journal , and a variety of government offices . The renovation of the Old Post Office spurred development of an adjacent plaza , which is linked to a new $ 80 million residential building called Roberts Tower , the first new residential construction in downtown St. Louis since the 1970s .
As early as 1999 , the St. Louis Cardinals began pushing for the construction of a new Busch Stadium as part of a broader trend in Major League Baseball toward stadium building . In early 2002 , plans for a new park were settled among state and local leaders and Cardinals owners . According to an agreement in which the state and city would issue bonds for construction , the Cardinals agreed to build a multipurpose development known as St. Louis Ballpark Village on part of the site of Busch Memorial Stadium . The new stadium opened in 2006 , and groundbreaking for Ballpark Village took place in February 2013 .
= = = Population and crime issues = = =
Starting in the early 1990s , St. Louis became home to a substantial Bosnian immigrant community , which became the second @-@ largest in the United States in 1999 . The city also began to see an increase in immigrants from Mexico , Vietnam , Ethiopia , and Somalia . Many immigrants reported moving to St. Louis , particularly its south side Bevo Mill neighborhood , due to the low cost of living compared to other American cities . Despite this increase , the foreign @-@ born population of the St. Louis region was roughly one @-@ third of the national average in 2010 .
During the mid @-@ 2000s , the population of St. Louis began growing following a half @-@ century of decline . Census estimates from 2003 through 2008 were successfully challenged and population figures were revised upward ; however , no challenges to 2009 data were permitted . In spite of gains during the 2000s , the 2010 U.S. Census showed a decline of slightly more than 10 percent for St. Louis .
Given the losses of industry and jobs , St. Louis has had significant and persistent problems with both crime and perceptions of crime . In 2011 St. Louis was named by U.S. News and World Report as the most dangerous city in the United States , using Uniform Crime Reports data published by the U.S. Department of Justice . In addition , St. Louis was named as the city with the highest crime rate in the United States by CQ Press in 2010 , using data reported to the FBI in 2009 . Critics of these analyses note that division between St. Louis City and St. Louis County make crime reports for the area appear inflated , and that reporting crime differs greatly depending on the localities involved . The FBI cautioned against using this data as a form of ranking , as it presents too simplistic a view of crime . From 2006 to 2007 , the rate of city youth to be killed by guns was the second @-@ highest in the United States , according to data released by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . The rate of firearm deaths for the metropolitan statistical area was one @-@ fifth of the city rate .
= The Vicar of Bullhampton =
The Vicar of Bullhampton is an 1870 novel by Anthony Trollope . It is made up of three intertwining subplots : the courtship of a young woman by two suitors ; a feud between the titular Broad church vicar and a Low church nobleman , abetted by a Methodist minister ; and the vicar 's attempt to rehabilitate a young woman who has gone astray .
Trollope expected his depiction of a fallen woman to be controversial , and unusually for him wrote a preface defending it . But the anticipated controversy never materialised , and contemporary reviewers tended to ignore that subplot , focussing instead on the courtship in the novel . Reviews were generally less than positive ; many reviewers and readers who had acquired a taste for Trollope from the 1850s – 60s Barchester novels were unhappy about the darker tone of later novels such as this one .
Trollope 's fortunes suffered because of the mode of the novel 's publication . Owing to mismanagement by the publishers , it was not serialised in a popular magazine , as originally intended . Instead , it was issued as monthly numbers , a form of serialisation that had become unpopular with the reading public , and Trollope lost readers as a result .
= = Plot summary = =
The Vicar of Bullhampton is set in a small town in Wiltshire . It develops three subplots , all connected with Frank Fenwick , the eponymous vicar .
= = = Mary Lowther = = =
The first subplot involves the courtship of Mary Lowther , a childhood friend of the vicar 's wife . Harry Gilmore , a Bullhampton squire and a friend of the Fenwicks , falls deeply in love with her . Mary recognises that Gilmore is a good man , but she fears that she does not adore him as a woman should adore the man she marries . The Fenwicks and her guardian aunt all urge her to accept his proposal , telling her that the affection she does not now feel will come after marriage . In the face of this advice , she does not reject Gilmore outright , but asks for time to consider .
Mary finds the love she seeks in her second cousin , Captain Walter Marrable . He falls in love with her , and she joyously accepts his offer of marriage . However , misfortune strikes in the form of Colonel Marrable , the Captain 's father , who swindles his son out of the fortune left him by his late mother . The impoverished Captain fears that he will have to return to India with his regiment ; he and Mary , each unwilling to inflict poverty on the other , end their engagement by mutual consent and with mutual regret .
Mary , disspirited , yields to Gilmore 's importunements , warning him that theirs must be a long engagement and that she will end it if Captain Marrable finds himself able to marry a woman without a fortune . This comes to pass : the death of the Captain 's cousin , the heir to the family 's baronetcy , makes him the likely eventual heir . The current Baronet accepts the Captain as his heir , buying out the Colonel 's interest to prevent his squandering the family fortune . The two lovers are reunited , leaving Gilmore bitter and despondent .
= = = Brattle family = = =
The second subplot involves the family of Bullhampton 's miller , Jacob Brattle . His youngest son , Sam , is a hard worker at the mill , but has fallen in with bad companions , and is often absent from home . Sam 's sister Carry is worse off yet : having yielded to a seducer , she has been disowned by her father , and is living a life of sin in an unknown location .
When a Bullhampton farmer is murdered in the course of a burglary , suspicion falls on Sam Brattle and his associates . Fenwick believes in Sam 's innocence , and acts as one of his bondsmen . Through Sam he discovers Carry 's whereabouts , and resolves to rescue her if he can . He finds her a temporary home , but it becomes clear to him that the only permanent solution must involve bringing her back into the Brattle family , which means winning her father 's forgiveness .
Carry leaves the home that Fenwick has found her and wanders distraught . Eventually , she returns to the mill , half resolved to see her old home and then drown herself in the millstream . There she is greeted lovingly by her mother and sister . Her father reluctantly allows her to remain in the family home ; eventually he too forgives her , although he can never forget the shame she has brought on the family . Carry remains with her family for the rest of her life , but although she has returned to decency , her past ensures that she will never find an honest husband .
Sam is never charged with the murder , although one of his former associates is hanged for it . He continues to work at the mill , and eventually marries a Bullhampton girl .
= = = Marquis and Methodist = = =
A third subplot centres on the relationship between Fenwick , Mr. Puddleham , the village 's Methodist minister , and the Marquis of Trowbridge , Bullhampton 's principal landowner . The marquis believes that Sam Brattle is guilty of the murder , and is angered by Fenwick 's support for him . He spreads rumours about Fenwick 's relations with Carry Brattle , and grants Puddleham permission to build a chapel on a piece of land neighbouring Fenwick 's residence , where he hopes that the sight of it and the sound of its bell will annoy the vicar . Fenwick tries to reconcile himself to the existence of the chapel , but it subsequently comes to light that the land does not belong to the marquis , and is instead part of the parish 's glebe . The embarrassed marquis pays to move the chapel to a new location , and through the intervention of his son , a suave Member of Parliament , he and Fenwick are reconciled .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Plight of the fallen woman = = =
According to Trollope , the plight of Carry Brattle was at the center of the story . " The Vicar of Bullhampton was written chiefly with the object of exciting not only pity but sympathy for fallen woman , and of raising a feeling of forgiveness for such in the minds of other women . " In the Autobiography , he argued that the punishment for fornication is far heavier for women than for men , although in most cases the latter are more to blame than the former ; and that women are given no opportunity of returning to decent lives , however repentant they might be .
On 5 August 1869 , shortly after The Vicar had begun to appear in the form of monthly numbers , Dion Boucicault 's Formosa ; or , The Railroad to Ruin opened at Drury Lane . The title character of Boucicault 's play was a harlot , and her representation on stage provoked an exchange in the pages of The Times . Critics argued that the depiction of a prostitute in the theatre would tarnish the innocence of unmarried girls attending the performance . Supporters , including Boucicault himself , responded that worse women were regularly portrayed in Italian operas such as La traviata and Lucrezia Borgia , which were considered eminently suitable for young women , and in the police and court news of The Times itself .
Trollope leapt into the fray somewhat belatedly , in the pages of Saint Paul 's in October 1869 , with an article on the Formosa controversy that can be read as a defence of and an advertisement for The Vicar . He took exception to several of the arguments in The Times : young women of the 1860s , he wrote , were not unaware of the existence of prostitution ; and attempting to keep them in ignorance would not conduce to virtue . Rather than promoting vice , an accurate depiction of the squalid and miserable life of a woman of the streets would arm young people to resist temptation .
The harm done by Formosa lies in this , — that the character is utterly false , false to human nature and false to London life . She is a wretch , abominable almost beyond conception , so as to be odious , if known , to the most odious . She is sharper as well as prostitute , — and is false to all with whom she comes in contact , to those whom she is supposed to love and to those who love her . Her peculiar profession is represented as causing her no personal remorse . And yet she is exhibited to us as a fine creature , a noble woman , one whom a man might be honoured by loving ; — and at last she ends with a success ! ... That which is vile and dirty , squalid and miserable , — that , of which we may say that were its horrors known such knowledge would deter more thoroughly than any ignorance , — is exhibited as a bright existence , full of danger indeed , but still open to all that is noble , and capable of final success .
When the book edition of The Vicar of Bullhampton appeared in April 1870 , it bore a preface ; Trollope , who ordinarily scorned prefaces and dedications , felt compelled to justify the presentation of a character like Carry Brattle . He reiterated the points he had made regarding Formosa : that while depicting a fallen woman as glamourous or noble might lead impressionable readers to vice , a true depiction of such a woman 's misery might deter readers from yielding to temptation ; and might soften the hearts of parents whose daughters have fallen , and thus afford an opportunity of returning to decency .
= = = Love and courtship = = =
A recurring theme in Trollope 's work is the difficulty of choosing between two suitors . As Henry James expressed it ,
Trollope has described again and again the ravages of love ... His story is always primarily a love @-@ story , and a love @-@ story constructed on an inveterate system . There is a young lady who has two lovers , or a young man who has two sweethearts ; we are treated to the innumerable forms in which this predicament may present itself and the consequences , sometimes pathetic , sometimes grotesque , which spring from such false situations .
To illustrate this point , James cited The Vicar , with Mary Lowther 's vacillation between Gilmore and Col. Marrable .
Unlike the majority of Trollope 's triangles , Mary is not called upon to judge between a good suitor and a bad one , but between two good men . Gilmore is presented as a sympathetic and admirable character ; the reader learns far less about Captain Marrable 's character , and is given no reason why Mary should prefer him to his rival . To Trollope , a woman does not necessarily fall in love because of a man 's merits ; and it is very wrong for a woman to marry where she does not love , regardless of her suitor 's worthy qualities .
= = = " The Girl of the Period " = = =
In David Skilton 's view , the Carry Brattle and Mary Lowther subplots together comprise a rejoinder to Eliza Lynn Linton 's " The Girl of the Period " . In her 1868 essay , Linton accused contemporary English girls of imitating prostitutes in their dress , speech , and manner , and declared that " the Girl of the Period has done away with such moral muffishness as consideration for others , or regard for counsel and rebuke " . Trollope was well aware of Linton 's views , and made two references to them in the novel . According to Skilton , the highly unromantic portrayal of Carry Brattle 's condition was a denial of Linton 's claim that demimondaines were " gorgeously attired and sumptuously appointed ... flattered , fêted , and courted " ; and the trouble that Mary Lowther brought upon herself and others came about not because of her disregard for counsel and rebuke , but because she attempted to follow the advice of her friends and elders . Near the end of the novel , Trollope writes :
[ The author ] has endeavoured to describe a young woman , prompted in all her doings by a conscience wide awake , guided by principle , willing , if need be , to sacrifice herself , struggling always to keep herself from doing wrong , but yet causing infinite grief to others , and nearly bringing herself to utter shipwreck , because , for a while , she allowed herself to believe that it would be right for her to marry a man whom she did not love .
In Skilton 's opinion , since the stories of the two women are both essential to Trollope 's refutation of Linton , neither can be given " titular pre @-@ eminence " ; thus the book had to take its name from the vicar . ( The title was changed at some point in the novel 's development ; in the early planning stages , it was tentatively named I Count Her Wrong . )
= = = Religion = = =
The Vicar of Bullhampton has been described as Trollope 's most religious novel , and Frank Fenwick as his " most explicitly religious character " . Although the author won renown for his depictions of the lives of the clergy in the Barsetshire novels , he wrote of their social rather than their spiritual lives . In The Vicar , however , Fenwick 's object is " to apply Christian doctrine to life in the world . "
A variety of religious beliefs are represented among the novel 's characters . Jacob Brattle is an unbeliever . Puddleham is a Primitive Methodist . The Stowte family , to which the marquis belongs , are Low Church Anglicans , and Fenwick is High church and latitudinarian . Their charity is tested by their response to Carry Brattle , and it is Fenwick who passes the test . As William Cadbury expresses it , Puddleham has been hardened by too much doctrine , Jacob Brattle by too little .
Fenwick 's beliefs are similar to Trollope 's own . In his early life , the novelist was a supporter of the Tractarians . However , beginning in about the mid @-@ 1860s , his sympathies tended increasingly toward the Broad church . He defended Bishop Colenso , expressed doubt about the literal truth of the Old Testament , and questioned the doctrine of eternal punishment contained in the Athanasian Creed .
Indeed , Fenwick resembled his creator in more than belief . To T. H. S. Escott , who was personally acquainted with Trollope , Fenwick — generous , outspoken , broad @-@ minded , and a bit pugnacious — was very much like a portrait of the author in clerical dress . Puddleham 's discomfiture " proves , to Trollope 's naively undisguised satisfaction , that Providence is on the side of the State Church " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Once A Week = = =
Early in 1868 , Trollope was approached by E. S. Dallas , a fellow member of the Garrick Club . Dallas had just been appointed editor of Once A Week , a magazine published by the firm of Bradbury and Evans . Trollope agreed to provide a novel of the length of The Claverings , to be serialised beginning in May 1869 , for a fee of £ 2800 . In the course of his correspondence with Dallas , Trollope wrote , " Of course it is understood that it is intended for your periodical , Once A Week . "
Trollope wrote The Vicar of Bullhampton between 15 June and 1 November 1868 . The novel was begun in Washington , D.C. , where the author was on a mission to negotiate a postal treaty and international copyright arrangements with the United States . It was concluded after his return to England , in the early stages of his unsuccessful campaign for a Parliamentary seat in the borough of Beverley .
As the publication date neared , difficulties arose . In January 1869 , Dallas asked Trollope for permission to defer serial publication by three months . As Trollope had agreed not to allow another of his novels to run serially during the first six months of The Vicar 's career , the editor 's request would have diminished the author 's income . Trollope initially refused , but subsequently agreed to a delay of two months , with publication to begin in early July .
Matters did not improve . In March 1869 , Dallas made a new request of Trollope . Once A Week had bought the rights to Victor Hugo 's forthcoming novel , L 'homme qui rit , expecting to begin serialisation in January 1869 . However , Hugo was behind schedule , and the novel would not be available until April . The magazine did not have enough space to run Hugo 's and Trollope 's novels side by side . Would Trollope , therefore , be willing to see The Vicar serialised in The Gentleman 's Magazine instead ?
Trollope would not . The Gentleman 's Magazine was , in Michael Sadleir 's words , " a very inferior paper with a lower class of reader and a poor general reputation " . Moreover , personal feelings were involved : Trollope resented the fact that he , a punctual Englishman , was being asked to yield to a dilatory Frenchman .
My disgust at this proposition was , I think , chiefly due to Victor Hugo 's latter novels , which I regard as pretentious and untrue to nature . To this perhaps was added some feeling of indignation that I should be asked to give way to a Frenchman . The Frenchman had broken his engagement . He had failed to have his work finished by the stipulated time . From week to week and from month to month he had put off the fulfilment of his duty . And because of these laches on his part , — on the part of this sententious French Radical , — I was to be thrown over !
Trollope refused . Hugo 's novel was published in The Gentleman 's Magazine , beginning in May 1869 . However , by the end of June , the sale of Once A Week to a new publisher was in progress . Rather than serialising The Vicar in the magazine , Bradbury and Evans issued it in eleven monthly shilling numbers , running from July 1869 to May 1870 . Trollope could not object to this mode of independent publication ; but it was one that had fallen out of favour with the public , and Trollope suffered a loss of reputation and readership as a result . He also suffered a pecuniary loss of £ 300 , agreeing for reasons unspecified to accept only £ 2500 for the novel .
= = = Other publication = = =
The Vicar of Bullhampton was published serially in Lippincott 's Monthly Magazine of Philadelphia in 1869 – 70 . At the same time , an American book edition was issued by J. B. Lippincott & Co .
Bradbury and Evans released the novel in book form in 1870 , as a single volume with thirty illustrations by Henry Woods . In the same year , English @-@ language books were published by Harper in New York and by Tauchnitz in Leipzig ; a Russian translation , Bullhamptonsky Vikaryi , was published in Moscow . In 1872 , a Dutch translation , De Predikant van Bullhampton , was published by Roelants of Schiedam ; in 1873 , a Russian Bullhamptonsky Vikaryi was released in St. Petersburg .
More recently , editions have been published by Dover Publications in 1979 ; by Alan Sutton in 1983 ; by Oxford University Press in 1924 , re @-@ issued with an introduction by David Skilton in 1988 ; and by the Trollope Society , with an introduction by John Halperin , in 1998 .
= = Reception = =
Trollope 's preface suggests that he anticipated controversy from the depiction of Carry Brattle in The Vicar of Bullhampton . This did not happen . The Times declared it " a nice , easy , safe reading book for old ladies and young ladies ... welcome in all well @-@ regulated families " . Contemporary reviewers tended to neglect the Carry Brattle subplot and focus on Mary Lowther , whose conduct was criticised by Blackwood 's Magazine , by The Times , and by Mrs. Oliphant . The Saturday Review complained that " [ a ] sort of savageness pervades the book " , and that " [ n ] obody is pleasant " , and described the novel as " third @-@ rate " and as a " not very satisfactory book " . This was in keeping with the reaction of many readers and reviewers who had grown accustomed to the wholesome tone and genteel characters of the Barchester novels , and were not happy with the darker and more pessimistic tone of Trollope 's later works .
Later critics varied in their opinion of the novel . Henry James , who had loudly derided several of Trollope 's novels of the mid @-@ 1860s , described it in an 1883 article as a " slow but excellent story , which is a capital example of interest produced by the quietest conceivable means " . In 1927 , Michael Sadleir wrote that it " has a sure title to enduring reputation " ; of Mary Lowther , whom earlier critics had found irritating , he wrote , " to @-@ day she seems sensible enough and , as a young woman , wholly natural . " . By 1971 , however , James Pope @-@ Hennessy labelled the novel " a lifeless , dull production " .
More recently still , Trollope scholars have looked upon it with increasing favour , describing it as a powerful work that has suffered undeserved neglect . Present @-@ day critics have focussed increasingly on the Carry Brattle subplot ; it has been suggested , supported in part by the similarity of passages from The Vicar , from the Autobiography , and from The Small House at Allington referring to Johnny Eames , that some aspects of her portrayal are based on the novelist 's own early adulthood in London .
= Singapore Stone =
The Singapore Stone is a fragment of a large sandstone slab which originally stood at the mouth of the Singapore River . The large slab , which is believed to date back to at least the 13th century and possibly as early as the 10th or 11th century , bore an undeciphered inscription . Recent theories suggest that the inscription is either in Old Javanese or in Sanskrit . It is likely that the person who commissioned the inscription was Sumatran . The slab was blown up in 1843 to clear and widen the passageway at the river mouth to make space for a fort and the quarters of its commander .
The slab may be linked to the legendary story of the 14th @-@ century strongman Badang , who is said to have thrown a massive stone to the mouth of the Singapore River . On Badang 's death , the Rajah sent two stone pillars to be raised over his grave " at the point of the straits of Singapura " .
The Stone , now displayed at the National Museum of Singapore , was designated by the museum as one of 11 " national treasures " in January 2006 , and by the National Heritage Board as one of the top 12 artefacts held in the collections of its museums .
= = Sandstone slab = =
= = = Discovery = = =
In June 1819 , a few months after the arrival of Sir Stamford Raffles ( 1781 – 1826 ) in Singapore , a sandstone slab about 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 9 to 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) long was found by labourers clearing jungle trees at the southeast side of the mouth of the Singapore River . It stood at a promontory known as the Rocky Point , and later as Artillery Point , Fort Fullerton and the Master Attendant 's Office . ( In 1972 , a short projection from the slab 's site was constructed and a statue of an imaginary beast called the Merlion placed on it . The statue has since been relocated . ) According to papers from the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal which were collected by Sir William Edward Maxwell and republished in 1886 , one Dr. D.W. Montgomerie said that the rock was brought to light by some Bengal sailors employed by Captain Flint , R.N. , the first Master Attendant :
You remember the situation of it [ the sandstone slab ] on the rocky point on the south [ sic : southeast ] side of the entrance of the Singapore Creek . That point was covered with forest trees and jungle in 1819 , and the stone was brought to notice by some Bengal clashees who were employed by Capt. Flint , R.N. ( the first Master Attendant ) ; the men on discovering the inscription were very much frightened , and could not be induced to go on with the clearing , which , if I recollect right , was completed by Chinese under the stimulus of high wages .
The slab was inscribed with 50 or 52 lines of script , but by the time of its discovery the meaning of the inscription was already a mystery to the island 's inhabitants .
= = = Appearance = = =
John Crawfurd ( 1783 – 1868 ) , who was Resident of Singapore , described the slab in his journal on 3 February 1822 in these terms :
On the stony point which forms the western side of the entrance of the salt creek , on which the modern town of Singapore is building , there was discovered , two years ago , a tolerably hard block of sand @-@ stone , with an inscription upon it . This I examined early this morning . The stone , in shape , is a rude mass , and formed of the one @-@ half of a great nodule broken into two nearly equal parts by artificial means ; for the two portions now face each other , separated at the base by a distance of not more than two feet and a half , and reclining opposite to each other at an angle of about forty degrees . It is upon the inner surface of the stone that the inscription is engraved . The workmanship is far ruder than any thing of the kind that I have seen in Java or India ; and the writing , perhaps from time , in some degree , but more from the natural decomposition of the rock , so much obliterated as to be quite illegible as a composition . Here and there , however , a few letters seem distinct enough . The character is rather round than square .
James Prinsep ( 1799 – 1840 ) , an Anglo @-@ Indian scholar and antiquary who started the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , published a paper in the Journal in 1837 by a Dr. William Bland of H.M.S. Wolf , which stated that he had made a facsimile of all that remained in any way perceptible on the slab . Dr. Bland described the slab thus :
On a tongue of land forming the termination of the right bank of the river at Singapore , now called Artillery Point , stands a stone or rock of coarse red sandstone about ten feet high , from two to five feet thick , and about nine or ten feet in length , somewhat wedge @-@ shaped , with weather @-@ worn cells . The face sloping to the south @-@ east at an angle of 76 ° has been smoothed down in the form of an irregular square , presenting a space of about thirty @-@ two square feet , having a raised edge all round .
On this surface an inscription has originally been cut , of about fifty lines , but the characters are so obliterated by the weather that the greater part of them are illegible . Still , there are many left which are plain enough , more particularly those at the lower right @-@ hand corner , where the raised edge of the stone has in some measure protected them .
The inscription was engraved in rounded letters about three @-@ quarters of an inch ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) wide .
= = = Destruction = = =
About January 1843 , on the orders of the acting Settlement Engineer , Captain D.H. Stevenson , the slab was blown to pieces to clear and widen the passageway at the Singapore River mouth to make space for Fort Fullerton and the quarters of its commander . Some sources claim that the Superintendent of Public Works , George Drumgoole Coleman , was responsible for the Stone 's destruction , but he was on leave out of Singapore at the time of its blasting . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Low had petitioned to have the sandstone slab spared , but had been told that it was in the way of a projected bungalow . On the explosion taking place , he crossed the river from his office and selected fragments that had letters on them . As the fragments were very bulky , he had them chiselled into small slabs by a Chinese man . He selected some of the smaller fragments bearing the most legible parts of the inscription and sent them to the Royal Asiatic Society 's museum in Calcutta ( now known as the Indian Museum ) for analysis , where they arrived in about June 1848 .
According to Maxwell 's papers , when news of the destruction of the sandstone slab reached Bengal , James Prinsep asked the Governor of the Straits Settlements , Colonel William John Butterworth , to secure any legible fragments that might still exist and to send them to the Royal Asiatic Society 's museum . Butterworth replied : " The only remaining portion of the stone you mention , except what Colonel Low may have , I have found lying in the verandah of the Treasury at Singapore , where it was used as a seat by the Sepoys of the guard and persons in waiting to transact business . I lost no time in sending it to my house , but , alas ! not before the inscription was nearly erased . Such as the fragment was then however – i.e. , in 1843 – it is now ; for I have preserved the stone with much care , and shall have much pleasure in sending it for your museum , having failed to establish one , as I hoped to have done , in Singapore . "
A large block from the monument lay abandoned at Fort Canning until finally being broken up and used as gravel for a road . According to one W.H. Read , who arrived in Singapore in 1841 :
I remember a large block of the rock at the corner of Government House , where Fort Canning is now ; but during the absence of the Governor at Penang on one occasion the convicts requiring stone to replace the road , chipped up the valuable relic of antiquity , and thus all trace of our past history was lost .
It was destroyed when the sea @-@ wall was built around Fort Fullerton , where the Club , Post Office , and Master Attendant 's Office now are . It used to be decorated with flags and offerings when at the entrance of the Singapore river . The immediate consequence of the removal of the stone , an act of vandalism , was the silting up of the river . I have been told that an inscription in similar characters , which I always understood were " cuneiform , " still exists ( 1884 ) in the Carimon Islands .
Dr. D.W. Montgomerie , recalling that the Bengal sailors who had discovered the slab while clearing the jungle could not be persuaded to continue the work , commented : " What a pity it is that those who authorized the destruction of the ancient relic were not prevented by some such wholesome superstition ! "
In 1918 , the Raffles Museum and Library 's Committee of Management asked the Royal Asiatic Society 's museum in Calcutta to return the fragments of the sandstone slab , and the Calcutta museum agreed to send them back on extended loan . However , only one fragment , now known as the Singapore Stone , was received on indefinite loan from the trustees of the museum . Archaeologist John N. Miksic has said that " presumably the other pieces are still in Calcutta " .
= = Inscription and attempts at decipherment = =
= = = Sir Stamford Raffles = = =
Raffles himself tried to decipher the inscriptions on the original sandstone slab . In his 1834 work , The Malay Peninsula , Captain Peter James Begbie of the Madras Artillery , part of the Honourable East India Company , wrote :
The principal curiosity of Singapore is a large stone at the point of the river , the one face of which has been sloped and smoothed , and upon which several lines of engraven characters are still visible . The rock being , however , of a schistose and porous nature , the inscription is illegible . It is said that Sir Stamford Raffles endeavoured , by the application of powerful acids , to bring out the characters with the view of decyphering them , but the result was unsuccessful .
In the Hikayat Abdullah , Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir ( 1796 – 1854 ) , also known as Munshi Abdullah , recorded Raffles taking missionary Rev. Claudius Henry Thomsen and himself to see what Raffles described as a " remarkable stone " in October 1822 . Raffles apparently took the view that the writing had to be Hindu " because the Hindus were the oldest of all immigrant races in the East , reaching Java and Bali and Siam , the inhabitants of which are all descended from them " .
= = = William Bland and James Prinsep : Pali ? = = =
In his note published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal of 1837 , Dr. William Bland reported that he had " frequently made pilgrimages " to the Stone , " determined , if it were possible , to save a few letters , could they be satisfactorily made out , to tell us something , however , small , of the language or the people who inscribed it , and hence eke out our limited and obscure knowledge of the Malayan Peninsula . "
With the assistance of a " clever native writer " , Bland used " well @-@ made and soft dough " to take impressions of the characters on the slab to copy them . After an impression of each character had been made , the character itself in the stone was painted over with white lead , " as far as the eye could make it out , ... and if the two agreed , it was considered as nearly correct as possible , and although this was done to all the characters , it was more particularly attended to in the more obscure ones , for the letters marked in the facsimile with more strength could readily be copied by the eye . " Bland also discovered that when the Stone was viewed " when the sun was descending in the west , a palpable shadow was thrown into the letter , from which great assistance was derived . "
In Bland 's view , " speaking from a very limited knowledge of the subject " , the inscription was in " the ancient Ceylonese , or Pálí " . James Prinsep concurred , saying that although he could not venture to put together any connected sentences or even words , " some of the letters – the g , l , h , p , s , y , & c . – can readily be recognised , as well as many of the vowel marks " . He expressed the opinion that the purpose of the inscription " is most probably to record the extension of the Buddhist faith to that remarkable point of the Malay Peninsula " .
= = = Peter James Begbie 's speculative theory : Tamil ? = = =
In The Malay Peninsula ( 1834 ) , Captain Peter James Begbie made " an attempt to throw some light upon a subject so confessedly obscure " . He referred to the legend of the 14th @-@ century strongman Badang in the Malay Annals ( 1821 ) , a posthumously @-@ published English translation of the Sejarah Melayu ( 1612 ) by the British orientalist John Leyden ( 1775 – 1811 ) . According to the Malay Annals , news of Badang 's remarkable feats of strength reached the land of Kling ( the Coromandel Coast ) . The Rajah of that country sent a champion named Nadi Vijaya Vicrama to try his strength with him , staking seven ships filled with treasures on the issue of the contest . After a few trials of their relative powers , Badang pointed to a huge stone lying before the Rajah 's hall and asked his opponent to lift it , and to allow their claims to be decided by the greatest strength displayed in this feat . The Kling champion assented , and , after several failures , succeeded in raising it as high as his knee , after which he immediately let it fall . Badang , took up the stone , poised it easily several times , and then threw it out into the mouth of the river , and this is the rock which is at this day visible at the point of Singhapura , or Tanjong Singhapura . The Annals go on to state that after a long time , Badang died and was buried at the point of the straits of Singhapura , and when the tidings of his death reached the land of Kling , the Rajah sent two stone pillars to be raised over his grave as a monument , and these were the pillars which were still at the point of the bay .
Begbie went on to speculate that the monument installed over Badang 's grave was the sandstone slab at the mouth of the Singapore River , and that the inscription contained a recital of Badang 's feats . He identified the " Rajah of Kling " as Sri Rajah Vicrama who reigned from 1223 to 1236 . In Begbie 's view , the inscription was in an obsolete dialect of Tamil :
At the period of the transaction [ which Begbie put at about A.D. 1228 ] , the Malays were destitute of a written language , as it was not until between forty and fifty years afterwards , when the Mahommedan religion became the popular one , that the Arabic character was introduced . It appears to be probable that the Kling Rajah , aware of this destitution of a written character , employed a sculptor of his own nation to cut the inscription on the rock , and that , from the epitaph being in an unknown language , the original story as therein related , being necessarily handed down by oral tradition , became corrupted in every thing but its leading features . This supposition is borne out by the form of the characters , which more resembles that of the Malabar language than any other oriental tongue that I am acquainted with . I do not mean to say that the words are essentially Tamil , but merely to express an opinion that the inscription is couched in an obsolete dialect of that language .
= = = J.W. Laidlay : Kawi ? = = =
J.W. Laidlay examined fragments of the sandstone slab that had been donated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal by Colonel Butterworth and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Low , strewing finely @-@ powdered animal charcoal over the surface of the stones and sweeping it gently with a feather so as to fill up all the depressions ; in this way " the very slightest of which was thus rendered remarkably distinct by the powerful contrast of colour . By this means , and by studying the characters in different lights " , Laidlay was able to make drawings of the inscriptions on three fragments . According to Laidlay , the fragment shown in the top drawing seemed to have been from the upper part of the inscription , but was omitted in Prinsep 's lithograph as effaced . He could not identify the other two fragments with any portion of the lithograph .
Laidlay felt that the square shape of the characters had misled Prinsep into concluding that the inscription was in Pali . In fact , the characters bore no resemblance whatsoever to Pali . Laidlay was unable to identify the characters with those of any published Sinhalese inscriptions , but found it identical with Kawi , a literary language from the islands of Java , Bali and Lombok based on Old Javanese with many Sanskrit loanwords . He noted , " With the alphabet of this language , ... I can identify all , or nearly all , of the characters ; but of course no clue to the purport of the inscription can be obtained without some knowledge of the language itself . " Relying on Begbie , he , too , " conjectured with probability that the inscription is a record of some Javanese triumph at a period anterior to the conversion of the Malays to Muhammadanism " .
= = = Studies by Kern and other scholars : Old Javanese or Sanskrit ? = = =
The first effectual study of the sandstone fragments was by the Dutch epigrapher Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern . He succeeded in deciphering a few words , including salāgalalasayanara , ya @-@ āmānavana , kesarabharala and yadalama , but was unable to identify the language in which they were written . He gave the probable date of the inscription as around 1230 . Another Dutch Indologist , N.J. Krom , judged from a rubbing of the Stone published in 1848 that the script resembled that of the Majapahit Empire but dated from a period somewhat earlier than 1360 .
Other scholars have taken different views . Dr. J.G. de Casparis , a scholar of ancient Indonesian writing , gave the preliminary judgment that the style of the script might date from an earlier period such as the 10th or 11th century . He was able to decipher one or two words , which seemed to be in the Old Javanese language . On the other hand , Drs. Boechari , epigraphical expert of the Indonesian National Research Centre for Archaeology and lecturer at the University of Indonesia , was of the opinion that the engraving dates from no later than the 12th century , has a closer affinity to the Sumatran than the Javanese writing style , and that the language may not be Old Javanese but Sanskrit , which was in common use in Sumatra at that era . John Miksic has commented that while it is impossible to determine whether de Casparis 's or Boechari 's theory is more correct on the basis of epigraphy alone , it is easier to accept the conclusion that the person who commissioned the inscription was culturally Sumatran rather than Javanese , because by the 10th century the linguistic influence of Java had reached the Lampung region in the south of Sumatra , but no such influence has been discovered as far north as Singapore and there is no evidence of Javanese colonisation in Sumatra or the offshore islands at that time . Miksic notes that most conclusions regarding the slab have been on the basis of rubbings or photographs , and thus there is a " slight possibility " that detailed analysis of fragments of the sandstone slab may provide more information about the age of the inscription or the nature of its contents . However , he also says that the script probably never will be fully deciphered .
= = The Singapore Stone today = =
One of the fragments of the original sandstone slab that was saved by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Low , which was later returned to what was then the Raffles Museum in Singapore , is today known as the Singapore Stone . It is currently displayed in the Singapore History Gallery of the National Museum of Singapore . The Stone was designated by the Museum as one of 11 " national treasures " in January 2006 , and by the National Heritage Board as one of the top 12 artefacts held in the collections of its museums .
= = = Articles = = =
Bland , W. ( William ) ( 1837 ) . " Inscription on the Jetty at Singapore " . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 6 : 680 – 682 . , reprinted in vol . 1 of Rost , Reinhold ( ed . ) ( 1886 ) . Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Indo @-@ China : Reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society , from Dalrymple 's ' Oriental Repertory ' and the ' Asiatic Researches ' and ' Journal ' of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ( Trübner 's Oriental Series ) 1 . London : Kegan Paul , Trench , Trübner & Co. pp. 218 – 219 . This two @-@ volume work was reprinted by Routledge in 2000 .
Prinsep , James ( 1848 ) . " Inscription at Singapore " . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal xvii : 154 f . , reprinted in Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Indo @-@ China , above , vol . 1 at 222 – 223 .
Low , James ( 1848 ) . " An Account of Several Inscriptions Found in Province Wellesley , on the Peninsula of Malacca " . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal xvii ( ii ) : 62 – 66 . , reprinted in Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Indo @-@ China , above , vol . 1 at 223 – 226 .
Laidlay , J.W. ( 1848 ) . " Note on the Inscriptions from Singapore and Province Wellesley Forwarded by the Hon. Col Butterworth and Col J. Low " . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 17 ( 2 ) . , reprinted in Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Indo @-@ China , above , vol . 1 at 227 – 232 .
Rouffaer , G.P. ( 1921 ) . " Was Malakka emporium voor 1400 A.D. genaamd Malajoer ? En waar lag Woerawari , Ma @-@ Hasin , Langka , Batoesawar ? [ Was the Trading Post of Malacca Named Malajoer before 1400 A.D. ? And where were Woerawari , Ma @-@ Hasin , Langka , Batoesawar ? ] " . Bijdragen tot de Taal- , Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch @-@ Indie [ Contributions to the Linguistics , Geography and Anthropology of the Dutch East Indies ] 77 ( 1 ) : 58 . .
Cornelius @-@ Takahama , Vernon ( 30 March 2000 ) . " The Singapore Stone " . Singapore Infopedia , National Library , Singapore . Retrieved 13 July 2007 .
" Singapore Stone " . Singapore Paranormal Investigators . 2000 – 2005 . Retrieved 13 July 2007 .
= = = Books = = =
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir ; annotated transl. by A.H. Hill ( 1969 ) . The Hikayat Abdullah : The Autobiography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir ( 1797 – 1854 ) . Singapore : Oxford University Press .
Miksic , John N. ( Norman ) ( 1985 ) . Archaeological Research on the ' Forbidden Hill ' of Singapore : Excavations at Fort Canning , 1984 . Singapore : National Museum . ISBN 9971 @-@ 917 @-@ 16 @-@ 5 .
= Avril Lavigne =
Avril Ramona Lavigne ( / ˈævrɪl ləˈviːn / ; French : [ avʁil laviɲ ] ) ( born 27 September 1984 ) is a Canadian singer @-@ songwriter and actress . She was born in Belleville , Ontario , and spent most of her youth in the town of Greater Napanee . By the age of 15 , she had appeared on stage with Shania Twain ; by 16 , she had signed a two @-@ album recording contract with Arista Records worth more than $ 2 million . In 2002 , when she was 17 years old , Lavigne entered the music industry with her debut album , Let Go , becoming one of the most popular pop punk artists , a reason she earned her reputation of a " skater punk " persona and " pop punk princess " . Since her professional debut , she has sold more than 40 million albums and over 50 million singles worldwide .
Let Go made Lavigne the youngest female soloist to reach number 1 in the UK . As of 2013 , it has sold nearly 7 million copies in the United States and over 20 million copies worldwide .
Her breakthrough single , " Complicated " , peaked at number 1 in many countries around the world , as did the album Let Go . Her second studio album , Under My Skin , was released in May 2004 and was her first album to peak at number 1 on the US Billboard 200 , eventually selling more than 12 million copies worldwide .
The Best Damn Thing , Lavigne 's third album , was released in April 2007 , becoming her third number 1 album in the UK Albums Chart and featuring her first US Billboard Hot 100 number 1 single , " Girlfriend " . Lavigne has scored six number @-@ one singles worldwide , including " Complicated " , " Sk8er Boi " , " I 'm with You " , " My Happy Ending " , " Nobody 's Home " , and " Girlfriend " . Lavigne is one of the top @-@ selling artists releasing albums in the US , with over 11 million copies certified by the RIAA . Her fourth studio album , Goodbye Lullaby , was released in March 2011 . Goodbye Lullaby gave Lavigne her fourth top 10 album on the US Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart and her third number 1 album in both Japan and Australia . Three months after the release of Goodbye Lullaby , Lavigne began work on her eponymously titled fifth studio album , which was released by Epic Records on 1 November 2013 following her departure from RCA Records in 2011 .
Lavigne took a break from recording music , pursuing careers in feature film acting and designing clothes and perfumes . She voiced Heather , a Virginia opossum , in the animated film Over the Hedge in 2006 . That same year , she made her on @-@ screen feature film debut in Fast Food Nation . In 2008 , Lavigne introduced her clothing line , Abbey Dawn , and in 2009 she released
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2 , his work on the legal foundations of the new civil governments was released to the public as a book , Reports on The Law of Civil Government in Territory Subject to Military Occupation by the Military Forces of the United States , etc . It was reprinted several times and was considered the seminal text on the subject .
= = = Panama = = =
In late 1903 , Secretary Root announced that he was retiring as secretary of war . Speculation followed in the media that Magoon would retire simultaneously and join the outgoing secretary in private practice . Instead , Magoon was appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt in June 1904 to be the general counsel for the Isthmian Canal Commission , the group working toward what would eventually become the Panama Canal . In this role , he would be working under Chairman John Grimes Walker , but would not be a commissioner . According to President Roosevelt , Magoon deserved the position because he had " won his spurs " working in the War Department and was well respected . Although Magoon was working for the Canal project , his office and residence remained in Washington , DC .
On March 29 , 1905 , President Roosevelt unexpectedly called for the simultaneous resignations of all members of the Canal Commission and the governor of the Panama Canal Zone , George Whitefield Davis . According to Secretary of War William Howard Taft , this clean sweep was due to the " inherent clumsiness " of the Commission , especially as related to sanitary problems in the Zone , as well as the difficulty of reaching consensus between the current seven commissioners . Several days later , replacement appointments were announced : Magoon was appointed both governor and a member of the Commission , with railroad entrepreneur Theodore P. Shonts made chairman of the Commission . The new Commission had seven commissioners , as required by the act of Congress that created the body , but responsibilities were to be split such that only Magoon , Shonts , and the chief engineer had any real authority . The remaining four members of the commission were appointed only to fulfil the letter of the law . Congress had already rejected a request by the President to formally make the Commission a three @-@ member body ; restructuring the organization was an end @-@ run by the President around that restriction . In order to assume his new duties , Magoon relocated to the Canal Zone the following month .
= = = = Governor of Panama Canal Zone = = = =
Magoon 's primary responsibilities within the Canal Zone were to improve sanitation and to deal with the all @-@ too @-@ common outbreaks of yellow fever and malaria . At first , he refused to believe that the diseases were carried by mosquitos because , he reasoned , the native population would have been more affected . At this time , the nature of human acquired immunity to diseases was not well understood . The Chicago Tribune , in an article about conditions in the canal , referred to the notion that yellow fever was carried by mosquitos as " bugaboo " . However , by January 1906 , Magoon had long come to understand the role of mosquitos in the transmission of diseases , as evidenced in a New York Times article wherein Magoon addressed criticisms of his administration in detail ; by then he had undertaken a vigorous and ambitious plan to eliminate the swamps that bred mosquitos .
While governor , he worked with translators in the War Department to publish an English edition of the complete Civil Code of Panama , which he codified as the law of the Canal Zone on May 9 , 1904 . This was the first time that the complete civil code of a Spanish @-@ speaking country not a U.S. territory had been translated into English . It was significant that he did not make changes to these laws when " importing " them into the legal system of the territory that he governed .
On July 2 , 1905 , President Roosevelt further consolidated power in Panama by appointing Magoon Minister to Panama , to replace John Barrett . This put Magoon in the unique position of being both a governor of a U.S. territory and a diplomat to the country of which that territory was an enclave . During the tenure of Governor Davis , there had been friction between him and Minister Barrett . This double appointment would ensure that the two roles could not work at cross @-@ purposes . Magoon would draw two salaries in the arrangement , an issue which would come up later to haunt him . With influential posts in both Panama proper and the Canal Zone , Magoon was an exceptionally powerful man on the Isthmus .
= = = = Friction with Congress = = = =
The President was coming into increasing conflict with Congress on the handling of the Zone , including the unusual consolidation of power . In addition to not officially restructuring the Commission , Congress increasingly fought or raised questions about the appointments of replacement commissioners . In November 1905 , Panama was visited by Poultney Bigelow , a lecturer and writer for the American Geographical Society , who wrote a scathing report on progress in the Canal Zone — a report that was well @-@ publicized in the States . This report criticized the efficiency of the work being performed as well as the quality of its management . Magoon countered this negative press by stressing that Bigelow had visited the Zone for less than two days , one of which was Thanksgiving Day , and that work was naturally lax on the holiday .
In February , Magoon was called to testify before the Senate Committee responsible for Canal administration , including responding to Bigelow 's report . He was criticized now for the earlier adoption of Panama 's penal system in the Zone . One major point of contention was that it did not allow for trial by jury for American citizens arrested there . They raised questions as to the quality of the judges in the territory and other issues .
There was no official outcome from these hearings , but Congress subsequently passed a Consular Reform Bill which included a provision that specifically would not allow a diplomat , such as Magoon , to hold a separate administrative position . Rather than remove Magoon from one of his positions , he was named to become vice governor @-@ general of the Philippines . Ultimately , this offer was rescinded before it could take effect , and he was instead appointed governor of Cuba . The best coverage of Magoon 's work in Panama can be found in : Mellander , Gustavo A. ; Nelly Maldonado Mellander ( 1999 ) . Charles Edward Magoon : The Panama Years . Río Piedras , Puerto Rico : Editorial Plaza Mayor . ISBN 1 @-@ 56328 @-@ 155 @-@ 4 . OCLC 42970390
= = = Cuba = = =
In 1906 , Cuba was in the midst of a constitutional crisis as a result of a disputed election and an attempt by elected President Tomás Estrada Palma to stay in power after the conclusion of his term . This led to a revolt , and the U.S. military sent in 5 @,@ 600 men to reassert control over the country in what would be called the Second Occupation of Cuba . This was permitted under the Cuban @-@ American Treaty of Relations of 1903 , a treaty that stipulated the degree of United States intervention in Cuba . After a brief period of stabilization by Secretary Taft , Magoon was appointed governor under the Constitution of Cuba , effectively with absolute authority and backed by the U.S. military .
On October 13 , 1906 , Magoon officially became Cuban governor . Magoon declined to have an official inauguration ceremony , and , instead , news of the appointment was announced to the Cuban public via the newspapers . In his written appointment address to the country , Magoon indicated that he would " perform the duties provided for by the ... constitution of Cuba for the preservation of Cuban independence " . He was there , in short , to restore order and not to colonize .
During Magoon 's time as governor , the remaining revolutionaries were defeated , and his attention was turned inward to infrastructure . He coordinated the construction of two hundred kilometers of highway . He called for the reorganization of the Cuban military into a formal army , rather than a Mexican @-@ style " rural guard " . More controversially , he called for the removal of the sunken USS Maine , the ship whose destruction led to the Spanish – American War , because it was interfering with traffic in Havana 's harbor . In his yearly report to the secretary of war , Magoon reported that many Cubans held the popular belief that neither the United States nor the US @-@ backed Cuban government had explored the wreckage because evidence might be found to suggest that the ship was not sunk by a torpedo , as was the official report — something that would cast doubt on the justification for the United States ' war against Spain . The removal of the ship did not take place while Magoon was in office ; it was authorized by Congress in 1910 .
While he was well regarded in the United States , Magoon was not popular among Cubans . He reaped a vast number of lurid accusations at the hands of Cuban writers who described him as a " man of wax " , who was " gross in character , rude in manners , of a profound ambition and greedy for despoilment " . The Cuban scholar Carlos Manuel Trelles later wrote that Magoon " profoundly corrupted the Cuban nation , and on account of his venality was looked upon with contempt . " Other Cuban historians point to the fiscal wastefulness of Magoon 's tenure , which " left a bad memory and a bad example to the country " and returned Cuba to the corrupt practices of colonial times .
On January 29 , 1909 , the sovereign government of Cuba was restored , and José Miguel Gómez became president . No explicit evidence of Magoon 's corruption ever surfaced , but his parting gesture of issuing lucrative Cuban contracts to U.S. firms was a continued point of contention . Several months later , Magoon received an official commendation from President Taft for his excellent service in Cuba .
Following his service in Cuba , Magoon retired from public service and vacationed for a year in Europe before returning to the United States . Speculation at the time pointed to him taking a position as ambassador to China , a special commission on stability in Central America , or a Cabinet position . Ultimately Magoon did not take up any of those new responsibilities and formally entered retirement . He died in Washington , D.C. , in 1920 after complications from surgery for acute appendicitis .
= = Works = =
Magoon , Charles Edward ( 1902 ) . Reports on The Law of Civil Government in Territory Subject to Military Occupation by the Military Forces of the United States , etc . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office . OCLC 4668092 . ( Also known as The Law of Civil Government under Military Occupation . )
= Jocelin of Wells =
Jocelin of Wells , also known as Jocelinus Thoteman or Jocelin Troteman , ( died 19 November 1242 ) was a medieval Bishop of Bath ( and Glastonbury ) . He was the brother of Hugh de Wells , who became Bishop of Lincoln . Jocelin became a canon of Wells Cathedral before 1200 , and was elected bishop in 1206 . During King John of England 's dispute with Pope Innocent III , Jocelin at first remained with the king , but after the excommunication of John in late 1209 , Jocelin went into exile . He returned to England in 1213 , and was mentioned in Magna Carta in 1215 .
Jocelin was one of the bishops that crowned John 's son Henry III , and throughout the rest of Jocelin 's life was involved in royal administration . He was also active in his diocese , ordering construction on the cathedral at Wells , and issuing rules for his diocesan clergy . During his time as bishop , he settled a dispute between his diocese and Glastonbury Abbey that had started during the bishopric of his predecessor . The memorial brass on his tomb in Wells Cathedral is probably one of the earliest in England .
= = Early life = =
Jocelin born in Wells in Somerset , and was the son of Edward of Wells , a small landowner in the city of Wells . His brother Hugh de Wells , was archdeacon of Wells and Bishop of Lincoln . Some historians say that another relative , although the exact relationship is unknown , was Simon of Wells , who became Bishop of Chichester in 1207 , but other historians dispute this . The name Jocelin Trotman or Thotman , by which he was occasionally known by some modern historians , only dates from the Margam Annals , and is not contemporary with his life .
Jocelin was a royal justiciar in 1203 , as well as the custodian of the vacant diocese of Lincoln . He was a royal clerk as well as a canon of Wells , becoming a canon and a deacon by 1200 . The previous bishop of Wells died in 1205 , and on 3 February 1206 , Jocelin was elected bishop . He was consecrated on 28 May 1206 , at Reading by Bishop William of Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Eglise of London . It is unclear if the cathedral chapters of Bath and of Wells took the action on their own , or if King John was the driving force behind the election .
= = Advisor to King John = =
Jocelin was one of the main advisors of King John during the dispute with the pope over Stephen Langton 's appointment to the Archbishopric of Canterbury . Jocelin did not immediately leave England after Pope Innocent III placed an interdict on England . Jocelin encouraged John to settle with Innocent in early 1209 , worried that Innocent would expand the interdict into an excommunication , forcing John 's advisors to choose between serving the king or obeying the pope . Nothing came of the negotiations , however . Jocelin did leave England when John was excommunicated in late 1209 . Jocelin , along with Gilbert Glanvill , the Bishop of Rochester , was the subject of a mocking song on his conduct during the interdict .
Jocelin and Hugh were in exile together in Bordeaux in 1212 , but they both returned to England in May 1213 , along with the other English bishops . Jocelin was one of the bishops in August 1214 who refused to pay a scutage to the king . In 1215 , Jocelin sided with Stephen Langton and the barons , and Magna Charta lists Jocelin as one of the king 's councillors .
= = Henry III 's reign = =
Jocelin and Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , anointed and crowned King Henry III , the young son of John , after John 's death . Later , Jocelin was present at the battle with Eustace the Monk in 1217 , which helped to secure Henry 's rule . Jocelin supported Hubert de Burgh 's work of ejecting French forces from England and regaining control of royal castles seized by Falkes de Breauté and other barons . In 1218 , Jocelin was one of the itinerant justiciars for southwestern England .
In 1218 and 1219 , Jocelin also ended the dispute between his diocese and Glastonbury Abbey . Jocelin gave up any claim to control of the abbey , and the abbey gave the bishopric a number of estates . Previously , the bishops , as part of their attempt to annexe Glastonbury to their bishopric , had been known as the Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury . They also had held the office of abbot . In 1218 , as part of the settlement , a new abbot was elected at Glastonbury . The papacy had never acknowledged Jocelin 's claiming of the title of abbot . The historian J. A. Robinson felt that as part of the settlement , Jocelin began to use the title Bishop of Bath and Wells , but another historian , David Knowles , disagreed .
After 1223 , Jocelin was a baron of the exchequer . In 1225 he served the king as head of one of the receivers of the tax of a fifteenth . After the dismissal of Walter Mauclerk as treasurer , at first Jocelin , along with Richard Poore , the Bishop of Durham , took over many of the treasurers functions , but this did not last long , and after 1233 , Jocelin no longer was involved with financial affairs . He occasionally witnessed charters , however . After the fall of Peter des Roches in April 1234 , Jocelin was given control of the Wardrobe . After this , he appears less regularly in royal government , but he did witness the reconfirmation of Magna Carta in 1237 .
= = Diocesan affairs = =
With his brother Hugh , Jocelin founded St. John 's Hospital at Wells . Jocelin promulgated a set of constitutions for the diocese , ordered that his diocesan clergy reside in their benefices , and gave land and income to the cathedral school . Glastonbury Abbey complained of Jocelin that he plundered lands of the abbey . Jocelin was also involved in mediating between William de Blois , the Bishop of Worcester , and Tewkesbury Abbey over William 's rights over the abbey . Jocelin finally settled the dispute in 1232 .
Jocelin funded the building of Wells Cathedral , begun at the east end in the Early English Gothic style under Reginald Fitz Jocelin . The nave was completed , the west front begun . The new cathedral was consecrated on 23 October 1239 by Jocelin . Other construction work undertaken by Jocelin included the cloisters and bishop 's palace at Wells , and a manor house at Wookey .
= = Death = =
Jocelin died on 19 November 1242 at Wells and was buried in the choir of Wells Cathedral . He may have been the father of Nicholas of Wells . The memorial brass on his tomb is allegedly one of the earliest brasses in England . He employed the medieval architect Elias of Dereham as a household official .
= Go to the Future =
Go to the Future ( Japanese pronunciation : [ go : tsɯ : zaɸjɯ : tɕa ] ) is the debut studio album by Japanese band Sakanaction . It was released on May 9 , 2007 through Victor Entertainment sub @-@ label BabeStar . Recorded and produced in the band 's native Hokkaido in a month , the album compiled the band 's early songs , including compositions from the band 's vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi 's high @-@ school band Dutchman . The album mixed electronic and rock music conventions , and featured live instruments as a way to conceptually separate the album from pure dance music .
Though not commercially successful nationally , the album was well received in Hokkaido . The leading song of the album , " Mikazuki Sunset " , received strong airplay by radio stations such as FM North Wave and FM Hokkaido . Critics praised the album , noting Yamaguchi 's distinct vocals and the band 's varied electronic and rock sound .
In 2009 , the album was made available globally as a digital download , alongside the band 's second and third albums Night Fishing ( 2008 ) and Shin @-@ shiro ( 2009 ) . In 2015 , the album was reissued on CD , LP record and lossless digital formats .
= = Background and development = =
Sakanaction was first formed in August 2005 in Sapporo , Hokkaido . It was originally a two @-@ member unit , consisting of vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi and guitarist Motoharu Iwadera . Yamaguchi first worked together with Iwadera in the band Dutchman , that formed at their high school in 1998 and performed British rock @-@ inspired music . In 2004 , the band broke up , and Yamaguchi took the name for his solo project , where he created techno and club music . Yamaguchi had the idea that it would be interesting to mix electronic music with Japanese @-@ style " folky melodies " , so formed Sakanaction with Iwadera .
Bassist Ami Kusakari first joined the band as a support member in December 2005 . She was originally in a separate band that often performed at the same events as Dutchman . When her band broke up , Yamaguchi took advantage of this and asked her to join . In the summer of 2006 , keyboardist Emi Okazaki and drummer Keiichi Ejima joined the band to form the group 's current five @-@ member line @-@ up . Ejima was introduced to Yamaguchi through a friend , and Okazaki was originally a co @-@ worker of Yamaguchi 's . Before the band 's debut , they mostly performed at live houses around Sapporo . In August , the band made their first festival appearance at the Rising Sun Rock Festival in Yamaguchi 's home town of Otaru . During this period , Sakanaction sent demos of their songs " Mikazuki Sunset " and later " Shiranami Top Water " to College Radio Japan Sapporo . Both songs were well received by listeners , managing to be in the top five weekly songs for the radio program , and " Shiranami Top Water " charted in the top 100 songs on FM North Wave 's Sapporo Hot 100 chart in September .
While a member of Dutchman , Yamaguchi had been scouted and trained by Victor Entertainment . After they had managed to go through the audition process to perform at the Rising Sun Rock Festival , Yamaguchi sent his material with Sakanaction to his contact at Victor , which led to the band 's debut through BabeStar . Originally the group featured three official members , after drummer Ejima had been added , but for the group 's major label debut they officially promoted support members Kusakari and Okazaki . The band was unveiled as being on BabeStar 's line @-@ up in February 2007 .
= = Writing and production = =
The album was recorded at two locations in Sapporo , Studio Jack at the Yamaha Center in Chūō @-@ ku , and at Chieria Studio in the Sapporo Lifelong Learning Center in Nishi @-@ ku . After it was commissioned , the album took only a month to produce , as Sakanaction mostly reworked demos they had already produced to create an album . Only the song " Yoru no Higashigawa " was written specifically for the album . Two of the songs had been released by Yamaguchi 's first band Dutchman , " Inner World " in 2002 and " Mikazuki Sunset " in 2003 . As a soloist , Yamaguchi released a remix of the song " Shiranami Top Water " on the compilation album Music for Pardisco in 2004 . Retrospectively , Yamaguchi said that Go to the Future felt like a business card for Sakanaction , due to the album being a compilation of already created songs .
The album was recorded and produced entirely in Hokkaido , including the album 's cover artwork and music videos . When writing the songs , Yamaguchi thought up imagery for each song , and asked the other band members to picture this while creating and performing the songs . Yamaguchi created the album 's music and melody while thinking about how they would be received by other people , but wrote the lyrics entirely introspectively . " Mikazuki Sunset " and " Shiranami Top Water " were the first songs produced by the band , and were the band 's first attempts at making club @-@ style music . Due to their success on college radio , Yamaguchi felt like this was proof that the mix of dance music with Japanese melodies was a good direction , and continued to make music in this style . Yamaguchi was inspired by the differences in house and techno music styles when writing the album . Yamaguchi was mindful about how to reach a wide audience , and considered that live instruments were important to stress how the album was rock music , as pure dance music was based on electronic and sampled instruments . One convention the band kept for the album was to record everything at 126BPM , to make it easier for the band 's drummer , who had not experienced performing dance music before .
Yamaguchi considered folky melodies on top of techno and house music the core of Sakanaction 's sound on Go to the Future . In a retrospective interview conducted with Rockin ' On Japan in 2011 , Yamaguchi felt that his need to construct his own personal musical vision was too strong , and felt like the other members of Sakanaction had too little say in the album 's content . " Amefura " was the first song that Sakanaction worked on together as a five @-@ piece band , and was created to be a playful song mixing American and French styles . " Go to the Future " was originally an acoustic song , that grew into a triple metre song when the band developed their electronic sound . The song as the band originally envisioned it was re @-@ recorded for their 2015 compilation album Natsukashii Tsuki wa Atarashii Tsuki : Coupling & Remix Works . Footage on the visual media disc of the album shows Yamaguchi and Iwadera returning to the studio where they had originally performed the song in Sapporo , to recreate the song . The published version of the song " Fukurō " found on the album used the ad @-@ libbed lyrics Yamguchi had created while composing the guitar chords of the song .
= = Promotion and release = =
The album was primarily promoted by the song " Mikazuki Sunset " . The song was used on several television programs as opening or closing credit music , including MM @-@ TV on Mainichi Broadcasting System , Music @-@ 03 on Chiba Television Broadcasting and Yumechika 18 on Hokkaido Television Broadcasting . Both " Mikazuki Sunset " and " Shiranami Top Water " received music videos . " Mikazuki Sunset " ' s video was directed by Yoshihiro Mori , and " Shiranami Top Water " ' s by Hokkaido artist Hiroshi Kondo . A special website was created to promote Go to the Future , which opened on April 26 . It featured the music videos of the two promotional songs on the album , as well as song commentary by Yamaguchi .
Live performances of " Mikazuki Sunset " and " Inner World " were broadcast on Yumechika 18 on May 16 , featuring footage of the band 's performance at the Sapporo Kraps Hall on April 28 . Sakanaction performed a short tour of Japan to promote the album 's release , performing concerts in Tokyo , Osaka and Nagoya from May 11 to May 13 , and held a solo @-@ billed live at Bessie Hall in Sapporo on May 27 . The band were featured in many major magazine publications in Japan to promote the album , including Pia , CD Data , What 's In ? , Barfout ! and Rockin ' On Japan .
In 2015 the album was reissued , initially on vinyl record and a CD re @-@ release in March , followed by a lossless digital release . Originally the band had planned on releasing a new studio album around March 2015 , however could not do so due to bassist Kusakari 's pregnancy .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
CDJournal online reviewers gave the album their star of recommendation , praised the variety of sounds and tempos on the album , as well as the " peculiar musical world " created by Yamaguchi 's " dry " vocals layered on top of a " floating @-@ feeling " techno and " funky " sound . They further noted Sakanaction 's intense usage of surround sound during the album . Reviewer Yuji Tayama praised the album for its multi @-@ faceted nature , and focused his praise on Emi Okazaki 's keyboard work , the band 's " funky rhythms " and vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi 's " nostalgic , youthful vocals " . He felt the album had a " dazzling " and " refined " pop sense echoed in their " clear ' vocal post @-@ rock ' sound " , and described the album as being " at times colorful like the pattern of a tropical fish , and at times gloomy like the mood of a deep sea fish " . Mayumi Tsuchida of Bounce felt the album 's strength was the harmony between the " [ rock ] band sound smeared with techno and electronica " and Yamaguchi 's sorrowful , literary lyrics . She singled out " Shiranami Top Water " as the best example of this , feeling that its " bouncy synths and elegant guitar " worked together to " paint a spiral " and soared together , to create " breathtaking beauty " . Retrospectively , Entertainment Media Kulture felt that the album showed Sakanaction still in the process of finding their sound , with many aspects feeling avant @-@ garde .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
In its debut week , Go to the Future was the number 105 most sold album in Japan , according to the Japanese music chart Oricon , selling 1 @,@ 500 copies . It continued to chart in the top 300 for an additional four weeks , selling an additional 3 @,@ 000 copies . During the release of the band 's single " Aruku Around " in January 2010 , the album re @-@ charted for a single week , bringing the total tracked number of copies sold to 5 @,@ 000 . In 2015 , the album 's reissued version debuted at number 55 , selling 1 @,@ 500 copies in its first week , and bringing the total copies of the album sold to 7 @,@ 000 . Tracking the regional sales of Japanese Tower Records stores , CDJournal noted a significant number of copies sold in Sapporo . In its first week , Go to the Future was the second most sold album , only behind Mr. Children 's B @-@ Side ; selling 200 copies at Sapporo 's Tower Records and HMV stores . CDJournal noted the album had a mid @-@ level success in two Tokyo locations , notably at the Tower Records Shibuya where it sold 100 copies in the first ten days . However , CDJournal did not note any significant sales in the other regional centers of Nagoya , Osaka and Fukuoka .
In May , " Mikazuki Sunset " reached number two on FM North Wave 's airplay and sales chart , the Sapporo Hot 100 , while the song " Shiranami Top Water " also received minor radio airplay during this time . Radio data compiler Plantech tracked the song as being the second most played song in Hokkaido in early May . " Mikazuki Sunset " eventually became the 66th most successful song of 2007 on the Sapporo Hot 100 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ichiro Yamaguchi .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel details were sourced from Go to the Future 's liner notes booklet .
Sakanaction
Personnel and imagery
= = Charts = =
= = = Sales = = =
= = Release history = =
= Alexander of Greece =
Alexander ( Greek : Ἀλέξανδρος , Aléxandros ; 1 August 1893 – 25 October 1920 ) was King of Greece from 11 June 1917 until his death from the effects of a monkey bite at the age of 27 .
The second son of King Constantine I , Alexander was born in the summer palace of Tatoi , on the outskirts of Athens . He succeeded his father in 1917 , during World War I , after the Entente Powers and the followers of Eleftherios Venizelos pushed Constantine I , and his eldest son Crown Prince George , into exile . Having no real political experience , the new king was stripped of his powers by the Venizelists and effectively imprisoned in his own palace . Venizelos , as prime minister , was the effective ruler with the support of the Entente . Though reduced to the status of a puppet king , Alexander supported Greek troops during their war against the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria . Under his reign , the territorial extent of Greece considerably increased , following the victory of the Entente and their Allies in the First World War and the early stages of the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 22 .
Alexander controversially married the commoner Aspasia Manos in 1919 , provoking a major scandal that forced the couple to leave Greece for several months . Soon after returning to Greece with his wife , Alexander was bitten by a domestic Barbary macaque and died of septicemia . The sudden death of the sovereign led to questions over the monarchy 's survival and contributed to the fall of the Venizelist regime . After a general election and a referendum , Constantine I was restored .
= = Early life = =
Alexander was born at Tatoi Palace on 1 August 1893 ( 20 July in the Julian calendar ) , the second son of Crown Prince Constantine of Greece and his wife Princess Sophia of Prussia . He was related to royalty throughout Europe . His father was the eldest son and heir apparent of King George I of Greece by his wife Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia ; his mother was the daughter of Emperor Frederick III of Germany and his wife Victoria , Princess Royal of the United Kingdom . Constantine was a grandson of King Christian IX of Denmark and a cousin of both King George V of the United Kingdom and Emperor Nicholas II of Russia . Sophia was the sister of Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany , and was also a cousin of King George V through her grandmother , Queen Victoria .
Alexander 's early life alternated between the Royal Palace in Athens , and Tatoi Palace in the city 's suburbs . With his parents he undertook several trips abroad and regularly visited Schloss Friedrichshof , the home of his maternal grandmother , who had a particular affection for her Greek grandson .
Though he was very close to his younger sister , Princess Helen , Alexander was less warm towards his elder brother George , with whom he had little in common . While his elder brother was a serious and thoughtful child , Alexander was mischievous and extroverted ; he smoked cigarettes made from blotting paper , set fire to the games room in the palace , and recklessly lost control of a toy cart in which he and his younger brother Paul were rolling down a hill , tipping his toddler brother a distance of six feet into brambles .
= = Military career = =
As his father 's second son , Alexander was third in line to the throne , after his father and elder brother , George . His education was expensive and carefully planned , but while George spent part of his military training in Germany , Alexander was educated in Greece . He joined the prestigious Hellenic Military Academy , where several of his uncles had previously studied and where he made himself known more for his mechanical skills than for his intellectual capacity . He was passionate about cars and motors , and was one of the first Greeks to acquire an automobile .
He distinguished himself in combat during the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 . As a young officer , he was stationed , along with his elder brother , in the field staff of his father ; and he accompanied the latter at the head of the Army of Thessaly during the capture of Thessaloniki in 1912 . King George I was assassinated in Thessaloniki soon afterwards , and Alexander 's father ascended the throne as Constantine I.
= = = Courtship of Aspasia Manos = = =
In 1915 , at a party held in Athens by court marshal Theodore Ypsilantis , Alexander became re @-@ acquainted with one of his childhood friends , Aspasia Manos . She had just returned from education in France and Switzerland , and was reckoned as very beautiful by her acquaintances . She was the daughter of Constantine 's Master of the Horse , Colonel Petros Manos , and his wife Maria Argyropoulos . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Alexander was smitten , and was so determined to seduce her that he followed her to the island of Spetses where she holidayed that year . Initially , Aspasia was resistant to his charm ; although considered very handsome by his contemporaries , Alexander had a reputation as a ladies ' man from numerous past liaisons . Despite this , he finally won her over , and the couple were engaged in secret . However , for King Constantine I , Queen Sophia and much of European society of the time , it was inconceivable for a royal prince to marry someone of a different social rank .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , Constantine I followed a formal policy of neutrality , yet he was openly benevolent towards Germany , which was fighting alongside Austria @-@ Hungary , Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against the Triple Entente of Russia , France and Britain . Constantine was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Kaiser Wilhelm II , and had also become something of a Germanophile following his military training in Prussia . His pro @-@ German attitude provoked a split between the monarch and the prime minister , Eleftherios Venizelos , who wanted to support the Entente in the hope of expanding Greek territory to incorporate the Greek minorities in the Ottoman Empire and the Balkans . Protected by the countries of the Entente , particularly France , in 1916 Venizelos formed a parallel government to that of the king .
Parts of Greece were occupied by the Allied Entente forces , but Constantine I refused to modify his policy and faced increasingly open opposition from the Entente and the Venizelists . In July 1916 , an arson attack ravaged Tatoi Palace and the royal family barely escaped the flames ; Alexander was not injured but his mother narrowly saved Princess Katherine by carrying her through the woods for more than two kilometers . Among the palace personnel and firefighters who arrived to deal with the blaze , sixteen people were killed .
Finally on 10 June 1917 , Charles Jonnart , the Entente 's High Commissioner in Greece , ordered King Constantine to give up his power . On the threat of Entente forces landing in Piraeus , the king conceded and agreed to go into self @-@ exile , though without officially abdicating his crown . The Allies , while determined to be rid of Constantine , did not wish to create a Greek republic , and sought to replace the king with another member of the royal family . Crown Prince George , who was the natural heir , was ruled out by the Allies because they thought him too pro @-@ German , like his father . Instead , they considered installing Constantine 's brother ( and Alexander 's uncle ) , Prince George , but he had tired of public life during his difficult tenure as High Commissioner of Crete between 1901 and 1905 ; above all , he sought to remain loyal to his brother , and categorically refused to take the throne . So , Constantine 's second son , Prince Alexander , was chosen to become the new monarch .
= = Reign = =
= = = Accession = = =
The dismissal of Constantine was not unanimously supported by the Entente powers ; while France and Britain did nothing to stop Jonnart 's actions , the Russian provisional government officially protested to Paris . Petrograd demanded that Alexander should not receive the title of king but only that of regent so as to preserve the rights of the deposed sovereign and the Crown Prince . Russia 's protests were brushed aside and Alexander ascended the Greek throne .
Alexander swore the oath of loyalty to the Greek constitution on the afternoon of 11 June 1917 in the ballroom of the Royal Palace . Apart from the Archbishop of Athens , Theocletus I , who administered the oath , only King Constantine I , Crown Prince George and the king 's prime minister , Alexandros Zaimis , attended . There were no festivities . The 23 @-@ year @-@ old Alexander had a broken voice and tears in his eyes as he made the solemn declaration . He knew that the Entente and the Venizelists would hold real power and that neither his father nor his brother had renounced their claims to the throne . Constantine had informed his son that he should consider himself a regent , rather than a true monarch .
In the evening , after the ceremony , the royal family decided to leave their palace in Athens for Tatoi , but city residents opposed the exile of their sovereign and crowds formed outside the palace to prevent Constantine and his family from leaving . On 12 June , the former king and his family escaped undetected from their residence by feigning departure from one gate while exiting through another . At Tatoi , Constantine again impressed upon Alexander that he held the crown in trust only . It was the last time that Alexander would be in direct contact with his family . The next day , Constantine , Sophia and all of their children except Alexander arrived at the small port of Oropos and set off into exile .
= = = Puppet king = = =
With his parents and siblings in exile , Alexander found himself isolated . The royals remained unpopular with the Venizelists , and Entente representatives advised the king 's aunts and uncles , particularly Prince Nicholas , to leave . Eventually , they all followed Constantine into exile . Royal household staff were gradually replaced by enemies of the former king , and Alexander 's allies were either imprisoned or distanced from him . Portraits of the royal family were removed from public buildings , and Alexander 's new ministers openly called him the " son of a traitor " .
On 26 June 1917 , the king was forced to name Eleftherios Venizelos as head of the government . Despite promises given by the Entente on Constantine 's departure , the previous prime minister , Zaimis , was effectively forced to resign as Venizelos returned to Athens . Alexander immediately opposed his new prime minister 's views and , annoyed by the king 's rebuffs , Venizelos threatened to remove him and set up a regency council in the name of Alexander 's brother Prince Paul , then still a minor . The Entente powers intervened and asked Venizelos to back down , allowing Alexander to retain the crown . Spied on day and night by the prime minister 's supporters , the monarch quickly became a prisoner in his own palace , and his orders went ignored .
Alexander had no experience in affairs of state . However , he was determined to make the best of a difficult situation and represent his father as best he could . Effecting an air of cool indifference to the government , he rarely made the effort to read official documents before he rubber stamped them . His functions were limited , and amounted to visiting the Macedonian front to support the morale of the Greek and Allied troops . Since Venizelos 's return to power , Athens was at war with the Central Powers , and Greek soldiers battled those of Bulgaria in the north .
= = = Greek expansion = = =
By the end of World War I , Greece had grown beyond its 1914 borders , and the treaties of Neuilly ( 1919 ) and Sèvres ( 1920 ) confirmed the Greek territorial conquests . The majority of Thrace ( previously split between Bulgaria and Turkey ) and several Aegean Islands ( such as Imbros and Tenedos ) became part of Greece , and the region of Smyrna , in Ionia , was placed under Greek mandate . Alexander 's kingdom increased in size by around a third . In Paris , Venizelos took part in the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria . Upon his return to Greece in August 1920 , Venizelos received a laurel crown from the king for his work in support of panhellenism .
Despite their territorial gains following the Paris Peace Conference , the Greeks still hoped to achieve the Megali Idea and annex Constantinople and larger areas of Ottoman Asia Minor ; they invaded Anatolia beyond Smyrna and sought to take Ankara , with the aim of destroying the Turkish resistance led by Mustafa Kemal ( later known as Atatürk ) . Thus began the Greco @-@ Turkish War ( 1919 – 22 ) . Although Alexander 's reign saw success after success for the Greek armies , it was eventually Atatürk 's revolutionary forces that obtained victory in 1922 .
= = Marriage = =
= = = Controversy = = =
On 12 June 1917 , the day after his accession , Alexander revealed his liaison with Aspasia Manos to his father and asked for his permission to marry her . Constantine was reluctant to let his son marry a non @-@ royal , and demanded that Alexander wait until the end of the war before considering the engagement , to which Alexander agreed . In the intervening months , Alexander increasingly resented his separation from his family . His regular letters to his parents were intercepted by the government and confiscated . Alexander 's only source of comfort was Aspasia , and he took the decision to marry her despite his father 's request .
The ruling dynasty of Greece was of German @-@ Danish origin and Constantine and Sophia were seen as far too German by the Venizelists , but even though the marriage of the king to a Greek presented an opportunity to Hellenize the royal family , and counter criticisms that it was a foreign institution , both Venizelists and Constantinists opposed the match . The Venizelists feared it would give Alexander a means to communicate with his exiled family through Colonel Manos and both sides of the political divide were unhappy at the king marrying a commoner . Although Venizelos was a friend of Petros Manos , the prime minister warned the king that marrying her would be unpopular in the eyes of the people .
When Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught and Strathearn , visited Athens in March 1918 , to confer the Order of the Bath upon the king , Alexander feared that a marriage between him and Princess Mary of the United Kingdom would be discussed as part of an attempt to consolidate the relationship between Greece and Britain . To Alexander 's relief , Arthur asked to meet Aspasia , and declared that , if he were younger , he would have sought to marry her himself . For the foreign powers , and particularly the British ambassador , the marriage was seen as positive . The British authorities feared that Alexander would abdicate in order to marry Aspasia if the wedding was blocked , and they wanted to avoid Greece becoming a republic in case it led to instability or an increase in French influence at their expense .
Alexander 's parents were not so happy about the match . Sophia disapproved of her son marrying a commoner , while Constantine wanted a delay but was prepared to be his son 's best man if Alexander would be patient . Alexander visited Paris at the end of 1918 , raising hopes among his family that they would be able to contact him once he was outside Greece . When Queen Sophia attempted to telephone her son in his Parisian hotel , a minister intercepted the call and informed her that " His Majesty is sorry , but he cannot respond to the telephone " . He was not even informed that she had called .
= = = Public scandal = = =
With the help of Aspasia 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Christo Zalocostas , and after three unsuccessful attempts , the couple eventually married in secret before a royal chaplain , Archimandrite Zacharistas , on the evening of 17 November 1919 . After the ceremony , the archimandrite was sworn to silence but soon broke his promise by confessing to the Archbishop of Athens , Meletios Metaxakis . According to the Greek constitution , members of the royal family had to obtain permission to marry from both the sovereign and the head of the Greek Orthodox Church . By marrying Aspasia without the permission of the Archbishop , Alexander was to cause a major scandal .
Despite his disapproval of the union , Venizelos allowed Aspasia and her mother to move into the Royal Palace on condition that the marriage remain secret . The information leaked , however , and to escape public opprobrium Aspasia was forced to leave Greece . She fled to Rome , and then to Paris , where Alexander was allowed to join her , six months later , on condition that they did not attend official functions together . On their Parisian honeymoon , while motoring near Fontainebleau , the couple witnessed a serious car crash in which Count Kergariou 's chauffeur lost control of his master 's vehicle . Alexander avoided the count 's car , which swerved and hit a tree . The king drove the injured to hospital in his own car , while Aspasia , who had trained as a nurse during World War I , rendered first aid . The count was seriously injured and died shortly afterward , after having both legs amputated .
The government allowed the couple to return to Greece in mid @-@ 1920 . Although their marriage was legalized , Aspasia was not recognized as queen , but was instead known as " Madame Manos " . At first , she stayed at her sister 's house in the Greek capital before transferring to Tatoi , and it was during this period that she became pregnant with Alexander 's child .
Alexander visited the newly acquired territories of West Thrace , and on 8 July 1920 the new name for the region 's main town — Alexandroupoli ( meaning " city of Alexander " in Greek ) — was announced in the king 's presence . The city 's previous name of Dedeagatch was considered too Turkish . On 7 September , Venizelos , counting on a surge of support in the wake of the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres and the expansion of Greek territory , announced a general election for early November .
= = Death = =
On 2 October 1920 , Alexander was injured while walking through the grounds of the Tatoi estate . A domestic Barbary macaque belonging to the steward of the palace 's grapevines attacked or was attacked by the king 's German Shepherd Dog , Fritz , and Alexander attempted to separate the two animals . As he did so , another monkey attacked Alexander and bit him deeply on the leg and torso . Eventually servants arrived and chased away the monkeys ( which were later destroyed ) , and the king 's wounds were promptly cleaned and dressed but not cauterized . He did not consider the incident serious and asked that it not be publicized .
That evening , his wounds became infected ; he suffered a strong fever and septicemia set in . His doctors considered amputating his leg , but none wished to take responsibility for so drastic an act . On 19 October , he became delirious and called out for his mother , but the Greek government refused to allow her to re @-@ enter the country from exile in Switzerland , despite her own protestations . Finally , the queen dowager , Olga , widow of George I of Greece and Alexander 's grandmother , was allowed to return alone to Athens to tend to the king . She was delayed by rough waters , however , and by the time she arrived , Alexander had already died of sepsis twelve hours previously at a little after 4 p.m. on 25 October 1920 . The other members of the royal family received the news by telegram that night .
Two days later , Alexander 's body was conveyed to Athens Cathedral where it lay in state , until his funeral on 29 October . Once again , the Greek royals were refused permission to return to Greece , and Queen Olga was the only member of the royal family who attended . Foreign powers were represented by the Prince Regent of Serbia with his sister Princess Helen wife of John Constantinovich of Russia , the Crown Prince of Sweden with his uncle Prince Eugene , Duke of Nericia , and Rear @-@ Admirals Sir George Hope of Britain and Dumesnil of France , as well as members of the Athens diplomatic corps .
After the cathedral service , Alexander 's body was interred on the grounds of the royal estate at Tatoi . The Greek royal family never regarded Alexander 's reign as fully legitimate . In the royal cemetery , while other monarchs are given the inscription " King of the Hellenes , Prince of Denmark " , Alexander 's reads " Alexander , son of the King of the Hellenes , Prince of Denmark . He ruled in the place of his father from 14 June 1917 to 25 October 1920 . " According to Alexander 's favorite sister , Queen Helen of Romania , this feeling of illegitimacy was also shared by Alexander himself ; a sentiment that helps explain his mésalliance with Aspasia Manos .
= = Legacy = =
Alexander 's death raised questions about the succession to the throne as well as the nature of the Greek regime . As the king had contracted an unequal marriage his descendants were not in the line of succession . The Hellenic Parliament demanded that Constantine I and Crown Prince George be excluded from the succession but sought to preserve the monarchy by selecting another member of the royal house as the new sovereign . On 29 October 1920 , the Greek minister in Berne , acting under the direction of the Greek authorities , offered the throne to Alexander 's younger brother , Prince Paul . Paul , however , refused to become king while his father and elder brother were alive , insisting that neither of them had renounced their rights to the throne and that he therefore could never legitimately wear the crown .
The throne remained vacant and the legislative elections of 1920 turned into an open conflict between the Venizelists , who favored republicanism , and the supporters of the ex @-@ King Constantine . On 14 November 1920 , with the war with Turkey dragging on , the monarchists won , and Dimitrios Rallis became prime minister ; Venizelos ( who lost his own parliamentary seat ) chose to leave Greece in self @-@ exile . Rallis asked Queen Olga to become regent until Constantine 's return .
Under the restored King Constantine I , whose return was endorsed overwhelmingly in a referendum , Greece went on to lose the Greco @-@ Turkish War with heavy military and civilian casualties . The territory gained on the Turkish mainland during Alexander 's reign was lost . Historians postulate that Alexander 's death in the midst of an election campaign helped destabilize the Venizelos regime and the resultant loss of Allied support contributed to the failure of Greece 's territorial ambitions . Winston Churchill wrote , " it is perhaps no exaggeration to remark that a quarter of a million persons died of this monkey 's bite . "
= = = Issue = = =
Alexander 's daughter by Aspasia Manos , Alexandra ( 1921 – 1993 ) , was born five months after his death . Initially , the government took the line that since Alexander had married Aspasia without the permission of his father or the church , his marriage was illegal and his posthumous daughter was illegitimate . However , in July 1922 , Parliament passed a law which allowed the King to retroactively recognize royal marriages on a non @-@ dynastic basis . That September , Constantine — at Sophia 's insistence — recognized his son 's marriage to Aspasia and granted her the style of " Princess Alexander " . Her daughter was legitimized as a princess of Greece and Denmark , and later married King Peter II of Yugoslavia in London in 1944 . They had one child : Alexander , Crown Prince of Yugoslavia .
= = Ancestry = =
= The Boat Race 2000 =
The 146th Boat Race took place on 25 March 2000 . Oxford won the race by three lengths , breaking a seven @-@ year spell of Cambridge dominance . The result was a " shock triumph " . The race also featured the joint @-@ tallest ever competitor , and the youngest ever winner in the " modern " race . In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by five lengths , and Oxford triumphed in the women 's race , emerging with victory in the men 's and women 's races for the year .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual competition between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1999 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge had won the last seven races ( between 1993 and 1999 ) ; and led overall with 76 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat to Oxford by five feet " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) had a heavier average weight of 13 stone 10 pounds ( 87 kg ) per crew member , making them almost 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) heavier per man ; and were considered the underdogs before the race . The Cambridge crew ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) had a taller crew , and had the joint @-@ tallest ever competitor , the 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) Joshua West . The Oxford crew had an average age of 21 while Cambridge 's crew averaged 23 . The Oxford crew featured six Britons , two Americans , and a Norwegian ; whilst the Cambridge crew consisted of six Britons , an American , a New Zealander , and a South African .
The crews for the race were as follows :
= = Race description = =
Cambridge won the coin toss and chose to start from the southern side , the Surrey side , of the River Thames , based on the opinion that taking a lead early in the race would give them an advantage . However , the theory failed as Oxford stayed with Cambridge , and though Cambridge had a large push which gave them a slender lead after two minutes , Oxford were leading at the First Mile post , passing in 3 minutes 41 seconds , Cambridge a second behind .
The race was close , and " the lead switched back and forth between the two teams " . Cambridge pressed and rewon their lead , and were a quarter of a length ahead after a favourable bend . Though level at Chiswick Steps , Oxford pushed ahead , gaining a five @-@ second lead by Barnes Bridge , and eight at the finish .
Oxford finished with a time of 18 minutes , 4 seconds , Cambridge finished 8 seconds behind . It was Oxford 's first victory in seven years and brought the overall result to 76 – 69 in Cambridge 's favour . The victory gave the Oxford number four , Matthew Smith , the honour of being the youngest ever " modern " winner at 18 years , 8 months 11 days .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by five lengths . Earlier , Oxford won the 55th women 's race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , in a time of 6 minutes 18 seconds , their first victory in nine years . Oxford also won the women 's lightweight , but Cambridge won the women 's reserves , men 's lightweight , and men 's lightweight reserves .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford University Boat Club President and number four Nick Robinson said the crew had kept going and won " an incredible race " , but was a " shock triumph " .
= Witchfinder General ( film ) =
Witchfinder General is a 1968 British horror film directed by Michael Reeves and starring Vincent Price , Ian Ogilvy , and Hilary Dwyer . The screenplay was by Reeves and Tom Baker based on Ronald Bassett 's novel of the same name . Made on a low budget of under £ 100 @,@ 000 , the movie was co @-@ produced by Tigon British Film Productions and American International Pictures . The story details the heavily fictionalised murderous witch @-@ hunting exploits of Matthew Hopkins , a 17th @-@ century English lawyer who claimed to have been appointed as a " Witch Finder General " by Parliament during the English Civil War to root out sorcery and witchcraft . The film was retitled The Conqueror Worm in the United States in an attempt to link it with Roger Corman 's earlier series of Edgar Allan Poe – related films starring Price — although this movie has nothing to do with any of Poe 's stories , and only briefly alludes to his poem .
Director Reeves featured many scenes of intense onscreen torture and violence that were considered unusually sadistic at the time . Upon its theatrical release throughout the spring and summer of 1968 , the movie 's gruesome content was met with disgust by several film critics in the UK , despite having been extensively censored by the British Board of Film Censors . In the US , the film was shown virtually intact and was a box office success , but it was almost completely ignored by reviewers .
Witchfinder General eventually developed into a cult film , partially attributable to Reeves 's 1969 death from a drug overdose at the age of 25 , only nine months after Witchfinder 's release . Over the years , several prominent critics have championed the film , including J. Hoberman , Danny Peary , and Derek Malcolm . In 2005 , the magazine Total Film named Witchfinder General the 15th greatest horror film of all time .
= = Plot = =
In 1645 , during the English Civil War , Matthew Hopkins ( Vincent Price ) , an opportunist and witchhunter , takes advantage of the breakdown in social order to impose a reign of terror in East Anglia . Hopkins and his assistant , John Stearne ( Robert Russell ) , visit village after village , brutally torturing confessions out of suspected witches . They charge the local magistrates for the work they carry out .
Richard Marshall ( Ian Ogilvy ) is a young Roundhead . After surviving a brief skirmish and killing his first enemy soldier ( and thus saving the life of his Captain ) , he rides home to Brandeston , Suffolk , to visit his lover Sara ( Hilary Dwyer ) . Sara is the niece of the village priest , John Lowes ( Rupert Davies ) . Lowes gives his permission to Marshall to marry Sara , telling him there is trouble coming to the village and he wants Sara far away before it arrives . Marshall asks Sara why the old man is frightened . She tells him they have been threatened and become outcasts in their own village . Marshall vows to Sara , " rest easy and no @-@ one shall harm you . I put my oath to that . " At the end of his army leave , Marshall rides back to join his regiment , and chances upon Hopkins and Stearne on the path . Marshall gives the two men directions to Brandeston then rides on .
In Brandeston , Hopkins and Stearne immediately begin rounding up suspects . Lowes is accused at his home and tortured . He has needles stuck into his back ( in an attempt to locate the so @-@ called " Devil 's Mark " ) , and is about to be killed , when Sara stops Hopkins by offering him sexual favours in exchange for her uncle 's safety . However , soon Hopkins is called away to another village . Stearne takes advantage of Hopkins ' absence by raping Sara . When Hopkins returns and finds out what Stearne has done , Hopkins will have nothing further to do with the young woman . He instructs Stearne to begin torturing Lowes again . Shortly before departing the village , Hopkins and Stearne execute Lowes and two women .
Marshall returns to Brandeston and is horrified by what has happened to Sara . He vows to kill both Hopkins and Stearne . After " marrying " Sara in a ceremony of his own devising and instructing her to flee to Lavenham , he rides off by himself . In the meantime , Hopkins and Stearne have become separated after a Roundhead patrol attempts to commandeer their horses . Marshall locates Stearne , but after a brutal fight , Stearne is able to escape . He reunites with Hopkins and informs him of Marshall 's desire for revenge .
Hopkins and Stearne enter the village of Lavenham . Marshall , on a patrol to locate the King , learns they are there and quickly rides to the village with a group of his soldier friends . Hopkins , however , having earlier learned that Sara was in Lavenham , has set a trap to capture Marshall . Hopkins and Stearne frame Marshall and Sara as witches and take them to the castle to be interrogated . Marshall watches as needles are repeatedly jabbed into Sara 's back , but he refuses to confess to witchcraft , instead vowing again to kill Hopkins . He breaks free from his bonds and stamps on Stearne 's face , at the same time that his army comrades approach the castle dungeon . Marshall grabs an axe and repeatedly strikes Hopkins . The soldiers enter the room and are horrified to see what their friend has done . One of them puts the mutilated but still living Hopkins out of his misery by shooting him dead . Marshall 's mind snaps and he shouts , " You took him from me ! You took him from me ! " Sara , also apparently on the brink of insanity , screams uncontrollably over and over again .
= = Production = =
Tigon Productions owned the rights to Ronald Bassett 's 1966 novel , Witchfinder General , which was based very loosely on a historical figure named Matthew Hopkins , a self @-@ described " witchhunter " who claimed to have been commissioned by Parliament to prosecute and execute witches . Hopkins was in fact never given an official mandate to hunt witches . Tony Tenser , the founder and chief executive of Tigon , had read Bassett 's book while it was still in galley form and purchased the rights on impulse prior to publication . Despite the novel being " tedious low @-@ brow popular history " , Tenser felt it " had some scope , had some breadth to it ; there was canvas for a film . " Tenser offered the film to Michael Reeves , who had just completed Tigon 's The Sorcerers ( 1967 ) , starring Boris Karloff .
= = = Writing = = =
Reeves provided a story outline which met with Tenser 's enthusiastic approval . Tenser immediately began putting together a preliminary budget , and requested that Reeves quickly complete a full film script , stressing to Reeves that the production would need to commence by September of that year to avoid shooting during cold weather . Reeves called in his childhood friend Tom Baker ( who had co @-@ written The Sorcerers with Reeves ) to assist him with the script . Reeves and Baker began drafting a screenplay with Donald Pleasence firmly in mind as the film 's star . However , once American International Pictures became involved in the production , they insisted that their contract star , Vincent Price , be given the lead , and Pleasence was dropped from the film . With the abrupt change of star , Reeves and Baker had to rethink their original concept of presenting Hopkins as " ineffective and inadequate ... a ridiculous authority figure " , which they had believed Pleasence could play to perfection . They knew the tall , imposing Price , with his long history of horror roles , would have to be more of a straightforward villain , and they made changes to their script accordingly .
As was required by law for British film productions of that time , the completed first draft of the screenplay was presented by Tenser to the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) on 4 August to determine if any possible censorship issues could be anticipated . On the same day , a preliminary report was issued by a BBFC examiner , who , noting that Tenser was an " ape " , referred to the screenplay as " perfectly beastly " and " ghoulish " . The script was returned to Tenser a few days later , with a more detailed report from the same examiner , which described the screenplay as " a study in sadism in which every detail of cruelty and suffering is lovingly dwelt on ... a film which followed the script at all closely would run into endless censorship trouble . " After a second draft was subsequently written and sent to the BBFC only eleven days after the first draft , the reaction was nearly the same . It was returned to Tenser with an " exhaustive list " of requirements to reduce the film 's possible offensiveness .
Reeves and Baker completed a third and final draft that was " substantially toned down " in content from the previous attempts . This version of the screenplay , which was filmed with only a few minor revisions during the production , was missing many of the more explicit moments of violence described in the first submitted drafts : the death spasms of the pre @-@ credits hanging victim , Lowes getting stabbed fifteen times with a steel spike , and a sniper 's victim somersaulting through the air and slamming into a tree . A sequence depicting the Battle of Naseby was to be filmed , during which a soldier 's head was to be cut off on screen . Most significantly , the film 's finale was completely altered . In the original ending , Stearne falls in with a group of gypsies and attempts to rape one of their women , who successfully fights off her attacker by plunging her thumbs into his eyes , blinding him . The gypsies then stake him to death . Marshall arrives and convinces the gypsies to assist him in ambushing Hopkins . Hopkins is viciously beaten by Marshall , who forces a " confession " out of the bloodied man . Marshall partially drowns Hopkins ( whose thumbs have been tied to his feet ) , then finally hangs him . Tenser had previously expressed concerns regarding the scope of the Battle of Naseby sequence as well as the gypsy @-@ ending , noting that these would both require the employment of additional groups of extras . He asked Reeves and Baker to remove the battle sequence and simplify the ending for the final draft .
= = = Cast = = =
Vincent Price as Matthew Hopkins . Decidedly not Michael Reeves 's choice for the part , this was the veteran horror star 's 75th film and his 17th for American International Pictures . Some of the performances he provided for his previous AIP movies had certain elements of campy overacting , but in Witchfinder he was subtle and deadly serious . The role was a great challenge for Price , as his frequent clashes with Reeves left him unsure as to what the director wanted ( see " Filming " section below ) . Despite this , Price ultimately felt he delivered " one of the best performances I 've ever given . "
Ian Ogilvy as Richard Marshall . Ogilvy had been a friend of Reeves since they were teenagers , and the actor had appeared in many of the director 's amateur short films . Ogilvy had also starred in both of Reeves 's two previous feature films , Revenge of the Blood Beast and The Sorcerers , and was the natural first choice for the role of Witchfinder 's heroic lead . Describing his working relationship with Reeves , Ogilvy noted that " his mastery of the technical aspects was absolute " , but added " Mike never directed the actors . He always said he knew nothing about acting , and preferred to leave it up to us . " Ogilvy enjoyed working with Price , finding him to be " very funny , in a ' queeny ' sort of way . "
Hilary Dwyer as Sara . Witchfinder was Dwyer 's debut feature film . With three years of television work behind her , she had been noticed by Tenser and put under contract with Tigon . She felt Reeves was " just wonderful ... He was really inspiring to work with . And because it was my first film I didn 't know how lucky I was . " At 21 , she found appearing in the love and rape scenes " stressful " . She would go on to make several more horror movies for AIP , most of them co @-@ starring Price , before retiring from acting in the late 1970s .
Rupert Davies as John Lowes . Appearing as Dwyer 's uncle , Witchfinder was only one of several horror films the British character actor found himself in during the later stage of his career . Davies was not pleased when he discovered that the filming of his torture scenes was to be augmented with actual live rats placed on his body . The actor recalled Reeves instructing him , " Don 't move , Rupert ! Don 't move ! Wait until one of them starts nibbling your jaw then you might move your head a little . "
Robert Russell as John Stearne . Playing Hopkins 's thuggish assistant , Russell certainly looked the part . However , as filming progressed , Reeves found the actor 's high pitched voice unsuitable for such a rough character , and after production was completed he had all of his dialogue dubbed by another actor , Jack Lynn ( who also appeared in a small role as an innkeeper ) .
Patrick Wymark as Oliver Cromwell . Wymark received prominent billing for a " one @-@ day bit part " .
Other cast : Nicky Henson as Trooper Swallow , Wilfrid Brambell as Master Loach , Tony Selby as Salter , Bernard Kay as Fisherman , Godfrey James as Webb , Michael Beint as Captain Gordon , John Treneman as Harcourt , Bill Maxwell as Gifford , " Morris Jar " ( pseudonym for Paul Ferris ) as Paul , Maggie Kimberly as Elizabeth , Peter Haigh as Lavenham Magistrate , Hira Talfrey as Hanged Woman , Anne Tirard as Old Woman , Peter Thomas as Farrier , Edward Palmer as Shepherd , David Webb as Jailer , Lee Peters as Sergeant , David Lyell as Footsoldier , Alf Joint as Sentry , Martin Terry as Hoxne Innkeeper , Jack Lynn as Brandeston Innkeeper , Beaufoy Milton as Priest , Dennis Thorne as Villager , Michael Segal as Villager , Toby Lennon as Old Man , Margaret Nolan as Girl at Inn , Sally Douglas as Girl at Inn , Donna Reading as Girl at Inn , Derek Ware as Boy at Hoxne Inn .
= = = Filming = = =
Production began on 18 September 1967 with a budget of £ 83 @,@ 000 . £ 32 @,@ 000 was provided by AIP , with £ 12 @,@ 000 for Price 's expenditures and fees , and £ 20 @,@ 000 for production costs . Philip Waddilove , a former BBC radio and record producer , contributed £ 5 @,@ 000 in return for associate producer billing . Although the film would be the biggest budgeted title in Tigon 's history , for AIP their part of the budget represented a relatively small expenditure of money . Not much in terms of real quality was expected by AIP heads Samuel Z. Arkoff and James H. Nicholson , and the movie was intended to be nothing more than a tax write @-@ off .
The interiors were filmed in two specially converted aircraft hangars near Bury St. Edmunds in Suffolk , which were leased for £ 1 @,@ 500 ; this cost @-@ measure resulted in much of the dialogue having to be re @-@ recorded later , because the tin roofs of the hangars caused an echo . The exterior shots range from the Dunwich Coast ( for the scene with the fisherman ) to Langley Park outside London ( for the scene where Stearne escapes capture ) . The tracking shot of the ambush after the opening credits was filmed at Black Park in southeast Buckinghamshire , a location frequently used by Hammer Film Productions . Lavenham Square ( in Lavenham , Suffolk ) , site of the witch @-@ burning scene , was the real Lavenham Market Square ; the crew lowered TV antennas and telephone wires and Waddilove hired a cherry picker from a local utility company for £ 10 , because the unit couldn 't afford a camera crane . The countryside vistas seen in the chase scenes on horseback were shot on the Stanford Battle Area near Thetford , Norfolk — the producer , through connections with the government , was able to lease parts of the area . The church used in the film is St John The Evangelist in Rushford in Norfolk . The moat drowning and hanging scenes were filmed at Kentwell Hall , in Long Melford . The climax of the film was shot at Orford Castle , on the coast of East Anglia , which is an English Heritage property . Filming wrapped as scheduled on 13 November 1967 .
The production went relatively smoothly except for the unrelentingly antagonistic relationship that developed between Reeves and Price . Reeves kept it no secret from everyone associated with the production that the American actor was not his choice for the role , and the director 's comments had reached the actor back in the US . Reeves refused the courtesy of meeting Price at London Heathrow Airport when he arrived in England , a " deliberate snub calculated to offend both Price and AIP . " " Take me to your goddamn young genius , " Price reportedly said to co @-@ producer Philip Waddilove , who greeted the actor at the airport instead of Reeves . When Price went on location and met Reeves for the first time , the young director told the actor , " I didn 't want you , and I still don 't want you , but I 'm stuck with you ! "
According to Kim Newman in his book , Nightmare Movies , when Reeves made a suggestion on the set , Price objected and told the director : " I 've made 87 [ sic ] films . What have you done ? " And Reeves responded : " I 've made three good ones . " " Reeves hated me , " Price later recalled . " He didn 't want me at all for the part . I didn 't like him , either . It was one of the first times in my life that I 've been in a picture where the director and I just clashed . " Price felt that all the actors on the set had a difficult time with the director , explaining : " Michael Reeves could not communicate with actors . He would stop me and say , ' Don 't move your head like that . ' And I would say , ' Like what ? What do you mean ? ' He 'd say , ' There — you 're doing it again . Don 't do that ' . " Price reportedly became so upset with Reeves that he refused to watch the film 's dailies .
In one scene , Reeves needed Price to shoot his flintlock between the ears of the horse he was riding . When Price realised that Reeves had ordered that an actual blank charge was to be used so the weapon 's puff of smoke would be visible , he immediately shouted , " What ? You want the gun to go bang between the ears of this fucking nag ? How do you think he 's going to react ? " However , Reeves insisted and , when the gun went off , the horse reared and sent Price tumbling onto the ground . Price was not hurt but he was extremely angered by the incident .
On the final day of shooting , Price showed up on the set visibly intoxicated . Reeves seethed to Waddilove , " He 's drunk – how dare he be drunk on my set ! I 'll kill the bastard . " Waddilove soon discovered that Reeves planned to inflict painful revenge on the actor . During preparations for Price 's violent death scene , the director was overheard instructing Ogilvy to " really lay into Vincent " with the stage axe . Although when the scene was filmed Ogilvy indeed responded with blows that were not faked , Waddilove had earlier found some foam padding and fitted Price 's costume with it , protecting the actor from any injury .
Despite the tension between the two men during the production , when Price saw the movie the following year , he admitted that he finally understood what Reeves had been after and wrote the young director a ten @-@ page letter praising the film . Reeves wrote Price back , " I knew you would think so . " Years after Reeves 's death , Price said , " ... I realized what he wanted was a low @-@ key , very laid @-@ back , menacing performance . He did get it , but I was fighting him almost every step of the way . Had I known what he wanted , I would have cooperated . "
In addition to his difficult relationship with Price , Reeves had to deal with a few production problems during the shooting . On the first day , Price was thrown from his horse and sent back to his hotel to recover . The actor returned to work the following day . Towards the end of filming , a strike was called when the British technicians union learned the production company was not hiring a large enough crew as required by union rules . After an extra man was hired , the crew resumed working . On two occasions , Reeves was short of actors . Waddilove replaced an absent actor as a Roundhead officer during Wymark 's one @-@ day scene . Waddilove 's wife , Susi , played one of the women in the animal enclosure during the witch @-@ burning sequence .
The film 's violent climax was edited together in its present shape due to a continuity problem . In the screenplay , the soldier played by Nicky Henson was supposed to shoot both Price and Ogilvy to death . However , the actor only had one flintlock pistol , which had been clearly established in previous scenes , and was therefore only able to shoot one person . When the error was discovered , Reeves immediately told the actor : " All right , just shoot Vincent and I 'll get Ian to scream and shout and go mad and freeze frame on Hilary Dwyer screaming . "
Several " alternate " nude scenes were filmed during the production . Set in a pub and involving local " wenches " , the sequences were reportedly solely intended for the movie 's German release version . Reeves refused to take part in the filming of these sequences and they were completed by the crew after the " regular " versions of the scenes had been shot , with Tigon 's Tenser acting as director . According to Waddilove , Louis M. " Deke " Heywood appeared at the location only to ensure those additional scenes were filmed . The credits read , " Additional scenes by Louis M Heywood . " According to Ogilvy , this was an in @-@ joke because for Reeves , " additional scenes " meant " some prick of a producer putting his oar in and messing up what the director had done . " None of these scenes were made available in the theatrical versions released in the US or UK , although they were included in the videotape version released in the mid @-@ 1980s by HBO Home Video .
= = = Censorship = = =
For its time , Witchfinder General was considered an unusually sadistic film experience . British film censor John Trevelyan was reportedly a distant cousin of Michael Reeves and accepted the director 's good intentions when Reeves explained why he felt it was necessary to include such intense violence in the movie . Trevelyan nonetheless argued , " The film gave the impression that it was exploiting violence , and in particular , sadism for commercial reasons . " Consequently , the film was cut extensively by the British Board of Film Censors for its UK release . Nearly two complete minutes of what was described as " excesses of sadistic brutality " were removed . Reeves agreed to make some of the initial minor cuts himself , but when additional and more extensive demands were made he adamantly refused to take part in any further editing .
Trevelyan claimed that Reeves later wrote him a letter admitting that the cuts were not as harmful as he had expected . No copy of the letter has ever surfaced , and based on several other comments the director subsequently made about how the edits " ruined the film " , Reeves 's biographer Benjamin Halligan believes Trevelyan may have somehow " misremembered " the existence of this letter , confusing it with an earlier missive from the director in which he made a plea for the BBFC 's leniency .
= = Reception = =
Even the truncated version was met with considerable controversy by UK film critics . Dilys Powell in The Sunday Times complained " ... 17th century hanging , burning , raping , screaming , and Vincent Price as England 's prize torture @-@ overseer . Peculiarly nauseating . " The Guardian felt the film was filled with " gratuitous sadism . " Margaret Hinxman of The Sunday Telegraph dismissed it as a " sadistic extravaganza . " Nonetheless , several critics felt the film was worth accolades . John Russell Taylor in the London Times Saturday Review said the film " ... is quite happily and deliberately a horror film : that is to say , it has no particular pretensions to being anything else ... There is much in it which would win Michael Reeves an important reputation if he were dealing with some more pretentious , but fundamentally no more serious subject ... Mr. Reeves is no longer merely promising . He already has real achievements behind him : not merely good horror films , but good films , period . " Films and Filming noted , " Witchfinder General has no explicit ' message ' , but it does say something about the springs of despair and it says it forcefully . It is a very frightening film ... Matthew Hopkins is the best of Price 's recent performances . Witchfinder General is emphatically not a horror film ; it is , however , a very horrifying one ... " Monthly Film Bulletin observed , " Not since Peeping Tom has a film aroused such an outcry about nastiness and gratuitous violence as this one ... the tone of the film is oddly muted , with torture and death in plenty , but viewed matter @-@ of @-@ factly and without stress ... Throughout the whole film there is a vivid sense of a time out of joint , which comes as much from the stray groups of soldiers who skirmish against unseen attackers in the woods or hang wearily about by the wayside waiting for battle to commence , as from the bloody crimes committed in the name of religion by Matthew Hopkins . "
Playwright Alan Bennett was particularly repulsed by Witchfinder . In his regular column in The Listener , published eight days after the film 's release , Bennett explained how he felt horror films should always be " punctuated by belly laughs " and attacked Reeves 's completely humourless movie as " the most persistently sadistic and morally rotten film I have seen . It was a degrading experience by which I mean it made me feel dirty . " Although Reeves was infuriated , his response indicated that he believed Bennett 's reaction was proof that his decision to include such extreme violence was the correct approach to the material . In his letter published in The Listener , Reeves noted : " Surely the most immoral thing in any form of entertainment is the conditioning of the audience to accept and enjoy violence ... Violence is horrible , degrading and sordid . Insofar as one is going to show it on the screen at all , it should be presented as such – and the more people it shocks into sickened recognition of these facts the better . I wish I could have witnessed Mr. Bennett frantically attempting to wash away the ' dirty ' feeling my film gave him . It would have been proof of the fact that Witchfinder General works as intended . "
AIP heads Arkoff and Nicholson had originally contributed their portion of the budget as a tax write @-@ off , but when they were screened the completed film they were astonished by its quality . Nicholson told Louis Heyward , " It is one of the best we have gotten from England . Everybody thinks this is about the best production in the Poe series for the past few years . " Arkoff noted that " Michael Reeves brought out some elements in Vincent that hadn 't been seen in a long time . Vincent was more savage in the picture . Michael really brought out the balls in him . I was surprised how terrifying Vincent was in that ... I hadn 't expected it . "
In the US , the film was not subject to any censorship at all , and was released virtually intact to AIP 's usual mix of drive @-@ ins and grindhouses . However , in an attempt to link the film with Roger Corman 's earlier Edgar Allan Poe series of films , it was retitled The Conqueror Worm . Brief prologue and epilogue narrations ( by Price ) taken from Poe 's poem were added to justify the new title . As Danny Peary noted in his Cult Movies book , the film went nearly unnoticed by critics during its US release : " The few snoozing trade reviewers who saw it treated it as just another entry in AIP 's Edgar Allan Poe series ... and gave it such dismal notices that future bookings were scarce . " Hollywood Citizen News was appalled by the film : " A disgrace to the producers and scripters , and a sad commentary on the art of filmmaking ... a film with such bestial brutality and orgiastic sadism , one wonders how it ever passed customs to be released in this country . " The trade journal Box Office noted that : " Fans of the horror film will be glad to know that Vincent Price is back to add another portrait to his gallery of arch @-@ fiends ... bathed in the most stomach @-@ churning gore imaginable ... " Variety opined that " Dwyer gives evidence of acting talent , but she and all principals are hampered by Michael Reeves 's mediocre script and ordinary direction . " Despite the lack of critical support , the movie was a modest success stateside , earning $ 1 @.@ 5 million for AIP according to Cinefantastique magazine . In his biography of Reeves , Benjamin Halligan claims the film made $ 10 million in the US .
The film 's retitling by AIP caused a minor fracas in Hong Kong . A group of British sailors had seen the movie at the base cinema under its original title and one week later unwittingly saw the movie again in a local cinema , playing under the American release title . They immediately demanded their money back and , when the manager refused , they tipped over litter bins , threw popcorn at the screen , and " almost tore the theatre apart . " The manager changed his mind and paid the sailors back for the price of the tickets , and sent a bill to AIP for the damages .
Very soon after its initial release in the spring of 1968 , several critics began championing the film in the UK and US . David Pirie , who wrote extensively and enthusiastically about the film in his 1973 book A Heritage of Horror , reviewed the film in 1971 for Time Out , commenting : " ... one of the most personal and mature statements in the history of British cinema ... The performances are generally excellent , and no film before or since has used the British countryside in quite the same way . " Danny Peary noted , " The Conqueror Worm is a stunning film in many ways , but probably Reeves 's greatest achievement is that he was able to maintain an extraordinary momentum throughout , until the film ends as it began , with a woman ( this time Sara ) screaming . " In 2000 , Derek Malcolm included Witchfinder General as part of his series The Century of Films , a list of what he considered to be the one hundred most " artistically or culturally important " movies of the 20th Century . Malcolm asserted that the film " is one of the most compulsively watchable ever made in Britain " and " transcends its genre with the sheer panache of its making . " In 2005 , J. Hoberman of the Village Voice stated that the film " ... has long been a cult item – in part because its talented 25 @-@ year @-@ old director , Michael Reeves , died of a drug overdose before [ sic ] the film 's release , but mainly because it is an extraordinarily bleak story of political evil ... Reeves shot on location and the movie has a robust autumnal quality perfectly matched by Price 's overripe performance ... it remains contemporary , and even frightening , in its evocation of cynical Puritanism and mass deception . "
In his 2007 book , Madness Unchained : A Reading of Virgil 's ' Aeneid ' , Lee Fratantuono described Witchfinder General as a modern retelling of the main themes of Virgil 's epic Aeneid , and its central image of the unrelenting nature of fury and madness and its power to corrupt essentially good heroes . Fratantuono has written that in the film Reeves " has captured exactly the point of Virgil 's great epic of madness and its horrifying conclusion . "
= = Influence = =
Writer Mark Thomas McGee noted that Witchfinder General " did fantastic business and kicked off a second wave of Edgar Allan Poe movies " produced by American International Pictures , including Gordon Hessler 's The Oblong Box starring Price ( originally scheduled to be directed by Reeves but handed over to Hessler after Reeves bowed out a week prior to production ) and Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1971 ) . Hessler 's Cry of the Banshee ( 1970 ) , which featured Witchfinder co @-@ stars Price and Hilary Dwyer , was also vaguely associated with Poe in advertisements ( " Edgar Allan Poe Probes New Depths of Terror ! " ) ; it was dismissed by Allmovie as " a rehashing of Witchfinder General . " This new Poe " series " was short @-@ lived and effectively over by 1971 .
According to AIP 's Louis Heyward , Witchfinder General " was very successful in Germany — it was the most successful of the violence pictures — it started a vogue . " " Copycat " films financed , or partially financed , by German production companies included Mark of the Devil ( 1970 ) , with Herbert Lom and Udo Kier , The Bloody Judge ( 1970 ) , directed by Jesus Franco and starring Christopher Lee , and Hexen geschändet und zu Tode gequält ( 1973 ) , released in the U.S. years later on video as Mark of the Devil Part II .
Tigon 's own The Blood on Satan 's Claw ( 1970 ) was produced " as a successor , in spirit if not in story " to Witchfinder General , and borrowed Reeves 's usage of " the usually tranquil English countryside as a place of terror . " Mark Gatiss has referred to the film as a prime example of a short @-@ lived subgenre he called " folk horror " , grouping it with Satan 's Claw and The Wicker Man .
Some critics maintain that Ken Russell 's The Devils ( 1971 ) was influenced by the commercial success of Reeves 's film , with one writer calling Russell 's movie " the apex of the ' historical ' witch @-@ persecution films started by Witchfinder General . " However , Russell has noted that he hated Reeves 's film , describing it as " one of the worst movies I have ever seen and certainly the most nauseous . "
The film has had a minor influence on heavy metal music . In 1980 , the movie inspired a band to call themselves Witchfinder General . The group broke up in 1983 . Another metal band , Cathedral , released a 1996 EP titled Hopkins ( The Witchfinder General ) , featuring a song of the same name . That song also appeared on their album , The Carnival Bizarre and the music video was included as an extra on the UK DVD release of Reeves 's film . And Electric Wizard have a song from their 2000 album Dopethrone called " I , The Witchfinder " , although its lyrics indicate it may also have been inspired by Mark of the Devil . American death doom band Acid Witch recorded a song inspired by the film , titled " Witchfynder Finder " , which was featured on their second LP , 2010 's Stoned .
The film was the inspiration for a BBC Radio 4 play Vincent Price and The Horror of The English Blood Beast by Matthew Broughton , first broadcast in March 2010 .
= = Historical accuracy = =
While some reviewers have praised the film for its ostensible " historical accuracy " , others have strongly questioned its adherence to historical fact . Dr. Malcolm Gaskill , Fellow and former Director of Studies in history at Churchill College , Cambridge , and author of Witchfinders : A 17th @-@ Century English Tragedy , critiqued the film for the Channel 4 History website , calling it " a travesty of historical truth " while acknowledging that " there is much to be said in favour of Witchfinder General – but as a film , not as history . " Based purely on its level of historical accuracy , Gaskill gave the film " 3 stars " on a scale of 0 – 10 .
Gaskill had several complaints regarding the film 's " distortions and flights of fancy " . While Hopkins and his assistant John Stearne really did torture , try and hang John Lowes , the vicar of Brandeston , Gaskill notes that other than those basic facts the film 's narrative is " almost completely fictitious . " In the movie , the fictional character of Richard Marshall pursues Hopkins relentlessly to death , but in reality the " gentry , magistrates and clergy , who undermined his work in print and at law " were in pursuit of Hopkins throughout his ( brief ) murderous career , as he was never legally sanctioned to perform his witch @-@ hunting duties . And Hopkins wasn 't axed to death , he " withered away from consumption at his Essex home in 1647 " . Vincent Price was 56 when he played Hopkins , but " the real Hopkins was in his 20s " . According to Gaskill , one of the film 's " most striking errors is its total omission of court cases : witches are simply tortured , then hanged from the nearest tree . "
= = Home video versions = =
Censorship and musical rights issues kept a complete , pristine version of Witchfinder General from being released on videotape , laserdisc or DVD for many years . Although uncensored theatrical prints have been available for archival showings in the US for several years , video releases of the title were repeatedly compromised .
The " Export Version " , which contained both the previously cut violence and alternate shots of topless nudity filmed for overseas release , was passed uncut by the BBFC in 1995 , and released on VHS by Redemption . In 2001 , a DVD was released in the UK by Metrodome consisting of two versions , the complete " Director 's Cut " containing the two minutes of previously censored violence , and the aforementioned " Export Version " , also with the violence intact but including shots of nudity added to certain sequences . In both versions , the two minutes of violence have been taken from what has been described as " a grainy VHS source . " Some critics complained that watching the film in this manner was an often " jarring " or " distracting " viewing experience . In addition , the soundtrack of the newly inserted nude shots had " brief snippets of audio repeating itself because of the timing involved in inserting the previously cut footage " .
In the US , while censorship of the film has never been a factor , the film nonetheless experienced numerous delays in appearing on home video in its originally intended form . When Orion Pictures acquired the rights to many of AIP 's titles in the 1980s , they were unable to also purchase rights to the musical soundtracks of some of the films , and added synthesizer scores by composer Kendall Schmidt in lieu of the original music . Witchfinder General was one of these " problem " titles . For years , Paul Ferris 's acclaimed full orchestral score was not available in the US on home video releases , although it was included on theatrical and syndicated television prints . The HBO videotape release from the late 1980s utilised the Orion version , which also included the nude inserts . Tim Lucas noted that the spoken soundtrack to these newly added " spicy " shots " doesn 't match it correctly . "
In 2005 , writer Steve Biodrowski reported that a " definitive version " of the film had been restored and would be released in the US on DVD by MGM @-@ UA in August of that year , as part of their Midnite Movies series . After Sony purchased the rights to the MGM film library , James Owsley ( Director of Restorations at MGM ) advised Philip Waddilove ( one of Witchfinder General 's producers ) that the date of the DVD release was postponed until October 2006 . In an interview conducted in August 2005 , Waddilove revealed that he had learned Sony had " little interest " in the film and no official announcement of any pending DVD release had ever been made . Waddilove noted that " the principal at Sony doesn 't greenlight DVDs of anything older than ten years ! ! " However , the film was indeed released under the Midnite Movies banner on 11 September 2007 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . The release includes the complete , uncut version of the film with the Ferris score intact . Price 's opening and closing narration tacked on to the AIP Conqueror Worm version , as well as the alternate nude sequences , were not available on this release , but they were included in the UK Blu @-@ ray release from Odeon Entertainment issued in June 2011 . The Blu @-@ ray utilised the same high @-@ definition transfer as the 2007 MGM DVD and was completely uncut . In 2013 , Scream Factory included the film as part of the company 's multi @-@ title Vincent Price Blu @-@ ray box set released in Fall of 2013 .
= Falkland Islands =
The Falkland Islands ( / ˈfɔːlklənd / ; Spanish : Islas Malvinas [ malˈβinas ] ) are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf . The principal islands are about 300 miles ( 483 kilometres ) east of South America 's southern Patagonian coast , at a latitude
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6 and 1959 elections , gaining seats each time but failing to defeat the long @-@ standing Labor Government . A few months after the 1959 election , Morton was deposed as Leader by now @-@ Deputy Leader Askin in July 1959 . He remained on the backbenches until Askin led the Liberal Party to its first electoral victory in May 1965 , whereupon Morton was appointed as the Minister for Local Government and Minister for Highways . He served in the cabinet , becoming prominent and controversial in his role in the reorganisation of the City of Sydney as Local Government Minister and state planning regulations , until he retired from parliament in June 1972 . He died in Mosman aged 88 in 1999 .
= = Early life and background = =
Pat Morton was born on 28 October 1910 in Lismore , New South Wales , the son of Arthur Richmond Morton and Maria Morton . Although born on the north coast of New South Wales , Morton 's family were prominent members of the Shoalhaven District on the New South Wales south coast . Morton 's grandfather , Henry Gordon Morton , born in Edinburgh , Scotland in 1828 , arrived in Australia in 1852 and was a surveyor for the Berry Estate and the first Mayor of Numbaa , the private town founded by Alexander Berry .
Henry Morton and his wife Jane Fairless had eight sons : Mark Fairles Morton , who served as Mayor and Alderman on Nowra Municipal Council and the NSW Parliament from 1901 to 1938 for Shoalhaven , Allowrie and Wollondilly ; Henry Douglas Morton , who served the NSW Parliament from 1910 to 1920 for Hastings and Macleay and as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly in 1913 ; Philip Henry Morton , who served as member for Shoalhaven from 1889 to 1898 and later as an Alderman on the Sydney City Council from 1904 to 1908 ; and Pat 's father , Alexander Richmond Morton , who , after serving as an Alderman on Nowra Municipal Council , moved with his wife to Lismore and served as an Alderman on Lismore Municipal Council .
Morton was educated at Lismore High School , which he left at the age of 14 to be employed in a law firm , but had a varied career in many different businesses . On 31 March 1937 , He married Nance Maude on 31 March 1937 and had two daughters , Patricia and Margaret . Morton moved to Mosman , New South Wales , where he was elected to the Mosman Municipal Council in December 1944 as an Alderman , rising to become Mayor in 1946 . He would remain on council until September 1951 .
= = Political career = =
As an Alderman , Morton joined the new Liberal Party of Australia , becoming a member of the Balmoral local branch and a federal councillor . Morton soon joined the NSW Branch under party Leader Vernon Treatt and stood for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly seat of Mosman at the state election on 3 May 1947 . At the election he succeeded in defeating the conservative Independent member , The Reverend Donald Macdonald , with 55 @.@ 56 % of the vote .
Treatt led the Coalition again at the 17 June 1950 election , which resulted in a hung parliament , with the Coalition gaining 12 seats and a swing of 6 @.@ 7 % for a total of 46 seats . With the Labor Party also holding 46 seats , the balance of power lay with the two re @-@ elected Independent Labor members , James Geraghty and John Seiffert , who had been expelled from the party for disloyalty during the previous parliament . Under a legalistic interpretation of the ALP rules , Seiffert was readmitted to the party and , together with the support of Geraghty , Premier James McGirr and Labor were able to stay in power . Morton was re @-@ elected with 77 @.@ 28 % . Morton also finished his term on Mosman Municipal Council in 1951 .
At the 14 February 1953 election , Morton retained his seat with 75 @.@ 59 % , The Liberals , however , suffered a total loss of ten seats and a swing against them of 7 @.@ 2 % . Reversing the gains made at the previous election , confidence in Treatt 's leadership decayed . The Liberal Party soon descended into factional in @-@ fighting , culminating in the resignation of Deputy Leader Walter Howarth on 22 July 1954 , who publicly announced it on 4 July citing that he felt that Treatt doubted his loyalty . He was replaced by Party Whip Robert Askin . The resignation split the party and sparked a leadership challenge from Morton , who criticised Treatt 's " lack of aggression " towards the Labor Government . At the party meeting on 6 July , Treatt narrowly defeated Morton with 12 votes to 10 .
With party support eroded , Treatt did not remain long as leader afterwards . On Friday 6 August 1954 , Treatt announced that he would resign as leader on 10 August . At the following party meeting , after a deadlocked vote between Askin and Morton , Askin persuaded Murray Robson to accept the Leadership of the Liberal Party as a compromise candidate . Like other senior members of the party , after having no conservative government since Alexander Mair in 1941 , Robson had no experience in government , he had little interest in policy except for Cold War anti @-@ communism , ignored majority views of his party and fellow parliamentary colleagues and further alienated party members by trying to forge a closer alliance with Michael Bruxner 's Country Party . Over a year after Robson had assumed the leadership , at a party meeting on 20 September 1955 , senior party member Ken McCaw moved that the leadership be declared vacant , citing that Robson 's leadership lacked the qualities necessary for winning the next election . The motion was carried 15 votes to 5 . Robson then moved a motion to prevent Morton , who was the only person nominated for leader , from taking the leadership . This was defeated 16 votes to 6 and Morton was elected unnopposed as leader , with Robert Askin remaining as Deputy Leader .
= = = Leadership = = =
As Leader of the New South Wales Liberal Party and Leader of the Opposition , Morton had to direct the campaign for the upcoming election in early 1956 . At the official campaign launch on 15 February , Morton began by accusing the Cahill government of losing its way and wasting public funds , while promising to invest in public works , education and health . At the election on 3 March 1956 , the Liberals gained five seats ( Coogee , Drummoyne , Georges River , Parramatta and Sutherland ) and the Country Party under Michael Bruxner regained the seat of Armidale , reducing the government 's majority from twenty to six . Morton retained Mosman with 78 @.@ 74 % . Although the Coalition had failed to win government , an official report from the Liberal Party State Council blamed the defeat on the seat redistribution , the abolition of postal voting and the strong right @-@ wing Labor support for Premier Cahill .
Morton again led the opposition to the ballot at the 21 March 1959 election , which resulted in an overall gain of three seats but the loss of Sutherland and Parramatta to Labor . After counting was finalised the Cahill Government was left with an overall majority of four seats . Many attributed the loss to the Opposition 's failure to back up its promises with actual figures , which led Premier Cahill to nickname Morton " Promising Pat " . Morton retained Mosman again with a significant 90 @.@ 16 % of the vote .
During his time as leader , Morton had refused to give up his various business interests , including as a manager of a motor accessories distributor from 1956 until 1965 and a director of Coventry Tool and Gauge Company in 1958 , among others . This led many to accuse him of not focusing on his political responsibilities , including a Sydney Morning Herald article that said called Morton a " part @-@ time " leader and stated that : " One of the points that told against Morton was his refusal to renounce or curtail his considerable business interests . In fact he increased them during the life of the last Parliament . " Morton 's leadership was further undermined when in April 1959 , Liberal backbench MP for Manly , Douglas Darby , challenged Morton for the leadership . Although Morton won the vote 22 votes to 6 , the result was interpreted as only occurring because there was no other alternative to Morton . For his last few months as Leader , confidence in his leadership did not recover .
On 14 July 1959 , three Liberal MLAs ( Geoffrey Cox , Ivan Black and Douglas Cross ) called on Morton to resign , stating that the party needed a full @-@ time leader and that Morton no longer commanded the majority support of his colleagues . Morton refused and instead called an emergency meeting on 17 July to confirm his leadership . Soon after , the two main opponents to Morton , the Member for Earlwood , Eric Willis , and Deputy Leader Robin Askin , declared that they would only take the Leadership if they were given an absolute majority of 28 votes . At the party meeting , Morton was removed as Leader by two votes . Willis then surprised many by deciding not to put his name forward for nomination , leaving Askin as the only contender . Askin was subsequently elected unanimously as leader , with Willis eventually becoming Deputy Leader . Unlike his predecessor , Robson , Morton accepted his loss well , declaring that there would be " no recriminations " and pledged loyalty to Askin .
On his deposition , a Sydney Morning Herald editorial summed up his leadership thus : " True , the margin [ of the last election ] was slender . And , true , Morton campaigned vigorously . But his punches seemed to be rather wild . He would have done better by directing his blows to a few vital points instead of trying to hit at anything in sight . In addition to losing the last election , when Labour seemed at its most vulnerable after 18 years of office , Mr Morton further disappointed his colleagues – indeed , antagonised some of them – by expanding his private business interests when he was being urged to concentrate wholly on the job of Leader of the Opposition . However , the sad truth is that the genial Mr Morton has never measured up as a sagacious , inspiring leader . "
At the 3 March 1962 election , Askin led the Coalition to another defeat to the Labor Party , now under Bob Heffron , who had become Premier following Cahill 's death in October 1959 . Morton retained his seat again with 80 @.@ 76 % . Heffron was Premier until his retirement on 30 April 1964 . He was succeeded by Jack Renshaw , whose tenure was perceived to be the last days of a party which , after almost a quarter of a century in government , was tired . At the May 1965 election , Askin led the Coalition to its first ever state electoral victory , gaining eight seats and a swing of 5 @.@ 6 % to achieve a majority of two . Askin became the first Liberal Premier . Morton was re @-@ elected with 82 @.@ 30 % .
= = = Minister of the Crown = = =
Askin then named Morton as the Minister for Local Government and Minister for Highways , being sworn in by the Governor of New South Wales , Sir Eric Woodward at Government House , Sydney on 13 May 1965 . As Minister , Morton was involved in the first dismissal of Warringah Shire Council in April 1967 which was triggered by the gaoling of two councillors for bribery . The Councillors involved , Dennis Thomas and George Knight , were prosecuted under the Secret Commissions Prohibition Act 1919 ( NSW ) for receiving bribes from a development company to influence planning and development decisions , and both received gaol sentences . From 1967 to 1968 he appointed several public servants as Administrators to serve until a new council could be elected .
As a Minister of the Crown , Morton oversaw the rapid escalation of building development in inner @-@ city Sydney and the central business district , which followed in the wake of his controversial 1967 abolition of Sydney City Council and a redistribution of municipal electoral boundaries that was aimed at reducing the power of the rival Australian Labor Party . On its abolition , Morton commented that it was " essential for Sydney 's progress " and replaced the City Council with a Commission , headed by his predecessor , Vernon Treatt . At the 24 February 1968 election , Askin increased his majority by six seats . Morton retained his seat with 73 @.@ 55 % .
Morton soon gained a reputation as a strong advocate for allowing free enterprise and business to take precedence over planning controls and government regulation . His time as Minister was marked by increasing strains on state infrastructure and his pro @-@ development stance was largely attributed as an attempt to alleviate these problems . Despite this , Morton and his State Planning Authority were continuously criticised for not being totally accountable to the public , particularly as the pro @-@ business Sydney Commissioners worked side @-@ by @-@ side with the Planning authority to increase developments in the Sydney CBD to their highest levels ever , embodied by the construction of the MLC Centre , the demolition of the Theatre Royal , Sydney and the Australia Hotel . Among the most controversial schemes planned by his government were also a massive freeway system that was planned to be driven through the hearts of historic inner @-@ city suburbs including Glebe and Newtown and an equally ambitious scheme of ' slum clearance ' that would have brought about the wholescale destruction of the historic areas of Woolloomooloo and The Rocks . This eventually culminated in the 1970s Green ban movement led by Unions Leader Jack Mundey , to protect the architectural heritage of Sydney .
At the 13 February 1971 election , Askin 's majority was reduced by four seats to the Labor Party under Pat Hills . Morton retained his seat , despite a significant reduction in his majority to 62 @.@ 68 % . Morton stayed in office for another year when , on 16 June 1972 he retired from politics . At the time of his departure it had been rumoured that he had been threatening to dismiss Blacktown City Council if they did not stop blocking a $ 200 million development in Mount Druitt .
= = Retirement = =
On 18 July 1972 , Queen Elizabeth II granted him retention of the title " The Honourable " for life , for having served as a Minister of the Crown and on the Executive Council of New South Wales . Morton 's mid @-@ term retirement caused a by @-@ election in his seat of Mosman . At the 29 July 1972 by @-@ election he was succeeded by Liberal candidate David Arblaster with 51 % of the primary vote . On his retirement , Morton was appointed as a Trustee of the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales , becoming chairman in 1976 . He died on 18 January 1999 at his Mosman home , survived by his eldest daughter , Patricia . His youngest daughter Margaret having died of melanoma in 1987 . His funeral was held at St Luke 's Anglican Church , Mosman , on 22 January 1999 .
= Tropical Storm Cristobal ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Cristobal was a relatively weak tropical cyclone that meandered in the western Atlantic Ocean prior to being absorbed into a frontal zone . The third named storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season , Cristobal developed on August 5 near the coast of South Carolina from the same trough that spawned Tropical Storm Bertha . The storm tracked slowly southeastward in the early portion of its duration , and initially remained disorganized . Cristobal attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , and lost the characteristics of a tropical cyclone on August 8 . The remnants brought moderate precipitation to Bermuda , and in combination with a high pressure system the storm caused three drownings on Long Island from rip currents .
= = Meteorological history = =
A trough extended from the northern Gulf of Mexico to the western Atlantic Ocean in early August . The trough remained nearly stationary , spawning Tropical Storm Bertha in the Gulf of Mexico and a tropical disturbance off the coast of South Carolina . The weak low pressure area off South Carolina drifted southward , with its associated deep convection increasing in organization on August 4 . By 1800 UTC on August 5 , the system had acquired sufficient organization to be classified as Tropical Depression Three , while located about 175 miles ( 280 km / h ) east @-@ southeast of Charleston , South Carolina .
Upon becoming a tropical depression , the cyclone maintained outer rainbands and fair outflow . It tracked southeastward around the northeastern periphery of an anticyclone over Florida . By August 6 , the convection had diminished as outflow became restricted due to northeasterly wind shear ; with a relatively dry environment , most of the convection was confined to the southern semicircle of the depression . Despite the circulation becoming elongated in the southwesterly flow of a southward moving cold front , a Hurricane Hunters flight late on August 6 reported that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Cristobal about 315 miles ( 505 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida .
Tropical Storm Cristobal initially continued tracking southeastward , with its circulation reforming closer to the thunderstorms during each increase in convection . On August 7 the storm turned eastward , due to the influence of a large approaching mid to upper @-@ level frontal zone . As the convection organized further , Cristobal intensified somewhat and attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . On August 8 , increased dry air weakened the convection and caused Cristobal to accelerate east @-@ northeastward . The low @-@ level circulation interacted with the approaching frontal zone , and by 0000 UTC on August 9 Tropical Storm Cristobal was absorbed by the cold front about 350 miles ( 560 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The remnants continued northeastward , passing near Newfoundland on August 10 before weakening near Greenland on August 14 .
= = Impact = =
As a tropical cyclone , Cristobal had minimal effect to any land masses . Its remnants brought unsettled conditions to Bermuda , including a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) wind gust at the Bermuda International Airport . The combination of moisture from Cristobal and a cold front produced 2 @.@ 78 inches ( 71 mm ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . The interaction between the remnants of Cristobal and a high pressure system over the Mid @-@ Atlantic States produced rip currents and 4 foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) waves along the south shore of Long Island , New York ; three people drowned from the rip currents . Two ships recorded tropical storm force winds in association with the storm ; the vessel with the sign WUQL reported sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) from the west @-@ southwest on August 7 .
= Too Much Too Soon ( album ) =
Too Much Too Soon is the second studio album by American hard rock band the New York Dolls , released on May 10 , 1974 , by Mercury Records . The group was dissatisfied with the sound of their 1973 self @-@ titled debut album , so frontman David Johansen enlisted veteran producer Shadow Morton for Too Much Too Soon . Morton had become disenchanted by the music industry , but was motivated by the band 's energy and agreed to work with them as a challenge . They recorded the album at A & R Studios in New York City .
Although the New York Dolls shared an affinity for Morton , they produced little original material with him . To complete Too Much Too Soon , they covered older songs and re @-@ recorded their past demos . Johansen impersonated different characters on some of the novelty covers , while Morton incorporated many studio sound effects and female backing vocals in his production . For the album , lead guitarist Johnny Thunders wrote and recorded " Chatterbox " , his first lead vocal track .
Too Much Too Soon was released to poor sales and only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . After a problem @-@ ridden national tour , the New York Dolls were dropped by Mercury and disbanded in 1975 . The album received positive reviews from most critics , who felt Morton 's production highlighted the group 's raw sound and made it a better record than their first . Like their debut album , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult records in rock music and has since been viewed by music journalists as a predecessor to punk rock .
= = Background = =
After being signed by Mercury Records , the New York Dolls released their self @-@ titled debut album in 1973 to poor sales . Although it was praised by critics , the band members were not satisfied with producer Todd Rundgren 's sound for the album and had disagreements with him before recording Too Much Too Soon . Songwriting and production partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were originally enlisted to produce their second album , while the band 's guitarist Johnny Thunders wanted to produce it himself . However , Leiber and Stoller withdrew shortly before recording was to begin . The group held a single session with Mercury A & R executive Paul Nelson at Media Sound Recording Studios , where they recorded 14 songs , most of which were cover songs .
At the recommendation of Leiber and Stoller , frontman David Johansen asked veteran producer Shadow Morton to work on Too Much Too Soon . Morton was best known for his work with the Shangri @-@ Las , of whom the New York Dolls were fans , and had also been Johansen 's original choice to produce their debut album . Morton had become disenchanted with the music industry and wanted to challenge himself by producing the band 's second album : " The Dolls had energy , sort of a disciplined weirdness . I took them into the room as a challenge . I was bored with the music and the business . The Dolls can certainly snap you out of boredom . "
= = Recording and production = =
With Morton , the New York Dolls recorded Too Much Too Soon in 1974 at A & R Studios in New York City . The album was later mastered at Sterling Sound and Masterdisk . During the sessions , Morton had Johansen record his vocals several times and incorporated sound effects such as gongs , gunshots , and feminine choruses . In a report on the album 's progress for Melody Maker , journalist Lenny Kaye wrote that they were taking more time than they had on their first record , " bringing in occasional strings and horns , following Shadow 's advice not ' to settle ' . " Morton and the band shared an affinity for each other , as he found the group 's energy in the studio refreshing , while Johansen was fond of Morton and the " looser " feel he provided for their music : " That man is completely unpretentious . He doesn 't think he ever did a marvellous thing in his life . "
The New York Dolls and Morton produced little original material together and had to record cover songs and re @-@ recorded some of the band 's earlier demos to complete Too Much Too Soon ; " Babylon " , " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , " It 's Too Late " , and " Human Being " had been recorded by the band in March 1973 as demos for Mercury before the label signed them . They had also recorded demos of two songs written by guitarist Sylvain Sylvain , " Teenage News " and " Too Much Too Soon " , before working with Morton , but neither were considered for the album . Sylvain said he confronted Morton about this decision , recalling he had been in a rush : " He was too quick with me and said that he 'd been told only to listen to David Johansen and Johnny Thunders . He didn 't want to tell me who had told him that but obviously it was the managers . I just walked out , it was all driving me nuts . "
According to journalist Tony Fletcher , Morton would have been more productive on Too Much Too Soon had it not been for his alcoholism and the lifestyles of the band members — bassist Arthur Kane was also an alcoholic , while Thunders and drummer Jerry Nolan had heroin addictions . Robert Christgau believed the New York Dolls relied more on cover songs for the album because , " like so many cocky songwriters , David Johansen overloaded his debut with originals and then found that record promotion wasn 't a life activity that inspired new ones . " English writer Clinton Heylin said their inability to sell enough records before may have discouraged them from writing original songs .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Billboard magazine , Too Much Too Soon was another hard rock record by the New York Dolls but with a more " sophisticated " production . Music journalist Nina Antonia wrote that because of the group 's " untamable wildness " , the record still sounded eccentric despite attempts by Morton to " polish " their sound , such as by subduing their otherwise unrefined guitar playing . The album featured covers of the Cadets ' 1956 hit " Stranded in the Jungle " , Archie Bell 's 1969 hit " There 's Gonna Be a Showdown " , and Sonny Boy Williamson 's " Don 't Start Me Talkin ' " . On the novelty cover songs , Johansen impersonated characters such as the high @-@ stepper in " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " and Charlie Chan in " Bad Detective " , which has lyrics describing a nonsensical narrative set in China . On " Stranded in the Jungle " , he alternated between a comical reject and a lecherous man at lover 's lane . Journalist Ellen Willis remarked that , like the band 's 1973 song " Personality Crisis " , " Stranded in the Jungle " suggested a theme of " clashing cultures and the dilemma of preserving one 's uniqueness while reaching out to others " .
For " Babylon " , Johansen wrote the lyrics as a tribute to the New York Dolls ' following from outside New York City : " [ The song ] is about people who live in Babylon , Long Island , New York , who go into the city every night dressed to kill . These people have to get home before sun @-@ up , you know , like vampires that can 't get caught by the sun . " By contrast , Spin magazine 's Eric Weisbard and Craig Marks interpreted " Babylon " as a reference to the Biblical city of the same name because of how the song portrayed " the symbol of decadence as a sanctuary " . The song 's subject leaves Babylon for Manhattan , where she is then hired to work in a massage parlour .
" It 's Too Late " was a commentary on nostalgic fashions and made reference to actress Diana Dors in a lyric rebuking drug use . According to Antonia , the song criticized indifferent , decadent people who cannot , as Johansen sang , " parlez New York français " . On " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " , he scolded those who abuse love , wanting to " kick it on the floor " and " beat it like a scatter rug " . " Puss ' n ' Boots " was titled after an illustrated , podoerotic magazine sold in adult book stores . Johansen said the song was about shoe fetishism , " or as Arthur [ Kane ] observed , it 's about ' the woofers in relationship with the woofee ' . " Its lyrics depicted adversities faced by the protagonist , " Little Rhinestone Target " , as he tried to change his name in pursuit of his shoe fetish before the music ended with a gunshot , a sound effect inspired by the Olympics ' 1958 song " Western Movies " . Willis interpreted a feminist subtext in the song , citing the lyrics " sometimes you gotta get away someway / and now you 're walkin ' just like you 're ten feet tall ... I hope you don 't get shot for tryin ' . "
" Chatterbox " was written and sung by Thunders , whom Willis felt " uses his voice as a wailing instrument " similarly to rock singer Robert Plant . The song was Thunders 's first time singing lead and featured vocals Weisbard and Marks said were delivered in a quavering but proud New York accent . His lyrics described the narrator 's growing frustration over a crossed @-@ wire phone connection with a female subject . On " Human Being " , an ode to self @-@ respect and personal liberty , Thunders introduced his guitar playing with a roughly performed variation on Bill Doggett 's 1956 song " Honky Tonk " . Johansen addressed critics of the band in the song , telling them if they found him objectionable they should instead find themselves " a saint " , " a boy who 's gonna be what I ain 't " , and a " plastic doll with a fresh coast of paint who 's gonna sit through the madness and always act so quaint " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Too Much Too Soon was titled after the biography of the same name on actress Diana Barrymore . According to music journalist Jon Savage , the title was " more than applicable to the Dolls themselves " because of alcoholism and other issues among the band members , including Thunders 's heroin use and Nolan 's contraction of hepatitis . A dedication to Barrymore was printed in the album 's gatefold LP . For its front cover , the group eschewed the drag image that their first album had presented and they had developed a reputation for in favor of a fake concert shot . During the shoot , Thunders held a doll in his arm as if to strike it against his guitar to add shock value .
Released on May 10 , 1974 , Too Much Too Soon was another commercial failure for the New York Dolls , as it only charted at number 167 on the Billboard 200 . It performed well below Mercury 's expectations and sold less than 100 @,@ 000 copies . Two double A @-@ sided , 7 " singles were released to promote the album — " Stranded in the Jungle " / " Who Are the Mystery Girls ? " in July and " ( There 's Gonna Be A ) Showdown " / " Puss ' n ' Boots " in September 1974 — but neither charted . According to Antonia , the selected singles demonstrated how " the Dolls were in need of a hit single and their current producer wanted to see them attain it " by accommodating radio audiences with toned @-@ down studio versions of songs the band had performed more rowdily in concert . Joe Gross wrote in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) that the band 's attempt to garner more airplay by enlisting Morton did not work because , " with a slicker sound , background choruses , and cleaner riffs , the Dolls just sounded skankier " .
When Too Much Too Soon was released in Europe in July , the New York Dolls performed at the Buxton Festival in Derbyshire and the Rock Prom Festival at Olympia in London . They also embarked on their second tour of the United States , which lasted only a few months . It was marred by cancelled shows and conflicts between the band members stemming from their escalating addictions to alcohol and other drugs . Because of their alcoholism , they failed to set up a recording session for a scheduled third album after the tour had ended , and by 1975 , they were dropped by Mercury and disbanded .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Too Much Too Soon received positive reviews from critics . In a review of the album for Rolling Stone , Dave Marsh hailed the New York Dolls as the leading hard rock band in the US and noted what he felt was Nolan 's competent drumming , Johansen 's ability to add depth to his characters , and Thunders 's innovative guitar playing . Marsh especially praised his playing on " Chatterbox " , calling it " a classic " , and believed even the most brazen songs sounded successful because Morton 's production highlighted the group 's more unrefined musical qualities . Writing for Creem magazine , Christgau said the polished sound reproduction preserved the band 's raw qualities , especially in the case of Johansen 's vocals and Nolan 's drumming , and remarked that Rundgren " should be ashamed — Shadow Morton has gotten more out of the Dolls than they can give us live on any but their best nights . " Robert Hilburn from the Los Angeles Times felt Too Much Too Soon was a better @-@ produced album that proved the band to be " the real thing " , calling it the best record of derisive punk rock since Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) by the Rolling Stones . In The New Yorker , Ellen Willis wrote that she learned to appreciate Too Much Too Soon more than New York Dolls after seeing the band perform songs from the former album in concert , particularly " Human Being " and " Puss ' n ' Boots " , while Ron Ross from Phonograph Record magazine said the group 's " easy going ironic sensibility " was expressed " far more amusingly and accessibly " here than on their debut album .
Some reviewers were critical of Too Much Too Soon for what they felt was a poorly recorded and overproduced sound . In a negative review for NME , Nick Kent said it sounded cluttered and " shot through with unfulfilled potential " , while Circus magazine panned the record as " cut after cut of annoying screeching " . It was nonetheless voted the tenth best album of 1974 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Willis , one of the critics polled , listed it as her fifth favorite record of the year . Christgau , the poll 's creator and supervisor , named it third best , and in a decade @-@ end list for The Village Voice , he named it the fourth best album of the 1970s . Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin included it in his list of favorite records from the decade and wrote that Morton 's production made it slightly better than New York Dolls .
Along with New York Dolls , Too Much Too Soon became one of the most popular cult albums in rock music . According to AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine , the group predated punk rock with their " gleeful sleaziness and reckless sound " on the record , which he said was embellished by Morton 's production details and exemplified by " musically visceral and dangerous " songs such as " Human Being " . In 1986 , Sounds magazine ranked it sixtieth on its list of the 100 best albums of all time . After it was reissued by Mercury in 1987 , Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that Morton 's production highlighted the New York Dolls ' sense of humor and was rendered vividly by the CD remaster . However , he felt Too Much Too Soon was marred by inconsistent material and rated it lower than their first record . In a review of the reissue , Don Waller of the Los Angeles Times said the underappreciated album was just as much an " instant classic " as New York Dolls .
In 2005 , Too Much Too Soon was remastered and reissued by Hip @-@ O Select and Mercury , after which Christgau wrote in Blender that both it and New York Dolls make up " a priceless proto @-@ punk legacy " . He wrote that although Johansen 's best original songs are on the first record , Too Much Too Soon has consistent hooks , clever lyrics , and exceptional cover songs , including " two R & B novelties whose theatrical potential was barely noticed until the Dolls penetrated their holy essence " . That year , rock journalist Toby Creswell named " Babylon " as one of the greatest songs of all time in his book 1001 Songs . In the Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 2006 ) , Colin Larkin felt the band 's issues with alcohol and other drugs affected their performance on the record , which he deemed " a charismatic collection of punk / glam @-@ rock anthems , typically delivered with ' wasted ' cool " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = New York Dolls = = =
David Johansen – vocals , gong
Arthur " Killer " Kane – bass
Jerry Nolan – drums , percussion
Sylvain Sylvain – guitar , piano , vocals
Johnny Thunders – guitar , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Album Graphics – graphic supervision
Dennis Druzbik – engineering
Bob Gruen – photography
Gilbert Kong – mastering
Hans G. Lehmann – photography
Pieter Mazel – photography
Shadow Morton – production
Paul Nelson – A & R
Dixon Van Winkle – engineering
= = Release history = =
Information is adapted from Nina Antonia 's Too Much Too Soon : The New York Dolls ( 2006 ) .
= Japanese cruiser Iwate =
Iwate ( 磐手 ) was the second and last Izumo @-@ class armored cruiser built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was built in Britain . She participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . The ship was moderately damaged during the Battle of Port Arthur , the Battle off Ulsan , and the Battle of Tsushima . Iwate played a minor role in World War I and began the first of her many training cruises for naval cadets in 1916 , a task that would last until the end of 1939 . The ship continued to conduct training in home waters throughout the Pacific War . Iwate was sunk by American carrier aircraft during the attack on Kure in July 1945 . Her wreck was refloated and scrapped in 1946 – 47 .
= = Background and description = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from British shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , Iwate and her half @-@ sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
The ship was 132 @.@ 28 meters ( 434 ft 0 in ) long overall and 121 @.@ 92 meters ( 400 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 94 meters ( 68 ft 8 in ) and had an average draft of 7 @.@ 21 meters ( 23 ft 8 in ) . Iwate displaced 9 @,@ 423 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 274 long tons ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 235 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 073 long tons ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 0 @.@ 73 meters ( 2 ft 5 in ) . Her crew consisted of 672 officers and enlisted men .
Iwate had two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 20 @.@ 75 knots ( 38 @.@ 43 km / h ; 23 @.@ 88 mph ) and reached 22 @.@ 3 knots ( 41 @.@ 3 km / h ; 25 @.@ 7 mph ) during her sea trials from 15 @,@ 739 ihp ( 11 @,@ 737 kW ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 527 long tons ( 1 @,@ 551 t ) of coal and could steam for 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of 14 Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Iwate was also equipped with a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The ship was equipped with four submerged 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside .
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences . The waterline belt of Krupp cemented armor ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) amidships to 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . It had a height of 2 @.@ 13 meters ( 7 ft 0 in ) , of which 1 @.@ 33 meters ( 4 ft 4 in ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 53 @.@ 31 meters ( 174 ft 11 in ) from the forward to the rear barbette . The Izumo class had oblique 127 mm armored bulkheads that closed off the ends of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 6 inches thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The deck was 63 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
The contract for Iwate , named after the eponymous prefecture , was signed on 19 July 1898 with Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was laid down at their shipyard in Elswick on 11 November 1898 and launched on 29 March 1900 . She was completed on 18 March 1901 and departed for Japan the following day under the command of Captain Yamada Hikohachi , who had been appointed to supervise her construction and bring her back to Japan . Iwate arrived in Yokosuka on 17 May and Yamada was relieved by Captain Taketomi Kunikane on 6 July .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Iwate was the flagship of Rear Admiral Misu Sotarō , commander of the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered some 150 , while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged . Iwate had , in fact , been considerably damaged in the engagement .
In early March , Kamimura was tasked to take the reinforced 2nd Division north and make a diversion off Vladivostok . While scouting for Russian ships in the area , the Japanese cruisers bombarded the harbor and defenses of Vladivostok on 6 March to little effect . Upon their return to Japan a few days later , the 2nd Division was ordered to escort the transports ferrying the Imperial Guards Division to Korea and then to join the ships blockading Port Arthur . Kamimura was ordered north in mid @-@ April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen , to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron . The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th .
The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June due to heavy rain and fog . The Russians sortied again on 30 June and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima . The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness . Jessen 's ships sortied again on 17 July headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea . The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan . The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki , Kyūshū , fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur . Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th . The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th ; later that day he received word that Jessen 's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His three armored cruisers , Rossia , Gromoboi , and Rurik , had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . By dawn he had reached Tsushima , but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered Kamimura 's squadron , which consisted of four modern armored cruisers , Izumo , Tokiwa , Azuma , and Iwate . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . At this time an eight @-@ inch shell struck the roof of Iwate 's starboard forward upper six @-@ inch casemate and ignited the ready @-@ use ammunition . The fire killed 40 and wounded 24 more and knocked out the six @-@ inch gun in that casemate , as well as those below and aft of it . In addition , the 12 @-@ pounder above it was rendered inoperable . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs . Iwate was the most seriously damaged Japanese ship and suffered a total of 40 killed and 37 wounded .
In mid @-@ September , Tokiwa and Iwate were transferred to the 1st Division . In early December the cruiser was sent home to refit . In mid @-@ February , she was guarding the Tsugaru Strait and remained there through mid @-@ April .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May , having sailed from the Baltic Sea , they were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning , but visibility was limited and radio reception poor . The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11 : 30 . Kamimura closed to about a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō 's battleships . Iwate , now the flagship of Rear Admiral Shimamura Hayao , was last in the 2nd Division when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14 : 10 and , like most of the ships in the division , engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14 : 50 and sank 20 minutes later . The cruiser also fired upon the battleship Imperator Nikolai I before 14 : 50 . The protected cruiser Zhemchug attempted to make a torpedo attack at about 15 : 06 , but was driven off by fire from Iwate and the armored cruisers Kasuga and Nisshin . The battleship Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15 : 35 at a range of about 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . All of Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes or so with Azuma and the armored cruiser Yakumo also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect .
After 17 : 30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers , leaving Tōgō 's battleships to their own devices . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō . His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18 : 30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8000 – 9000 meters . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19 : 30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20 : 08 as night was falling . The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10 : 30 , staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range .
In the meantime , the coast defense ship Admiral Ushakov had fallen well behind Nebogatov 's ships and was spotted by the protected cruiser Chiyoda early in the morning , but the Japanese were more intent on locating the main body of the Russian fleet than attacking a single isolated ship . Admiral Ushakov was then spotted at 14 : 10 , well after Nebogatov 's surrender , by Shimamura who received permission to pursue her with Iwate and Yakumo . They caught up with the Russian ship at 17 : 00 and demanded her surrender . Admiral Ushakov attempted to close the range to bring the Japanese cruisers within range of her guns , but they were fast enough to keep the range open and the Russian ship never hit either one . After about half an hour , Admiral Ushakov was listing heavily enough that her guns could not elevate enough to bear and her commander ordered his crew to abandon ship and the scuttling charges detonated . The ship sank in three minutes and 12 officers and 327 crewmen were rescued by the Japanese . Between them , Yakumo and Iwate fired 89 eight- and 278 six @-@ inch shells during the engagement . Iwate was struck 17 times , over the course of the entire battle , including hits that burst in the water alongside . She was , however , only lightly damaged by two hits that caused two compartments on the lower deck to flood . These hits were made by two 12 @-@ inch , three 8 @-@ inch , two 6 @-@ inch , one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , five 75 mm ( 3 in ) , and four unidentified shells .
As the IJN was preparing to invade Sakhalin Island in early July , Kamimura 's 2nd Division , now reduced to Iwate , Izumo , and Tokiwa , was tasked to defend the Korea Strait before it escorted troops that made an amphibious landing in northeastern Korea . In mid @-@ August , the division covered the landing at Chongjin , closer to the Russian border . After the war , she was briefly commanded by Captain Yamashita Gentaro from 2 February to 22 November 1906 before he was relieved by Captain Arima Ryokitsu .
= = = Subsequent service = = =
The ship participated in the early stages of the Battle of Tsingtao before returning to Sasebo on 2 October 1914 . The following month she was assigned to the First South Seas Squadron , based at Fiji and later at the Marquesas Islands . On 1 September 1915 , Iwate was assigned to the Training Squadron where she conducted long @-@ distance oceanic navigation and officer training for cadets in the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy . She began the first of her 16 training cruises on 20 April 1916 , together with Azuma , and visited Australia and Southeast Asia before returning home on 22 August . The ship was relieved of her assignment the next month , but rejoined the Training Squadron a year later in preparation for her next training cruise . Iwate departed on 2 March 1918 , bound for Central America , Hawaii and the South Sea Islands , and returned on 6 July .
Two years later , the ship began her next training cruise on 21 August 1920 , visiting South America and the South Sea Islands , before returning on 4 April 1921 . On 1 September , she was re @-@ designated as a 1st @-@ class coast @-@ defense ship . On 26 June 1922 , Iwate , accompanied by Izumo and Yakumo , began a circumnavigation of the world that took them to Hawaii , Los Angeles , California , through the Panama Canal to Rio de Janeiro , where the cadets viewed the Independence Centenary International Exposition commemorating Brazilian independence . The ships then visited Buenos Aires , Argentina and Durban , South Africa before heading home via the Indian Ocean , where they arrived on 8 February 1923 .
In 1924 , four of Iwate 's 12 @-@ pounder guns were removed , as were all of her QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder guns , and a single 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun was added . Refitted again in 1931 , her torpedo tubes were removed as were all of her main deck 6 @-@ inch guns and their casemates plated over ; she now carried only two 12 @-@ pounders , although she now had three 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type AA guns . In addition her boilers were replaced by six Yarrow boilers with an output of only 7 @,@ 000 ihp ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) which reduced her top speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . She now carried 1 @,@ 435 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 412 long tons ) of coal and 329 metric tons ( 324 long tons ) of fuel oil . Her crew now numbered 726 officers and enlisted men .
The ship continued to make training cruises , usually at two @-@ year intervals , for the rest of the decade that took her to the East Coast of North America and the Mediterranean Sea among other places . One of her cadets on the 1925 – 26 cruise was Prince Hironobu Fushimi . In December 1928 , the ship escorted Emperor Hirohito during an Imperial fleet review in Yokohama harbor . From 1932 the training voyages became annual events , with the exception of 1935 , until they ceased at the end of 1939 .
Iwate was assigned to the 12th Squadron of the 3rd Support Fleet from 1 February 1940 . Despite her antiquated age , she was briefly re @-@ classified as a 1st @-@ class cruiser on 1 July 1942 before she was reclassified as a training ship in 1943 . On 19 March 1945 , Iwate was attacked by American carrier aircraft , killing one crewman , although they failed to inflict any significant damage . Shortly afterwards , her 8 @-@ inch guns were replaced by four 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in two twin mounts and four of her remaining 6 @-@ inch guns were removed . Her light anti @-@ aircraft armament was significantly reinforced by the addition of nine license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in one triple , two twin , and two single @-@ gun mounts and two 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in single mounts .
The ship was bombed during the American aerial attack on Kure on 24 July 1945 . While not hit by any bombs , the three near misses sprang the ship 's seams and the resulting flooding caused her to sink in shallow water at coordinates 34 ° 14 ′ N 132 ° 30 ′ E the following day . She was removed from the navy list on 30 November and her hulk was raised and scrapped in 1946 – 47 by the Harima Dock Company .
= Smederevo Fortress =
The Smederevo Fortress ( Serbian : Cмeдepeвcκa твpђaвa , Smederevska tvrđava ) is a medieval fortified city in Smederevo , Serbia , which was temporary capital of Serbia in the Middle Ages . It was built between 1427 and 1430 on the order of Despot Đurađ Branković , the ruler of the Serbian Despotate . It was further fortified by the Ottoman Empire , that had taken the city , in the end of the century .
The fortress withstood several sieges by Ottomans and Serbs , which it survived relatively unscathed . It was not until World War II that it was heavily damaged , by explosions and bombing . As of 2009 it is in the midst of extensive restoration and conservation work , despite which the fortress remains " one of the rare preserved courts of medieval Serbian rulers . "
Smederevo Fortress was declared a national Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1979 . In 2010 , the fortress was placed on the tentative list for possible nomination as a World Heritage Site ( UNESCO ) .
= = Location = =
Smederevo Fortress , 45 kilometers southeast of Belgrade , covers 11 @.@ 3 hectares in the center of the modern @-@ day city of Smederevo . It is strategically located on the right bank of the Danube river on the triangular plain formed by the confluence of the Danube and Jezava rivers , only 72 meters above sea level . This location allowed the Serbian capital to remain near the Christian Kingdom of Hungary , while also satisfying Sultan Murad II of the Ottoman Empire by eliminating the uncontrolled passage of the Hungarians into the Morava valley .
The fortress ' position connecting the Balkans and Central Europe has made it an important religious and commercial center for centuries , now aided by being on the Pan @-@ European X corridor . The Danube also connects it to many other historic sites , most notably Belgrade and its suburb of Vinča , Novi Sad , Golubac fortress , Lepenski Vir and Viminacium .
= = History = =
Amidst the turbulence of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the early 15th century , the region 's Christian rulers lost several battles , such as the Battle of Kosovo and the siege of Veliko Tarnovo . Despot Stefan Lazarević had to maintain the Serbian Despotate in a delicate balance between the Ottomans and Hungarians . Around 1403 , he accepted the Hungarian vassalage from King Sigismund and established the new capital in Belgrade , which was ceded to him as an award . After Stefan 's death in 1426 , Đurađ Branković , Stefan 's nephew and successor , had to return Belgrade to the Hungarians . To compensate for this loss , Đurađ decided to build a new capital , and the choice fell to Smederevo .
Smederevo , which had no prior settlement , was chosen for several reasons . In 1428 , during the Ottoman Empire 's war with Venice , the Hungarians and Ottomans agreed to recognize Branković as an independent ruler of Serbia , thereby turning it into a buffer state . A contract also established Ottoman overlordship of Serbia , in conjunction with remaining a Hungarian vassal . Between the longer status with Hungary and religious differences with the Ottomans ( Hungary and Serbia were Christian , as compared to the Muslim Turks ) , it was preferred that the capital be closer to Hungary than the Ottoman Empire . Smederevo 's location on the Danube , between Belgrade and Golubac , provided easy access to other points along the river . It also allowed the control of Danube traffic , including blocking Hungarian entry into the Morava valley , which satisfied the Turks .
In the fall of 1428 , construction of the capital began . In 1430 , the first part of the fortress , including a palace and enough other buildings to form an inner city , was completed . Work on a fortified suburb and additional fortifications continued until 1439 .
On April 20 , 1434 , Đurađ Branković 's youngest daughter Katarina and Ulrich II of Celje were wed in the new fortress . This marriage stressed the friendly relations the Despot had with the Ottoman Porte , although Ulrich 's kinship with the Queen of Hungary implied an increased Serbo @-@ Hungarian alliance . As a result , Vizier Mehmet Saridže @-@ pasha arrived in Smederevo in mid @-@ 1434 with a message from Edirne . It stated that Serbia 's safety from the Ottoman Empire could only be guaranteed through the marriage of Branković 's older daughter to Sultan Murad II . After much deliberation , the council convoked at the palace conceded , and arrangements were made for Mara to be engaged to the Sultan . That autumn , Murad sent several of his " most famous viziers " to retrieve his fiancée .
On August 14 , 1435 , a formal contract of " brotherhood and friendship " between Serbia and the Republic of Venice was signed in Smederevo 's audience hall . This contract resulted in Đurađ and his sons being counted as Venetian citizens . In early June 1439 , the peace with the Ottomans , which had been gained through Mara 's marriage to the Sultan , was broken . Led by Murad II , 130 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers occupied the hills around Smederevo . Branković rushed to Hungary for help , leaving his son Grgur in command . Help was not forthcoming , but Smederevo withstood the attack , even when Murad brought in cannons .
Nearly three months later , on August 18 , 1439 , hunger forced the Serbs to surrender . Princes Grgur and Stefan were sent to Anatolia and blinded , despite the pleas of their sister , now Sultana Mara . Five years later , however , Smederevo , Grgur , and Stefan returned to Branković through the Peace of Szeged .
Around the beginning of 1449 , Branković imprisoned Hungarian regent John Hunyadi in the dungeons of the fortress until he was ransomed by his countrymen . In 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II and Isak @-@ bey Arbanazović led another attack on Smederevo as part of a devastating raid on Serbia . The Turks took 50 @,@ 000 men , women and children during that raid , but Smederevo was well @-@ led by Thomas Kantakouzenos . Despite having only 6 @,@ 000 men , compared to the Ottomans ' 20 @,@ 000 , the city withstood . Mehmed the Conqueror besieged Smederevo for the second time and the fortress was besieged by the Ottomans for the third time in 1456 , being defended by Serbian forces . In 1459 , Smederevo was captured by the Ottomans , leading to the end of the medieval Serbian state .
During World War II , German forces used the fortress for ammunition storage . On June 5 , 1941 , the ammunition exploded , blasting through the entirety of Smederevo and reaching settlements as far as 10 kilometers away . Much of the southern wall of the fortress was destroyed , the nearby railway station , packed with people , was blown away , and most of the buildings in the city were turned into debris . Around 2 @,@ 500 people died in the explosion , and every other inhabitant was injured or wounded ( approximately 5 @,@ 500 ) . Bombing by the Allies in 1944 caused further damage .
= = = Current and future use = = =
The fortress is currently used as a city park , and occasionally hosts festivals , concerts , fairs , and other cultural events . A stage has been built in the inner city . To the southeast , the previously open space along the Jezava now has a harbor and a marina . There are also discussions underway to determine compatible future , modernized uses , and to develop projects to restore and rehabilitate the fortress .
= = Cultural and historical significance = =
Smederevo Fortress has been described as " one of the most striking and monumental pieces of architecture surviving from medieval Serbia " , and " the witness of Serbian creative force . " It is an accurate display of traditional medieval defensive architecture and has remained well preserved , suffering no major deterioration until World War II . The fortress and surrounding area have accumulated evidence of the civilizations that developed throughout history , mainly between the 15th and 20th centuries , providing a direct testimony for the progress of the medieval Serbian state and corresponding Orthodox Church .
The fortress was built by Đurađ Branković as the new capital of Serbia . During construction , Branković 's wife Jerina was seen speaking with the foreign overseers — her brother George Palaiologos Kantakouzenos and his men — which resulted in her being commonly associated with the project . Among the workers , this association , coupled with required long @-@ term labor and high taxes , gained her the nickname Prokleta Jerina ( Damned Jerina ) .
The amount of effort exerted also produced a variety of exaggerations and stories , such as the epic poem " Starina Novak i knez Bogosav " ( " Elder Novak and Count Bogosav " ) , which stated that many people fled to the woods and became hajduci in order to escape taxes and further work . While there were in fact hajduci in the area , it is unclear whether they were actually related to the fortress ' construction .
Once the first part was completed , Smederevo Fortress quickly became an important connection between the Balkans and central Europe . Shortly after it was built , the city reached its peak importance as a religious , commercial , and trade center , at which point it was populated mainly by Serbs and colonies of merchants , primarily from Dubrovnik . Around the same time , the relics of Saint Luke the Evangelist , who became the patron saint of Smederevo , were brought and stored in the church in the fortress .
In relation to the structure itself , the inner city is notable for the audience hall , which is an important representation of Serbian medieval architecture . High in the stone wall on the Danube side , four sets of double @-@ arched windows are carved in a combination of Gothic and Romanesque styles . This is where a merchant contract between the Republic of Venice and the Serbian Despotate was signed .
There is also a tower in the inner city with a large brick inscription naming Đurađ Branković and stating the date of construction . It reads " V Hrista Boga blagoverni despot Gurg , gospodin Srblju i Pomorju zetskomu ; zapovešću njegovom sazida se ovaj grad v leto 6938 " ( " In Christ the Lord faithful despot Gurg , Lord of Serbs and the Littoral of Zeta . By His order this city was built in the year of 6938 [ 1430 ] " . ) Above it is an immured cross , which gives the tower its names " Krstata kula " ( " Krstasta tower " ) and tower " Krstača " . This type of inscription is rare , and found only on former Byzantine territory . It is the sole example in the former Yugoslavia .
In the fortified suburb are the minimal remains of two more significant structures . One was a sacral complex , Blagoveštenjska crkva ( Annunciation Church ) , where the Saint 's relics were stored . Though its construction began in the 15th century , it was built over several historical phases . The second structure was a Turkish bath from the 17th century .
For years , Smederevo Fortress stood as the last defense against Ottoman assaults . During their attack in 1439 , it also became the first site in Serbia to see cannon fire . When it fell in 1459 , it became the center of a Turkish sanjak . Later , Smederevo was a province of the Habsburg Monarchy , and between 1805 and 1807 it was once again the center of the renewed Serbian state .
= = Architecture = =
Smederevo Fortress is a monumental complex built in the Byzantine tradition and modeled after Constantinople fortress . Although its foundations were not intended to be submerged , it is classed as a water fortress because it is completely surrounded by water . After the fortress ' completion , there was a decline in its military importance and few structural changes were made . As a result , the original architectural style has been preserved to this day .
The fortress is encircled by 1 @.@ 5 kilometers of crenelated walls over 2 meters thick , and 25 towers which are each approximately 25 meters tall . Two sides were bordered by the Danube and Jezava rivers , though the Jezava has now been redirected away from the wall . The third side had two moats added to the defensive system , one for the inner city and one for the suburb . The area south of the outer walls was left open .
= = = Construction = = =
There were four main phases in the construction of the fortress . The work on the first part , a fortified manor for Despot Đurađ Branković built at the confluence of the rivers , began in the autumn of 1428 .
Under the eye of George Palaiologos Kantakouzenos , older brother of Despotina Jerina Branković , lumber , lime , and enormous stones from the former Roman cities of Mons Aureus ( the modern village of Seone , west of Smederevo ) , Margum ( at the mouth of the Great Morava ) , and Viminacium were collected . In the spring of 1429 , Greek and Ragusan workers began the brickwork . In 1430 , the elegant manor was completed . It included a palace stretching along the length of the moat wall ; a throne hall against the Danube wall ; a keep , Donžon kula ( Donjon tower ) , in the corner formed by the walls ; a treasury in a high chamber ; and other auxiliary buildings , creating an inner city .
The throne hall , where Branković received his visitors , was built with four double @-@ arched windows , fashioned in a mixed Gothic / Romanesque style . Donžon kula was intended to be the final line of defense . It was constructed with walls over 4 meters thick , and housed the nobility during Turkish attacks . Hidden doors were built into the Jezava wall , allowing for passage towards Hungary .
The next nine years were spent expanding the fortifications to include a larger fortified suburb , thereby finishing the main fortress . In the suburb , a sacral complex was built in phases from the 15th century onwards , and a Turkish bath was added by the Ottomans in the 17th century . There was a ship gate in the suburb 's Danube wall , where sailors could enter the fortress . It is unclear whether any long @-@ term residential buildings were built .
Between 1460 and 1480 , while held by the Ottoman Empire , a larger defensive system was built , including escarpments , low walls , and more towers . During the first half of the 18th century , fortified trenches were added .
= = = Current condition = = =
The state of deterioration of the fortress ranges widely , from krstata kula which is still well preserved , to sections of the walls which have seen no repair work and have collapsed in some places .
The first , and most severe , damage happened during World War II . On June 5 , 1941 , ammunition stored in the fortress exploded , destroying not only a large part of the southern wall , but also decimating most of Smederevo . Further damage was caused by the Allies ' bombing in 1944 .
A dam in the Iron Gate , completed in 1972 , raised the water level of the lower Danube basin and caused significant flooding . Between 1970 and 1980 , a system was built to protect the fortress and surrounding city from future high water , however there was once again major flooding in 2006 , a result of heavy rainfall and melting snow .
The fortress has been the focus of restoration and conservation efforts , followed by archaeological and architectural research , since at least 1970 . The majority of work so far was done between 1970 and 1995 . While some parts were at least partially repaired , others only received conservation work and are still in bad condition .
In the inner city , the foundation is the only part of the palace which remains standing , and the audience hall has only an outline where the base was . What remains has been partially restored and is now stable , though issues of vegetation growth and permanent maintenance remain . The surrounding towers also still need work , as many have collapsed . The town 's restoration was followed in 1994 – 1995 with an archaeological investigation .
The fortified suburb is still in very bad condition . Parts of the wall are missing and several towers are leaning or partially collapsed . The corner tower behind the Turkish inscription tower , and the stretch of wall along the Danube have seen conservation efforts , and the southern wall , which has been restored several times as part of a levee , is stable , but the conservation work is of poor quality . Much of the time has instead been spent on archaeological excavations and research , especially of the remains of the sacral complex and Turkish bath .
The escarpment along the Danube , which had partially collapsed several times , has seen restoration work , and is now in good condition . On the other sides , much of the escarpment is gone or underground , and the overall condition is unknown .
The ambiance and setting are also threatened , though they remain the best along the Danube . The other two sides are surrounded by modern development , such as a marina on the eastern side , a railway to the south , and a variety of other urban structures .
The planned final result of the work is for full rehabilitation of both Smederevo Fortress and its immediate surroundings , including relocating the railroad , though estimations of cost vary widely . Between 2003 and 2004 , the cost for just the conservation work was estimated to be € 10 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 , while the total rehabilitation cost , including conservation , restoration , and research , reached as high as € 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . In 2005 , the combined cost for basic conservation and research dropped to € 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = = Ongoing risk factors = = =
Despite conservation efforts , the fortress is still at risk of damage , for reasons , both natural and man @-@ made . The higher groundwater level resulting from the dam in the Iron Gate threatens its stability , and has increased the number of floods , especially before the coast was consolidated . Air pollution and vegetation growth are increasing the rate of decay . Urban encroachment , especially by the railroad , continues to threaten the character of the area surrounding the fortress . Unrestricted visits by tourists , combined with inadequate protection , maintenance , and support , both administrative and financial , also contribute to the slow deterioration of the fortress .
= Courbet @-@ class battleship =
The Courbet class battleships were the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy before World War I. The class comprised four ships : Courbet , France , Jean Bart , and Paris . All four ships were deployed to the Mediterranean Sea for the entirety of World War I , spending most of their time escorting French troop convoys from North Africa and covering the Otranto Barrage . An Anglo @-@ French fleet led by Courbet succeeded in sinking the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta in the Battle of Antivari . Jean Bart was torpedoed in the bow by U @-@ 12 on 21 December 1914 , but she was able to steam to Malta for repairs .
France sank after striking a rock in Quiberon Bay in 1922 . Between the wars the surviving ships were modernised several times , but they were not rebuilt thoroughly enough to prevent them from becoming obsolete in comparison to modern German or Italian battleships . They were relegated to training duties during the 1930s . Courbet and Paris escaped to Portsmouth where they became depot and accommodation ships after the French armistice in 1940 . Jean Bart was demilitarised , renamed Océan , and became a school hulk in Toulon . She was captured there on 27 November 1942 , although she was not scuttled . She was used for experiments with large shaped charge warheads by the Germans until she was sunk by the Allies in 1944 , later broken up in place in 1945 . Courbet was scuttled on 9 June 1944 as a breakwater for the Mulberry harbour used during the Battle of Normandy .
= = Design = =
Concerned about underwater hits , the class 's French designers decided to extend the waterline armour belt well below the waterline as compared to their contemporaries . The main armour was also thinner than that of its British or German counterparts , but covered more area . Their secondary armament was of a smaller size than the 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns used by the Germans or the British 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , but the French placed a premium on rate of fire rather than size , in order stop torpedo boats before they got within torpedo range .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Courbets were longer than their predecessors , at 166 m ( 544 ft 7 in ) overall . The ships had a beam of 27 m ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 m ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . The ships were significantly heavier than the previous Danton class ; the Courbet @-@ class ships displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 104 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 175 long tons ) at full load , over 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) more than the earlier ships .
These ships proved to be rather wet in service , as they were bow @-@ heavy because of the superimposed turrets forward .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Courbet @-@ class ships had four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines which were rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) . Each ship had twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube or Niclausse boilers , eight small and sixteen large . The large boilers were in the two forward boiler rooms and the small boilers were in the rear boiler room ; each boiler room housed eight boilers . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . They had a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , although all four were faster during trials . The ships carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 743 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil . They could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The French rejected their standard hexagonal configuration for the main armament of the Courbet class . Twelve 305 mm Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . The guns had a maximum elevation of only 12 ° . They fired 432 @-@ kilogram ( 952 lb ) armour @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 783 m / s ( 2 @,@ 570 ft / s ) at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute . At maximum elevation , this provided a maximum range of only 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) . The guns were provided with 100 shells each .
The ships ' secondary armament consisted of twenty @-@ two 138 mm Mle 1910 guns , mounted in casemates . The guns fired 39 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 87 lb ) semi @-@ armour @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 840 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns could be elevated to 15 ° , which provided a maximum range of less than 16 @,@ 000 metres ( 17 @,@ 000 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of 5 – 6 rounds per minute and each gun provided with 275 rounds . The rearmost guns were very low and were often washed out in any kind of sea . The ships also carried four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns , two on each beam . The Courbet class ships were also armed with four 450 mm ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes for which they carried twelve torpedoes .
Fire control arrangements were very primitive and the Courbets were only provided with one 2 @.@ 74 m ( 9 ft 0 in ) rangefinder on each side of the conning tower . Each turret had 1 @.@ 37 m ( 4 ft 6 in ) rangefinder under an armoured hood at the rear of the turret .
= = = Armour = = =
The Courbet @-@ class ships had a waterline armoured belt , 4 @.@ 75 m ( 15 @.@ 6 ft ) deep , that was 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The vertical armour was backed by 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of wood . Four of the ship 's decks were armoured , between 30 and 48 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 9 in ) each , although they were built up from two or more layers of plates . The sides of the lowest armoured deck curved to meet the bottom of the lower edge of the waterline belt armour and increased to a thickness of 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 mm ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void .
= = Construction = =
= = Career = =
= = = Early service = = =
The Courbet @-@ class ships were completed less than a year before the start of World War I and nothing is known of their activities during this time except that France , escorted by Jean Bart , carried the President of the French Republic , Raymond Poincaré , on a state visit to Saint Petersburg , Russia in July 1914 . They were returning from Russia when World War I began , but made it to France without encountering German ships .
= = = World War I = = =
France and the British agreed that the French fleet would concentrate in the Mediterranean to contain the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet and the Courbet class ships sailed there after the war began . Courbet became the flagship of Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère , commander of the French Mediterranean Fleet . Lapeyrère decided immediately on a sweep into the Adriatic to surprise the Austrian vessels enforcing a blockade of Montenegro . The Anglo @-@ French force , which included Jean Bart , succeeded in cutting off and sinking the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta off Bar on 16 August 1914 , although her accompanying destroyer managed to escape . They spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until U @-@ 12 hit Jean Bart on 21 December with one torpedo in the wine store just in front of the forward magazine off Sazan Island . She was able to steam to Malta on her own for repairs that required three and a half months , but this forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 they moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but their activities were very limited as many of their crews were used to man anti @-@ submarine ships .
= = = Post @-@ war modernisation = = =
A post @-@ war assessment listed their weaknesses as :
No director control for the guns
The elevation of the main guns was insufficient
Protection against torpedoes was weak
The horizontal protection against plunging fire was weak
The anti @-@ aircraft defense was negligible
They were coal @-@ fired
The organisation of the crew , the lighting and the method of transmitting orders were old @-@ fashioned .
The survivors were refitted several times during the interwar period to remedy these issues , although no comprehensive modernisation was ever planned . These included installation of director control mounted in new tripod foremasts , replacement of the rangefinders by larger units , the addition of more rangefinders , the alteration of the main gun turrets to allow elevation up to 23 ° , partial replacement of the coal @-@ fired boilers by oil @-@ fired units , the replacement of the direct @-@ drive turbines by geared turbines , the removal of the bow armour to reduce the weight forward , and the addition of more modern anti @-@ aircraft guns .
= = = Inter @-@ war careers = = =
In April 1919 , while helping to defend Sevastopol from the advancing Bolsheviks , the crews of France and Jean Bart mutinied , but collapsed when Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Françoise @-@ Charles Amet agreed to meet their main demand to take the ships home . 26 crewmen on France and three on Jean Bart were sentenced to prison terms upon her return , although they were commuted in 1922 as part of a bargain between Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré and the parties of the Left .
In 1922 , France was wrecked after striking an uncharted rock in Quiberon Bay at low tide and foundered with three deaths among her crew . Jean Bart received the first stage of her modernisation between 12 October 1923 and 29 January 1925 . She underwent the second stage between 7 August 1929 and 28 September 1931 . Her condition was poor , even after the earlier refits so she was demilitarised and became a training ship in Toulon in 1936 . She was renamed Océan in 1937 to release her name for the new Richelieu @-@ class battleship Jean Bart.
Courbet became flagship of Vice @-@ Amiral Charlier between 6 June 1919 and 20 October 1920 . The following year she became a gunnery training ship at Toulon , but she suffered a serious boiler fire in June 1923 that caused her to be repaired and given the first of her upgrades between July and April 1924 at La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . She had another boiler fire in August 1924 and remained under repair for the rest of the year , but resumed her duties as a gunnery training ship upon her return from the dockyard . She was refitted again between January 1927 and January 1931 . She was transferred from the gunnery school to the navigation school in 1937 , before her final prewar refit between April 1937 to September 1938 . By 1939 she reverted to her role as a gunnery training ship , but she was ordered to Brest and Quiberon with her sister Paris upon the outbreak of World War II .
Paris was sent to Pula on 12 December 1918 to supervise the surrendered Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet where she remained until 25 March 1919 . She provided cover for Greek troops during the Occupation of İzmir ( Smyrna ) from May 1919 before returning to Toulon on 30 June . She received the first of her upgrades at Brest between October 1922 and November 1923 . She supported an amphibious landing at Al Hoceima by Spanish troops during the summer of 1925 after the Riffians attacked French Morocco during the Rif War . She destroyed coast defense batteries there despite taking light damage from six hits and remained there until October as the flagship of the French forces . She received the second of her upgrades from 16 August 1927 to 15 January 1929 at Toulon . She resumed her role as flagship of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron until 1 October 1931 when she became a training ship .
= = = World War II = = =
Courbet and Paris formed a Fifth Squadron at the beginning of the war . They were transferred to the Atlantic to continue their training duties without interference . Both ships were ordered restored to operational status on 21 May 1940 by Amiral Mord and their light anti @-@ aircraft outfits were augmented at Cherbourg . Courbet was ordered to provide gunfire support to the defenders of Cherbourg against the advancing 7th Panzer Division and covered the evacuation of the town by the Allies while Paris supported the defenders of Le Havre . Lack of spotting aircraft meant that neither ship was particularly effective in that role .
Paris was damaged by a German bomb on 11 June and sailed for Cherbourg for emergency repairs that night . She was later transferred to Brest on 14 June and evacuated 2800 men when she sailed for Plymouth on 18 June at a speed of 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . She was seized there on 3 July by the Royal Navy as part of Operation Catapult , Winston Churchill 's plan to prevent the French Navy from falling into German hands . She was used as a depot ship for the rest of the war and temporarily as a barracks ship by the Polish Navy . She was returned to French control in July 1945 and towed to Brest on 21 August . She continued to serve as a depot ship until she was stricken for breaking up on 21 December 1955 before being scrapped the following year .
Courbet sailed for Portsmouth on 20 June . She was also seized there on 3 July and was turned over to the Free French a week later who used her as a depot and an anti @-@ aircraft ship in Portsmouth until 31 March 1941 when she was disarmed . She remained in use as a depot ship and target until she was scuttled as a breakwater on 9 July 1944 for the Mulberry harbour used during the Battle of Normandy . She was scrapped in place after the war .
Jean Bart was demilitarised and became a school hulk in Toulon in 1936 . She remained there during World War II and was captured there on 27 November 1942 , although she was not scuttled . She was used for experiments with large shaped charge warheads by the Germans until she was sunk by the Allies in 1944 before being broken up in place beginning on 14 December 1945 .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Design A @-@ 150 battleship =
Design A @-@ 150 , also known as the Super Yamato class , was an Imperial Japanese plan for a class of battleships . Begun in 1938 – 39 , the design was mostly complete by 1941 . However , so that a demand for other types of warships could be met , all work on Design A @-@ 150 was halted and no keels were laid . Authors William H. Garzke and Robert O. Dulin have argued that Design A @-@ 150 would have been the " most powerful battleships in history " because of the massive size of their main battery of six 510 mm ( 20 in ) guns as well as numerous smaller caliber weapons .
= = Design = =
= = = Background = = =
Initial plans for the A @-@ 150 battleships called for eight or nine 510 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) guns in quadruple or triple turrets . The successful construction of a 480 mm ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) gun in 1920 – 1921 made the Japanese confident that a 510 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) could be built . In addition , a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) was desired so that the class would be faster than the United States ' 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) North Carolina @-@ class battleships . However , these grand specifications were curtailed when tests culminated in a ship that had a displacement of some 90 @,@ 000 tons ; it was felt that ships of this size would be " too large and too expensive " .
= = = Specifications = = =
Initial design studies were undertaken after the completion of plans for the Yamato class ( 1938 – 39 ) ; they focused on a ship with a displacement nearer to that of the Yamatos . As the Japanese expected that the Americans would be able to obtain the true characteristics of that class ( namely the principal armament of 460 mm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) ) , the use of 510 mm guns was vital to keep with Japan 's policy of individual ships ' superiority over their American counterparts ; the A @-@ 150s were meant to counter the United States ' reply to the Yamatos .
Plans were " essentially completed " sometime in 1941 ; however , similar to the fate of documents relating to the Yamato class , most papers and all plans relating to the class were destroyed at the end of the war , meaning that the full specifications of the ships are not known . It is known the ships would have had greater firepower than the Yamato class : a main battery of six 510 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 inch ) guns in three twin turrets and a secondary armament of " many " 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) / 65 caliber guns . The displacement was to be similar to the Yamato class , which was around 60 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 tonnes . The side armor belt was probably going to be 460 mm ( 18 in ) . This was so large that steel mills in Japan were incapable of manufacturing it ; instead , " double strakes of armor plates " were going to be used , which would have been much less effective than just one single plate .
= = = Armament = = =
Although details of the smaller armament planned for the ships are not given in sources , a main battery of six 510 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) / 45 caliber guns in dual turrets was definitely planned . These would have been the largest ever fitted to a capital ship , dwarfing the 460 mm ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) guns mounted on the Yamato class . By 1941 , one — possibly two — of the 510 mm guns were being constructed at the Kure Naval Arsenal and detailed designs of the turrets that would hold the guns were drawn up . The turrets would have weighed 2 @,@ 780 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 740 long tons ) and trained at 2 ° per second through a range of 120 ° to port or starboard . The guns themselves could have fired at a maximum rate of 1 to 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute and be elevated from -5 ° to 45 ° , with the elevation rate being 10 ° per second . They would have weighed 227 t ( 223 long tons ) and would have been 23 @.@ 56 m ( 928 in ) long . The bore length was to have been around 22 @.@ 84 m ( 899 in ) . The armor @-@ piercing ammunition would have weighed between 1900 and 2000 kg ( 4190 – 4409 lbs ) , while the high explosive rounds would have been 1 @,@ 858 kg ( 4 @,@ 096 lb ) .
A secondary battery of " many " 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) / 65 caliber guns was being considered , although this was not final . This design was the best anti @-@ aircraft gun produced by Japan during the Second World War . Overall , the weapons compared very well with other contemporary weapons . The key advantages that made it so successful — the " high muzzle velocity and a fast rate of fire " — resulted in a short 350 – 400 @-@ round service life . In anti @-@ aircraft defense , their ceiling at 90 ° was 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) , although the effective range was 11 @,@ 000 m ( 36 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were able to fire 15 – 21 rounds per minute .
In Battleships : Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II , authors William H. Garzke and Robert O. Dulin argued that Design A @-@ 150 would have been the " most powerful battleships in history " because of the titanic main armament and the use of a dual purpose secondary battery .
= = Construction = =
With war on the horizon in early 1941 , all design work was diverted from battleships — even though the A @-@ 150s ' design was virtually complete — so that a demand for " aircraft carriers , cruisers , and smaller ships " could be met . Even though no work was being done on them , two ships of Design A @-@ 150 , provisionally designated as Warships Number 798 and 799 , were projected in a 1942 building program . 798 was to be built in the same dock as Shinano , while 799 was to be built in Kure in the same dock as Yamato after the fourth ship in the class , Warship Number 111 , was launched . Both of the ships ' keels were supposed to be laid in late 1941 or early 1942 , launched in 1944 / 45 , and finished in 1946 / 47 . However , the war 's turn against the Japanese after the Battle of Midway meant that the need for ships other than battleships never abated .
= The Black Adder =
The Black Adder is the first series of the BBC sitcom Blackadder , written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson , directed by Martin Shardlow and produced by John Lloyd . The series was originally aired on BBC One from 15 June 1983 to 20 July 1983 , and was a joint production with the Australian Seven Network . Set in 1485 at the end of the British Middle Ages , the series is written as a secret history which contends that King Richard III won the Battle of Bosworth Field , only to be unintentionally assassinated by his nephew Edmund , and is succeeded by Richard IV , one of the Princes in the Tower .
The series follows the exploits of Richard IV 's unfavoured second son Edmund ( who calls himself " The Black Adder " ) in his various attempts to increase his standing with his father and in the final episode his quest to overthrow him . Conceived while Atkinson and Curtis were working on Not the Nine O 'Clock News , the series covers a number of medieval issues in Britain in a humorous and often anachronistic manner - witchcraft , Royal succession , European relations , the Crusades and the conflict between the Crown and the Church . The filming of the series was highly ambitious , with a large cast and much location shooting . The series also features Shakespearean dialogue , often adapted for comic effect .
= = Plot = =
Set in the Middle Ages , the series is written as an alternate history . It opens on 21 August 1485 , the eve of the Battle of Bosworth Field , which in the series is won not by Henry Tudor ( as in reality ) but by Richard III . Richard III , played by Peter Cook , is presented as a good king who doted on his nephews , contrary to the Shakespearean view of him as a hunchbacked , infanticidal monster .
After his victory in the battle , Richard III is unintentionally killed by Lord Edmund Plantagenet ; Richard attempts to take Edmund 's horse , which he thinks is his own . Not recognizing the king , Edmund thinks Richard is stealing it and cuts his head off . The late King 's nephew , Richard , Duke of York ( played by Brian Blessed ) who is Lord Edmund Plantagenet 's father , is then crowned as Richard IV . Lord Edmund himself did not take part in the battle after arriving late , but later claims to have killed 450 peasants and several nobles , one of whom had actually been killed by his brother in the battle .
King Richard IV of England and XII of Scotland and his Queen Gertrude of Flanders have two sons : Harry , Prince of Wales and his younger brother Prince Edmund . Of the two , Harry is by far his father 's favourite , the King barely acknowledging his second son 's existence . It is a running gag throughout the series that Edmund 's father cannot even remember his name . However , despite his mostly dismissive attitude toward his second son , the series ' finale makes it clear that the King loves Edmund as much as Harry : on Edmund 's deathbed , the King does his best to console him and has the entire court drink a toast in his honour . In the third episode , when Edmund becomes the Archbishop of Canterbury and helps his father to secure some land before the church , the King acknowledges Edmund as his son , embraces him and even mentions to the Queen that he has " turned out well " .
Using this premise , the series follows the fictitious reign of Richard IV ( 1485 – 98 ) through the experiences of Prince Edmund , who styles himself as " The Black Adder " , and his two sidekicks : the imbecilic Lord Percy Percy , the Duke of Northumberland ( Tim McInnerny ) ; and Baldrick ( Tony Robinson ) , a more intelligent servant of no status .
By the end of the series , events converge with accepted history , when King Richard IV and his entire family are poisoned , allowing Henry Tudor to take the throne as King Henry VII . He then rewrites history , presenting Richard III as a monster , and eliminating Richard IV 's reign from the history books . In reality , Richard , Duke of York , one of the Princes in the Tower , was only twelve years old ( and perhaps two years dead ) when the Battle of Bosworth Field took place in 1485 , and thus too young to have had two adult sons . One notable anachronism is Edmund ´ s title , Duke of Edinburgh , as Scotland was an independent kingdom ruled by a different royal house from its inception in the ninth century until 1603 ( with the exception of some periods during the turmoil of the Scottish Wars of Independence ) though given that this is an alternate history , it is possible that Henry Tudor falsified the history of Scotland as well .
= = = Episodes = = =
The episodes in this series , written by Rowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis , were originally shown on BBC One on Wednesday evenings , 21 : 25 – 22 : 00 . Each episode ran for roughly 33 minutes . The series began on 15 June 1983 .
Each of the episodes was based on a medieval theme — the Wars of the Roses , the Crusades and Royal succession , the conflict between the Crown and the Church , arranged marriages between monarchies , and the Plague and witchcraft . The final episode follows a planned coup d 'état .
The series was broadcast shortly after the BBC Television Shakespeare productions of Shakespeare 's four plays about the Wars of the Roses , the three @-@ part Henry VI plays , followed by Richard III , which was first shown on 23 January 1983 . Some of the same actors were used to enhance the parody of Shakespearean history . Ron Cook , who played Richard III in the Shakespeare productions , is cast as the villainous " Sean the Irish Bastard " . Peter Benson , who played Shakespeare 's Henry VI , played Henry VII in the first episode .
= = = Character development = = =
In this series , the character of the Black Adder is somewhat different from later incarnations , being largely unintelligent , naive , and snivelling . The character does evolve through the series , however , and he begins showing signs of what his descendants will be like by the final episode , where he begins insulting everyone around him and making his own plans . This evolution follows naturally from the character 's situation . " The Black Adder " is the title that Edmund adopts during the first episode ( after first considering " The Black Vegetable " ) . Presumably one of his descendants adopted it as a surname before Blackadder II , in which the title character becomes " Edmund Blackadder " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Rowan Atkinson and Richard Curtis developed the idea for the sitcom while working on Not the Nine O 'Clock News . Eager to avoid comparisons to the critically acclaimed Fawlty Towers , they proposed the idea of a historical sitcom . An unaired pilot episode was made in 1982 , and a six @-@ episode series was commissioned .
In the unaired pilot episode , covering the basic plot of " Born to be King " , Rowan Atkinson speaks , dresses and generally looks and acts like the later Blackadder descendants of the second series onwards , but no reason is given as to why he was instead changed to a snivelling wretch for the first series . Richard Curtis has stated he cannot remember the exact reason , but has suggested it was because they wanted to have a more complicated character ( implying that the change was driven by the writing ) instead of a swaggering lead from the pilot .
Curtis admitted in a 2004 documentary that just before recording began , producer John Lloyd came up to him with Atkinson and asked what Edmund 's character was . Curtis then realised that , despite writing some funny lines , he had no idea how Rowan Atkinson was supposed to play his part . On the 25th anniversary documentary Blackadder Rides Again , Atkinson added that as the cameras were about to roll for the first time , he suddenly realised he wasn 't even sure what voice to use for the character .
= = = Filming = = =
The budget for the series was considerable , with much location shooting particularly at Alnwick Castle in Northumberland and the surrounding countryside in February 1983 . Brinkburn Priory , an authentic reconstruction of a medieval monastery church , was used for the episode " The Archbishop " . The series also used large casts of extras , as well as horses and expensive medieval @-@ style costumes . Filming at the castle was hindered by bad weather - snow is visible in many of the outdoor location shots .
Atkinson had to suffer during the making of the programme , having to trim his hair in an unflattering medieval style and wearing a selection of " priapic codpieces " . Atkinson has said about the making of the first series :
The first series was odd , it was very extravagant . It cost a million pounds for the six programmes ... [ which ] was a lot of money to spend ... It looked great , but it wasn 't as consistently funny as we would have liked .
= = = Cast = = =
Robinson stated in a 2003 radio documentary that he was originally flattered to be offered a part and it was only later he found that every other small @-@ part actor had also been offered the role and turned it down . The series also featured a number of guest roles , often featuring noted actors such as Peter Cook and Peter Benson in " The Foretelling " ; Miriam Margolyes and Jim Broadbent in " The Queen of Spain 's Beard " ; Frank Finlay in " Witchsmeller Pursuivant " ; and Rik Mayall and Patrick Allen ( who also narrated the series ) in " The Black Seal " .
= = = Title sequence and music = = =
The title sequence consisted of several stock shots of Edmund riding his horse on location , interspersed with different shots of him doing various silly things ( and , usually , a shot of King Richard IV to go with Brian Blessed 's credit ) . The closing titles were a similar sequence of Edmund riding , and eventually falling off , his horse and then chasing after it . All the credits of the first series included " with additional dialogue by William Shakespeare " and " made in glorious television " .
The series used the first incarnation of the Blackadder theme by Howard Goodall ( with the exception of the unaired pilot , which featured a different arrangement ) . For the opening theme , a trumpet solo accompanied by an orchestra was used . For the end titles , the theme gained mock @-@ heroic lyrics sung by a baritone ( Simon Carrington , a member of the King 's Singers ) . In the final episode , the theme was sung by a treble , in a more reflective style . The series ' incidental music was unusually performed by pipe organ and percussion .
= = Awards and criticism = =
The series won an International Emmy award in the popular arts category in 1983 . The four series of Blackadder were voted into second place in the BBC 's Britain 's Best Sitcom in 2004 with 282 @,@ 106 votes , although the series ' advocate , John Sergeant , was not complimentary of the first series , suggesting it was " grandiose , confused and expensive " .
Members of the cast and crew , looking back for the documentary Blackadder Rides Again , are also not particularly complimentary of the first series . John Lloyd recalls that a colleague commented at the time that the series " looks a million dollars , but cost a million pounds " , although admits that they were proud of the result at the time . Due to the high cost of the first series , the Controller of BBC1 at the time the second series was commissioned , Michael Grade , was reluctant to authorise a second series without major improvements and cost @-@ cutting , leaving a gap of three years before Blackadder II was broadcast , on the condition that it remained largely studio @-@ bound .
= = Releases = =
The complete series of The Black Adder is available as a Region 2 DVD from BBC Worldwide , as well as in a complete box set with the other series . An earlier VHS release of the series was also produced in September 1996 . The series is also available in Region 1 DVD in a box set of the complete series . " The Complete Collected Series 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and Specials " , a 15 @-@ disc complete set of audiobooks published by BBC Audiobooks Ltd , was released in 2009 . A selection of one @-@ off episodes , documentaries and other appearances by " Blackadder " are featured , with some of this extra material being released on audio for the first time .
= = = VHS releases = = =
On about 5 February 1990 , BBC Enterprises Ltd released all 6 episodes of The Black Adder on two single videos and on 7 September 1992 all 6 episodes of Blackadder II were re @-@ released on ' Complete ' double VHS releases . All 6 episodes were re @-@ released on a single video release on 2 October 1995 .
= HMS Phoenix ( N96 ) =
HMS Phoenix was a Parthian @-@ class submarine of the Royal Navy , launched in 1929 . She was the eighteenth warship of the Royal Navy to use the name Phoenix . She served on the China Station from her commissioning until the start of the Second World War . Phoenix was then relocated to the Mediterranean Sea and was sunk by the Italian torpedo boat Albatros on 16 July 1940 .
= = Design = =
The Parthian class was designed as an improvement of the earlier Odin class ; the new class was larger , built with a raked stem , and given a shield to cover the 4 @-@ inch gun . The class had a design flaw in that the riveted external fuel tanks leaked , leaving an oil trail on the surface . Phoenix was fitted with a four @-@ cycle blast @-@ injection eight @-@ cylinder diesel engine , which provided 4 @,@ 640 horsepower ( 3 @,@ 460 kW ) ; submerged propulsion was provided by a 1 @,@ 635 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 219 kW ) electric motor . Phoenix was 289 feet ( 88 @.@ 1 m ) long with a breadth of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and displaced 2 @,@ 040 long tons ( 2 @,@ 070 t ) of water while submerged .
All submarines of the Parthian @-@ class were outfitted with eight 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , one QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk XII deck gun , and two machine guns . The class was the first to be outfitted with the Mark VIII torpedo . Phoenix had six tubes in the bow and two tubes at the stern . Submarines of the Parthian class were designed for a complement of 53 officers and men . Phoenix had a crew of 56 .
= = History = =
Phoenix was laid down at Cammell Laird shipyard in 1928 . The ship was the 18th in a series of British warships named after the mythical phoenix , and had the motto Resurgam ( Latin for " I will rise again " ) Phoenix was originally deployed on the China Station as part of the 4th submarine flotilla . Ships of the China Station were tasked with trade protection and were used as a symbol of British power . In later September 1935 , Phoenix , HMS Pandora , HMS Osiris , HMS Oswald , and the depot ship HMS Medway were ordered to travel to the Mediterranean . While in the Mediterranean , the ships participated in naval exercises including the crash dive manoeuvre . Eight months later , the small group was ordered back to Hong Kong . In April 1940 , the flotilla , along with Medway , was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea to support naval operations there and the 1st submarine flotilla was established .
= = = Service in the Second World War = = =
Phoenix was stationed in Alexandria and patrolled the Aegean Sea and waters around the Dodecanese from 14 June to July 1940 . In July 1940 , Phoenix , under the command of Lt Cdr Gilbert Hugh Nowell , and Rorqual were given the task of screening a convoy of British ships bringing supplies from Malta to Alexandria . Phoenix made a contact report on 8 July after sighting the Italian battle fleet . Admiral Andrew Cunningham ordered his ships to cut off the Italian fleet from their base at Taranto , which led to the Battle of Calabria . Phoenix fired torpedoes at two Italian battleships , Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour , but missed both targets . While off the coast of Augusta , Sicily , Phoenix fired torpedoes at the Italian torpedo boat Albatros , but missed her . Albatros counter @-@ attacked and sank Phoenix with depth charges . All hands were lost .
= Hilde Levi =
Hilde Levi ( 9 May 1909 – 26 July 2003 ) was a German @-@ Danish physicist . She was a pioneer of the use of radioactive isotopes in biology and medicine , notably the techniques of radiocarbon dating and autoradiography . In later life she became a scientific historian , and published a biography of George de Hevesy .
Born into a non @-@ religious Jewish family in Frankfurt , Germany , Levi entered the University of Munich in 1929 . She carried out her doctoral studies at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Berlin @-@ Dahlem , writing her thesis on the spectra of alkali metal halides under the supervision of Peter Pringsheim and Fritz Haber . By the time she received it in 1934 , the Nazi Party had been elected to office in Germany , and Jews were no longer allowed to be hired for academic positions . She went to Denmark where she found a position at the Niels Bohr Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen . Working with James Franck and George de Hevesy , she published a number of papers on the use of radioactive substances in biology .
When the Nazis began rounding up Danish Jews in September 1943 , Levi fled to Sweden , where she worked for the biologist John Runnström at the Wenner @-@ Gren Institute for Experimental Biology in Stockholm . After the war ended , she returned to Denmark to work at the Zoophysiological Laboratory in Copenhagen . She spent the 1947 – 48 academic year in the United States learning about the recently discovered techniques of radiocarbon dating and autoradiography , which she introduced to Europe . She retired from the Zoophysiological Laboratory in 1979 , but became involved with the Niels Bohr Archive , where she collected papers of de Hevesy , eventually publishing his biography .
= = Early life = =
Hilde Levi was born in Frankfurt , Germany , on 9 May 1909 , the daughter of Adolf Levi , the sales director of a metal company , and his wife Clara ( née Reis ) , the daughter of a printer . Hilde had an older brother called Edwin . She was a gifted musician who learned to play the piano at a young age . During the summers , she would listen to performances at her cousins ' summer house in Bavaria by musicians including Elisabeth Schumann and Richard Strauss .
Although Jewish , Levi 's family did not practise their religion , and were not part of the Jewish community , but when she was enrolled at the Victoria School ( now the Bettina School ) in Frankfurt , her religion was listed as Jewish . Religious instruction was compulsory , so she had to attend classes with a local rabbi . She soon rebelled against this , and told her parents that she did not wish to attend the classes . She came to reject formal religion .
While at high school , Levi decided that she would become a scientist . Her final year was devoted to a physics project on spectra and photography , which became her Oberreal Abiturium . She was the only girl in her class to major in physics that year . After her graduation in April 1928 , her father sent her to England for six months to learn English and good manners . She entered the University of Munich in 1929 , where she listened to lectures by Arnold Sommerfeld . For her doctorate , her father managed to get her accepted into the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Berlin @-@ Dahlem , where she wrote her thesis on the spectra of alkali metal halides , under the supervision of Peter Pringsheim and Fritz Haber .
= = Nazi period = =
By the time Levi received her doctorate in 1934 , the Nazi Party had been elected to office in Germany . Her supervisors had gone into exile , and Jews were no longer allowed to be hired for academic positions . The Danish branch of the International Federation of University Women helped Levi find a position at the Niels Bohr Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark . Niels Bohr asked James Franck , another refugee from Germany , if he knew Levi , and would be willing to have Levi as his assistant . Franck replied that he did not know her personally , but he knew her thesis , and rated it highly .
She became engaged to the physicist Hans Bethe in 1934 . The two had known each other since 1925 . However , his mother , although herself Jewish , was opposed to her son marrying a Jewish girl , and he broke off the engagement a few days before the wedding was to take place . Bet
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physical attributes were symptomatic of steroid use and that his ability to exceed prior records believed to be drug @-@ fuelled made his feats worthy of suspicion . In 2007 , the French sports newspaper L 'Équipe claimed that Thorpe " showed ' abnormal levels ' of two banned substances in a doping test " . Thorpe denied the charges and the Australian Sports Anti @-@ Doping Authority ( ASADA ) confirmed that they had investigated Thorpe in the past , for abnormal levels of testosterone and luteinising hormone ( LH ) , but had dismissed the result . FINA dropped its investigation and closed the case . Thorpe has never been found to have been doping , and has steadfastly denied the allegations while also being prominent in the campaign against drug use . He has called for the introduction of blood testing , promised to surrender a frozen sample for retrospective testing and repeatedly criticised FINA for drug @-@ testing procedures that he regards as inadequate .
= = = 2000 Summer Olympics = = =
Entering the Olympics , the Australian public expected Thorpe to deliver multiple world records and gold medals as a formality ; Sydney 's Daily Telegraph posted a front @-@ page spread headlined Invincible . Thorpe cruised through the heats of the 400 m on the first morning of competition , posting a new Olympic record and shortening bookmakers ' odds to 50 – 1 . By the time the final was held that night , the pressure had intensified — the host nation had yet to win its first gold medal . Thorpe led throughout , and although Italy 's Massimiliano Rosolino was within a body length at the 300 m mark , Thorpe 's finishing kick extended the final margin to three body lengths . This set a new world record of 3 min 40 @.@ 59 s . Secret tests carried out by the Italian National Olympic Committee prior to the Olympics later showed that Rosolino had abnormal levels of human growth hormone . Rosolino aside , Thorpe had left bronze medallist Klete Keller fifteen metres in arrears .
Thorpe lined up later in the night alongside Klim , Chris Fydler and Ashley Callus to anchor the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay , an event which the Americans had never lost at Olympic level . The third leg ended with Australia only an arm 's length ahead of the United States . Thorpe timed his dive much better than Gary Hall , Jr . , and surfaced a body length ahead . Hall 's sprinting ability allowed him to open a lead by the final turn , but Thorpe 's finishing kick overhauled him in the final metres , sparking wild celebrations amongst the partisan crowd . It evoked an uncharacteristic celebration from Thorpe , who immediately jumped out of the pool , screaming and hugging his ecstatic teammates . He even went as far as playing air guitar to mock Hall 's pre @-@ race claim that the Americans would " smash " the Australians " like guitars " .
When Thorpe broke the 200 m freestyle Olympic record in the heats the following morning , his main rival Pieter van den Hoogenband of the Netherlands ( with World # 2 ranked and teammate Michael Kim bypassing the 200 metres ) conceded defeat . However , van den Hoogenband showed his hand in the semi @-@ finals by cutting more than a second off his personal best , to set a new world record of 1 min 45 @.@ 35 s . Thorpe qualified second with a personal best of his own , 0 @.@ 02 s slower , and was under immense pressure to win the final the following day after his double gold on the first night . Van den Hoogenband started quickly and Thorpe chased him , reaching the 100 m mark just 0 @.@ 04 s behind . Both swimmers turned at 150 m in identical times . As a result of starting harder than usual , Thorpe faded as van den Hoogenband drew away to claim gold and equal his world record , stunning the home crowd . Thorpe touched in 1 min 45 @.@ 83 s , the first time that he had swum slower in the final than in the qualifying rounds . Thorpe though would never again lose to Van Den Hoogenband in a long course 200 metres race again . Thorpe returned to victory when he led off the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay the following night , setting up a 10 m lead over American Scott Goldblatt in the first leg . Although Thorpe was unable to reclaim the individual world record , he , Klim , Kirby and Todd Pearson lowered their world record to 7 min 07 @.@ 05 s , over five seconds ahead of the Americans — the largest winning margin in an Olympic relay for half a century . Thorpe rounded off his Olympics by swimming in the heats of the 4 × 100 m medley relay , and collected a silver medal when the finals quartet finished behind the Americans . Thorpe 's performances as Australia 's leading medalist for the Games were recognised when the Australian Olympic Committee granted him the honour of carrying the flag at the closing ceremony . With three gold and two silver medals , Thorpe was the most successful athlete at the 2000 Olympic Games . At year 's end , he was again named by Swimming Australia as the Swimmer of the Year , but van den Hoogenband usurped him as the leading male swimmer chosen by Swimming World Magazine .
= = = 2001 World Aquatics Championships = = =
With the 2001 Australian Championships held in Hobart in March , Thorpe added the 800 m freestyle to his repertoire , after FINA had added the event for the 2001 World Aquatics Championships . Thorpe began his campaign by successfully defending his 400 m title with a time just 0 @.@ 17 s outside his world record . The following night in the 800 m event , he drew away from Hackett in the last 100 m to break Kieren Perkins ' 1994 world record by over four seconds . He earned his third title by cutting 0 @.@ 66 s from van den Hoogenband 's 200 m world record to set a new mark of 1 min 44 @.@ 69 s . This performance made him the third male after John Konrads and Tim Shaw to hold world records over three distances simultaneously . His subsequent victory in the 100 m freestyle in a new personal best of 49 @.@ 05 s made him the first since Konrads in 1959 to hold all Australian freestyle titles from 100 m to 800 m . This indicated that he could swim faster at the subsequent World Championships in Fukuoka , where he was looking to regain the ascendancy from van den Hoogenband .
Thorpe arrived in Fukuoka having been chosen by broadcaster TV Asahi as the marketing drawcard of the event . With the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay being held after the 400 m freestyle on the first night , Thorpe appeared to be conserving energy when he reached the 200 m mark two seconds outside his world record . Although he was 0 @.@ 93 s behind at the final turn , a final 50 m burst in 24 @.@ 36 s saw him cut a further 0 @.@ 42 s from his world record . The relay saw him dive in fractionally ahead of American Jason Lezak after Klim , Callus and Pearson had completed the first three legs . Thorpe fell behind in the early half of the leg before kicking away in the closing stages , to seal gold with his fastest @-@ ever relay split of 47 @.@ 87 s . In the 800 m final , he shadowed Hackett for the first 750 m , staying within a body length . He then broke clear to win by a body length , lowering his world record by over two seconds . The 200 m freestyle rematch with van den Hoogenband provided Thorpe with a chance to rectify his strategy from the Olympics ; this time he allowed the Dutchman to lead through the first 100 m . Thorpe pulled even at the 150 m mark and then broke away towards the finishing wall two body lengths clear . He lowered his world record to 1 min 44 @.@ 06 s in the process , prompting van den Hoogenband to raise his arm aloft . Thorpe 's winning streak was interrupted in the 100 m freestyle when his personal best of 48 @.@ 81 s placed him fourth , but he returned to form in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay . Anchoring the team of Klim , Hackett and Kirby , the Australians lowered their world record time by more than two seconds , leaving the Italians more than six seconds in arrears . Having overtaken Klim as Australia 's leading 100 m freestyle swimmer , Thorpe was entrusted with anchoring the 4 × 100 m medley relay team on 28 July . After Matt Welsh , Regan Harrison and Geoff Huegill had finished their legs , Thorpe 's change left him half a body length behind the new 100 m world champion Anthony Ervin of the United States . The Americans were expected to win , and with his typically slow start , Thorpe turned a body length behind with 50 m remaining . With an American victory seeming inevitable , Thorpe managed to accelerate and deprive Ervin of the lead in the last 5 m . This made Thorpe the only swimmer to have won six gold medals at a World Championships , and the first since Shaw in 1974 to win the 200 – 400 – 800 treble . His performances formed the basis for Australia 's gold medal win over the United States 13 – 9 . It was also the first time since the 1956 Summer Olympics that Australia had topped the medal tally at a global meet . Thorpe 's achievements led to predictions that he could match Mark Spitz 's seven gold medals at the 1972 Summer Olympics , which he played down .
= = = 2002 Commonwealth Games and Pan Pacific Championships = = =
Thorpe began competition in 2002 at the Australian Championships in Brisbane in March , which were used to select the team for the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester and the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships . After his record six gold medals in Fukuoka , the meet was surrounded by further expectations of world records and speculation that he would match Spitz 's seven gold medals . His winning time in the 400 m was the second fastest in history , but such was the expectation on him that his failure to break a world record was the talking point . He claimed the 100 m and 200 m events in times outside his best , making it the first time that he had failed to break a world record at a major meet since 1999 . He also experimented by adding the 100 m backstroke to his repertoire , placing second . This earned him a Commonwealth spot in a seventh event , leading to further media speculation that he could match Spitz .
By this time , Thorpe 's relationship with Frost was beginning to unravel . Thorpe had always insisted that his swimming was about enjoyment and improving himself in setting faster times , rather than victory or defeat . This contrasted with Frost , who had a more aggressive and combative mindset , often making bold public statements . Thorpe ignored Frost 's advice and bulked up his upper body by a further 5 kg to 105 kg , making him the heaviest elite swimmer in history . His reasoning that the strength gains would outweigh any loss in flexibility raised concerns over his physiological strategy . On the first night in Manchester , Thorpe again lowered his 400 m mark by 0 @.@ 09 s to 3 min 40 @.@ 08 s , before anchoring the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team to another gold . Prior to the 200 m final , Thorpe was seen arguing with Frost in the warm @-@ up area . Thorpe won , but was unusually angry at having failed to lower his previous best , publicly stating that he " wasn 't with it " and that he had " one of the worst warm @-@ ups ever " . Thorpe did manage to lower his personal best in the 100 m freestyle to 48 @.@ 73 s en route to his fourth gold , and anchored the 4 × 200 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley relays to comfortable victories . When he collected a silver in his first international race in the 100 m backstroke with another personal best behind world champion Matt Welsh , he was forced to rebuff media comparisons to Spitz . He emphasised personal performance , stating " I think it 's a limiting attitude to be competing against other people when you can be challenging yourself " . Despite Thorpe 's assertion that he could not match Spitz , Frost predicted that Thorpe could win nine golds at one Olympics . In spite of the media disappointment , Thorpe 's six gold medals equalled the record set by Susie O 'Neill , completing all in Games or World record time . As a result , he was awarded the honour of carrying the flag at the closing ceremony .
The Pan Pacific Championships followed in Yokohama less than a month later , with media speculation about Thorpe and Frost overshadowing the racing . Thorpe began his campaign with a victory over Hackett in the 400 m freestyle in a time five seconds outside his world record . Afterwards , he revealed that both he and Hackett had deliberately conserved energy for the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay later in the night . Australia subsequently won the relay , with Thorpe again overtaking Jason Lezak in the last 50 m . He subsequently won the 200 m freestyle , and anchored the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay to victory to take his tally to four golds . After qualifying second in the 100 m freestyle , Thorpe came from fourth at the 50 m mark win his fifth gold in a time of 48 @.@ 84 s . Thorpe 's run ended in the 4 × 100 m medley relay final , when despite setting the second fastest ever relay split of 47 @.@ 20 s , Australia were defeated .
= = Tracey Menzies era = =
After the 2002 Pan Pacific Championships , Thorpe announced that he was splitting with Frost to train with one of his assistants , Tracey Menzies , who had no prior international experience . Admitting that tension existed between him and Frost , Thorpe asserted that the split was amicable . He cited waning motivation for the split , stating " I decided I either had to make the change or it was to walk away from the sport " . The retired Talbot expressed concerns that Thorpe was making a decision whilst he was physically and emotionally drained , while other coaches felt that the new relationship would end up with Thorpe , rather than Menzies , making the decisions . Despite a turbulent year , he was again named by Swimming World as its World Swimmer of the Year .
Along with the switch of coaches , Thorpe indicated that he would put more focus on improving his sprinting ability . He thus dropped the 800 m freestyle despite being the reigning world champion and record holder . During this period , his times in the 400 m and 200 m freestyle deteriorated , and both he and Menzies were criticised . The criticism continued to mount during their partnership , particularly during the build @-@ up to the 2004 Olympics . Following his victory in the 200 and 400 events in Athens , Thorpe said that his results justified his decision , despite posting substantially faster times as a young swimmer under Frost .
= = = 2003 World Aquatics Championships = = =
The first major test of Thorpe 's partnership with Menzies came at the Australian Championships held in Sydney in March . Thorpe did not threaten any of his world records , completing the 400 m and 200 m freestyle more than two and one seconds respectively off his best . Despite defeating Hackett in both races to retain his titles , he later admitted that he was " pretty disappointed " with his performances . When he tied with Ashley Callus in a time of 49 @.@ 05 s , he was criticised by The Sydney Morning Herald which stated " The measure of Thorpe 's sprinting ability is that he could only match the efforts of a virus @-@ riddled Callus " . Thorpe found some relief by setting a new Commonwealth record of 2 min 00 @.@ 11 s in his first long course 200 m individual medley outing , the fifth fastest time in the past year . Thorpe attracted further criticism when he withdrew from the inaugural Duel in the Pool with a medical complaint , despite travelling overseas for commercial and charity work .
Thorpe arrived for the 2003 World Championships in Barcelona for his first major international competition since Menzies ' appointment under heavy media scrutiny following his non @-@ improvement at the Australian Championships . On the first night of competition Thorpe defeated Hackett in the 400 m freestyle in a time 2 @.@ 5 s outside his world record , making him the first to win three world titles in the same event . After his relatively slow 400 m , he was again under pressure in the 200 m freestyle after van den Hoogenband led at the 100 m mark ahead of world record pace . Thorpe managed to respond and retain his world title , and gained some relief after his sprint training yielded his first medal in the 100 m freestyle at a global competition ; he finished third in 48 @.@ 77 s . In all three freestyle events however , he had swum slower than his times under Frost . He ended his individual campaign on a promising note with his experiment with the 200 m individual medley , setting a new personal best of 1 min 59 @.@ 66 s to claim silver . Thorpe again anchored the 4 × 200 m freestyle team to retain the world title along with Hackett , Nicholas Sprenger and Craig Stevens , with a reduced margin over the Americans , who finished less than two seconds in arrears . Michael Klim 's injuries left the relay teams weakened , with Thorpe anchoring the 4 × 100 m freestyle team to fourth , At the end of a difficult year in the water , his standing had fallen in the eyes of Swimming World , who rated him fourth in the world . He was again named as Australian Swimmer of the Year , jointly with Hackett .
= = = 2004 Summer Olympics = = =
After his feats at the 2003 World Championships , Speedo had generated significant media publicity by offering Michael Phelps US $ 1 million if he could match Spitz 's seven golds . Thorpe was adamant that this was impossible , and scrapped his seventh event , the 200 m individual medley from his Olympic program . In late March 2004 at the Australian Championships in Sydney , Thorpe overbalanced whilst on the blocks in the heats of the 400 m freestyle and fell into the water , resulting in his disqualification and ending the defence of his Olympic 400 m title . This resulted in a large debate among the swimming and public community as to whether Thorpe should be given an exception to Australia 's policy of selecting the first and second place getters , with Prime Minister of Australia John Howard describing the situation as a " tragedy " . Despite the intense media spotlight , Thorpe managed to win the 100 m and 200 m freestyle events to ensure his selection for Athens . Craig Stevens , who had claimed the second qualifying position in the 400 m event , subsequently faced immense public pressure to relinquish his position to Thorpe , and later did so in a television interview for which he was paid . This generated ethical debate as to whether Stevens ' decision had been bought , and criticism against Thorpe .
The pressure in the lead @-@ up was further compounded by the media attention surrounding Phelps , who had decided that the 200 m freestyle would be one of the events in his quest for eight gold medals . This prompted many media outlets to label the race between Thorpe , van den Hoogenband , Phelps and Hackett as The Race of the Century . With the press spotlight growing , Thorpe tried to avoid media attention , resulting in a few terse media events . Thorpe 's increasing focus on the 100 m event , coupled with the media pressure , resulted in speculation that he was vulnerable to Hackett in the 400 m event . Thorpe made a slow start in the final , reaching the 100 m mark one second outside world record pace . In a topsy @-@ turvy performance at irregular pace , there were multiple changes of lead before Thorpe established a body @-@ length lead by 350 m . He was closed down by Hackett , holding on by only 0 @.@ 26 s in a time three seconds outside his own world record . Thorpe appeared to shed tears in an uncharacteristic sign of emotion , admitting that the controversy surrounding the event had taken a toll on him , but denying that any liquid had left his eyes .
With Klim recently returning from a two @-@ year injury layoff , and Callus ill , Thorpe could only anchor Australia to sixth in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay . The 200 m began with van den Hoogenband again attacking immediately , reaching the 100 m mark more than a second under the world record split , with Thorpe half a body length behind . Thorpe gradually reduced the lead before passing van den Hoogenband in the last 50 m to win The Race of the Century by half a body length , in a new Olympic record of 1 min 44 @.@ 71 s . Having achieved what had eluded him four years earlier , Thorpe reacted emotionally , immediately tearing off his cap , punching the air and screaming . The next day saw six years of Australian victory in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay ended when Hackett , Klim and Sprenger had put Thorpe into the final leg 1 @.@ 48 s behind Keller . Thorpe gradually reduced the margin but was unable to pass Keller in the last lap , the United States touching 0 @.@ 13 s earlier . Thorpe found himself on the other side of a close result when he qualified last for the 100 m freestyle by 0 @.@ 01 s . He capitalised in the final by coming from sixth at the 50 m mark to win bronze medal in a personal best of 48 @.@ 56 s , making him the only person to medal in the 100 – 200 – 400 combination in Olympic history . After the Athens Olympics , Thorpe took a break from competitive swimming , skipping the 2005 World Aquatics Championships .
= = = 2006 : Attempted return and retirement = = =
Thorpe returned to competition at the New South Wales Championships in December 2005 . He raced in the 200 m and stated his intention to retire after the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Thorpe announced that due to a desire to concentrate on the 100 m freestyle , he had dropped his pet event , the 400 m . He was unmoved by national coach Alan Thompson , who implored him to continue swimming the event . In February , Thorpe qualified for the 2006 Commonwealth Games by winning the 100 m and 200 m freestyle in times of 49 @.@ 24 s and 1 min 46 @.@ 42 s respectively . He expressed disappointment with his performances ; he speculated that he may have misjudged his new training schedule and anticipated further improvement .
Soon after , Thorpe announced his withdrawal from the Commonwealth Games due to a bout of bronchitis , which had stopped him from training . Thorpe 's illness was later diagnosed as a strain of glandular fever , and after a further delay caused by a broken hand , he moved to the United States in July to work with Dave Salo . Further disruption followed when the Australian switched coaches , citing excessive and ongoing media attention . Thorpe 's stay was constantly surrounded by rumours that he was suffering from ill discipline ; this fuelled speculation that his international career was on the decline .
Upon his return to Australia , Thorpe withdrew from the selection trials for the 2007 World Championships and announced his retirement on 21 November 2006 . Thorpe said that he had been contemplating retirement for some time , but was afraid of the future because swimming had given him a " safety blanket " . Thorpe stated that he retired despite reaching higher levels of fitness , noting " As I got fit , physically fit , my mind also got fit " . He said a clear mind allowed him to reach his decision . He was close to tears when thanking the Australian public , but declared that his retirement was a " joyous " occasion of celebration .
= = = 2011 : Attempted qualification for 2012 Olympics = = =
On 1 February 2011 , Ian Thorpe announced that he would try to qualify for the 2012 Olympics in London . Thorpe 's major focus was the 100 m and 200 m freestyle at 2012 's trials , stating he could offer the most value to the Australian team in the relays . He would not swim the 400 m , claiming he would not have enough time to build up endurance for that event . This led many to see a renewed rivalry with Michael Phelps .
Thorpe swam the 100 m butterfly and 100 m medley in Singapore ( 4 – 5 November ) and Beijing ( 8 – 9 November ) before also taking on the 100 m freestyle in the Tokyo ( 12 – 13 November ) round of the 2011 FINA Swimming World Cup .
= = = 2012 : Australian Olympic Trials = = =
Thorpe 's comeback attempt in the 200 m freestyle came to an abrupt end on day 2 of Australia 's Olympic Trials in Adelaide , on 16 March 2012 . No longer allowed to wear the full @-@ body racing suit ( covering from neck to ankles and wrists ) with which he set all of his world records – but are now banned by FINA rule changes – he competed wearing just the " jammer " ( hip to thigh ) racing shorts . He swam very well in the morning heats , cruising to 1 : 49 @.@ 18 , a time which placed him equal fifth fastest . However , in the semi @-@ finals that evening he faded over the last 100 meters , finishing in 12th place at 1 : 49 @.@ 91 . Speaking to reporters immediately afterwards , Thorpe said , " The last 100 was a struggle , I 'm not sure why . This was slower than what I swam this morning , probably the inexperience of racing in the last 18 months held me up . The fairytale has turned into a nightmare . " In the 100 m freestyle on day 3 ( 17 March ) , Thorpe won his heat ( the 9th of 12 ) but failed to break 50 seconds and did not advance to the semi @-@ finals with the top 16 sprinters . Thus , his bid to qualify for the London Olympics officially ended .
Thorpe spoke to reporters after his 100 m race , saying : " When I started this I wanted to get back into the pool . I wanted to start racing again , I wanted to be competitive again and I wanted to go to the Olympics . I still want to do all of those things . I 've missed out on what was a huge goal for me to accomplish in this short period of time , but still the desire I had previous to this , it 's still there . " Essentially saying that his ( relatively ) slow times in the 100 and 200 meters were the result of too short a period to train and prepare , Thorpe announced he will continue training , setting as his ( new ) goal qualifying for the World Championships in 2013 .
During the 2012 Olympic Games , Thorpe worked as a pundit for BBC Television .
= = Athletic attributes = =
Thorpe 's success has been attributed to his work ethic , mental strength , powerful kick , ability to accelerate and a physiology suited to swimming . This led former Australian head coach Don Talbot to label him as " the greatest swimmer the world has seen " . Although Swimming World labelled Thorpe 's technique as " extraordinary " and " superior " , Talbot disagreed , stating his belief that Thorpe relied on his kick too heavily at the expense of his arms . He also cited Thorpe 's ability to manage his workload and his day @-@ to @-@ day recovery between races during a meet as a deficiency . Thorpe was known for using his trademark six @-@ beat kick to power away from his rivals in the closing stages of races , the effectiveness of which was attributed to his unusually large size 17 feet .
Following his retirement , head coach of the US men 's swimming team Bob Bowman — who also mentors Michael Phelps — called Thorpe " the greatest middle @-@ distance swimmer of all time and ... the greatest relay swimmer I have seen " . Bowman further cited Thorpe 's ability to raise the profile and popularity of swimming , noting that Phelps ' public image was modelled on that of the Australian . Australian Olympic Committee President John Coates stated that " In 50 years from now Australians will still marvel at the feats of Ian Thorpe " . Dawn Fraser , the first of only two swimmers to win the same Olympic event three times , said that Thorpe was the " greatest [ freestyle ] swimmer in the world " , and lamented that he would not be attempting a hat @-@ trick of 400 m titles .
= = Honours = =
Aside from his swimming achievements , Thorpe has received numerous honours and accolades during his life .
2014 : Conferred an honorary Doctor of Letters by the Macquarie University in recognition of his extraordinary contribution for the sport , philanthropy and Indigenous rights .
2013 : Conferred an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Western Sydney for his support for health and education services for Indigenous youth .
2012 : Awarded Human Rights Medal for his charity work with Indigenous children .
2007 : Ian Thorpe Aquatic and Fitness Centre in Ultimo , Sydney named in his honour .
2001 : Awarded Medal of the Order of Australia ( OAM ) for service to sport as a gold medallist at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games .
2000 : Young Australian of the Year
= = Personal life = =
= = = Sexuality = = =
In a July 2014 televised interview with British talk show host Michael Parkinson Thorpe came out as gay , after years of denying his homosexuality publicly . He stated " I 'm comfortable saying I 'm a gay man . And I don 't want people to feel the same way I did . You can grow up , you can be comfortable and you can be gay . " He added " I am telling the world that I am gay … and I hope this makes it easier for others now , and even if you 've held it in for years , it feels easier to get it out . "
= = = Sponsorship = = =
Thorpe is known for his interests in fashion , and serves as an ambassador for Armani , and has his own line of designer jewellery and underwear . During his career , Thorpe was one of the most prominent and popular sportspeople in Australia . Despite competing in a sport in which the vast majority of international athletes ' earnings are below the poverty line , marketing surveys consistently ranked Thorpe as the most sought @-@ after Australian athlete for sponsorship deals , surpassing footballers who compete on a weekly basis in much larger stadia . Aside from his swimsuit sponsor Adidas , Thorpe was sponsored by Australian corporate giants such as Qantas , Telstra , and the Seven Network .
Thorpe 's interests in fashion and culture led him to make frequent visits to New York City — which he describes as a second home — often for engagements with Armani and particularly because of the city 's status as a global fashion capital . He was present at the World Trade Center on the morning of 11 September 2001 , having stopped there on his jog , before returning to his hotel after forgetting his camera . It was during this trip that he appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , which was notable because of the relative lack of interest in competitive swimming in America . Thorpe later became a spokesperson for the unsuccessful New York bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics , even promising to continue his career until the games if New York won the hosting rights . Thorpe 's interests have also seen him involved in television . In 2002 , he played the lead role in the reality television show Undercover Angels , which imitated the Charlie 's Angels series . In the program , Thorpe directed three young women who performed good deeds for people in need . Although it averaged more than a million viewers per episode , it was widely panned by critics . Thorpe has also appeared as an extra in the American sitcom Friends .
Thorpe is widely popular in Asia , particularly Japan . In 2000 , TV Asahi identified him as the swimmer likely to be the most successful at the 2001 World Championships in Fukuoka , so they selected him as the event 's marketing figurehead . In the lead @-@ up , Thorpe visited Japan to promote Asahi in a series of television events , and upon returning for the competition , he was mobbed at the airport by youthful crowds 25 m deep ; hundreds camped outside the Australian team 's hotel . He was also praised by older sections of Japanese society as a role model for youth , due to what they interpreted as his humility and work ethic . It was estimated that more than 80 % of the Japanese public watched his races on television . In 2002 , in the wake of a tourism slump after 11 September terrorist attacks , Thorpe agreed to be an ambassador for the Australian Tourism Commission in Japan . The high @-@ profile campaign included a meeting with the Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi . The marketing drive resulted in an upturn in Japanese tourism to Australia , which was credited to Thorpe . In 2005 , Yakult released a ' Thorpedo ' energy drink — which featured a picture of the swimmer on the bottle — in Japan . This was part of an equity deal with the So Natural food group , in which Thorpe was given a 5 % stake in the company — at the time worth A $ 1 @.@ 1 m — in return for the use of his name and image on their products . The 15 @-@ year deal covers East and Southeast Asia and Thorpe 's share in the venture could increase to 50 % depending on its success .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
More recently , Thorpe has also emerged as a philanthropist , starting the charity Ian Thorpe 's Fountain for Youth in 2000 . The organisation raises funds for research into childhood illnesses and sponsors a school in Beijing for orphaned children with disabilities . In addition , it works with The Fred Hollows Foundation to improve health standards and living conditions in Australian aboriginal communities . Citing a wish to " ... work directly with our Aboriginal partners and not compete for the meagre funding available from public and corporate donations " the organisation was liquidated in 2014 .
= = = Depression = = =
In 2014 , it was confirmed that Thorpe had been admitted to a rehabilitation clinic after neighbours found him dazed near his parents ' Panania home . Thorpe was taken to Bankstown Hospital by police before being admitted to a rehabilitation clinic . In his 2012 autobiography This is Me , Thorpe stated he had considered suicide and had drunk ' huge quantities ' of alcohol to deal with ' crippling depression ' .
= = Published works = =
Thorpe , Ian ; Wainwright , Robert , 1961- ( 2012 ) . This is Me . Simon and Schuster Australia . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4711 @-@ 0122 @-@ 9 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
= Theobald of Bec =
Theobald of Bec ( c . 1090 – 18 April 1161 ) , sometimes known as Tedbald , was archbishop of Canterbury from 1139 to 1161 . He was a Norman ; his exact birth date is unknown . Some time in the late 11th or early 12th century Theobald became a monk at the Abbey of Bec , rising to the position of abbot in 1137 . King Stephen of England chose him to be Archbishop of Canterbury in 1138 . Canterbury 's claim to primacy over the Welsh ecclesiastics was resolved during Theobald 's term of office when Pope Eugene III decided in 1148 in Canterbury 's favour . Theobald faced challenges to his authority from a subordinate bishop , Henry of Blois , Bishop of Winchester and King Stephen 's younger brother , and his relationship with King Stephen was turbulent . On one occasion Stephen forbade him from attending a papal council , but Theobald defied the king , which resulted in the confiscation of his property and temporary exile . Theobald 's relations with his cathedral clergy and the monastic houses in his archdiocese were also difficult .
Serving during the disorders of Stephen 's reign , Theobald succeeded in forcing peace on the king by refusing to consecrate Stephen 's son and heir , Eustace . After Eustace 's death in 1153 , Stephen recognised his rival Henry of Anjou as his heir , and later Theobald was named regent of the kingdom after Stephen 's death . After a long illness , Theobald died in 1161 , following which unsuccessful efforts were made to have him canonised as a saint .
Theobald was the patron of his successor Thomas Becket , and a number of other future bishops and archbishops served as his clerks . During his time as archbishop Theobald augmented the rights of his see , or bishopric . Historians of his time and later were divided on his character and he is often overlooked in the historical record , mainly because of the fame of his successor .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Theobald 's family was from the area around Thierville near Le Bec @-@ Hellouin , in the Risle River valley . The modern historian Frank Barlow speculates that Theobald may have been a distant relative of his successor as archbishop , Thomas Becket , as Becket 's family came from the same part of Normandy . The exact date of Theobald 's birth is unknown ; the only clue to his age is that when he died in 1161 contemporaries considered him an old man , suggesting a birth date of perhaps around 1090 to one modern historian . His father was supposedly a knight , but no contemporary reference gives his name . His brother Walter also became a priest , and later a bishop .
Theobald entered the Abbey of Bec in Normandy as a Benedictine monk in the late 11th or early 12th century , while William was the third abbot . But as William was abbot from 1096 to 1124 , that leaves a wide range of possible entry dates . Theobald was the 266th monk admitted under William , out of 346 . The historian Avrom Saltman suggests that , if admissions were spaced regularly throughout William 's abbacy , Theobald would have become a monk in about 1117 , but qualifies his estimate with the statement that 1117 " seems to be rather late " .
= = = Life at Bec = = =
In 1127 Theobald was made prior of Bec , after Boso succeeded William as abbot . Theobald became abbot in 1137 , following Boso 's death in June 1136 . The monks of Bec unanimously elected him to be their new abbot without first consulting the Archbishop of Rouen , Hugh de Boves , who consequently threatened to void the result . Audoen , the Bishop of Evreux , and brother of Thurstan , the Archbishop of York , intervened with Hugh and persuaded him to ratify the election . Another problem then arose when Hugh demanded a written profession of obedience from Theobald , which Theobald refused to provide ; no previous abbot had made such a profession . Theobald resisted for 14 months before a compromise was reached through the intercession of Peter the Venerable , Abbot of Cluny , allowing Theobald to give a verbal profession to Hugh .
No documents survive from Theobald 's tenure as abbot , nor is there any information on the administration of the monastery during his period of office , except that 47 monks were admitted to Bec while he was abbot . Theobald travelled to England on business for his abbey at least once during his abbacy , to supervise the monastery 's lands in England , a trip that took place shortly before his selection as the new Archbishop of Canterbury in 1138 .
= = = Appointment to Canterbury = = =
In 1138 King Stephen chose Theobald to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury over Stephen 's own brother Henry , the Bishop of Winchester , who had helped Stephen gain the throne of England . Stephen feared that Henry would be too powerful as archbishop , and would attempt to control the king . The election took place on 24 December ; Stephen was present with the papal legate , Alberic of Ostia , and a small group of barons and bishops , but Henry was absent overseeing the ordination of deacons . Most historians consider that Stephen arranged the election 's timing to ensure Henry 's absence . Henry believed that Theobald had been elected not only because of Stephen 's concerns but also because Waleran of Meulan , the lay patron of Bec , was attempting to put his own man in one of the most powerful positions in England . Waleran and his twin brother Robert , Earl of Leicester , were Henry 's chief rivals for Stephen 's favour , and Henry disliked both of them intensely . Although Theobald was pious and well @-@ educated , he had only become abbot the year before , and his election was probably influenced by the reputation of his monastery , which had already produced two archbishops of Canterbury , Lanfranc and Anselm . Theobald had no important family connections to advance his career , and few clerical allies .
= = Archbishop = =
= = = Early years = = =
Theobald was consecrated on 8 January 1139 by the legate , Alberic of Ostia . He went to Rome for his pallium and took part in the Second Lateran Council . As archbishop his behaviour was less political in comparison to that of his main rival , Henry of Blois . Henry was appointed a papal legate on 1 March 1139 , which meant that Henry could now call church councils in England and had power equal to or exceeding that of Theobald . Theobald swore fealty to Stephen upon his election to Canterbury , recognising Stephen as the king of England .
Soon after his election Theobald selected his brother Walter to be archdeacon of Canterbury , and in 1148 promoted him to be Bishop of Rochester . Theobald attended the council held by Stephen in June 1139 that deprived Roger of Salisbury , Bishop of Salisbury , and his nephews Nigel , Bishop of Ely , and Alexander , Bishop of Lincoln , of their castles . According to most historians , Theobald took little part in the controversy that followed the council , which eventually ended with Roger 's death in 1139 and Nigel and Alexander 's restoration to favour . Recently however , that view has been challenged by two historians who argue that Theobald took a more active role in the council . They base their view on a Vita , or Life of the 12th @-@ century mystic Christina of Markyate , which narrates the events and gives a more central role to Theobald , instead of Henry of Blois , in challenging Stephen 's arrest of the three bishops .
= = = Civil war = = =
Theobald 's actions in the next few years are intertwined with the history of Stephen 's ascension to the throne . Following King Henry I 's death in 1135 the succession was disputed between the king 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the German Emperor , Henry V. King Henry 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father , who married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but when Henry I died , Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald II or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald II contented himself with his possessions in France . But Matilda was not resigned to the loss , and secured the support of the Scottish king , David , her maternal uncle , and in 1138 the support of her half @-@ brother , Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I.
After the Battle of Lincoln in 1141 , with Stephen in captivity in Bristol , Theobald did not immediately join the Empress . He claimed that he needed to talk to Stephen before switching his oath of fealty . After consulting in person with Stephen , he secured permission to accept the current conditions , and then joined Henry of Blois , who had switched sides , at Winchester in April for a legatine council held to depose Stephen and crown Matilda as queen . Attendance at the council was sparse however , and the Empress could not be crowned because she did not hold London . After the unsuccessful attempt to crown Matilda , those gathered at Winchester had to flee before Stephen 's forces ; one of Matilda 's chief supporters , her half @-@ brother Robert of Gloucester , was captured . During their flight Theobald and his fellow bishops were robbed of their horses and ecclesiastical vestments . Theobald then took a leading part in the negotiations that led to the exchange of Robert for Stephen , which happened in November 1141 . Henry of Blois , having switched sides again , then held another legatine council in Westminster , which reaffirmed Stephen as king . Theobald ceremonially crowned Stephen at Canterbury during the Christmas court held there .
Matilda remained in England until 1148 . The disorders were at their peak between 1142 and 1148 , but her cause could never secure enough support to enable her to be crowned . Nor could Stephen decisively defeat Matilda 's forces , which meant that England remained divided in allegiance between the two rivals . But while Matilda was in England , her husband Geoffrey was conquering Normandy , which he finally overran in 1144 .
= = = Difficulties with Henry of Blois = = =
Theobald 's dealings with Henry of Blois , the Bishop of Winchester , his suffragan bishop , were strained because of Henry 's position as papal legate . Henry supported the appointment of William FitzHerbert as Archbishop of York in 1141 , which Theobald opposed . Although Theobald spoke out against the manner of election , he took little active part in the subsequent electoral disputes , which resulted eventually in the deposition of FitzHerbert and his replacement at York by Henry Murdac . But in September 1143 , Henry 's legatine powers lapsed when Pope Innocent II , who had made the legatine appointment , died . Celestine II was elected on 26 September 1143 , but he was an opponent of Stephen , and thus was not favourably inclined towards Stephen 's brother Henry either . To secure appointment as legate , Theobald travelled to Rome in December 1143 , arriving shortly before Celestine 's death on 8 March 1144 . Theobald was probably accompanied by Nigel , Bishop of Ely , and Roger de Clinton , Bishop of Coventry . Before his death , Celestine forbade Theobald " to allow any change to be made in the position of the English crown , since the transfer of it had been justly denounced , and the matter was still under dispute " . This became the papal policy , and was a significant change from the recognition of Stephen as king by Pope Innocent II soon after Stephen 's coronation in 1135 . It essentially forbade Theobald from crowning any successor to Stephen , especially while Stephen was still alive .
After Celestine 's death Theobald returned to England , stopping at St Denis Abbey in Paris to help Suger , the abbot , consecrate the newly rebuilt abbey church and its altars . Theobald was the only bishop present at the ceremony whose diocese was not in France . Meanwhile , Henry of Blois had arrived in Rome and begun negotiations with the new pope , Lucius II , over the elevation of the bishopric of Winchester to an archbishopric . It appears that Lucius appointed a legate , Cardinal Icmar , the Bishop of Tusculum , to travel to England and oversee the project , but Lucius died before anything was accomplished .
= = = Disputes with Stephen = = =
Theobald was back in Paris in May 1147 to meet with the new pope , Eugene III ; among the issues probably discussed was Theobald 's dispute with Bernard of St David 's . Relations at this time between Theobald and Stephen seem to have been good , but when Eugene summoned the English bishops to the Council of Rheims in April 1148 the king forbade all of them from attending except for three he nominated : Chichester , Hereford and Norwich . Despite having been specifically refused permission Theobald sneaked away in a fishing boat , presumably accompanied by Gilbert Foliot , who attended the council with him . Theobald had a number of reasons for defying the king : chiefly his obedience to the pope 's order commanding his attendance , but also to keep the papacy from favouring the newly elected Archbishop of York , Henry Murdac , in the disputes between York and Canterbury . Murdac was known to be close to his fellow Cistercian Eugene .
Bethune , the Bishop of Hereford , died during the council , and Eugene nominated Foliot as his successor at Theobald 's urging . One of the council 's last acts was to suspend the non @-@ attending bishops from their offices . The only English bishop specifically named was Henry of Blois , but the others who did not attend were presumably also suspended although not named . Henry of Blois was singled out for special handling , as the papacy ordered that he could not be reinstated by Theobald ; Eugene reserved to himself the power to restore Henry . Theobald appears to have reinstated most of the bishops quickly , as Foliot wrote later in 1148 that only the bishops of Winchester , Durham , Worcester , Bath and Exeter were still suspended . Theobald forgave the bishops of Exeter , Worcester and Bath on 11 November 1148 , according to the later chronicler Gervase of Canterbury . Gervase also lists Hilary of Chichester as one of those forgiven by Theobald on that date , but as Hilary attended the council it is likely that this is an error . Durham may have been omitted because he was a suffragan bishop of the Archbishop of York , and his reinstatement was in his archbishop 's hands .
The king was angry with Theobald for attending the council , even though the archbishop intervened with Eugene , who was displeased with the king for forbidding the bishops ' attendance . Theobald persuaded Eugene against excommunicating Stephen , asking the pope to allow the king to make amends for his behaviour . But Stephen was unimpressed with Theobald 's intercession ; he confiscated Theobald 's property and banished the archbishop . In September 1148 , the pope put England under interdict , which was ignored except in Canterbury . At first Theobald was in exile at St Omer , where he consecrated Gilbert Foliot as Bishop of Hereford . He then returned to England and set himself up in Framlingham , which was held by Hugh Bigod , an adherent of the Empress . From there he conducted the ecclesiastical business of England , but Theobald 's presence in the country posed a threat to Stephen 's authority , and Stephen quickly settled the differences between the two .
Henry of Blois had lost his legateship before Celestine became pope , but it was not until about 1150 that Theobald was appointed legate by Eugene III , perhaps owing to the exhortations of Bernard of Clairvaux . Theobald held the legatine powers in England until his death in 1161 . In 1151 Theobald held a legatine council in London . The council was attended by the king and Eustace , the king 's eldest son , as well as other members of the nobility . The council decreed eight canons , or ecclesiastical statutes , including ones condemning the pillaging of church properties and the imposition of financial levies on the clergy . Another canon of the council stated that bishops should no longer pursue violators of church property in the royal courts , but should use ecclesiastical courts instead . The other canons dealt with procedural matters arising from excommunications for abusing church property .
The next year , the archbishop refused to crown Eustace and was again exiled by Stephen , who was attempting to secure the succession for his son by imitating the Capetian dynasty of France , which usually saw the king 's heir crowned during his father 's lifetime . Although Theobald claimed papal authority for refusal , based on the prohibition by Celestine , it was more probable that he and the bishops had no desire to prolong the civil war . Stephen demanded in April 1152 that Theobald crown Eustace , but the archbishop once again refused , and went into exile in Flanders . Theobald claimed that Stephen had gained the throne through perjury , implying that if the archbishop crowned Eustace , Theobald would be perpetuating this crime . The king and the archbishop reached a truce in August .
In January 1153 Henry of Anjou , Matilda 's son , invaded England in pursuit of his claim to the throne , and with the death of Eustace in August 1153 , Stephen gave up . Theobald was instrumental in the negotiations between Henry and Stephen that resulted in the Treaty of Wallingford , securing Henry 's succession to the throne . Theobald was also present when Henry of Anjou met with Stephen 's second son William , probably after Eustace 's death , to settle William 's lands and status after Henry succeeded Stephen . Pope Eugene III forced Stephen to reverse the sentence of banishment , and Theobald returned to his see . Later it was mainly Theobald and Henry of Blois who negotiated the treaty ending the civil war , as neither Stephen nor Henry of Anjou was interested in a compromise . Henry of Blois and Theobald , who had previously found working together difficult , managed to secure an end to the disorders in England .
= = = Under Henry II = = =
Theobald was present at Stephen 's deathbed in October 1154 , and Stephen named him as regent until Henry could take up the crown . During the six weeks before Henry arrived , the archbishop had little difficulty in keeping the peace . After Henry 's arrival , Theobald crowned Henry and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine on 19 December 1154 at Westminster Abbey .
For most of the remainder of Theobald 's life he was occupied with ecclesiastical affairs in his diocese , as well as attending the royal court when Henry was in England . In January 1155 Theobald helped to secure the Chancellorship for his protégé , Thomas Becket , an action that Barlow speculates happened because Theobald hoped to secure more influence with the king through Becket . If this was his hope , Barlow notes that it did not materialise . Although the king and the archbishop occasionally clashed when their interests conflicted , both appear to have wished to minimise the disputes and were willing to compromise to secure good relations . As an example , when Pope Adrian IV died in September 1159 , two rival claimants for the papal throne emerged . King Henry , following the custom of his grandfather Henry I , forbade the bishops from recognising either claimant . Eventually , after Henry weighed the political factors , he recognised Pope Alexander III , and it was only then that Theobald also recognised Alexander as pope .
However , not everything was always harmonious between the king and the archbishop . In 1156 , Theobald supported the efforts of Osbert de Bayeux , who was accused of poisoning William the Archbishop of York , to secure a trial for his alleged crimes in an ecclesiastical court rather than in the royal court . The crime had taken place during Stephen 's reign , but Stephen 's death had prevented Osbert from being tried in 1154 . The delay allowed the shifting of the trial to the church courts , which Henry opposed . Although Theobald 's position displeased the king no open rupture ensued . Theobald himself admitted to the papacy in 1154 that English custom was to try clergy for crimes in the secular courts .
Theobald called a church council at London in June 1160 , which dealt partly with the issues of the papal schism ; his health was poor and he had to be taken to the council in a litter . A further cause of distress to Theobald was what he saw as the ingratitude of Becket , who did not visit the ailing archbishop .
= = = Relations with his cathedral clergy = = =
Theobald 's cathedral chapter was composed of monks , and he was considered the abbot of the monastery of Christ Church Cathedral . Because of his episcopal duties , the regular running of the cathedral was the responsibility of the prior . At the time of Theobald 's election there were about 140 monks in the chapter , and they seem to have expected that Theobald , being a monk himself , would take their side in disputes and continue to support their needs . Theobald began well , sending a party of monks from the cathedral to St Martin 's Priory at Dover , which had been settled with canons instead of monks . Theobald replaced the canons with the monks . Theobald also refounded a collegiate church at South Malling near Lewes to provide benefices for his cathedral chapter .
Theobald worked with his first prior , Jeremiah , to eliminate clerical marriage in the diocese . But Jeremiah had been elected during the vacancy before Theobald 's election , and the monks had not secured papal permission for the election of a new prior , so eventually Theobald decided to remove Jeremiah and install his own choice as prior . Jeremiah appealed to the papacy , but Theobald deposed him while the appeal was ongoing , and appointed Walter Durdent as prior . Innocent II , however , appointed Henry of Blois to hear the case , and Henry sided with Jeremiah and ordered Jeremiah 's reinstatement . Theobald then refused to perform any services in the cathedral until Jeremiah was removed by the chapter . The lack of services would have deprived the monks of income , and Theobald 's threat had the desired effect , as Jeremiah resigned his office and left Christ Church for St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury . Durdent was reinstalled as prior and remained in that position until he became Bishop of Coventry in October 1149 .
At Easter , 1151 , Theobald took over the management of the chapter 's estates , as the new prior , Walter Parvus , was not up to the task . At first , there were no disputes , but soon the monks felt that Theobald was cheating them and imposing too rigorous a definition of poverty , and asked that the stewardship of the estates be restored to Parvus . Theobald refused and the monks attempted to appeal to the papacy . Their envoys , however , were caught by agents of the archbishop and the appeal went nowhere . Theobald then deposed Parvus and appointed a new prior . Theobald 's relations with the monks after this point seem to have been without incident .
= = = Relations with other monastic houses = = =
Theobald also had a dispute with St Augustine 's Abbey over the right of the archbishop to receive annual payments , and whether those payments were for sacraments performed by the archbishop , which would have been uncanonical , or were for other reasons . The dispute was eventually settled by a compromise in which St Augustine 's continued to make the payments but they were specifically stated not to be for sacraments . Another dispute with St Augustine 's concerned the right of the archbishops to have a say in the election of new abbots and whether or not the abbots would make a profession of obedience to the archbishops . This was eventually settled by a papal mandate of 1144 instructing the abbots to profess obedience .
The conflict re @-@ surfaced in 1149 , when some of the monks of St Augustine 's , led by their prior and sacrist , refused to obey the interdict placed on England by Theobald and Pope Eugene III . Theobald had the two officials excommunicated and publicly flogged . When the previous abbot of St Augustine 's died in 1151 , the prior , Silvester , paid the king for the right to administer the abbey and to hold a free election for a new abbot . The monks then proceeded to elect Silvester as the new abbot , but Theobald refused to confirm the election , accusing Silvester of buying the office . Eventually , however , Pope Eugene III ordered Theobald to allow Silvester to take up the office , which Theobald did in August 1152 . Theobald and St Augustine 's also came into conflict over the abbey 's claims of exemption from the archbishops ' oversight , because it owed obedience directly to the pope . Papal documents held at Rome backed the abbey , but there were no English royal charters that gave the abbey its liberty from the archbishops . Theobald attempted to end the confusion by legal actions both at Rome and in England , but the record was mixed . The documents at Rome clearly favoured the abbey , but at a royal council held at Northampton in 1157 , Henry II ruled in favour of Theobald . As part of the settlement Silvester , as abbot , was required to make a formal profession of obedience to Theobald , something he had been attempting to avoid since his election . The struggle with Silvester was just one event in the long history of the dispute between Canterbury and St Augustine 's .
As well as St Augustine 's , the abbots of a number of other monasteries in the diocese of Canterbury are known to have professed obedience to Theobald , as the documents recording the events survive . Not only abbots and priors from within Canterbury , but some from other dioceses swore to obey Theobald , although normally such oaths would have gone to their diocesan bishop instead . Most of these exceptions occurred because the monastic house claimed exemption from the oversight of their diocesan bishop , and had a tradition of making those oaths to Canterbury instead . Besides these events , Theobald also intervened in the elections of some abbots , although not always successfully . He attempted to secure the right of Gilbert Foliot to remain Abbot of Gloucester after Foliot 's election as Bishop of Hereford , but a new abbot was elected by the monks of Gloucester . Theobald was more successful in securing the election of William , who had previously been a monk at Christ Church , to be Abbot of Evesham over the objections of some of the monks of Evesham .
Theobald also became embroiled in the dispute between Hilary , the Bishop of Chichester , and Walter de Lucy , the abbot of Battle Abbey , over Hilary 's claims to jurisdiction over the abbey and the abbey 's counter @-@ claims that it was exempt from episcopal supervision . The abbey had never received a papal exemption , but relied instead on its royal foundation by King William I of England and its status as an eigenkirche , or proprietary church of the king . Under King Stephen , the abbey 's claims prevailed , but after Stephen 's death Hilary excommunicated the abbot , who appealed to the papacy . Theobald supported the bishop , who eventually secured a trial before King Henry II . It was a minor setback for Theobald when the case was eventually decided in Battle 's favour , mainly on the basis of charters that were thought at the time to be genuine , but modern historians have come to believe were forged .
= = = Relations with other bishops = = =
Theobald was instrumental in securing the subordination of the Welsh bishoprics to Canterbury . His first act in this area was the consecration of Meurig as Bishop of Bangor in 1140 , during which Meurig made a profession of obedience like those made by other bishops subject to Canterbury . Bernard , Bishop of St David 's , contested Theobald 's right to consecrate Meurig and instead asserted that St David 's should be considered an archbishopric , and that Bernard should receive a pallium . This went against the last half @-@ century of precedent that Canterbury had jurisdiction over the four Welsh sees , a precedent that dated back to Anselm 's days when Anselm had consecrated Urban as Bishop of Llandaff in 1107 .
Also in 1140 , Theobald consecrated Uhtred as Bishop of Llandaff , with Uhtred also swearing to obey Theobald . Likewise , when Theobald consecrated Gilbert as Bishop of St Asaph in 1142 , a similar profession of obedience was made . Along with these consecrations , Theobald 's legal efforts enabled him to withstand the attempts of Bernard to turn St David 's into an archbishopric , and when Bernard was succeeded by David fitzGerald in 1148 , Theobald secured the new bishop 's profession of obedience to Canterbury , thus ending the efforts to remove Wales from Canterbury 's jurisdiction . Also in 1148 , Pope Eugene decided in favour of Canterbury and against the claims of St David 's , securing Canterbury 's jurisdiction over Wales .
Theobald even maintained the theoretical claim of Canterbury to jurisdiction over Irish sees by consecrating Patrick as Bishop of Limerick in 1140 . That , however , was the last assertion of the claim , as in 1152 the papal legate Giovanni Paparo reorganised the Irish dioceses and settled the issue by appointing the Archbishop of Armagh the primate of Ireland .
Relations with bishops in England remained good , with little activity in the long @-@ running Canterbury – York dispute over the primacy of Britain . Theobald obtained a vague confirmation of his see 's primacy from Celestine II in 1143 – 1144 , but at the Council of Reims in 1148 Eugene clarified that this primacy did not affect the claims of York to be independent of Canterbury . Because of the unsettled election disputes during the 1140s over the see of York , when it was contested between William of York and Henry Murdac , Theobald faced little challenge from either William or Murdac as to the traditional dispute between Canterbury and York . When William of York died in 1154 , Theobald secured York for his protégé , Roger de Pont L 'Evêque . Further peace between the two sees was ensured when Theobald consecrated Roger without requiring a profession of obedience , which had previously been a major bone of contention between the two .
= = = Patronage and household = = =
Theobald 's household included many young men of ability , including his successor Thomas Becket . Theobald was instrumental in the early spread of Roman law to England , inviting the Bologna @-@ schooled jurist Vacarius to join his administration and advise on legal matters . Whether Vacarius actually started a school in Theobald 's household is unclear , but in the 1140s he taught briefly at Oxford . Theobald was instrumental in fostering the teaching of canon law in England ; the conflict that later arose between Henry II and Thomas Becket had its roots in disputes that were exposed during Theobald 's time in office . While still in Normandy , Theobald had made an intense study of ecclesiastical or canon law , which he continued after being elected archbishop .
Although Theobald was a monk , his episcopal household was not monastic in character . As he settled into the role of archbishop , he seems to have left most of his monastic habits behind , although he continued to have a monk as a companion . His nephews and brother benefited from his nepotism , with his nephews becoming part of his household early in his archepiscopate . The four nephews — Guillaume , Gilbert , Roger and Lechard — were witnesses to a charter of Theobald 's dated to about 1150 or 1153 . After Theobald 's death , Guillaume was a clerk in Bartholomew , the Bishop of Exeter 's household in around 1172 .
Another charter of Theobald 's from about 1152 shows the usual household staff that surrounded him . It was witnessed by the archbishop 's crossbearer , three of Theobald 's nephews and the clerk who presumably was in charge of them , a chancellor , two chaplains who were monks , a butler , dispenser , chamberlain , steward , cook , usher , porter and marshal . Theobald also at about the same time granted a mill to his baker named William and some lands to his cook William and the cook 's heirs .
Theobald was the patron of three eminent men : Becket , Vacarius , and John of Salisbury . John of Salisbury was secretary to Theobald for many years , and after Theobald 's death became Bishop of Chartres . It was during John 's time as secretary that he wrote his two most famous works , the Policraticus and the Metalogicon . Others who studied for a time in Theobald 's household were Roger de Pont L 'Evêque , later Archbishop of York , John Belemis , later Archbishop of Lyons , John de Pageham , later Bishop of Worcester , Bartholomew Iscanus , later Bishop of Exeter , William of Northall , later Bishop of Worcester , and William de Vere , later Bishop of Hereford . In all , his household produced three archbishops and six bishops . The household itself , although not formally a school , acted as one , with many going on to careers in the church .
= = Death and legacy = =
Theobald died on 18 April 1161 , after a long illness , at his palace in Canterbury . He was buried in Canterbury Cathedral , in the Holy Trinity Chapel , near the tomb of Archbishop Lanfranc . His coffin was opened in 1190 during repairs to the cathedral and his body was found to be uncorrupted , but efforts to secure his canonisation as a saint on the basis of that evidence were unsuccessful . He was reburied in the nave near the altar to St Mary , with his old marble tomb replaced above his new resting place . In 1787 his lead coffin was found in Canterbury .
Although Theobald was troubled by the opposition of his suffragan Henry of Blois , he regained control of the English Church , secured the rights of his see , and helped maintain the unity of the realm . Contemporaries were somewhat divided on his effectiveness and personality . Gervase of Canterbury felt that he was too impetuous , probably because of Theobald 's treatment of his priors at Christ Church . Henry of Huntingdon , who knew him , felt that he was a worthy archbishop . Theobald 's legacy perhaps suffered because he was overshadowed by his successor , Becket . Modern historians have been kinder than his contemporaries ; Frank Barlow says of Theobald that he was " an upright man , but quick tempered , and sometimes spoke far too rashly " .
= The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher =
The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher is a children 's book , written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter . It was published by Frederick Warne & Co. in July 1906 . Jeremy 's origin lies in a letter she wrote to a child in 1893 . She revised it in 1906 , and moved its setting from the River Tay to the English Lake District . The tale reflects her love for the Lake District and her admiration for children 's illustrator Randolph Caldecott .
Jeremy Fisher is a frog who lives in a " slippy @-@ sloppy " house at the edge of a pond . One rainy day he collects worms for fishing , and sets off across the pond on his lily @-@ pad boat . He plans to invite his friends for dinner if he catches more than five minnows . He encounters all sorts of setbacks to his goal , and escapes a large trout who tries to swallow him . He swims for shore , decides he will not go fishing again , and hops home .
Potter 's tale pays homage to the leisurely summers her father and his companions passed sport fishing at rented country estates in Scotland . Following the tale 's publication , a child fan wrote Potter suggesting Jeremy find a wife . Potter responded with a series of miniature letters on the theme as if from Jeremy and his pals . After Potter 's death in 1943 , licences were issued to various firms to produce the Potter characters . Jeremy and his friends were released as porcelain figurines , plush toys , and other merchandise .
= = Plot = =
Jeremy Fisher is a frog who lives in a damp little house amongst the buttercups at the edge of a pond . His larder and back passage are " slippy @-@ sloppy " with water , but he likes getting his feet wet ; no one ever scolds and he never catches cold . One day , Jeremy finds it raining and decides to go fishing . Should he catch more than five minnows , he will invite his friends to dinner . He puts on a Macintosh and shiny Galoshes , takes his rod and basket , and sets off with " enormous hops " to the place where he keeps his lily @-@ pad boat . He poles to a place he knows is good for minnows .
Once there , he sits cross @-@ legged on his lily @-@ pad and arranges his tackle . He has " the dearest little red float " . His rod is a stalk of grass and his line a horsehair . An hour passes without a nibble . He takes a break and lunches on a butterfly sandwich . A water beetle tweaks his toe causing him to withdraw his legs , and rats rustling about in the rushes force him to seek a safer location . He drops his line into the water and immediately has a bite . It is not a minnow but little Jack Sharp , a stickleback . The fish escapes but not before Jeremy pricks his fingers on Jack 's spines . A shoal of little fishes come to the surface to laugh at Jeremy .
Jeremy sucks his sore fingers , but a trout rises from the water and seizes him with a snap ( Mr. Jeremy screams , " OW @-@ OW @-@ OW ! ! ! " ) . The trout dives to the bottom , but finds the Macintosh tasteless and spits Jeremy out , swallowing only his goloshes . Jeremy bounces " up to the surface of the water , like a cork and the bubbles out of a soda water bottle " , and swims to the pond 's edge . He scrambles up the bank and hops home through the meadow , having lost his fishing equipment but quite sure he will never go fishing again .
In the last few pages , Jeremy has put sticking plaster on his fingers and welcomes his friends , Sir Isaac Newton , a newt , and Alderman Ptolemy Tortoise , a tortoise who eats salad . Isaac wears a black and gold waistcoat and Ptolemy brings a salad in a string bag . Jeremy has prepared roasted grasshopper with ladybird sauce . The narrator describes the dish as a " frog treat " , but thinks " it must have been nasty ! "
= = Background = =
In addition to the pet frogs of Potter 's youth , influences on Jeremy include Potter 's sport fishing father Rupert William Potter and illustrator Randolph Caldecott . Margaret Lane , author of The Magic Years of Beatrix Potter , notes , " Mr. Potter was fond of taking his friends fishing and Beatrix ... from an early age had been familiar with [ the ] hazards and excitements of angling and dry @-@ fly fishing ... as a girl [ she ] had often enough had to endure her father and his friends relating their fishing adventures , and the picture of Mr Jeremy Fisher retailing his mishap to Sir Isaac Newton is so rich in observation , both of amphibians and elderly gentlemen , that one is ever afterwards prone to confuse them in memory " . Mr. Potter not only fished for sport but collected the works of Randolph Caldecott . In Jeremy Fisher , Potter tried to copy Caldecott but felt she had failed . " I did try to copy Caldecott , " she stated , " but ... I did not achieve much resemblance . " Biographer Linda Lear writes Potter declared , " I have the greatest admiration for his work – a jealous appreciation ; for I think that others , whose names are commonly bracketed with his , are not on the same plane at all as artist @-@ illustrators " .
Potter biographer Linda Lear and author of Beatrix Potter : A Life in Nature writes :
[ Potter ] wanted to do a frog story for some time , because it was amusing and offered the opportunity for the naturalist illustrations she delighted in ... The story of a fisherman down on his luck reminded Beatrix of the ' fish stories ' her father 's friends had told in Scotland , as well as her brother 's travails with rod and reel . She also recreated the gentlemen 's club atmosphere absorbed from her father 's reports of evenings spent at the Reform and the Athenaeum ... The text and illustrations for this story are some of the most balanced and compatible of all her writing . Nature is described and illustrated truthfully : beautifully tranquil as well as unpredictably aggressive .... Its carefully coloured botanical backgrounds of water plants , a frog with anatomically correct turned @-@ out feet , a trout that any self @-@ respecting fisherman would enjoy snagging , and a rather frighteningly rendered water @-@ beetle who tweaks Jeremy 's dainty toes , all made it a delight to look at as well as to read .
= = Production = =
The origin of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher lies in a story letter Potter wrote to a child in September 1893 while summering on the River Tay . The following year , she created nine sketches called " A Frog he would a @-@ fishing go " and sold them to publisher Ernest Nister . They were released with verses by Clifton Bingham in 1896 .
Energized by the success of The Tale of Peter Rabbit in 1902 , Potter considered expanding the frog tale and bought back her drawings and the publisher 's printer 's blocks . She wrote her editor Norman Warne , " I should like to do Mr. Jeremy Fisher ... I think I can make something of him " . The tale was set aside while Potter and Warne developed other projects , but in 1905 he approved the frog tale . As Potter biographer Daphne Kutzner writes of Potter 's illustrations for Jeremy : " When she finally did the illustrations for the book , she changed the original background from the River Tay in Scotland to Eswaithe Water in the Lakes . The illustrations are indeed lovely , showing Potter 's skill both as a naturalist and a fantasist " .
In August 1905 , Norman Warne died , and his brother Harold became Potter 's editor . She wrote to him indicating Norman had approved the frog project : " We had thought of doing ... " Mr. Jeremy Fisher " to carry on the series of little [ books ] . I know some people don 't like frogs ! but I think I had convinced Norman that I could make it a really pretty book with a good many flowers & water plants for backgrounds " . Warne decided to put Jeremy Fisher into print .
In July 1906 , 20 @,@ 000 copies of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher were released in paper boards at a shilling and in decorated cloth at one shilling six pence in a small format . Another 5 @,@ 000 copies were published in September 1906 and another 5 @,@ 000 in September 1907 . The book was dedicated to Stephanie Hyde Parker , the daughter of Potter 's cousin Ethel , Lady Hyde Parker : " For Stephanie from Cousin B " . Jeremy sold as profitably as other Potter productions .
= = Themes and style = =
M. Daphne Kutzer , Professor of English at State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code , observes that the social positions of Jeremy and his friends are established through the clothing they wear . Although Potter sharply critiqued the upper class elsewhere , Kutzer observes that in Jeremy Fisher her tone is more moderate . She suggests that Potter 's relocation to Sawrey and Hill Top Farm may have produced in her a willingness " to accept the silliness of the aspiring middle class as well as the eccentricities of the upper classes " .
Ruth K. MacDonald , Professor of English at New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter points out that although Potter regarded the lives of her father and his friends as comical and even beneath notice , yet she clearly respected and valued their outdoor pursuits from the bemused treatment she accorded them in Jeremy Fisher . She valued nature untouched by humans even more , MacDonald notes , as evidenced by the careful observation in the illustrations . Jeremy Fisher was written without the many revisions typical of Potter 's other productions , and the pictures appear effortless in their execution . MacDonald writes , " Her ability to show human society without also implying its damaging effects on flora and fauna further underscores the book 's felicitous composition and success " .
Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes in Secret Gardens : The Golden Age of Children 's Literature the basis for Potter 's writing style can be found in the Authorized King James Version of the Bible . Jeremy Fisher reflects the characteristic cadence and " employs a psalm @-@ like caesura in the middle of [ a ] sentence " .
Carpenter sees in Potter 's work thematic shifts from the early work onward . In the first stage of her work , he sees in stories such as The Tale of Peter Rabbit a type of Jack @-@ the @-@ Giant @-@ Killer theme , in which a small creature confronts a large creature that he believes culminates in The Tale of Jeremy Fisher . Potter places Jeremy Fisher in a dangerous world , according to Carpenter . The fishing experience is frightening : the bank @-@ side creatures worry him , the stickleback threatens him directly , and the trout tries to swallow him . But Potter makes the point that all creatures are prey , ending the story with Jeremy Fisher himself eating a grasshopper smothered in lady @-@ bird sauce .
= = Miniature letters = =
About 1907 Potter created miniature letters delivered to child fans in either a miniature mail bag or a miniature mail box . " Some of the letters were very funny , " Potter wrote , " The defect was that inquiries and answers were all mixed up . "
Four Jeremy letters were written at about 1910 to Drew Fayle who thought Jeremy should marry . In one letter , Sir Isaac promises Master Fayle a piece of wedding cake should Jeremy marry and , in another letter , Ptolemy writes that Jeremy 's parties " would be much more agreeable if there were a lady to preside at the table . " Jeremy writes in the third letter : " When I bought my sprigged waistcoat & my maroon tail @-@ coat I had hopes ... but I am alone ... if there were a ' Mrs. Jeremy Fisher ' she might object to snails . It is some satisfaction to be able to have as much water & mud in the house as a person likes . "
Mrs. Tiggy @-@ winkle , a hedgehog washerwoman in another Potter tale , writes Master Fayle in the fourth letter :
Dear Master Drew ,
If you please Sir I am a widow ; & I think it very wrong that there is not any Mrs. Fisher , but I would not marry Mr. Jeremy not for worlds , the way he does live in that house all slippy @-@ sloppy ; not any lady would stand it , & not a bit of good starching his cravats .
Yr. obedient washerwoman ,
Tiggy Winkle .
= = Merchandise = =
The characters from Jeremy Fisher have appeared as porcelain figurines , plush toys , and other merchandise . In 1950 , Beswick Pottery issued a porcelain figurine of Jeremy and figurines of Isaac and Ptolemy in the 1970s . Other figurines of Jeremy have been produced over the years as well as a Jeremy mug . Jeremy was one of the first eight plush toys released by Eden Toys , Inc. of New York in 1973 . The following year , he was released as a 37 inches ( 94
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cm ) " Giant " intended for store displays , and during the Beanie Baby era as a beanbag . Isaac Newton was on store shelves for two years .
Jeremy Fisher was one of the first ten character music boxes released by Schmid & Co. in 1977 . Ptolemy and Isaac boxes were released in the 1980s . Ceramic Christmas ornaments of Jeremy have been released by Schmid . Other merchandise includes a variety of Crummles enamelled boxes , an ANRI wood carving and ANRI Toriart figurines and ornaments , and Huntley & Palmer biscuit tins .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all 23 of Potter 's small format books remain in print , and are available as complete sets in presentation boxes , and as a 400 @-@ page omnibus edition . The English language editions of the tales still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983 . Penguin remade the printing plates in 1985 , and all 23 volumes were released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition .
Although sold to Penguin Books in 1984 as a subsidiary company , Frederick Warne continues to publish Potter 's books . A 2002 Publishers Weekly article , written for the centennial of the publication of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , reported that Potter was considered one of the top most popular classic writers , that anniversary editions of her work were published in 1993 and 2002 , and the artwork has been " re @-@ scanned to make the illustrations look fresher and brighter " .
The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher was published in French in 1940 as Jérémie Pêche @-@ à @-@ la @-@ Ligne , and in Dutch as Jeremais de Hengelaar in 1946 . The tale was republished in Dutch in 1970 as Het Verhaal van Jeremais Hengelaar and was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1965 . In 1984 , the tale was again translated into French by M.A. James as L ’ histoire de Monsieur Jérémie Peche @-@ a @-@ la @-@ Ligne . In 1986 MacDonald wrote that Potter 's books had become a " traditional part of childhood in most only English @-@ speaking countries and in many of the countries into whose languages Potter 's books have been translated " .
= Storm petrel =
Storm petrels are seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae , part of the order Procellariiformes . These smallest of seabirds feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface , typically while hovering . Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat @-@ like .
Storm petrels have a cosmopolitan distribution , being found in all oceans . They are strictly pelagic , coming to land only when breeding . In the case of most species , little is known of their behaviour and distribution at sea , where they can be hard to find and harder to identify . They are colonial nesters , displaying strong philopatry to their natal colonies and nesting sites . Most species nest in crevices or burrows and all but one species attend the breeding colonies nocturnally . Pairs form long @-@ term monogamous bonds and share incubation and chick @-@ feeding duties . Like many species of seabird , nesting is highly protracted with incubation taking up to 50 days and fledging another 70 days after that .
Several species of storm petrel are threatened by human activities . One species , the Guadalupe storm petrel , is thought to have gone extinct ; the New Zealand storm petrel was presumed extinct until rediscovered in 2003 . The principal threats to storm petrels are introduced species , particularly mammals , in their breeding colonies ; many storm petrels habitually nest on isolated mammal @-@ free islands and are unable to cope with predators like rats and feral cats .
= = Taxonomy = =
Two subfamilies are traditionally recognized . The Oceanitinae are mostly found in southern waters ( though the Wilson 's storm petrel regularly migrates into the northern hemisphere ) ; there are seven species in five genera . The Hydrobatinae are the two genera Hydrobates and Oceanodroma . They are largely restricted to the northern hemisphere , although a few can visit or breed a short distance beyond the equator .
Cytochrome b DNA sequence analysis suggests that the family is paraphyletic and may be more accurately treated as distinct families . The same study found that the storm petrels are basal within Procellariiformes . The first split was the subfamily Oceanitinae , with the Hydrobatinae splitting from the rest of the order at a later date . Few fossil species have been found , with the earliest being from the Upper Miocene .
= = Morphology and flight = =
Storm petrels are the smallest of all the seabirds , ranging in size from 13 – 26 cm in length . There are two body shapes in the family ; the Oceanitinae have short wings , square tails , elongated skulls , and long legs ; the Hydrobatinae have longer wings , forked or wedge @-@ shaped tails and shorter legs . The legs of all storm petrels are proportionally longer than those of other Procellariiformes , but they are very weak and unable to support the bird 's weight for more than a few steps .
The plumage of the Oceanitinae is dark with white underparts ( with the exception of the Wilson 's storm petrel ) All but two of the Hydrobatinae are mostly dark in colour with varying amounts of white on the rump . Two species have different plumage entirely , the Hornby 's storm petrel which has white undersides and facial markings , and the fork @-@ tailed storm petrel which has pale grey plumage . This is a notoriously difficult group to identify at sea . Onley and Scofield ( 2007 ) state that much published information is incorrect , and that photographs in the major seabird books and websites are frequently incorrectly ascribed as to species . They also consider that several national bird lists include species which have been incorrectly identified or have been accepted on inadequate evidence .
Storm petrels use a variety of techniques to aid flight . Most species will occasionally feed by surface pattering , holding and moving their feet on the water 's surface while holding steady above the water . They remain stationary by hovering with rapid fluttering or by using the wind to anchor themselves in place . This method of feeding flight is most commonly used by Oceanitinae storm petrels . The white @-@ faced storm petrel possesses a unique variation on pattering , holding its wings motionless and at an angle into the wind it pushes itself off the water 's surface in a succession of bounding jumps . Storm petrels also use dynamic soaring and slope soaring to travel over the ocean surface . Dynamic soaring is used mostly by the Hydrobatinae , gliding across wave fronts gaining energy from the vertical wind gradient . Slope soaring is more straightforward and favoured by the Oceanitinae , the storm petrel turns to the wind , gaining height , from where it can then glide back down to the sea .
= = Diet = =
The diet of many storm petrels species is poorly known owing to difficulties in researching ; overall the family is thought to concentrate on crustaceans . Small fish , oil droplets and molluscs are also taken by many species . Some species are known to be rather more specialised ; the grey @-@ backed storm petrel is known to concentrate on the larvae of goose barnacles .
Almost all species forage in the pelagic zone , except for the Elliot 's storm petrels which are coastal feeders in the Galapagos Islands . Although storm petrels are capable of swimming well and often form rafts on the water 's surface they do not feed on the water . Instead feeding usually takes place on the wing , with birds hovering above or " walking " on the surface ( see morphology ) and snatching small morsels . Rarely prey is obtained by making shallow dives under the surface .
Like many seabirds storm petrels will associate with other species of seabird and marine mammal species in order to help obtain food . It is theorised that they benefit from the actions of diving predators such as seals and penguins which push prey up towards the surface while hunting , allowing the surface feeding storm petrels to reach them .
= = Distribution and movements = =
Storm petrels are found in all the world 's oceans and in most of its seas . They are absent as breeders from the western Indian Ocean and as regular migrants or residents from the far north of the Arctic Ocean as well as the eastern extents of the Mediterranean , the Black Sea and areas of brackish water . The Oceanitinae are typically found in the southern hemisphere and the Hydrobatinae in the northern hemisphere .
Several species of storm petrel undertake migrations after the breeding season . The most widely travelled migrant is the Wilson 's storm petrel which after breeding in Antarctica and the subantarctic islands regularly crosses the equator to the waters of the north Pacific and Atlantic . Other species undertake migrations of differing lengths ; long ones , such as the Swinhoe 's storm petrel , which breeds in the west Pacific and migrates to the west Indian Ocean ; or shorter ones , such as the black storm petrel which nests in southern California and migrates down the coast of Central America as far south as Colombia . Some species , like the Tristram 's storm petrel or the grey @-@ backed storm petrel are thought to be essentially sedentary and do not undertake any migrations away from their breeding islands .
= = Breeding = =
Storm petrels nest colonially , for the most part on islands , although a few species breed on the mainland , particularly Antarctica . Nesting sites are attended nocturnally in order to avoid predators ; the wedge @-@ rumped storm petrels nesting in the Galapagos Islands are the exception to this rule and attend their nesting sites during the day . Storm petrels display high levels of philopatry , returning to their natal colonies to breed . In one instance a band @-@ rumped storm petrel was caught as an adult 2 m from its natal burrow . Storm petrels nest either in burrows dug into soil or sand , or in small crevices in rocks and scree . Competition for nesting sites is intense in colonies where storm petrels compete with other burrowing petrels , with shearwaters having been recorded killing storm petrels in order to occupy their burrows . Colonies can be extremely large and dense ; 840 @,@ 000 pairs of white @-@ faced storm petrel nest on South East Island in the Chatham Islands in burrow densities of between 1 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 47 burrows / m2 ; densities as high as 8 pairs / m2 for band @-@ rumped storm petrels in the Galapagos and colonies 3 @.@ 6 million strong for Leach 's storm petrel have been recorded .
Storm petrels are monogamous and form long @-@ term pair bonds that last a number of years . Studies of paternity using DNA fingerprinting have shown that , unlike many other monogamous birds , infidelity ( extra @-@ pair mating ) is very rare . As with the other Procellariiformes , a single egg is laid by a pair in a breeding season ; if the egg fails , then usually no attempt is made to re @-@ lay ( although it happens rarely ) . Both sexes incubate in shifts of up to six days . The egg hatches after 40 or 50 days ; the young is brooded continuously for another 7 days or so before being left alone in the nest during the day and fed by regurgitation at night . Meals fed to the chick weigh around 10 – 20 % of the parent 's body weight , and consist of both prey items and stomach oil . Stomach oil is an energy rich ( its calorific value is around 9600 calories per gram ) oil created by partly digested prey in a part of the foregut known as the proventriculus . By partly converting prey items into stomach oil storm petrels can maximise the amount of energy chicks receive during feed , an advantage for small seabirds that can only make a single visit to the chick during a 24 @-@ hour period ( at night ) . The average age at which chicks fledge depends on the species , taking between 50 or 70 days . The time taken to hatch and raise the young is long for the bird 's size but is typical of seabirds , which in general are K @-@ selected , living much longer , delay breeding for longer , and invest more effort into fewer young . Storm petrels have been recorded living as long as 30 years .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Several species of storm petrel are threatened by human activities . Two , the Guadalupe storm petrel , and the New Zealand storm petrel , are listed as critically endangered . The Guadalupe storm petrel has not been observed since 1906 and most authorities consider it extinct . The New Zealand storm petrel was also considered extinct for many years but was sighted again in 2003 , though the population is likely to be very small . One species ( the ashy storm petrel ) is listed as endangered by the IUCN due to a 42 % decline over twenty years , and two other species are also listed as near threatened or worse . In addition four species are so poorly known that they are listed as data deficient . For the ringed storm petrel , even the sites of their breeding colonies remain a mystery .
Storm petrels face the same threats as other seabirds ; in particular they are threatened by introduced species . The Guadalupe storm petrel was driven to extinction by feral cats , and introduced predators have also been responsible for declines in other species . Habitat degradation which limits nesting opportunities caused by introduced goats and pigs is also a problem , especially if it increases competition from more aggressive burrowing petrels .
= = Cultural representation of the storm petrel = =
The name " petrel " is a diminutive form of " Peter " , a reference to Saint Peter ; it was given to these birds because they sometimes appear to walk across the water 's surface . The more specific " storm petrel " or " stormy petrel " is a reference to their habit of hiding in the lee of ships during storms . Early sailors named these birds " Mother Carey 's chickens " because they were thought to warn of oncoming storms ; this name is based on a corrupted form of Mater Cara , a name for the Blessed Virgin Mary .
Breton folklore holds that storm petrels are the spirits of sea @-@ captains who mistreated their crew , doomed to spend eternity flying over the sea , and they are also held to be the souls of drowned sailors . A sailing superstition holds that the appearance of a storm petrel foretells bad weather . Sinister names from Britain and France include waterwitch , satanite , satanique and oiseau du diable .
The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views , the epithet " stormy petrel " being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as a Roman tribune , a Presbyterian minister in the early Carolinas , an Afghan governor , or an Arkansas politician .
The " stormy petrel " appears as the standard English translation of the name of the lead character in Song of the Stormy Petrel , a 1901 poem by the Russian revolutionary writer Maxim Gorky in which he turned to the imagery of Subantarctic avifauna to describe Russian society 's attitudes to the coming revolution . This poem was called " the battle anthem of the revolution " , and earned Gorky himself the title of " The Storm Petrel of the Revolution " . While this English translation of the bird 's name may not be a very ornithologically accurate translation of the Russian burevestnik ( буревестник ) , it is poetically appropriate , as burevestnik literally means " the announcer of the storm " . To honour Gorky and his work , the name Burevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions , locations , and products in the USSR .
The motif of the stormy petrel has a long association with revolutionary anarchism . Various groups adopted the bird 's name , either as a group identifier , as in the Spanish Civil War , or for their publications . " Stormy Petrel " was the title of a German anarchist paper of the late 19th century ; it was also the name of a Russian exile anarchist communist group operating in Switzerland in the early 20th century . The Stormy Petrel ( Burevestnik ) was the title of the magazine of the Anarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the 1905 revolution , and is still an imprint of the London group of the Anarchist Federation of Britain and Ireland . Writing in 1936 , Emma Goldman referred to Buenaventura Durruti as " this stormy petrel of the anarchist and revolutionary movement " .
The stormy petrel is also the mascot of Oglethorpe University , a small liberal arts college in Atlanta , Georgia .
= = Species = =
= Dicen Que Soy =
Dicen Que Soy ( They Say That I Am ) is the third studio album by Puerto Rican @-@ American recording artist La India released on September 20 , 1994 by RMM Records . The album was produced by American musician Sergio George , who chose the songs for India to record with an emphasis on feminism to suit with her voice . The production mixes salsa music with other rhythms such as funk and timba . Five singles were released from the record with " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " and " Ese Hombre " topping the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
Dicen Que Soy was well received by music critics for the arrangement and selection of songs for the album . The success of the record led to India receiving a Billboard Latin Music Award and a Lo Nuestro nomination . In the United States , it peaked at number four and one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums and Tropical Albums charts respectively , and has sold over 140 @,@ 000 copies as of 2000 .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her debut studio album , Breaking Night ( 1989 ) , La India went on to produce When the Night is Over ( 1991 ) , a collaboration between her then @-@ husband Little Louie Vega and Marc Anthony . Both albums were recorded at the time when freestyle music 's popularity was beginning to wane , and neither was a commercial success . India and Vega left Atlantic Records , as India wanted to pursue her singing career performing in Spanish . Three years later , American musician Eddie Palmieri , who had heard her singing on the radio , wrote and produced India 's first Spanish @-@ language record titled Llegó la India , via Eddie Palmieri ( 1992 ) . Although it was a commercial success , her high @-@ pitched vocals were criticized .
Subsequently , India was signed to Ralph Mercado 's record label RMM . Her first recording under the label was a cover of Basilio 's song " Vivir lo Nuestro " , a duet with Anthony for the RMM compilation album Combinacion Perfecta ( 1993 ) . It was released as a single where it peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The record was produced by American musician Sergio George who picked the song for the duo as he felt it was the right track for them to perform , despite the pair not being close friends at the time . George said he took the recording as a " personal challenge " because he believed India 's voice was " extraordinary " .
= = Recording and musical characteristics = =
For Dicen Que Soy , George picked songs that had been previously recorded by female Latin singers such as Rocío Jurado and Lupita D 'Alessio , with a focus on feminist lyrics . George , India , and Shirley Marte also wrote love songs ( " Dejate Amar " and " No Me Conviene " ) for the album and added India 's cover of George Benson 's song " I Just Want to Hang Around You " as a counterbalance , in case the feminist songs did not prove popular . When describing the production , India said that " This is me , my flavor in a tropical way , and showing what I can do with my voice . " The theme of the title track 's lyrics revolves the singer being criticized by gossips without caring about their opinions . Puerto Rican singer Tito Nieves is featured on the song " No Me Conviene " and " Vivir lo Nuestro " was included as a bonus track for the album . Musically , the production mixes romantic and hard salsa music along with funk and timba . The record took four months to complete .
= = Singles = =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " was the first single to be released from the album . It peaked at number 11 on the Hot Latin Songs chart and number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . The second single , " Ese Hombre " , reached number 12 on the Hot Latin Songs chart and became her second number @-@ one song on the Tropical Songs chart . " Que Ganas de No Verte Más " peaked at number 24 on the Hot Latin Songs and number two on the Tropical Songs charts . " Dicen Que Soy " and " O Ella o Yo " reached number five and seven respectively on the Tropical Songs chart .
= = Reception = =
Even without a formal review , an editor for the website Allmusic gave Dicen Que Soy four stars out of five . An editor for Latina magazine wrote a positive review for the album calling her cover of " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " " sensational " and " Vivir lo Nuestro " an " explosive live recording " . India 's recordings of " Ese Hombre " and " Dicen Que Soy " have been noted to be " anthems for female salsa lovers " .
At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards ceremony in 1995 , Dicen Que Soy received a nomination for " Tropical Album of the Year " , but lost to Siente el Amor ... by Olga Tañón . In the same year , the album won the award for " Tropical / Salsa Album of the Year by a Female Artist " at the second annual Billboard Latin Music Awards . In the United States , it peaked at number four on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and number one on the Tropical Albums chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , Dicen Que Soy has sold over 144 @,@ 000 copies as of 2000.A
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Sergio George .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic and the Dicen Que Soy CD liner notes .
= = Note = =
A. ^ According to the Recording Industry Association of America , sales for many salsa albums went unreported because venues selling the discs did not report to monitoring services .
= Andy Hansen =
Andrew Viggo Hansen , Jr . ( November 12 , 1924 – February 2 , 2002 ) , nicknamed " Swede " , was a right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball . In a nine @-@ season career , he played for the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Phillies . Hansen was officially listed as standing 6 feet 3 inches ( 191 cm ) and weighing 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) . He was nicknamed Swede despite being of Danish ancestry , according to The Sporting News ' Baseball Register .
A two @-@ sport star in high school , Hansen rose quickly through the Giants ' minor league system and made his major league debut at age 19 . He played for the Giants until 1946 , when he voluntarily retired due to a family illness and then served in the United States Army . He returned to baseball in 1947 and earned a career @-@ best five wins in 1948 . After a contract holdout in 1949 , Hansen 's bullpen workload increased in 1950 , leading to an elbow injury and the Giants sending him to the Phillies in the Rule 5 draft .
As a Phillie , Hansen assumed the closer 's role at times from 1950 National League Most Valuable Player Jim Konstanty , and worked nearly exclusively from the bullpen after being an occasional starting pitcher with New York . After tying his career high with five victories in 1952 , Hansen went winless in 1953 and had a short tenure with the minor @-@ league Hollywood Stars before retiring and beginning a 31 @-@ year career with the United States Postal Service .
= = Early life = =
Hansen was born November 12 , 1924 , in Lake Worth , Florida . As a young player , he was a second baseman and third baseman before moving to pitcher . He attended Lake Worth High School , where he played offensive end on the football team and pitched for the baseball team . In 1942 , Hansen was a member of Lake Worth 's " Trojans " football team that went undefeated , and the school 's baseball team went to the state tournament in the 1943 season with Hansen as a member of the pitching staff . After graduating that year , Hansen spurned football scholarship offers from " a number of schools , including Georgia Tech " to sign an amateur free agent contract worth $ 75 ( $ 1 @,@ 030 today ) per month with the National League 's New York Giants .
= = Early career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The Giants assigned Hansen to their Appalachian League affiliate , the Bristol Twins , where , at age 18 , he posted a " sensational [ win – loss ] record " of 12 – 3 in 16 games started . He allowed 39 runs in 115 innings pitched while walking 15 batters . Hansen began the 1944 season pitching for the Jersey City Giants , New York 's top @-@ level farm team . Managed by Hall of Fame catcher Gabby Hartnett , Hansen posted an 8 – 4 record , compiling a 1 @.@ 89 earned run average ( ERA ) in 11 starts and 4 relief appearances . He allowed 90 hits and 28 walks in 100 innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 18 WHIP ) .
= = = 1944 : Major league debut = = =
Hansen was called up to the major league club to make his debut on June 30 , 1944 , in place of Cliff Melton . He started the second game of a doubleheader against the Pittsburgh Pirates , pitching 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings , striking out two and allowing six earned runs . However , the Giants scored five runs in the sixth inning against Pirates starter Fritz Ostermueller , so Hansen did not receive a decision ; the Giants lost the contest , 9 – 8 . His first career loss came the next week on July 5 , a 4 – 1 defeat against the St. Louis Cardinals . Hansen pitched six innings and allowed four runs , but Cardinals starter Red Munger , 10 – 2 on the season to that point , pitched a complete game and allowed only one run . He lost again on July 9 , this time to the Chicago Cubs in the first game of a doubleheader . Hansen pitched only 2 2 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing five runs , before being relieved by Rube Fischer .
Hansen earned his first win a week later , an 8 – 3 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies on July 16 . The victory came in relief of Frank Seward , who started the game but pitched only one inning . He pitched four innings , allowing only one run ; Ace Adams followed with four scoreless innings and earned the save . His fourth decision , a second career victory , did not come until July 31 , when he defeated future teammate Jim Konstanty in a 9 – 7 victory over the Cincinnati Reds . Hansen appeared again in a relief role , but pitched eight innings of one @-@ run ball after starter Bill Voiselle allowed six runs in the game 's first inning . At the plate , Hansen got his first major @-@ league hit and scored his second career run while striking out once .
Philadelphia provided Hansen with his third career win as well ; it came on August 4 when he pitched against Ken Raffensberger . Hansen entered in the eighth inning and pitched three scoreless frames in relief of Voiselle as the game went to extra innings . The Giants won , 4 – 3 , on a 10th @-@ inning run with no one out . Sporting a 3 – 2 record , Hansen earned his first career save against the Phillies on August 6 , pitching two scoreless innings in relief of Harry Feldman and striking out two . It was his only save of the season . He lost his third decision of the year on August 19 , allowing five runs and walking six batters in the Giants ' 12th consecutive loss out of a season @-@ long 13 @-@ game streak . For his rookie season , Hansen finished with a 3 – 3 record and a 6 @.@ 49 ERA in 52 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ; he appeared in 23 games ( 4 starts ) and struck out 15 batters while walking 32 at age 19 .
= = = 1945 – 1946 : New York , Jersey City , and the Army = = =
In the 1945 season , Hansen spent most of his playing time with the major league Giants , appearing in 23 games for them that year . Described by Baseball @-@ Reference.com as New York 's fifth starter , he was the Giants ' youngest pitcher , and second @-@ youngest player ( Whitey Lockman ) , in 1945 .
Hansen started New York 's third game of the season , pitching against the Boston Braves ; he struck out three and allowed one run through seven innings , earning the victory . He defeated Raffensberger and the Phillies again on April 24 , pitching his first career complete game in a 5 – 2 Giants win . After that game , manager Mel Ott said that he was encouraged by the performance because pitching was a concern of the Giants entering the season . Hansen 's first loss of the season came against the Brooklyn Dodgers , a 4 – 3 defeat . After dueling to a stalemate in a tie game with Boston — he and Braves starter Al Javery each allowed one run through seven innings in the second half of a rain @-@ shortened doubleheader — Hansen earned his third victory on May 13 against the Cardinals ; it was the last game of New York 's season @-@ long eight @-@ game winning streak . Hansen earned a no decision in a May 17 start against the Cubs , but a 5 – 2 loss to the Pirates on May 21 dropped his record to 3 – 2 ; he allowed four earned runs in four innings . His first save of the season came on May 24 , when he pitched two innings following Adams , the regular closer , who earned the win ; his final decision in May was a victory over Cincinnati , a 5 – 1 win which was the last in a four @-@ game win streak . He started the first game of a doubleheader on May 30 , pitching 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings and allowing six runs ; the Giants managed an 8 – 6 win , however , as Slim Emmerich relieved him and pitched 6 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings .
In early June , Hansen pitched in both games of a doubleheader against the Cardinals ; he started the first game ( allowing two runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning ) and relieved Feldman in the second ( pitching 5 1 ⁄ 3 innings and giving up three runs ) . He earned his second save of the season pitching 1 2 ⁄ 3 perfect innings against Brooklyn in relief of Van Mungo on June 7 , but followed that with his third loss against Boston , where he allowed three runs in six innings . The third loss was Hansen 's final major league decision of the season . He pitched in four more games in June , starting on June 15 and allowing four earned runs in five innings , and pitching in relief on June 17 , 22 , and 24 . He picked up a save in his final June game , pitching the final third of an inning in relief of Voiselle and Feldman in a 7 – 6 victory over Philadelphia . On June 26 , Hansen reported to Camp Blanding in his home state of Florida for a pre @-@ induction examination for the United States Army ; his service commitment had previously been deferred due to a breathing handicap from an earlier broken nose .
In July , Hansen appeared for the first time on Independence Day , pitching 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in relief of Emmerich and allowing three runs . His final start of 1945 came against the Reds on July 7 ; he allowed four runs through 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings as the Giants won , 11 – 7 . Hansen allowed two runs in four innings facing the Cubs on July 15 , and gave up three runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 against the Pirates on July 20 . His final outing of the season was also his shortest ; he allowed a run to Boston without putting out a single batter in the second game of a doubleheader .
At the beginning of August , Hansen injured his shoulder and was optioned to Jersey City in favor of Sal Maglie , where he appeared in five games ( 1 – 3 , 7 @.@ 31 ERA ) . After serving seven months in the military , Hansen asked the team to voluntarily retire him in early 1946 due to his father 's severe illness . He did not appear in a game at any level during the 1946 season , but stated that he did not plan to give up baseball as a career .
= = After the military = =
= = = 1947 : One win for New York = = =
Hansen returned to the Giants in April 1947 , pitching a scoreless ninth inning in his first appearance against the Phillies . In his second game back , he allowed four runs to the Braves , working three innings in relief of Monty Kennedy ; the Giants lost the game , 14 – 5 . Hansen did not appear for the Giants in May , but returned to action on June 1 for his first start of the season . After allowing four runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning , Hansen was relieved by Junior Thompson , who earned the victory as the Giants defeated the Reds , 13 – 9 ; the outing raised Hansen 's ERA to a season @-@ high 16 @.@ 62 . He did not appear again for New York until June 21 , when he pitched 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning against the Cardinals , allowing no runs . As the summer months continued , Hansen was used more heavily ; he made six appearances in July , all in Giants losses . On July 2 , he pitched the final inning of an 11 – 3 loss to Brooklyn , allowing no hits . Hansen allowed runs in each of his next two outings , both against St. Louis : he pitched two innings on July 10 , and threw five innings on July 12 in the second game of a doubleheader . In a 10 – 5 loss to the Cardinals on July 22 , Hansen made his third consecutive appearance against the Redbirds , allowing no earned runs in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings . On July 28 , he turned in a hitless , scoreless performance against Cincinnati , working one inning in a 5 – 0 shutout , and received his first decision — a loss — against the Reds on the final day of that month in an 8 – 7 contest .
In August , Hansen appeared in nine games , his most in a single month during the 1947 season ; he began on August 3 by allowing two runs to the Pirates in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning . He made his second start of the season against the Braves on August 10 ; although he pitched 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings and allowed just three runs , he did not factor in the decision . Closer Ken Trinkle , who relieved Hansen , took the loss after a three @-@ run home run by Tommy Holmes in the ninth inning as the Giants lost , 7 – 5 . After a one @-@ inning appearance against the Phillies on August 13 , Hansen made his third start of the year on August 17 and notched his second loss of the season , this time to Boston . He allowed one run through seven innings , but the Braves defeated New York , 3 – 1 . The defeat was Hansen 's first of four consecutive appearances in the second games of doubleheaders , the third of which was another start and his third loss of the year . He allowed the game 's only runs in a 3 2 ⁄ 3 inning performance ; the Giants lost , 4 – 0 . After two more multi @-@ inning relief appearances against Chicago on August 24 and 25 , Hansen pitched seven innings in a start against Brooklyn in what would be his last appearance in the month . He allowed one run in seven innings , walking six batters . In the seventh inning , his middle finger was bruised by a line drive hit up the middle by Dixie Walker . Hansen walked Arky Vaughan , the first batter in the eighth inning , before leaving the game , and Cookie Lavagetto singled with the bases loaded to drive in the winning runs for the Dodgers ; the Giants fell , 3 – 1 .
Hansen returned to the mound on September 4 , starting his sixth game of the season . Although he pitched eight innings and allowed two runs , Hansen earned his fourth loss of the season , as the Giants lost to Brooklyn , 2 – 0 . His next outing , which came in relief against the Dodgers , was scoreless , but he allowed four runs in three innings to the Pirates the following day . After two more scoreless relief appearances , Hansen started against the Phillies on September 20 . He pitched a complete game , allowing three runs ( two earned ) on four hits ; the 5 – 3 victory was his only win of the 1947 season , defeating Philadelphia starter Ken Heintzelman . Hansen appeared twice more in the 1947 season : he pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings in a start against the Dodgers on September 24 , allowing four runs ; and he lost his final start of the season against the Phillies four days later , pitching four innings and allowing three runs . For the season , Hansen posted a 1 – 5 record , a 4 @.@ 37 ERA , and 18 strikeouts in 27 games as a 22 @-@ year @-@ old , the Giants ' second @-@ youngest pitcher ( Mario Picone ) .
= = = 1948 : One hundred innings , five victories = = =
Hansen opened his 1948 campaign with five consecutive scoreless appearances . His first game was on April 22 , when he pitched 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning against the Dodgers , walking one batter and allowing a single hit . His second game was also against Brooklyn ; he allowed two hits and a walk in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in his final April appearance . After a 21 @-@ day layoff , Hansen returned to play on May 21 , pitching a scoreless inning against the Chicago Cubs . Two more scoreless innings prompted Ott to start Hansen against the Dodgers in the second game of a May 31 doubleheader , and Hansen pitched a complete game to earn his first win of the season , allowing only one unearned run in the 10 – 1 victory .
Hansen 's June appearances consisted of three starts and five relief outings . In two of his three starts , he lasted two innings or less , allowing three runs in two frames to Cincinnati on June 4 , and four runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning against St. Louis 14 days later . The latter game was his second loss of the season — the first having been earned on July 11 in his other start of the month , wherein he pitched six innings , allowed three runs , and walked five batters . Hansen 's appearances from the bullpen were more successful ; in 13 1 ⁄ 3 innings , he allowed three runs , all in a single outing on June 24 against the Cubs . His longest appearance of the month was a seven @-@ inning relief outing against the Cardinals on June 13 ; starter Dave Koslo took the loss in the game for allowing three runs in the game 's first inning , and Hansen completed the remainder of the game without allowing a run . In July , Hansen began with a start on July 2 , and ended with a win on July 31 . His only start in July came against Brooklyn , when he pitched 7 2 ⁄ 3 innings and allowed four runs . He made two appearances in high @-@ scoring games during the month without recording any outs : he faced two batters against Brooklyn on July 4 , walking one and allowing a hit ; and repeated the outing on July 10 , this time allowing two hits and giving up two runs . Between those two outings , he appeared in both games of a July 5 doubleheader against the Braves , pitching two perfect innings in each game . His July victory came against the Cubs , when he struck out two batters and walked none in 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings on the month 's final day .
In August , Hansen did not earn any decisions , but he did notch his only save of the season in his second August contest . He pitched 1 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings against Boston to secure a 6 – 5 win for Koslo . Three days later , he allowed two earned runs in a three @-@ inning appearance against Philadelphia ; they would be the only earned runs he allowed in the entire month of August , lowering his ERA from 3 @.@ 40 to 3 @.@ 10 . He finished the month with four consecutive scoreless appearances , striking out two batters and walking one between August 15 and August 31 . On September 3 , Hansen was pressed into service as a starter for the first time in two months of play , and he delivered a quality start for New York , allowing three runs in eight innings pitched — his third victory and first complete game of the season . He was rewarded with another start on September 7 , and pitched his second consecutive complete game to earn a fourth win , this time scattering ten hits in nine innings against the Phillies , striking out three batters and allowing only a home run to Bert Haas . Starting again on September 11 , Hansen allowed two runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings before being relieved by Koslo ; neither pitcher earned the win in the shortened game , as Trinkle pitched the sixth and final inning of the doubleheader 's second game to notch the victory . Hansen earned his fifth win out of the bullpen when the Giants came from behind to defeat Cincinnati , 12 – 7 , on September 18 , and completed his season record with a loss in a start against Chicago on September 22 ; he allowed six runs ( five earned ) on nine hits while walking three hitters and striking out two . For the season , Hansen accumulated a 5 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 97 ERA ( his best career season to date ) , and 27 strikeouts , having faced a career @-@ high 419 batters in 100 innings pitched .
= = = 1949 : Four consecutive mid @-@ season losses = = =
After his career @-@ best five wins in the prior season , Hansen held out for a better contract in February 1949 , along with another Giants pitcher , Clint Hartung ; and Walker Cooper , the Giants ' captain . He signed on February 6 , and opened the 1949 season pitching in New York 's second contest , allowing 1 run while pitching 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings of a 6 – 2 loss to Brooklyn . Hansen took his first loss of the season in his next contest ; after the Phillies and Giants played to a tie in nine innings , New York scored two runs in the top of the 11th , but Hansen , who entered to relieve , allowed three to score while recording only two outs , handing the Giants a 12 – 11 extra @-@ inning defeat . In the next game against the Dodgers , however , he recorded his first victory of the year behind a pinch @-@ hit inside @-@ the @-@ park grand slam from Pete Milne , pitching a scoreless seventh inning and striking out two . Hansen had one other appearance in April , allowing a single run in three innings against Brooklyn the following day in a 15 – 2 loss . In the next month , he also made four appearances , the first of which came on May 24 ; he pitched two scoreless innings against the Cubs . After allowing his only run of the month to the Phillies on May 27 , Hansen pitched in both games of a doubleheader on May 30 , throwing 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in the first contest and earning his only save of the season in the second by striking out two batters in 2 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings .
On June 1 , Hansen started his first game of the season , pitching 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings and allowing four runs ; he was replaced by Red Webb , who pitched the remaining 7 1 ⁄ 3 and won the game , 11 – 5 . Hansen earned his second defeat of the season on June 12 , when he allowed a single game @-@ winning run to the Pirates in 5 2 ⁄ 3 innings of work ; he walked three batters and struck out five in the contest . He appeared in back @-@ to @-@ back games on June 17 and 18 : a 6 – 4 loss to Pittsburgh the first day , and a 5 – 4 win for New York on the second . This game would be his last appearance in a Giants win until the season 's final month . His next two outings — against the Cardinals on June 22 and the Cubs on June 24 — were perfect ; he allowed no baserunners until June 25 , when he gave up a single hit to Chicago in a 4 – 1 defeat . His final appearance of June came in the first game of a June 30 with the Boston Braves , in which he pitched two innings and allowed one hit . In July , Hansen struggled mightily , appearing in four games ; each contest was a loss for the Giants , and each decision was tallied against him . On July 2 , he allowed 5 runs in 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings against Brooklyn , walking one batter and allowing two home runs . His five runs allowed accounted for the Dodgers ' margin of victory in the 13 – 8 Giants defeat . He pitched four innings in relief of Sheldon Jones on July 10 , suffering the loss when he walked three batters and allowed three runs to score . Hansen 's one run allowed on July 16 proved once again to be his undoing as the Pirates defeated the Giants , 7 – 6 , and dropped his record to 1 – 5 ; nevertheless , he earned the start against Pittsburgh on July 26 and took his sixth loss , allowing 4 runs on 4 walks in 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings to finish July at 1 – 6 on the season .
In August , all of Hansen 's appearances came in Giants losses , the first of which was on August 7 — he pitched the two final innings against the Cardinals , allowing one hit but no runs . After a scoreless inning on August 12 , Hansen appeared in back @-@ to @-@ back games against Boston on August 17 and 18 , walking one and striking out one in the former game and allowing two runs in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in the latter . He allowed a run to Philadelphia on August 19 , then pitched in consecutive games on August 27 and 28 , the second and first games of doubleheaders , respectively . The Giants lost to St. Louis , 11 – 2 , on August 27 ; Hansen allowed one unearned run in that game . The next day , he pitched two perfect innings against the Cincinnati Reds , striking out one , but New York was defeated , 10 – 3 . In his first September game , Hansen earned his final decision of the season when he defeated Pittsburgh , 9 – 5 , pitching one scoreless inning in relief of Hank Behrman . He pitched the next game as well — the following day against Brooklyn — but the Giants were shut out , 8 – 0 . He made a scoreless appearance against Philadelphia on September 6 , and allowed 4 runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings on September 8 , raising his ERA from 4 @.@ 18 to 4 @.@ 64 . Hansen made his final appearance on September 11 with a perfect 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning , striking out the only batter he faced ; his final game of the season was logged on September 18 , but he faced no batters and did not physically appear in the game . His final record for the year was two wins against six losses ; he amassed 26 strikeouts and 28 bases on balls , allowing an average of 4 @.@ 61 runs per nine innings .
= = = 1950 : Midseason injury = = =
In April 1950 , Hansen appeared in two games . His first appearance of the season came against the rival Dodgers ; he pitched two scoreless innings , giving up three hits and walking two batters . A week later , he pitched the fourth inning of another contest against Brooklyn , this time allowing no baserunners . His first game the next month came against the Pirates on May 6 , where he earned his first save of the season in a 9 – 8 victory . All of his other appearances in May , however , came in New York losses . On May 14 , Hansen started the second game of a doubleheader against Philadelphia , pitching 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings and allowing five runs on eight hits and two walks . The following week , he appeared in both games of a twinbill against the Pirates , pitching a combination perfect inning between the two contests : 2 ⁄ 3 in the first and 1 ⁄ 3 in the second . Beginning on May 25 , Hansen pitched in four consecutive games to close out his month , allowing 1 run in 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings in the first contest and throwing a scoreless frame in the second . On May 27 , he struck out one batter and allowed a single hit in 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings , and earned his first loss of the year in an extra @-@ inning defeat by the Phillies the following day ; he entered the game in the seventh inning and allowed 3 runs over 4 1 ⁄ 3 frames to total a 5 – 2 final score .
In June , Hansen began a heavy workload from the Giants ' bullpen ; the converted starter , who had never appeared in more than nine games in a single month in his major league career , was pressed into service 11 times in the third month of the season . On the month 's first day , Hansen pitched in both games of a doubleheader against Cincinnati , throwing a perfect 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in the first half , and three scoreless in the second contest . The following day , he blew a save against the Reds in the sixth inning , allowing two hits and recording no outs . Against the Pirates on June 5 , he recorded his second save of the season in a 5 – 4 , ten @-@ inning win , and followed it with another on June 8 in Chicago . On June 10 , Hansen allowed 2 runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings against the Cardinals , and the next week gave up four runs to the Cubs by facing 12 batters . Two scoreless outings on June 19 and 21 were followed by an appearance in Game 1 of a June 25 doubleheader ; he gave up one run on three hits and one walk . His final June appearance came against the Braves , a scoreless inning in which he walked two batters .
The workload continued into July , when Hansen appeared in the first game of a July 2 doubleheader . He entered in the first inning in relief of starter Koslo , who allowed two runs without recording an out ; none of the Giants ' pitchers in the 11 – 5 defeat escaped unscathed , as all allowed at least two runs , topped by Hansen 's five . His next two appearances came on July 4 , as he pitched both games of a doubleheader against the Dodgers ; he tossed two innings in each contest , striking out two in the first game and walking one in the nightcap . On July 5 , he gave up five runs in the seventh inning against Philadelphia , recording two outs and allowing five hits . In his next two outings against Boston and Pittsburgh , he allowed no runs , but the game against the Pirates would be his last scoreless outing with New York . Pitching against the Reds on July 16 , Hansen allowed 3 runs in 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings ; this was followed by four runs given up against the Cardinals on July 19 . His final contest of the season came on July 25 , when he pitched four innings against Cincinnati , allowing two runs before injuring his pitching elbow . Speaking with manager Leo Durocher , he claimed to feel a painless pop in his elbow as he threw a pitch ; two hours later , the elbow had swollen " as big as a football " and visibly bruised , ending his season . Hansen ended the season with an 0 – 1 record , a 5 @.@ 53 ERA , and 19 strikeouts ; thereafter , he was selected by the Phillies in the Rule 5 draft .
= = Philadelphia = =
= = = 1951 : Return to the majors = = =
After acquiring Hansen , the Phillies assigned him to the Triple @-@ A Baltimore Orioles . He was called up to the major league club in July after posting a 1 – 1 record with a 5 @.@ 45 ERA and 14 strikeouts , working exclusively from Baltimore 's bullpen . Hansen 's first appearance with Philadelphia came on July 6 ; he pitched two innings in relief of Russ Meyer , who allowed three runs without recording an out . Three straight appearances in doubleheader openers followed Hansen 's Phillies debut : he faced two Cardinals batters without a putout on July 15 ; pitched two scoreless innings against Cincinnati two days later ; and could have earned his first victory of the season on July 22 had Konstanty — the closer and 1950 's National League Most Valuable Player — not collected his fifth blown save of the year . Hansen pitched in three more games that month , recording his first decision of the season on July 's final day : he defeated the Reds , 7 – 5 , pitching one inning and allowing two runs .
Hansen appeared in five games for the Phillies in August . All were multi @-@ inning appearances as a relief pitcher , and only one was not scoreless — he allowed four runs to the Braves in 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings on August 15 . He opened September with a victory , however — a 5 – 3 win over Boston — to raise his record to 2 – 0 ; it was his first of eleven appearances in the season 's final month . Including the September 2 victory , Hansen finished three of his first four games for Philadelphia in the month , allowing no runs in any of those four appearances . The Pirates notched Hansen 's first September runs allowed on the month 's 12th day ; although none of the runs were earned , Hansen still collected his only defeat of the 1951 season .
In his next appearance , Hansen struck out a season @-@ high four Cardinals in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched on September 16 ; it was his only appearance in 1951 wherein he struck out multiple batters . Following a scoreless two @-@ inning appearance against the Cubs on September 18 , Hansen pitched the eighth inning against the Dodgers on September 23 , allowing his first earned runs in over a month . After relieving starter Ken Johnson in the first inning of September 26 's contest — pitching two innings and allowing one run — Hansen earned his final decision of the season on September 28 , pitching three scoreless frames against Brooklyn to earn his third win . His 1951 season ended with a single scoreless inning the following day , also against the Dodgers ; this lowered his season ERA to 2 @.@ 54 , the best mark among Phillies pitchers that year , and a career low for Hansen . On the season , he struck out 11 batters while walking 7 , allowing 34 hits in 39 innings of work .
= = = 1952 : Four @-@ save July = = =
Hansen 's 1952 season did not open auspiciously ; he appeared in the Phillies ' second game of the season , entering in the ninth inning and allowing a sacrifice fly to the Giants ' Alvin Dark with the bases loaded . Although it was no blemish on Hansen 's ERA — the runner having been allowed by starter Howie Fox — he still earned a blown save in his first appearance of the year . His second appearance two days later was worse : Hansen entered the game in the eighth inning with a 7 – 6 lead , but allowed two runs in the top of the ninth , and a third earned was added to his tally after closer Konstanty , who relieved Hansen , allowed a sacrifice fly immediately thereafter . The Braves , Philadelphia 's opponents in that contest , won the game , 9 – 7 , and Hansen was saddled with his second blown save in as many appearances and his first loss of the season . His next three appearances were scoreless , but on May 16 , he entered in the eighth inning of a game against the Reds with the Phillies leading , 2 – 1 , and runners on first and second bases . He allowed a single to Bobby Adams , scoring Roy McMillan and blowing his third save , but the Phillies would win , 3 – 2 , after Heintzelman pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings and the Phillies used small ball tactics ( a walk to Eddie Waitkus , Heintzelman reaching on a fielder 's choice , and a bunt single by Richie Ashburn ) to load the bases in the bottom of the tenth inning , winning on a single by Granny Hamner . After two scoreless appearances against St. Louis and New York , Hansen allowed one run in a three @-@ inning appearance against his former club on May 24 . Hansen pitched in both extra @-@ inning games of a doubleheader on May 27 , pitching the twelfth and final inning against Boston in a 4 – 2 loss in the first contest , and earning his first victory in the tenth inning of the second after Del Ennis ' triple and Willie Jones ' sacrifice fly scored the winning run in the bottom half of the frame . Three more relief appearances closed out the month , two of them scoreless ; his only run allowed was against the Pirates on the final day of May .
Hansen 's June was also inauspicious , as all six of his appearances came in Phillies losses . He had two scoreless one @-@ inning stints against the Reds and the Cubs on June 5 and 10 , respectively , before a three @-@ inning appearance against the Pirates in the first game of a June 15 doubleheader . In the contest , he struck out one and walked one in a scoreless outing to lower his ERA to 2 @.@ 75 , and followed with a scoreless inning on June 19 to push it down to 2 @.@ 61 , his lowest to that point of the season . He allowed his only earned runs of the month on June 22 , when Hansen walked the bases loaded in the top of the ninth inning against Cincinnati ; Konstanty entered , allowing a double to former teammate Andy Seminick that scored two . In his final June game , he allowed three runs , but none were earned due to a throwing error by third baseman Willie " Puddin ' Head " Jones . At the end of June and beginning of July , closer Konstanty blew two saves , one of which resulted in a 4 – 3 loss to Brooklyn , so Hansen assumed some of the closing duties for the season 's fourth month . He collected his first save of the season on the second of July , pitching two scoreless innings against the Dodgers in relief of Russ Meyer . After allowing two runs to the Cardinals on July 10 , Hansen bounced back with consecutive saves — on July 13 against Chicago ; and again on July 16 versus the Pirates , in which Hansen relieved Roberts after the latter allowed a two @-@ run ninth @-@ inning home run . On July 22 , he earned his fourth save of the month in a two @-@ inning performance against Pittsburgh , and closed the month with two consecutive victories , defeating the Cubs on July 27 , and the Reds two days after .
In August , Hansen pitched 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings in the team 's first contest , allowing two runs to the Cardinals on four hits and losing his third game of the season . He appeared in three consecutive doubleheaders ( August 9 , 11 , and 13 ) and followed by pitching 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning in a 15 – 0 loss at Brooklyn on August 16 . Hansen rested until August 22 , when he relieved Curt Simmons against the Cincinnati Reds ; he pitched 3 2 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing two runs on three hits , walking two , and absorbing a fourth loss . Beginning on August 24 , he finished three games against the Cubs on consecutive game @-@ days : pitching a perfect inning on August 24 ; earning a win with two scoreless innings on August 25 ; and taking the loss on August 26 in the 13th inning of the series ' final contest . He bounced back to close the month with a fifth win , though , defeating Boston , 8 – 6 , behind a 5 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ inning relief performance . In his first September game , Hansen took the loss by allowing a single run to the Giants on the month 's third day ; he finished the month by pitching in two consecutive losses , with his final appearance coming on September 12 . For the season , he finished with a 5 – 6 record , a 3 @.@ 26 ERA , and 18 strikeouts in a team @-@ leading 43 games pitched — a year in which his performance was described as " excellent relieving " .
= = = 1953 : Last major league year = = =
Hansen 's first game of the 1953 season resulted in his first loss ; in a 14 – 12 contest against the Pirates , he allowed four runs — one earned — in the fifth frame , the only inning he pitched . His next appearance resulted in his first save of the year , coming against Pittsburgh on April 25 , and he pitched in his final April game three days later against St. Louis . Hansen 's first appearance in May came against the newly relocated Milwaukee Braves , late of Boston , when he allowed a walk and two hits , one a home run , in a single inning . He threw a scoreless frame against Brooklyn on May 10 , and a perfect 1 ⁄ 3 on May 12 to earn his second save . He allowed two runs against Milwaukee on May 18 , but both were unearned , lowering his ERA to a season @-@ low 2 @.@ 25 ; three runs in his next appearance , however , raised his average to its highest point since the year 's first game . His last game in May was against Pittsburgh : 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning with one unearned run allowed .
Hansen opened June with a doubleheader , pitching in both games and allowing no runs ; he gave up a hit in the first game and walked a batter in the second , striking out one batter in each contest . He pitched the ninth inning in both games , earning his third save of the year in the nightcap . He gave up two runs to the Braves in his next appearance , allowing a home run and an RBI single in three innings . On June 9 , he again allowed two runs , this time to the Cubs ; the two home runs given up resulted in his first blown save of the season . After a perfect inning against Cincinnati on June 12 , he made his first scoreless appearance against Milwaukee in the season ; he allowed two hits in 1 ⁄ 3 of an inning but neither runner scored . On June 17 , he faced the Braves again , this time pitching three scoreless innings and allowing two singles and a double . Waiting ten days until his next appearance , Hansen took the mound for two scoreless innings against St. Louis , and earned a hold on June 30 against Brooklyn after Konstanty blew a save . In his first July game , he pitched 3 1 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing two runs on three hits and walking three batters . Two days later , he pitched five scoreless innings within both halves of a doubleheader against his former team , the Giants ; he walked one batter in each game and struck out three hitters in the second . After an 11 @-@ day hiatus , he returned to the hill in an 11 – 0 loss to the Reds , allowing an unearned run on three hits in relief of Konstanty . One @-@ and @-@ two @-@ thirds scoreless innings against the Cubs on July 21 was his final scoreless outing of the month , followed by a single run allowed to the Braves on July 27 and two runs given up to the Reds three days later .
On August 3 , Hansen entered in the second inning of a contest against the Reds after Konstanty and Thornton Kipper allowed 7 runs in 1 2 ⁄ 3 innings against the Reds ; he pitched 4 1 ⁄ 3 frames and allowed 1 run . On August 17 , he made his first start in three years , absorbing the loss as the Phillies were shut out , 6 – 0 . His final two August games came on back @-@ to @-@ back days : the second half of a doubleheader on August 30 ( 1 walk and 1 strikeout in 2 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings ) ; and the first half of a twinbill on August 31 ( one run allowed on one walk and two hits in a single inning ) . He made one September appearance , allowing two runs without recording an out ; for the year , he finished with an 0 – 2 record and three saves with a 4 @.@ 03 ERA . After the conclusion of the season , Hansen was traded with Jack Lohrke and $ 70 @,@ 000 ( $ 619 @,@ 000 today ) to Pittsburgh in exchange for Murry Dickson .
= = After the majors = =
In 1954 , Hansen was assigned to the Pirates @-@ affiliated Hollywood Stars , an Open @-@ classification minor league team based in Los Angeles . He appeared in three games , accumulating a 1 @.@ 35 ERA on the mound and one hit in three at @-@ bats at the plate . In one of those contests , he and Red Munger combined to hold the rival Los Angeles Angels to a 1 – 0 shutout . After being voted outstanding player of the week for his short tenure , Hansen voluntarily retired himself a second time after Pittsburgh Pirates president Branch Rickey refused to pay him $ 750 ( $ 6 @,@ 610 today ) that he was owed . The Pirates sent him a contract to play for the Triple @-@ A New Orleans Pelicans , along with a paycheck , but he did not report , opting to remain retired .
Hansen was first married to Bertha Mae ( née Perkins ) , also a native of Lake Worth , Florida . They had two children , one a daughter named Gale Andra , before his wife contracted cancer and died . He had dated his second wife , Joy , when he was playing for the Giants in his early career , and they were described as " recently wedded " when interviewed by author Wes Singletary for his 2006 book . Hansen worked seasonally for the United States Postal Service during his baseball career , and became a permanent employee for 31 years until retiring . In 1988 , he was inducted into the Palm Beach County Sports Commission 's Hall of Fame . He died on February 2 , 2002 , in his hometown .
= 2015 Malaysian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Malaysian Grand Prix , formally titled the 2015 Formula 1 Petronas Malaysia Grand Prix , was a Formula One motor race that was held on 29 March 2015 at the Sepang International Circuit in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . It was the seventeenth running of the Malaysian Grand Prix as a World Championship event , and thirty @-@ fifth overall .
Lewis Hamilton came into the race leading the Drivers ' championship by seven points over team @-@ mate Nico Rosberg , followed closely by Sebastian Vettel , a further three points adrift . Mercedes entered with a twenty @-@ eight point lead over Ferrari in the Constructors ' championship campaign .
Hamilton secured pole position in a rain @-@ soaked qualifying session , the 40th pole position in his career . Vettel won the race , having started from second place on the grid . It was the 40th victory of his career , and the first victory for Ferrari since the 2013 Spanish Grand Prix .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Going into the weekend , Lewis Hamilton was leading the Drivers ' Championship , having won the first race ahead of his teammate Nico Rosberg and Sebastian Vettel . He therefore had 25 points and held a seven @-@ point advantage over Rosberg , with Vettel another three points behind . In the constructors ' standings , Mercedes was on top , haven taken the maximum available 43 points from their 1 @-@ 2 finish in Melbourne . Ferrari were second on 15 points , followed by Sauber with 14 .
Mercedes arrived at the second race of the season with maximum points from Australia , having finished first and second with third placed Sebastian Vettel half a minute down . Following their dominant performance , many commentators voiced fears that the sport might become even more one @-@ sided and boring over the course of the 2015 season than it had been the previous year . Red Bull 's team principal Christian Horner called for the FIA to step in and apply rule changes that would level the competition , stating : " The FIA , within the rules , have an equalisation mechanism and that needs to be looked at . " Red Bull subsequently threatened to leave the sport , should no measures be taken . While many commentators pointed out that Red Bull had enjoyed their own share of dominance in the prior years , Formula One supremo Bernie Ecclestone voiced understanding for the team , saying : " There is a rule that I think [ former president ] Max [ Mosley ] put in when he was there that in the event ... that a particular team or engine supplier did something magic - which Mercedes have done - the FIA can level up things . They [ Mercedes ] have done a first class job which everybody acknowledges . We need to change things a little bit now and try to level things up a little bit . " Mercedes ' executive director Toto Wolff reacted to the calls by urging his rivals to " get your fucking head down and work to sort it out " . McLaren driver Jenson Button also raised doubt over the practicality of rule changes , saying " There 's nothing really to ban because it doesn 't look like Mercedes are doing anything other teams aren 't doing . "
Following criticism voiced by Red Bull , the future of engine supplier Renault was also a matter of debate . While Renault contemplated exiting the sport , another scenario that received media attention was a possible buy @-@ out of the Toro Rosso team . The discussion about the future of the sport was additionally fuelled by the news that the German Grand Prix would be dropped from the 2015 calendar , due to a lack of financing . The exclusion of one of motorsport 's most traditional events caused many to raise the question whether the same fate might await other traditional venues such as Monza .
Fernando Alonso returned from his pre @-@ season injury to take back his seat at McLaren , which had been filled by Kevin Magnussen at the previous race in Australia . Also returning was Williams driver Valtteri Bottas , who missed the previous race due to a back injury sustained during qualifying .
Manor Marussia , who were able to field their cars for the first time in Malaysia , were under criticism after they failed to run their cars at the Australian Grand Prix , with Ecclestone saying they would need to pay for their travel expenses , which are usually covered by the commercial rights holder .
As in the previous two years , Pirelli announced they would be supplying teams with the orange @-@ banded hard compound tyre as the prime selection and the white @-@ banded medium compound as the option selection for the event . The event also made use of Pirelli 's two wet weather tyres , the green @-@ banded intermediate and blue @-@ banded full wet tyres .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 90 @-@ minute sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . Nico Rosberg set the fastest time in the first practice session on Friday morning , while championship leader Lewis Hamilton was sidelined due to engine problems . He recovered to take fastest time in the second session of the day , while Ferrari proved that they would be closer to their rivals in Sepang , coming within 0 @.@ 4 seconds in both free practice sessions .
Fernando Alonso made his debut in the new McLaren , finishing 14th and 16th in the two Friday sessions respectively , outpacing teammate Jenson Button both times . Also debuting during free practice were Manor @-@ Marussia , with both cars struggling to meet the time limit of 107 % . Raffaele Marciello filled in for Sauber @-@ regular Felipe Nasr during the first session .
During the third practice session on Saturday morning , both Mercedes drivers were once again fastest , with Rosberg setting the fastest time , while Ferrari was about half a second behind .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . The first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) got under way in the dry and sunny conditions ; this was not the conditions that would favour McLaren as they were still off the pace of the midfield although they made progress . Jenson Button along with his returning team @-@ mate Fernando Alonso were separated by only a tenth of a second , but were 17th and 18th on the grid . Joining them were the Manor @-@ Marussia cars of Roberto Merhi and Will Stevens ; Merhi recorded a time that was almost five seconds slower than Alonso , and Stevens failed to take to the circuit , while Felipe Nasr also failed to make it out of Q1 , as he struggled for balance in his Sauber .
Clouds built up at the west of the circuit before Q2 and there was a traffic jam in the pit lane . A scramble for position started to be evident and only one driver – Nico Rosberg – managed a clean lap without traffic , as the rest of the field dealt with the thunderstorm that was warned to arrive during Q2 and started tripping up on each other . The biggest casualty of the session was Ferrari 's Kimi Räikkönen who got held up by Marcus Ericsson . Räikkönen recorded a lap of 1 : 42 @.@ 173 , which was not fast enough to get into Q3 as rain started soon after . Joining Räikkönen were Pastor Maldonado , the Force Indias of Nico Hülkenberg and Sergio Pérez and the Toro Rosso of Carlos Sainz , Jr . , as they could not improve on their original lap times due to the conditions .
After a delay of half an hour , the cars returned to the circuit , with the majority of the remaining ten drivers on intermediate tyres , while Romain Grosjean , Felipe Massa and Valtteri Bottas initially surveyed the circuit on wets before switching to the intermediates . Ultimately , Hamilton took pole by 0 @.@ 074 seconds ahead of Vettel , with Rosberg third . They were followed by the Red Bull cars of Daniel Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat , while Toro Rosso 's young driver Max Verstappen took sixth place . The rest of the top ten was completed by Massa , Grosjean , Bottas and Ericsson . After qualifying , Romain Grosjean was found to have left the pit lane in a different position to the one he left the garage , and so he received a two place grid penalty dropping him to tenth on the grid .
= = = Race = = =
Temperatures on race day were very hot , with the track temperature at 61 ° C ( 142 ° F ) . Rain was possible , though less than in previous years , also due to the earlier starting time . Williams were hoping for a dry race , since qualifying showed they were still off the pace in wet conditions . Will Stevens , who missed qualifying due to a fuel system problem , was ultimately unable to participate in the race . Approximately 44 @,@ 611 people attended the race .
At the start , Lewis Hamilton got away well , while Nico Rosberg challenged Sebastian Vettel for second place , but the Ferrari was able to come out on top . Both Pastor Maldonado and Kimi Räikkönen suffered punctures on lap one after contact with Valtteri Bottas and Felipe Nasr respectively and had to come in for a new set of tyres . Vettel was able to stay with the Mercedes of Hamilton over the first few laps . On lap four , Marcus Ericsson braked too late and spun in turn one , retiring from the race and bringing out the safety car . All but seven cars went into the pits to change tyres , including both Mercedes drivers , while Sebastian Vettel stayed out . When racing resumed on lap seven , Vettel led Nico Hülkenberg , Romain Grosjean , Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Sergio Pérez , with Hamilton the first of the cars who made pit stops right behind .
Both Mercedes cars now made their way through the field , with Hamilton overtaking Hülkenberg for second position on the end of lap ten , now ten seconds down on race leader Vettel . Rosberg reached third position on lap 14 , while Hamilton was unable to make significant gains on Vettel in front . The cars that had not used the safety car phase for their stops began to change tyres on lap 16 , while Maldonado was handed a ten @-@ second penalty for exceeding the safety car time . Meanwhile , the Red Bull cars showed signs of brake problems with brake dust exiting the wheels at the major braking points on both cars . Vettel came in for his first stop on lap 18 , handing the lead back to Hamilton . Vettel rejoined in third place and began to close rapidly on second @-@ placed Rosberg . Vettel made good use of his fresher tyres , overtaking Rosberg on lap 22 and setting out to do the same on Hamilton , when the latter went into the pits for his second pit stop on lap 24 . Meanwhile , Fernando Alonso retired due to engine problems on lap 21 while running in ninth place . With deteriorating front wing damage , Daniel Ricciardo let his teammate Daniil Kvyat through into eleventh place on the beginning of lap 26 , only for Kvyat to be sent in a spin by Hülkenberg , who ran wide and hit the Red Bull in turn two . Kvyat was able to continue , though down in 13th place . The other Force India of Pérez sent Romain Grosjean 's Lotus into a spin five laps later . Both Force India drivers were handed a ten @-@ second penalty for their actions .
Vettel made a pit stop for a second and final time on lap 38 , handing the lead back to Hamilton , who came in for his final stop a lap later , emerging about twelve seconds behind Vettel in third place . His teammate Rosberg made a pit stop on lap 41 , elevating Hamilton to second , who now started to close on Vettel . Jenson Button retired from the race on lap 40 due to a turbo failure , while Maldonado 's bad day turned worse when he had to park his car suffering brake failures . Hamilton was unable to overcome the gap between himself and Vettel , leaving Vettel to take his first victory since the 2013 Brazilian Grand Prix and his first with Ferrari . Bottas was able to overtake his teammate Felipe Massa on the final lap , after both Williams drivers had an uneventful race to finish fifth and sixth respectively .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Sebastian Vettel and Ferrari reacted emotionally to the victory , with Vettel unable to hold back tears on the podium . Speaking about the experience as a Ferrari driver , he told Eddie Jordan during the podium interview :
I remember when the gate opened in Maranello it was like a dream coming true . I remember the last time I was there was as a young kid watching Michael [ Schumacher ] over the fence driving around in the Ferrari and now I 'm driving that very red car . It 's incredible . The day today , the race , really spot on , the whole team was there , great strategy , great pace , we beat them fair and square [ ... ] .
Second placed Lewis Hamilton conceded that Ferrari and Vettel " did a fantastic job this weekend " and that he had not expected them to be as quick as they were .
The Ferrari team shared Vettel 's enthusiasm , as they could be seen singing along to the Italian national anthem during the podium ceremony , led by team principal Maurizio Arrivabene . He later admitted he cried after receiving a congratulatory text message from Michael Schumacher 's manager on behalf of his family . Comparisons between Vettel and Schumacher were omnipresent in the following days , with commentators pointing out that it took Vettel merely two races for his first win with the Scuderia , while Schumacher achieved a victory only in his seventh race . During the post @-@ race press conference , Vettel expressed hope to emulate Schumacher 's success at Ferrari and win the world championship .
The result was viewed as a welcome rebuttal of the fears of monotony voiced after the Australian Grand Prix . German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung declared Vettel 's win was " the best the flagging sport could have hoped for " . The Daily Mail commented : " Now a sport that has developed an impressive aptitude for navel @-@ gazing , [ ... ] can rest from its self @-@ loathing criticism , at least for a while . "
Controversy arose when Force India 's Bob Fernley accused Manor Marussia of intentionally only running one car during qualifying and the race and urged the FIA to investigate the matter . Manor rejected these claims , with sporting director Graeme Lowdon saying " I can guarantee you if that car could have moved , it would have raced " .
Finishing seventh , Max Verstappen became the youngest driver to score World Championship points . Verstappen was quoted saying that it had been a " good day " , while his father , former Formula One driver Jos Verstappen , commented : " I 'm very pleased for what he has done today . I 'm happy that he finished the race and the way he raced , he deserved it . I 'm very proud . "
As a result of the race , Vettel moved within three points of Hamilton in the Drivers ' Championship , on 43 to 40 points . Rosberg followed in third with 33 points , 13 ahead of Felipe Massa . In the Constructors ' Championship , Mercedes retained their lead at now 76 points , 24 clear of Ferrari , with Williams following in third on 30 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 — Romain Grosjean received a two place grid penalty for failing to " leave the pitlane in the order of his arrival . "
^ 2 — Roberto Merhi and Will Stevens were granted permission to start by race stewards .
= = = Race = = =
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Manuel the Armenian =
Manuel the Armenian was a prominent Byzantine general of Armenian origin , active from circa 810 until his death . After reaching the highest military ranks , a palace conspiracy forced him to seek refuge in the Abbasid court in 829 . He returned to Byzantine service the next year , receiving the position of Domestic of the Schools from Emperor Theophilos , who had married his niece Theodora . Manuel remained in the post throughout Theophilos 's reign , and reportedly saved the emperor 's life in the Battle of Anzen in 838 . According to one report , he died on 27 July 838 of wounds received during the battle , but other sources record his survival past this date , ascribing him a major role in the regency that governed the empire after Theophilos 's death , and report that he died some time around 860 .
= = Biography = =
Manuel was of Armenian origin , and the brother of Marinos , the father of the future Byzantine empress Theodora . Manuel first appears in the reign of Michael I Rangabe ( ruled 811 – 813 ) , when he held the post of protostrator ( head of the imperial stables ) . At the time , he must still have been young , probably in his twenties . Although he urged Michael to confront Leo the Armenian , following Michael 's deposition by Leo ( r . 813 – 820 ) , Manuel was promoted to the rank of patrikios and entrusted with the post of strategos of the Armeniac or the Anatolic Theme . The latter post was the most senior of the Byzantine Empire 's thematic governors , and Leo himself had held the office prior to his accession . According to historians John B. Bury and Warren Treadgold , in early 819 and for about a year , Leo seems to have appointed Manuel to the exceptional post of monostrategos ( " single @-@ general " ) of the five land themes of Asia Minor , but this unusual concentration of command authority was apparently directed towards the more effective suppression of iconophile resistance against Leo 's reinstatement of Iconoclasm rather than for military purposes . This appointment is , however , most likely a misreading of the primary source , according to the editors of the Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit . According to the history of Michael the Syrian , at about the same time Manuel was responsible for the negotiations with the Khurramite refugees and their leader , Nasr , who became baptized as Theophobos in Byzantine service ; however , Michael 's chronology of this episode is confused and of doubtful accuracy .
Manuel 's career under Leo 's successor , Michael II the Amorian ( r . 820 – 829 ) , is unclear , as he is not mentioned in the sources during this period . Certainly at the time of the outbreak of the great rebellion of Thomas the Slav , the strategos of the Armeniacs was Olbianos , while the Anatolics joined the rebellion . Manuel himself , however , evidently remained loyal to Michael , and it was probably the latter who raised him to the rank of magistros . The editors of the Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit suggest that Manuel may have been recalled by Michael to Constantinople , especially if the marriage of Michael 's son and heir Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) and Manuel 's niece Theodora took place around 821 , as suggested by E.W. Brooks , and not around 830 , as suggested by Treadgold .
= = = Escape to the Caliphate = = =
In 829 , either some time before ( according to Theophanes Continuatus , followed by E.W. Brooks and the Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit and others ) or shortly after ( according to Symeon Logothetes , accepted by Treadgold , the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium and others ) the death of Michael and the accession of Theophilos , Manuel defected to the Abbasids as a result of machinations at court : the logothetes tou dromou ( foreign minister ) Myron had accused him to the new emperor of plotting to seize the throne . Using the carriages of the imperial post , he crossed Asia Minor in haste and offered his services to Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun ( r . 813 – 833 ) , on condition that he would not be forced to convert to Islam . According to the 13th @-@ century historian Vardan Areveltsi , so great was Ma 'mun 's joy at this defection that he gave Manuel a daily salary of 1 @,@ 306 silver dirhams , and continually presented him with gifts .
Theophilos , in turn , was hesitant to believe the accusations , and was eventually convinced by the protovestiarios ( chamberlain ) Leo Chamodrakon and the synkellos John the Grammarian of his general 's innocence . He therefore resolved to get Manuel to return , and sent John the Grammarian to Baghdad on a diplomatic mission in the winter of 829 / 830 , ostensibly in order to announce his accession . John was indeed able to see Manuel in private and offered him the Emperor 's pardon , which Manuel seemed to accept , although for the time being , Manuel remained publicly loyal to his Abbasid allegiance .
In the summer of 830 , Manuel participated in an Abbasid expedition against the Khurramite rebels of Babak Khorramdin in Adharbayjan , alongside a contingent of Byzantine captives . The campaign was nominally led by Ma 'mun 's own son , al- ' Abbas , but it is likely , according to Treadgold , that the more experienced Manuel was the actual commander , as Arabic and Syriac sources record that he commanded an " army of Arabs and Persians " . After winning a few modest successes , the army turned back south . Manuel , who by then had apparently won the confidence of his Arab minders , suggested that he and ' Abbas take a part of the army and raid over the Pass of Hadath into Byzantine Cappadocia . Once across the mountains , he and the other Byzantine captives neutralized ' Abbas and his escort , took their arms and escaped . ' Abbas and his companions were left behind unmolested , and allowed to return to Abbasid territory .
= = = Domestic of the Schools = = =
Theophilos welcomed Manuel with open arms , and named him Domestic of the Schools , commander of the elite tagma of the Scholae and de facto commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the entire army . Manuel would remain Theophilos 's leading general for the remainder of his reign . Furthermore , as the uncle of Theophilos 's wife , the Empress Theodora , his position at court was now unassailable , as shown by the fact that the Emperor later served as godfather for Manuel 's children . The Syriac sources even report that Theophilos made Manuel governor of the " inner regions " of the Empire .
In 831 , Manuel accompanied Theophilos in an expedition against a raid by the Cilician Arabs . The Byzantines caught up with the Arabs near the fort of Charsianon , and inflicted a heavy defeat upon them , killing 1 @,@ 600 and taking some seven thousand prisoner . Manuel is also recorded as accompanying Theophilos on his great expedition in 837 against the Arab cities of northern Mesopotamia , which led to the sack of Zapetra and Arsamosata . This campaign , however , and the atrocities committed by the Byzantines ' former Khurramite troops after the fall of Zapetra , provoked a large @-@ scale retaliatory campaign by Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) . Manuel again accompanied the Emperor as his senior general , along with Nasr / Theophobos as commander of a large corps composed of former Khurramite refugees . Manuel participated in the disastrous Battle of Anzen on 22 July 838 , where Theophilos confronted the army of general al @-@ Afshin . During that battle , the imperial army broke and fled , and Theophilos with his retinue were surrounded by the Arabs on a hill with some 2 @,@ 000 Khurramites . When some of the latter reportedly began planning to surrender the Emperor to the Arabs , Manuel seized the Emperor 's horse by
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the bridle and forcibly led him away . With a few other officers , he managed to break through the Arab lines , and brought Theophilos to safety in the nearby village of Chiliokomon . During the battle , he received heavy wounds , and according to the chronicle of Symeon Logothetes , he died of them five days later , on 27 July 838 . He was buried in his palace in Constantinople , which lay near the Cistern of Aspar and which became a monastery named after him , now traditionally identified with the Kefeli Mosque .
= = = Possible life after 838 = = =
The chronicles of Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus ( and following them Skylitzes and Zonaras ) , however , report that he survived his wounds , allegedly being miraculously cured after renouncing iconoclasm at the behest of some monks . The same sources report that after Theophilos 's death , he was appointed a member of the regency council for the infant new emperor Michael III ( r . 842 – 867 ) along with Theoktistos and Bardas , and to have refused the position of Emperor when the populace acclaimed him thus at the Hippodrome . The same writers report that he played an important role in the restoration of the icons , and that he became a protomagistros before falling out with Theoktistos , being accused of lèse @-@ majesté , and retiring from public life to his estates . According to the same sources , in the late 850s , he saved the Emperor 's life in another battle at Anzen and died shortly after . Traditional scholarship has largely accepted this account , but some modern historians have expressed doubts as to its veracity . The Belgian Byzantinist Henri Grégoire was the first to highlight its incompatibility with the narrative of Symeon Logothetes , speculating that it was a later invention , possibly carried out by the monks of the Monastery of Manuel , who venerated him as a saint and tried to mitigate his iconoclast past . Warren Treadgold , who considers Symeon Logothetes more reliable , also dismissed the reports of Manuel 's post @-@ 838 survival as invented .
Other modern scholars continue to support the possibility of his continued life after 838 , especially given the existence of a seal , dated to the mid @-@ 9th century , which names " Manuel patrikios , imperial protospatharios , magistros , and bagulos of the Emperor " , which seems to confirm both his survival into at least the early years of Michael III 's reign , and his reported role as a member of the regency . Even so , the stories about his activities , and in particular his role in the restoration of the icons and the alleged second battle at Anzen ( which is clearly inspired by the events of 838 ) , are regarded as almost certainly fictitious . However , it may be that the story of his death after Theoktistos 's downfall is reliable , which would probably place it sometime between 855 and 863 .
= My Happiness ( Powderfinger song ) =
" My Happiness " is the album of Australian rock band by Powderfinger . It was released on 21 August 2000 by Universal Music Australia . It won the 2001 ARIA Music Award for Single of the Year . Odyssey Number Five . The single is Powderfinger 's most successful ; it peaked at number four on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , and charted in the United States on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart — the first Powderfinger song to do so .
Powderfinger frontman Bernard Fanning wrote the lyrics for " My Happiness " as a reflection on the time the band spent touring to promote their work , and the loneliness that came as a result . It was inspired by his love of gospel and soul music . The rest of the band are co @-@ credited with Fanning for composing the track . Despite its melancholy mood , " My Happiness " is considered by many to be a love song , a suggestion Fanning regards as mystifying .
" My Happiness " was released as a single with " My Kind of Scene " as a B @-@ side . It was instantly successful , charting highly in Australia and New Zealand . It won an ARIA Award and an APRA Award and topped the Triple J Hottest 100 in 2000 as well as coming 27th in the 2009 Hottest 100 of all Time . " My Happiness " was highly praised by critics , with even negative reviews of Odyssey Number Five noting it as a highlight , especially for its catchy chorus . " My Kind of Scene " was equally popular . One of the highlights of Powderfinger 's United States tour with Coldplay was a performance of " My Happiness " on Late Show with David Letterman ; they were only the fourth Australian act to appear on the show .
= = Production and content = =
If you can 't cop a bit of emotional stuff then you should go and get the lamp shade extracted from your arse . If you don 't think there is enough rock in your life then let me know and I will personally come around to your house and chuck stones at you .
— Bernard FanningIn response to " My Happiness " being described by fans as " like Lauryn Hill , bland and boring Top 40 bullshit " .
The lyrics for " My Happiness " were written by Bernard Fanning , Powderfinger 's lead singer and songwriter . The rest of the band are co @-@ credited with Fanning for composing the track . The song describes feelings of love and separation ; Sain 's Pennie Dennison said it described " the pining feeling you experience when you spend time away from the one you love " . Fanning called it " a sad story of touring and the absence loneliness that comes with it " . The extensive time spent touring took its toll on the band , and it was on the back of this that Fanning wrote " My Happiness " . Thus , he expressed confusion at its being considered a romantic song .
" My Happiness " was attacked by some fans as being " like Lauryn Hill , bland and boring Top 40 bullshit " ; guitarist Ian Haug rebutted by pointing out that the song was an example of the new emotional level on which Powderfinger made music , while Fanning was more aggressive in his defence of the song . In response to being dubbed " Mr Miserable " by The Sun @-@ Herald 's Peter Holmes for the lyrics of " My Happiness " and " These Days " , Fanning pointed out that the songs could be construed either as melancholy , or as part of " the most hopeful record ... in a long time " .
Much of Fanning 's writing is inspired by non @-@ rock music , and " My Happiness " is no exception . Gospel and soul music that is " unashamedly about love and how good it makes you feel " was common during the Odyssey Number Five recording sessions . Powderfinger worked hard in those sessions to ensure a more polished work than Internationalist ; guitarist Darren Middleton concluded that " My Happiness " , " The Metre " , and " Up & Down & Back Again " were more " complete " because of the band 's efforts . The lighter elements of " My Happiness " in comparison to some of the band 's earlier work saw Fanning reveal his passion for several other musicians , such as James Taylor — something that " five years ago ... would have been an embarrassing thing to say " .
= = Touring and promotion = =
" My Happiness " was put on heavy rotation by Los Angeles radio station KROQ @-@ FM two months prior to its United States release , and Powderfinger signed a contract with United States label Republic as a result of the song 's early success . Beat journalist Jayson Argall joked the song had received " a bit " of airplay . Although " My Happiness " was subsequently dropped from KROQ @-@ FM 's roster , other radio stations continued to give the song high priority .
" My Happiness " peaked at number 23 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks , making it the first Powderfinger song to appear on a Billboard chart . According to Susan Groves of WHRL , part of the song 's success came about because very few people knew of Powderfinger , but were drawn towards " My Happiness " because it was " melodic , [ and ] pretty " — a change from what she described as " middle of the road rock " popular in the United States . Meanwhile , Australians were " starting to get sick of My Happiness " — Cameron Adams argued in The Hobart Mercury that this was one of the reasons Powderfinger decided to focus on the offshore market .
Powderfinger performed " My Happiness " live on talk show Late Show with David Letterman while touring North America with British rock group Coldplay , . They were the fourth Australian act ( after The Living End , Silverchair , and Nick Cave ) to play on the show . The band also did free promotional shows leading up to the release of the single . In Europe , " My Happiness " received approximately four weeks of airplay on German music video program Viva II , and the band sold out for three nights in a row in London , partly due to the success of the single .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " My Happiness " starts at a train station ( Roma Street railway station in Brisbane ) with a boy and girl stepping off a train . As the pair leave the train , the boy turns and tries to reach for something , but the girl pulls him back . It is shown that he was reaching for a sentient slinky . The slinky leaves the train , and passes Middleton busking in the train station . The slinky ventures to find the boy , facing a range of challenges along the way ; these include avoiding fruit falling on it and riding a skateboard . In the middle of the music clip , the slinky is shown making its way through a music room in which Powderfinger are performing " My Happiness " . It rests on the bar and the band finishes playing , while the background music continues . As Powderfinger leaves , the slinky is picked up by Haug . He gets into a car and places the slinky on the car 's dashboard , but it falls out the window as the car turns a tight corner . It lands outside the gate of a house and is picked up and brought inside to the boy .
The video was created by Fifty Fifty Films , who created numerous other Powderfinger music videos . It was directed by Chris Applebaum and produced by Keeley Gould of A Band Apart , with editing by Jeff Selis . Cameron Adams of The Courier Mail reported that following the music video 's release , slinky sales increased dramatically .
= = Release and commercial success = =
" My Happiness " was released as a single in Australia on 21 August 2000 . When asked how they chose the release date , Fanning jokingly said " the release date is timed to coincide with the Olympics , when all the visitors are here ... they can go into HMV and pick it up . " At the time of the single 's release , the band 's previous album , Internationalist , was still in the top 50 on the ARIA Albums Chart , 95 weeks after entering . The single featured B @-@ side " My Kind of Scene " , which had already received strong airplay due to its appearance on the Mission : Impossible II soundtrack . " My Happiness " appeared on a Triple M compilation entitled Triple M 's New Stuff , and on a Kerrang ! compilation , Kerrang ! 2 The Album .
" My Happiness " entered the ARIA singles chart at number four — making it Powderfinger 's highest @-@ charting single in Australia — and spent 24 weeks on the chart . It reached number two on the Queensland singles chart , and peaked at number seven on the New Zealand singles chart , on which it spent 23 weeks . " My Happiness " was Powderfinger 's first single to chart in the USA , reaching number 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart .
The song won the " Single of the Year " award at the ARIA Awards of 2001 , and the 2001 " Song of the Year " APRA Award . Furthermore , " My Happiness " topped the Triple J Hottest 100 chart in 2000 , and appeared on that year 's CD release . Rolling Stone Australia named " My Happiness " " Song of the Year " in a reader poll . " My Happiness " was the eighth most @-@ played song on Australian radio in 2001 .
= = Critical reception = =
" My Happiness " was a critical success . Cameron Adams of The Herald Sun wrote that " My Happiness " did not disappoint in the trend of excellent first singles from Powderfinger , citing " Pick You Up " and " The Day You Come " as examples . He praised the song 's structure , stating that " the verses almost crash into the chorus " . Adams also expressed surprise that " My Kind of Scene " was only released as a B @-@ side . The Newcastle Herald 's Chad Watson described a mixture of acoustic and electric guitar and " a restrained yet warmly infectious chorus " . Despite praising it as a " Big Rock AnthemTM " , Richard Jinman of The Sydney Morning Herald complained that " My Happiness " was not as " hummable " as past singles " Passenger " or " These Days " . Devon Powers of PopMatters described it , and " Waiting for the Sun " , as sounding bored . The Evening Mail agreed ; it argued the " rock @-@ lite " song , while sounding lush , failed to " make you really sit up and take notice " .
In his highly negative review of Odyssey Number Five , Allmusic 's Dean Carlson labelled it one of the best songs , for the riff Powderfinger executed " better than most bands of their stature " . Adams also enjoyed the song 's " wobbly guitar " , and Sain 's Christie Eliszer approved of the " acoustic strumalong " , but The Advertiser 's Michael Duffy said the song was " a familiar piece of yearning guitar indie that is polished but pedestrian " ; he reserved his praise for " My Kind of Scene " , which he described as akin to the best of Internationalist . Darren Bunting wrote in the Hull Daily Mail that " My Happiness " was the best song on Odyssey Number Five , praising " soaring vocals , heartfelt lyrics and chiming guitar " . Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Weingarten said that on " My Happiness " , " Fanning 's heavy heart is tattered by scratching and clawing guitars " .
= = Charts = =
= = Awards = =
= = Track listing = =
" My Happiness " – 4 : 36
" My Kind of Scene " – 4 : 37
" Nature Boy " – 3 : 12
" Odyssey # 1 " ( Demo ) – 4 : 09
= = Personnel = =
Powderfinger
Bernard Fanning – Vocals , tambourine
Darren Middleton – Guitars and backing vocals
Ian Haug – Guitars
John Collins – Bass guitars
Jon Coghill – Drums and percussion
Production
Nick DiDia – Producer , engineer and mixer
Matt Voigt – Assistant engineer
Anton Hagop – Assistant engineer
Stewart Whitmore – Digital editing
Stephen Marcussen – Mastering
Anton Hagop – Assistant producer
Kevin Wilkins – Art direction and photography
= Flag of convenience =
Flag of convenience is a business practice whereby a merchant ship is registered in a country other than that of the ship 's owners , and the ship flies that country 's civil ensign . Owners of a ship may register the ship under a flag of convenience to reduce operating costs or avoid the regulations of the owner 's country . The closely related term open registry , which describes a ship register that will register foreign @-@ owned ships , also exists .
The term " flag of convenience " has been in use since the 1950s , and it refers to the civil ensign a ship flies in order to indicate its country of registration or flag state . A ship operates under the laws of its flag state , and these laws are used if the ship is involved in a case under admiralty law .
The modern practice of flagging ships in foreign countries began in the 1920s in the United States , when shipowners frustrated by increased regulations and rising labor costs began to register their ships to Panama . The use of open registries steadily increased , and in 1968 , Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom as the world 's largest shipping register . As of 2009 , more than half of the world ’ s merchant ships were registered with open registries , and the Panama , Liberia , and Marshall Islands flags accounted for almost 40 % of the entire world fleet , in terms of deadweight tonnage .
Flag @-@ of @-@ convenience registries are criticized , mostly by trade union organizations based in developed countries , especially those of Europe . On the other hand , maritime industry practitioners and seafarers from other countries contest that this is a natural product of globalisation . Seafarers from developed countries must make themselves competitive if they wish to take advantage and practice in a global environment . As of 2009 , thirteen flag states have been found by international shipping organizations to have substandard regulations . A basis for many criticisms is that the flag @-@ of @-@ convenience system allows shipowners to be legally anonymous and difficult to prosecute in civil and criminal actions . Some ships with flags of convenience have been found engaging in crime , offer substandard working conditions , and negatively impact the environment , primarily through illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing . As of 2009 , ships of thirteen flags of convenience are targeted for special enforcement by countries that they visit . Supporters of the practice , however , point to economic and regulatory advantages , and increased freedom in choosing employees from an international labor pool .
= = Background = =
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country . The country in which a ship is registered is its flag state , and the flag state gives the ship the right to fly its civil ensign . A ship 's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly , certify the ship 's equipment and crew , and issue safety and pollution prevention documents . A ship operates under the laws of its flag state , and these laws are used if the ship is involved in an admiralty case . The organization which actually registers the ship is known as its registry . Registries may be governmental or private agencies .
The reasons for choosing an open register are varied and include tax avoidance , the ability to avoid national labor and environmental regulations , and the ability to hire crews from lower @-@ wage countries . National or closed registries typically require a ship be owned and constructed by national interests , and at least partially crewed by its citizens . Conversely , open registries frequently offer on @-@ line registration with few questions asked . The use of flags of convenience lowers registration and maintenance costs , which in turn reduces overall transportation costs . The accumulated advantages can be significant , for example in 1999 , 28 of the American company SeaLand 's fleet of 63 ships were foreign @-@ flagged , saving the company up to 3 @.@ 5 million dollars per ship every year .
The environmental disaster caused by the 1978 sinking of the MV Amoco Cadiz , which flew the Liberian flag , spurred the creation of a new type of maritime enforcement . Resulting from strong political and public outcry over the Amoco Cadiz sinking , fourteen European nations signed the 1982 Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control or Paris MOU . Under port state control , ships in international trade became subject to inspection by the states they visit . In addition to shipboard living and working conditions , these inspections cover items concerning the safety of life at sea and the prevention of pollution by ships . In cases when a port state inspection uncovers problems with a ship , the port state may take actions including detaining the ship . In 2008 , member states of the Paris MOU conducted 14 @,@ 322 inspections with deficiencies , which resulted in vessels being detained 1 @,@ 220 times that year . Member states of the Tokyo Memorandum of Understanding conducted 13 @,@ 298 ship inspections in 2009 , recording 86 @,@ 820 deficiencies which resulted in 1 @,@ 336 detentions .
The principle that there be a genuine link between a ship 's owners and its flag state dates back to 1958 , when Article 5 ( 1 ) of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas also required that " the state must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative , technical and social matters over ships flying its flag . " The principle was repeated in Article 91 of the 1982 treaty called the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and often referred to as UNCLOS . In 1986 , the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development attempted to solidify the genuine link concept in the United Nations Convention for Registration of Ships . The Convention for Registration of Ships would require that a flag state be linked to its ships either by having an economic stake in the ownership of its ships or by providing mariners to crew the ships . To come into force , the 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25 % of the world total . As of 2006 , only 14 countries have signed the treaty .
= = History = =
Merchant ships have used false flags as a tactic to evade enemy warships since antiquity , and examples can be found from as early as the Roman era through to the Middle Ages . Following the American Revolutionary War , merchantmen flying the flag of the fledgling United States quickly found it offered little protection against attack by Barbary pirates - many responded either by seeking to transfer their registry back to Great Britain . The use of false flags was frequently used by the British during the Napoleonic Wars and the United States during the War of 1812 . During the mid @-@ 19th century , slave ships flew various flags to avoid being searched by British anti @-@ slavery fleets . However , the modern practice of registering ships in foreign countries to gain economic advantage originated in the United States in the era of World War I , and the term " flag of convenience " came into use in the 1950s .
Between 1915 and 1922 , several laws were passed in the United States to strengthen the United States Merchant Marine and provide safeguards for its mariners . During this period , U.S.-flagged ships became subject to regular inspections undertaken by the American Bureau of Shipping . This was also the time of Robert LaFollette 's Seamen 's Act of 1915 , which has been described as the " Magna Carta of sailors ' rights . " The Seamen 's Act regulated mariners ' working hours , their payment , and established baseline requirements for shipboard food . It also reduced penalties for disobedience and abolished the practice of imprisoning sailors for the offense of desertion . Another aspect of the Seamen 's Act was enforcement of safety standards , with requirements on lifeboats , the number of qualified able seamen on board , and that officers and seamen be able to speak the same language .
These laws put U.S.-flagged vessels at an economic disadvantage against countries lacking such safeguards . By moving their ships to the Panamanian flag , owners could avoid providing these protections . Belen Quezada , the first foreign ship flagged in the Panamanian registry , was employed in running illegal alcohol between Canada and the United States during Prohibition . In addition to sidestepping the Seamen 's Act , Panamanian @-@ flagged ships in this early period paid sailors on the Japanese wage scale , which was much lower than that of western merchant powers .
The Liberian open registry was the brainchild of Edward Stettinius , who had been Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Secretary of State during World War II . Stettinius created a corporate structure that included The Liberia Corporation , a joint @-@ venture with the government of Liberia . The corporation was structured so that one @-@ fourth of its revenue would go to the Liberian government , another 10 % went to fund social programs in Liberia , and the remainder returned to Stettinius ' corporation . The Liberian registry was created at a time when Panama 's registry was becoming less attractive for several reasons including its unpopularity with the U.S. labor movement and European shipping concerns , political unrest in Panama , and increases in its fees and regulations .
On 11 March 1949 , Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos registered the first ship under the Liberian flag , World Peace . When Stettinius died in 1949 , ownership of the registry passed to the International Bank of Washington , led by General George Olmsted . Within 18 years , Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom as the world 's largest register .
Due to Liberia 's 1989 and 1999 civil wars , its registry eventually fell second to Panama 's flag of convenience , but maritime funds continued to supply 70 % of its total government revenue . After the civil war of 1990 , Liberia joined with the Republic of the Marshall Islands to develop a new maritime and corporate program . The resulting company , International Registries , was formed as a parent company , and in 1993 was bought out by its management . After taking over the Liberian government , Americo @-@ Liberian warlord Charles Taylor signed a new registry contract with the Liberian International Ship and Corporate Registry , commonly known as LISCR . LISCR was one of the few legal sources of income for Taylor 's regime . Taylor is now on trial at the International Criminal Court in The Hague on 11 counts of war crimes , crimes against humanity , and other serious violations of international humanitarian law .
As of 2009 , the open registries of Panama , Liberia , and Marshall Islands accounted for almost 40 % of the entire world fleet , in terms of deadweight tonnage . That same year , the top ten flags of convenience registered 55 % of the world 's deadweight tonnage , including 61 % of bulk carriers and 56 % of oil tankers .
= = Extent of use = =
The International Transport Workers ' Federation ( ITF ) maintains a list of 32 registries it considers to be FOC registries . In developing the list , the ITF considers " ability and willingness of the flag state to enforce international minimum social standards on its vessels , " the " degree of ratification and enforcement of ILO Conventions and Recommendations , " and " safety and environmental record . " As of 2010 the list includes Antigua and Barbuda , the Bahamas , Barbados , Belize , Bermuda , Bolivia , Burma , Cambodia , the Cayman Island , Comoros , Cyprus , Equatorial Guinea , Georgia , Gibraltar , Honduras , Jamaica , Lebanon , Liberia , Malta , the Marshall Islands , Mauritius , Mongolia , Netherlands Antilles , North Korea , Panama , Sao Tome and Príncipe , St Vincent , Sri Lanka , Tonga , Vanuatu , and the French and German International Ship Registers .
As of 2009 , Panama , Liberia and the Marshall Islands are the world ’ s three largest registries in terms of deadweight tonnage ( DWT ) . These three organizations registered 11 @,@ 636 ships of 1 @,@ 000 DWT and above , for a total of 468 @,@ 405 @,@ 000 DWT : more than 39 % of the world 's shipbourne carrying capacity . Panama dominates the scene with over 8 @,@ 065 ships accounting for almost 23 % of the world 's DWT . Of the three , the Marshall Islands ( with 1 @,@ 265 registered ships ) had the greatest rate of DWT increase in 2009 , increasing its tonnage by almost 15 % .
The Bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide , behind the Hong Kong and Greek registries , but is similar in size to the Marshallese flag of convenience , with about 200 more ships but a carrying capacity about 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 DWT lower . Malta , at the ninth position worldwide , had about 100 more ships than the Bahamas , with a capacity of 50 @,@ 666 @,@ 000 DWT , representing 4 % of the world fleet with 12 % growth that year .
At the eleventh position , Cyprus registered 1 @,@ 016 ships in 2009 , 2 @.@ 6 % of world tonnage . The remaining top 11 flags of convenience are Antigua and Barbuda ( # 20 ) , Bermuda ( # 22 ) , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ( # 26 ) , and the French International Ship Register ( FIS ) at number # 27 . Bermuda and the FIS have fewer than 200 ships apiece , but they are large : the average Bermudan ship is 67 @,@ 310 DWT and the average FIS ship is at 42 @,@ 524 DWT . ( By way of reference , the average capacity of ships in the U.S. and U.K. registers is 1 @,@ 851 DWT and 9 @,@ 517 DWT respectively . ) The registries of Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines both have over 1 @,@ 000 ships with average capacity of 10 @,@ 423 DWT and 7 @,@ 334 DWT respectively .
The 21 other flags of convenience listed by the ITF each account for less than 1 % of the world 's DWT . As of 2008 , more than half of the world ’ s merchant ships ( measured by tonnage ) are registered under flags of convenience .
= = Criticism = =
There are a number of common threads found in criticisms of the flag of convenience system . One is that these flag states have insufficient regulations and that those regulations they do have are poorly enforced . Another is that , in many cases , the flag state cannot identify a shipowner , much less hold the owner civilly or criminally responsible for a ship 's actions . As a result of this lack of flag state control , flags of convenience are criticized on grounds of providing an environment for conducting criminal activities , supporting terrorism , providing poor working conditions for seafarers , and having an adverse effect on the environment .
David Cockroft , general secretary of the ITF says :
Arms smuggling , the ability to conceal large sums of money , trafficking in goods and people and other illegal activities can also thrive in the unregulated havens which the flag of convenience system provides .
= = = Concealed ownership = = =
A ship 's beneficial owner is legally and financially responsible for the ship and its activities . For any of a number of reasons , some justifiable and some suspicious , shipowners who wish to conceal their ownership may use a number of strategies to achieve that goal .
Actual owners may establish shell corporations to be the legal owners of their ships , making it difficult , if not impossible , to track who is the beneficial owner of the ship . The 2004 Report of the UN Secretary General ’ s Consultative Group on Flag State Implementation reported that " It is very easy , and comparatively inexpensive , to establish a complex web of corporate entities to provide very effective cover to the identities of beneficial owners who do not want to be known . " According to a 2003 report by the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development report entitled " Ownership and Control of Ships " , these corporate structures are often multi @-@ layered , spread across numerous jurisdictions , and make the beneficial owner " almost impenetrable " to law enforcement officials and taxation . The report concludes that " regardless of the reasons why the cloak of anonymity is made available , if it is provided it will also assist those who may wish to remain hidden because they engage in illegal or criminal activities , including terrorists . "
The OECD report concludes that the use of bearer shares is " perhaps the single most important ( and perhaps the most widely used ) mechanism " to protect the anonymity of a ship 's beneficial owner . Physically possessing a bearer share accords ownership of the corporation . There is no requirement for reporting the transfer of bearer shares , and not every jurisdiction requires that their serial numbers even be recorded .
Two similar techniques to provide anonymity for a ship 's beneficial owner are " nominee shareholders " and " nominee directors . " In some jurisdictions that require shareholder identities to be reported , a loophole may exist where the beneficial owner may appoint a nominee to be the shareholder , and that nominee cannot legally be compelled to reveal the identity of the beneficial owner . All corporations are required to have at least one director , however many jurisdictions allow this to be a nominee director . A nominee director 's name would appear on all corporate paperwork in place of the beneficial owners , and like nominee shareholders , few jurisdictions can compel a nominee director to divulge the identity of beneficial owners . To further complicate matters , some jurisdictions allow a corporation to fulfill the duties of a nominee director .
= = = Crime = = =
Flag of convenience ships have long been linked to crime on the high seas . For example , in 1982 , Honduras shut down its open registry operations because it had enabled " illegal traffic of all kinds and had given Honduras a bad name . "
Ships registered by the Cambodia Shipping Corporation ( CSC ) were found smuggling drugs and cigarettes in Europe , breaking the Iraq oil embargo , and engaging in human trafficking and prostitution in Europe and Asia . In response to these activities , in 2000 , Ahamd Yahya of the Cambodian Ministry of Public Works and Transport told industry publication Fairplay " We don 't know or care who owns the ships or whether they 're doing ' white ' or ' black ' business ... it is not our concern . " Less than two years later , French forces seized the Cambodian @-@ flagged , Greek @-@ owned MV Winner for cocaine smuggling . Shortly after the seizure , Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen closed the registry to foreign ships , and Cambodia canceled its contract with CSC shortly thereafter .
The North Korean flag of convenience has also garnered significant scrutiny . In 2003 , the North Korean freighter Pong @-@ su reflagged to Tuvalu in the middle of a voyage shortly before being seized by Australian authorities for smuggling heroin into that country . That year thirteen nations began monitoring vessels under the North Korean flag for " illicit cargos , like drugs , missiles or nuclear weapon fuel . "
= = = Terrorism = = =
In 2002 in the United States , Democratic senator John Breaux of Louisiana proposed a bill to prevent U.S. shipowners from using foreign flags , ostensibly as a counter @-@ terrorism measure .
= = = Working conditions = = =
In the accompanying material of the ILO 's Maritime Labour Convention of 2006 , the International Labour Organization estimated that at that time there were approximately 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 working seafarers across the world . This document goes on to say that when working aboard ships flagged to states that do not " exercise effective jurisdiction and control " over their ships that " seafarers often have to work under unacceptable conditions , to the detriment of their well @-@ being , health and safety and the safety of the ships on which they work . "
The International Transport Workers ' Federation goes further , stating that flags of convenience " provide a means of avoiding labor regulation in the country of ownership , and become a vehicle for paying low wages and forcing long hours of work and unsafe working conditions . Since FOC ships have no real nationality , they are beyond the reach of any single national seafarers ' trade union . " They also say that these ships have low safety standards and no construction requirements , that they " do not enforce safety standards , minimum social standards or trade union rights for seafarers " , that they frequently fail to pay their crews , have poor safety records , and engage in practices such as abandoning crewmen in distant ports .
= = = Environmental effects = = =
While flag of convenience ships have been involved with some of the highest @-@ profile oil spills in history ( such as the Maltese @-@ flagged MV Erika , the Bahamian @-@ flagged MV Prestige , the Marshallese @-@ flagged Deepwater Horizon , and the Liberian @-@ flagged SS Torrey Canyon , MV Amoco Cadiz and MV Sea Empress ) the most common environmental criticism they face regards illegal fishing . These critics of the flag of convenience system argue that many of the FOC flag states lack the resources or the will to properly monitor and control those vessels . The Environmental Justice Foundation ( EJF ) contends that illegal , unreported and unregulated fishing ( IUU ) vessels use flags of convenience to avoid fisheries regulations and controls . Flags of convenience help reduce the operating costs associated with illegal fishing methods , and help illegal operators avoid prosecution and hide beneficial ownership . As a result , flags of convenience perpetuate IUU fishing which has extensive environmental , social and economic impacts , particularly in developing countries . The EJF is campaigning to end the granting of flags of convenience to fishing vessels as an effective measure to combat IUU fishing .
According to Franz Fischler , European Union Fisheries Commissioner ,
The practice of flags of convenience , where owners register vessels in countries other than their own in order to avoid binding regulations or controls , is a serious menace to today ’ s maritime world .
= = Ratification of maritime conventions = =
International regulations for the maritime industry are promulgated by agencies of the United Nations , particularly the International Maritime Organization and International Labour Organization . Flag states adopt these regulations for their ships by ratifying individual treaties . One common criticism against flag of convenience countries is that they allow shipowners to avoid these regulations by not ratifying important treaties or by failing to enforce them .
The International Chamber of Shipping ( ICS ) issues an annual report entitled the Shipping Industry Flag State Performance Table identifying the six " core " conventions representing a minimum level of maritime regulation , from the viewpoint of shipowners , as SOLAS , MARPOL , LL 66 , STCW , MLC , and CLC / FUND92 . Of these , all 34 flag of convenience countries listed by ITF have ratified the STCW Convention , concerning standards of training , certification and watchkeeping for seafarers , and 25 of them have now ratified all six . However , nine listed countries have not ratified all the remaining five conventions . To put this in context , 64 flag states have not ratified all six conventions , including China and United States of America .
The Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) and Load Line ( LL 66 ) conventions focus on shipboard safety issues . Originally developed in response to the sinking of RMS Titanic , SOLAS sets regulations on lifeboats , emergency equipment and safety procedures , including continuous radio watches . It has been updated to include regulations on ship construction , fire protection systems , life @-@ saving appliances , radio communications , safety of navigation , management for the safe operation of ships , and other safety and security concerns . As of 2015 , the Bolivian , Lebanese , and Sri Lankan flags of convenience have not ratified the SOLAS treaty . LL 66 sets standards for minimum buoyancy , hull stress , and ship 's fittings , as well as establishing navigational zones where extra precautions must be taken . As of 2015 , the Bolivian , Georgian and Sri Lankan governments have not ratified LL 66 .
The International Labour Organization Maritime Labour Convention , 2006 provides comprehensive rights and protection at work for seafarers , including requirements for minimum age , qualifications , hours of work and rest , medical care , complaint procedures , wage payments , and onboard living arrangements . The MLC replaced a number of earlier ILO Conventions including ILO147 . As of 2015 , the Bolivian , Cambodian , North Korean , Georgian , Honduran , Lebanese , Mongolian , and Sri Lankan governments have not yet ratified the MLC .
MARPOL and CLC / FUND92 relate to pollution . The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships , 1973 ( MARPOL ) , as modified by the Protocol of 1978 , including Annexes I – VI " regulates pollution by ships , including oil and air pollution , shipboard sewage and garbage . As of 2015 , the Bahamian , Cambodian , North Korean , Georgian , Honduran , Lebanese and Sri Lankan governments have not fully ratified MARPOL . The Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage ( CLC ) and International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage ( FUND92 ) together provide mechanisms to ensure compensation for victims of oil spills . As of 2015 , the Bolivian , North Korean , Honduran , Lebanese and Mongolian governments have not ratified the CLC and FUND92 conventions .
= = Port state targeting = =
In 1978 , a number of European countries agreed in The Hague to audit labour conditions on board vessels vis @-@ a @-@ vis the rules of the International Labour Organization . To this end , in 1982 the " Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control " ( Paris MOU ) was established , setting port state control standards for what is now twenty @-@ six European countries and Canada .
Several other regional Memoranda Of Understanding have been established based on the Paris model , including the " Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control in the Asia @-@ Pacific Region " , typically referred to as the " Tokyo MOU " , and organizations for the Black Sea , the Caribbean , the Indian Ocean , the Mediterranean , and Latin America . The Tokyo and Paris organizations generate , based on deficiencies and detentions , black- , white- , and grey @-@ lists of flag states . The US Coast Guard , which handles port state control inspections in the US , maintains a similar target list for underperforming flag states . As of 2014 , fourteen of the thirty @-@ four flags of convenience listed by the ITF are targeted for special enforcement by the countries of the Paris and Tokyo MOUs or U.S. Coast Guard : Antigua and Barbuda , Belize , Bolivia , Cambodia , the Cayman Islands , Comoros , Cyprus , Honduras , North Korea , Malta , Moldova , Mongolia , Panama , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and Vanuatu .
= = Wages = =
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development , in its 2009 Report on Maritime Trade , states that shipowners often register their ships under a foreign flag in order to employ " seafarers from developing countries with lower wages . " The Philippines and the People 's Republic of China supply a large percentage of maritime labor in general , and major flags of convenience in particular . In 2009 , the flag @-@ states employing the highest number of expatriate @-@ Filipino seafarers were Panama , the Bahamas , Liberia and the Marshall Islands . That year , more than 150 @,@ 000 Filipino sailors were employed by these four flags of convenience . In a 2006 study by the United States Maritime Administration ( MARAD ) , sailors from the People 's Republic of China comprised over 40 % of the crews on surveyed ships flying the Panamanian flag , and around 10 % of those flying the Liberian flag . The MARAD report referred to both China and the Philippines as " low cost " crewing sources .
The seafaring industry is often divided into two employment groups : licensed mariners including deck officers and marine engineers , and mariners that are not required to have licenses , such as able seamen and cooks , but are required to be certified . The latter group is collectively known as unlicensed mariners or ratings . Differences in wages can be seen in both groups , between " high cost " crewing sources such as the United States , and " low cost " sources such as China and The Philippines . However , salaries on flag of convenience ships are still far higher than median salaries of non @-@ seafarers in these countries .
For unlicensed mariners , 2009 statistics from the American Bureau of Labor Statistics give median earnings for able and ordinary seamen as US $ 35 @,@ 810 , varying from $ 21 @,@ 640 ( at the 10th percentile ) to $ 55 @,@ 360 ( at the 90th percentile ) . This can be compared with 2006 statistics from the International Labour Organization , giving average yearly earnings for Filipino and Chinese able seamen around $ 2 @,@ 000 to $ 3 @,@ 000 per year ( PHP9,900 per month and CNY3,071 per year ) . Among licensed mariners , American chief engineers earned a median $ 63 @,@ 630 , varying from $ 35 @,@ 030 to $ 109 @,@ 310 while their Filipino counterparts averaged $ 5 @,@ 500 per year ( PHP21,342 per month ) .
= = = News stories = = =
= = = Fishing references = = =
= = = Port state control organizations = = =
= The Bartered Bride =
The Bartered Bride ( Czech : Prodaná nevěsta , The Sold Bride ) is a comic opera in three acts by the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana , to a libretto by Karel Sabina . The work is generally regarded as a major contribution towards the development of Czech music . It was composed during the period 1863 – 66 , and first performed at the Provisional Theatre , Prague , on 30 May 1866 in a two @-@ act format with spoken dialogue .
Set in a country village and with realistic characters , it tells the story of how , after a late surprise revelation , true love prevails over the combined efforts of ambitious parents and a scheming marriage broker .
The opera was not immediately successful , and was revised and extended in the following four years . In its final version , premiered in 1870 , it rapidly gained popularity and eventually became a worldwide success .
Czech national opera until this time had been represented only by minor , rarely performed works . This opera , Smetana 's second , was part of his quest to create a truly Czech operatic genre . Smetana 's musical treatment made considerable use of traditional Bohemian dance forms such as the polka and furiant , and although he largely avoided the direct quotation of folksong he neverthess created music considered by Czechs to be quintessentially Czech in spirit .
The overture , often played as a concert piece independently from the opera , was , unusually , composed before almost any of the other music had been written .
After a performance at the Vienna Music and Theatre Exhibition of 1892 , the opera achieved international recognition . It was performed in Chicago in 1893 , London in 1895 and reached New York in 1909 , subsequently becoming the first , and for many years the only , Czech opera in the general repertory .
Many of these early international performances were in German , under the title Die verkaufte Braut , and the German @-@ language version continues to be played and recorded . A German film of the opera was made in 1932 by Max Ophüls .
= = Context = =
Until the middle 1850s Bedřich Smetana was known in Prague principally as a teacher , pianist and composer of salon pieces . His failure to achieve wider recognition in the Bohemian capital led him to depart in 1856 for Sweden , where he spent the next five years . During this period he extended his compositional range to large @-@ scale orchestral works in the descriptive style championed by Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner . Liszt was Smetana 's long @-@ time mentor ; he had accepted a dedication of the latter 's Opus 1 : Six Characteristic Pieces for Piano in 1848 , and had encouraged the younger composer 's career since then . In September 1857 Smetana visited Liszt in Weimar , where he met Peter Cornelius , a follower of Liszt 's who was working on a comic opera , Der Barbier von Bagdad . Their discussions centred on the need to create a modern style of comic opera , as a counterbalance to Wagner 's new form of music drama . A comment was made by the Viennese conductor Johann von Herbeck to the effect that Czechs were incapable of making music of their own , a remark which Smetana took to heart : " I swore there and then that no other than I should beget a native Czech music . "
Smetana did not act immediately on this aspiration . The announcement that a Provisional Theatre was to be opened in Prague , as a home for Czech opera and drama pending the building of a permanent National Theatre , influenced his decision to return permanently to his homeland in 1861 . He was then spurred to creative action by the announcement of a prize competition , sponsored by the Czech patriot Jan von Harrach , to provide suitable operas for the Provisional Theatre . By 1863 he had written The Brandenburgers in Bohemia to a libretto by the Czech nationalist poet Karel Sabina , whom Smetana had met briefly in 1848 . The Brandenburgers , which was awarded the opera prize , was a serious historical drama , but even before its completion Smetana was noting down themes for use in a future comic opera . By this time he had heard the music of Cornelius 's Der Barbier , and was ready to try his own hand at the comic genre .
= = Composition history = =
= = = Libretto = = =
For his libretto , Smetana again approached Sabina , who by 5 July 1863 had produced an untitled one @-@ act sketch in German . Over the following months Sabina was encouraged to develop this into a full @-@ length text , and to provide a Czech translation . According to Smetana 's biographer Brian Large , this process was prolonged and untidy ; the manuscript shows amendments and additions in Smetana 's own hand , and some pages apparently written by Smetana 's wife Bettina ( who may have been receiving dictation ) . By the end of 1863 a two @-@ act version , with around 20 musical numbers separated by spoken dialogue , had been assembled . Smetana 's diary indicates that he , rather than Sabina , chose the work 's title because " the poet did not know what to call it . " The translation " Sold Bride " is strictly accurate , but the more euphonious " Bartered Bride " has been adopted throughout the English @-@ speaking world . Sabina evidently did not fully appreciate Smetana 's intention to write a full @-@ length opera , later commenting : " If I had suspected what Smetana would make of my operetta , I should have taken more pains and written him a better and more solid libretto . "
The Czech music specialist John Tyrrell has observed that , despite the casual way in which The Bartered Bride 's libretto was put together , it has an intrinsic " Czechness " , being one of the few in the Czech language written in trochees ( a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one ) , matching the natural first @-@ syllable emphasis in the Czech language .
= = = Composition = = =
By October 1862 , well before the arrival of any libretto or plot sketch , Smetana had noted down 16 bars which later became the theme of The Bartered Bride 's opening chorus . In May 1863 he sketched eight bars which he eventually used in the love duet " Faithful love can 't be marred " , and later that summer , while still awaiting Sabina 's revised libretto , he wrote the theme of the comic number " We 'll make a pretty little thing " . He also produced a piano version of the entire overture , which was performed in a public concert on 18 November . In this , he departed from his normal practice of leaving the overture until last .
The opera continued to be composed in a piecemeal fashion , as Sabina 's libretto gradually took shape . Progress was slow , and was interrupted by other work . Smetana had become Chorus Master of the Hlahol Choral Society in 1862 , and spent much time rehearsing and performing with the Society . He was deeply involved in the 1864 Shakespeare Festival in Prague , conducting Berlioz 's Romeo et Juliette and composing a festival march . That same year he became music correspondent of the Czech language newspaper Národní listy . Smetana 's diary for December 1864 records that he was continuing to work on The Bartered Bride ; the piano score was completed by October 1865 . It was then put aside so that the composer could concentrate on his third opera Dalibor . Smetana evidently did not begin the orchestral scoring of The Bartered Bride until , following the successful performance of The Brandenburgers in January 1866 , the management of the Provisional Theatre decided to stage the new opera during the following summer . The scoring was completed rapidly , between 20 February and 16 March .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Act 1 = = =
A crowd of villagers is celebrating at the church fair ( " Let 's rejoice and be merry " ) . Among them are Mařenka and Jeník . Mařenka is unhappy because her parents want her to marry someone she has never met . They will try to force her into this , she says . Her desires are for Jeník even though , as she explains in her aria " If I should ever learn " , she knows nothing of his background . The couple then declare their feelings for each other in a passionate love duet ( " Faithful love can 't be marred " ) .
As the pair leave separately , Mařenka 's parents , Ludmila and Krušina , enter with the marriage broker Kecal . After some discussion , Kecal announces that he has found a groom for Mařenka – Vašek , younger son of Tobiáš Mícha , a wealthy landowner ; the older son , he explains , is a worthless good @-@ for @-@ nothing . Kecal extols the virtues of Vašek ( " He 's a nice boy , well brought up " ) , as Mařenka re @-@ enters . In the subsequent quartet she responds by saying that she already has a chosen lover . Send him packing , orders Kecal . The four argue , but little is resolved . Kecal decides he must convince Jeník to give up Mařenka , as the villagers return , singing and dancing a festive polka .
= = = Act 2 = = =
The men of the village join in a rousing drinking song ( " To beer ! " ) , while Jeník and Kecal argue the merits , respectively , of love and money over beer . The women enter , and the whole group joins in dancing a furiant . Away from the jollity the nervous Vašek muses over his forthcoming marriage in a stuttering song ( " My @-@ my @-@ my mother said to me " ) . Mařenka appears , and guesses immediately who he is , but does not reveal her own identity . Pretending to be someone else , she paints a picture of " Mařenka " as a treacherous deceiver . Vašek is easily fooled , and when Mařenka , in her false guise , pretends to woo him ( " I know of a maiden fair " ) , he falls for her charms and swears to give Mařenka up .
Meanwhile , Kecal is attempting to buy Jeník off , and after some verbal fencing makes a straight cash offer : a hundred florins if Jeník will renounce Mařenka . Not enough , is the reply . When Kecal increases the offer to 300 florins , Jeník pretends to accept , but imposes a condition – no one but Mícha 's son will be allowed to wed Mařenka . Kecal agrees , and rushes off to prepare the contract . Alone , Jeník ponders the deal he has apparently made to barter his beloved ( " When you discover whom you 've bought " ) , wondering how anyone could believe that he would really do this , and finally expressing his love for Mařenka .
Kecal summons the villagers to witness the contract he has made ( " Come inside and listen to me " ) . He reads the terms : Mařenka is to marry no one but Mícha 's son . Krušina and the crowd marvel at Jeník 's apparent self @-@ denial , but the mood changes when they learn that he has been paid off . The Act ends with Jenik being denounced by Krušina and the rest of the assembly as a rascal .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Vašek expresses his confusions in a short , sad song ( " I can 't get it out of my head " ) , but is interrupted by the arrival of a travelling circus . The Ringmaster introduces the star attractions : Esmeralda , the Spanish dancer , a " real Indian " sword swallower , and a dancing bear . A rapid folk @-@ dance , the skočná , follows . Vašek is entranced by Esmeralda , but his timid advances are interrupted when the " Indian " rushes in , announcing that the " bear " has collapsed in a drunken stupor . A replacement is required . Vašek is soon persuaded to take the job , egged on by Esmeralda 's flattering words ( " We 'll make a pretty thing out of you " ) .
The circus folk leave . Vasek 's parents – Mícha and Háta – arrive , with Kecal . Vašek tells them that he no longer wants to marry Mařenka , having learned her true nature from a beautiful , strange girl . They are horrified ( " He does not want her – what has happened ? " ) . Vašek runs off , and moments later Mařenka arrives with her parents . She has just learned of Jeník 's deal with Kecal , and a lively ensemble ( " No , no , I don 't believe it " ) ensues . Matters are further complicated when Vašek returns , recognises Mařenka as his " strange girl " , and says that he will happily marry her . In the sextet which follows ( " Make your mind up , Mařenka " ) , Mařenka is urged to think things over . They all depart , leaving her alone .
In her aria ( " Oh what grief " ) , Mařenka sings of her betrayal . When Jeník appears , she rebuffs him angrily , and declares that she will marry Vašek . Kecal arrives , and is amused by Jeník 's attempts to pacify Mařenka , who orders her former lover to go . The villagers then enter , with both sets of parents , wanting to know Mařenka 's decision ( " What have you decided , Mařenka ? " ) . As she confirms that she will marry Vašek , Jeník returns , and to great consternation addresses Mícha as " father " . In a surprise identity revelation it emerges that Jeník is Mícha 's elder son , by a former marriage – the " worthless good @-@ for @-@ nothing " earlier dismissed by Kecal – who had in fact been driven away by his jealous stepmother , Háta . As Mícha 's son he is , by the terms of the contract , entitled to marry Mařenka ; when this becomes clear , Mařenka understands his actions and embraces him . Offstage shouting interrupts the proceedings ; it seems that a bear has escaped from the circus and is heading for the village . This creature appears , but is soon revealed to be Vašek in the bear 's costume ( " Don 't be afraid ! " ) . His antics convince his parents that he is unready for marriage , and he is marched away . Mícha then blesses the marriage between Mařenka and Jeník , and all ends in a celebratory chorus .
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Premiere = = =
The premiere of The Bartered Bride took place at the Provisional Theatre on 30 May 1866 . Smetana conducted ; the stage designs were by Josef Macourek and Josef Jiři Kolár produced the opera . The role of Mařenka was sung by the theatre 's principal soprano , Eleonora von Ehrenberg – who had refused to appear in The Brandenburgers because she thought her proffered role was beneath her . The parts of Krušina , Jeník and Kecal were all taken by leading members of the Brandenburgers cast . A celebrated actor , Jindřich Mošna , was engaged to play the Ringmaster , a role which involves little singing skill .
The choice of date proved unfortunate for several reasons . It clashed with a public holiday , and many people had left the city for the country . It was an intensely hot day , which further reduced the number of people prepared to suffer the discomfort of a stuffy theatre . Worse , the threat of an imminent war between Prussia and Austria caused unrest and anxiety in Prague , which dampened public enthusiasm for light romantic comedy . Thus on its opening night the opera , in its two @-@ act version with spoken dialogue , was poorly attended and indifferently received . Receipts failed to cover costs , and the theatre director was forced to pay Smetana 's fee from his own pocket .
Smetana 's friend Josef Srb @-@ Debrnov , who was unable to attend the performance himself , canvassed opinion from members of the audience as they emerged . " One praised it , another shook his head , and one well @-@ known musician ... said to me : ' That 's no comic opera ; it won 't do . The opening chorus is fine but I don 't care for the rest . ' " Josef Krejčí , a member of the panel that had judged Harrach 's opera competition , called the work a failure " that would never hold its own . " Press comment was less critical ; nevertheless , after one more performance the opera was withdrawn . Shortly afterwards the Provisional Theatre temporarily closed its doors , as the threat of war drew closer to Prague .
= = = Restructure = = =
Smetana began revising The Bartered Bride as soon as its first performances were complete . For its first revival , in October 1866 , the only significant musical alteration was the addition of a gypsy dance near the start of Act II . For this , Smetana used the music of a dance from The Brandenburgers of Bohemia . When The Bartered Bride returned to the Provisional Theatre in January 1869 , this dance was removed , and replaced with a polka . A new scene , with a drinking song for the chorus , was added to Act I , and Mařenka 's Act II aria " Oh what grief ! " was extended .
So far , changes to the original had been of a minor nature , but when the opera reappeared in June 1869 it had been entirely restructured . Although the musical numbers were still linked by dialogue , the first act had been divided in two , to create a three @-@ act opera . Various numbers , including the drinking song and the new polka , were repositioned , and the polka was now followed by a furiant . A " March of the Comedians " was added , to introduce the strolling players in what was now Act III . A short duet for Esmeralda and the Principal Comedian was dropped . In September 1870 The Bartered Bride reached its final form , when all the dialogue was replaced by recitative . Smetana 's own opinion of the finished work , given much later , was largely dismissive : he described it as " a toy ... composing it was mere child 's play " . It was written , he said " to spite those who accused me of being Wagnerian and incapable of doing anything in a lighter vein . "
= = = Later performances = = =
In February 1869 Smetana had the text translated into French , and sent the libretto and score to the Paris Opera with a business proposal for dividing the profits . The management of the Paris Opera did not respond . The opera was first performed outside its native land on 11 January 1871 , when Eduard Nápravník , conductor of the Russian Imperial Opera , gave a performance at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg . The work attracted mediocre notices from the critics , one of whom compared the work unfavourably to the Offenbach genre . Smetana was hurt by this remark , which he felt downgraded his opera to operetta status , and was convinced that press hostility had been generated by a former adversary , the Russian composer Mily Balakirev . The pair had clashed some years earlier , over the Provisional Theatre 's stagings of Glinka 's A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan and Lyudmila . Smetana believed that Balakirev had used the Russian premiere of The Bartered Bride as a means of exacting revenge .
The Bartered Bride was not performed abroad again until after Smetana 's death in 1884 . It was staged by the Prague National Theatre company in Vienna , as part of the Vienna Music and Theatre Exhibition of 1892 , where its favourable reception was the beginning of its worldwide popularity among opera audiences . Since the Czech language was not widely spoken , international performances tended to be in German . The United States premiere took place at the Haymarket Theatre , Chicago , on 20 August 1893 . The opera was introduced to the Hamburg State Opera in 1894 by Gustav Mahler , then serving as its director ; a year later a German company brought a production to the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in London . In 1897 , after his appointment as director of the Vienna State Opera , Mahler brought The Bartered Bride into the Vienna repertory , and conducted regular performances of the work between 1899 and 1907 . Mahler 's enthusiasm for the work was such that he had incorporated a quote from the overture into the final movement of his First Symphony ( 1888 ) . When he became Director of the Metropolitan Opera in New York in 1907 he added the opera to its repertory . The New York premiere , again in German , took place on 19 February 1909 , and was warmly received . The New York Times commented on the excellence of the staging and musical characterisations , and paid particular tribute to " Mr. Mahler " , whose master hand was in evidence throughout . Mahler chose to play the overture between Acts I and II , so that latecomers might hear it .
= = = Modern revivals = = =
The opera was performed more than one hundred times during Smetana 's lifetime ( the first Czech opera to reach this landmark ) , subsequently becoming a permanent feature of the National Theatre 's repertory . On 9 May 1945 a special performance in memory of the victims of World War II was given at the theatre , four days after the last significant fighting in Europe .
In the years since its American premiere The Bartered Bride has entered the repertory of all major opera companies , and is regularly revived worldwide . After several unsuccessful attempts to stage it in France , it was premiered at the Opéra @-@ Comique in Paris in 1928 , sung in French as La Fiancée vendue . In 2008 the opera was added to the repertoire of the Paris Opera , in a new production staged at the Palais Garnier .
In the English @-@ speaking world , recent productions of The Bartered Bride in London have included the Royal Opera House ( ROH ) presentation in 1998 , staged at Sadler 's Wells during the restoration of the ROH 's headquarters at Covent Garden . This production in English was directed by Francesca Zambello and conducted by Bernard Haitink ; it was criticised both for its stark settings and for ruining the Act II entrance of Vašek . It was nevertheless twice revived by the ROH – in 2001 and 2006 , under Charles Mackerras .
A New York Metropolitan staging was in 1996 under James Levine , a revival of John Dexter 's 1978 production with stage designs by Josef Svoboda . In 2005 The Bartered Bride returned to New York , at the Juilliard School theatre , in a new production by Eve Shapiro , conducted by Mark Stringer . In its May 2009 production at the Cutler Majestic Theatre , Opera Boston transplanted the action to 1934 , in the small Iowan town of Spillville , once the home of a large Czech settlement .
= = Music = =
Although much of the music of The Bartered Bride is folk @-@ like , the only significant use of authentic folk material is in the Act II furiant , with a few other occasional glimpses of basic Czech folk melodies . The " Czechness " of the music is further illustrated by the closeness to Czech dance rhythms of many individual numbers . Smetana 's diary indicates that he was trying to give the music " a popular character , because the plot [ ... ] is taken from village life and demands a national treatment . " According to his biographer John Clapham , Smetana " certainly felt the pulse of the peasantry and knew how to express this in music , yet inevitably he added something of himself . " Historian Harold Schonberg argues that " the exoticisms of the Bohemian musical language were not in the Western musical consciousness until Smetana appeared . " Smetana 's musical language is , on the whole , one of happiness , expressing joy , dancing and festivals .
The mood of the entire opera is set by the overture , a concert piece in its own right , which Tyrrell describes as " a tour de force of the genre , wonderfully spirited & wonderfully crafted . " Tyrrell draws attention to several of its striking features – its extended string fugato , climactic tutti and prominent syncopations . The overture does not contain many of the opera 's later themes : biographer Brian Large compares it to Mozart 's overtures to The Marriage of Figaro and The Magic Flute , in establishing a general mood . It is followed immediately by an extended orchestral prelude , for which Smetana adapted part of his 1849 piano work Wedding Scenes , adding special effects such as bagpipe imitations .
Schonberg has suggested that Bohemian composers express melancholy in a delicate , elegiac manner " without the crushing world @-@ weariness and pessimism of the Russians . " Thus , Mařenka 's unhappiness is illustrated in the opening chorus by a brief switch to the minor key ; likewise , the inherent pathos of Vašek 's character is demonstrated by the dark minor key music of his Act III solo . Smetana also uses the technique of musical reminiscence , where particular themes are used as reminders of other parts of the action ; the lilting clarinet theme of " faithful love " is an example , though it and other instances fall short of being full @-@ blown Wagnerian leading themes or Leitmotifs .
Large has commented that despite the colour and vigour of the music , there is little by way of characterisation , except in the cases of Kecal and , to a lesser extent , the loving pair and the unfortunate Vašek . The two sets of parents and the various circus folk are all conventional and " penny @-@ plain " figures . In contrast , Kecal 's character – that of a self @-@ important , pig @-@ headed , loquacious bungler – is instantly established by his rapid @-@ patter music . Large suggests that the character may have been modelled on that of the boastful Baron in Cimarosa 's opera Il matrimonio segreto . Mařenka 's temperament is shown in vocal flourishes which include coloratura passages and sustained high notes , while Jeník 's good nature is reflected in the warmth of his music , generally in the G minor key . For Vašek 's dual image , comic and pathetic , Smetana uses the major key to depict comedy , the minor for sorrow . Large suggests that Vašek 's musical stammer , portrayed especially in his opening Act II song , was taken from Mozart 's character Don Curzio in The Marriage of Figaro .
= = Film and other adaptations = =
A silent film of The Bartered Bride was made in 1913 by the Czech film production studio Kinofa . It was produced by Max Urban and starred his wife Andula Sedláčková . A German @-@ language version of the opera , Die verkaufte Braut , was filmed in 1932 by Max Ophüls , the celebrated German director then at the beginning of his film @-@ making career . The screenplay was drawn from Sabina 's libretto by Curt Alexander , and Smetana 's music was adapted by the German composer of film music , Theo Mackeben . The film starred the leading Czech opera singer Jarmila Novotná in the role of Mařenka ( " Marie " in the film ) , and the German baritone Willi Domgraf @-@ Fassbaender as Jeník ( " Hans " ) .
Ophuls constructed an entire Czech village in the studio to provide an authentic background . Following the film 's US release in 1934 , The New York Times commented that it " carr [ ied ] most of the comedy of the original " but was " rather weak on the musical side " , despite the presence of stars such as Novotná . Opera @-@ lovers , the review suggested , should not expect too much , but the work nevertheless gave an attractive portrait of Bohemian village life in the mid @-@ 19th century . The reviewer found most of the acting first @-@ rate , but commented that " the photography and sound reproduction are none too clear at times . " Other film adaptations of the opera were made in 1922 directed by Oldrich Kminek ( Atropos ) , in 1933 , directed by Jaroslav Kvapil , Svatopluk Innemann and Emil Pollert ( Espofilm ) , and in 1976 , directed by Václav Kašlík ( Barrandov ) .
= = List of musical numbers = =
The list relates to the final ( 1870 ) version of the opera .
= = Recordings = =
See The Bartered Bride discography .
= Ron Paul =
Ronald Ernest " Ron " Paul ( born August 20 , 1935 ) is an American author , physician , and former politician . He served as the U.S. Representative for Texas ' 14th and 22nd congressional districts . He represented the 22nd congressional district from 1976 to 1977 and from 1979 to 1985 , and then represented the 14th congressional district , which included Galveston , from 1997 to 2013 . On three occasions , he sought the presidency of the United States : as the Libertarian Party nominee in 1988 and as a candidate in the Republican primaries of 2008 and 2012 . Paul is a critic of the federal government 's fiscal policies , especially the existence of the Federal Reserve and the tax policy , as well as the military – industrial complex , and the War on Drugs . Paul has also been a vocal critic of mass surveillance policies such as the USA PATRIOT Act and the NSA surveillance programs . Paul was the first chairman of the conservative PAC Citizens for a Sound Economy and has been characterized as the " intellectual godfather " of the Tea Party movement .
A native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Green Tree , Pennsylvania , Paul is a graduate of Gettysburg College and the Duke University School of Medicine , where he earned his medical degree . He served as a flight surgeon in the U.S. Air Force from 1963 to 1968 . He worked as an obstetrician @-@ gynecologist from the 1960s to the 1980s . He became the first Representative in history to serve concurrently with a son or daughter in the Senate when his son , Rand Paul , was elected to the U.S. Senate from Kentucky in 2010 .
Paul is a Senior Fellow of the Mises Institute , and has been an active writer , publishing on the topics of political and economic theory , as well as publicizing the ideas of economists of the Austrian School such as Murray Rothbard and Ludwig von Mises during his political campaigns . Paul has written many books on Austrian economics and classical liberal philosophy , beginning with The Case for Gold ( 1982 ) and including A Foreign Policy of Freedom ( 2007 ) , Pillars of Prosperity ( 2008 ) , The Revolution : A Manifesto ( 2008 ) , End the Fed ( 2009 ) and Liberty Defined ( 2011 ) .
On July 12 , 2011 , Paul announced that he would forgo seeking another term in Congress in order to focus on his presidential bid . On May 14 , 2012 , Paul announced that he would not be competing in any other presidential primaries but that he would still compete for delegates in states where the primary elections have already been held . At the 2012 Republican National Convention , Paul received 190 delegate votes . In January 2013 , Paul retired from Congress but still remains active on college campuses , giving speeches promoting his libertarian vision .
= = Early life , education , and medical career = =
Ronald Ernest Paul was born on August 20 , 1935 , in Pittsburgh , the son of Howard Caspar Paul ( 1904 – 1997 ) , who ran a small dairy company , and Margaret Paul ( née Dumont ; 1908 – 2001 ) . His paternal grandfather emigrated from Germany , and his paternal grandmother , a devout Christian , was a first @-@ generation German American .
As a junior at suburban Dormont High School , he was the 200 meter dash state champion . Paul went to Gettysburg College , where he was also a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity . He graduated with a B.S. degree in Biology in 1957 .
Paul earned a Doctor of Medicine degree from Duke University 's School of Medicine in 1961 , and completed his medical internship at the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and his residency in obstetrics and gynecology at Magee @-@ Womens Hospital in Pittsburgh . Paul served as a flight surgeon in the United States Air Force from 1963 to 1965 and then in the United States Air National Guard from 1965 to 1968 . Paul and his wife then relocated to Texas , where he began a private practice in obstetrics and gynecology .
= = Early congressional career ( 1976 – 1985 ) = =
While a medical resident in the 1960s , Paul was influenced by Friedrich Hayek 's The Road to Serfdom , which caused him to read other publications by Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand . He came to know economists Hans Sennholz and Murray Rothbard well , and credits to them his interest in the study of economics .
When President Richard Nixon " closed the gold window " by ending American participation in the Bretton Woods System , thus ending the U.S. dollar 's loose association with gold on August 15 , 1971 , Paul decided to enter politics and became a Republican candidate for the United States Congress .
= = = Elections = = =
In 1974 , incumbent Robert R. Casey defeated him for the 22nd district . President Gerald Ford later appointed Casey to direct the Federal Maritime Commission , and Paul won an April 1976 special election to the vacant office after a runoff . Paul lost the next regular election to Democrat Robert Gammage by fewer than 300 votes ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) , but defeated Gammage in a 1978 rematch , and was reelected in 1980 and 1982 . Gammage underestimated Paul 's popularity among local mothers : " I had real difficulty down in Brazoria County , where he practiced , because he 'd delivered half the babies in the county . There were only two obstetricians in the county , and the other one was his partner . "
= = = Tenure = = =
Paul served in Congress three different periods : first from 1976 to 1977 , after he won a special election , then from 1979 to 1985 , and finally from 1997 to 2013 .
In his early years , Paul served on the House Banking Committee , where he blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against the banking mismanagement that resulted in the savings and loan crisis . Paul argued for a return to the gold standard maintained by the US from 1873 – 1933 , and with Senator Jesse Helms convinced the Congress to study the issue . He spoke against the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980 , in opposition to President Jimmy Carter and the majority of his fellow Republican members of Congress .
During his first term , Paul founded the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education ( FREE ) , a non @-@ profit think tank dedicated to promoting principles of limited government and free @-@ market economics . In 1984 , Paul became the first chairman of the Citizens for a Sound Economy ( CSE ) , a conservative political group founded by Charles and David Koch " to fight for less government , lower taxes , and less regulation . " CSE started a Tea Party protest against high taxes in 2002 . In 2004 , Citizens for a Sound Economy split into two new organizations , with Citizens for a Sound Economy being renamed as FreedomWorks , and Citizens for a Sound Economy Foundation becoming Americans for Prosperity . The two organizations would become key players in the Tea Party movement from 2009 onward .
Paul proposed term @-@ limit legislation multiple times , while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives . In 1984 , he decided to retire from the House in order to run for the U.S. Senate , complaining in his House farewell address that " Special interests have replaced the concern that the Founders had for general welfare .... It 's difficult for one who loves true liberty and utterly detests the power of the state to come to Washington for a period of time and not leave a true cynic . " Paul lost the Republican primary to Phil Gramm , who had switched parties the previous year from Democrat to Republican . Another candidate of the senatorial primary was Henry Grover , a conservative former state legislator who had lost the 1972 gubernatorial general election to the Democrat Dolph Briscoe , Jr .
On Paul 's departure from the House , his seat was assumed by former state representative Tom DeLay , who would later become House Majority Leader .
= = Libertarian Party and ventures = =
= = = 1985 – 1997 = = =
Following the loss of the 1984 senate race , Paul returned to his obstetrics practice and took part in a number of other business ventures . Along with his former congressional chief of staff , Lew Rockwell , Paul founded a for @-@ profit enterprise , Ron Paul & Associates , Inc . ( RP & A ) in 1984 , with Paul serving as president , Rockwell as vice president , Paul 's wife Carol as secretary , and daughter Lori Pyeatt as treasurer . The company published a variety of political and investment @-@ oriented newsletters , including Ron Paul Freedom Report and Ron Paul Survival Report , and by 1993 was generating revenues in excess of $ 900 @,@ 000 .
Paul also co @-@ owned a mail @-@ order coin dealership , Ron Paul Coins , for twelve years with Burt Blumert , who continued to operate the dealership after Paul resumed office in 1996 . Paul spoke multiple times at the American Numismatic Association 's 1988 convention . He worked with his Foundation for Rational Economics and Education on such projects as establishing the National Endowment for Liberty , producing the At Issue public policy series that was broadcast on the Discovery Channel and CNBC , and continuing publication of newsletters .
= = = 1988 presidential campaign = = =
Paul resigned from the Republican Party in 1987 and launched a bid for the presidency running on the Libertarian Party ticket . His candidacy was seen as problematic because of the party 's long support for freedom of choice on abortions . Native American activist Russell Means emphasized that he was pro @-@ choice on the abortion issue . In a forum held prior to the nomination , Means dismissed the greater funds raised by Paul 's campaign , commenting that Means was receiving " 10 times more press " than the former Congressman and was therefore " 100 times more effective " .
In the 1988 presidential election , Paul was on the ballot in 46 states , scoring third in the popular vote with 432 @,@ 179 votes ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) . Paul was kept off the ballot in Missouri , due to what the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch termed a " technicality , " and received votes there only when written in , just as he did in North Carolina .
According to Paul , his presidential campaign was about more than obtaining office ; he sought to promote his libertarian ideas , often to school and university groups regardless of vote eligibility . He said , " We 're just as interested in the future generation as this election . These kids will vote eventually , and maybe , just maybe , they 'll go home and talk to their parents . "
Paul considered campaigning for President during 1992 , but instead chose to endorse Pat Buchanan that year , and served as an adviser to Buchanan 's Republican presidential primary campaign against incumbent President George H. W. Bush .
= = Later congressional career ( 1997 – 2013 ) = =
= = = Elections = = =
1996 campaign
During 1996 , Paul was re @-@ elected to Congress after a difficult campaign . The Republican National Committee endorsed incumbent Greg Laughlin in the primary ; Paul won with assistance from baseball pitcher , constituent , and friend Nolan Ryan , tax activist and publisher Steve Forbes and conservative commentator Pat Buchanan ( the latter two of whom had had presidential campaigns that year ) . Paul narrowly defeated Democratic attorney Charles " Lefty " Morris in the fall election , despite Morris ' criticism over controversial statements in several newsletters that Paul published .
1998 – 2013
In 1998 and 2000 , Paul defeated Loy Sneary , a Democratic Bay City , Texas , rice farmer and former Matagorda County judge . In the 2008 Republican primary , he defeated Friendswood city councilman Chris Peden , with over 70 percent of the vote and ran unopposed in the general election . In the 2010 Republican primary , Paul defeated three opponents with 80 percent of the vote .
On July 12 , 2011 , Paul announced that he would not seek re @-@ election to the House in order to pursue the 2012 presidential election .
= = = Tenure = = =
Legislation
Of the 620 bills that Paul had sponsored through December 2011 , over a period of more than 22 years in Congress , only one had been signed into law – a lifetime success rate of less than 0 @.@ 3 % . The sole measure authored by Paul that was ultimately enacted allowed for a federal customhouse to be sold to a local historic preservation society ( H.R. 2121 in 2009 ) .
By amending other legislation , he has helped prohibit funding for national identification numbers , funding for federal teacher certification , International Criminal Court jurisdiction over the U.S. military , American participation with any U.N. global tax , and surveillance of peaceful First Amendment activities by citizens .
Affiliations
Paul was honorary chairman of , and is a member of the Republican Liberty Caucus , a political action committee that describes its goal as electing " liberty @-@ minded , limited @-@ government individuals " . He is an initiating member of the Congressional Rural Caucus , which deals with agricultural and rural issues , and the 140 @-@ member Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Paul served on the following committee and subcommittees .
Committee on Financial Services
Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology ( Chairman )
Subcommittee on International Monetary Policy and Trade
Committee on Foreign Affairs
Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations
With the election of the 112th Congress , and a resulting GOP majority in the House , Paul became the chairman of the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology starting in January 2011 .
Paul 's congressional career ended on January 3 , 2013 with the swearing in of the 113th Congress .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
= = = 2008 Republican primary campaign = = =
Paul formally declared his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination on March 12 , 2007 , on C @-@ SPAN . Few major politicians endorsed him , and his campaign was largely ignored by traditional media . However , he attracted an intensely loyal grassroots following , in large part energized by " iconoclastic white men " interacting through internet social media . In May 2007 , shortly after the first televised primary debates , the blogs search engine site Technorati.com listed Paul 's name as the term most frequently searched for ; and Paul 's campaign claimed that Paul had more YouTube channel subscribers than Barack Obama or any other candidate for president . For a candidate who had had relatively low national name recognition prior to entering the race , Paul did surprisingly well in fundraising , taking in more money than any other Republican candidate in the fourth quarter of 2007 , as the primary season headed into the Iowa caucuses .
Despite benefiting from large numbers of campaign contributions from individual donors , and the efforts of tech @-@ savvy supporters determined to keep his name a frequent topic of discussion on the internet , over the course of the campaign Paul was unable to translate the enthusiasm of his core supporters into large enough numbers of actual primary votes to unseat his rivals .
Paul came in 5th place in both the January 4 Iowa caucuses ( 10 % of votes cast ) and the January 8 New Hampshire primary ( 8 % ) . With the exception of the Nevada caucuses January 19 , where he came in 2nd ( 14 % ) behind Romney ( 51 % ) , he did little better through the rest of January : Michigan 4th ( 6 % ) , South Carolina 5th ( 4 % ) , Florida 5th ( 3 % ) . On SuperTuesday , February 5 , he placed 4th in almost every state , generally taking in a mere 3 – 6 % of the votes although he did better in the northern states of North Dakota ( 21 % , 3rd place ) and Montana ( 25 % , 2nd place ) .
By March , front @-@ runner John McCain had secured enough pledged delegates to guarantee that he would win the nomination , and Romney and Huckabee had both formally withdrawn from the race . Paul , who had won no state primaries , knew that it was now mathematically impossible for him to win the nomination , as he had captured only 20 – 40 pledged delegates compared to more than 1 @,@ 191 for McCain , yet he refused to concede the race and said that it was unlikely that he would ultimately endorse McCain . Over the next few weeks , Paul 's supporters clashed with establishment Republicans at several county and state party conventions over state party rules , the party platforms , and selection of delegates for the national convention . In one of the more dramatic moments , Nevada 's state party leaders , outmaneuvered by Paul supporters at the state nominating convention , resorted to the highly unusual measure of prematurely and abruptly shutting down the convention before selecting national delegates , with a plan to reconvene at a later date .
On June 12 , 2008 , Paul finally withdrew his bid for the Republican nomination . He later said that one of the reasons he did not run in the general election as a third @-@ party candidate , after losing the primaries , was that , as a concession to gain ballot access in certain states , he had signed legally binding agreements to not run a third @-@ party campaign if he lost the primary . Some of the $ 4 million remaining campaign contributions was invested into the new political action and advocacy group called Ron Paul 's Campaign for Liberty .
= = = Refusal to endorse the Republican nominee = = =
At a September 10 , 2008 , press conference , Paul announced his general support of four third @-@ party candidates : Cynthia McKinney ( Green Party ) ; Bob Barr ( Libertarian Party ) ; Chuck Baldwin ( Constitution Party ) ; and Ralph Nader ( independent ) . He said that each of them had pledged to adhere to a policy of balancing budgets , bringing the troops home , defending privacy and personal liberties , and investigating the Federal Reserve . Paul also said that under no circumstances would he be endorsing either of the two main parties ' candidates ( McCain – Republican Party , or Obama – Democratic Party ) because there were no real differences between them , and because neither of them , if elected , would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance that were necessary . He urged instead that , rather than contribute to the “ charade ” that the two @-@ party election system had become , the voters support the third @-@ party candidates as a protest vote , to force change in the election process . Later that same day , Paul gave a televised interview with Nader saying much the same again .
Two weeks later , " shocked and disappointed " that Bob Barr ( the Libertarian nominee ) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral and failing to say which specific candidate Paul would vote for in the general election , Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin , the Constitution Party candidate , for president .
Paul withdrew from active campaigning in the last weeks of the primary election period . He received 42 @,@ 426 votes , or 0 @.@ 03 % of the total cast , in the general election .
= = 2012 presidential campaign = =
= = = 2012 Republican primary campaign = = =
Paul won several early straw polls for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination and in late April 2011 , he formed an official exploratory committee . He participated in the first Republican presidential debate on May 5 , 2011 and on May 13 , 2011 , Paul formally announced his candidacy in an interview on ABC 's Good Morning America . He placed second in the 2011 Ames Straw Poll , missing first by 0 @.@ 9 % .
In December 2011 , with Paul 's increased support , the controversy over racist and homophobic statements in several Ron Paul newsletters in the 1980s and early 1990s once again gained media attention . During this time Paul supporters asserted that he was continually ignored by the media despite his significant support , citing examples of where television news shows would fail to mention Paul in discussions of the Republican presidential hopefuls even when he was polling second .
Ron Paul ’ s presidential campaign paid former Iowa state senator Kent Sorenson $ 73 @,@ 000 to switch his support from Rep. Michele Bachmann to Paul . In court papers filed in August 2014 , Sorenson said that he had been paid by both presidential campaigns for his endorsement and plead guilty to criminal charges stemming from the incident .
Paul came in third in the Iowa Republican Caucus held on January 3 , 2012 . Out of a turnout of 121 @,@ 503 votes , Paul took 26 @,@ 036 ( 21 % ) of the certified votes . Rick Santorum and Mitt Romney finished in a virtual tie for first place with 25 % each , although Ron Paul had ultimately won Iowa at the Republican National Convention gathering 22 delegates to Mitt Romney 's 5 . In the New Hampshire Primary held on January 10 , 2012 , Paul received 23 % of the votes and came in second after Romney 's 39 % .
Paul 's results then declined , despite the withdrawal of candidates Michele Bachmann , Jon Huntsman and Rick Perry . He had fourth @-@ place finishes in the next two primaries , on January 21 in South Carolina ( with 13 % of the vote ) and on January 31 in Florida ( where he received 7 % of the vote . )
On February 4 , Paul finished third in Nevada with 18 @.@ 8 % of the vote . Three non @-@ binding primaries were held on February 7 ; Paul took 3rd place in Colorado and Missouri with 13 % and 12 % of the vote respectively . He fared better in Minnesota with 27 % , finishing second to Rick Santorum .
On May 14 , Paul 's campaign announced that due to lack of funds ( though despite financial backing from financiers Peter Thiel and Mark Spitznagel ) he would no longer actively campaign for votes in the 11 remaining primary states , including Texas and California , that had not yet voted . He would , however , continue to seek to win delegates for the national party convention in the states that had already voted .
In June , a group of 132 supporters of Paul , demanding the freedom as delegates to the upcoming Republican party national convention to cast votes for Paul , filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court against the Republican National Committee and 55 state and territorial Republican party organizations for allegedly coercing delegates to choose Mitt Romney as the party ’ s presidential nominee . The suit alleged that there had been “ a systematic campaign of election fraud at state conventions , ” employing rigging of voting machines , ballot stuffing , and falsification of ballot totals . The suit further pointed to incidents at state conventions , including acts of violence and changes in procedural rules , allegedly intended to deny participation of Paul supporters in the party decision @-@ making and to prevent votes from being cast for Paul . An attorney representing the complainants said that Paul campaign advisor Doug Wead had voiced support for the legal action . Paul himself told CNN that although the lawsuit was not a part of his campaign ’ s strategy and that he had not been advising his supporters to sue , he was not going to tell his supporters not to sue , if they had a legitimate argument . “ If they ’ re not following the rules , you have a right to stand up for the rules . I think for the most part these winning caucuses that we 've been involved in we have followed the rules . And the other side has at times not followed the rules . ”
= = = Republican National convention = = =
Paul declined to speak at the Republican National Convention as a matter of principle , saying that the convention planners had demanded that his remarks be vetted by the Romney campaign and that he make an unqualified endorsement of Romney . Paul had felt that " It wouldn ’ t be my speech .... That would undo everything I ’ ve done in the last 30 years . I don ’ t fully endorse him for president . ” Many of Paul 's supporters and delegates walked out of the convention in protest over rules adopted by the convention that reduced their delegate count and that would make it harder for non @-@ establishment candidates to win the party 's nomination in future elections . Supporters and media commentators had noted that the delegations from states where Paul had had the most support were given the worst seats in the convention hall , while delegations from regions with no electoral votes , such as the Northern Mariana Islands , American Samoa , and Puerto Rico , were given prime seats at the front .
= = = Refusal to endorse the Republican nominee = = =
As in 2008 , in 2012 Paul ultimately refused to endorse the ticket selected by the Republican Party . He said that there was no essential difference between Romney and his Democratic opponent , President Obama , on the most critical policies : " I 've been in this business a long time and believe me there is essentially no difference from one administration to another no matter what the platforms .... The foreign policy stays the same , the monetary policy stays the same , there ’ s no proposal for any real cuts and both parties support it . "
Paul received 26 @,@ 204 write @-@ in votes or 0 @.@ 02 % of the total cast in the election .
= = Political party identification = =
Throughout his entire tenure in Congress , Paul has represented his district as a member of the Republican Party . However , he has frequently taken positions in direct opposition to the other members and the leadership of the party , and he has sometimes publicly questioned whether he really belonged in the party .
Paul voted for Dwight Eisenhower for president in 1956 when he was 21 years old . He had been a lifelong supporter of the Republican Party by the time he entered politics in the mid @-@ 1970s . He was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Ronald Reagan 's presidential campaign , and he actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980 . After Reagan 's election in 1980 , Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration 's policies . He later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981 , aghast that " in 1977 , Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $ 38 billion deficit , and every Republican in the House voted against it . In 1981 , Reagan proposed a budget with a $ 45 billion deficit – which turned out to be $ 113 billion – and Republicans were cheering his great victory . They were living in a storybook land . " He expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a ( failed ) run for the Senate , and he eventually apologized to his Libertarian friends for having supported Reagan .
By 1987 , Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party , as he explained in a blistering resignation letter : " Since [ 1981 ] Ronald Reagan and the Republican Party have given us skyrocketing deficits , and astoundingly a doubled national debt . How is it that the party of balanced budgets , with control of the White House and Senate , accumulated red ink greater than all previous administrations put together ? … There is no credibility left for the Republican Party as a force to reduce the size of government . That is the message of the Reagan years . " A month later he announced he would seek the 1988 Libertarian Party nomination for president .
During the 1988 campaign , Paul called Reagan " a dramatic failure " and complained that " Reagan 's record is disgraceful . He starts wars , breaks the law , supplies terrorists with guns made at taxpayers ' expense and lies about it to the American people . " Paul predicted that " the Republicans are on their way out as a major party , " and he said that , although registered as a Republican , he had always been a Libertarian at heart .
Paul returned to his private medical practice and managing several business ventures after losing the 1988 election ; but by 1996 , he was ready to return to politics , this time running on the Republican Party ticket again . He said that he had never read the entire Libertarian platform when he ran for president as a Libertarian in 1988 , and that " I worked for the Libertarians on my terms , not theirs . " He added that in terms of a political label he preferred to call himself " a constitutionalist . In Congress I took an oath to uphold the Constitution , not the ( Republican ) platform . "
When he lost the Republican Party presidential primary election in 2008 , Paul criticized the two major political parties , saying that there was no real difference between the parties and that neither of them truly intended to challenge the status quo . He refused to endorse the Republican Party 's nominee for president , John McCain , and lent his support to third @-@ party candidates instead .
In 2012 presidential campaign , during which he acknowledged it was unlikely that he would win the Republican Party nomination , Paul again asserted that he was participating in the Republican Party on his own terms , trying to persuade the rest of the party to move toward his positions rather than joining in with theirs . He expressed doubt that he would support any of his rivals should they win the nomination , warning that , “ If the policies of the Republican Party are the same as the Democrat Party and they don 't want to change anything on foreign policy , they don 't want to cut anything , they don 't want to audit the Fed and find out about monetary policy , they don 't want to have actual change in government , that is a problem for me . " On that same theme he said in another interview , " I would be reluctant to jump on board and tell all of the supporters that have given me trust and money that all of a sudden , I 'd say , [ all ] we 've done is for naught . So , let 's support anybody at all … even if they disagree with everything that we do . "
In July 2015 , The Washington Times reported that Paul had changed his party affiliation to Libertarian .
= = Political positions = =
Paul has been described as conservative and libertarian . According to University of Georgia political scientist Keith Poole , Paul had the most conservative voting record of any member of Congress from 1937 to 2002 , and is the most conservative of the candidates that had sought the 2012 Republican nomination for president , on a scale primarily measuring positions on the role of government in managing the economy – not positions on social issues or foreign policy matters . Other analyses , in which key votes on domestic social issues and foreign policy factor more heavily , have judged Paul much more moderate . The National Journal , for instance , rated Paul only the 145th most conservative member of the House of Representatives ( out of 435 ) based on votes cast in 2010 .
The foundation of Paul 's political philosophy is the conviction that " the proper role for government in America is to provide national defense , a court system for civil disputes , a criminal justice system for acts of force and fraud , and little else . " He has been nicknamed " Dr. No , " reflecting both his medical degree and his insistence that he will " never vote for legislation unless the proposed measure is expressly authorized by the Constitution . "
= = = Defense = = =
Paul 's foreign policy of nonintervention made him the only 2008 Republican presidential candidate to have voted against the Iraq War Resolution in 2002 . He advocates withdrawal from the United Nations , and from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , for reasons of maintaining strong national sovereignty .
He voted for the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists in response to the September 11 attacks , but suggested war alternatives such as authorizing the president to grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal targeting specific terrorists . An opponent of the Iraq War and potential war with Iran , he has also criticized neoconservatism and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East , arguing that both inadvertently cause terrorist reprisals against Americans , such as the 9 / 11 attacks . Paul has stated that " Israel is our close friend " and that it is not the place of the United States to " dictate how Israel runs her affairs " .
= = = Domestic = = =
Paul endorses constitutional rights , such as the right to keep and bear arms , and habeas corpus for political detainees . He opposes the Patriot Act , federal use of torture , presidential autonomy , a national identification card , warrantless domestic surveillance , and the draft . Paul also believes that the notion of the separation of church and state is currently misused by the court system : " In case after case , the Supreme Court has used the infamous ' separation of church and state ' metaphor to uphold court decisions that allow the federal government to intrude upon and deprive citizens of their religious liberty . "
Sometime within the same month but much after the event of authorities executing a lock @-@ down in sequence to the April 2013 Boston Marathon bombing , Paul commented on the tactics used by governing forces into a harsh criticism that he has written as a " military @-@ style occupation of an American city " .
= = = Economic = = =
Paul is a proponent of Austrian School economics ; he has authored six books on the subject , and displays pictures of Austrian School economists Friedrich Hayek , Murray Rothbard , and Ludwig von Mises ( as well as of President Grover Cleveland ) on his office wall . He regularly votes against almost all proposals for new government spending , initiatives , or taxes ; he cast two thirds of all the lone negative votes in the House during a 1995 – 1997 period .
He has pledged never to raise taxes and states he has never voted to approve a budget deficit . Paul believes that the country could abolish the individual income tax by scaling back federal spending to its fiscal year 2000 levels ; financing government operations would be primarily by excise taxes and non @-@ protectionist tariffs . He endorses eliminating most federal government agencies , terming them unnecessary bureaucracies .
On April 15 , 2011 , Paul was one of four Republican members of Congress to vote against Rep. Paul Ryan 's budget proposal , known as " The Path to Prosperity . "
Paul has consistently warned of hyperinflation as far back as 1981 . While Paul believes the longterm decrease of the U.S. dollar 's purchasing power by inflation is attributable to its lack of any commodity backing , he does not endorse a " return " to a gold standard – as the U.S. government has established during the past – but instead prefers to eliminate legal tender laws and to remove the sales tax on gold and silver , so that the market may freely decide what type of monetary standard ( s ) there shall be . Since 1999 , he has introduced bills into each Congress seeking to eliminate the Federal Reserve System in a single year .
He endorses free trade , rejecting membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) and the World Trade Organization as " managed trade " .
= = = Environmental = = =
As a free @-@ market environmentalist , he asserts private property rights in relation to environmental protection and pollution prevention . He called global warming a hoax in a 2009 Fox Business interview , saying , " You know , the greatest hoax I think that has been around in many , many years if not hundreds of years has been this hoax on the environment and global warming . " He acknowledges there is clear evidence of rising temperatures in some parts of the globe , but says that temperatures are cooling in other parts .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Paul has stated that " The government shouldn 't be in the medical business . " He pushes to eliminate federal involvement with and management of health care , which he argues would allow prices to decrease due to the fundamental dynamics of a free market . He also opposes federal government influenza inoculation programs .
= = = Immigration = = =
Paul endorses increased border security and opposes welfare for illegal aliens , birthright citizenship and amnesty ; he voted for the Secure Fence Act of 2006 .
= = = Ballots and voting = = =
He is an outspoken proponent of increased ballot access for third @-@ party candidates . He has sought to repeal the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 , also known as the Motor Voter law .
= = = Secession = = =
Paul has stated that secession from the United States " is a deeply American principle " and that " If the possibility of secession is completely off the table there is nothing to stop the federal government from continuing to encroach on our liberties and no recourse for those who are sick and tired of it . " Paul wrote the remarks in a post on his Congressional website in one of his final public statements as a member of Congress , noting that many petitions had been submitted to the White House calling for secession in the wake of the November 2012 election .
= = = Social issues = = =
He terms himself " strongly pro @-@ life " , " an unshakable foe of abortion " , and believes regulation or ban on medical decisions about maternal or fetal health is " best handled at the state level " . His abortion @-@ related legislation , such as the Sanctity of Life Act , is intended to negate Roe v. Wade and to get " the federal government completely out of the business of regulating state matters . " Paul says his years as an obstetrician led him to believe life begins at conception .
Paul opposes the federal War on Drugs , and believes the states should decide whether to regulate or deregulate drugs such as medical marijuana .
Citing the Ninth and Tenth Amendments , Paul advocates states ' rights to decide how to regulate social matters not cited directly by the Constitution . He opposes federal regulation of the death penalty ( although he opposes capital punishment ) , of education , and of marriage , and endorsed revising the military 's " don 't ask , don 't tell " policy to concern mainly disruptive sexual behavior ( whether heterosexual or homosexual ) .
Paul was critical of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , arguing that it sanctioned federal interference in the labor market and did not improve race relations . He once remarked : " The Civil Rights Act of 1964 not only violated the Constitution and reduced individual liberty ; it also failed to achieve its stated goals of promoting racial harmony and a color @-@ blind society " . Paul opposes affirmative action .
= = Newsletters controversy = =
Beginning in 1978 , for more than two decades Paul and his associates published a number of political and investment @-@ oriented newsletters bearing his name ( Dr. Ron Paul 's Freedom Report , The Ron Paul Survival Report , the Ron Paul Investment Letter , and the Ron Paul Political Report ) . By 1993 , a business through which Paul was publishing the newsletters was earning in excess of $ 900 @,@ 000 per year .
A number of the newsletters , particularly in the period between 1988 and 1994 when Paul was no longer in Congress , contained material that later proved controversial . Topics included on conspiracy theories , anti @-@ government militia movements , and race wars . During Paul 's 1996 congressional election campaign , and his 2008 and 2012 presidential primary campaigns , critics charged that some of the passages reflected racist , anti @-@ Semitic , and homophobic bigotry . In a 1996 interview , Paul did not deny writing the newsletters and defended some of their contents , but specified that he opposes racism . In March 2001 , Paul said he did not write the commentaries , but stopped short of denying authorship in 1996 because his campaign advisers had thought it would be too confusing and that he had to live with the material published under his name . In 2011 Paul 's spokesperson Jesse Benton said Paul had " taken moral responsibility because they appeared under his name and slipped through under his watch " .
= = Post @-@ congressional career = =
In April 2013 , Paul founded the Ron Paul Institute for Peace and Prosperity , a foreign policy think tank that seeks to promote his non @-@ interventionist views . The institute is part of his larger foundation Foundation for Rational Economics and Education .
In the same month , he began to offer the Ron Paul Curriculum , a homeschool online curriculum developed by Gary North and taught from a " free market and Christian " perspective ; it is free from grades kindergarten – 5 and available to paid members from 6 – 12 .
In June 2013 , Paul criticized the NSA surveillance program and praised Edward Snowden for having performed a " great service to the American people by exposing the truth about what our government is doing in secret " .
= = = Ron Paul Channel = = =
In 2013 , Paul established the " Ron Paul Channel " , an Internet broadcast . Its slogan is " Turn Off Your TV . Turn On the Truth . " Speaking about the channel , Paul said , " I was at a debate one time a couple years ago , where I didn 't think I got a fair shake . In a two @-@ hour debate , I had 89 seconds . I thought , maybe there 's something wrong with the media . Maybe they 're not covering us fairly . I 'm just using it as a pun , but there ’ s a bit of truth to this . We don 't get a fair shake . The people who believe in liberty and limited government don 't expect it from the ordinary media . " Speaking about his youth appeal , he noted , " They don ’ t sit and watch TV and turn the programs on at seven o 'clock to watch us like that – so I thought the technology was there . The country is ripe for the continuation of this revolution . "
In May 2015 , Ron Paul ended all relationships with the Voices of Liberty and the Ron Paul Channel to start a new internet broadcast called the Ron Paul Liberty Report . According to Paul himself , it will not cost a thing , unlike the previous Ron Paul Channel . In the announcement of the ended relationship , Paul said , " But the message I have always tried to deliver over the years has always been the same , and that is spreading the message of liberty . Right now I am very much engaged in doing that through the internet . But , I believe we can do better . Right now , the program has changed to the Ron Paul Liberty Report , and that is what we do , we report on liberty in context of what is going on in daily activity and what is going on in the news . " Paul went on to say that it will be more locally controlled , unlike the previous Ron Paul Channel . Paul continued to say it will be produced out of Texas , instead of California .
= = = Spokesman for Stansberry Research = = =
In April 2015 , Paul began appearing in infomercials warning about an upcoming financial meltdown as a result of the imminent crash of the world ’ s currencies . He urges listeners to read America 2020 : The Survival Blueprint , a book written by Porter Stansberry .
= = Personal life = =
Paul has been married to Carol ( Carolyn ) Wells since 1957 . They met in 1952 when Wells asked Paul to be her escort to her 16th birthday party . They have five children , who were baptized Episcopalian : Ronald , Lori , Randal , Robert , and Joy . Paul 's son Randal is the junior United States senator from the state of Kentucky . Raised a Lutheran , Paul later became a Baptist . Since 1995 , Carol Paul has published the Ron Paul Family Cookbook , a collection of recipes she and her friends contributed , and which was sold in part to support Ron Paul 's political campaigns . His life and career is the subject of the 2012 film Ron Paul Uprising .
Paul and his wife currently reside in Lake Jackson , Texas .
= = Publications relating to Ron Paul = =
= = = Books = = =
Ron Paul 's rEVOLution : The Man and the Movement He Inspired , by Brian Doherty , 2012
= = = Films = = =
Ron Paul Uprising , a 2012 film by Wiliam Lewis
Brüno , a 2009 film by Sacha Baron Cohen in which Ron Paul has a cameo appearance
= = Other contributions = =
Belloc , Hilaire ; Chesterton , Cecil ( 2007 ) [ 1911 ] . The Party System . Paul , Ron ( foreword ) . Norfolk , Virginia : IHS Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 932528 @-@ 11 @-@ 3 . OCLC 173299105 .
Fortman , Erik ; Lavello , Randy ( 2004 ) . Webs of Power . Paul , Ron ( interview ) . Austin , Texas : Van Cleave Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 9759670 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 . OCLC 61026033 .
Haugen , David M. ; Musser , Susan , eds . ( 2007 ) . Human Embryo Experimentation . Paul , Ron ( Chapter 9 : No form of stem cell research should be federally funded ) . Detroit , Michigan : Greenhaven Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7377 @-@ 3243 @-@ 1 . OCLC 84152907 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Haugen , David M. , ed . ( 2007 ) . National Security . Paul , Ron ( Chapter 1 – 7 : The federal debt is a threat to national security ) . Detroit , Michigan : Greenhaven Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7377 @-@ 3761 @-@ 1 . OCLC 144227284 .
Jaeger , James ; Baehr , Theodore ; Griffin , G. Edward ; Paul , Ron ; Vieira , Edwin ( 2007 ) . Fiat Empire : Why the Federal Reserve Violates the U.S. Constitution ( DVD ) . Beverly Hills , California : Cornerstone @-@ Matrixx Entertainment . OCLC 192133806 .
Minns , Michael Louis ( 2001 ) . How to Survive the IRS . Paul , Ron ( foreword ) . Fort Lee , NJ : Barricade Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 56980 @-@ 170 @-@ 3 . OCLC 44860846 .
Paul , Ron ; Hayashi , Terry ; Pardo , Victoriano & Fisher , Edwin ( August 1 , 1969 ) . " Evaluation of Renal Biopsy in Pregnancy Toxemia " . Obstetrics and Gynecology ( American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ) 34 ( 2 ) : 235 – 241 . PMID 5798269 .
Paul , Ron ( 1999 ) . " Being Pro @-@ Life is Necessary to Defend Liberty " . International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy ( MCB University Press , Ltd ) 19 ( 3 – 4 ) : 11 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1108 / 01443339910788712 . ISSN 0144 @-@ 333X . OCLC 89482648 .
Paul , Ron ; Bartlett , Roscoe et al . ( 2001 ) . The United Nations & the New World Order ( Videotape ) . Brunswick , OH : American Portrait Films , Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 57341 @-@ 132 @-@ 9 . OCLC 56793278 .
Pearl , Sandy ; Beutel , Bill ; Alis , Bob ; Weingold , Dave ; Paul , Ron ; Bartsch , Ed ( 1980 ) . Born Again ( Videotape ) . Athens , GA : University of Georgia Instructional Resources Center . OCLC 7407395 .
Skousen , Mark ; Weber , Chris ; Ketcher , Michael , eds . ( 1987 ) . The Closing Door . Paul , Ron ( introduction ) . Bethel , Connecticut : Institute for the Preservation of Wealth ( worldcat.org / oclc / 35396237 2d ed . 1988 ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 938689 @-@ 03 @-@ 7 . OCLC 17209571 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Vieira , Jr . , Edwin ( 1983 ) . Pieces of Eight . Paul , Ron ( foreword ) . Fort Lee , NJ : Sound Dollar Committee . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8159 @-@ 6226 @-@ 7 . OCLC 9919612 .
von NotHaus , Bernard , ed . ( September 1 , 2003 ) . The Liberty Dollar Solution to the Federal Reserve . Paul , Ron ( Chapter 21 : Abolish the Fed ) . Evansville , Indiana : American Financial Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9671025 @-@ 2 @-@ 9 .
= Deinonychus =
Deinonychus ( / daɪˈnɒnᵻkəs / dy @-@ NON @-@ i @-@ kəs ; Greek : δεινός , ' terrible ' and ὄνυξ , genitive ὄνυχος ' claw ' ) is a genus of carnivorous dromaeosaurid coelurosaurian dinosaurs , with one described species , Deinonychus antirrhopus . This species , which could grow up to 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 11 ft ) long , lived during the early Cretaceous Period , about 115 – 108 million years ago ( from the mid @-@ Aptian to early Albian stages ) . Fossils have been recovered from the U.S. states of Montana , Utah , Wyoming , and Oklahoma , in rocks of the Cloverly Formation , Cedar Mountain Formation and Antlers Formation , though teeth that may belong to Deinonychus have been found much farther east in Maryland .
Paleontologist John Ostrom 's study of Deinonychus in the late 1960s revolutionized the way scientists thought about dinosaurs , leading to the " dinosaur renaissance " and igniting the debate on whether dinosaurs were warm @-@ blooded or cold blooded . Before this , the popular conception of dinosaurs had been one of plodding , reptilian giants . Ostrom noted the small body , sleek , horizontal posture , ratite @-@ like spine , and especially the enlarged raptorial claws on the feet , which suggested an active , agile predator .
" Terrible claw " refers to the unusually large , sickle @-@ shaped talon on the second toe of each hind foot . The fossil YPM 5205 preserves a large , strongly curved ungual . In life , archosaurs have a horny sheath over this bone , which extends the length . Ostrom looked at crocodile and bird claws and reconstructed the claw for YPM 5205 as over 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long . The species name antirrhopus means " counter balance " , which refers to Ostrom 's idea about the function of the tail . As in other dromaeosaurids , the tail vertebrae have a series of ossified tendons and super @-@ elongated bone processes . These features seemed to make the tail into a stiff counterbalance , but a fossil of the very closely related Velociraptor mongoliensis ( IGM 100 / 986 ) has an articulated tail skeleton that is curved laterally in a long S @-@ shape . This suggests that , in life , the tail could bend to the sides with a high degree of flexibility . In both the Cloverly and Antlers formations , Deinonychus remains have been found closely associated with those of the ornithopod Tenontosaurus . Teeth discovered associated with Tenontosaurus specimens imply they were hunted , or at least scavenged upon , by Deinonychus .
= = Description = =
Based on the few fully mature specimens , Deinonychus could reach 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 11 @.@ 2 ft ) in length , with a skull length of 410 mm ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) , a hip height of 0 @.@ 87 metres ( 2 @.@ 9 ft ) and a weight of 73 kg ( 161 lb ) , though there is a higher estimate of 100 kg ( 220 lb ) . The skull was equipped with powerful jaws lined with around seventy curved , blade @-@ like teeth . Studies of the skull have progressed a great deal over the decades . Ostrom reconstructed the partial , imperfectly preserved skulls that he had as triangular , broad , and fairly similar to Allosaurus . Additional Deinonychus skull material and closely related species found with good three @-@ dimensional preservation show that the palate was more vaulted than Ostrom thought , making the snout far narrower , while the jugals flared broadly , giving greater stereoscopic vision . The skull of Deinonychus was different from that of Velociraptor , however , in that it had a more robust skull roof , like that of Dromaeosaurus , and did not have the depressed nasals of Velociraptor . Both the skull and the lower jaw had fenestrae
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, M @-@ 35 runs northeasterly to the Escanaba area before turning northwesterly to its northern terminus outside of the City of Negaunee in Negaunee Township .
= = = Menominee to Gladstone = = =
The southern terminus of M @-@ 35 is north of downtown Menominee , at the corner of 10th Street ( US 41 ) and North Shore Drive . It is a Y @-@ shaped intersection near John Henes Park . This park sits on 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land , and it was donated to the City of Menominee by German – American brewer John Henes in 1907 . M @-@ 35 leads northeast from the intersection before turning north to head out of town . The highway runs northeasterly following the shoreline of the Green Bay , toward Escanaba . M @-@ 35 between Menominee and Gladstone forms part of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour .
On August 26 , 2007 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) announced that this section of M @-@ 35 was also designated the UP Hidden Coast Recreational Heritage Trail running for 64 miles ( 103 km ) between Menominee and Gladstone . As a part of the Pure Michigan Byway , M @-@ 35 passes the mouths of the Cedar and Bark rivers . Wells State Park is located on M @-@ 35 in Cedar River and Fuller Park is at the mouth of the Bark River . MDOT 's press release states :
The Heritage Route passes through both Delta and Menominee counties on the western shoreline of Lake Michigan in the central Upper Peninsula , and features parks , waterways , forests , trails , attractions , boat launches , harbors and campgrounds . Suggested stops range from cultural centers and modern entertainment , to historical sites and natural attractions .
M @-@ 35 is the shortest state trunkline highway between Menominee and Escanaba . Under American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) guidelines , US Highways are to follow the most direct path between two locations , but US 41 runs inland and M @-@ 35 goes more directly up the Lake Michigan shoreline . According to the 2007 MDOT State Highway Map , the US 41 route runs for 65 miles ( 105 km ) versus 55 miles ( 89 km ) for M @-@ 35 . The original map for the US Highway System shows US 41 continuing north from Powers on a direct line to Marquette . This routing would be more direct than the current US 41 routing , but has not been built .
At the Menominee – Delta county line , M @-@ 35 passes from the Central to the Eastern Time Zone . After passing the south side of Escanaba , M @-@ 35 runs into town on Lake Shore Drive , passing to the south and east of the Delta County Airport before turning onto Lincoln Road . Just west of downtown , US 2 / US 41 join M @-@ 35 at the intersection of Ludington Street and Lincoln Road . Ludington and Lincoln form the east – west and north – south axes respectively of the Escanaba street numbering grid . From these two streets , the east – west avenues and north – south streets are numbered in a grid in the City of Escanaba . US 2 / US 41 enter Escanaba from the west along Ludington Street , turning north along Lincoln Road , joining M @-@ 35 . Here , M @-@ 35 joins the National Highway System , which is a road system important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
From Escanaba , M @-@ 35 runs concurrently with US 2 and US 41 to Gladstone , where M @-@ 35 logs its highest average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) counts . The 2012 AADT figures show that 14 @,@ 744 vehicles use the highway per day on a segment in north Escanaba . Between the two cities , US 2 / US 41 / M @-@ 35 crosses the Escanaba River near the mouth just south of the paper mill . North of the Escanaba , the highway follows the shoreline of Little Bay de Noc to Gladstone . M @-@ 35 separates from US 2 / US 41 at an intersection with 4th Avenue North in Gladstone . This also marks the end of the National Highway System , Lake Michigan Circle Tour and Pure Michigan Byway designations on M @-@ 35 .
= = = Gladstone to Negaunee = = =
M @-@ 35 turns northwesterly in Gladstone through northern Delta County and southern Marquette County and crosses the Days River in Brampton . From Perkins north , M @-@ 35 runs parallel to the Lake Superior & Ishpeming rail line between the iron mines of Marquette County and Escanaba . The station of Maple Ridge was located in the community of Rock along this line . M @-@ 35 crosses into Marquette County in the unincorporated location of McFarland and crosses the rail line before reaching the Little Lake in the community of the same name . The highway runs east – west through Little Lake to Gwinn .
Built as a company town by the Cleveland @-@ Cliffs Iron Company , Gwinn is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the " Gwinn Model Town Historic District , Forsyth Township , Marquette County , Michigan " . M @-@ 35 follows Stephenson Avenue through the neighborhood of New Swanzy westward to the community of Gwinn . Inside Gwinn , the highway follows Pine Street northwest , passing through the downtown and into residential areas along Pine and Iron streets .
M @-@ 35 runs northwest of Gwinn to Palmer along the outskirts of Cleveland @-@ Cliffs ' Empire Mine , where large piles of waste rock from the mining operations tower over the roadway . According to MDOT , the segment through Palmer logged the highway 's lowest AADT , only 487 vehicles per day , in 2012 . North of Palmer , M @-@ 35 runs past Goose Lake to end in Negaunee Township . The northern terminus is 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) east of Negaunee , just east of the former Marquette County Airport and the studios of WLUC @-@ TV on US 41 / M @-@ 28 .
= = History = =
The first path along part of the modern M @-@ 35 roadway was the Sault and Green Bay Trail , an old Native American trail , between Menominee and Escanaba . This trail continued eastward from Escanaba to Sault Ste . Marie and southerly to Green Bay , Wisconsin . It was a narrow path of approximately 12 – 18 inches ( 30 – 50 cm ) in width , wide enough to permit single @-@ file traffic .
When designated by July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 35 was to run from M @-@ 12 / M @-@ 15 ( modern US 2 / US 41 ) at Gladstone in the south to Palmer before terminating in Negaunee at M @-@ 15 ( modern US 41 ) . Most maps showed M @-@ 35 continuing north to L 'Anse . At the time of M @-@ 35 's creation , another designation , M @-@ 91 , was assigned to a highway from Menominee northward to Cedar River . By 1930 , M @-@ 35 was extended southerly along US 2 / US 41 from Gladstone to Escanaba . From there , M @-@ 35 continued as a new highway along the Green Bay shoreline to Cedar River and supplanted M @-@ 91 .
= = = Huron Mountains = = =
In 1919 , the State Department of Highways , forerunner to today 's MDOT , designated a scenic shoreline trunkline to run north from Negaunee to Skanee and L 'Anse by way of Big Bay . The highway would continue from the L 'Anse and Baraga area to eventually end at Ontonagon at an intersection with M @-@ 64 . Local Upper Peninsula historian Fred Rydholm summarized the routing planned in 1925 as extending " ... in a northwesterly direction , across the Dead River , over the Panorama Hills , then west past the Elm Creek swamp , along the south side of Burnt Mountain , across the Cedar Creek , the Cliff Stream and out past Cliff Lake to Skanee and L 'Anse " . This highway was designated as an extension of M @-@ 35 , which ended in downtown Negaunee . Work was completed on a significant portion of the route in Marquette County by 1926 . M @-@ 35 was routed east along M @-@ 15 toward Marquette before turning north @-@ northwesterly toward Big Bay . This section of roadway follows the modern County Road 510 ( CR 510 ) in Marquette County . Similar work was completed in Baraga County connecting L 'Anse and Skanee by 1932 .
Construction on the two ends left the center portion through the Huron Mountains unfinished and shown on state maps as a dashed line marked " impassable " . The section not included in CR 510 , with guard rails and cement culverts has been called " Blind 35 " since .
= = = The Steel Bridge = = =
One of the first tasks for the State Highway Department was bridging the Dead River in Negaunee Township , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of US 41 . The state solved the problem by buying a bridge in Pennsylvania , where bridges of this design were more common . MDOT describes the bridge as :
... a rare Pennsylvania through truss highway bridge , particularly because of the length [ 271 feet or 83 meters ] of this single span . It was purchased by the State Highway Department in 1919 , moved from an unspecified Allegheny River site , probably considerably upstream from Pittsburgh , and then erected on this site in 1921 .
The bridge is still in place over the Dead River and previously carried CR 510 as the successor to M @-@ 35 in northern Marquette County . Known locally as " The Steel Bridge " , it survived a May 15 , 2003 flood caused by the breaching of the Silver Lake Dam . The Marquette County Road Commission had announced plans in 2006 to bypass the Steel Bridge with a modern replacement , leaving the existing bridge as a footpath or bike path . Construction on the bypass road and replacement bridge was begun in October 2007 . The concrete work for the replacement span was started in late 2009 , with an original projected completion date of November 1 , 2010 . The new crossing is 100 feet ( 30 m ) above river level compared to the 10 feet ( 3 m ) for the 1921 span . The total budget for bridge construction is $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ NaN in 2015 ) with an additional $ 1 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ NaN in 2015 ) for the approach work , with an 80 percent federal , 15 percent state and 5 percent county funding split . The new bridge opened to traffic in September 2010 , diverting traffic from the Steel Bridge . Completion of the new span came after about a decade of planning .
= = = Henry Ford = = =
Records of the Huron Mountain Club , an exclusive private organization with large land holdings in northern Michigan , show that Henry Ford visited the Upper Peninsula many times , including at least once with Harvey Firestone and Thomas Edison on Ford 's yacht , Sialia . Many of these trips involved research to keep his operations supplied . His UP land provided wood for the manufacture of Ford automobiles such as the Model T , which required 250 board feet ( 0 @.@ 59 m3 ) of lumber per car . Ford , who was considering becoming the " owner – producer – handler " of the resources he needed , invested in sawmills in Alberta and Kingsford . He also bought the entire town of Pequaming , along the shores of the Keweenaw Bay . The town belonged to Dan Hebard , who also sold Ford a sawmill , tugboats , a 14 @-@ room bungalow , and land near the Huron Mountain Club . Hebard retired to spend his summers at a cabin on the Pine River on land belonging to the Club .
Ford built a hydroelectric dam along the Menominee River to supply power to the Kingsford mill , bought the Imperial Mine , and opened the Blueberry Mine near Ishpeming to supply iron ore . The Ford Railroad was constructed between L 'Anse and the Cliff River for his logging operations on 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 100 @,@ 000 ha ) of timberland purchased in 1922 . He often visited the Upper Peninsula on business , but as early as 1917 , the year he ran for a seat in the U.S. Senate , he sought entry into the Huron Mountain Club . Since the club limited its membership , Ford worked to improve his chances . His admission would ultimately come when M @-@ 35 construction was halted in the Huron Mountains .
Hunters , campers , hikers , fishermen and some landowners opposed highway construction near the Huron Mountains . Rydholm said , " ... there seemed to be no groundswell of sentiment in favor of it , but it looked as the though the die was cast and nothing could be done to stop it " . The Huron Mountain Club members opposed the highway because it would open vast reaches of the back country and might harm the wilderness . Highway construction would also open the possibility of a resort hotel . William C. Weber , a real estate developer from Detroit , owned property along Mountain Lake , in northern Marquette County . A Michigan attorney general 's opinion provided a way for blocking the road if two @-@ thirds of the property over which the road would pass was owned by people opposed to the project . The proposed highway was to cross two 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) parcels of Huron Mountain Club property , but that was not enough to halt construction .
In 1926 , Hebard was elected the new president at the Huron Mountain Club and changed its rules for admission . Before the changes , all existing members voted on new admissions , and four " no " votes meant rejection . After Hebard 's changes , only club directors could vote , and only one " no " was needed to block election . In 1927 , the road grading for M @-@ 35 had reached the Salmon Trout River . That same year , Ford bought more land near Mountain Lake . This property encompassed more than the requisite two @-@ thirds necessary to stop construction of the road . In 1928 , the road was moved to connect with the Big Bay Road ( CR 550 ) , leaving the stub of " Blind 35 " behind . According to club records , " by 1929 , M @-@ 35 was dead in its tracks and Henry Ford was a member " . To commemorate his membership , Ford built a white pine log cabin on club property that cost between $ 80 @,@ 000 and $ 100 @,@ 000 in 1929 ( equivalent to $ 5 @.@ 2 million to $ 6 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) .
= = = After Ford = = =
In 1939 , M @-@ 35 from Negaunee to Big Bay to L 'Anse was officially canceled as a state trunkline highway . Constructed portions were turned over to local control , becoming Skanee Road in Baraga County and CR 510 in Marquette County . This left a discontinuous routing for 13 years . The southern segment of M @-@ 35 ran from Menominee to Negaunee , and the northern segment ran from Baraga to Ontonagon along the modern M @-@ 38 . The two segments were rejoined in 1953 , closing the gap left by the cancelled Huron Mountain route . M @-@ 35 signs were added to existing highway signs westward from the end of the southern segment at Negaunee along US 41 / M @-@ 28 and US 41 to Baraga , to connect with the northern segment westward to Ontonagon .
In 1964 , several abandoned underground mine shafts collapsed underneath the roadway , forcing a rerouting of M @-@ 35 out of the City of Negaunee . Before the rerouting , M @-@ 35 was routed from Palmer north to Negaunee using a portion of County Road near Lucy Hill . It also followed Silver Street connecting with part of BUS M @-@ 28 , a business loop of M @-@ 28 , through downtown Negaunee to US 41 north of town . This former segment is still shown on some maps ( such as Google Maps ) as " Old M @-@ 35 " . Since this rerouting , M @-@ 35 runs from Palmer past Goose Lake to end in Negaunee Township . The only naturbahn , or natural track , luge run in North America crosses the former routing of M @-@ 35 in Negaunee . This luge run crosses over the abandoned street at the end of County Road at Lucy Hill .
The last major changes to M @-@ 35 came in 1968 when the section from Baraga to Ontonagon was given the M @-@ 38 designation . The M @-@ 35 concurrencies were removed along US 41 / M @-@ 28 and US 41 in Marquette and Baraga counties . This change shortened the highway designation and moved the northern terminus to the present location in Negaunee Township . Since then , sections of the roadway were realigned in Richmond Township south of Palmer to straighten some of the many curves between Palmer and Gwinn on June 2 , 1989 . MDOT has started construction of a new 20 @-@ space commuter parking lot at the southern terminus of M @-@ 553 at M @-@ 35 on August 11 , 2008 with an expected completion date of August 30 , 2008 . This is part of an effort to offer expanded ride @-@ sharing opportunities in Marquette County .
= = Major intersections = =
= Miri , Malaysia =
Miri / ˈmɪriː / ( Jawi : ميري ; Chinese : 美里 ; pinyin : Méi Lǐ ) is a coastal city in northeastern Sarawak , Malaysia , located near the border of Brunei , on the island of Borneo . The city covers an area of 997 @.@ 43 square kilometres ( 385 @.@ 11 sq mi ) , located 798 kilometres ( 496 mi ) northeast of Kuching and 329 kilometres ( 204 mi ) southwest of Kota Kinabalu . Miri is the second largest city in Sarawak , with a population of 234 @,@ 541 . The city is also the capital of Miri District of the Miri Division .
Before Miri was founded , Marudi was the administrative centre of the northern region of Sarawak . Miri was founded in 1910 when the first oil well was drilled by Royal Dutch Shell . The discovery of an oil field in Miri has led to rapid development of Miri town . Miri became the administrative centre of the northern region of Sarawak by 1929 . During World War II , the Miri oil fields were destroyed by the Brooke government to sabotage Japanese operations in Southeast Asia but to no avail ; Miri town was the first landing point of Japanese troops in Borneo . The subsequent Japanese occupation led Miri to become a target of Allied air raids which caused the destruction of oil refinery facilities in Miri . The petroleum industry continued to be a major player in the city 's economy after the war . Oil exploration has moved offshore since the 1950s , but subsequently new inland oil fields were found in 1989 and 2011 . In 1974 , the formation of Malaysian oil and gas company Petronas led to co @-@ operation between Petronas and Shell on oil exploration in the Miri region . In 2005 , Miri became the 10th city in Malaysia to be granted official city status , the first non @-@ state capital city to be bestowed such status .
Miri is the main tourist gateway to Gunung Mulu National Park , Loagan Bunut National Park , Lambir Hills National Park , Niah National Park and Miri @-@ Sibuti Coral Reef National Park . The Gunung Mulu National Park with its Sarawak Chamber is one of the favourite ecotourism destinations . Miri is also the birthplace of the Malaysian petroleum industry . Other major industries in the city include timber , oil palm and tourism .
= = Etymology = =
Miri town is named after a minority ethnic group called " Jatti Meirek " or simply " Mirek " , or " Miriek " . This ethnic group is the earliest settlers in the region of Miri Division . Europeans who later came here for oil exploration mistakenly pronounced " Miriek " as " Miri " and hence the name continue to be used today .
= = Prehistory = =
The first foragers visited the West Mouth of Niah Cave ( located 110 km southwest of Miri city ) 50 @,@ 000 years ago when Borneo was connected to the mainland of Southeast Asia . The landscape of Niah Cave was drier and more open than it is now . Prehistoric Niah Cave was surrounded by a mosaic of closed forests with bush , parkland , swamps , and rivers . The foragers were able to survive in the rainforests through hunting , fishing , mollusc collection , and plant gathering . The earliest evidence of human population in the area dates back to 40 @,@ 000 BC in Niah Cave at Paleolithic period . This is evidenced by the discovery of a Homo sapiens skull nicknamed " Deep Skull " in a deep trench uncovered by Tom Harrisson in 1958 , which is the oldest modern human skull in Southeast Asia . The skull probably belongs to a 16- to 17 @-@ year @-@ old adolescent girl . Unfossilised Manis paleojavanica ( Asian giant pangolin ) bone dated back to 30 @,@ 000 BC was also found in the proximity of the " Deep Skull " , as well as with the Mesolithic and Neolithic burial sites inside the Niah Caves .
= = History = =
= = = Brooke administration = = =
Charles Brooke succeeded James Brooke as the new Rajah of Sarawak in 1868 . By 1883 , Sultan of Brunei ( Sultan Abdul Momin ) ceded the Baram region ( including Miri ) to Charles Brooke . The fourth division of Sarawak was immediately created with the installation of Claude Champion de Crespigny as the first Resident of the Division . The Miri area was still a fishing village at that time . It was a small settlement surrounded by mangrove and Nipah palm jungles consisted of 20 scattered houses , a few wooden shops operated by Chinese traders and a lone Arab trader . A fort was built in Claudetown ( present day Marudi , 43 km to the east of Miri ) in 1883 . Claudetown became the administrative centre of the division . Mr Claude 's administration was helped by two junior officers , 30 rangers , and a few native police . Charles Hose succeeded Mr Claude as the new Resident in 1891 and the fort in Marudi was renamed as " Fort Hose " . To restore peace among various ethnic tribes fighting in the Baram region , Charles Hose decided to organise a peace conference at his fort in April 1899 . This peace conference also led to the birth of first Baram Regatta , a long boat race competition among the natives which continued to be held until today .
The local population in Miri has indeed started to extract oil from hand @-@ dug wells for centuries . Song Huiyao Jigao , a documentation of the Song dynasty of China , mentions the imports of Borneo camphor and petroleum in the 11th century . In 1882 , Mr Claude reported to the Brooke government on 18 hand @-@ dug oil wells in the Miri area . He also recommended that area near Miri River should be thoroughly explored . However , his recommendations were ignored . But when Charles Hose took over the Resident office in 1891 , he was interested in Mr Claude 's idea and began to collaborate with him . Mr Claude began to map oil seeps around the Miri area , however a consultant geologist from England discouraged the oil exploration in Miri due to poor logistical conditions . After his retirement from administrative positions in Sarawak , Charles Hose went back to England . He later went to London to discuss the idea of oil exploration in Miri with the Anglo @-@ Saxon Petroleum Company ( later became a part of Royal Dutch Shell Company in 1907 ) . Mr. H.N. Benjamin , a branch manager from the petroleum company , was interested in this idea . Finally in 1909 , Rajah Charles Brooke came to London to sign the first Sarawak Oil Mining Lease . Royal Dutch Shell dispatched a senior geologist named Josef Theodor Erb together with Charles Hose back to Miri . Mr Erb started to map Miri oil fields from August 1909 to July 1910 . He also identified a location known as " Miri Hill " ( now known as " Canada Hill " , 150 m above sea level ) is suitable to act as an anticline for oil drilling .
Finally , on 10 August 1910 , the first oil drilling operation was started . A 30 @-@ metre @-@ high rig ( nicknamed the " Grand Old Lady " ) made up of wooden derricks and cable tool drilling was used in the operation by Royal Dutch Shell . On 22 December 1910 , oil was struck after 130 metres of drilling at the well . Royal Dutch Shell also founded a subsidiary company named Sarawak Oil Field Ltd , which now operated as Sarawak Shell Berhad . Since then , another 624 land wells have been drilled around Miri until 1972 which are collectively known as the " Miri field " . The Miri field is the only onshore field in Sarawak , because oil production has shifted offshore since the late 1950s . The first oil well on Canada Hill ( Miri Well No. 1 ) produced a total of 0 @.@ 65 million oil barrels for the next 60 years until its closure on 31 October 1972 . The first oil refinery and submarine pipeline was built in Miri in 1914 . The oil refinery has since been relocated to Lutong ( 11 km to the north of Miri ) in 1916 .
Resident Office moved from Marudi to Miri in 1912 . Miri grew as fast as the rate of oil production by the Shell company . In 1920 , roads were built in Miri . Bicycles and motorcycles were also bought into the town . By 1921 , there were 40 shop houses in Miri , with one English school and one Chinese school . Motor cars were later introduced to the town . In 1924 , Pujut Road was built to link Miri with Lutong . By 1925 , rotary drilling was introduced . Oil production continued to increase until it reached a peak of 15 @,@ 211 barrels per day in 1929 . Water supply were improved , jungles were cleared , and more roads were built . Miri became the administrative centre of the entire Baram region in 1929 .
= = = Japanese occupation = = =
The Brooke government had been actively lobbying for the British government to accept Sarawak as one of its protectorates in an event of a war . By 1888 , the British finally agreed to grant the protection to Sarawak . The British dispatched several troops to Sarawak to strengthen its defences in the 1930s . By 1938 , under the leadership of Rajah Charles Vyner Brooke , airstrips were constructed in Miri , Kuching , Oya , and Mukah in preparation for an imminent war . However , by 1941 , British Royal Navy and Royal Air Force had withdrawn from Sarawak and returned to Singapore . Therefore , the British government advocated a " scorched earth policy " for the Brooke government in the event of a Japanese attack . A Denial Scheme was formulated to destroy oil installations in Miri and Lutong . This was because the coastline measuring 30 miles from Lutong to Miri was impossible to defend from Japanese landings due to shortage of manpower . By May 1941 , 1 Infantry Company from 2 / 15 Punjab Regiment , 6 @-@ inch Hong Kong @-@ Singapore Royal Artillery Battery , and 1 Platoon of Royal Engineers were stationed at Miri to oversee the destruction of the Miri oil fields . In August 1941 , an operation was carried out to reduce Miri oil output by 70 % .
Soon after the news of Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Japanese planes were seen making reconnaissance flights over Miri . The Brooke government decided on a complete destruction of oilfields and airfields in Miri . Shell company officials received orders to carry out the Denial Scheme on 8 December 1941 . In the evening on the same day , the task was completed . All producing oil wells were sealed up with vital equipment and machinery dismantled and shipped off to Singapore . Skilled workers and important company papers also went along with the equipment and sent to Singapore . The Punjab Regiment and several officials were sent to guard Kuching . On 16 December 1941 , 9 days after the Pearl Harbor bombing , Japanese troops consisting of 10 @,@ 000 men landed on Tanjung Lobang Beach , Miri without much resistance . However , on 19 December 1941 , a Dutch flying boat from Tarakan Island attacked the Japanese destroyer Shinonome ( under the command of Hiroshi Sasagawa ) off Miri . The ship was sunk along with the entire crew of 228 . Another flying boat X @-@ 33 also damaged a Japanese transport ship . After the fall of Singapore on 15 January 1942 , skilled workers that went into hiding with their equipment were sent back to Miri by the Japanese . They were immediately put to work for Japanese oil supply service company named Nen Ryo Hai Kyu . Much of the Japanese oil drilling and refinery equipment was portable . A total of 0 @.@ 75 million barrels were produced during the Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945 .
During the occupation , Miri and Lutong became a periodic subject of Allied air raids and bombings . Food , clothes , and medicine were scarce . Workers of the Japanese oil supply service were used to reconstruct and maintain Lutong Bridge and Lutong airstrip from Allied bombing damage .
= = = Recent developments = = =
Petronas , a Malaysian national oil and gas company , was formed in 1974 . As a result , a concession system was changed into production sharing contract system ( PSC ) between Shell and Petronas . All the foreign oil companies including Shell required to obtain licenses from Petronas . The first two PSCs were signed on 30 November 1976 . Foreign oil companies are required to keep not more than 41 % of the oil produced until their original costs are recovered . After a return of their investments , the oil companies will keep 30 % of the revenue after all operating costs and oil royalties are deducted . Petronas also formed a company named Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd which was directly involved in the exploration , development , and production of oil and gas in the country . Petronas also initiated the Baram Delta Gas Gathering ( Bardegg ) project which involves the collection and compression of gas from five fields , namely Betty , Bekor , Baram , Baronia , and West Lutong , located 10 km to 45 km offshore from Miri . This is to ensure the minimisation of gas loss during oil production . Petronas and Shell are also involved in educational outreach activities such as awarding scholarships to deserving students . Both companies are also involved in Malaysian first rig @-@ to @-@ reef project , in an effort to preserve bio @-@ marine life in the sea offshore Miri . In this project , an abandoned offshore platform was made to become part of the Siwa reef . Both companies also started to establish Piasau Nature Reserve in 2014 .
Miri Municipal Council has adopted the seahorse as the town 's official symbol . It was proposed by the former Sarawak chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud and introduced as part of the " I love Miri campaign " in 1994 . The seahorse is chosen because of its beautiful and distinctive figure with gentle and graceful motion . These characteristics describe multiple ethnic and cultural identities of Miri which live in peace and harmony with good values of life . It also denotes the location of Miri town near to the sea and coral reefs and the city status as a resort paradise .
Miri was elevated to city status on 20 May 2005 and became Malaysia 's tenth city . Miri is also the first town in Malaysia which is not a state capital to be granted city status . Miri City Day is celebrated each year on 20 May since it was declared by the past Chief Minister , Abdul Taib Mahmud . A time capsule containing news article of the day and a souvenir book was buried at Petroleum Science Museum at Canada Hill , Miri . The time capsule will be opened 100 years later on 20 May 2105 . An effort has also been made to develop Miri as liveable resort city .
= = Governance = =
Miri City currently elects one member of parliament from the Miri parliamentary seat ( P.219 ) into the Parliament of Malaysia . The city also elects 3 state assemblymen into the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly , namely Piasau , Pujut , and Senadin .
= = = Local authority and city definition = = =
Miri was formerly administered by the Miri Municipal Council for 24 years . It was upgraded to Miri City Council ( MCC ) on 20 May 2005 , with Lawrence Lai Yew Son as its current mayor , headquartered at Raja Road , Miri . Area under the jurisdiction of MCC is 977 @.@ 43 km2 . Miri lies within the boundary of the Miri District , which consists of Miri City , Sibuti sub @-@ district , and Niah sub @-@ district , with a total population of 290 @,@ 274 and total area of 4 @,@ 707 km2 . Miri Resident Office and Miri District Office are located at Kingsway Road , Miri City .
= = Geography = =
Miri is situated on the alluvial plain of the Baram River on the western shore of northern Sarawak on the island of Borneo . Locally the Baram River is called the Miri River . Because of the prevailing southerly off @-@ shore current , beach drift has built up the Peninsula Road as a barrier beach between the Miri River and the shore causing a " Yazoo effect " where the river runs parallel to the coast before breaking through into the South China Sea . The city is predominately located on the inland ( east ) side of the Miri River with only a few scattered residential neighbourhoods , a Golf Club and a small airstrip on the Peninsula Road .
= = = Climate = = =
Miri has a tropical rainforest climate . There are two monsoon seasons : the southwest monsoon , which is the dry season from April to September , and the northeast monsoon , which is the wet season from October to March . The annual rainfall is around 250 to 380 cm ( 100 to 150 inches ) . The air temperature is between 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) to 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) the whole year round . But in rare occasions , temperature can reach down to 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) especially in the months of November , December and January . Lowest ever recorded is in December 2010 when the temperature dropped down to 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) .
= = Demography = =
People from Miri are called " Mirians " .
The growth of Miri population is shown below :
= = = Ethnicity = = =
According to the 2010 Malaysian census , Miri City has a total population of 234 @,@ 541 . Indigenous people form the largest ethnic group in the city ( 143 @,@ 736 , 61 @.@ 3 % ) which consists of Iban ( 61 @,@ 273 ) , Malay ( 46 @,@ 723 ) , Melanau ( 8 @,@ 313 ) , Bidayuh ( 3 @,@ 308 ) , and other indigenous tribes ( 24 @,@ 119 ) . This is followed by Chinese ( 75 @,@ 329 , 32 @.@ 1 % ) , Indians ( 980 , 0 @.@ 43 % ) , and non @-@ Malaysians ( 13 @,@ 362 , 5 @.@ 7 % ) . The Malay people here consists mainly of Mirek , Dalik , Berawan , and Bakong people . Miri has 19 out of 27 Sarawak ethnic groups , including Kedayan , Lun Bawang , Kayan , Kenyah , and Kelabit people . Chinese in Miri mainly consist of the Foochow majority with significant populations of Hakka and Cantonese including a small number of Teochews and Hainanese . A majority of non @-@ Malaysians in Miri are Suluk and Bajau people from the southern Philippines , working at Baram Delta as fishermen . There are also illegal Suluk and Bajau people entering Miri using Pulau Tikus ( near Baram Delta ) as a transit point .
= = = Languages = = =
English , Mandarin and Malay languages are widely spoken here . Respective ethnic groups also speak their own languages . Indigenous groups speak languages such as Bruneian / Kedayan , Miriek , Iban , Bidayuh , Kayan , Kenyah , and Kelabit languages . Meanwhile , the Chinese would speak Mandarin , Hakka Chinese , Cantonese , Teochew dialect , Hainanese , and Fuzhou dialect . However , younger generations in Miri tend to use mainstream languages ( English and Malay ) rather than it 's indigenous languages ( such as Iban and Kelabit ) , and an effort has been made to promote the usage of the indigenous languages among the younger generation .
= = = Religion = = =
There are several religions in Miri including Christianity , Islam , Buddhism , Taoism , Hinduism , Sikhism and Bahá 'í Faith . Among the Christian churches , there are the Borneo Evangelical Church , Anglicanism , Methodism , Roman Catholics , and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Respective religious groups are free to hold processions in Miri city . Among notable religious places in Miri are : Tua Pek Kong Temple , Lian Hua San Ching Tien Temple ( 莲花山三清殿 , Taoist temple ) , St Joseph Cathedral ( Roman Catholic ) , Hwai En Methodist Church , St Columba church ( Anglican ) , Al @-@ Taqwa Mosque , Al @-@ Jamek Mosque , Sikh Temple , and Kamini Durga Eswari Amman Temple ( Hinduism ) .
= = Economy = =
There are a few industrial areas in Miri , some examples include Kuala Baram Industrial Estate ( Mixed , Light , and Medium Industries ) , Piasau Industrial Estate ( Mixed Light Industries ) , Senadin Industrial Area , Eastwood Industrial Estate and Bekenu Light Industrial Area ( food processing ) .
Miri mainly relies on its oil and gas industry , which contributes significantly to the Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) of Sarawak . Sarawak Shell Berhad ( upstream business ) and Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd have their offices based in Miri . Other multinational oil and gas companies also set up their offices here , including Nippon Oil , Schlumberger , Baker Hughes , Halliburton , Technip , Ranhill WorleyParsons , and Petra Resources Sdn Bhd . In 1989 , Asam Paya Oilfield was discovered in Sarawak inland areas . In 2010 , Petronas discovered two oil fields offshore between Bintulu and Miri . In 2011 , new underground reserves of oil and gas deposits were discovered by Nippon Oil in an inland region near Miri , Sarawak .
In the 1970 to 1980s , timber exporting industry became one of the major income generators for Miri . Multinational conglomerates based in Miri such as Shin Yang and Samling had their early beginnings in timber industry . Besides , shipbuilding companies such as Sealink Shipyard , Shin Yang Shipping & Shipyard , Berjaya Dockyard , and Sarawak Slipways have their major shipyards set up in Miri - Kuala Baram industrial area along the Baram river .
First large @-@ scale oil palm plantation in Sarawak began in 1968 , in which the newly formed Sarawak Oil Palm Berhad ( SOPB ) planted a total of 5 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare ( 50 km2 ) oil palm plantations near Miri by employing Indonesian workers at these plantations . Since the 1980s , SOPB has a total of 30 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare ( 300 km2 ) of oil palm in Miri and Bintulu Divisions , generating a total revenue of RM 85 million in 2005 . SOPB is now majority @-@ owned by Shin Yang Group and Sarawak Land Custody and Development Authority ( LCDA ) with its headquarters based in Miri . By 2014 , oil palm plantations between Miri @-@ Bintulu zone constituted 60 % of total oil palm estates in Sarawak .
Miri Port Authority ( MPA ) was established on 1 February 1981 and commenced operation on 1 March 1983 . It is located near the mouth of Baram River . The port is able to take in ships measuring up to 1 @,@ 500 GRT ( Gross Register Tonnage ) , with general cargo area of 50 @,@ 895 m2 and total developed area of 34 hectares ( 0 @.@ 34 km2 ) . It is mainly used in handling petroleum , timber products , coal , and building materials . A total of 23 @.@ 94 million metric tonnes of goods was handled by MPA from 2011 to 2013 , which earned a total revenue of RM 48 @.@ 58 million in port dues .
Miri is a popular shopping destination for visitors coming from the neighbouring country of Brunei because of a discrepancy in currency exchange rate ( 100 Brunei dollar to 250 Malaysian ringgit ) , cheaper items , and a variety of resorts here in Miri for recreational activities . Bintang Plaza and Boulevard Shopping Mall are the two major shopping destinations for Brunei people . As of 2014 , Miri visitor movement along Kuala Baram @-@ Kuala Belait checkpoint ( Sungai Tujoh , along the Sarawak @-@ Brunei border ) reached a total of 2 @.@ 9 million people in one year . Miri is also an eco @-@ tourism gateway to four national parks and a marine national park .
The education sector is another income generator for Miri . Curtin University Sarawak brought in RM 480 million foreign exchange annually from 3 @,@ 000 foreign students studying at the university .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Land = = =
All the roads in Miri are maintained by Miri City Council ( MCC ) . Miri is accessible by road from Bandar Seri Begawan ( Brunei ) through the Sungai Tujuh checkpoint which is located 35 km north of Miri . Miri is connected to all major cities and towns in Sarawak including Kota Kinabalu in Sabah through the Pan Borneo Highway . Miri is also connected to Bintulu town through a coastal road and Marudi through a 42 km road . ASEAN Bridge is located along the Miri @-@ Baram Highway and crosses the Baram River , providing direct access to neighbouring country of Brunei , and the towns of Limbang and Lawas in Sarawak .
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Miri city has 2 bus stations , namely the local ( located at Melayu Road next to Tamu Muhibbah and Visitor 's Information Centre ) and long @-@ distance bus stations ( located near Pujut Corner ) . The local bus station serves the Miri city area , Bakam area , Miri Airport , and Brunei . Buses to Niah National Park , Lambir Hills National Park , Bintulu , Sibu , Kuching , and Pontianak , Indonesia depart from the long @-@ distance bus station . Local taxi services are also provided in the city with the main taxi stand at China Road in the city centre . Taxis here do not use meters .
= = = Air = = =
Miri Airport ( IATA : MYY , ICAO : WBGR ) is an important gateway to the northern region of Sarawak . It is located 11 km south of Miri city . It serves as a hub for domestic , international , and rural air services . Miri Airport is the third busiest airport in Malaysia , in terms of aircraft movements and the fifth busiest in terms of passengers handled . It provides services to 2 @.@ 2 million passengers in 2013 . The airport has direct international flights to Singapore . It also receives flights from domestic destinations such as Kuala Lumpur , Johor Bahru , Kota Kinabalu , Labuan , Kuching and other major towns in Sarawak . Miri Airport also caters flights to the Sarawak interior such as Bario , Ba 'kelalan , Marudi , Lawas , Limbang , and Mukah through MASwings using DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter aircraft . Currently , there are three airlines serving Miri airport , namely Malaysia Airlines , Air Asia , and MASwings .
= = = Water = = =
Kuala Baram Express Boat Jetty is located 45 minutes away from Miri city centre . There are daily departures to Marudi , Long Lama area , and Gunung Mulu National Park by using express boats .
= = Other utilities = =
= = = Courts of law and legal enforcement = = =
The current court complex is located at Merdu Road , Miri . It contains the High Court , Sessions Court , and the Magistrate Court . Miri city also has Syariah Subordinate Court which is located at Wisma Pelita Tunku , Miri with area of jurisdiction of Miri District and Marudi District . There is one district police headquarters at Pujut Road , Miri . Miri central police station is located at Raja Road while other police stations are located at Bakam Road , Miri Airport , Kampung Tulang Road , Bekenu , and Niah . There is also a central prison in Miri .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Miri Hospital started operation on 6 May 1995 , located 2 @.@ 5 km away from Miri city centre and with an area of 87 @.@ 11 hectares . The hospital has 339 beds , and it provides specialist services such as surgery , ophthalmology , obstetrics and gynaecology ( ONG ) , and radiology . It is also the secondary referral hospital in the northern region of Sarawak . There are also 2 polyclinics in Miri namely Miri polyclinic and Tudan polyclinic . Miri City Medical Centre is a private hospital that started its operation in 2002 and has 30 beds . It is located at Hokkien Road , Miri . Columbia Asia Medical Centre was formerly known as Selesa Medical Centre . It was acquired in 1998 , located 4 km downtown Miri . It serves the communities from Miri , Limbang , Marudi , and Brunei . Shell employees make up the largest customer base for this private hospital .
= = = Education = = =
All the primary and secondary schools in Miri ( under National Education System ) are managed by the Miri District Education Office located at Kipas Road , Miri . Among the Chinese primary schools are SJK ( C ) Chung Hua Miri , SJK ( C ) Chung Hua Pujut , and SJK ( C ) Chung Hua Lutong . SK Agama Miri is an Islamic primary school . There are several national primary schools such as : SK Anchi , SK Senandin , and SK St Columba , along with several other national secondary schools in Miri namely SMK Chung Hua Miri , SMK Agama Miri , SMK St. Columba , Kolej Tun Datu Tuanku Haji Bujang , and Sekolah Menengah Vokasional Miri . Miri has 2 out of 14 Chinese independent schools in Sarawak . These are Pei Min Middle School ( 培民中学 ) and Riam Road Middle School ( 廉律中学 ) . Tenby International School is the first international school in Miri . Other private schools in Miri such as Sekolah Rendah Sri Mawar and Sekolah Rendah Sri Mulia are providers of primary education .
Curtin University Sarawak is the first foreign university to establish its campus in Sarawak since 1999 . It offers business , accounting , and engineering courses . Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia Kampus Miri Sarawak ( Teachers training Institute Malaysia Miri Campus ) offers training for teachers placements in primary and secondary schools . I @-@ Systems College offers a nursing programme . Fajar International College ( FIC ) offers a Diploma in Occupational Safety & Health ( DIPOSH ) , accounting , and business studies courses . IBS College was established in 1998 , currently offering finance , business , accounting , and security courses . Maxcel Institute of Management offers Diploma programme for Hotel and Tourism Management .
Cahaya Education and Training Academy ( Ceta ) offers training courses on oil and gas industries . Institut Latihan Perindustrian Miri ( Miri Industry Training Institute ) was formed in 2004 , currently offering courses such as electrician , product design , and telecommunication . RIAM Institute of Technology Sarawak ( RIAMTEC ) was established in 1996 , offering technical training in the fields of agriculture and mechanics . Institut Kemahiran Belia Negara ( National Youth skills Institute ) and Pusat Pembangunan Kemahiran Sarawak ( Sarawak Skills Development Centre ) also offer technical training for students . Kolej Komuniti Miri ( Miri Community College ) offers short module courses upon request from the public . Open University Malaysia ( OUM ) also opens a learning centre here .
= = = Libraries = = =
Miri City Council Library was established in 1958 . Currently , it has branches in Piasau , Lutong , and Taman Tunku . Pustaka Miri is a regional library established by the state @-@ run Sarawak State Library . It is located at Miri City Fan .
= = Culture and leisure = =
= = = Attractions and recreational spots = = =
= = = = Cultural = = = =
Miri May Fest has been held in Miri since 1989 . It is a month @-@ long celebration of entertainment programmes , trade fairs , cultural , arts , sports , and social activities organised by various governmental agencies . Miri City Day will also be held during the Miri May Fest . Gong Xi Fa Cai Bazaar is held annually a few weeks before the Chinese New Year eve . There will be stalls opening daily selling food and drinks , clothes , decorative items , potted plants , paintings , and handicrafts . Various entertainment programmes such as lion and dragon dances will be held every evening . Miri International Dance for Humanity is held annually since 2004 by Miri Chapter of Malaysian Red Crescent Society to promote racial and cultural harmony . This event will showcase up to 40 to 50 multicultural dance troupes which attract an audience of around 3 @,@ 500 . No dancing competition will be held during this event . Donation cards will be distributed to raise funds for the Red Crescent Society . 916 Malaysia Day Countdown cum Street Party has been held annually since 2010 . It consists of a variety of outdoor sports events , street parties , and entertainment programmes which runs beyond midnight to commemorate the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963 . Miri International Deep Sea Fishing Tournament is held annually at Luconia Shoals at South China Sea . Participants will depart from the Marina Bay , Miri and head up to the ocean for 3 days . The participant who catches the biggest fish in that category wins . Miri city Christmas Parade is held annually since 2007 . Churches in Miri would start the parade at Miri City Fan and cover the main streets in the city centre .
= = = = Historical = = = =
In 2005 , a petroleum museum was opened in Miri to preserve the city 's roots as an oil and gas city . The petroleum museum is built at the site of " Grand Old Lady " , the first oil well in Malaysia which was opened in 1910 . Visitors are able to interact with advanced devices displayed in the museum . Niah Archeology Museum is located near the archaeological site of Niah cave . It exhibits the prehistorical artefacts found in the area . Baram Regional Museum was opened in 1997 , housed inside Fort Hose at Marudi . The fort was burnt down in 1994 , but it was rebuilt later according to its original design and was converted into a museum . It displays historical and cultural artefacts belonging to various ethnic groups living in the area . The Miri Tua Pek Kong Temple was built in 1913 to give thanks to a monk who was believed to chase away evil spirits . The evil spirits were believed to have caused an unknown epidemic in Miri . It is the only building which survives World War II .
= = = = Leisure and conservation areas = = = =
Miri is surrounded by five national parks namely : Gunung Mulu National Park , Niah National Park , Lambir Hills National Park , Loagan Bunut National Park and Miri @-@ Sibuti Coral Reef National Park . Tanjung Lobang Beach is the oldest recreational park in Miri . It is a popular spot for watching sunsets . There are two wooden piers extending out into the ocean which offer a view of the coastline and the seahorse lighthouse at Marina Bay . Taman Selera ( which serves seafood meals ) , Miri Marriott Hotel and Parkcity Everly Hotel are located at Tanjung Lobang Beach . Marina Bay also has berthing facilities for yachts . Hawaii Beach is located 15 minutes away from Miri city . Picnic and barbecue facilities are provided here . Lutong Beach is suitable for paragliding and paramotor sports . Luak Esplanade Beach is located 11 km south of the city . It is a popular spot for barbecues and picnics . Further down the Luak Esplanade Beach is Bungai Beach , which is located at Bekenu , about 1 hour drive from Miri city .
Miri Bulatan Park was opened to the public in 1993 . It has a man @-@ made lake , a jogging track , and a traffic garden . Traffic games will held every year at Miri Bulatan Park . Taman Awam Miri ( Miri Public Park ) is located 3 km away from Miri city centre . It has a children 's playground , botanical garden , and a jogging trail . Miri City Fan is an urban park complex that has a variety of theme gardens , botanical garden , a swimming pool , a library , and an amphitheatre where concerts are frequently held . Taman Bunga ( Flower Garden ) is located at Asrama Road . Every plant here has a label which list the name and characteristics of the plant .
= = = = Other attractions = = = =
Miri Crocodile Farm is located near the Baram Delta . It houses 1 @,@ 000 estuarine crocodiles including Malayan gharial crocodiles . Man @-@ made sanctuary pools are also constructed for the crocodiles . Other animals can also be found here such as cassowary , sun bears , python , monkeys and porcupines . Visitors are allowed to feed the animals with bananas available from the canteen .
= = = = Shopping = = = =
The shopping malls in Miri are Bintang Megamall , Boulevard Shopping Complex , The Imperial Mall , E @-@ Mart , Merdeka Mall , Miri Plaza ( Servay Hypermarket ) , MYY Mall , Permy Mall , Soon Hup Shopping Complex , Wisma Pelita Tunku , and Permaisuri Imperial City Mall .
Saberkas Weekend Market is located at Sarbekas Commercial Centre . It opens in late evening every Friday , Saturday and Sunday . There are over 170 stalls in the market which sell vegetables , fruits , sea products , drinks , satay , grilled fish , BBQ chicken wings and other products such as local handicrafts , clothes as well as used magazines at reasonable prices . Miri Handicraft Centre is located at Brooke Road , Miri . It features handicrafts and souvenirs of Sarawak such as colourful bags , beadwork , woodcarvings , and textiles made by local indigenous groups , Chinese , and Malay artisans .
= = = Music = = =
There are three music festivals in Miri , namely Borneo Jazz Festival , Asia Music Festival ( AMF ) and Miri Country Music Fest ( MCMF ) . Borneo Jazz Festival was started in 2006 . It is a 2 @-@ night festival of 4 performances in each night by local and international jazz musicians at Parkcity Everly hotel , Miri . Asia Music Festival is also a 2 @-@ day event featuring artists and musicians from Asian countries such as India , Taiwan , Philippines , and Indonesia . It was first held in 2013 at Eastwood Valley Golf and Country Club , about 5 km from the city centre . It attracts about 4 @,@ 000 music lovers attending the event . Miri Country Music Fest ( MCMF ) is a one @-@ day event introduced in 2014 , held at Parkcity Everly Hotel , Miri . Among the activities that can be found here are music and dance workshop , and night concert featuring country music bands from all over the world . Stalls selling food items , games , and souvenir items are also available .
= = Cuisine = =
Miri Central Market ( also known as Miri Open Air Market ) is located at the Miri Old Town centre . It offers a wide choices of local food whose recipes which have been passed on for generations . Popular local delicacies such as Miri curry rice , chicken porridge , open air kolo mee , and Char kway teow can be found here . Exotic dishes of pig 's stomach cooked with pineapple and pig 's blood with chives can also be found at the central market . There are also a variety of restaurants in Miri that offer seafood , Western food , Chinese , Japanese , and Muslim food . Authentic cuisine from Kelabit Highlands especially from Bario can also be found here .
= = Notable people = =
Zee Avi , international singer and ukulele player .
Shaun Maloney , Scottish national football player .
Abdul Taib Mahmud , fourth chief minister of Sarawak .
Joseph Kalang Tie , Sarawak FA football player .
George Chan Hong Nam , Sarawak 's former deputy chief minister .
Wee Han Wen , first chairman of the Miri City Council .
Natasha Seatter , Malaysian racing driver .
Watson Nyambek , Ex @-@ national sprinter
= = International relations = =
Several countries have set up their consulates in Miri , including Netherlands and the United Kingdom .
= = = Sister cities = = =
Miri currently has two sister cities :
Guangning County , China
Hualien County , Taiwan
= M @-@ 40 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 40 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs from US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) near the Indiana state line in Porter Township north through Paw Paw and Allegan to end in the outskirts of Holland . The current northern end is near Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) at an intersection with US 31 / Business Loop I @-@ 196 ( BL 196 ) . In between , M @-@ 40 runs through mixed agricultural and forest lands and along lakes and rivers through Southwest Michigan .
The trunkline was designated by July 1 , 1919 along with the rest of the original state highway system along a route that is different that of today . South of Paw Paw , the original M @-@ 40 reached Niles and even the Indiana state line for a time . The northern end was extended in stages to Holland . The southern end was shifted in the 1970s , resulting in the current routing .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 40 starts at an intersection with US 12 in rural Cass County . Running north through farm fields , the highway rounds Bar Lake and into the community of Jones . The area around Jones has a few more lakes in a wooded setting . As the trunkline continues north , it passes back into farm lands . The road curves around to the northwest as it passes between Bogart Lake and Streeters Mill Pond near Dutch Settlement Road . M @-@ 40 follows Centre Street into Marcellus . When the highway meets the western end of M @-@ 216 in town , M @-@ 40 turns west along Main Street and runs out of town . The roadway returns to a northerly course , and later it curves northwesterly again near Cedar Lake near the Van Buren County line .
Continuing north , the trunkline passes through mixed agricultural and wood lands into the community of Lawton . M @-@ 40 follows Main Street through town and exits on a northwestern track towards the village of Paw Paw . M @-@ 40 crosses over I @-@ 94 and turns north into town running along Maple Lake . The highway crosses the narrow isthmus between the larger Maple Lake and the smaller Ackley Lake , passing through some small residential subdivisions as it leaves Paw Paw . Small farms dot the landscape as M @-@ 40 crosses M @-@ 43 in a rural area of the county on the way to Gobles . It is in this small city that the road crosses the Kal @-@ Haven Trail State Park , a linear park that follows the former Kalamazoo and South Haven Railroad line . The rail line was converted into a rail trail and allows users to bike , hike or snowmobile between Kalamazoo and South Haven .
M @-@ 40 crosses into Allegan County near Base Line Lake . The highway follows Jenner Street along some curves near the banks of the Kalamazoo River as the trunkline enters the south side of Allegan . M @-@ 40 meets M @-@ 89 , and the two highways run concurrently into downtown together on Cedar Street . At the intersection with Cutler Street , M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 meets the western end of M @-@ 222 and M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 turns west onto Cutler Street . The street name changes to Western Avenue as M @-@ 40 / M @-@ 89 curves north and northwest , crossing the Kalamazoo River and leaving town . North of Lake Allegan , M @-@ 89 separates and runs west toward Fennville , and M @-@ 40 extends to Hamilton , crossing the Rabbit River . The highway runs through more farms and approaches the outskirts of Holland . The trunkline crosses over I @-@ 196 and follows Lincoln Road through an industrial area on the southeast side of town . At 48th Street , the highway turns west until meeting Lincoln Avenue . There , M @-@ 40 turns north for several blocks before ending at the intersection with BL I @-@ 196 / US 31 .
= = History = =
When M @-@ 40 was created around by July 1 , 1919 , it originally ran from Niles to Dowagiac and Decatur roughly along the current path of M @-@ 51 . Then it traveled to the northeast where it entered Paw Paw and continued north to Allegan . By 1921 , M @-@ 40 is shown on maps extending south of Niles to the Indiana state line , but not extending to Allegan . The segment from Niles south was used for the routing of US 31 in 1926 . A section of the highway was realigned in the same time period near Paw Paw . After the change , M @-@ 40 followed the contemporary US 12 instead of Paw Paw Road . A rerouting of M @-@ 89 in 1927 shifted it to run from Allegan southeast to Plainwell instead of east to Martin ; M @-@ 40 replaced M @-@ 89 on the Allegan – Martin roadway . In 1929 , the routing from Allegan to Martin was removed and renumbered M @-@ 118 , and M @-@ 40 was extended to the north out of Allegan along M @-@ 89 and its modern routing to a new terminus in Holland ending at US 31 . The last segment of unpaved highway was paved in late 1945 or early 1946 . This segment was near Dunningville in central Allegan County .
In late 1960 or early 1961 , when the I @-@ 94 freeway was completed in Van Buren County , M @-@ 40 moved to the new freeway for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , between present day exits 56 and 60 , and the former route along old US 12 was returned to local control . In 1971 , all of M @-@ 40 south of I @-@ 94 was reassigned the designation M @-@ 51 while M @-@ 40 was shifted to the east to take over the routing of the contemporary M @-@ 119 between Paw Paw and its intersection with US 12 in Porter Township near Mottville ; the M @-@ 40 designation on the section of I @-@ 94 was dropped . In 1994 , the northern terminus was scaled back from the US 31 business loop to its present terminus at US 31 on the southeast side of Holland .
Local officials in Allegan have proposed creation of a truck route around the town . Concerned about the traffic and noise , residents have formed the Citizens for a Safer Community . They cite reports that show that the accident rates in town are higher than the statewide average . The group and local officials are proposing using 24th Street , 118th Avenue and Babylon Road for truck traffic . MDOT would require permits to erect the signs needed for the truck route . The department has indicated that the bypass would not be a state highway . MDOT will not take ownership of the roads needed for the truck route , but overall the department is supportive of the city 's efforts to make the downtown area more pedestrian friendly .
= = Major intersections = =
= Brill Tramway =
The Brill Tramway , also known as the Quainton Tramway , Wotton Tramway , Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad and Metropolitan Railway Brill Branch , was a 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) rail line in the Aylesbury Vale , Buckinghamshire , England . It was privately built in 1871 by the 3rd Duke of Buckingham as a horse tram line to help transport goods between his lands around Wotton House and the national rail network . Lobbying from the nearby village of Brill led to its extension to Brill and conversion to passenger use in early 1872 . Two locomotives were bought but the line had been built for horses and thus trains travelled at an average speed of 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
In 1883 , the Duke of Buckingham planned to upgrade the route to main line standards and extend the line to Oxford , creating the shortest route between Aylesbury and Oxford . Despite the backing of the wealthy Ferdinand de Rothschild , investors were deterred by costly tunnelling . In 1888 a cheaper scheme was proposed in which the line would be built to a lower standard and avoid tunnelling . In anticipation , the line was named the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad .
Although the existing line had been upgraded in 1894 , the extension to Oxford was never built . Instead , operation of the Brill Tramway was taken over by London 's Metropolitan Railway and Brill became one of its two north @-@ western termini . The line was rebuilt in 1910 , and more advanced locomotives were introduced , allowing trains to run faster . The population of the area remained low , and the primary income source remained the carriage of goods to and from farms . Between 1899 and 1910 other lines were built in the area , providing more direct services to London and the north of England . The Brill Tramway went into financial decline .
In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway became the Metropolitan line of London Transport . The Brill Tramway became part of the London Underground , despite Quainton Road being 40 miles ( 64 km ) from London and not underground . London Transport aimed to concentrate on electrification and improvement of passenger services in London and saw little possibility that routes in Buckinghamshire could become viable passenger routes . In 1935 the Brill Tramway closed . The infrastructure was dismantled and sold . Little trace remains other than the former junction station at Quainton Road , now the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre .
= = Background = =
Brill is a small village at the top of the 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) high Brill Hill in the Aylesbury Vale in northern Buckinghamshire , 12 miles ( 19 km ) northeast of Oxford , and 45 miles ( 72 km ) north @-@ west of London . It was the only population centre in Bernwood Forest , a forest owned by English monarchs as a hunting ground . Traditionally believed to have been the home of King Lud , Brill Palace was a seat of the Mercian kings , the home of Edward the Confessor , and an occasional residence of the monarchs of England until at least the reign of Henry III ( 1216 – 1272 ) . Although a centre for manufacture of pottery and bricks , Brill was a long way from major roads or rivers , and separated by hills from Oxford . It remained small and isolated . In the 1861 census it had a population of 1 @,@ 300 .
= = = Wotton House and the Dukes of Buckingham = = =
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , the only son of Richard Plantagenet Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , was born on 10 September 1823 . By the mid @-@ 19th century the family was in financial difficulty . The family 's estates and their London home at Buckingham House ( No.91 Pall Mall ) were sold and the family seat of Stowe House seized by bailiffs as security and its contents sold . Over 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 200 ha ) of the family 's 55 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 22 @,@ 300 ha ) estates were sold to meet debts .
The only property in the control of the Grenville family was the small ancestral home of Wotton House and its associated lands around Wotton Underwood near Brill . The Grenvilles looked for ways to maximise profits from their remaining farmland around Wotton , and to seek opportunities in heavy industry and engineering . Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville ( titled Marquess of Chandos following the death of his grandfather Richard Temple @-@ Nugent @-@ Brydges @-@ Chandos @-@ Grenville , 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1839 ) was appointed chairman of the London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) on 27 May 1857 . After the death of his father on 29 July 1861 he became 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos , and resigned from chairmanship of the LNWR , returning to Wotton House to manage the family 's estates . His efforts to pay debts incurred by his father earned praise from Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , and in 1875 he was appointed Governor of Madras , serving until 1880 .
= = = Early railways in the Aylesbury Vale = = =
On 15 June 1839 entrepreneur and former Member of Parliament for Buckingham , Sir Harry Verney , 2nd Baronet , opened the Aylesbury Railway . Built under the direction of Robert Stephenson , it connected the London and Birmingham Railway 's Cheddington railway station on the West Coast Main Line to Aylesbury High Street railway station in eastern Aylesbury , the first station in the Aylesbury Vale . On 1 October 1863 the Wycombe Railway opened a branch from Princes Risborough railway station to Aylesbury railway station on the western side of Aylesbury , leaving Aylesbury as the terminus of two small and unconnected branch lines .
Meanwhile , north of Aylesbury the Buckinghamshire Railway was being built by Sir Harry Verney . The scheme consisted of a line running southwest to northeast from Oxford to Bletchley and a second southeast from Brackley via Buckingham to join the Oxford – Bletchley line halfway
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-@ the @-@ top performance . " Lugosi was theatrical , but I never wanted the audience to feel I was an actor chewing the scenery ... I felt it had to be Lugosi 's theatricality , not mine . "
Sarah Jessica Parker as Dolores Fuller : Ed 's girlfriend before his relationship with Kathy . Dolores is embarrassed by Ed 's transvestism , which leads to their breakup . Dolores later becomes a successful songwriter for Elvis Presley .
Patricia Arquette as Kathy O 'Hara : Ed 's girlfriend after his relationship with Dolores . Kathy does not have a problem with Ed 's transvestism , and is eventually married to Ed . Their marriage lasts until Ed 's death in 1978 . She never remarried . Arquette met her real @-@ life counterpart during filming . The actress found her to be " very graceful and very nice " .
Lisa Marie as Vampira : Hostess of the local Vampira Show . She is dismissive of Ed at first , but decides to join the cast of Plan 9 from Outer Space , on the condition that she have no lines .
Jeffrey Jones as The Amazing Criswell : A local psychic TV entertainer . Criswell helps Ed with usual production duties , finding investors and acting in Ed 's films .
Max Casella and Brent Hinkley portray Paul Marco and Conrad Brooks : Two of Ed 's all @-@ around production assistants and frequent actors . Paul is hired to find the Lugosi stand @-@ in for Plan 9 from Outer Space , while Conrad accidentally has a brief dispute with Lugosi during Glen or Glenda .
Bill Murray as Bunny Breckinridge : Ed 's openly @-@ gay friend . Bunny is assigned to find transvestites to appear in Glen or Glenda , as well as portraying " The Ruler " in Plan 9 from Outer Space . Bunny also has an unsuccessful sex reassignment therapy attempt .
George " The Animal " Steele as Tor Johnson : A Swedish professional wrestler hired by Wood to be in two of his films , Bride of the Monster and Plan 9 .
Juliet Landau as Loretta King : King replaces Dolores in the movie " Bride of the Monster " after Wood mistakes her for an heiress able to front the money for the production costs .
Ned Bellamy as Tom Mason : Kathy 's chiropractor who is chosen to be Lugosi 's stand @-@ in for Plan 9 .
Mike Starr as George Weiss : Foul @-@ mouthed Z movie producer known for his work on exploitation films . Weiss hires Ed to direct Glen or Glenda .
Vincent D 'Onofrio as Orson Welles : Appears in a cameo late in the film . Maurice LaMarche did Welles ' uncredited voice .
Korla Pandit , credited as " Indian Musician , " essentially appears as himself ; Like he originally did on his 1950s TV program , Pandit plays organ and does not speak in this cameo .
The film also includes cameos from actors who worked with Wood on Plan 9 from Outer Space , Gregory Walcott and Conrad Brooks .
= = Production = =
Writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski conceived the idea for a biopic of Ed Wood when they were students at the USC School of Cinematic Arts . Alexander even proposed making a documentary about Wood , The Man in the Angora Sweater in his sophomore year at USC . However , Karaszewski figured , " there would be no one on the planet Earth who would make this movie or want to make this movie , because these aren 't the sort of movies that are made . " Irritated at being thought of solely as writers for family films for their work on Problem Child and Problem Child 2 , Alexander and Karaszewski wrote a 10 @-@ page film treatment for Ed Wood and pitched the idea to Heathers director Michael Lehmann , with whom they attended USC film school . The basis for their treatment came from Rudolph Grey 's Nightmare of Ecstasy , a full @-@ length biography , which draws on interviews from Wood 's family and colleagues . Lehmann presented their treatment to his producer on Heathers , Denise Di Novi . Di Novi had previously worked with Tim Burton on Edward Scissorhands , Batman Returns and The Nightmare Before Christmas , and a deal was struck with Lehmann as director and Burton and Di Novi producing .
Burton began reading Nightmare of Ecstasy and some of Wood 's letters . He was taken by how he " wrote about his films as if he was making Citizen Kane , you know , whereas other people perceived them as , like , the worst movies ever " . Burton admits to having always been a fan of Ed Wood , which is why the biopic is filmed with an aggrandizing bias borne of his admiration rather than derision of Wood 's work . The relationship between Wood and Lugosi in the script echoes closely Burton 's relationship with his own idol and two @-@ time colleague , Vincent Price . He said in an interview , " Meeting Vincent had an incredible impact on me , the same impact Ed must have felt meeting and working with his idol . " Meanwhile , Burton had been asked to direct Mary Reilly for Columbia Pictures with Winona Ryder in the title role .
However , Burton dropped out of Mary Reilly over Columbia 's decision to fast track the film and their interest with Julia Roberts in the title role instead of Ryder . This prompted Burton to becoming interested in directing Ed Wood himself , on the understanding it could be done quickly . Lehmann said , " Tim wanted to do this movie immediately and direct , but I was already committed to Airheads . " Lehmann was given executive producer credit . Alexander and Karaszewski delivered a 147 @-@ page screenplay in six weeks . Burton read the first draft and immediately agreed to direct the film as it stood , without any changes or rewrites . Ed Wood gave Burton the opportunity to make a film that was more character @-@ driven as opposed to style @-@ driven . He said in an interview , " On a picture like this I find you don 't need to storyboard . You 're working mainly with actors , and there 's no effects going on , so it 's best to be more spontaneous . "
Initially , Ed Wood was in development with Columbia , but when Burton decided he wanted to shoot the film in black @-@ and @-@ white , studio head Mark Canton would not agree to it unless Columbia was given a first look deal . Burton said black @-@ and @-@ white was " right for the material and the movie , and this was a movie that had to be in black @-@ and @-@ white " . He insisted on total creative control , and so in April 1993 , a month before the original start date , Canton put Ed Wood into turnaround . The decision sparked interest from Warner Bros. , Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox in optioning the film rights , but Burton accepted an offer from Walt Disney Studios , who had previously produced The Nightmare Before Christmas . Similar to Nightmare , Disney released Ed Wood under their Touchstone Pictures banner . With a budget of $ 18 million , Disney did not feel the film was that much of a risk , and granted Burton total creative autonomy . Burton also refused a salary , and was not paid for his work on Ed Wood . Principal photography began in August 1993 , and lasted 72 days . Despite his previous six @-@ film relationship with Danny Elfman , Burton chose Howard Shore to write the film score . Under the pressure of finishing the score for Batman Returns , the relationship between the two strained and Burton admitted he and Elfman experienced " creative differences " during The Nightmare Before Christmas
The movie was filmed at various locations in and around the Los Angeles area .
= = Historical accuracy = =
When describing the film 's accuracy , Burton explained , " it 's not like a completely hardcore realistic biopic . In doing a biopic you can 't help but get inside the person 's spirit a little bit , so for me , some of the film is trying to be through Ed a little bit . So it 's got an overly optimistic quality to it . " Burton acknowledged that he probably portrayed Wood and his crew in an exaggeratedly sympathetic way , stating he did not want to ridicule people who had already been ridiculed for a good deal of their life . Burton decided not to depict the darker side of Wood 's life because his letters never alluded to this aspect and remained upbeat . To this end , Burton wanted to make the film through Wood 's eyes . He said in an interview , " I 've never seen anything like them , the kind of bad poetry and redundancy – saying in , like , five sentences what it would take most normal people one [ ... ] Yet still there is a sincerity to them that is very unusual , and I always found that somewhat touching ; it gives them a surreal , weirdly heartfelt feeling . "
The scenes of Bela Lugosi used for Plan 9 from Outer Space were not filmed outside his own house , as the film depicts . They were , in fact , filmed outside Tor Johnson 's house . Additionally , Lugosi was not prone to fits of swearing , particularly in front of women and did not perform his own water stunt in Bride of the Monster . Lugosi is also depicted as dying alone and miserable . Lugosi 's wife of twenty years , Lillian , did leave him in 1953 , but he remarried in 1955 to Hope Lininger . They were together until his death a year later . This , plus any reference to Lugosi 's teenage son , Bela G. Lugosi , were omitted , as is any mention of Lugosi 's role in the 1956 United Artists film The Black Sleep . Also , when Ed Wood talks to George Weiss about making I Changed My Sex ! , Weiss mentions Chained Girls , implying that Chained Girls was made before Glen or Glenda , when in fact Chained Girls was made afterwards .
The scene where Bela is seen walking towards his house after Ed drops him off , he mentions how Hollywood has changed its horror films and how they aren 't what they used to be back in the 1930s . He mentions movies about giant bugs ( Them ! ) , giant spiders , ( Tarantula ) and giant grasshoppers ( Beginning of the End ) , however these movies came out after when the scene was supposed to be set and after the release of Glen or Glenda .
According to Bela G. Lugosi ( his son ) , Forrest Ackerman , Dolores Fuller and Richard Sheffield , the film 's portrayal of Lugosi is inaccurate : In real life , he never used profanity , owned small dogs , or slept in coffins . And contrary to this film , Bela did not struggle performing on The Red Skelton Show .
Burton biographer Ken Hanke criticized the depiction of Dolores Fuller . " The real Fuller is a lively , savvy , humorous woman , " Hanke said , " while Parker 's performance presents her as a kind of sitcom moron for the first part of the film and a rather judgmental and wholly unpleasant character in her later scenes . " During her years with Wood , Fuller had regular TV jobs on Queen for a Day and The Dinah Shore Show , which are not mentioned . Fuller criticized Parker 's portrayal and Burton 's direction , but still gave Ed Wood a positive review . " Despite the dramatic liberties , I think Tim Burton is fabulous . I wished they could have made it a deeper love story , because we really loved each other . We strove to find investors together , I worked so hard to support Ed and I. "
= = Release = =
Ed Wood had its premiere at the 32nd New York Film Festival at the Lincoln Center . The film was then shown shortly after at the 21st Telluride Film Festival and later at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival , where it was in competition for the Palme d 'Or .
= = = Home media = = =
The DVD edition of Ed Wood initially had difficulty reaching store shelves in North America due to unspecified legal issues . The initial release had a featurette on transvestites — not relating to the film or its actors in any way — which was removed from subsequent releases . An initial street date of August 13 , 2002 was announced only to be postponed . A new date of February 3 , 2003 was set , only for it to be recalled again without explanation , although some copies quickly found their way to collectors ' venues such as eBay . The DVD was finally released on October 19 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Ed Wood had its limited release on September 30 , 1994 . When the film went into wide release on October 7 , 1994 in 623 theaters , Ed Wood grossed $ 1 @,@ 903 @,@ 768 in its opening weekend . The film went on to gross $ 5 @,@ 887 @,@ 457 domestically , much less than the production budget of $ 18 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Ed Wood received positive reviews from critics and has a rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 60 reviews with an average score of 8 out of 10 . The consensus states " Tim Burton and Johnny Depp team up to fete the life and work of cult hero Ed Wood , with typically strange and wonderful results . " The film also has a score of 70 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 19 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert gave a largely positive review : " What Burton has made is a film which celebrates Wood more than it mocks him , and which celebrates , too , the zany spirit of 1950s exploitation films , in which a great title , a has @-@ been star and a lurid ad campaign were enough to get bookings for some of the oddest films ever made . " Ebert and Gene Siskel gave the film ' Two Thumbs Up ' on Siskel and Ebert , with Siskel calling it " a tribute to creative passion and friendship " and " one of the year 's very best " .
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone presented Burton 's decision with positive feedback on not making a direct satire or parody of Wood 's life . " Ed Wood is Burton 's most personal and provocative movie to date , " he wrote . " Outrageously disjointed and just as outrageously entertaining , the picture stands as a successful outsider 's tribute to a failed kindred spirit . "
Janet Maslin , writing in The New York Times , thought Johnny Depp " proved " himself as an established " certified great actor " . " Depp captures all the can @-@ do optimism that kept Ed Wood going , thanks to an extremely funny ability to look at the silver lining of any cloud . " Todd McCarthy from Variety called Ed Wood " a fanciful , sweet @-@ tempered biopic about the man often described as the worst film director of all time . Always engaging to watch and often dazzling in its imagination and technique , picture is also a bit distended , and lacking in weight at its center . The result is beguiling rather than thrilling . "
Richard Corliss , writing in Time magazine , gave a negative review . " The script by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski posits Wood as a classic American optimist , a Capraesque hero with little to be optimistic about , since he was also a classic American loser . That 's a fine start , but the film then marches in staid chronological order . " Corliss continued , " One wonders why this Burton film is so dishwatery , why it lacks the cartoon zest and outsider ache of Beetlejuice , Edward Scissorhands or Batman Returns . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Ed Wood was nominated for three Golden Globes : Best Musical or Comedy , Johnny Depp for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy and Martin Landau for Best Supporting Actor . Landau won in his category , while Depp lost to Hugh Grant ( for " Four Weddings and a Funeral " ) . Landau and Rick Baker won Academy Awards for their work on the film . Landau also won Best Supporting Actor at the first Screen Actors Guild Awards . Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were nominated for Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen by the Writers Guild of America , which was a surprise as few predicted that it would be considered . The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
= Arthur Mold =
Arthur Webb Mold ( 27 May 1863 – 29 April 1921 ) was an English professional cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for Lancashire as a fast bowler between 1889 and 1901 . A Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1892 , he was selected for England in three Test matches in 1893 . Mold was one of the most effective bowlers in England during the 1890s but his career was overshadowed by controversy over his bowling action . Although he took 1 @,@ 673 wickets in first @-@ class matches , many commentators viewed his achievements as tainted .
Mold began his professional cricket career playing for Banbury and Northamptonshire in the mid @-@ 1880s , but by 1889 had qualified to play for Lancashire at county level . Immediately successful , he quickly established a good bowling partnership with Johnny Briggs and became one of the leading bowlers in the country . However , he only achieved selection for England in one series in 1893 . Many critics thought he threw rather than bowled the ball , and he was among several bowlers at the time about whom there were similar suspicions . Controversy erupted in 1900 when Mold was no @-@ balled for throwing by Jim Phillips , an umpire who had targeted several prominent bowlers with dubious bowling actions . After Mold avoided several games in which Phillips was umpire , the affair came to a head in 1901 . On the opening morning of a match , Phillips repeatedly no @-@ balled Mold . Several of Mold 's team @-@ mates and most Lancashire supporters continued to believe that Mold bowled legally , but his reputation was ruined and , after three more appearances in 1901 , he retired at the end of the season . After his departure from the game , throwing ceased to be a concern in English cricket for 50 years .
= = Early life and career = =
Mold was born on 27 May 1863 in the village of Middleton Cheney in Northamptonshire . His family had links with the thatching trade , but Mold pursued a career in professional cricket . He began to play for the village team , making good progress as a bowler ; in 1882 , Middleton Cheney were unbeaten and Mold had the best bowling average in the team . In 1885 and 1886 , he was employed as a professional at Banbury Cricket Club . In his second year , a successful match against the Free Foresters , an amateur team , impressed two Lancashire cricketers who played against him . Subsequently in 1887 , Mold was employed by Manchester Cricket Club , and played a few non @-@ competitive cricket matches for Lancashire . In the same season , Northamptonshire , which at the time had not been awarded first @-@ class status , asked Mold to play for them . Playing as a professional , Mold was immediately successful , taking ten wickets in a match against a team from Surrey and seven wickets for 22 runs ( seven for 22 ) in an innings against Staffordshire . He continued to represent Northamptonshire in the following season but hoped to play for Lancashire . At the time , cricketers who wished to play competitive first @-@ class matches for a county in which they were not born had to live there for two years to qualify .
By 1889 , Mold was qualified for Lancashire and was expected by critics to make an impact . At the time , Lancashire had no fast bowler in their team , making Mold potentially an important player . He made his first @-@ class debut for the county in a three @-@ day match against Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) starting on 9 May 1889 , taking one wicket in a drawn game . Throughout the rest of the season , Mold impressed critics . After a slow start in unhelpful conditions and unsuitable playing surfaces for his type of bowling , he took a total of 33 wickets in four consecutive games and established a reputation as the fastest bowler in England . His best performance statistically was seven for 35 against Yorkshire County Cricket Club , in a match during which he took 13 wickets , but he was successful in other high @-@ profile matches . In all games against county opposition , Mold took 80 wickets at an average of 11 @.@ 69 ; in all first @-@ class matches he took 102 wickets at an average of 11 @.@ 81 . This placed him third in the national bowling averages . Although less successful in 1890 , he took 118 wickets in first @-@ class games at 14 @.@ 72 , which was 11th in the averages . His best figures , nine for 41 , once more came against Yorkshire , and he helped Lancashire to second place in the first official County Championship . Mold came close to playing for England when he was included in the squad to play in the third Test match against Australia , but the match was abandoned owing to rain and no play took place .
= = Leading bowler = =
Mold established himself as one of the leading bowlers in England during 1891 . According to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , " The season of 1891 brought him a great increase of reputation , and all through the summer he was uniformly successful . " In all first @-@ class matches , he took 138 wickets at 12 @.@ 49 to finish second in the national bowling averages . As a result of his good performances in the season , he was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Lancashire finished as runners @-@ up once again in the County Championship .
In 1892 , Mold 's aggregate of wickets fell to 120 at an average of 13 @.@ 63 , but he returned the best bowling figures of his career when he took nine for 29 against Kent . He was chosen in a representative match for the first time , playing for the North against the South . During the 1893 season , Mold took 166 wickets at 16 @.@ 96 ; at the end of the season , The Times described him as a great bowler and noted that he and Johnny Briggs were Lancashire 's only two effective bowlers . Between them , the pair took 225 wickets ; the other bowlers in combination took 46 . Once more representing the North during 1893 , this time in a match against the touring Australian team , Mold also made his debut in the prestigious Gentlemen v Players match , playing for the professional " Players " and taking nine wickets in the game . His performances brought about his international debut ; he played for England in all three Test matches against Australia , the only such appearances of his career . In the first game , he took three for 44 in Australia 's only innings , his best figures of the series , and took four wickets in the other two matches to finish with seven wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 42 . It is likely that doubts about the legality of his bowling action prevented him from playing further Test matches , or touring Australia with a representative side . However , other factors may have played a part in his subsequent omission , including the emergence of Tom Richardson as a successful fast bowler , and the opinion that Mold 's bowling was flattered by the difficult , uneven pitches on which Lancashire played their home games .
Mold 's annual total of wickets continued to increase in the following seasons . In 1894 , he again represented the North and the Players , taking 207 wickets in total at an average of 12 @.@ 30 . But as Lancashire increased the number of games they played , Mold and Briggs had an increased bowling workload and once more had little assistance from other bowlers . Between them , they took 324 wickets while the next most successful bowler took 13 . The following year , Mold reached his highest seasonal tally with 213 wickets at 15 @.@ 96 , and made his final appearance for the Players . The Times commented on the effectiveness of Mold : " Mold preserves all his pace and break in bowling , and his success on the hard wickets was phenomenal . "
Although Mold appeared for the North against the Australians , who toured again in 1896 , he did not play any Tests or other representative cricket that year and his wicket total fell to 150 at 18 @.@ 12 ; after this season , his bowling began to decline in effectiveness . Suffering frequently from injury in 1897 , Mold failed to reach 100 wickets in the season for the first time . His 90 wickets in 1898 were taken at an average over 20 , the only time his bowling average was so high , and he missed three weeks of the season owing to injury . After improving his record to 115 wickets at 18 @.@ 68 during 1899 , he was awarded a benefit match by Lancashire during 1900 which raised £ 2 @,@ 050 , a record total at the time and worth around £ 173 @,@ 000 in 2010 .
= = Throwing controversy = =
= = = Background = = =
For many years in England , there had been controversy over bowling actions ; several bowlers were believed to throw rather than bowl the ball , which was contrary to the Laws of Cricket . Lancashire had a particularly poor reputation among other county teams for using bowlers who threw : by the early 1880s , up to four of Lancashire 's main bowlers were judged to be unfair , including John Crossland who bowled very quickly . By the mid @-@ 1880s , several teams refused to play Lancashire on account of their bowling attack . Mainly through the actions of Lord Harris , many of the suspect bowlers were forced out of cricket , and bowling actions became more legitimate . However , some players continued to bowl with questionable actions , including members of the Lancashire team . The issue intensified in 1896 when two of the Australian touring team , Ernie Jones and Tom McKibbin , seemed to throw the ball regularly ; Sydney Pardon , the editor of Wisden , wrote : " The mortifying fact was that the illegal bowling was due entirely to our own weakness in not having the laws of the game carried out . The Australians only did against us what we had over and over again done against them . "
Following the 1896 tour , the English authorities realised action had to be taken . Jim Phillips , an Australian @-@ born umpire who journeyed each year between his native country and England , travelled to Australia with an English touring team in 1897 – 98 . During two of the matches he umpired , Phillips no @-@ balled Ernie Jones for throwing . Upon returning to England for the 1898 season , Phillips also called C. B. Fry , a prominent amateur cricketer and all @-@ round sportsman , for throwing . This was the second of three occasions in 1898 that Fry was no @-@ balled . Other umpires , following Phillips ' lead , no @-@ balled Fry and Frank Hopkins . Two further bowlers , albeit not famous cricketers , were called for throwing in 1899 .
= = = Mold called for throwing = = =
During the 1900 season , Fry was once more no @-@ balled at the beginning of June , this time by William West . The concerted action against throwing reached a peak when Phillips umpired the match between Nottinghamshire and Lancashire in Nottingham on 26 June . Early on the first morning of the three @-@ day match , Mold came on to bowl when Nottinghamshire had scored 34 . In Mold 's first over , Phillips twice no @-@ balled him for throwing . Lancashire 's captain , Archie MacLaren , withdrew Mold from the bowling attack at the end of the over and he did not bowl again in the match . However , MacLaren later defended Mold in the press . The match reports in both The Times and Wisden commented that Mold had been lucky never to be no @-@ balled before in his career ; he was the most high @-@ profile bowler to be called in the Phillips @-@ led crackdown on bowling actions . Mold played another nine times in 1900 without being called for throwing , but he did not play in any of the Lancashire matches umpired by Phillips . Later in the season , Phillips called the Somerset bowler Ted Tyler . By the end of the season , Mold had taken 97 wickets at 14 @.@ 01 .
That December , at their annual meeting at Lord 's Cricket Ground , the captains of the first @-@ class counties discussed the problem of throwing . MacLaren asked those present at the meeting to give their opinion of Mold 's bowling . According to MacLaren , they " replied to a man that they considered that Mold was not always fair " . Reports in the press stated that they voted by a majority of eleven to one that Mold 's action was unfair , and that along with other bowlers whose actions were suspected , he should not bowl in the coming season . The captains further recommended that bowlers with illegal actions should be banned , suspended or warned depending on the severity of their transgression . The meeting proved controversial , and disputes arose over how many captains had supported the decision . MacLaren claimed that he was the only captain to support Mold . Despite the verdict of the meeting , Lancashire 's committee remained of the opinion that Mold bowled legally ; the Lancashire president A. N. Hornby and several of Mold 's team @-@ mates also publicly backed the bowler . Opinions among other players and in the press varied as to the fairness of Mold 's bowling , but sympathy was expressed for the damage to Mold 's career and reputation , while Pelham Warner suggested that it was unfair to ban Mold completely . Some critics believed that the captains should not have passed judgement at all . The MCC , responsible for the laws of cricket and the organisation of the English game , were asked to adjudicate by several county committees . Reluctant to let the decision stand , the MCC overruled the captains , preferring to leave the matter to individual umpires . However , the umpires were instructed to pay close attention to suspect bowlers during the coming season .
Although he may have been expected to retire following the controversy and in view of his age , Mold continued to play for Lancashire , who were short of quality bowlers , at the start of the 1901 season . At least one umpire was asked by the MCC to report specifically on Mold 's bowling , but decided it was fair , and no umpire initially called him for throwing . He missed two Lancashire matches in which Phillips was an umpire , wishing to avoid a confrontation , but Lancashire were criticised by the public for omitting Mold from these matches . Consequently , he played in the game against Somerset umpired by Phillips , which started on 11 July at Old Trafford Cricket Ground . Under the captaincy of MacLaren , Mold opened the attack and bowled with Phillips at square leg . In Mold 's second over of the game , Phillips no @-@ balled him for throwing . Acting at the request of the Lancashire committee , MacLaren then switched Mold to bowl from the opposite end so that Phillips would be at the bowler 's end . Even so , Phillips continued to no @-@ ball him , and after 10 overs , Mold had been called 16 times by Phillips . MacLaren removed Mold from the attack , although he returned to bowl later without further action from either umpire . For the remainder of the match , Mold bowled from Phillips ' end without censure ; Phillips believed he had made his point . The other umpire took no action at any point in the match . The crowd at the game protested noisily against Phillips , for a time shouting " no @-@ ball " as every ball was bowled , and making comments about him . According to Wisden , Phillips ' actions caused " a great sensation ... The incident naturally gave rise to much excitement , and for the next few days nothing else was talked about in the cricket world . " At the conclusion of the match , Mitchell and Kenyon , a film @-@ making company based in Blackburn , filmed the players leaving the field and took footage of Mold bowling in the nets . Phillips received criticism for his actions and Mold had some support in the press . Mold 's Times obituary noted : " Mold did not lack defenders , but those who argued that he was , and always had been , a perfectly fair bowler , had a very bad case . The weight of expert evidence was overwhelmingly against them . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
In December 1901 , the MCC approved the scheme previously suggested — that the county captains should meet to discuss the fairness of suspected bowlers . It was proposed that any bowler who was judged to be unfair by a two @-@ to @-@ one majority of captains would be banned for at least a season . The MCC also recommended that the counties not play suspected bowlers and that any bowler called for throwing should be removed from the attack in the interests of the spirit of cricket . In the 1902 Wisden , Sydney Pardon wrote : " Never in the last twenty years or more has there been so little unfair or doubtful bowling as in the season of 1901 . Indeed the improvement was so marked as to make it clear that , if the captains stick to their guns , we shall soon be entirely free from the evil of which not very long ago it seemed impossible to get rid . " After 1901 , there were only isolated incidents regarding illegal bowling actions until the Second World War , and throwing ceased to be an issue in English cricket , in which no cricketer was no @-@ balled for throwing between 1908 and 1952 .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Mold played another three matches in 1901 without being no @-@ balled for throwing , but his reputation was ruined and he retired at the end of the season , although Lancashire had offered him a new contract . In this final season , he took 59 wickets at 19 @.@ 35 . In his career as a whole , he took 1 @,@ 673 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 15 @.@ 54 . In 2012 , he is 57th on the list of leading first @-@ class wicket @-@ takers ; among those whose careers were contemporaneous with or preceded Mold 's , he is placed 19th .
Subsequently , Mold returned to play for Northamptonshire in 1903 , and played league cricket in his native county , although he struggled with increasing weight in his later years . In his retirement , he became the landlord of a public house in Middleton Cheney , the village in which he was born . He took up shooting as a hobby and looked after his ailing mother . After a long illness , he died on 29 April 1921 in Middleton Cheney . The memorial on his gravestone states : " This stone was erected by his old cricketing friends as a token of their affection , admiration and respect " . It was paid for by a subscription opened by the Lancashire Committee .
= = Bowling technique = =
A fast bowler who operated from a very short run @-@ up , Mold bowled extremely quickly , releasing the ball with his arm very high in his early years , although later in his career , his arm was lower in delivery . Unusually for a bowler of his pace , he could make the ball deviate from straight , either through seam movement or cutting his fingers over it before release , but most of his wickets were taken through sheer speed . His obituary in the Manchester Guardian stated that he was among the fastest bowlers of all time and his bowling action was " beautiful " and possessed " fine grace " . If the pitch was uneven or otherwise difficult for batting , he was extremely difficult to bat against : in 1892 , Wisden noted : " On anything like a rough or bumpy wicket [ pitch ] he is , beyond all question , the most difficult and dangerous bowler of the day , the ball getting up from the pitch so high and so fast as to intimidate all but the very pluckiest of batsmen . " The Times later noted that he was very successful for Lancashire and a difficult bowler to face . In combination with Briggs , he bowled a very high proportion of Lancashire 's overs . At times , he struggled with a knee injury but continued to bowl with little opportunity to rest .
Opinion was divided over the legality of Mold 's bowling action . After no @-@ balling Mold for the second time , Phillips wrote that he had long suspected Mold of throwing . Even though he believed Mold was trying to bowl with a straight arm in the Somerset match , Phillips considered many more deliveries to be throws than merely those he called . In his own defence , Mold queried why Phillips never acted on his prior suspicions , and suggested that the umpire did not make it clear which part of Mold 's bowling action was unfair . The Manchester Guardian , reporting on the Somerset match in 1901 , noted that many umpires had apparently viewed Mold 's action as fair earlier in the season , even after the instruction from the MCC to pay careful attention to him . It stated that " the general opinion was that if one ball was to be called a throw then every ball he sent down was of the same order . " However , some critics noted that when bowling an occasional faster ball , Mold 's action changed slightly ; this was the delivery to which Phillips objected . His obituary in the Manchester Guardian stated that the lack of action by umpires other than Phillips in 1901 , and throughout Mold 's career , meant that the " charge against Mold , then , can hardly be said to have been ' proven ' " .
Mold continued to have his supporters . MacLaren later wrote that he believed Mold never intentionally threw ; A. N. Hornby consistently defended Mold , partly because , as Mold 's captain during the 1890s , it would have been a slur against his sportsmanship to admit that an unfair bowler had been in his team . Most Lancashire supporters never doubted that Mold 's action was fair . Cricket historian Don Ambrose suggests that Mold probably did throw his faster delivery , which may have accounted for the high proportion of his wickets which were bowled . It also explained his ability to produce a delivery that surprised the batsman ; W. G. Grace once observed that it was particularly painful to be struck by a delivery from Mold . The lack of action by Phillips ' fellow umpires was possibly , according to Ambrose , due to their unwillingness to cause problems for a fellow professional cricketer . However , Ambrose also suggests that in the Somerset match , Phillips was determined to end Mold 's career and that not every delivery that he called was actually a throw .
Mold was popular with other cricketers . The Times said : " Apart from the burning question of throwing , not a word could be said against him . He was liked by all his brother professionals , and popular wherever he played . " However , his achievements were always qualified by suspicion over the legality of his bowling action , even before he was no @-@ balled by Phillips . A batsman who played against him when he first appeared for Northamptonshire said : " If he is fair he is the best bowler in England , but I think he is a worse thrower than ever Crossland [ the Lancashire bowler of the 1880s with a suspect bowling action ] was . " Mold 's Times obituary stated : " He was a deadly fast bowler , but , all through his career , even his best feats in the cricket field were spoken of with something of apology " .
= Grey reef shark =
The grey reef shark ( Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos , sometimes misspelled amblyrhynchus or amblyrhinchos ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae . One of the most common reef sharks in the Indo @-@ Pacific , it is found as far east as Easter Island and as far west as South Africa . This species is most often seen in shallow water near the drop @-@ offs of coral reefs . The grey reef shark has the typical " reef shark " shape , with a broad , round snout and large eyes . This species can be distinguished from similar species by the plain or white @-@ tipped first dorsal fin , the dark tips on the other fins , the broad , black rear margin on the tail fin , and the lack of a ridge between the dorsal fins . Most individuals are less than 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) long .
Grey reef sharks are fast @-@ swimming , agile predators that feed primarily on free @-@ swimming bony fishes and cephalopods . Their aggressive demeanor enables them to dominate many other shark species on the reef , despite their moderate size . Many grey reef sharks have a home range on a specific area of the reef , to which they continually return . However , they are social rather than territorial . During the day , these sharks often form groups of five to 20 individuals near coral reef drop @-@ offs , splitting up in the evening as the sharks begin to hunt . Adult females also form groups in very shallow water , where the higher water temperature may accelerate their growth or that of their unborn young . Like other members of its family , the grey reef shark is viviparous , meaning the mother nourishes her embryos through a placental connection . Litters of one to six pups are born every other year .
Grey reef sharks were the first shark species known to perform a threat display , a stereotypical behavior warning that it is prepared to attack . The display involves a " hunched " posture with characteristically dropped pectoral fins , and an exaggerated , side @-@ to @-@ side swimming motion . Grey reef sharks often do so if they are followed or cornered by divers to indicate they perceive a threat . This species has been responsible for a number of attacks on humans , so should be treated with caution , especially if they begin to display . They are caught in many fisheries and are susceptible to local population depletion due to their low reproduction rate and limited dispersal . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as Near Threatened .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker first described the grey reef shark in 1856 as Carcharias ( Prionodon ) amblyrhynchos , in the scientific journal Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch @-@ Indië . Later authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen was a 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) -long female from the Java Sea . Other common names used for this shark around the world include black @-@ vee whaler , bronze whaler , Fowler 's whaler shark , graceful shark , graceful whaler shark , grey shark , grey whaler shark , longnose blacktail shark , school shark , and shortnose blacktail shark . Some of these names are also applied to other species .
In older literature , the scientific name of this species was often given as C. menisorrah . The blacktail reef shark ( C. wheeleri ) , native to the western Indian Ocean , is now regarded as the same species as the grey reef shark by most authors . It was originally distinguished from the grey reef shark by a white tip on the first dorsal fin , a shorter snout , and one fewer upper tooth row on each side . Based on morphological characters , vertebral counts , and tooth shapes , Garrick ( 1982 ) concluded the grey reef shark is most closely related to the silvertip shark ( C. albimarginatus ) . This interpretation was supported by a 1992 allozyme phylogenetic analysis by Lavery .
= = Description = =
The grey reef shark has a streamlined , moderately stout body with a long , blunt snout and large , round eyes . The upper and lower jaws each have 13 or 14 teeth ( usually 14 in the upper and 13 in the lower ) . The upper teeth are triangular with slanted cusps , while the bottom teeth have narrower , erect cusps . The tooth serrations are larger in the upper jaw than in the lower . The first dorsal fin is medium @-@ sized , and there is no ridge running between it and the second dorsal fin . The pectoral fins are narrow and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) .
The coloration is grey above , sometimes with a bronze sheen , and white below . The entire rear margin of the caudal fin has a distinctive , broad , black band . There are dusky to black tips on the pectoral , pelvic , second dorsal , and anal fins . Individuals from the western Indian Ocean have a narrow , white margin at the tip of the first dorsal fin ; this trait is usually absent from Pacific populations . Grey reef sharks that spend time in shallow water eventually darken in color , due to tanning . Most grey reef sharks are less than 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) long . The maximum reported length is 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) and the maximum reported weight is 33 @.@ 7 kg ( 74 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The grey reef shark is native to the Indian and Pacific Oceans . In the Indian Ocean , it occurs from South Africa to India , including Madagascar and nearby islands , the Red Sea , and the Maldives . In the Pacific Ocean , it is found from southern China to northern Australia and New Zealand , including the Gulf of Thailand , the Philippines , and Indonesia . This species has also been reported from numerous Pacific islands , including American Samoa , the Chagos Archipelago , Easter Island , Christmas Island , the Cook Islands , the Marquesas Islands , the Tuamotu Archipelago , Guam , Kiribati , the Marshall Islands , Micronesia , Nauru , New Caledonia , the Marianas Islands , Palau , the Pitcairn Islands , Samoa , the Solomon Islands , Tuvalu , the Hawaiian Islands , and Vanuatu .
Generally a coastal , shallow @-@ water species , grey reef sharks are mostly found in depths of less than 60 m ( 200 ft ) . However , they have been known to dive to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . They are found over continental and insular shelves , preferring the leeward ( away from the direction of the current ) sides of coral reefs with clear water and rugged topography . They are frequently found near the drop @-@ offs at the outer edges of the reef , particularly near reef channels with strong currents , and less commonly within lagoons . On occasion , this shark may venture several kilometers out into the open ocean .
usually near dropoffs , outer slopes and reef channels with strong currents near the outer edges of reefs .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Along with the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) and the whitetip reef shark ( Triaenodon obesus ) , the grey reef shark is one of the three most common sharks inhabiting Indo @-@ Pacific reefs . They actively expel most other shark species from favored habitats , even species larger in size . In areas where this species co @-@ exists with the blacktip reef shark , the latter species occupies the shallow flats , while the former stays in deeper water . Areas with a high abundance of grey reef sharks tend to contain few sandbar sharks ( C. plumbeus ) , and vice versa ; this may be due to their similar diets causing competitive exclusion .
On the infrequent occasions when they swim in oceanic waters , grey reef sharks often associate with marine mammals or large pelagic fishes , such as sailfish ( Istiophorus platypterus ) . There is an account of around 25 grey reef sharks following a large pod of bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops sp . ) , along with 25 silky sharks ( C. falciformis ) and a single silvertip shark . Rainbow runners ( Elagatis bipinnulata ) have been observed rubbing against grey reef sharks , using the sharks ' rough skin to scrape off parasites .
Grey reef sharks are prey for larger sharks , such as the silvertip shark . At Rangiroa Atoll in French Polynesia , great hammerheads ( Sphyrna mokarran ) feed opportunistically on grey reef sharks that are exhausted from pursuing mates . Known parasites of this species include the nematode Huffmanela lata and several copepod species that attach to the sharks ' skin , and juvenile stages of the isopods Gnathia trimaculata and G. grandilaris that attach to the gill filaments and septa ( the dividers between each gill ) .
= = = Feeding = = =
Grey reef sharks feed mainly on bony fishes , with cephalopods such as squid and octopus being the second @-@ most important food group , and crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters making up the remainder . The larger sharks take a greater proportion of cephalopods . These sharks hunt individually or in groups , and have been known to pin schools of fish against the outer walls of coral reefs for feeding . They excel at capturing fish swimming in the open , and they complement hunting whitetip reef sharks , which are more adept at capturing fish inside caves and crevices . Their sense of smell is extremely acute , being capable of detecting one part tuna extract in 10 billion parts of sea water . In the presence of a large quantity of food , grey reef sharks may be roused into a feeding frenzy ; in one documented frenzy caused by an underwater explosion that killed several snappers , one of the sharks involved was attacked and consumed by the others .
= = = Life history = = =
During mating , the male grey reef shark will bite at the female 's body or fins to hold onto her for copulation . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the yolk sac develops into a placental connection that sustains them to term . Each female has a single functional ovary ( on the right side ) and two functional uteruses . One to four pups ( six in Hawaii ) are born every other year ; the number of young increases with female size . Estimates of the gestation period range from 9 to 14 months . Parturition is thought to take place from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere and from March to July in the Northern Hemisphere . However , females with " full @-@ term embryos " have also been reported in the fall off Enewetak . The newborns measure 45 – 60 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) long . Sexual maturation occurs at around seven years of age , when the males are 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long and females are 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Females on the Great Barrier Reef mature at 11 years of age , later than at other locations , and at a slightly larger size . The lifespan is at least 25 years .
= = Behavior = =
Grey reef sharks are active at all times of the day , with activity levels peaking at night . At Rangiroa , groups of around 30 sharks spend the day together in a small part of their collective home range , dispersing at night into shallower water to forage for food . Their home range is about 0 @.@ 8 km2 ( 0 @.@ 31 sq mi ) . At Enewetak in the Marshall Islands , grey reef sharks from different parts of the reef exhibit different social and ranging behaviors . Sharks on the outer ocean reefs tend to be nomadic , swimming long distances along the reef , while those around lagoon reefs and underwater pinnacles stay within defined daytime and night @-@ time home ranges . Where there are strong tidal currents , grey reef sharks move against the water : towards the shore with the ebbing tide and back out to sea with the rising tide . This may allow them to better detect the scent of their prey , or afford them the cover of turbid water in which to hunt .
There is little evidence of territoriality in the grey reef shark ; individuals will tolerate others of their species entering and feeding within their home ranges . Off Hawaii , individuals may stay around the same part of the reef for up to three years , while at Rangiroa , they regularly shift their locations by up to 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Individual grey reef sharks at Enewetak become highly aggressive at specific locations , suggesting they may exhibit dominant behavior over other sharks in their home areas .
= = = Sociality = = =
Social aggregation is well documented in grey reef sharks . In the northwestern Hawaiian Islands , large numbers of pregnant adult females have been observed slowly swimming in circles in shallow water , occasionally exposing their dorsal fins or backs . These groups last from 11 : 00 to 15 : 00 , corresponding to peak daylight hours . Similarly , at Sand Island off Johnston Atoll , females form aggregations in shallow water from March to June . The number of sharks per group differs from year to year . Each day , the sharks begin arriving at the aggregation area at 09 : 00 , reaching a peak in numbers during the hottest part of the day in the afternoon , and dispersing by 19 : 00 . Individual sharks return to the aggregation site every one to six days . These female sharks are speculated to be taking advantage of the warmer water to speed their growth or that of their embryos . The shallow waters may also enable them to avoid unwanted attention by males .
Off Enewetak , grey reef sharks exhibit different social behaviors on different parts of the reef . Sharks tend to be solitary on shallower reefs and pinnacles . Near reef drop @-@ offs , loose aggregations of five to 20 sharks form in the morning and grow in number throughout the day before dispersing at night . In level areas , sharks form polarized schools ( all swimming in the same direction ) of around 30 individuals near the sea bottom , arranging themselves parallel to each other or slowly swimming in circles . Most individuals within polarized schools are females , and the formation of these schools has been theorized to relate to mating or pupping .
= = = Threat display = = =
The " hunch " threat display of the grey reef shark is the most pronounced and well @-@ known agonistic display ( a display directed towards competitors or threats ) of any shark . Investigations of this behavior have been focused on the reaction of sharks to approaching divers , some of which have culminated in attacks . The display consists of the shark raising its snout , dropping its pectoral fins , arching its back , and curving its body laterally . While holding this posture , the shark swims with a stiff , exaggerated side @-@ to @-@ side motion , sometimes combined with rolls or figure @-@ 8 loops . The intensity of the display increases if the shark is more closely approached or if obstacles are blocking its escape routes , such as landmarks or other sharks . If the diver persists , the shark will either retreat or launch a rapid open @-@ mouthed attack , slashing with its upper teeth .
Most observed displays by grey reef sharks have been in response to a diver ( or submersible ) approaching and following it from a few meters behind and above . They also perform the display towards moray eels , and in one instance towards a much larger great hammerhead ( which subsequently withdrew ) . However , they have never been seen performing threat displays towards each other . This suggests the display is primarily a response to potential threats ( i.e. predators ) rather than competitors . As grey reef sharks are not territorial , they are speculated to be defending a critical volume of " personal space " around themselves . Compared to sharks from French Polynesia or Micronesia , grey reef sharks from the Indian Ocean and western Pacific are not as aggressive and less given to displaying .
= = Human interactions = =
Grey reef sharks are often curious about divers when they first enter the water and may approach quite closely , though they lose interest on repeat dives . They can become dangerous in the presence of food , and tend to be more aggressive if encountered in open water rather than on the reef . There have been several known attacks on spearfishers , possibly by mistake , when the shark struck at the speared fish close to the diver . This species will also attack if pursued or cornered , and divers should immediately retreat ( slowly and always facing the shark ) if it begins to perform a threat display . Photographing the display should not be attempted , as the flash from a camera is known to have incited at least one attack . Although of modest size , they are capable of inflicting significant damage : during one study of the threat display , a grey reef shark attacked the researchers ' submersible multiple times , leaving tooth marks in the plastic windows and biting off one of the propellers . The shark consistently launched its attacks from a distance of 6 m ( 20 ft ) , which it was able to cover in a third of a second . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File listed seven unprovoked and six provoked attacks ( none of them fatal ) attributable to this species .
Although still abundant at Cocos Island and other relatively pristine sites , grey reef sharks are susceptible to localized depletion due to their slow reproductive rate , specific habitat requirements , and tendency to stay within a certain area . The IUCN has assessed the grey reef shark as Near Threatened ; this shark is taken by multispecies fisheries in many parts of its range and used for various products such as shark fin soup and fishmeal . Another threat is the continuing degradation of coral reefs from human development . There is evidence of substantial declines in some populations . Anderson et al .. ( 1998 ) reported , in the Chagos Archipelago , grey reef shark numbers in 1996 had fallen to 14 % of 1970s levels . Robbins et al .. ( 2006 ) found grey reef shark populations in Great Barrier Reef fishing zones had declined by 97 % compared to no @-@ entry zones ( boats are not allowed ) . In addition , no @-@ take zones ( boats are allowed but fishing is prohibited ) had the same levels of depletion as fishing zones , illustrating the severe effect of poaching . Projections suggested the shark population would fall to 0 @.@ 1 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels within 20 years without additional conservation measures . One possible avenue for conservation is ecotourism , as grey reef sharks are suitable for shark @-@ watching ventures , and profitable diving sites now enjoy protection in many countries , such as the Maldives .
= Kwinana Freeway =
The Kwinana Freeway is a 72 @-@ kilometre ( 45 mi ) freeway in and beyond the southern suburbs of Perth , Western Australia , linking central Perth with Mandurah to the south . It is the central section of State Route 2 , which continues north as Mitchell Freeway to Joondalup , and south as Forrest Highway towards Bunbury . A 4 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) section between Canning and Leach highways is also part of National Route 1 . Along its length are interchanges with several major roads , including Roe Highway and Mandjoogoordap Drive . The northern terminus of the Kwinana Freeway is at the Narrows Bridge , which crosses the Swan River , and the southern terminus is at Pinjarra Road , east of Mandurah .
Planning for the Kwinana Freeway began in the 1950s , and the first segment in South Perth was constructed between 1956 and 1959 . The route has been progressively widened and extended south since then . During the 1980s , the freeway was extended to South Street in Murdoch , and in June 2001 , it reached Safety Bay Road in Baldivis . The final extension began as the New Perth Bunbury Highway project , constructed between December 2006 and September 2009 . In early 2009 , the section north of Pinjarra Road was named as part of the Kwinana Freeway , with the remainder named Forrest Highway . The freeway has been adapted to cater for public transport , with the introduction of bus priority measures in 1987 , and the 2007 opening of the Mandurah railway line , constructed in the freeway median strip .
= = Route description = =
The Kwinana Freeway is the central section of State Route 2 . It commences at the northern end of the Narrows Bridge , Perth , continuing south from the Mitchell Freeway , and terminates at the Pinjarra Road interchange at Barragup , where it then transitions to Forrest Highway . All intersections with the freeway are grade separated . The speed limit is 100 kilometres per hour ( 60 mph ) north of Safety Bay Road and 110 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) to the south . From Perth to Mill Point Road , the freeway has five lanes northbound and six lanes southbound . This includes a bus lane in each direction , except on the Narrows Bridge , which only has a southbound bus lane . South of Mill Point Road to Roe Highway the freeway has three lanes in each direction , without any bus lanes except for bus @-@ only ramps at the Canning Bridge interchange . Beyond Roe Highway the freeway has two lanes in each direction . The median strip of the freeway north of The Spectacles also houses the Mandurah railway line . A shared pedestrian and bicycle path is built alongside the freeway .
Main Roads Western Australia monitors traffic volume across the state 's road network , including many locations along the Kwinana Freeway . The busiest section is at the northern end , on the Narrows Bridge , which averaged over 93 @,@ 000 vehicles per weekday in 1979 . This increased to over 135 @,@ 000 in 1988 / 89 , 156 @,@ 000 in 1998 / 99 , and 160 @,@ 000 in 2007 / 08 . The volume generally declines as the freeway travels south , with the fewest vehicles recorded near the southern end . There were fewer than 46 @,@ 000 vehicles per weekday near the Canning Highway terminus in 1978 , while in 1998 / 89 there were under 45 @,@ 000 north of South Street . For 1998 / 99 there were fewer than 27 @,@ 000 vehicles per weekday north of Thomas Road , and during 2007 / 08 fewer than 38 @,@ 000 were recorded between Mundijong Road and Safety Bay Road . As of 2013 , the Kwinana Freeway is one of the most congested commuter routes in Perth , during peak traffic periods . The average speed when driving north from Cockburn Central was measured as less than 40 kilometres per hour ( 25 mph ) during the morning peak . The slowest section was from South Street to Canning Highway , with an average travel speed of 24 kilometres per hour ( 15 mph ) . During the afternoon peak , the worst segment was southbound between Manning Road and Leach Highway , with a 31 kilometres per hour ( 19 mph ) average speed .
= = = Swan and Canning Rivers = = =
The Kwinana Freeway begins at the Narrows Bridge , and travels south from The Narrows alongside the Swan and Canning Rivers . South of the bridge is a northbound exit to Mill Point Road , whilst the southbound exit and both entrance ramps to the freeway are located a further 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) south . To the east of the freeway are residential homes in South Perth and Como , as well as the Royal Perth Golf Club . There is a southbound exit to South Terrace which provides access to the local area . Public access to the Swan River 's foreshore is available via footbridges that cross the freeway .
The first major interchange is with Canning Highway . National Route 1 is allocated to Canning Highway to the east , and to the Kwinana Freeway to the south of the interchange . The design is a diamond interchange , with additional bus @-@ only ramps connecting to the median lanes of the freeway . The Canning Bridge bus and railway transfer station is located at the interchange . A partial Y interchange with Manning Road , consisting of a northbound entrance ramp and southbound exit ramp , is located 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) south of Canning Highway . These ramps merge with the ramps on the south side of the Canning Highway interchange , allowing access between the highway and Manning Road . The Kwinana Freeway continues south , with the suburbs of Manning and Salter Point to the east , and Canning River to its west . The freeway passes by Aquinas College , 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) south of Manning Road , and reaches the Mount Henry Peninsula after another 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) .
The 660 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 170 ft ) Mount Henry Bridge carries the freeway across the Canning River , from Salter Point to Mount Pleasant . The freeway travels through the suburb for 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) to Cranford Avenue , a half @-@ diamond interchange with northbound entrance and southbound exit ramps . The Kwinana Freeway continues south for another 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) through Brentwood to Leach Highway .
= = = Southern suburbs of Perth = = =
Through the southern suburbs of Perth , the Kwinana Freeway travels south as the boundary between various suburbs . The Leach Highway interchange houses the Bull Creek train and bus interchange station , and the Murdoch Station is co @-@ located with the South Street interchange , 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) further south . Halfway between these interchanges , Parry Avenue crosses the freeway via an overpass , connecting the suburbs of Bateman and Bull Creek . Beyond South Street , the land east of the Kwinana Freeway , in the suburb of Leeming , continues to be residential , whilst to the west the freeway passes by educational and health care facilities in Murdoch . Challenger TAFE , Murdoch University , St John of God Murdoch Hospital , and Fiona Stanley Hospital are adjacent to the freeway , though there is no direct access . The next interchange , after 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) , is with Farrington Road , which marks the southern edge of Murdoch . This is a half @-@ diamond interchange that only serves traffic travelling to or from areas further north .
A free @-@ flowing trumpet interchange , 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) south of Farrington Road , connects the Kwinana Freeway to Roe Highway . The interchange is situated between four suburbs : Leeming , ( north @-@ east ) , North Lake ( north @-@ west ) , Bibra Lake , ( south @-@ west ) , and Jandakot . Roe Highway is part of State Route 3 , Perth 's ring route , and is a major controlled @-@ access link to Perth 's north @-@ east . There are plans to extend Roe Highway west to Hamilton Hill , which would necessitate upgrading the interchange . Following Roe Highway , the freeway continues its journey south , between the residential areas of South Lake and Jandakot . Houses east of the freeway surround the Glen Iris Public Golf Course . After 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) there is a diamond interchange with Berrigan Drive , after which the freeway passes lower density lots in Cockburn Central and the industrial section of Jandakot . The freeway reaches the next interchange after 2 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) , connecting with Armadale Road to the east and Beeliar Drive to the west . The Cockburn Central train station is located in the freeway median , 300 metres ( 980 ft ) north of the interchange . The freeway continues travelling south through the developing outer metropolitan suburbs of Atwell and Aubin Grove , east of the freeway , and Success and Hammond Park , west of the freeway . Here it connects to Russell Road and Gibbs Road via a diamond interchange after 3 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , and to Rowley Road after a further 2 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) .
= = = South of Rowley Road = = =
South of the Rowley Road diamond interchange , development is sparse , except in Bertram , southwest of the Thomas Road interchange . The freeway progresses through swampy rural land for 3 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , passing by Lake Balmanup in Wandi on its way to the diamond interchange at Anketell Road . The Kwinana Freeway continues south along the edge of Jandakot Regional Park , near to The Spectacles Wetlands , reaching Thomas Road after another 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) . The Mandurah rail line deviates from the freeway median 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) north of the interchange , thereafter travelling south @-@ west towards Rockingham . From Thomas Road to the next interchange at Mortimer Road , 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) further south , the land to the west of the freeway in Bertram has been developed into a residential area . After the latter interchange , development again becomes sparse , as the freeway travels south near swampland and bodies of water , including Folly Pool and Maramanup Pool . The next interchanges are with Mundijong Road after 4 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) , Safety Bay Road after another 3 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 4 mi ) , and Karnup Road following a further 5 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) . There is a pocket of newly developed urban land near Safety Bay Road , south of the freeway .
South of Karnup Road , the following two interchanges are constructed as dogbone interchanges , which use roundabouts instead of traffic lights to control the intersections between ramps . The Kwinana Freeway follows the Serpentine River southwards , with no interchanges for 7 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 6 mi ) . At this point , there is an interchange with Paganoni Road to the west and Vine Road to the east . After 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) the freeway leaves the Perth Metropolitan Region , and encounters the next interchange with Lymon Road and Mandjoogoordap Drive . Lymon Road provides access to Stake Hill , whilst Mandjoogoordap Drive is a controlled access route into Mandurah . Following this interchange , the freeway turns south @-@ east , where it encounters a diamond interchange with Lakes Road after 4 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) . The freeway ends 7 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) further south , at the Pinjarra Road folded diamond interchange in Ravenswood . The road , and State Route 2 , continue south as Forrest Highway towards Bunbury .
= = History = =
The Kwinana Freeway began as a proposed controlled @-@ access road to link the Narrows Bridge in Perth with the developing area of Kwinana . Planning began in 1954 , after the concept had been announced by the Acting @-@ Premier John Tonkin on 24 July 1953 . The original route travelled through South Perth to Canning Highway , and included a new bridge over the Canning River . The planned route was later adjusted so that it crossed the river further south , due to the expected traffic volume , and difficulties in construction and traffic management at the existing Canning River Bridge .
= = = Initial construction = = =
In 1956 , the Western Australian State Government decided to construct the first section of the freeway , between the Narrows Bridge and Canning Highway . An extension was planned to be constructed seven years later . This first stage was built alongside the Swan River , on the edge of South Perth . Undeveloped land was used where possible , and the edge of the river was filled in at various points . Access to the river was maintained via five pedestrian bridges over the freeway , leading to the existing Como Beach and Jetty , and new areas on the river foreshore created during the project . A significant change to the foreshore was the relocation of the South of Perth Yacht Club . In 1960 , the club moved from the Canning River 's eastern shore , at Olives Reserve in Como , to Coffee Point in Applecross , on the western shore . The termination of the Kwinana Freeway at Canning Highway meant that the highway would be part of the main link between Perth and Kwinana , along with the freeway and Stock Road . Therefore , Canning Highway was upgraded to a dual carriageway . The upgrade works included the construction of a new bridge across the Canning River , next to the existing bridge , built in 1938 . This allowed for six lanes of traffic on Canning Highway . Construction of this stage was completed in 1959 , before the establishment of the Environmental Protection Authority ( EPA ) in 1971 . In 1974 , this first section was described by the EPA as " environmental desecration " . This was primarily due to the public being denied access to the foreshore environment . Pedestrian overpasses were described as ineffective for " obvious physical [ and ] psychological reasons " , and the impact on the riverfront was described as a " blight which has descended there " .
= = = First extension = = =
The first major work on the freeway after it opened was the construction of a new interchange in South Perth in the 1970s . The interchange included a complicated bridge design , which began at Judd Street , crossed over the freeway , and curved down to join the northbound carriageway . The $ 2 @.@ 7 million interchange was opened on 13 December 1976 by the Minister for Works , Ray O 'Connor . This was followed by a southern extension , which would be constructed alongside the environmentally sensitive area surrounding Canning River . Preparation work included an extensive study on the effects on the environment and community , the most detailed to be undertaken in Western Australia thus far . The EPA recommended abandoning the concept of a freeway , for both the existing road and the first extension , to restore accessibility to the foreshore . The Main Roads Department disagreed that a lower standard at @-@ grade road would be sufficient , as large volumes of traffic were forecast , and any pedestrian access would be " extremely dangerous " . Main Roads contended that a grade separated road would be the safest and most efficient option for both pedestrian and vehicles . A botanical report on the extension found that no unique species or ecological unit would be under threat from the proposal , and the Swan River Conservation Board had no objections . The extension was then approved by the State Government in 1974 , and by the Federal Government in 1975 .
As part of the extension project , construction began in 1976 on the Canning Interchange at Canning Highway . This interchange included a flyover bridge from Manning Road , which utilised a curved design similar to the South Perth Interchange bridge . The Canning Interchange opened on 19 July 1979 . Construction works south of the interchange began in 1979 . The freeway was initially planned to terminate at Leach Highway , but was extended as far as South Street , at the request of the Melville City Council . The council wanted the extra length of freeway to alleviate congestion on its local roads , and contributed $ 600 @,@ 000 to expedite the construction . This stage included construction of the Mount Henry Bridge across the Canning River . As of 1997 , it is Western Australia 's longest bridge , at a length of 660 metres ( 720 yd ) . The 6 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) , $ 35 @.@ 8 million extension was opened on 9 May 1982 by Ray O 'Connor , then Premier of Western Australia . Additional works undertaken to prepare for the opening included widening the existing stretch of freeway to three lanes in each direction , and reconfiguring the Narrows Bridge to include an additional central lane , reversible during peak traffic flows .
= = = Further extensions = = =
For the next stage of the freeway , an extension south to Thomas Road , multiple routes were investigated . The preferred route was selected based on the least impact from a combination of engineering , social , and environmental factors . The environmental factors considered were conservation areas associated with Thompsons Lake , west of the alignment , three " good quality " wetlands along the alignment , as well as patches of vegetation that were considered " nothing special " . The conservation of these areas and associated vegetation was considered desirable . This extension was completed in two stages . The first was a 7 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) extension to Forrest Road , which opened on 12 December 1991 , at a cost of $ 36 @.@ 7 million . Subsequently , the freeway was extended a further 11 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) to Thomas Road . Main Roads looked for opportunities to improve the environment during the planning of this segment . These included the establishment of a protected strip of vegetation alongside the freeway , and the preservation or enhancement of remnant wetlands under threat from urban expansion . The main negative impacts of construction would be controlled through vegetation reinstatement and drainage management plans , as well as the use of " standard techniques " for preventing pollution , which was recognised as a severe environmental impact . The proposed route had the least environmental consequences compared with viable alternatives , and was the Department of Environment and Conservation 's preferred route . The impact on wetlands was further investigated by the EPA in 1992 . The EPA estimated that 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) of wetland habitat would be lost , including 20 hectares ( 49 acres ) with conservation status . The EPA 's report concluded that the alignment was not ideal from an environmental standpoint , but recognised the social importance of constructing the freeway , which would facilitate development of the area . The authority was satisfied that the project 's environmental repercussions could be managed , with the key recommendation of replacing the function of impacted wetlands . This $ 31 million section had three at @-@ grade traffic light controlled intersections , which were designed to be replaced by grade separated interchanges . Intersections were used to avoid delaying the extension , as Main Roads Western Australia considered the $ 30 million cost for interchanges to be prohibitively expensive . The extension opened on 11 September 1994 ; the Town of Kwinana contributed $ 1 million , per an agreement on completing the freeway prior to 1995 .
In 1988 , the State Planning Commission proposed defining a reservation for the extension of the Kwinana Freeway to the southern edge of Perth Metropolitan Region , north @-@ east of Mandurah . The northern and southern sections of the route were predetermined by factors including existing and proposed developments , power transmission lines , the location of wetlands and the Serpentine River , and required setbacks from an explosives depot at Baldivis . A number of routes were investigated for the central section , between Mortimer Road and Stakehill Road . The EPA found all proposed routes acceptable , and that the preferred route minimised environmental impact . A report for a later stage regarded the approval for this section as lacking strict stipulations for the management of environmental impact , which was attributed to the assessment of the era not being subject to recent environmental regulations and scrutiny . A 12 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) extension along this alignment , to Safety Bay Road in Baldivis , was opened on 23 June 2001 by Premier Geoff Gallop . This project also included grade separation of the existing at @-@ grade intersections . The Kwinana Freeway Bus Transitway was completed soon afterwards , in February 2002 .
= = = New Perth Bunbury Highway = = =
Construction of an extension to the freeway , initially known as the " New Perth Bunbury Highway " , began in December 2006 . The project consisted of a 32 @-@ kilometre ( 20 mi ) freeway @-@ standard extension to Pinjarra Road and the Murray River at South Yunderup , and a 38 @-@ kilometre ( 24 mi ) highway @-@ standard dual carriageway to Old Coast Road at Lake Clifton . It had undergone an environmental assessment by the EPA in 2000 . Main Roads proposed management plans for each environmental factor identified by the EPA . Only clearing of vegetation critical for road construction would be undertaken , and more vegetation would be replaced than the amount impacted , using local native species . A flora survey found no rare species , and only one priority species , Lasiopetalum membranaceum , near the southern end of the project . Road construction would impact one conservation class wetland , but no protected wetlands . To minimise impact , road drainage would be designed to contain spills , and prevent direct discharges into the surrounding environment . Noise levels would be contained to an acceptable limit in the road design , in accordance with the Main Roads traffic noise policy . The EPA concluded that the road could be designed and managed to an acceptable standard . Main Roads ' 2006 plan for environmental management of the project included numerous aspects , described as best management practices , which for the northern segment of the project were beyond the environmental approval requirements . Specific plans were developed regarding fauna , vegetation , dieback and weeds , and revegetation and rehabilitation . Other areas with specific plans included topsoil management , drainage , construction ( covering dust , noise , and vibrations ) , foreshores , and both Aboriginal and European heritage . The actual road names were not known until early 2009 , when Transport Minister Simon O 'Brien revealed that the section south of Pinjarra Road would be known as Forrest Highway , with the section to the north to become part of the Kwinana Freeway . The route bypasses Mandurah by taking traffic around the eastern side of the Peel @-@ Harvey Estuary prior to joining the existing dual carriageway on Old Coast Road , reducing the journey time from Perth to Bunbury . The Kwinana Freeway extension and Forrest Highway were opened on 20 September 2009 , with a ceremony held at the interchange between the freeway , highway , and Pinjarra Road . The roads were officially opened by Premier Colin Barnett , Senator Chris Evans , Transport Minister Simon O 'Brien , Member for Canning Don Randall , and the previous Transport Minister Alannah MacTiernan .
= = = Bus transitway = = =
Dedicated bus lanes have existed on the Kwinana Freeway since the late 1980s , when a project was set up to decrease bus commuters ' travel times into Perth from suburbs south of the Swan River . In 1987 , Main Roads Western Australia and Transperth trialled a contraflow bus lane along the Kwinana Freeway , from the Canning Interchange to the Narrows Interchange . The lane operated between 7 : 00 am and 9 : 30 am , the period with the most traffic congestion on the freeway . After two months , the results were examined , and the agencies decided to build an additional bus lane on the northbound carriageway . The construction included bus @-@ only ramps at the beginning and end of the lane . The works were mainly funded by Transperth , which contributed $ 8 @.@ 22 million out of the $ 10 @.@ 23 million total cost . The remaining $ 2 @.@ 01 million was provided by Main Roads Western Australia . The bus lane opened on 20 November 1989 , and received an Institute of Engineers award for engineering excellence .
In 1999 , the state government announced that a two way bus transitway would be built in the Kwinana Freeway median , to link Perth 's Esplanade Busport with the Murdoch station at South Street . Construction of the first stage , between the Narrows Interchange and Canning Interchange , began in September 2000 , and was completed in February 2002 . The bus transitway was replaced by the Mandurah railway line , constructed in the freeway median between May 2004 and December 2007 . After rail services commenced , most freeway bus services ceased ; however , dedicated ramps and short priority lanes remain for bus services between Canning Highway and Perth .
= = = 2005 flooding = = =
During the afternoon on 13 May 2005 , a water pipe burst near the southbound Mill Point Road entrance ramp in South Perth , releasing 7 megalitres ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water and 60 tonnes ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) of sand . This caused widespread flooding in the area , submerged the southbound lanes of the freeway , and collapsed the ramp . There was traffic gridlock in the city and much of the metropolitan area , lasting throughout the afternoon and into the night . Repairs to the entrance ramp took more than a week to be completed .
= = = Widening = = =
In March 2011 , it was announced that the Kwinana Freeway between Leach Highway and Roe Highway would be widened from two to three lanes in each direction . The $ 58 million project was brought forward to ease increased congestion on this part of the freeway . Construction began in July 2011 , with completion scheduled for May 2012 . The new southbound lane opened on 1 June 2012 . On 20 December 2012 , the State Transport Minister Troy Buswell , with Federal MP Gary Gray and State MLA for Riverton Mike Nahan , officially opened the northbound lane . By May 2013 , all major construction works had been completed , including a pedestrian underpass at South Street , a new carpark and access road for Murdoch railway station , and noise walls . Remaining landscaping works were expected to be finalised in September 2013 , and the whole projected had been completed by mid @-@ October .
= = Future works = =
Widening of the Kwinana Freeway with an extra southbound lane between Roe Highway and Armadale Road began in mid @-@ 2014 . The project aims to increase the freeway 's reliability , efficiency , and safety , as the current two @-@ lane configuration is subject to a large proportion of heavy vehicles and severe peak hour congestion . The project also involves the realignment of ramps at Berrigan Drive and Armadale Road , construction of noise barriers and noise walls where required , and installation of components for intelligent transport systems – optic fibre communications , vehicle detection devices , and closed circuit cameras .
There are preliminary plans for a southbound entrance ramp from the Manning Road interchange . The land requirements have been included on the Perth Metropolitan Region Scheme ; however , the project is not a State Government priority , and no funds have been allocated for its design or construction . The City of South Perth considers the ramp a " major priority " that would increase its road network connectivity , reduce traffic congestion , and improve commuter safety . In 2001 , the City estimated the construction cost to be $ 1 @.@ 77 million .
= = Interchanges = =
= The Clash =
The Clash were an English punk rock band that formed in 1976 as part of the original wave of British punk . Along with punk , their music incorporated elements of reggae , dub , funk , ska and rockabilly . For most of their recording career the Clash consisted of Joe Strummer ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) , Mick Jones ( lead guitar , lead vocals ) , Paul Simonon ( bass guitar , vocals ) and Nicky " Topper " Headon ( drums , percussion ) . Headon left the group in 1982 , and internal friction led to Jones 's departure the following year . The group continued with new members , but finally disbanded in early 1986 .
The Clash achieved commercial success in the United Kingdom with the release of their debut album , The Clash , in 1977 . Their third album , London Calling , released in the UK in December 1979 , earned them popularity in the United States when it was released there the following month . It was declared the best album of the 1980s a decade later by Rolling Stone magazine . In 1982 they reached new heights of success with the release of Combat Rock , which spawned the US top 10 hit " Rock the Casbah " , helping the album to achieve a 2 × Platinum certification there . Their final album , Cut the Crap , was released in 1985 .
The Clash 's politicised lyrics , musical experimentation , and rebellious attitude had a far @-@ reaching influence on rock , and alternative rock in particular . They became widely referred to as " The Only Band That Matters " , originally a promotional slogan introduced by the group 's record label , CBS . In January 2003 , shortly after the death of Joe Strummer , the band — including original drummer Terry Chimes — were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked the Clash number 28 on their list of the 100 greatest artists of all time .
Critic Sean Egan summarised what made them exceptional by writing , " They were a group whose music was , and is , special to their audience because that music insisted on addressing the conditions of poverty , petty injustice , and mundane life experienced by the people who bought their records . Moreover , although their rebel stances were often no more than posturing , from the Clash 's stubborn principles came a fundamental change in the perception of what is possible in the music industry , from subject matter to authenticity to quality control to price ceilings . "
= = History = =
= = = Origins : 1974 – 76 = = =
Before the Clash 's founding , the band 's future members were active in different parts of the London music scene . John Graham Mellor sang and played rhythm guitar in the pub rock act the 101'ers , which formed in 1974 . By the time the Clash came together two years later , he had already abandoned his original stage name , " Woody " Mellor , in favour of " Joe Strummer " , a reference to his rudimentary strumming skills on the ukulele as a busker in the London Underground . Mick Jones played guitar in protopunk band London SS , which rehearsed for much of 1975 without ever playing a live show and recording only a single demo . London SS was managed by Bernard Rhodes , a sometime associate of impresario Malcolm McLaren and a friend of the members of the McLaren managed band , the Sex Pistols . Jones and his bandmates became friendly with Sex Pistols Glen Matlock and Steve Jones , who would assist them as they tried out potential new members . Among those who auditioned for London SS without making the cut were Paul Simonon , who tried out as a vocalist , and drummer Terry Chimes . Nicky Headon drummed with the band for a week , then quit . After London SS broke up in early 1976 , Rhodes continued as Jones 's manager . In February , Jones saw the Sex Pistols perform for the first time : " You knew straight away that was it , and this was what it was going to be like from now on . It was a new scene , new values — so different from what had happened before . A bit dangerous . " At the instigation of Rhodes , Jones contacted Simonon in March , suggesting he learn an instrument so he could join the new band Jones was organising . Soon Jones , Simonon on bass , Keith Levene on guitar and " whoever we could find really to play the drums " were rehearsing . Chimes was asked to audition for the new band and got the job , although he soon quit .
The band was still searching for a lead singer . Chimes recalls one Billy Watts ( who " seemed to be , like , nineteen or eighteen then , as we all were " ) handling the duties for a time . Rhodes had his eye on Strummer , with whom he made exploratory contact . Jones and Levene had both seen him perform and were impressed as well . Strummer , for his part , was primed to make the switch . In April , he had taken in the opening act for one of his band 's gigs — the Sex Pistols . " I knew something was up , " Strummer later explained :
" So I went out in the crowd which was fairly sparse . And I saw the future — with a snotty handkerchief — right in front of me . It was immediately clear . Pub rock was , ' Hello , you bunch of drunks , I 'm gonna play these boogies and I hope you like them . ' The Pistols came out that Tuesday evening and their attitude was , ' Here 's our tunes , and we couldn 't give a flying fuck whether you like them or not . In fact , we 're gonna play them even if you fucking hate them . ' "
On 30 May , Rhodes and Levene met surreptitiously with Strummer after a 101'ers gig . Strummer was invited to meet up at the band 's rehearsal location on Davis Road . After Strummer turned up , Levene grabbed his guitar , stood several inches away from Strummer , looked him in the eye and then began playing " Keys to Your Heart , " one of Strummer 's own tunes .
Rhodes gave him 48 hours to decide whether he wanted to join the new band that would " rival the Pistols " . Within 24 hours , Strummer agreed . Simonon later remarked , " Once we had Joe on board it all started to come together . " Strummer introduced the band to his old school friend Pablo LaBritain , who sat in on drums during Strummer 's first few rehearsals with the group . LaBritain 's stint with the band didn 't last long ( he subsequently joined 999 ) , and Terry Chimes — whom Jones later referred to as " one of the best drummers " in their circle — became the band 's regular drummer . In Westway to the World , Jones also says , " I don 't think Terry was officially hired or anything . He had just been playing with us . " Chimes did not take to Strummer at first : " He was like twenty @-@ two or twenty @-@ three or something that seemed ' old ' to me then . And he had these retro clothes and this croaky voice " . Simonon came up with the band 's name after they had briefly dubbed themselves the Weak Heartdrops and the Psychotic Negatives . He later explained the name 's origin : " It really came to my head when I started reading the newspapers and a word that kept recurring was the word ' clash ' , so I thought ' the Clash , what about that , ' to the others . And they and Bernard , they went for it . "
= = = Early gigs and the growing scene : 1976 = = =
After rehearsing with Strummer for less than a month , the Clash made their debut on 4 July 1976 , supporting the Sex Pistols at the Black Swan in Sheffield . The band apparently wanted to make it on @-@ stage before their rivals in the Damned — another London SS spinoff — made their own scheduled debut two days later . The Clash would not play in front of an audience again for another five weeks . Levene was becoming disaffected with his position in the group . At the Black Swan , he approached the Sex Pistols ' lead singer , John Lydon ( then going by Johnny Rotten ) , and suggested they get a band together if the Pistols ever broke up .
The night after their debut , the band members along with most of the Sex Pistols and much of the rest of London 's " inner circle " of punks showed up at Dingwalls club to attend a concert by New York 's leading punk rock band , the Ramones . Afterward " came the first example of the rivalry @-@ induced squabbling that was to dog the punk scene and undermine any attempts to promote a spirit of unity among the bands involved . " Simonon got into a scuffle with J.J. Burnel , the bass player of the Stranglers . A slightly older band , the Stranglers were publicly identified with the punk scene , but were not part of the " inner circle " centred on the Sex Pistols .
With Rhodes insisting that the band not perform live again until they were much tighter , the Clash rehearsed intensely over the following month . Strummer later described how seriously the band devoted itself to forging a distinct identity : " We were almost Stalinist in the way that you had to shed all your friends , or everything that you 'd known , or every way that you 'd played before . " Strummer and Jones shared most of the writing duties — " Joe would give me the words and I would make a song out of them " , Jones later said . Sometimes they would meet in the office over their Camden rehearsal studio to collaborate directly . According to a later description of Strummer 's , " Bernie [ Rhodes ] would say , ' An issue , an issue . Don 't write about love , write about what 's affecting you , what 's important . "
Strummer took the lead vocals on the majority of songs ; in some cases he and Jones shared the lead . Once the band began recording , Jones would rarely have a solo lead on more than one song per album , though he would be responsible for two of the group 's biggest hits . On 13 August , the Clash — sporting a paint @-@ spattered " Jackson Pollock " look — played before a small , invitation @-@ only audience in their Camden studio . Among those in attendance was Sounds critic Giovanni Dadamo . His review described the band as a " runaway train ... so powerful , they 're the first new group to come along who can really scare the Sex Pistols shitless " .
On 29 August , the Clash and Manchester 's Buzzcocks opened for the Sex Pistols at The Screen on the Green — the Clash 's first public performance since 4 July . The triple bill is seen as pivotal to the British punk scene 's crystallisation into a movement , though NME reviewer Charles Shaar Murray wrote , " The Clash are the sort of garage band that should be speedily returned to the garage , preferably with the motor still running " . Strummer later credited Murray 's comments with inspiring the band 's composition " Garageland " .
In early September , Levene was fired from the Clash . Strummer would claim that Levene 's dwindling interest in the band owed to his supposedly extravagant use of speed , a charge Levene has denied . Levene and Lydon would form Public Image Ltd. in 1978 . On 21 September , the Clash performed publicly for the first time without Levene at another seminal concert : the 100 Club Punk Special , sharing the bill with the Sex Pistols , Siouxsie and the Banshees and Subway Sect . Chimes left in late November ; he was briefly replaced by Rob Harper as the Clash toured in support of the Sex Pistols during December 's Anarchy Tour .
= = = Punk outbreak and UK fame : 1977 – 79 = = =
By the turn of the year , punk had become a major media phenomenon in the UK . On 25 January 1977 , the Clash signed to CBS Records for £ 100 @,@ 000 , a remarkable amount for a band that had played a total of about thirty gigs and almost none as a headliner . As Clash historian Marcus Gray describes , the " band members found themselves having to justify [ the deal ] to both the music press and to fans who picked up on the critics ' muttered asides about the Clash having ' sold out ' to the establishment . " Mark Perry , founder of the leading London punk periodical , Sniffin ' Glue , let loose with what he would later call his " big quote " : " Punk died the day the Clash signed to CBS . " As one band associate described it , the deal " was later used as a classic example of the kind of contract that no group should ever sign — the group had to pay for their own tours , recordings , remixes , artwork , expenses ... "
Mickey Foote , who worked as a technician at their concerts , was hired to produce the Clash 's debut album , and Terry Chimes was drafted back for the recording . The band 's first single , " White Riot " , was released in March 1977 and reached number 34 . The album , The Clash , came out the following month . Filled with fiery punk tracks , it also presaged the many eclectic turns the band would take with its cover of the reggae song " Police and Thieves " . " [ A ] midst the Sex Pistols ' inertia in the first half of 1977 , the Clash found themselves as the flag @-@ wavers of the punk rock consciousness " , according to music journalist and former punk musician John Robb . Though the album charted well in the UK , climbing to number 12 , CBS refused to give it a US release , believing that its raw , barely produced sound would make it unsalable in that market . A North American version of the album with a modified track listing was released in 1979 , after the UK original became the best @-@ selling import album of the year in the United States .
Chimes , whose career aspirations owed little to the punk ethos , had left the band again soon after the recording sessions . He later said , " The point was I wanted one kind of life and they wanted another and , like , why are we working together , if we want completely different things ? " As a result , only Simonon , Jones and Strummer were featured on the album 's cover , and Chimes was credited as " Tory Crimes " . Strummer later described what followed : " We must have tried every drummer that then had a kit . I mean every drummer in London . I think we counted 205 . And that 's why we were lost until we found Topper Headon . " Headon , who had played briefly with Jones 's London SS , was nicknamed " Topper " by Simonon , who felt he resembled the Topper comic book character Mickey the Monkey . An excellent musician , Headon could also play piano , bass and guitar . The day after he signed up , he declared , " I really wanted to join the Clash . I want to give them even more energy than they 've got — if that 's possible " ; interviewed over two decades later , he said his original plan was to stay briefly , gain a name for himself , and then move on to a better gig . In any event , Strummer later observed , " Finding someone who not only had the chops , but the strength and the stamina to do it was just the breakthrough for us " .
In May , the band set out on the White Riot Tour , headlining a punk package that included the Buzzcocks , Subway Sect , the Slits and the Prefects . The day after a Newcastle gig , Strummer and Headon were arrested for stealing pillowcases from their hotel room . That same month , CBS released " Remote Control " as the debut LP 's second single , defying the wishes of the band , who saw it as one of the album 's weakest tracks . Headon 's first recording with the band was the single " Complete Control " , which addressed the band 's anger at their record label 's behaviour . It was co @-@ produced by famed reggae artist Lee " Scratch " Perry , though Foote was summoned to " ground things " a bit and the result was pure punk rock . Released in September 1977 — NME noted how CBS allowed the group to " bait their masters " — it rose to number 28 on the British chart and has gone on to be cited as one of punk 's greatest singles . In February 1978 , the band came out with the single " Clash City Rockers " . June saw the release of " ( White Man ) In Hammersmith Palais " , which surprised fans with its ska rhythm and arrangement .
Before the Clash began recording their second album , CBS requested that they adopt a cleaner sound than its predecessor in order to reach American audiences . Sandy Pearlman , known for his work with Blue Öyster Cult , was hired to produce
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the record . Simonon later recalled , " [ R ] ecording that album was just the most boring situation ever . It was just so nitpicking , such a contrast to the first album ... it ruined any spontaneity . " Strummer agreed that " it wasn 't our easiest session . " Although some listeners complained about its relatively mainstream production style , Give ' Em Enough Rope received largely positive reviews upon its November release . It hit number 2 in the UK , but it was not the American breakthrough CBS had hoped for , reaching only number 128 on the Billboard chart . The album 's first UK single , the hard rocking " Tommy Gun " , rose to number 19 , the highest chart position for a Clash single to date . In support of the album , the band toured the UK supported by the Slits and the Innocents . The series of concerts — there were more than thirty , from Edinburgh to Portsmouth — was promoted as the Sort It Out Tour . The band subsequently undertook its first , largely successful tour of North America in February 1979 .
= = = Changing style and US breakthrough : 1979 – 82 = = =
In August and September 1979 , the Clash recorded London Calling . Produced by Guy Stevens , a former A & R executive who had worked with Mott the Hoople and Traffic , the double album was a mix of punk rock , reggae , ska , rockabilly , traditional rock and roll and other elements possessed of an energy that had hardly flagged since the band 's early days and more polished production . It is regarded as one of the greatest rock albums ever recorded . Its final track , a relatively straightforward rock and roll number sung by Mick Jones called " Train in Vain " , was included at the last minute and thus did not appear in the track listing on the cover . It became their first US Top 40 hit , peaking at number 23 on the Billboard chart . In the UK , where " Train in Vain " was not released as a single , London Calling 's title track , stately in beat but unmistakably punk in message and tone , rose to number 11 — the highest position any Clash single reached in the UK before the band 's break @-@ up .
Released in December , London Calling hit number 9 on the British chart ; in the United States , where it was issued in January 1980 , it reached number 27 . The cover of the album , based on the cover of Elvis Presley 's self @-@ titled 1956 debut LP , became one of the best known in the history of rock . Its image , by photographer Pennie Smith , of Simonon smashing his bass guitar was later cited as the " best rock ' n roll photograph of all time " by Q magazine . During this period , the Clash began to be regularly billed as " The Only Band That Matters " . Musician Gary Lucas , then employed by CBS Records ' creative services department , claims to have coined the tagline . The epithet was soon widely adopted by fans and music journalists .
Around the turn of the year , the band members attended a special private screening of a new film , Rude Boy ; part fiction , part rockumentary , it tells the story of a Clash fan who leaves his job in a Soho sex shop to become a roadie for the group . The movie — named after the rude boy subculture — includes footage of the band on tour , at a London Rock Against Racism concert , and in the studio recording Give ' Em Enough Rope . The band was so disenchanted with it that they had Better Badges make buttons that declared " I don 't want RUDE BOY Clash Film " . On 27 February 1980 , it premiered at the 30th Berlin International Film Festival , where it won an honourable mention .
The Clash had planned to record and release a single every month in 1980 . CBS balked at this idea , and the band came out with only one single — an original reggae tune , " Bankrobber " , in August — before the December release of the 3 @-@ LP , 36 @-@ song Sandinista ! The album again reflected a broad range of musical styles , including extended dubs and the first forays into rap by a major rock band . Produced by the band members with the participation of Jamaican reggae artist Mikey Dread , Sandinista ! was their most controversial album to date , both politically and musically . Critical opinion was divided , often within individual reviews . Trouser Press 's Ira Robbins described half the album as " great " , half as " nonsense " and worse . In the New Rolling Stone Record Guide , Dave Marsh argued , " Sandinista ! is nonsensically cluttered . Or rather seems nonsensically cluttered . One of the Clash 's principal concerns ... is to avoid being stereotyped . " The album fared well in America , charting at number 24 .
In 1981 , the band came out with a single , " This Is Radio Clash " , that further demonstrated their ability to mix diverse influences such as dub and hip hop . They set to work on their fifth album in September , originally planning it as a 2 @-@ LP set with the title Rat Patrol from Fort Bragg . Jones produced one cut , but the other members were dissatisfied . Production duties were handed to Glyn Johns , and the album was reconceived as a single LP , and released as Combat Rock in May 1982 . Though filled with offbeat songs , experiments with sound collage , and a spoken word vocal by Beat poet Allen Ginsberg , it contained two " radio friendly " tracks . The leadoff single in the US was " Should I Stay or Should I Go " , released in June 1982 . Another Jones feature in a rock and roll style similar to " Train in Vain " , it received heavy airplay on AOR stations . The follow @-@ up , " Rock the Casbah " , put lyrics addressing the Iranian clampdown on imports of Western music to a bouncy dance rhythm . ( The singles were released in the opposite order in the UK , where they were both preceded by " Know Your Rights " . ) The music for " Rock the Casbah " was composed by Headon , who performed not only the percussion but also the piano and bass heard on the recorded version . It was the band 's biggest US hit ever , charting at number 8 , and the video was put into heavy rotation by MTV . The album itself was the band 's most successful , hitting number 2 in the UK and number 7 in the US .
= = = Disintegration and break up : 1982 – 86 = = =
After Combat Rock , the Clash began to disintegrate . Headon was asked to leave the band just before the album 's release because heroin addiction was damaging his health and drumming . Chimes was brought back to drum for the next few months . The loss of Headon , well @-@ liked by the others , exposed growing friction within the band . Jones and Strummer began to feud . The band opened for the Who on a leg of their final tour in the US , including a show at New York 's Shea Stadium .
Though the Clash continued to tour , tension continued to increase . In early 1983 , Chimes left the band after the Combat Rock Tour because of in @-@ fighting and turmoil . He was replaced by Pete Howard for the US Festival in San Bernardino , California , which the Clash co @-@ headlined , along with David Bowie and Van Halen . The band argued with the event 's promoters over inflated ticket prices , threatening to pull out unless a large donation was made to a local charity . The group ultimately performed on 28 May , the festival 's New Music Day , which drew a crowd of 140 @,@ 000 . After the show , members of the band brawled with security staff . This was Jones ' last appearance with the group : in September 1983 , he was fired . Shortly thereafter , he became a founding member of General Public , but left that band as they were recording their first album .
Nick Sheppard , formerly of the Bristol @-@ based band the Cortinas , and Vince White were recruited as the Clash 's new guitarists . Howard continued as the drummer . The reconstituted band played its first shows in January 1984 with a batch of new material and launched into the self @-@ financed Out of Control Tour , travelling widely over the winter and into early summer . At a striking miners ' benefit show ( " Scargill 's Christmas Party " ) in December 1984 , they announced that a new album would be released early in the new year .
The recording sessions for Cut the Crap were chaotic , with manager Bernard Rhodes and Strummer working in Munich . Most of the music was played by studio musicians , with Sheppard and later White flying in to provide guitar parts . Struggling with Rhodes for control of the band , Strummer returned home . The band went on a busking tour of public spaces in cities throughout the UK , playing acoustic versions of their hits and popular cover tunes .
After a concert in Athens , Strummer went to Spain to clear his mind . While he was abroad , the first single from Cut the Crap , the mournful " This Is England " , was released to mostly negative reviews . " CBS had paid an advance for it so they had to put it out " , Strummer later explained . " I just went , ' Well fuck this ' , and fucked off to the mountains of Spain to sit sobbing under a palm tree , while Bernie had to deliver a record . " However , critic Dave Marsh later championed " This Is England " as one of the top 1001 rock singles of all time . The single has also received retroactive praise from Q magazine and others .
" This Is England " , much like the rest of the album that came out later that year , had been drastically re @-@ engineered by Rhodes , with synths and football @-@ style chants added to Strummer 's incomplete recordings . Although Howard was an adept drummer , drum machines were used for virtually all of the percussion tracks . For the remainder of his life , Strummer largely disowned the album , although he did profess that " I really like ' This Is England ' [ and album track ] ' North and South ' is a vibe . " In early 1986 , the Clash disbanded . Strummer later described the group 's end : " When the Clash collapsed , we were tired . There had been a lot of intense activity in five years . Secondly , I felt we 'd run out of idea gasoline . And thirdly , I wanted to shut up and let someone else have a go at it . "
This period of disintegration which feature interviews with members of the Clash is the subject matter of Danny Garcia 's book and film , The Rise and Fall of the Clash .
= = = Collaborations and reunions : 1986 – present = = =
After the break @-@ up , Strummer contacted Jones in an effort to reform the Clash . Jones , however , had already formed a new band , Big Audio Dynamite ( B.A.D. ) , that had released its debut late in 1985 . The two did work together on their respective 1986 projects . Jones helped out with the two songs Strummer wrote and performed for the Sid and Nancy soundtrack . Strummer , in turn , cowrote a number of the tracks on the second B.A.D. album , No. 10 , Upping St. , which he also co @-@ produced . With Jones committed to B.A.D. , Strummer moved on to various solo projects and screen acting work . Simonon formed a band called Havana 3am . Headon recorded a solo album , before once again spiraling into drug abuse . Chimes drummed with a succession of different acts .
On 2 March 1991 , a reissue of " Should I Stay or Should I Go " gave the Clash its first and only number 1 UK single . That same year , Strummer reportedly cried when he learned that " Rock the Casbah " had been adopted as a slogan by US bomber pilots in the Gulf War .
In 1999 , Strummer , Jones and Simonon cooperated in compiling of the live album From Here to Eternity and video documentary Westway to the World . On 7 November 2002 , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame announced that the Clash would be inducted the following March . On 15 November , Jones and Strummer shared the stage , performing three Clash songs during a London benefit show by Joe Strummer and the Mescaleros . Strummer , Jones and Headon wanted to play a reunion show to coincide with their induction into the Hall of Fame . Simonon did not want to participate because he believed that playing at the high @-@ priced event would not have been in the spirit of the Clash . Strummer 's sudden death from a congenital heart defect on 22 December 2002 ended any possibility of a full reunion . In March 2003 , the Hall of Fame induction took place ; the band members inducted were Strummer , Jones , Simonon , Chimes and Headon .
In early 2008 , Carbon / Silicon , a new band founded by Mick Jones and his former London SS bandmate Tony James , entered into a six @-@ week residency at London 's Inn on the Green . On opening night , 11 January , Headon joined the band for the Clash 's " Train in Vain " . An encore followed with Headon playing drums on " Should I Stay or Should I Go " . This was the first time since 1982 that Headon and Jones had performed together on stage .
Jones and Headon reunited in September 2009 to record the 1970s Clash B @-@ side " Jail Guitar Doors " with Billy Bragg . The song is the namesake of a charity founded by Bragg which gives musical instruments and lessons to prison inmates . Jones , Headon , and Bragg were backed by former inmates during the session , which was filmed for a documentary about the charity , " Breaking Rocks . " Simonon and Jones were featured on the title track of the Gorillaz album Plastic Beach in 2010 . This reunion marked the first time the two performers had worked together in over twenty years . They later joined Gorillaz on their world tour for the remainder of 2010 .
In July 2012 , Strummer 's daughters , Jazz and Lola , gave a rare interview to discuss the upcoming tenth anniversary of their father 's passing , his legacy and the possibility of a Clash reunion had their father lived . Jazz said " There was talk about the Clash reforming before he died . But there had been talk for years and years about them reforming . They had been offered stupid amounts of money to do it , but they were very good at keeping the moral high ground and saying no . But I think if Dad hadn 't died , it would have happened . It felt like it was in the air . "
On 9 September 2013 in the UK ( and a day later in the US ) , the Clash released Sound System , a twelve @-@ disc box set featuring their studio albums completely re @-@ mastered on eight discs with an additional three discs featuring demos , non @-@ album singles , rarities and B @-@ sides , a DVD with previously unseen footage by both Don Letts and Julien Temple , original promo videos and live footage , an owner 's manual booklet , reprints of the band 's original ' Armagideon Times ' fanzine as well as a brand new edition curated and designed by Paul Simonon and merchandise including dog tags , badges , stickers and an exclusive Clash poster . Both Mick Jones and Paul Simonon oversaw the project including the re @-@ masters . The box set came in a package shaped as an 80s ghetto blaster . The box set was accompanied by 5 Album Studio Set , which contains only the first five studio albums ( excluding Cut the Crap ) , and The Clash Hits Back , a 33 @-@ track , two @-@ CD best of collection sequenced to copy the set played by the band at the Brixton Fair Deal ( now the Academy ) on 19 July 1982 .
In a 3 September 2013 interview with Rolling Stone , Mick Jones discussed the band reuniting saying it likely would have never happened . Jones said " There were a few moments at the time I was up for it ( Hall of Fame reunion in 2003 ) , Joe was up for it . Paul wasn 't . And neither , probably , was Topper , who didn 't wind up even coming in the end . It didn 't look like a performance was going to happen anyway . I mean , you usually play at that ceremony when you get in . Joe had passed by that point , so we didn 't . We were never in agreement . It was never at a point where all of us wanted to do it at the same time . Most importantly for us , we became friends again after the group broke up , and continued that way for the rest of the time . That was more important to us than the band " . Jones also stated that the Sound System box set was the last time he will ever be involved in the band 's releases . " I 'm not even thinking about any more Clash releases . This is it for me , and I say that with an exclamation mark . " Jones said .
On 6 September 2013 the three surviving members of the classic lineup ( Mick Jones , Paul Simonon and Topper Headon ) reunited again for an exclusive BBC Radio 6 Music show to promote their legacy and the release of Sound System .
In an October 2013 interview with BBC 6Music , Jones confirmed that Strummer did have intentions of a Clash reunion and in fact new music was being written for a possible album . In the months prior to Strummer 's death , Jones and Strummer began working on new music for what he thought would be the next Mescaleros album . Jones said " We wrote a batch - we didn 't use to write one , we used to write a batch at a time - like gumbo . The idea was he was going to go into the studio with the Mescaleros during the day and then send them all home . I 'd come in all night and we 'd all work all night . " Jones said months had passed following their work together when he ran into Strummer at an event . Jones was curious as to what would become of the songs he and Strummer were working on and Strummer informed him that they were going to be used for the next Clash album .
= = Politics = =
The band 's music was often charged by a left @-@ wing political ideology . Strummer , in particular , was a committed left @-@ winger . The Clash are credited with pioneering the advocacy of radical politics in punk rock , and were dubbed the " Thinking Man 's Yobs " by NME . Like many early punk bands , the Clash protested against monarchy and aristocracy ; however , unlike many of their peers , they rejected nihilism . Instead , they found solidarity with a number of contemporary liberation movements and were involved with such groups as the Anti @-@ Nazi League . On 30 April 1978 , the Clash played the Rock Against Racism concert in London 's Victoria Park for a crowd of 50 – 100 @,@ 000 people ; Strummer wore a T @-@ shirt identifying two left @-@ wing terrorist groups : the words " Brigade [ sic ] Rosse " — Italy 's Red Brigades — appeared alongside the insignia of West Germany 's Red Army Faction .
Their politics were made explicit in the lyrics of such early recordings as " White Riot " , which encouraged disaffected white youths to riot like their black counterparts ; " Career Opportunities " , which addressed the alienation of low @-@ paid , routinised jobs and discontent over the lack of alternatives ; and " London 's Burning " , about the bleakness and boredom of life in the inner city . Artist Caroline Coon , who was associated with the punk scene , argued that " [ t ] hose tough , militaristic songs were what we needed as we went into Thatcherism " . The scope of the band 's political interests widened on later recordings .
The title of Sandinista ! celebrated the left @-@ wing rebels who had recently overthrown Nicaraguan despot Anastasio Somoza Debayle , and the album was filled with songs driven by other political issues extending far beyond British shores : " Washington Bullets " addressed covert military operations around the globe , while " The Call @-@ Up " was a meditation on US draft policies . Combat Rock 's " Straight to Hell " is described by scholars Simon Reynolds and Joy Press as an " around @-@ the @-@ world @-@ at @-@ war @-@ in @-@ five @-@ verses guided tour of hell @-@ zones where boy @-@ soldiers had languished . "
The band 's political sentiments were reflected in their resistance to the music industry 's usual profit motivations ; even at their peak , tickets to shows and souvenirs were reasonably priced . The group insisted that CBS sell their double and triple album sets London Calling and Sandinista ! for the price of a single album each ( then £ 5 ) , succeeding with the former and compromising with the latter by agreeing to sell it for £ 5 @.@ 99 and forfeit all their performance royalties on its first 200 @,@ 000 sales . These " VFM " ( value for money ) principles meant that they were constantly in debt to CBS , and only started to break even around 1982 .
= = Legacy and influence = =
In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked the Clash number 28 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time , and in 2010 , the band was ranked 22nd on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . According to The Times , the Clash 's debut , alongside Never Mind the Bollocks , Here 's the Sex Pistols , is " punk 's definitive statement " and London Calling " remains one of the most influential rock albums " . In Rolling Stone 's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , London Calling ranked number 8 , the highest entry by a punk band . The Clash was number 77 and Sandinista ! was number 404 . In the magazine 's 2004 list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , " London Calling " ranked number 15 , again the highest for any song by a punk band . Four other Clash songs made the list : " Should I Stay Or Should I Go " ( 228 ) , " Train in Vain " ( 292 ) , " Complete Control " ( 361 ) , and " White Man in Hammersmith Palais " ( 430 ) . " London Calling " ranked number 48 in the magazine 's 2008 list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time .
Jake Burns of Stiff Little Fingers , the first major punk band from Northern Ireland , explained the record 's impact :
[ T ] he big watershed was the Clash album — that was go out , cut your hair , stop mucking about time , y 'know . Up to that point we 'd still been singing about bowling down California highways . I mean , it meant nothing to me . Although the Damned and the Pistols were great , they were only exciting musically ; lyrically , I couldn 't really make out a lot if it ... [ T ] o realise that [ the Clash ] were actually singing about their own lives in West London was like a bolt out of the blue .
The Clash also inspired many musicians who were only loosely associated , if at all , with punk . The band 's embrace of ska , reggae and England 's Jamaican subculture helped provide the impetus for the 2 Tone movement that emerged amid the fallout of the punk explosion . Other musicians who began performing while the Clash were active and acknowledged their debt to the band include Billy Bragg and Aztec Camera . U2 's the Edge has compared the Clash 's inspirational effect to that of the Ramones — both gave young rock musicians at large the " sense that the door of possibility had swung open . " He wrote , " The Clash , more than any other group , kick @-@ started a thousand garage bands across Ireland and the UK ... [ S ] eeing them perform was a life @-@ changing experience . " Bono has described the Clash as " the greatest rock band . They wrote the rule book for U2 . "
In later years , the Clash 's influence can be heard in American political punk bands such as Rancid , Anti @-@ Flag , Bad Religion , NOFX , Green Day , and Rise Against as well as in the political hard rock of early Manic Street Preachers . California 's Rancid , in particular , are known as " incurable Clash zealots " . The title track of the band 's album Indestructible proclaims , " I 'll keep listening to that great Joe Strummer ! "
The Clash 's involvement with Jamaican musical and production styles has inspired similar cross @-@ cultural efforts by bands such as Bad Brains , Massive Attack , 311 , Sublime and No Doubt . They are credited with laying the groundwork for LCD Soundsystem 's " punk @-@ funk " . Jakob Dylan of the Wallflowers lists London Calling as the record that " changed his life " . Bands identified with the garage rock revival of the late 1990s and 2000s such as Sweden 's the Hives , Australia 's the Vines , Britain 's the Libertines , and America 's the White Stripes and the Strokes evince the Clash 's influence . Among the many latter @-@ day British acts identified as having been inspired by the Clash are Babyshambles , the Futureheads , the Charlatans and Arctic Monkeys . Before M.I.A. had an international hit in 2008 with " Paper Planes " , which is built around a sample from " Straight to Hell " , she referenced " London Calling " on 2003 's " Galang " . A cover of " The Guns of Brixton " by German punk band Die Toten Hosen was released as a single in 2006 . A version by reggae legend Jimmy Cliff with Tim Armstrong from Rancid was scheduled for release in November 2011 . American @-@ Irish punk band Dropkick Murphys released a cover of the song on Anti Heroes vs Dropkick Murphys in 1997 .
In June 2009 Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band opened their concert in Hyde Park , London , with ' London Calling ' . The concert was later released on DVD as Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band : London Calling - Live in Hyde Park . Bruce Springsteen , Little Steven , Dave Grohl and Elvis Costello performed the same song at the Grammys in 2003 as a tribute to Joe Strummer who died the year before . In 2009 Springsteen & the E Street Band even covered Strummer 's " Coma Girl " while in 2014 and along with Tom Morello , they opened some of their shows on the High Hopes Tour with " Clampdown " .
The band has also had a notable impact on music in the Spanish @-@ speaking world . In 1997 , a Clash tribute album featuring performances by Buenos Aires punk bands was released . Many rock en español bands such as Todos Tus Muertos , Café Tacuba , Maldita Vecindad , Los Prisioneros , Tijuana No , and Attaque 77 are indebted to the Clash . Argentina 's Los Fabulosos Cadillacs covered " Should stay or should I go ! " , London Calling 's " Revolution Rock " and " The Guns of Brixton " and invited Mick Jones to sing on their song " Mal Bicho " . The Clash 's influence is similarly reflected in Paris @-@ founded Mano Negra 's politicised lyrics and fusion of musical styles .
= = Members = =
Classic line @-@ up
Joe Strummer – lead vocals , rhythm guitar
Mick Jones – lead guitar , vocals
Paul Simonon – bass guitar , backing vocals
Nicky " Topper " Headon – drums , percussion
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Clash ( 1977 )
Give ' Em Enough Rope ( 1978 )
London Calling ( 1979 )
Sandinista ! ( 1980 )
Combat Rock ( 1982 )
Cut the Crap ( 1985 )
= USS Guam ( CB @-@ 2 ) =
USS Guam ( CB @-@ 2 ) was an Alaska @-@ class large cruiser which served with the United States Navy during the end of World War II . She was the second and last ship of her class to be completed . The ship was the second vessel of the US Navy to be named after the island of Guam , an American territory in the Pacific . Due to her commissioning late in the war , Guam saw relatively limited service during the war . She participated in operations off Okinawa in March – July 1945 , including providing anti @-@ aircraft defense for the carrier task force and conducting limited shore bombardment operations . She participated in sweeps for Japanese shipping in the East China and Yellow Seas in July – August 1945 . After the end of the war , she assisted in the occupation of Korea and transported a contingent of US Army troops back to the United States . She was decommissioned in February 1947 and placed in reserve , where she remained until she was stricken in 1960 and sold for scrapping the following year .
= = Description and construction = =
Guam was authorized under the Fleet Expansion Act on 19 July 1940 , and ordered on 9 September . She was laid down on 2 February 1942 at the New York Shipbuilding in Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 12 November 1943 , after which fitting @-@ out work was effected . The ship was completed by September 1944 , and she was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 September , under the command of Captain Leland Lovette . She cost the US Navy $ 67 @,@ 053 @,@ 828 at her completion .
The ship was 808 feet 6 inches ( 246 @.@ 43 m ) long overall and had a beam of 91 ft 1 in ( 27 @.@ 76 m ) and a draft of 31 ft 10 in ( 9 @.@ 70 m ) . She displaced 29 @,@ 779 long tons ( 30 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 34 @,@ 253 long tons ( 34 @,@ 803 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four General Electric geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller , and eight oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried four floatplanes , housed in two hangars , with a pair of aircraft catapults mounted amidships .
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 12 inch L / 50 Mark 8 guns in three triple gun turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 5 @-@ inch L / 38 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin turrets . Two were placed on the centerline superfiring over the main battery turrets , fore and aft , and the remaining four turrets were placed on the corners of the superstructure . The light anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of 56 quad @-@ mounted 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors guns and 34 single @-@ mounted 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon guns . A pair of Mk 34 gun directors aided gunlaying for the main battery , while two Mk 37 directors controlled the 5 @-@ inch guns and a Mk 57 director aided the 40 mm guns . The main armored belt was 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick , while the gun turrets had 12 @.@ 8 in ( 325 mm ) thick faces . The main armored deck was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick .
Guam was laid down on 2 February 1942 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation , in Camden , New Jersey , launched on 12 November 1943 , and commissioned on 17 September 1944 . She received the first operational SC Seahawk floatplanes in October .
= = Service history = =
Guam left Philadelphia on 17 January 1945 , after completing her shakedown cruise off Trinidad . She proceeded through the Panama Canal to join the United States Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor , which she reached on 8 February . While there , Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal visited the ship . On 3 March , she departed Hawaii for Ulithi , where she joined her sister Alaska on 13 March . Shortly thereafter , Guam and the rest of Task Force 58 , the main strike force of the US Navy under the command of Admiral Arthur W. Radford , departed for a raid on the mainland Japanese islands of Kyushu and Shikoku . Task Force 58 arrived off Japan on the morning of 18 March and was quickly attacked by Japanese kamikazes and bombers . Guam was detached from the unit to escort the badly damaged carrier Franklin back to port , which lasted until 22 March .
Guam then returned to Task Force 58 , assigned to Cruiser Division 16 , part of Task Group 58 @.@ 4 , and steamed to Okinawa . On the night of 27 – 28 March , Guam and the rest of Cruiser Division 16 bombarded the airfield on Minamidaitō . After concluding the bombardment , Guam returned to the carrier screen while they conducted operations off Nansei Shoto until 11 May . The ship then steamed to Ulithi for periodic maintenance and to replenish ammunition and supplies . She then returned to Okinawa , assigned to Task Group 38 @.@ 4 of William Halsey 's Third Fleet . She continued to provide anti @-@ aircraft defense for the carriers while they launched fighter sweeps of Kyushu . Guam and Alaska bombarded Oki Daitō for an hour and a half on 9 June , after which they steamed to San Pedro Bay in the Leyte Gulf , arriving on 13 June .
After returning to Okinawa in July , Guam was assigned to Cruiser Task Force 95 , where she served as the flagship , along with her sister Alaska , under the command of Rear Admiral Francis S. Low . On 16 July , Guam and Alaska conducted a sweep into the East China and Yellow Seas to sink Japanese shipping . They had only limited success , however , and returned to the fleet on 23 July . They then joined a major raid , which included three battleships and three escort carriers , into the estuary of the Yangtze River off Shanghai . Again , the operation met with limited success , and they returned to Okinawa by 7 August .
Shortly after returning to Okinawa , Guam became the flagship of the North China Force , again commanded by Rear Admiral Low . The unit was tasked with showing the flag in the region , including the ports of Tsingtao , Port Arthur , and Dalian .
= = = Post war = = =
On 8 September , Guam entered Jinsen , Korea , to assist in the occupation of the country . She left Jinsen on 14 November bound for San Francisco , carrying a group of Army soldiers back to the United States . She arrived in port on 3 December and departed two days later for Bayonne , New Jersey , arriving on the 17th . She remained there until she was decommissioned on 17 February 1947 .
She was then assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet , where she remained until she was stricken from the Navy List on 1 June 1960 . She was sold on 24 May 1961 for $ 423 @,@ 076 to the Boston Metals Company in Baltimore . She was towed to the shipbreakers on 10 July 1961 . Guam had served only 29 months on active duty . In the course of her career , she received two battle stars for her service during World War II .
= = Awards = =
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal with " ASIA " clasp
China Service Medal
= Side Effects ( song ) =
" Side Effects " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was written by Carey , Scott Storch , Crystal Johnson and the songs featured artist , Young Jeezy . It was inspired by Carey 's marriage to record executive Tommy Mottola and his controlling nature over her and her career . Carey discusses how she still deals with the side effects of the experiences that she encountered during the relationship . Critical response to the song was positive , with many critics highlighting it as an album standout , praising its candid lyrics and honesty . It charted at number 93 on the U.S. Billboard Pop 100 chart upon the release of the album .
= = Background = =
In 1988 , Carey moved to Manhattan , New York to pursue a career in music . After working as a background singer for rising pop singer Brenda K. Starr , Carey was introduced to Tommy Mottola , head of Columbia Records , at a record executives gala . Accompanied by Starr , Carey handed Mottola her demo tape , featuring four of the eleven songs that would eventually comprise her debut studio album . In what has been largely described as a " Cinderella @-@ like story " , Mottola heard the tape in his Limousine ride home , and quickly returned to the event to find the girl with the " elusive voice " . When he arrived , Carey had already left early , disappointed in the events of the evening . In what became a search , Mottola began to track Carey down through Star 's management and eventually signed her to Columbia 's roster of artists . After the release of her self @-@ titled debut album ( 1990 ) , Carey rose to fame , with the album selling over 15 million units globally . During the recording of Carey 's third album , Music Box ( 1993 ) , the pair became romantically involved , and wed by August 1993 , only one month short of the album 's release . The couple moved into a large 12 @-@ bedroom mansion in upstate New York , a home Carey would later come to be described as a " private prison " and " golden cage " .
Referring to Columbia , Carey said in an interview " That company , made a billion dollars from the raggedy girl he met at that party . " Throughout the marriage , Mottola , both Carey 's husband and boss , carefully manipulated and controlled her career , crafting her into the adult contemporary / pop singer he sought her to be . With each album , Carey 's genre influences and production styles evolved , leading her farther into R & B and hip @-@ hop territory . By 1994 , Carey was already the best @-@ selling artist of the 1990s , and the labels best @-@ selling act . Due to her continued success , Carey was able to take more creative control over subsequent projects . During the recording sessions for her fifth album Daydream ( 1995 ) , the couple had already begun " fighting at the drop of a feather " , due to his controlling nature over their personal life and her career . They separated in 1997 , and divorced the following year . Carey described her sixth album Butterfly ( 1997 ) as her magnum opus , and her greatest and most personal work , due to its personal and emotional background . On the album 's title track – written by Carey for Mottola – Carey reached out to him , asking to allow her to be free like a ' butterfly ' , and if the two were ' meant to be ' , then the butterfly ' would return ' . In an interview with Interview magazine , Carey described the importance the song held for her , as well as its meaning :
It was ' 97 and I was leaving my marriage [ to Tommy Mottola ] . which encompassed my life . I was writing the song ' Butterfly ' wishing that that 's what he would say to me . There 's a part that goes , ' I have learned that beauty / has to flourish in the light / wild horses run unbridled / or their spirit dies / you have given me the courage / to be all that I can / and I truly feel ... [ sings ] and I truly feel your heart will lead you back to me when you 're ready to land . ' At that point I really believed that I was going to go back to the marriage – I didn 't think I was going to leave forever . But then the things that happened to me during that time caused me to not go back . Had it been , ' Go be yourself , you 've been with me since you were a kid , let 's separate for a while , ' I probably would 've . "
" Butterfly " became what Carey later described as her " favorite and most heartfelt ballad . " Its lyrics were very personal , linking to her personal life and relationship with Mottola . Carey wrote " Butterfly " for Mottola , hoping he would say its contents to her , and choose to do what was best for her . She described it as " the best ballad she had ever written " and credited it as the epitome of Butterfly .
= = Production and composition = =
" Side Effects " was written by Carey , Scott Storch , Crystal Johnson and featured artist Young Jeezy . It was produced by Carey for Maroon Entertainment and by Storch on behalf of Tuff Jew Productions / Hustla Foundation . Copyright is held by Rye Songs which is administered by Songs of Universal ( BMI ) / Scott Storch Music / TVT Publishing ( ASCAP ) / C @-@ Style Ink / Slide That Music / EMI @-@ April Songs ( ASCAP ) / YJ Music ( BMI ) . The track was recorded by Brian Garten at Honeysouth Studios in Miami , Florida , and mixed by Fabian Marasciullo at The Hit Factory , also in Miami . Carey and Johnson performed the background vocals .
It is an R & B song with elements of electro . Lyrically , Carey is recounting a past relationship which fell into " violent times " , and how she still deals with the effects of what she experienced . Carey begins with the line " I was a girl / You were ‘ the man ' / I was too young to understand / I was naïve / Believing everything you told me . " Although Carey never mentions Mottola 's name , many critics believed that she was addressing him directly in the lines " Shining like a chandelier / That decorated every room inside / The private hell we built " , " Sleeping with the enemy , aware that he was smothering every last part of me " and " Said you were strong / Protecting me / Then I found out that you were weak / Keepin ' me there , under your thumb / Cause you were scared that I 'd become much / More than you could handle . " After confessing that she would " [ wake ] up scared some nights , still dreaming about the violent times , " Carey decides to walk away from the relationship , and declares " but I still live with the side effects " . J. Freedom De Luc of The Washington Post likened the " echoing " repetition of " Side effects " to that of Rihanna 's on her 2007 single " Umbrella " . In an interview with Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News , Carey explained why she felt compelled to write the song :
'I wrote it because it was necessary for me to write it , ' Mariah said of her most personal , and angriest , song to date . Fans might be surprised at her references to ' the hell that we built ' and the ' violent times , ' but Mariah thinks this song is for ' anyone who ’ s been in an abusive relationship . ' ' You know what ? I ’ ve been through too much at this point , ' she said . ' I want happiness and I want pure and real love , but the side effects of what other relationships have put me through cause me to be kind of on the defensive a lot of the time . And if somebody isn ’ t mature or caring and loving and open @-@ hearted enough to understand that , then it ’ s tough , but this is a song for people who need that . ' Mariah hopes that this song helps people feel ' a little bit stronger.'
= = Reception = =
The Guardian 's Alex Macpherson praised the song , writing " the magnificent Side Effects finds Carey at the height of her powers . Over synths as slow as molasses , she intones some of the darkest lyrics of her career , a meditation on the long @-@ term effects of an abusive relationship . Verbose to the point of opulence , she crams syllables into the verses , races against her own emotions and perfectly conveys the song 's claustrophobic intensity . " Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle singled out " Side Effects " as " an an electro @-@ tinged standout " in his review of the album . He praised Storch and Young Jeezy for giving the song a " menacing mood " . Writing for Fox News , Roger Friedman described Carey 's vocals performance as " gorgeous " , Jeezy 's rap verse as " cool " and the hook as having Top 40 appeal . He continued to write that Mottola would most likely do a spit @-@ take upon hearing the lyrics . Describing the song as " a not @-@ so @-@ thinly @-@ veiled swipe " at Mottola , Evan Sawdey of PopMatters thought that the lyrical content would " raise some eyebrows " . The New York Times writer Ben Ratliff labeled the track as a " drama bomb " which recounts how Carey lived under the spell of Mottola during their marriage . The Washington Post 's J. Freedom De Luc thought that " Side Effects " was one of the albums highlights along with " Touch My Body " and " I Wish You Well " , and continued to write that Carey appears to be unloading onto her ex @-@ husband . Nick Levine from Digital Spy described the song as Carey 's revenge on Mottola , and " her rawest , most personal track in years " . Jayanthi Daniels of The New York Sun was critical of " Side Effects " as well as " I 'm That Chick " , describing them as " throwaway pop tracks " on a hip @-@ hop album .
= = Live performances = =
On July 31 , 2008 , Carey performed a free concert at the Hollywood and Highland Center shopping mall in Los Angeles , California , for 2 @,@ 000 people . Young Jeezy joined Carey on stage to perform " Side Effects " ; Todd Martens of the LA Times said of the performance that his " gruff intonations providing a surprisingly effective counterbalance to Carey 's pleasantly light phrasing " . Carey also performed " We Belong Together " , " Shake It Off " and a medley of " Touch My Body / I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " . The concert was filmed and presented on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , as part of Samsung AT & T Summer Krush concert series . The production cost of the concert was estimated to be $ 250 @,@ 000 ; according to Kimmel 's music booker Scott Igoe . He confirmed that the cost was not incurred by Kimmel , and that Samsung made a contribution because " Carey doesn 't come cheap " .
= = Charts = =
= Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll =
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll is a platforming video game developed by Rare . It was published by Nintendo and released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in July 1990 and in Europe on March 27 , 1991 . It was ported to the Mega Drive and released by Sega in June 1993 . The game features two snakes , Rattle and Roll , as they make their way through eleven 3D isometric levels . The object is to navigate the obstacles in each level and eat enough " Nibbley Pibbleys " to ring a weigh @-@ in bell located in the level , which will allow the snakes to exit . The game can be played by a single player or by two players simultaneously .
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll was developed by Rare members Tim Stamper and Mark Betteridge , with music composed by David Wise , which featured music inspired by " Shake , Rattle and Roll " , as well as other 1950s @-@ era oldies . It was well received by various video gaming magazines , and praises include well @-@ designed 3D environments and graphics , playability and controls , and challenge . A follow @-@ up for the Game Boy , titled Sneaky Snakes , was released by Tradewest in 1991 . Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll has been named one of the top games released on the NES and one of the top games released by Rare .
= = Gameplay = =
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll features two snakes – Rattle and Roll – as they make their way through 11 isometric levels . The object in each level is to eat enough " Nibbley Pibbleys " – small round creatures found throughout each level – to gain enough weight to ring a bell on top of a weighing machine located at the end of the level ; this causes a door for the next level to open . Players maneuver their snakes throughout the level with the control pad and are able to pick up Nibbley Pibbleys by pressing the B button on the controller . The snakes ' lengths increase when they eat ; players ' snake length grows more quickly when they eat Nibbley Pibbleys of their own color , and they grow the most when they eat yellow ones . Located in each level are dispensers which randomly spew out Nibbley Pibbleys ; however , they also spew out bombs which can damage the snakes . When a snake reaches a long enough length , the tail begins to flash , which means the snake is heavy enough to exit that level . At that point , they must find and jump on the scale in order to ring the bell and open the exit door .
Each level contains various obstacles and enemies that the players must deal with . Players lose a segment from their snake if they are hit by an enemy , and they lose a life if their snake runs out of segments . Players can also lose a life if their snakes fall too far , the timer runs out , their snakes touch a sharp object , or if they are squashed by an object from above . Also , if they remain in some bodies of water for too long , a shark will attack . The game ends if players lose all their lives , but they have several continues in which they can restart the game from where they left off . Players can defeat enemies by hitting them with their tongues or by jumping on them . They can collect various items to help them along during gameplay , such as items that extend the length of the snakes ' tongues , extra lives and continues , time bonuses , invisibility diamonds , and items that speed up or reverse the direction of the snakes . Located throughout the game are lids ( in the shape of manhole covers ) in which players can open to uncover Nibbly Pibbleys , items and extra lives , entrances to bonus levels , and sometimes enemies . Also located in the game are hidden warps which allow players to skip several levels and restart at a later point in the game .
= = Development = =
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll was developed primarily by Rare employees Tim Stamper and Mark Betteridge . Stamper worked on the game 's graphics and concepts , while Betteridge worked on the game program itself . Most of the ideas behind the game came from Betteridge , who had challenged himself to get the smallest file size for a NES game possible . According to Rare member Brendan Gunn , Betteridge found out how to develop cheap backgrounds that took up little space . After thinking about what and how to move objects on such backgrounds , he came up with the idea for a snake . Much of the game derived from another isometric video game Marble Madness , of which Rare published the NES version in 1989 . They would also use the same type of high speed scrolling that was used in the NES port of Marble Madness , which , according to a Nintendo Power overview of Rare , " many said couldn 't be done on the NES " . Rare 's future Creative Director , Gregg Mayles , started with the company play @-@ testing Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll . He recalls being impressed with Betteridge 's development of the controls , which he said " felt really responsive " .
The game 's soundtrack , which features music taken from the 1954 song " Shake , Rattle and Roll " , of which the game is named after , was composed by David Wise . He would also compose music from Wizards & Warriors , Battletoads , and the Donkey Kong Country series . According to website GamesRadar , the game 's compositions revolved around 1950s @-@ era " oldies so old they don ’ t even get played on the radio anymore " . One of the tunes was a homage to John Williams ' main theme from the 1975 film Jaws ; the theme plays when a snake lands in the water and gets chased back to land by a shark .
It was first published by Nintendo and released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in July 1990 and in Europe on March 27 , 1991 . Rare would later port the game to the Sega Mega Drive , a version which was released only in Europe by Sega in 1993 ; this port featured an additional final level on top of the 11 levels on the NES version . In that version , the snakes make it into space , but a meteorite crashes into their spaceship , causing them to crash land on another planetoid , which serves at the 12th level . After completing the level , the ending shows the snakes on a new spaceship that is going back home . Although this game was never released for the Game Boy , in level 7 of the NES version , the landscape spells out " NINTENDO GAMEBOY " .
= = Reception = =
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll first received preview coverage in January 1990 in Nintendo Power magazine . The preview said that the game " defies description " and that it would appeal to people who have enjoyed games such as Q * bert and Adventures of Lolo . The game would be featured in the magazine 's September – October 1990 issue , which featured a walkthrough of the game 's first three levels . It was also featured in UK @-@ based magazine Mean Machines , where it received high praise from editors Matt Regan and Julian Rignall . Regan praised the game 's 3D environment , fun gameplay , and level of humor , as noted by the odd objects such as toilet seats . Rignall called the game 's graphics " stunning , with beautifully drawn scrolling forced perspective 3D backdrops and some great sprites " ; he also lauded the game 's playability and simple controls , challenging difficulty , and overall fun factor . Overall , they said Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll was " one of the most original games seen in years " and was " a firm favourite here in the MEAN MACHINES offices " .
The game received further reviews and praise in other video gaming magazines in 1991 . German magazine Video Games called Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll " a quaint and original game " that includes high @-@ quality graphics . The reviewer praised the animations in the characters , especially after the snakes eat Nibbly Pibbleys , and he enjoyed the two @-@ player simultaneous mode ; however , he said that the game lacked in variety , though the gameplay and challenge remained consistent throughout the course of the game . Another German magazine , Power Play , gave a similar review , and it compared the game to the 1988 Rare title R.C. Pro @-@ Am in gameplay . American video gaming magazine Game Players awarded Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll the " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " for 1990 as one of the best games released for the NES that year .
Nintendo Power reviewed Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll as part of an overview of NES games which the magazine felt were overlooked or otherwise did not sell well . Their main criticism was that the main characters were not recognizable to anyone , giving the game a lack of visibility amongst consumers . Otherwise , they praised the game for its precise controls and for its blend of puzzle and action elements .
Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll received some retrospective coverage years after its release . IGN ranked the game at # 32 in its " Top 100 NES Games " list , calling it " another of Rare 's excellent pre @-@ second @-@ party efforts on the NES " as well as " Marble Madness turned into a platformer " . Executive editor Craig Harris also noted the game 's high level of difficulty and its excellent soundtrack . UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer reviewed the game in its August 2006 issue , calling it one of the best isometric games on the NES and " an essential NES game " . The two title characters of the game would be named " Hero of the Month " in the magazine 's February 2007 issue . In a 25th anniversary retrospective of Rare in December 2010 , the same magazine called the game " an excellent platformer " and was one of the games they wished would be released on Kinect ; the magazine received a glimpse of a Marble Madness prototype on Kinect and wanted to see the control scheme in that game implemented in a new version of Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll . The game was also ranked # 23 on a readers ' poll of top 25 games made by Rare . UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer covered Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll as part of its retrospective on isometric video games , saying that the game " merged brilliantly the offbeat nature of games such as Head Over Heels with popular movement @-@ based isometric action / puzzle titles like Marble Madness and Spindizzy " . It was also covered in the GamesTM ' Retro book , where it was lauded as one of the more unheralded games in the NES library . The retrospective highly praised the its visuals and landscapes , as well as having a " quirky humour " and a " unique charm " . It concluded by saying that Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll stands apart from other NES titles , as also did other Rare titles such as Cobra Triangle and R.C. Pro @-@ Am .
Due to Microsoft 's current ownership of Rare , it is unlikely that either game will be released for the Virtual Console . Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , along with Rare 's other NES titles , appear in the Xbox One compilation , Rare Replay .
= = Sequel = =
In the ending of Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , the game hints at a sequel titled Snakes in Space , but the game would never be released . However , Rare developed a follow @-@ up on the Game Boy titled Sneaky Snakes ; the game was published by Tradewest in June 1991 . The game features two Snakes named Genghis and Atilla who must save Sonia Snake from the Nasty Nibbler . The game features identical gameplay to Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll but in a 2D side @-@ scrolling platforming mode instead of the 3D isometric mode . Sneaky Snakes was received mediocre ratings from Electronic Gaming Monthly in its July 1991 issue . Reviewer Steve Harris criticized the game for its awkward controls , lack of originality , and a " zero @-@ grav effect " while jumping . Ed Semrad said that the game got old after the first several levels , and Martin Alessi said that while it is an original idea , likewise repeated the previous reviewers criticism of the game 's repetitiveness . Reviewer " Sushi @-@ X " called the game " average " and said , “ It lacks the rest of the positive traits that truly rates an exceptional game . ”
= USS Freedom ( ID @-@ 3024 ) =
USS Freedom ( ID @-@ 3024 ) was a cargo and transport ship in the United States Navy during World War I. Originally SS Wittekind for the North German Lloyd line , the ship also served as USAT Iroquois and USAT Freedom after being seized by the United States in 1917 .
SS Wittekind was built in Germany for the Bremen – New York service of the Roland Line service of North German Lloyd , and was the sister ship of SS Willehad . In March 1900 Wittekind was lengthened because her cargo capacity was found lacking . Later that same year , Wittekind was among the first transports to carry German Empire troops as part of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance intended to put down the Boxer Rebellion in China . In August 1914 , at the start of World War I , the ship was interned at Boston in the neutral United States .
When the U.S. entered that conflict in April 1917 , Wittekind was seized and turned over to the United States Shipping Board . Renamed Iroquois , the ship was chartered to the United States Army as a cargo ship after a refit , and , in 1918 , was renamed Freedom . In January 1919 the ship was commissioned into the United States Navy , and carried almost 5 @,@ 000 troops home from Europe before her decommissioning in September . Held in reserve for transport duty , the ship was laid up for five years before being scrapped in 1924 .
= = SS Wittekind = =
SS Wittekind was built by Blohm & Voss of Hamburg for North German Lloyd ’ s Roland Line , which was a fortnightly steerage and freight service from Bremen to New York . Launched on 3 February 1894 , Wittekind — named for Wittekind ( c . 730 – 808 ) , the Duke of Saxony — and sister @-@ ship Willehad were the first twin @-@ screw steamers expressly built for North German Lloyd . The new liner sailed on her maiden voyage to Hoboken , New Jersey on 14 April .
Wittekind and sister @-@ ship Willehad were both quickly found to be deficient in cargo space , and plans were made to lengthen both vessels ( though Willehad was never lengthened ) . Wittekind ' s bridge was moved forward and a cargo hatch was installed behind it . After this , the ship was cut into two parts forward of the bridge 's new position , and a new 18 @.@ 29 @-@ meter ( 60 @.@ 0 ft ) section was inserted , which greatly increased the cargo capacity . Sources disagree as to where the procedure was performed with one reporting it was performed at the Seebeck Yard in Germany , while another claims it was done by Tyne Pontoons & Drydock Co . , at Newcastle . Wherever the work was performed , it was completed by March 1900 .
On 3 July 1900 , Wittekind sailed from Bremerhaven with Frankfurt as the initial transport ships to depart with troops of Germany ’ s contribution to the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance intended to put down the Boxer Rebellion in China . Wittekind remained in naval service as a transport and hospital ship through late October 1901 . After her naval service ended , Wittekind sailed variously to Baltimore , Maryland ; Galveston , Texas ; Montreal ; and ports in South America through mid @-@ 1914 .
At sea and headed for Montreal when the United Kingdom declared war on the German Empire , Wittekind instead headed for Boston and safety in the then @-@ neutral United States . The steamer — carrying a cargo of lead and coal tar products reportedly worth $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 — slipped past British cruiser Essex in a dense fog near Sable Island . Wittekind ' s wireless operator calculated that the ship passed fewer than 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) from Essex . The steamer was interned by the U.S. and her Canadian @-@ bound passengers — 18 cabin- , and 305 steerage @-@ class who were not allowed to remain in the United States — were greeted by the Canadian Commissioner of Immigration who was stationed at Boston .
Wittekind was joined in Boston by sister @-@ ship Willehad ; North German Lloyd line @-@ mates Kronprinzessin Cecilie and Köln ; the Hamburg America Line steamers SS Amerika and Cincinnati ; and Hansa Line freighter Ockenfels . In March 1916 , all except Kronprinzessin Cecilie and Ockenfels were moved from their waterfront piers to an anchorage across the harbor from the Boston Navy Yard . Daily " neutrality duty " by United States Coast Guard harbor tug Winnisimmet kept a watchful eye on the ships . Many crew members of the ships eventually went ashore , were processed through immigration , and found employment , while a contingent of musicians from the vessels toured New England , frequently playing at department stores and restaurants , and drawing the ire of the local musicians ' union .
After the U.S. declared war on Germany , Wittekind and the other interned ships were seized on 6 April 1917 and handed over to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) .
= = United States service in World War I = =
After her seizure and refitting , the former liner was chartered to the United States Army as USAT Iroquois . In 1918 , her name was again changed , this time to Freedom . On 24 January 1919 , Freedom was acquired by the United States Navy and commissioned the same day , with Lieutenant J. C. C. Holier , USNRF , in command .
Freedom was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force , and after overhaul at New York , sailed on a voyage to Saint @-@ Nazaire , France , and embarked troops for return to the United States . The cargo ship made two more voyages to France , each to Brest , with a visit to Norfolk , Virginia , between trips . She returned a total of 4 @,@ 983 troops on her voyages from France .
She arrived at Hoboken on 5 September 1919 and was assigned to duty in the 3rd Naval District . Freedom was decommissioned at New York on 23 September and returned to the USSB the same day . The veteran ship was transferred to the United States Army transport reserve , and was laid up for five years . On 24 February 1924 , Freedom arrived at Baltimore for scrapping .
= Elda Emma Anderson =
Elda Emma Anderson ( October 5 , 1899 – April 17 , 1961 ) was an American physicist and health researcher . During World War II , she worked on the Manhattan Project at Princeton University and the Los Alamos Laboratory , where she prepared the first sample of pure uranium @-@ 235 at the laboratory . A graduate of the University of Wisconsin , she became professor of physics at Milwaukee @-@ Downer College in 1929 . After the war , she became interested in health physics . She worked in the Health Physics Division of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory , and established the professional certification agency known as the American Board of Health Physics .
= = Early life = =
Elda Emma Anderson was born in Green Lake , Wisconsin , on October 5 , 1899 , to Edwin A. Anderson ( born in Wisconsin ) and his wife , Lena ( née Heller ) ( born in Germany ) . Elda was one of three siblings . Although she was captivated by numbers at an early age , young Elda actually sought to become a kindergarten teacher . This would shift to an interest in science later , partially due to the influence of her older sister , who was an assistant chemistry instructor . As a whole , although her family had certain lofty expectations for their younger daughter , they all supported her in her academic endeavors . Anderson earned a Bachelor of Arts ( AB ) degree from Ripon College in 1922 , then a master of arts ( AM ) in physics from the University of Wisconsin in 1924 . From 1924 to 1927 , she taught at Estherville Junior College in Iowa , where she was the dean of physics , chemistry and mathematics . In 1929 , she became professor of physics at Milwaukee @-@ Downer College , then head of the physics department in 1934 .
= = Career = =
In 1941 Anderson completed her PhD at the University of Wisconsin , writing her thesis on " Low energy levels in the atomic spectra Co VII and Ni VIII " . Immediately after finishing her PhD , Anderson requested time off from her position at Milwaukee @-@ Downer College , in order to conduct war research related to the Manhattan Project at the Office of Scientific Research and Development at Princeton University . Not long after , Anderson was recruited to continue her work specifically at Los Alamos Laboratory . At her new location , Anderson studied basic fission parameters , including analyzing the time delays associated with the absorption and emission of neutrons . Such work often entailed working upwards of sixteen hours a day . Among other accomplishments at Los Alamos , Anderson prepared the first sample of pure uranium @-@ 235 at the laboratory . She lived in a dormitory . Being older than most of the other women in the dormitory at the age of fifty , she was put in charge . She often worked at night , wearing jeans and a plaid shirt – not the usual attire for a woman at the time .
Following the war , in 1947 , Anderson left Los Alamos and returned to teaching at Milwaukee @-@ Downer College , but her involvement in atomic physics led to an interest in the health effects of radiation . In 1949 , she left teaching to begin a career in health physics . At the Health Physics Division of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , which was only five years old when she joined , she became the first chief of education and training . She spent her career helping to establish the new training program in health physics , teaching and advising graduate fellows in health physics from 1949 .
Outside of necessary obligations , Anderson was also known for helping students with problems both academic and personal , lending helpful guidance . In some cases , Anderson was known to have given loans to students , as well share a drink in troubling times .
Anderson organized the first international course in her field in Stockholm in 1955 ; she organized similar courses in Belgium in 1957 and Mumbai in 1958 . She supported the establishment of the Health Physics Society in 1955 , serving as secretary pro tem and then charter secretary , and eventually as president of the Society from 1959 to 1960 . In 1960 , she established the professional certification agency known as the American Board of Health Physics . Despite contracting leukemia in 1956 , Anderson remained undeterred in her career and maintained her position for several years until her eventual death in 1961 , during which she was also fighting breast cancer .
= = Atomic Energy Commission = =
In 1949 , Anderson moved to Oak Ridge , Tennessee to become the first chief of education and training in the Health Physics Division of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory . Karl Z. Morgan led the team responsible for training , that was headed by Anderson and assisted by Myron Fair and Mary Jane Cook Hilyer with administrative support from Frances Neal . Anderson also worked with faculty members at Vanderbilt University in Nashville , Tennessee , to create a master 's degree program in health physics at that institution .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1956 , Anderson , who never married and had no children , developed leukemia . She died nearly five years later in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , of breast cancer and leukemia , possibly as the result of her work with radioactive materials , on 17 April 1961 . Anderson was buried at Green Lake Cemetery in Green Lake , Wisconsin . She was survived by her sister , Mrs. Lucille McConnell and niece , Natalie Tarr Millemann . Dr. Anderson 's obituary was well covered in the press and scientific journals . Tributes were written by colleagues and former students . Anderson is honored each year at the annual meeting of the Health Physics Society when the Elda E. Anderson Award is presented to a young member of the Society .
The Elda E. Anderson Award of the Health Physics Society was named in her honor .
= = Publications = =
Ph.D. Dissertation : Anderson , Elda E. ( 1941 ) . Low Energy Levels in the Atomic Spectra of Cobalt VII and Nickel VIII . University of Wisconsin — Madison .
Mack , J. E. , & Anderson , E. E. ( 1944 ) . A 21 ‐ Foot Multiple Range Grazing Incidence Spectrograph . Review of Scientific Instruments . 15 ( 2 ) : 28 @-@ 36 .
Anderson , E. E. , Lavatelli , L. S. , McDaniel , B. D. , & Sutton , R. B. ( 1944 ) . Boron cross sections for neutrons from 0 @.@ 01 to 1000 eV . Atomic Energy Commission .
Anderson , E. E. , Lavatelli , L. S. , McDaniel , B. D. , & Sutton , R. B. ( 1944 ) . MEASUREMENTS ON THE CROSS @-@ SECTION OF 94 Pu @-@ 239 AS A FUNCTION OF NEUTRON ENERGY IN THE RANGE FROM 0 @.@ 01 eV TO 3 @.@ 0 eV ( No . LA @-@ 91 ) . Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory . New Mexico .
Anderson , E. E. , McDaniel , B. D. , Sutton , R. B. , & Lavatelli , L. S. ( 1945 ) . ABSORPTION AND FISSION CROSS SECTIONS OF 94 Pu @-@ 239 IN THE NEUTRON ENERGY RANGE 0 @.@ 01 eV TO 100 eV ( No . LA @-@ 266 ) . Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory . New Mexico .
Sutton , R. B. , McDaniel , B. D. , Anderson , E. E. , & Lavatelli , L. S. ( 1947 ) . The Capture Cross Section of Boron for Neutrons of Energies from 0 @.@ 01 eV to 1000 eV . Physical Review . 71 ( 4 ) : 272 .
McDaniel , B. D. , Sutton , R. B. , Lavatelli , L. S. , & Anderson , E. E. ( 1947 ) . The Absorption Cross Section of Gold for Neutrons of Energies from 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 3 eV . Physical Review . 72 ( 8 ) : 729 .
Sutton , R. B. , T. Hall , E. E. Anderson , H. S. Bridge , J. W. DeWire , L. S. Lavatelli , E. A. Long , T. Snyder , and R. W. Williams . ( 1947 ) . Scattering of Slow Neutrons by Ortho- and Parahydrogen . Physical Review . 72 ( 12 ) : 1147 .
Sutton , R. B. , T. Hall , E. E. Anderson , H. S. Bridge , J. W. DeWire , L. S. Lavatelli , E. A. Long , T. Snyder , and R. W. Williams . ( 1947 ) . Neutron diffraction studies of NaH and NaD . Physical Review . 72 : 1147 @-@ 56 .
Anderson , Elda E. ( 1950 ) . Manual on Radiological Protection for Civilian Defense ( No . M @-@ 4514 ) . Oak Ridge National Laboratory .
Anderson , E. E. ( 1952 ) . Units of radiation and radioactivity . Public Health Reports . 67 ( 3 ) : 293 .
Anderson , E. E. ( 1954 ) . Education and Training of Health Physicists . Radiology . 62 ( 1 ) : 83 @-@ 87 .
Lukens Jr , H. R. , Anderson , E. E. , & Beaufait Jr , L. J. ( 1954 ) . Punched Card System for Radioisotopes . Analytical Chemistry . 26 ( 4 ) : 651 @-@ 652 .
Kohl , J. , Newacheck , R. L. , & Anderson , E. E. ( 1955 ) . Gaseous and Liquid Tracers for Underground Studies . In Proceedings . University of California .
Kohl , J. , Newacheck , R. L. , & Anderson , E. E. ( 1955 ) . Locating Casing Shoe Leaks with Radioactive Argon . Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers . 204 ( 12 ) : 213 @-@ 216 .
Newacheck , R. L. , Beaufait , L. J. , & Anderson , E. E. ( 1957 ) . Isotope Milker Supplies 137Ba from Parent 137Cs . Nucleonics . 15 ( 5 ) : 122 .
Beaufait Jr , L. J. , Anderson , E. E. , & Peterson , J. P. ( 1958 ) . Development and Preparation of Set of Gamma Spectrometer Standards . Analytical Chemistry . 30 ( 11 ) : 1762 @-@ 1764 .
Anderson , Elda E. ( 1959 ) . Assignment report on training course for health physicists . Bombay , India . November – December 1958 .
Zumwalt , L. R. , & Anderson , Elda E. ( 1960 ) . Xe @-@ 133 Release Data Obtained to Date on Various Sample Fuel Bodies ( No . GA @-@ P @-@ 32 @-@ 257 ) . General Atomic Division . General Dynamics Corp. San Diego , CA .
Anderson , E. E. , Gethard , P. E. , & Zumwalt , L. R. ( October 1961 ) . Use of the King Furnace in Fission @-@ Product Retention Studies of Graphite Reactor Fuels . In Proceedings of the Second Conference on Nuclear Reactor Chemistry . Gatlinburg , Tennessee ( pp. 171 – 192 ) .
Anderson , E. E. , Gethard , P. E. , & Zumwalt , L. R. ( 1962 ) . Steady @-@ State Release Fraction of Krypton and Xenon Fission Products at High Temperatures from ( U , Th ) C2 @-@ Graphite Fuel Matrix in Out @-@ Of @-@ Pile Experiments ( No . GA @-@ 3211 ) . General Atomic Div . General Dynamics Corp. San Diego , CA .
Zumwalt , L. R. , Anderson , E.
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" conditions " ; when it occurs for more than that period , it is classified as El Niño / La Niña " episodes " .
The sign of an El Niño in the sea surface temperature pattern is when warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific . It takes the rain with it , causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific . El Niño 's warm rush of nutrient @-@ poor tropical water , heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current , replaces the cold , nutrient @-@ rich surface water of the Humboldt Current . When El Niño conditions last for many months , extensive ocean warming and the reduction in Easterly Trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient @-@ rich deep water and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious .
= = Importance to the Earth 's atmosphere = =
Sea surface temperature affects the behavior of the Earth 's atmosphere above , so their initialization into atmospheric models is important . While sea surface temperature is important for tropical cyclogenesis , it is also important in determining the formation of sea fog and sea breezes . Heat from underlying warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances as short as 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) to 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . For example , southwest of Northern Hemisphere extratropical cyclones , curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake @-@ effect snow ( or sea effect ) bands . Those bands bring strong localized precipitation , often in the form of snow , since large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences — larger than 13 ° C ( 23 ° F ) — between the water surface and the air above . Because of this temperature difference , warmth and moisture are transported upward , condensing into vertically oriented clouds which produce snow showers . The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large @-@ scale environment . The stronger the temperature decrease with height , the taller the clouds get , and the greater the precipitation rate becomes .
= = = Tropical cyclones = = =
Ocean temperature of at least 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through at minimum a 50 @-@ metre depth is one of the precursors needed to maintain a tropical cyclone ( a type of mesocyclone ) . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . This value is well above 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 60 @.@ 9 ° F ) , the long term global average surface temperature of the oceans . However , this requirement can be considered only a general baseline because it assumes that the ambient atmospheric environment surrounding an area of disturbed weather presents average conditions . Tropical cyclones have intensified when SSTs were slightly below this standard temperature .
Tropical cyclones are known to form even when normal conditions are not met . For example , cooler air temperatures at a higher altitude ( e.g. , at the 500 hPa level , or 5 @.@ 9 km ) can lead to tropical cyclogenesis at lower water temperatures , as a certain lapse rate is required to force the atmosphere to be unstable enough for convection . In a moist atmosphere , this lapse rate is 6 @.@ 5 ° C / km , while in an atmosphere with less than 100 % relative humidity , the required lapse rate is 9 @.@ 8 ° C / km .
At the 500 hPa level , the air temperature averages -7 ° C ( 18 ° F ) within the tropics , but air in the tropics is normally dry at this height , giving the air room to wet @-@ bulb , or cool as it moistens , to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection . A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of − 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 8 @.@ 2 ° F ) is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) , and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 ° C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 ° C change at 500 hpa . Inside a cold cyclone , 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) , which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres . This also explains why moisture in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere , roughly at the 500 hPa level , is normally a requirement for development . However , when dry air is found at the same height , temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres . At heights near the tropopause , the 30 @-@ year average temperature ( as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990 ) was -77 ° C ( -132 ° F ) . A recent example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season .
= Comcast Center ( Philadelphia ) =
Comcast Center is a skyscraper in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The 58 @-@ story , 297 @-@ meter ( 974 ft ) tower is the tallest building in Philadelphia and the state of Pennsylvania as well as the nineteenth tallest building in the United States . Originally called One Pennsylvania Plaza when the building was first announced in 2001 , the Comcast Center went through two redesigns before construction began in 2005 . Comcast Center was designed by architect Robert A. M. Stern for Liberty Property Trust .
At the beginning of 2005 , the final redesign and its new name the Comcast Center was unveiled . The building is named after its lead tenant , cable company Comcast , which makes the skyscraper its corporate headquarters . Leasing 1 @,@ 094 @,@ 212 square feet ( 101 @,@ 656 m2 ) , Comcast takes up 89 percent of the building . The building features retail and restaurant space and a connection to the nearby Suburban Station . In Comcast Center 's lobby is the Comcast Experience , which is a 2 @,@ 000 square feet ( 190 m2 ) high @-@ definition LED screen that has become a tourist attraction . Designed to be environmentally friendly , the skyscraper is the tallest Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) certified building in Philadelphia .
= = History = =
= = = Planning ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
In 1999 , class A office vacancy in the city was at 6 @.@ 6 % , leading developer Willard Rouse to envision a new tower . Eventually the developer settled on the location where he constructed this building , a 2 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 100 m2 ) , $ 288 per square @-@ foot parcel owned by Equitable Life Assurance Co . In 2000 , architect Robert A. M. Stern began working on a design for a skyscraper being planned by Liberty Property Trust in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . In 2001 , Liberty Property Trust announced its plan to build the 52 @-@ story One Pennsylvania Plaza in Center City . Anticipated US $ 400 million , One Pennsylvania Plaza was to be 750 ft ( 230 m ) and made of kasota stone similar to the Philadelphia Museum of Art . The site for the future skyscraper was at 17th Street and John F. Kennedy Boulevard , a site occupied by a building that housed the Defender Association of Philadelphia and a parking lot . Demolition of the building began in 2002 and ended in 2003 .
Cable company Comcast had been looking for possible new headquarters space in anticipation of the end of its lease in Centre Square in 2006 . Comcast was looking for more than 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space and developers were actively courting the company for their developments . Comcast was the only employer in the city with major expansion plans at the time . Comcast was considering staying in Centre Square , while also contemplating moving their headquarters to the new Cira Centre building or One Pennsylvania Plaza . Comcast was spread out over 10 floors in two buildings at Centre Square and wanted space on contiguous floors . In January 2004 , Liberty Property Trust unveiled a redesign for the building . The redesign turned One Pennsylvania Plaza into a 60 @-@ story , 962 feet ( 293 m ) tower , making it the tallest building in the city . In the redesign , the kasota stone was changed to a lighter granite and a short pyramidal roof was added . The redesign was a result of discussions that had begun in 2003 with Comcast about moving into the tower .
On January 3 , 2004 , Liberty Property Trust signed a 15 ½ year lease with Comcast and a construction contract with L.F. Driscoll Co . Liberty Property Trust also unveiled another redesign of the building and its new name , the Comcast Center . The now 975 feet ( 297 m ) , 58 @-@ story Comcast Center would no longer have a pyramid top and would have a complete glass facade . The architectural model was created by Richard Tenguerian .
= = = = Controversy = = = =
Liberty Property Trust hoped to get the One Pennsylvania Plaza site designated a Keystone Opportunity Improvement Zone ( KOZ ) . KOZ designation was intended to encourage development in poor , blighted areas by exempting the tenants of the building from all state and local taxes . Designating One Pennsylvania Plaza a KOZ was supported by then Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell , who said it was important to keep corporations within the city . At the time , many of Philadelphia 's big employers ' leases , including Comcast 's , were due to expire , and the employers were considering the possibility of moving out of the city and state . Rendell also said allowing Comcast to enlarge its headquarters by moving into One Pennsylvania Plaza could attract other corporate headquarters to the city . However , other Center City building owners , including Comcast 's landlord at Centre Square , HRPT Properties Trust , were opposed to the plan . They said giving the tower the KOZ designation would give it an unfair advantage because Liberty Property Trust could charge above @-@ market rents since the tax breaks would offset the cost for tenants . The group believed tenants attracted to One Pennsylvania Plaza because of the tax breaks would cause more vacancies in other Center City skyscrapers , rather than attracting more business to blighted areas as intended under the law . In early 2004 , Center City had a vacancy rate of 12 @.@ 8 % .
Both sides of the issue hired law firms , lobbyists , and business associates to promote their positions to city and state officials . A report by the Center City District said if both One Pennsylvania Plaza and the Cira Centre , another skyscraper in the KOZ controversy , were filled by corporations moving from other Center City office towers , the city could lose US $ 153 million by 2018 . A report released by the group of building owners opposed to KOZ says the two buildings could cost the city almost US $ 91 million a year . In contrast , a report issued by a consulting company hired by Liberty Property Trust said that a KOZ designation for the skyscraper could generate US $ 27 million for the city . Critics of the KOZ designation also claimed that close relationships between Liberty Property Trust and Comcast and the Rendell administration were inappropriately influencing the governor 's position on the issue . When Rendell was mayor of Philadelphia , David L. Cohen , a Comcast executive vice president , was Rendell 's chief of staff , and William P. Hankowsky , Liberty Property Trust 's chief executive , was director of Philadelphia 's development agency . Rendell dismissed the claims , saying " Every building owner in town was a contributor to me . "
Chances the bill would be passed ended in November 2004 when House Republicans in the Pennsylvania General Assembly decided not to bring the bill to a vote . Later that year , Governor Rendell released US $ 30 million from the Redevelopment Assistance Budget to Liberty Property Trust . Through the state 's Department of Economic and Community Development , Comcast received US $ 12 @.@ 75 million that included a US $ 4 @-@ million opportunity grant , US $ 6 @.@ 75 million in job @-@ creation tax credits , and US $ 2 million in job training assistance . Despite the failure to gain KOZ status , the project received US $ 42 @.@ 75 million in financial incentives from the state .
= = = Construction ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = =
The official groundbreaking ceremony was on March 31 , 2005 . The ceremony , which was held at night , featured a light show coordinated with the song " Elevation " . The song was composed specifically for the event by Curtis Institute of Music graduate Steven Hackman and recorded by the Curtis Institute of Music Orchestra . The groundbreaking also featured Kodo , the Germantown High School Drum Line , and a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall ice sculpture of the Comcast Center .
As the building was under construction , in March 2006 , Liberty Property Trust ran into trouble with Philadelphia 's Plumbers Union Local 690 , which had issues with the building 's waterless urinals . The waterless urinals were part of the plan to make the Comcast Center an environmentally friendly building because they would save an extra 1 @.@ 6 million US gallons ( 6 @,@ 100 m3 ) of water a year . The plumbers union opposed the waterless urinals , claiming they were unsanitary and would provide less work for the plumbers . Philadelphia 's Plumbing Advisory Board approved the waterless urinals on April 5 after a compromise , which stated that the building 's owners and city officials would monitor the performance of the waterless urinals , was reached . Piping that would allow water to flow to the urinals in case they needed to be converted was installed in the Comcast Center , which Liberty Property Trust says was always part of the building 's plan .
A week later , on April 13 , Liberty Property Trust sold an 80 percent interest in the Comcast Center to German real estate firm CommerzLeasing & Immobilien AG , a subsidiary of Commerzbank AG . The deal completed Liberty Property Trust 's planned recapitalization of the anticipated cost of the building , and the value of the joint venture , called Liberty / Commerz 1701 JFK Boulevard L.P. , included mortgage debt and equity .
On June 18 , 2007 , the Comcast Center was topped out . The ceremony , which was held in the building 's future plaza , featured the raising of a steel beam to the skyscraper 's highest point . The beam was signed by workers and guests and as it was raised , on account of tradition , an American flag and a tree sat on the beam . Also sitting on the beam was a statue of Philadelphia founder William Penn . The statue was there to counteract the 1980s " curse " of Billy Penn , which prevented Philadelphia 's sports teams from winning a championship following the construction of buildings taller than the statue of William Penn on top of the 548 feet ( 167 m ) Philadelphia City Hall . The 25 inches ( 640 mm ) statue of William Penn remained on the beam until it was stolen . The statue was replaced and the " curse " ended when the Philadelphia Phillies won the 2008 World Series .
Even though the building had not officially opened , Comcast office workers began moving in early December 2007 , ahead of the scheduled completion in March 2008 . The Comcast Center officially opened on June 6 , 2008 . A study sponsored by Comcast and Liberty Property Trust said the construction of the Comcast Center created 17 @,@ 200 jobs and generated US $ 2 billion of economic activity for Pennsylvania . Despite opposition by other building owners to construction of the Comcast Center , by the time most space in the Comcast Center had been leased vacancy rates in Center City offices were falling and rents were rising . Even HRPT Properties Trust had leased 70 percent of the space Comcast vacated by 2007 . The predictions by opponents did not occur mainly because Comcast ended up leasing 89 percent of the building and the offices for the Comcast Center 's second largest tenant , Citizens Bank of Pennsylvania , were new to the city .
= = Building = =
The Comcast Center is a 58 @-@ story , 975 feet ( 297 m ) glass skyscraper located at 17th Street and John F. Kennedy Boulevard in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The tower is the tallest building in Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and is the nineteenth tallest building in the United States ( tenth tallest by roof height ) , and the tallest building built in America outside of New York City or Chicago since 1993 . The 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 116 @,@ 000 m2 ) Comcast Center has 58 floors , of which 56 are occupiable . The structure of the Comcast Center comprises a central concrete core with steel framed floors . The building 's exterior features a glass curtain wall made of lightly tinted , non @-@ reflective low @-@ emissivity glass . The tower tapers inward towards the top and features two cutouts near the top of the building on the north and south sides . To prevent the tower from swaying too much in the wind , the Comcast Center contains a 300 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 100 m3 ) double @-@ chambered concrete tuned liquid column damper , the largest such damper in North America . Receiving a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) rating in April 2009 , the Comcast Center is the tallest LEED building in Philadelphia . The building was designed to use 40 percent less water than a typical office building , and the plaza was designed to reduce heat @-@ island effect from the pavement by 70 percent . Reducing air conditioning and lighting costs , the low @-@ emissivity glass curtain wall blocks 60 percent of heat while allowing 70 percent of the Sun 's light inside .
The skyscraper has 1 @,@ 238 @,@ 000 square feet ( 115 @,@ 000 m2 ) of rentable space , including 36 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) of restaurant and retail space called The Market at the Comcast Center . 16 @,@ 500 square feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m2 ) of retail space is on the underground concourse while the rest is located on the street level . The building features high ceilings with some floors having a ceiling height of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . The lower floors on the south side of the building feature four three @-@ story stacked atrias . The building also features a 500 @-@ seat concourse level dining court and an 87 @-@ space private underground parking garage . ThyssenKrupp provided the building 's 30 gearless elevators , seven hydraulic elevators , and two escalators .
The Comcast Center faces a half @-@ acre public plaza . The plaza , designed by Lucinda Sanders of OLIN , sits over underground railroad tracks . It features a seasonal outdoor restaurant , Plaza Cafe at Table 31 , that is sheltered by a trellis . Between the cafe and the building entrance is a choreographed fountain designed by Wet . The tower 's entrance is a 110 feet ( 34 m ) tall winter garden . The winter garden entrance directly connects to the underground concourse of Suburban Station . The building also has a lobby entrance that leads to the Arch Street Presbyterian Church adjacent to the tower .
The exterior lighting scheme of the building was designed by Quentin Thomas Associates , and consists primarily of white LEDs color @-@ temperature matched to the fluorescent lights used by the interior . Along each floor , the corner spandrel panels feature upward and downward @-@ facing 4,100K LEDs to create the appearance that the length of the building has been bottom @-@ lit by spotlights . The only major consistently active color element can be found at the top of the tuned mass damper ; a single row of color @-@ changing LEDs that is programmed to commemorate special events . For example , the top would be colored pink for Breast Cancer Awareness Month .
Philadelphia Inquirer architecture critic Inga Saffron described the Comcast Center as " a respectable work of architecture " that was " dignified in its stance on the grid , generous in its relationship to the city , responsible in its treatment of the environment . " She felt the tower 's shape reminded her of a giant flash drive . Saffron said the building excelled at the street level , praising the plaza , concourse , and its connection to Suburban Station . In 2009 the Comcast Center was awarded the Urban Land Institute Award for Excellence in the Americas category for the transformation of what was once mostly a vacant lot into a transit gateway .
The design had many post @-@ 9 / 11 features to improve building security .
The building was featured prominently in scenes of the film Devil ( 2010 ) .
= = = Art = = =
The Comcast Center 's winter garden entrance contains two works of installation art . The Comcast Experience is a 25 @.@ 4 feet ( 7 @.@ 7 m ) tall , 83 @.@ 3 feet ( 25 @.@ 4 m ) wide , 2 @,@ 000 square feet ( 190 m2 ) high @-@ definition LED screen situated on a wall in the winter garden . The screen is composed of 7 @.@ 8 million , 4.66mm pitch pixels housed in 6 @,@ 771 LED modules of the type used in the Barco NX @-@ 4 panel . The installation , designed and produced by Niles Creative Group , premiered on June 6 , 2008 , and runs eighteen hours each day . The content of the video includes panoramic views of Philadelphia historic sites , images of space , dancers , acrobats and actors moving around a background designed to mimic wood paneling of the walls of the lobby . Another part of the installation displays images of cranes and machinery forming the design of a clock that tells the correct time of day .
The Comcast Experience quickly became a popular tourist attraction , prompting city officials to add the Comcast Center to its tourism website . Between Thanksgiving and New Year 's Day 2008 , a holiday video was included as part of the installation .
The second piece of art is Jonathan Borofsky 's Humanity in Motion . Located in the glass atrium of the winter garden , Humanity in Motion shows ten life @-@ size human figures walking across ten horizontal poles positioned at different levels of the atrium . At ground level , looking up at the stainless steel figures , are two more figures shaped to look like a father and son .
= = Tenants = =
Comcast is the skyscraper 's largest tenant , leasing 1 @,@ 094 @,@ 212 square feet ( 101 @,@ 656 m2 ) , or 89 percent of the building . Their children 's cable network Sprout records or transmits their live studio @-@ based programming from studios based on the 30th floor . The second largest tenant is Citizens Bank of Pennsylvania , which leases 56 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m2 ) of office and retail space . Other tenants include TelAmerica Media Inc . , which leases 23 @,@ 528 square feet ( 2 @,@ 200 m2 ) , Center City Film and Video , which leases 11 @,@ 498 square feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) and the Judge Group , which leases 6 @,@ 427 square feet ( 600 m2 ) .
Comcast 's office space was designed by Daroff Design + DDI Architects and Gensler . Comcast 's space is topped by a conference room floor with the executive offices on the four floors below it . Below that are more offices and then , on the 43rd and 44th floors , is Ralph 's Cafe , a two @-@ story cafeteria space for employees . Below the cafe is the training center called Comcast University . The rest of the space is used for content and programing teams and customer service . The interior design of the offices are designed with a variety of shape and color ranging from the open white space of the upper offices to the colorful walls of the training center . Other designs include a glass and stainless steel staircase that wraps around a four @-@ story column of flat @-@ screen monitors and connects the executive floors .
The retail portion of the tower includes numerous shops and eateries . The shops and eateries include national and regional chains , and initially featured a restaurant called Table 31 . Table 31 , which had a cafe on the plaza and a restaurant spread over three floors in the tower , was owned by Philadelphia restaurateurs and chefs Georges Perrier and Chris Scarduzio . The restaurant was named after a popular table at the former Perrier and Scarduzio establishment Brasserie Perrier . Table 31 closed in 2013 , amid a dispute among its owners , and was replaced by another upscale steakhouse .
= Ponnar Shankar ( film ) =
Ponnar Shankar is a 2011 Indian epic historical drama film directed by Thiagarajan . It is a fictionalised account of the Ponnar Shankar epic , adapted from M. Karunanidhi 's novel of the same name . It features Thiagarajan 's son Prashanth in lead dual roles as warrior princes , portraying the title characters , with actresses Pooja Chopra and Divya Parameshwaran making their film debut as princesses . The film also features an extensive cast of supporting actors with Prabhu , Napoleon , Prakash Raj , Jayaram , Sneha and Kushboo amongst others . The background score and soundtrack of the film , composed by Ilaiyaraaja , was released on 27 March 2011 .
Filming , although significantly delayed , began in August 2009 at Valluvar Kottam in Chennai , where an ancient township film set with temples , forts , a lake and palaces had been built . The film 's producers encountered difficulties in making prompt payments to its crew that consisted of more than 1000 members during the filming in the forests of Pollachi . The filming then shifted to Guindy National Park in Chennai , with the battle sequences shot in Kerala and Karnataka .
Prior to its release , the film drew criticism from the Kongu Nadu Munnetra Kazhagam ( KMK ) Party with an unsuccessful petition filed at Madras High Court seeking a ban on the film , claiming that it portrayed the traditional deities of the gounder community in a bad light . The film was released on 9 April 2011 to a mixed response from critics . Although praised for its cinematography and art direction , it was criticised for having a weak plot and character deficiencies . The film was later dubbed and released as Prashanth Veer in Hindi and then as Rajakota Rahasyam in Telugu in 2012 and 2013 respectively .
= = Plot = =
A love affair between Thamarai ( Kushboo ) and her maternal uncle Nellaiyankondan ( Jayaram ) is badly received by their family , especially since he is not financially well off . Thamarai 's father , King Periyamalaikozhundhu Gounder ( Vijayakumar ) , arranges for her marriage to Mandhiyappan ( Prakash Raj ) , ruler of a neighbouring country . Thamarai rejects the arranged marriage , angering Mandhiyappan . She later marries her lover , who had come to see her marry Mandhiyappan , and challenges her brother Chinna Malaikozhundhu ( Ponvannan ) to marry his daughters off to her sons ( the marriage of cousins is a gounder custom ) . Periyamalaikozhundhu disowns his daughter for choosing Nellaiyankondan and banishes them from his kingdom .
Many years later , Mayavar ( Nasser ) , a chieftain of a village in Periyamalaikozhundhu 's kingdom , encounters twin brothers Ponnar and Shankar ( both played by Prashanth ) , who are being tutored in martial arts by Rakki Annan ( Rajkiran ) . Ponnar and Shankar are valorous and compassionate to the sufferings of the poor . One day , the twins save two sisters , Muthayi ( Pooja Chopra ) and Pavalayi ( Dhivya Parameshwaran ) , from death . The girls are later revealed to be daughters of Chinna Malaikozhundhu . Impressed with Ponnar and Shankar 's valour , Chinna Malaikozhundhu agrees to marry off his daughters to them .
A flashback reveals that Ponnar and Sankar are actually Thamarai 's sons and that Rakki , who was then a servant of Nellaiyankondan , had saved the twins as small children from Mandhiyappan . Mandhiyappan had attempted to avenge himself on Thamarai for rejecting his hand in marriage . He learns that the twins are still alive and hatches a conspiracy to kill them . He tricks Kali Mannan ( Napoleon ) and Thamarai 's father into helping him . This leads to an intense battle which ends with good prevailing over evil .
= = Cast = =
= = Historical background = =
Ponnar and Shankar , believed to be Chera chieftains , were rulers of the Ponni valanadu ( now in the Tiruchirappalli area ) , in medieval Tamil Nadu . They were said to be in good terms with the Madurai ruler , Vijaya Renga Chokkanathar ( 1706 - 1732 A. D ) , who was their contemporary . The legendary folk tale of these brothers , also known as Annamar Swamigal , has been passed down through many generations by means of village songs ( known as Gramiya Padalgal ) and traditional street theatre , known as Therukkoothu . Absence of reliable written historical records makes it difficult to ascertain the credibility of any of the above claims , along with the widely held legend which was popularised by a late 1980s M Karunanidhi 's novel on the subject . According to the legend , the brothers were born to Periyakaralanaka Mannudaiyak Kounden and Thamaraiyal of Manamadurai , belonging to the Kongu Vellalar community . They had attained the kingdom with help from the then king of Urayur , which was the capital of early Cholas . Thalaiyur Kali , a neighbouring country king belonging to the rival Vettuva Gounder caste , hatched a conspiracy against the brothers which led to a war and the subsequent death of Shankar who was tricked into proving his innocence by falling over a sword . Grieving the loss of his brother , Ponnar entered the battlefield , killing Kali Mannan , before proceeding to kill himself . The brothers were then brought to life by their sister Arukaani with help from the Goddess Periyakandiamman . The brothers , however , were told by the Gods that their earthly duties were over which led to their leaving the mortal world . Arukaani followed suit by throwing herself along with her royal ornaments into a well in Valanadu , a village in Trichy .
A temple was later erected in the spot ( which falls in the present day Veerappur ) where Shankar died , with Periyakandiamman as the presiding deity . There is also a belief that the well in Sadayandi Thoppu , near Veerappur , in which Arukaani drowned herself , still has her gold ornaments . This story has been the subject of poems , songs and a Tamil historical novel by M. Karunanidhi . Karunanidhi 's novel drew inspiration from a 1971 work written by Kavignar Sakthikanal , who had researched and documented the references to Ponnar and Shankar in the ancient palm leaves he came across at Manapparai . Today the brothers are worshipped as tutelar deities by people belonging to Kongu Vellalar community as a tribute to the brave way the brothers defended their kingdom
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In early 2007 , Thiagarajan approached M. Karunanidhi with the intention of making a film on his adaptation of the Ponnar Shankar epic that he had written in the late 1970s . The latter accepted Thiagarajan 's offer and approved of his decision to cast his son , Prashanth , in the dual lead roles . In July 2008 , the project was officially announced in a press meet . The film subsequently began pre @-@ production , with Thyagarajan opting to produce the film under his Sri Lakshmi Shanthi Films banner . The preliminary stages of the production took more than a year , with story @-@ boarding , costume designs and colossal set designs all being finalized . Prashanth revealed that extensive research about the time period alone took a year and a half .
At the launch of the film in July 2009 , Thiagarajan announced that 36 prominent actors would play lead roles with a hundred others in supporting roles . The invitation cards for the launch had 3D holographic designs which won the Sappi awards of the year 2009 . Aishwarya Rai and Deepika Padukone were initially considered for the female lead roles , before Miss India 2009 Pooja Chopra and Divya Parameshwaran accepted the roles . The producers initially listed Sathyaraj in its cast , later replaced by Prabhu . Approximately 5000 junior artists and 1000 artists from the annual Chennai Sangamam had reportedly taken part in the film . For music , Thiagarajan approached A. R. Rahman in 2008 who declined the offer , and Ilaiyaraaja eventually replaced him . Muthuraj was selected as the art director for the film and Shaji Kumar as cinematographer while Prashanth took care of visual effects .
The film ran into production trouble in mid 2010 and was close to being shelved , with sources reporting that Thiagarajan sold the film to Santiago Martin to revive the project . The reports proved to be untrue , and Thiagarajan maintained that he was still the producer of the film . The film had also begun to surpass its budget , due to the casual nature of shooting and difficulties in creating historical sets . The first shots from the film and the video for three songs were unveiled publicly in March 2011 , with the publicity campaign initiated after this .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming commenced on July 12 , 2009 at Valluvar Kottam in Chennai , where an entire ancient township film set with temples , forts , a lake and palaces was created . Scenes containing actor and politician Napoleon as the historical figure Thalaiyoor Kaali were shot there first . Thereafter , scenes featuring Jayaram and Kushboo were filmed , portraying characters which were considerably younger than they are in real life . Prashanth revealed that portraying a dual role meant that he was forced to change his costumes up to forty times a day in order portray the twin brothers ' differences correctly . In March 2010 , Sneha was roped in to play Arukaani , sister of the warrior twins , and her scenes were filmed .
The climax scenes of the film were shot in the deserts of Rajasthan in February 2011 . The final phase of filming was going on in the forests of Pollachi with elephants and horses resembling the region in the 1500s , when the production team couldn 't make prompt payments onsite to the onsite crew that consisted of more than 1000 members . The displeasure shown by the crew threatened to disrupt the filming process . Karunanidhi , the writer , visited the sets of the film in a Vadapalani studio in February 2011 to peruse over the scenes that had been shot at the time , and the filming then moved on to Guindy National Park in Chennai . The four battle sequences in the movie were shot in Perambalur , near Trichy and Warangal in Andhra Pradesh . The scene in Trichy took 28 days to complete , with 30 @,@ 000 junior artists used as soldiers along with 3000 horses and another battle scene was shot underwater . A few scenes in the film were reshot after the criticism it received at its premiere that Prashanth 's characters showed no emotions at the death of their parents .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja . The album was released on March 27 , 2011 at the Prasad Studios in Chennai with Karunanidhi presiding over the event . The soundtrack album consists of six tracks , with four of them sung by Shreya Ghoshal . The film initially had a track about the glories of Kongu Vellalar which was removed later during the editing process . One of its tracks , Annanmaar Kathai belongs to the Tamil folk genre . The song Kannai Padithaen received a special mention in The Hindu newspaper where it was cited as " simply melodious and rings in ones ears for long " . The soundtrack received a negative review by Rediff , which stated that the " tunes were all generic " and that the operatic background score did not gel well with the film 's subject . It summed that " Ilaiyaraja had just skimmed the bare bones of his usually fulfilling musical compositions " . There was also a review in Thinakaran on the inappropriateness of the film 's tracks as the reviewer felt they were ill @-@ suited to the film 's historical themes .
= = Release = =
The film began its publicity campaign in February 2011 with the goal of releasing the film during the period of the 2011 Tamil Nadu legislative assembly elections to raise support of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) Party , led by the film 's writer , M. Karunanidhi . Criticism mounted against Karunanidhi for being more involved in his artistic pursuits than in his Chief Ministerial duties as the elections approached . Prior to release , the film also drew criticism from the Kongu Nadu Munnetra Kazhagam ( KMK ) Party claiming that the film portrayed the traditional deities of the gounder community in a bad light , showing them dancing with semi @-@ nude women . Leading figures from the party wrote to the Central Board of Film Certification ( CBFC ) to ban the film , holding the promotional material used for the movie as evidence . When they received no response from CBFC , a petition was filed at Madras High Court , seeking its ban under Article 226 of the Indian constitution . The petition was dismissed , given that Article 226 can only be used by a court on a body that falls within its jurisdiction .
The film was released on April 9 , 2011 , four days before the election . It received a lukewarm response at the box office , opening at 14 theatres in Chennai where it collected ₹ 1 @,@ 430 @,@ 349 ( US $ 21 @,@ 000 ) in the first three days . After a two @-@ week run it collected ₹ 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 ( US $ 58 @,@ 000 ) from Chennai , and was declared " average " by trade pundits .
= = = Reception = = =
The film received a mixed reception from critics . The film was praised for its technical merit and art direction , Shaji Kumar 's cinematography , Ilayaraja 's re @-@ recording , crisp editing and predominantly colloquial dialogues ( unusual for Karunanidhi 's films ) , but criticised for its weak storyline and continuity problems . The Times of India praised the " terrific " art direction and Shaji Kumar 's cinematography but stated that there were far " too many gaps in the story to ensure that the movie never rises above its mediocrity and ends up being an epic disappointment " , giving it two out of five stars . Thinakaran and Nakkheeeran compared the grandeur of the film to that of S. Shankar , noted for making high budget films in Tamil . Eelam Press gave it a positive review , lauding on all aspects of the film , particularly the film 's war scenes , highlighting that by using contemporary Tamil , instead of its ancient counterpart in its dialogues , the audience could better relate to it .
Malathi Rangarajan 's review ( The Hindu ) was fair , labelling the film an " alluring canvas " , praising the opulent sets , locations , rich costumes and imposing cast , yet noted that it was " too short to negate the many loopholes " . Divya Parameshwaran was appreciated in her debut role , while Pooja Chopra was credited as being " attractive too , but [ her ] expressions needed some honing " . Though Prashanth 's stunt acts were appreciated , Rangarajan pointed out his character flaws , such as minimal expressions which were " barely a smirk " in the initial scenes , and the distinct lack of distinguishable traits between the twin characters he depicted . He also highlighted the lack of logic in Periyamalai Gounder 's ( Vijayakumar ) animosity towards his daughter Thamarai ( Kushboo ) and the cheerful appearance of Thamarai when she must have been sad and heartbroken in the wedding scene with Prakashraj . Vikatan stated that the only good aspects of the movie were its expensive sets and its avoidance of boring archaic Tamil dialogues , common in other period films in Tamil , giving it a rating of 41 points out of 100 .
= = = Historical inaccuracies = = =
Rediff declared that " there is nothing even remotely historical about the movie " . It added that though the film is said to be based on Karunanidhi 's novel , the film 's commercialised look , along with " half clad women prancing around " , made it resemble Ashutosh Gowariker 's 2008 film Jodhaa Akbar . It went on that " historical accuracy had been thrown to the winds " and that there were no references to actual places , kings or time periods . The Times of India noted the historical inconsistencies , such as the presence of a British constructed dam in a scene while the film is set in pre @-@ colonial period , " wire stunts of Prashanth in action sequences " , revealing costumes donned by the lead actresses and also the bamboo dance sequence in the film which is actually native to Nagaland . It summed that the film lacks attention to detail which is a necessary feature of historical films . The New Indian Express called it a " pseudo historical " . Kavignar Sakthikanal , whose 1971 work was the basis for Karunanidhi 's novel , observed that the inaccuracies originated from the novel itself due its usage of literary devices like exaggeration . He further stated that Ponnar and Shankar remained celibate throughout their lives while in the movie they were shown romancing with immodestly dressed women . They married only to avenge the ill treatment meted out to their mother and promptly sent their newly wed wives to prison denying coital relations with them , he added . Also , in the film the title characters were not shown committing suicide as in Sakthikanal and Karunanidhi 's version , but rather were depicted emerging victorious from the war alive .
= Ontario Highway 60 =
King 's Highway 60 , commonly referred to as Highway 60 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The 255 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 158 @.@ 9 mi ) highway serves as the primary corridor through Algonquin Provincial Park , where it is dedicated as the Frank McDougall Parkway . East of Algonquin Park , the route serves east – west traffic in the highlands of central Ontario . It begins at Highway 11 in Huntsville and ends at Highway 17 near Renfrew .
Highway 60 was designated in 1937 between Huntsville and Lake Dore , near where it met Highway 41 . During the 1940s , the route shared a common termini with Highway 41 at Golden Lake . When Highway 41 was extended north to Pembroke in 1957 , Highway 60 was routed along it between Golden Lake and Eganville . It was extended east to Highway 17 in downtown Renfrew circa 1961 . It was extended further east when Highway 17 was rerouted around Renfrew in 1977 , establishing the current route .
= = Route description = =
Highway 60 begins at an interchange with Highway 11 in Huntsville . It crosses through central Ontario in a generally east – west orientation . The triangle @-@ shaped area bounded by Highways 11 , 17 and 60 is largely uninhabited wilderness dotted with lakes and muskeg .
West of Huntsville , Highway 60 meanders east then south through the northeastern corner of Muskoka District , meeting Highway 35 at Dwight . It travels northeast from there , briefly passing through Haliburton County before crossing into Nipissing District and entering Algonquin Park . An Ontario Parks visitor 's permit is not required to drive through Algonquin Park . However , one is required for the use of any trails , campgrounds , the Visitor Centre , or similar facilities within the park boundary . Moose and deer are very common through Algonquin , especially at night and in the morning , and present a major driving hazard . The 56 @-@ kilometre ( 35 mi ) journey through Algonquin Park offers some of the most famous scenery in Canada , including vistas of numerous lakes and geological formations that have been captured in the arts of Group of Seven painter Tom Thomson among others . The park is considered the most important place in Canada for biological and environmental research .
Highway 60 exits the park in the Township of South Algonquin travelling south into Whitney , curving east and intersecting Highway 127 . Beyond Highway 127 , it passes through the Madawaska Highlands , following the historic Opeongo Line . It passes through Madawaska , encountering Secondary Highway 523 , then curves southeast into Renfrew County . The route enters Barry 's Bay , where it turns east and meets the southern leg of former Highway 62 , where a concurrency with it began prior to 1998 . After passing through Wilno , the route curves northeast around Killaloe , intersecting the northern leg of former Highway 62 and Highway 512 .
Continuing around Golden Lake and through the village of the same name , Highway 60 travels southeast into the Ottawa Valley towards Eganville , where it has a 3 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 4 mi ) concurrency with Highway 41 . For the remainder of the route , the highway travels near the Bonnechere River . It continues east then south to Douglas , where drivers must turn northeast to continue along the highway . Highway 60 slowly curves southeast before entering the town of Renfrew , where it is known as Stewart Street , Bridge Street , Raglan Street South , Veterans Memorial Boulevard and O 'Brien Road . It encounters the eastern terminus of Highway 132 before curving east to end at Highway 17 on the outskirts of the town .
= = History = =
Highway 60 was assumed on April 1 , 1937 , when the Department of Northern Development was amalgamated by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) . At that time , the highway ended in Lake Dore , north of Eganville and was 218 @.@ 2 km ( 135 @.@ 6 mi ) long . Highway 41 travelled along the portion of what is now Highway 60 between Eganville and Golden Lake . The route was shortened by 16 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 5 mi ) to create a shared terminus with Highway 41 between 1942 and 1949 .
On April 11 , 1957 , the Eganville – Pembroke Road was assumed as an extension of Highway 41 , with the former portion of the route between Eganville and Golden Lake being renumbered as part of Highway 60 . Highway 60 was extended to Highway 17 near Rosebank , north of Renfrew , circa 1961 . With the construction of the Renfrew Bypass , which began in June 1974 , and was completed in 1977 , the section of Highway 17 between O 'Brien Road east of Renfrew and Haley Road north of Haley Station was renumbered as an extension of Highway 60 , establishing the current route of the highway .
In 1976 , the section through Algonquin Park was dedicated in honour of the 35 years of service by Frank Archibald MacDougall : ten years as park superintendent and 25 as Deputy Minister of Lands and Forests . It is signed as the Frank MacDougall Parkway .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 60 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Tosa @-@ class battleship =
The Tosa @-@ class battleships ( 土佐型戦艦 , Tosa @-@ gata Senkan ) were two dreadnoughts ordered as part of the " Eight @-@ Eight " fleet for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the early 1920s . The ships were larger versions of the preceding Nagato class , and carried an additional 41 @-@ centimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) twin @-@ gun turret . The design for the class served as a basis for the Amagi @-@ class battlecruisers .
Both ships were launched in late 1921 , but the first ship , Tosa , was cancelled in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty before it could be completed , and was used in experiments testing the effectiveness of its armor scheme before being scuttled in the Bungo Channel . The hull of the second ship , Kaga , was converted into an aircraft carrier of the same name . The carrier supported Japanese troops in China during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War of the late 1930s , and took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and the invasion of Rabaul in the Southwest Pacific in January 1942 . The following month her aircraft participated in a combined carrier airstrike on Darwin , Australia , during the Dutch East Indies campaign . She was sunk during the Battle of Midway in 1942 .
= = Background = =
The IJN believed that a modern battle fleet of eight battleships and eight armored cruisers was necessary for the defense of Japan ; the government ratified that idea in 1907 . This policy was the genesis of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program , the development of a cohesive battle line of sixteen capital ships less than eight years old . Advances in naval technology represented by the British battleship HMS Dreadnought and the battlecruiser HMS Invincible forced the IJN to reevaluate on several occasions which ships it considered " modern " and , in 1911 , it restarted the program with orders for the Fusō @-@ class dreadnoughts and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers . By 1915 , the IJN was halfway to its goal and wanted to order four more dreadnoughts , but the Diet rejected the plan and authorized only the dreadnought Nagato and two battlecruisers in the 1916 budget . Later that year American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans for ten additional battleships and six battlecruisers , and the Diet authorized three more dreadnoughts in response the following year : a second Nagato @-@ class battleship — Mutsu — and two to a modified design , Tosa and Kaga .
= = Design and description = =
The IJN began reevaluating the Nagato design in light of lessons learned from the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , experiments evaluating armor protection , and newly acquired information on the protective schemes of British and American capital ships . These lessons highlighted the need for better protection of the main gun turrets and magazines , as well as thicker deck armor to protect against plunging fire . Existing methods of defense against mines and torpedoes had also proved to be inadequate and needed improvement . Eleven new designs were rejected between October and early 1917 before Captain Yuzuru Hiraga , superintendent of shipbuilding and the naval architect in charge of the fundamental design of the ships of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet , presented a heavily modified version of the Nagato design , A @-@ 125 , to be built in lieu of the second ship of the class , Mutsu , on 12 June 1917 , well before she was actually laid down .
Hiraga 's design for the ship reflected the latest combat experience as well as incorporating advances in boiler technology . It added an extra twin main @-@ gun turret , using space and weight made available by the reduction of the number of boilers from 21 to 12 while the power remained the same . He reduced the secondary armament from 20 guns to 16 ; they were moved up a deck to improve their arcs of fire and their ability to shoot during heavy weather . To increase the ship 's protection he proposed to angle the belt armor outwards to improve its resistance to horizontal fire , and to thicken the lower deck armor and the torpedo bulkhead . Hiraga also planned to add anti @-@ torpedo bulges to improve the ship 's underwater protection . He estimated that his ship would displace as much as Nagato , although it would cost about a million yen more . These changes would have considerably delayed the ship 's completion and were rejected by the Navy Ministry . The rejected design formed the basis for a much larger 39 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 38 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ) battleship , designated as A @-@ 127 , with nearly twice as much armor weight as the Nagatos . It was designed to achieve the same speed as the older ships , to allow them to maneuver together as a tactical formation . This design was accepted on 27 March 1918 and became the Tosa class .
The Tosa @-@ class ships had a planned displacement of 39 @,@ 900 t ( 39 @,@ 300 long tons ) , and 44 @,@ 200 t ( 43 @,@ 500 long tons ) at a full load . They would have been 231 @.@ 65 meters ( 760 @.@ 0 ft ) long at the waterline , and 234 @.@ 09 meters ( 768 @.@ 0 ft ) overall ; the ships would have had a beam of 30 @.@ 48 meters ( 100 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 39 meters ( 30 @.@ 8 ft ) . The Tosa class would have had a metacentric height of 1 @.@ 292 meters ( 4 ft 2 @.@ 9 in ) at normal load . A turbo @-@ electric propulsion system was considered for these ships after the United States announced that the system was a great success in the battleship USS New Mexico , and the Japanese estimated that a 70 @,@ 000 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 52 @,@ 000 kW ) turbo @-@ electric plant could be installed in the Tosa class , which would have given the ships a speed of 25 @.@ 25 knots ( 46 @.@ 76 km / h ; 29 @.@ 06 mph ) , a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) range at full speed , and a 7 @,@ 800 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 14 @,@ 400 km ; 9 @,@ 000 mi ) range at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , but this system was rejected . More conventional Curtis geared steam turbines were chosen , powered by 12 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers , eight of which would have used fuel oil and four of which would have used a mixture of oil and coal . This system would have provided 91 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 68 @,@ 000 kW ) to four propeller shafts for a top speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) . The fuel stores would have amounted to 3 @,@ 600 long tons ( 3 @,@ 700 t ) of oil and 1 @,@ 800 long tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of coal ; at a speed of 14 knots , this would have enabled a maximum range of 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Tosa @-@ class ships were intended to be armed with a main battery of ten 45 @-@ caliber 41 @-@ centimeter guns in five twin turrets , four of which were superfiring fore and aft . Numbered one through five from front to rear , the hydraulically powered turrets had an elevation range of − 2 to + 35 degrees . The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute . The ships were designed to carry 90 rounds per gun , although space was available for 110 .
The guns used Type 91 armor @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 780 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . Also available was a 936 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 064 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) .
The ships ' secondary armament of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 3rd Year Type 14 @-@ centimeter guns would have been mounted in casemates , 12 on the upper sides of the hull and eight in the superstructure . The 3rd Year Type guns had a maximum range of 19 @,@ 750 meters ( 21 @,@ 600 yd ) at an elevation of + 35 degrees . Each gun could fire a 38 @-@ kilogram ( 84 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute and was provided with 120 rounds . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by four 40 @-@ caliber 3rd Year Type 8 @-@ centimeter AA guns in single mounts . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) high @-@ angle guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . The guns were normally supplied with 250 rounds each , although space was available for a total of 400 rounds per gun . These 3rd Year Type guns were intended to be replaced by four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns .
The Tosas were intended to mount eight 61 @-@ centimeter ( 24 in ) torpedo tubes , four above water and four below . The former were to be provided with two torpedoes each and the latter with three each .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' armor protection was designed to break up 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) shells from a distance of 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 16 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 yd ) and the primary armor plates were backed up by splinter bulkheads intended to contain any shell fragments . They would have been protected by a waterline main belt of Vickers cemented armor that sloped outwards 15 degrees at the top . Amidships it would have been 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick and 254 mm ( 10 in ) thick fore and aft . Approximately 1 @.@ 83 meters ( 6 ft 0 in ) of the armor belt was below the waterline . The side armor was closed off at its ends by bulkheads 229 – 254 mm ( 9 – 10 in ) thick . The main battery turrets and the portions of the barbettes above the main deck would have had between 229 and 305 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 and 12 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plating , and the conning tower walls would have had armor 254 and 356 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 and 14 @.@ 0 in ) thick and a roof of 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) armor plates . The communications tube below the conning tower would have had walls 76 – 127 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
The middle deck was the primary armored deck and was connected to the top of the armor belt . It would have consisted of a 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) plate of New Vickers non @-@ cemented armor on top of a 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) plate of high @-@ tensile steel ( HTS ) above the engine and boiler rooms . Above the magazines , the thickness of the HTS plate would have increased to 63 mm . The lower deck would have consisted of two 19 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) plates of HTS . For the first time in a Japanese ship , the Tosas would have had the lower portion of the single funnel protected by 229 mm of armor . In addition , the funnel openings in the lower deck would have been protected by armor gratings .
The ships would have had an internal torpedo bulge to provide protection against underwater explosions . This was backed by a torpedo bulkhead also made up of three 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) layers of HTS and angled outwards to meet the base of the waterline belt . It connected to a 12 @.@ 7 – 32 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 – 1 @.@ 26 in ) splinter bulkhead on the lower deck behind the waterline belt . Behind the torpedo bulge and the splinter bulkhead was another splinter bulkhead 12 @.@ 7 – 19 mm thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Cancellation and fates = =
Construction of both ships began in 1920 , but the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty intervened , mandating the cancellation of all capital ships being built . Work stopped on the two Tosa @-@ class battleships on 5 February 1922 . After being stricken on 1 April 1924 , Tosa 's incomplete hull was used to test her armor scheme against long @-@ range naval gunfire , aerial bombs , mines , and torpedoes . Two of the shells fired at her fell short , but deeply penetrated her hull through the thin armor of the torpedo bulge below the waterline armor belt . This sparked an interest in optimizing underwater performance of Japanese shells that culminated in production of the Type 91 armor @-@ piercing shell . Conversely , the IJN took measures to defend against shells of this type when reconstructing its existing battleships during the 1930s , as well as in the designs of the Yamato @-@ class battleships and the heavy cruisers of the Mogami and Tone classes . Tosa 's torpedo defense system proved able to defeat 200 kg ( 440 lb ) torpedo warheads , but not larger 350 kg ( 770 lb ) ones . After the conclusion of the tests , the ship was scuttled by opening her Kingston valves on 9 February 1925 in 650 m ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) of water in the Bungo Channel after the demolition charges failed to detonate .
The battlecruiser Amagi , which was being converted to an aircraft carrier under the terms of the treaty , was wrecked in the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 and rendered unusable . As a result , Kaga , which was originally slated to be scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty ( Chapter I , Article IX ) , was converted in Amagi 's stead . No work took place until 1925 as new plans were drafted and earthquake damage to the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal was repaired . Although the ship was commissioned on 31 March 1928 , she did not join the Combined Fleet ( Rengō Kantai ) until 30 November 1929 .
Much like the converted Amagi @-@ class battlecruiser Akagi , Kaga was fitted with two flying @-@ off decks " stepped down " from a flight deck that extended two @-@ thirds of the ship ; in theory , this allowed planes to take off directly from the hangars while other planes landed on the top . As aircraft became heavier during the 1930s , they required longer distances to get airborne and the lower flight decks became useless . Kaga 's 1935 reconstruction removed the lower two decks and extended the top flight deck to the bow . As completed , the ship had two main hangar decks and a third auxiliary hangar with a total capacity of 60 aircraft .
Kaga was provided with a heavy gun armament in case she was surprised by enemy cruisers and forced to give battle , but her large and vulnerable flight deck , hangars , and other features made her more of a target in any surface action than a fighting warship . Carrier doctrine was still evolving at this time and the impracticability of carriers engaging in gun duels had not yet been realized . The ship was armed with ten 20 cm / 50 3rd Year Type guns : one twin @-@ gun turret on each side of the middle flight deck and six in casemates aft . Kaga 's waterline armored belt was reduced from 280 to 152 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) during her reconstruction and her deck armor was also reduced from 102 to 38 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) . The carrier displaced 26 @,@ 900 long tons ( 27 @,@ 300 t ) at standard load , and 33 @,@ 693 long tons ( 34 @,@ 234 t ) at full load , nearly 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) less than her designed displacement as a battleship . This reduction in her displacement increased her speed to 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) and gave her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
In 1933 – 35 Kaga was rebuilt to increase her top speed , improve her exhaust systems , and adapt her flight decks to more modern , heavier aircraft . After the reconstruction , the ship displaced 38 @,@ 200 long tons ( 38 @,@ 800 t ) at standard load , better boilers gave her a top speed of 28 @.@ 3 knots ( 52 @.@ 4 km / h ; 32 @.@ 6 mph ) , and additional fuel storage increased her range to 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and raised her aircraft capacity to 90 . The ten 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) guns , although now all mounted singly in casemates , were retained .
Kaga 's aircraft first supported Japanese troops in China during the Shanghai Incident of 1932 and participated in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in the late 1930s . With five other fleet carriers , she took part in the Pearl Harbor raid in December 1941 and the invasion of Rabaul in the Southwest Pacific in January 1942 . The following month her aircraft participated in a combined carrier airstrike on Darwin , Australia , helping secure the conquest of the Dutch East Indies by Japanese forces . She missed the Indian Ocean raid in April as she had to return to Japan for repairs after hitting a reef in February . Following repairs , Kaga rejoined the 1st Air Fleet for the attack on Midway Atoll in June 1942 .
The IJN was surprised by the appearance of three American carriers and , partly due to Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's plan in which ships were too dispersed to support each other , Kaga , along with the other three carriers present , was sunk by aircraft from USS Enterprise , Hornet and Yorktown on 4 June .
= Danebury =
Danebury is an Iron Age hill fort in Hampshire in England , about 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north @-@ west of Winchester ( grid reference SU323376 ) . The site , covering 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) , was excavated by Barry Cunliffe in the 1970s . Danebury is considered a type @-@ site for hill forts , and was important in developing the understanding of hill forts , as very few others have been so intensively excavated .
Built in the 6th century BC , the fort was in use for almost 500 years , during a period when the number of hill forts in Wessex greatly increased . Danebury was remodelled several times , making it more complex and resulting in it becoming a " developed " hill fort . It is now protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , a Site of Special Scientific Interest. and a Local Nature Reserve .
= = Investigation = =
Until the 19th century very little was known about hill forts , as none had been excavated and their original purpose had been long forgotten . In the medieval period , their construction was attributed variously to iconic figures such as King Arthur , King Alfred , the Danes , Julius Caesar , and even giants . By the 18th century , it was widely thought that hill forts were Roman in origin .
Interest in hill forts was roused by the investigation of a hill fort at Worlebury Hill in the early @-@ 19th century . The first excavation at Danebury was carried out in November 1859 , under antiquarian Augustus Wollaston Franks . His workers cleared out an Iron Age pit that was 2 metres ( 7 ft ) deep and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) in diameter , although they were not able to ascertain its purpose .
The first widespread investigation of hill forts was carried out in the second half of the 19th century under Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers . Pitt @-@ Rivers ' work on the hill forts of Sussex led him to the conclusion that most hill forts were built in the Iron Age , and it paved the way for future work on hill forts . In the 1920s and 1930s , there was " hill fort mania " in British archaeology ; by 1940 , about 80 had been archaeologically excavated .
In the late 1960s , Barry Cunliffe decided to examine a single hill fort and its surrounding territory in an attempt to shed light on Iron Age society , its politics , and population . With the permission of the site 's owner , Hampshire County Council , archaeological excavations began in 1969 and continued until 1988 . Over the twenty seasons archaeologists spent examining the site , they looked at the defences and the gateway , and excavated 57 % of the interior , where the remains of wattle and timber houses were discovered . It was the lengthiest investigation of any hill fort in western Europe .
A further non @-@ invasive survey was carried out in 1997 , as part of the Wessex Hillforts Project , using a magnetometer .
= = History = =
There is no historical record of events in Iron Age Britain , so archaeological investigation is the only way to reconstruct the history of Danebury , and other such hill forts . It is impossible to state with certainty every significant event in the hill fort ’ s history , but where an event leaves an archaeologically identifiable trace , a general chronology can be established , although dates are much less easy to establish . The hill fort was occupied from the mid @-@ 6th century BC until around 100 BC , and the defences were remodelled numerous times .
Early in its life the site consisted of a single ditch encompassing an area of about 5 ha ( 12 acres ) , with two gateways , one in the south @-@ west and another in the east ; two more rings of ditches were added later . The north part of the fort was occupied by four @-@ post structures , probably granaries , which were later replaced by storage pits , and in the south part , there were roundhouses in between granaries and storage pits . When Danebury was built in the 6th century BC , it coincided with the construction of several other hillforts in the Wessex region , all of a similar size and layout .
The first phase of defences dates from around 550 BC , and consists of a rampart behind a ditch . When the ditch was cut , the chalk rubble fill was used to build the rampart , along with some of the local clay soil . The material was contained by timber , making it a box rampart with a vertical face . The east gateway was a simple 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide gap in the defences with a timber gatehouse ( the south @-@ west gateway has not been excavated ) .
At least 50 years after the rampart was first built , it was raised with the addition of more chalk material ; this has been interpreted as maintenance work due to the ramparts beginning to collapse as the timber box started to rot . Around the same time the ramparts were altered , the east gateway was widened to 9 m ( 30 ft ) . The gates were burnt down not long after the east gateway was altered . For a short time the hill fort was gateless , when the east gateway was repaired the passage from the entrance was lengthened .
In around 400 BC the third phase heightened the rampart and at the same time the ditch was re @-@ dug . The V @-@ shaped ditch was 6 m ( 20 ft ) deep and between 11 m ( 36 ft ) and 12 m ( 39 ft ) wide ; the size of the previous ditch is unknown as re @-@ cutting the ditch has made it hard to ascertain . The wooden box was abandoned in favour of allowing the rampart to slope down to the ditch , but to provide protection the rampart would probably have been surmounted by a dry stone wall made from flint . From the top of the ramparts to the bottom of the ditch is about 16 m ( 52 ft ) .
Although the rampart and ditch were in use for a long time , during this period the east gateway was remodelled twice , making it longer , and creating earthworks on each side of the approach . The southwest gateway was given extra defences in the form of earthworks before being abandoned and filled in . Also in this period , the southern part of the fort became populated with four- and six @-@ post structures , probably granaries , replacing the earlier roundhouses . The fort 's centre was probably used for shrines while houses were mainly built close to the ramparts . A new series of earthworks was created beyond the already existing ring , turning Danebury into a complex multivallate ( more than one series of earthworks ) fort . They added 5 @.@ 3 ha ( 13 acres ) to the fort and probably were used to protect livestock .
Danebury was abandoned around 100 BC , in common with the trend across Britain for hill forts to fall out of use around that time . Once again , the east gate was burnt down , although this time it was not replaced . Most of the inhabitants deserted Danebury , and groups of bodies were disposed of in charnel pits . The site continued in use , but on a much smaller scale than before . Buildings were left to decay and the interior of the fort became used for grazing . By the start of the 1st century AD , the settlement of Danebury was probably nothing more than a single farm .
= = Interpretation = =
Danebury Hill , on top of which the hill fort sits , rises to 143 m ( 469 ft ) . The hill fort dominates the local landscape , which rarely rises above 100 m ( 330 ft ) , and has commanding views of the area . The surrounding country has light soil that would have been easily cultivated . Territory commanded by Danebury included areas of forest , pasture in the uplands , and access to water sources in the form of the River Test . To the west runs Wallop Brook which flows south east into the River Test .
The nearby hill forts of Figsbury Ring , Quarley Hill , and Bury Hill were probably established around the same time as Danebury . All of a similar size , the hillforts were generally equally spaced , commanding similar sized territories and resources . There is some debate whether hill forts were purely defensive structures , and to what extent they were occupied . Cunliffe interprets the ramparts as essentially defensive , although he concedes that they may have been a means of displaying wealth and power , as Danebury would have been visible for miles around .
The ramparts were the strongest part of the fort , with the entrances the weakest . The complex gateways support the view that the site was militaristic ; the long , curving east entrance maximised the time it would have taken for attackers to enter the fort and would have allowed defenders on the ramparts more time to hurl missiles , while the southwest entrance narrowed forcing attackers together and causing disarray . Iron Age society was , in Cunliffe 's view , " effervescent ... essentially unstable , and prone to conflict " , and he uses the possible military nature of hill forts to support this view . The burning of the gates was probably the result of an attack , and the charnel pits dating from the end of the intense period of Danebury 's occupation contain about 100 bodies , many with injuries that appear to have been inflicted by weapons such as spears and swords .
Surrounding Danebury hill fort are many smaller farmsteads , between 1 ha ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) and 2 ha ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) in size . The fort was supplied with grain from the surrounding farmsteads , and could hold 20 times more food than the average farmstead , indicating Danebury had a higher status than local farmsteads . This is further supported by the fact that the hill fort was used as a " central place " where people could gather to trade and store commodities . Periods of intensified activity in hill forts such as Danebury coinciding with depopulation of the surrounding landscape could indicate the increasing importance of hill forts in society , or that there were times of unrest when people would retreat to the relative safety of a hill fort 's ramparts .
While other hill forts were abandoned in the 4th century BC , in about 400 BC Danebury grew into what is known as a " developed hill fort " . Danebury 's importance in the landscape increased over time , as demonstrated by its continued use until around 100 AD . It was possibly inhabited by a king or chieftain and his family , retinue , and craftsmen , and may have housed a population of 200 – 350 . There are traces of craft and industry on a large scale , and use of the site by a social elite is indicated by the presence of shrines in the centre of the fort .
= My Immortal =
" My Immortal " is a song by American nu @-@ metal band Evanescence from their debut studio album Fallen ( 2003 ) . It was released by Wind @-@ up Records on December 8 , 2003 , as the third single from the album . The song was written by guitarist Ben Moody , lead singer Amy Lee and keyboardist David Hodges , and it was produced by Moody and Dave Fortman . Various versions of " My Immortal " were recorded ; one of them was included on the demo album Origin ( 2000 ) and another on the EP release Mystary ( 2003 ) . The version originally appearing on Origin was later included on Fallen , featuring piano with backing strings . The version of the song released as a single was dubbed the " band version " because of the complete band 's performance of the bridge and final chorus of the song .
" My Immortal " is a piano power ballad written in slow tempo . Lyrically , it talks about " a spirit staying with you after its death and haunting you until you actually wish that the spirit were gone because it won 't leave you alone . " Critical reception towards the song was positive , with critics complimenting its piano melody . In 2005 it received a nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 47th Grammy Awards . The song was also commercially successful , peaking within the top ten in more than ten countries . It also peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the charts in Canada , Greece and the US Adult Pop Songs chart . The single was certified gold in the United States , and platinum in Australia .
An accompanying music video directed by David Mould was filmed entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white in Gothic Quarter , Barcelona on October 10 , 2003 . The video shows Lee sitting and singing on various locations , but never touching the ground . Shots of Moody are also shown but he is never together with his band or Lee . The video was nominated in the category for Best Rock Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards . The song was performed by the band during their three concert tours : the Fallen Tour ( 2003 ) , The Open Door Tour ( 2007 ) and the Evanescence Tour ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) . It was also performed live during some of their television appearances and award ceremonies such as the Billboard Music Awards .
= = Background = =
The song was written by Ben Moody , Amy Lee and David Hodges and produced by Moody and Dave Fortman ; it was the fourth song to be written for Evanescence . Amy Lee 's vocals and the piano parts of the song were recorded in NRG Recording Studios , California . " My Immortal " was mixed by Dave Fortman at Conway Recording Studios in North Hollywood while it was mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound in New York City . The orchestral parts in the song were arranged by the composer Graeme Revell .
The first known recording of " My Immortal " was made for the band 's self @-@ titled EP , which solely featured Lee 's vocals accompanied by a piano , and slightly different lyrics . The song was cut from the EP before it was released . In 2000 , the song was re @-@ recorded for the band 's demo album , Origin , which contains a rearranged piano melody and lyrics , including the bridge added by Lee . It was again recorded for the band 's debut full @-@ length debut studio album , Fallen where the vocals of the demo version ( that were recorded by Lee at 18 years old ) were accompanied by slightly different instrumentation . It is also featured on the band 's 2003 EP , Mystary , which is much more similar to the band version . Wind @-@ up Records preferred the Origin version , which is why the exact vocals recorded from 2000 are again included in the song 's album version . The version that was recorded and released as a single is moderately alternative to that of the album version , and is often referred to as the " band version " because of the additional band performing the bridge and final chorus of the song . The later pressings of Fallen contain the single version ( or " band version " ) of " My Immortal " as a hidden track . Lee expressed some dissatisfaction with the early versions of the song saying , " It 's not even a real piano . And the sound quality is bad because we had to break into the studio to record it late at night when no one was around because we couldn 't afford a real session . "
= = Composition = =
" My Immortal " is a piano and power ballad written in the key of A major . It was described as a " goth @-@ meets @-@ pop " song . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time and performed in slow and free tempo of 80 beats per minute . Lee 's vocal range for the song runs from the low musical note of A3 to the high note of C ♯ 5 . Her vocals are accompanied by a simple piano . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters concluded that in " My Immortal " , Lee is " doing her McLachlan / Tori Amos schtick " . The song was also compared with some of Enya 's material .
The lyrics of the song refer to a spirit that haunts the memory of a grieving loved one . Similar to several other songs written by Moody , the lyrics of the song are based on a short story he had previously written . According to Lee , it was " Ben [ Moody ] ' s song . " Moody said that the song talks about " a spirit staying with you after its death and haunting you until you actually wish that the spirit were gone because it won 't leave you alone . " He also stated in the booklet of Fallen that he dedicated the song to his grandfather , Bill Holcomb . In " My Immortal " , Lee expresses her feelings through the line , " Though you 're still with me / I 've been alone all along . " A writer for IGN said that " ' My Immortal ' is a song of pain and despair caused by the loss of a family member or very close friend and how it drove her [ Lee ] to the edge of insanity . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received critical acclaim from music critics . Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone said that " ' My Immortal ' lets Lee wail about her personal demons over simple piano and some symphonic dressings — it 's a power ballad that P.O.D. and Tori Amos fans could both appreciate . " Chris Harris of the same publication found it to be a " song that 's become something of an Alanis Morissette @-@ like battle hymn for her [ Lee 's ] goth disciples over the last few years . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post called " My Immortal " a " majestic " song that helped the band win a Grammy Award . Blair R. Fischer from MTV News described the song as a " delicate , heartfelt ballad " . IGN 's Ed Thompson concluded that " My Immortal " was " one of the first and best songs Evanescence ever wrote " . Jordan Reimer , a writer of The Daily Princetonian found a " haunting beauty " in the song . In 2005 the band was nominated in the category for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 47th Grammy Awards for the song .
A less positive review was written for The Guardian by Tom Reynolds , where he put the song at number 24 on his list " Sad songs say so much " . Talking about the composition and the meaning of the song , he wrote that the song was a " whimpering post @-@ breakup tune in which lead singer Amy Lee pitifully mourns the end of a relationship over a piano accompaniment that sounds like Pachelbel after the Prozac wore off " , and that it " closely follows the ' quantum tragedy paradigm ' : the shorter the time two people spent together as a couple , the more overwrought the song is that describes their break @-@ up . "
= = Chart performance = =
The song is considered the band 's second most successful single of all time , generally peaking within the top 20 of more than 10 countries internationally . On the chart issue dated April 10 , 2004 , " My Immortal " peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , while on the Pop Songs chart it peaked at number two on March 27 , 2004 . It has peaked at number nineteen on the Adult Contemporary chart as well . On February 17 , 2009 , " My Immortal " was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The song managed to top the charts of Canada , Greece and Billboard 's Adult Pop Songs in the United States . It also helped Fallen to move from number nine to number three on the Billboard 200 chart , selling another 69 @.@ 000 copies . On the Billboard 's Radio Songs chart , the song peaked at number seven on April 10 , 2004 . Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems placed the song at number six on the list of most played radio songs in 2004 with 317 @,@ 577 spins .
On the Australian Singles Chart , " My Immortal " debuted at number four on January 25 , 2004 which later became its peak position . The next eleven weeks , it remained in the top ten of the chart , and it was seen on the chart at number forty @-@ four for the week ending June 13 , 2004 . The single was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that country . On December 20 , 2003 , " My Immortal " debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart which later also became its peak position . On February 14 , 2004 the song dropped out of the chart , and it later re @-@ entered at number eighty @-@ four on July 18 , 2008 . After spending several weeks on different positions on the UK Rock Chart , on August 27 , 2011 , it peaked at number one . The next week , " My Immortal " moved to number two being replaced by the band 's single " What You Want " ( 2011 ) , and one week later it returned at number one on the chart . That achievement helped the song re @-@ enter on the UK Singles Chart at number eighty @-@ one on August 27 , 2011 and at number eighty @-@ nine on October 22 , 2011 .
= = Music video = =
A music video directed by David Mould was filmed entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white in Plaça de Sant Felip Neri , Gothic Quarter ( Barri Gòtic ) , Barcelona on October 10 , 2003 . Lee described the place of the filming during an interview with MTV News : " We did it in a cool , old area of town . [ ... ] We shot some of it at this scenic point , and there was a rooftop where you could see Barcelona below . It was really neat . " The version of the song used on the video is different from the one off the record , with the band entering the song at the end of the bridge and a string arrangement by David Campbell . Evanescence wanted the band version to be on the album as well , but " the label was stuck on the demo and wouldn 't let us use the version we really wanted . [ ... ] We fought back and forth about it and finally we gave in , but we were all so angry about it . " The video was filmed two weeks before Ben Moody 's departure from the band . Amy Lee admitted that the visuals in the video were " striking in retrospect " , but added that the similarities between what was filmed and Moody 's departure were coincidental : " We shot it in Barcelona about a week before Ben left the band unexpectedly . I think none of us knew , including him , that he was going anywhere . And when we got the video back and watched it , it was right after he had left . And it 's bizarre how much the video is about that . We all sat there with goose bumps , like , ' Holy crap . We 've got to watch that again . ' " In an interview with the British magazine Rock Sound , Lee further explained the concept which was related with his departure :
" You know what ? When you see the video it 's really amazing . Obviously we filmed it before this [ Ben Moody 's departure ] happened and it 's amazing irony , how much it makes sense . We 're all separated and wandering the streets looking like it 's the day after a funeral , with Ben in a suit and bare feet , and I 'm never touching the ground . I 'm sitting on a phone booth or lying on a car , to hint that I 'm dead , that I 'm singing from the dead . It 's all about separation . It 's almost like the director knew what was going to happen , but he can 't have known . It 's just one of those fate things . "
The music video for " My Immortal " begins with Lee sitting on a fountain . Her legs and arms are covered with bandage as she puts them in the water . She is wearing a long white dress and is seen walking around the fountain , surrounded by children and other people . Shots of Moody follow , who appears to be sullen and withdrawn . He is wearing a suit and his feet are bare . His shoulders sag and his head slumps forward as he delicately plays piano , and he later picks up his jacket as if he is about to leave . When the bridge starts , the band is shot performing in one room while Moody is in another , playing on the piano . Throughout the video , Lee is never filmed on ground level . She walks along the ledge of a fountain , sits in a tree and sings lying on top of a building . She also lies atop scaffolding and on the hood of a car surrounded with leaves .
The video for the song was nominated in the category for Best Rock Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards . According to Jon Wiederhorn from MTV News , the shots of the video are " evocative and artistic , resembling a cross between a foreign film and a Chanel advertisement . " Joe D 'Angelo of MTV News said that Lee 's disconnection in the video shows a " distressed and emotionally wrought heroine . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised the video saying that Lee looked like a " teen @-@ misery titan " and that she " tiptoed through a marble castle of pain " . He also concluded that she could have borrowed the dress from Stevie Nicks . During an interview with Spin in 2011 Lee said that it was weird for her to watch the old videos of the band including the one for " My Immortal " . She explained , " Just watching our oldest videos , it 's weird . I definitely remember watching ' My Immortal , ' like , ' That was not some dream where it was really somebody else . ' I 've totally had a couple of those moments . It 's cool . "
= = Live performances = =
Evanescence performed the song at the 2004 Billboard Music Awards on December 8 , 2004 . The band was joined by an eight @-@ piece string section during the performance and a stage backdrop of knotted , decaying trees were placed on stage in order to showcase the " powerful vocals " by Amy Lee as stated by a writer of Billboard . The band additionally performed the song at Late Show with David Letterman in March 2004 .
The band performed " My Immortal " during various stops of their first Fallen Tour ( 2003 ) . " My Immortal " was the closing song of the concerts , and Lee performed it after asking the fans " Just promise not to fall asleep . " A live version of the song from the performance at Le Zénith , Paris is featured on their first live album , Anywhere but Home ( 2004 ) . Johnny Loftus of AllMusic praised the live version saying that Lee takes a " softer approach " while performing " My Immortal " and added that it " becomes a singalong moment for 5 @,@ 000 souls . " " My Immortal " was also part of the set list during the band 's second tour , called The Open Door Tour ( 2007 ) in support of their second studio album The Open Door ( 2006 ) . Evanescence also played the song live at their secret New York gig which took place on November 4 , 2009 and during the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2 , 2011 . The song was later added on the set list of their third worldwide tour in support of their third self @-@ titled studio album , the Evanescence Tour ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) .
= = Covers and usage in media = =
" My Immortal " was featured on the soundtrack Daredevil : The Album from the movie Daredevil ( 2003 ) along with " Bring Me to Life " . It was also heavily used in promos for the series finale of Friends . The song has been used during several television episodes . It featured during the Smallville season three episode " Memoria " . Lucy Walsh , a contestant of the show Rock the Cradle , covered the song during the fifth episode , " Judge 's Picks " . Dancer Hampton Williams performed to this song during his audition for the season 9 premiere of So You Think You Can Dance , broadcast on May 24 , 2012 , where he received a standing ovation , and in season 11 the song accompanied a performance by the top seven women , choreographed by Mandy Moore and broadcast on July 30 , 2014 , that earned similar reviews .
An arrangement of the song inspired by Gregorian chant was covered by the group Gregorian on their 2004 album The Dark Side . In 2013 , violinist Lindsey Stirling recorded an instrumental version of " My Immortal " for the Target edition of her first self @-@ titled studio album . In July 2013 it was uploaded to her personal channel on YouTube along with an accompanying performance video and it was released to the iTunes Store on October 1 , 2013 . The following year , Andrea Begley covered " My Immortal " for her debut studio album The Message . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that the cover " range [ s ] from the excruciating to the offensively inoffensive " . Teenage classical vocalist Jackie Evancho covered " My Immortal " in 2014 on her fifth full @-@ length album , Awakening , as a bonus track for Japanese fans .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Fallen .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Jeff Heath =
John Geoffrey " Jeff " Heath ( 1 April 1915 – 9 December 1975 ) was a Canadian @-@ born American left fielder in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) who played most of his career for the Cleveland Indians .
He was one of the American League 's most promising power hitters of the late 1930s and early 1940s , twice led the AL in triples , and batted at least .340 with over 100 runs batted in ( RBIs ) each time . In 1941 he was selected to his first All @-@ Star Game and that same season became the first player from the American League to become a member of the 20 – 20 – 20 club when he hit 20 each of doubles , triples and home runs in the same season . His other All @-@ Star Game selections were in 1943 and 1945 .
Heath played for the Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns during the 1946 season and the National League 's ( NL ) Boston Braves beginning in 1948 . He incurred a compound fracture to his ankle in September 1948 and subsequently the Braves were without their starting left fielder for the 1948 World Series . In 1949 , Heath 's last season in the majors , sportswriter Franklin Lewis wrote , " There was the inimitable Heath who ... should have been one of the greatest players in history . But there were no valves on his temper . He grinned in the manner of a schoolboy or he snarled with the viciousness of a tiger . "
= = Early life = =
Heath was born 1 April 1915 , in Fort William , Ontario . His family moved to Victoria , British Columbia before settling in Seattle , Washington . He attended Garfield High School in Seattle where he played baseball and football . As a freshman he made the varsity baseball squad . Heath was a multi @-@ sport athlete and was offered scholarships from various schools to play American football . University of Washington head coach Jimmy Phelan said Heath was the best fullback in the country . Heath chose a future in baseball , however , and in 1935 , he signed with the Yakima Bears of the semipro Northwest League , where he hit .390 . He was selected as an All @-@ American amateur team member , managed by Les Mann and played games in Japan . For the tour his batting average was .483 . Heath faced difficulties being allowed re @-@ entry upon the team 's arrival to the U.S. and became a naturalized U.S. citizen .
Cleveland Indians scout Willie Kamm helped sign Heath to a contract with the organization in 1936 . Kamm said , " If this kid isn 't a big leaguer I 've wasted a lot of time learning baseball . " He reported to spring training with the New Orleans Pelicans of the Southern Association . One of his hands became infected and the Indians moved him to their Class C Mid @-@ Atlantic team , the Zanesville Greys . With the Greys , he hit league @-@ bests with 187 RBIs and a .383 average , while his 28 home runs were second @-@ most . He was called up to join the Indians before the 1936 season ended .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
Heath , who batted left @-@ handed and threw right @-@ handed and broke in with the Indians in 1936 at the age of 21 , appeared in 12 games with the club and recorded a .341 batting average and seven extra @-@ base hits . During spring training leading up to the 1937 season , Heath was describing as getting " as much attention as the backline of a Broadway chorus . " He appeared in 20 games and hit .230 for the season . During spring training before the 1938 season , Indians manager Oscar Vitt said Heath was " the best natural hitter I 've seen since Joe Jackson . " One columnist described Vitt 's decision to employ Heath :
" Vitt finally decided to use Jeff Heath , the chap with the bulging muscles , in his left pasture . There are few better hitters in the American league than the husky from Washington . Jeff is not the most graceful ballhawk in captivity and he may toss to the wrong base , but put a bat in his hands and the opposition 's pitcher will tremble . "
In his first full season in 1938 , he batted .343 – behind only batting champion Jimmie Foxx 's .349 – while leading the league with 18 triples . Upon the conclusion of the season , Heath joined fellow American League ( AL ) players , and Indians teammate Bob Feller , in exhibition games played around the country ( also known as barnstorming ) , mostly in cities which did not have a major league team . He had 21 home runs and 112 RBIs , collected 58 hits in August alone , and was among the league leaders in slugging average and total bases for the 1938 season . In January 1939 , he married Theabelle Callard . He finished with a .292 batting average in 1939 . The season also included a late @-@ season punch to a fan from Heath during a home game in Cleveland . " It was just another blunder in a bad season that has been full of mistakes " , Heath said of the incident . Before the 1940 season , Heath said , " I 'm going to show ' em I 'm no flash in the pan . Last year I was overswinging and taking my eye of the ball . I 'm not going to do that this season . " During the season , Heath was one of 12 reported players who presented a list of grievances against Vitt to Indians President Alva Bradley . Bradley called a meeting with the players and by the end of it , a statement of support from the players for Vitt was released . Twenty @-@ one Indians signed the document , while Heath was one of four who did not , as he was one of two in the hospital at the time of the meeting . Instances between Vitt and his players , including Heath , continued past June , however . Heath was suspended by Vitt after a game in August after the two exchanged words following a strikeout by Heath , who was put in the game as a pinch @-@ hitter . Indians Vice President C.C. Slapnicka withdrew the suspension . The Indians finished the regular season with an 89 – 65 record in Vitt 's last season as manager and Heath a career @-@ low .219 average . The Indians lost the AL pennant by one game to the Detroit Tigers and Heath received much of the blame , although Vitt was released as the team 's manager and replaced by Roger Peckinpaugh .
Peckinpaugh announced in December 1940 Heath would remain a starting outfielder with the club . Heath came back in 1941 with a season campaign in which he again led the AL with 20 triples , batted .340 ( fourth in the league ) , and was third in slugging behind Ted Williams and Joe DiMaggio . He also finished second in total bases and RBIs ( behind DiMaggio ) as well as second in hits , made his first All @-@ Star team , and finished eighth in the Most Valuable Player award voting . He became the first AL player to make the 20 @-@ 20 @-@ 20 club , having recorded 20 doubles , triples and home runs in one season .
Heath worked as a draftsman for Seattle @-@ Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation during the off @-@ season leading up to 1943 . In years previous , Heath had been described as " lazy " and " lacking aggressiveness " but the 1943 season appeared to be different , including investing extra time in batting practice . He was selected for the All @-@ Star Game and finished fourth in the AL in home runs with 18 . Heath was rejected in 1944 for military duty due to knee problems . During the 1944 season Heath was mainly used as a pinch @-@ hitter . In the off @-@ season he underwent knee surgery and entered a contract dispute with the Indians . He did not join the team until June of the 1945 season after a two @-@ month holdout . Despite missing the beginning part of the season , he was still named an All @-@ Star although the game was not played due to travel restrictions during World War II . He finished the season with a batting average of .305 and his 15 home runs were fifth in the AL . In 1943 he became the second player born outside the U.S. to hit 100 home runs , and he surpassed George Selkirk with his 109th home run in 1945 .
Heath , who had acquired the nickname " Lord Jeff " , was called a " problem child " by Indian player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau . Peckinpaugh once said that Heath " could have been one of the greatest players . He had the ability to do about anything . He could run , he could throw , and he could hit . But he just had no hustle , no nothing . If a ball went by him , he just might walk after it . " In December 1945 the Indians traded Heath to the Washington Senators where he started in right field .
= = Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns = =
In 1946 , Senators ' President Clark Griffith agreed to send outfielder George Case to Cleveland in exchange for Heath . Of the trade , Griffith said , " We 've sacrificed plenty of speed for a man of tremendous hitting power . " During spring training , the addition of Heath led to the Senators being described as a " dark horse . " The Associated Press continued :
" Heath 's performance may be the key to the Senators ' fate . The husky Canadian is the kind of slugger Washington was crying for last fall . He can break up a ball game with one mighty swish of his bat but , to put it mildly , there always has been an uncertain quality about him . Big Jeff was dissatisfied in Cleveland , didn 't like the ballpark , didn 't like the management , didn 't like anything . Still , he has been a most valuable hitter , perhaps one of the best in the game when he is settled down to business . "
But Heath would appear in just 48 games with the Senators . He finished with the team hitting .283 with four home runs and 27 RBIs , his last game on 15 June before he was traded to the St. Louis Browns in mid @-@ June for Al LaMacchia and Joe Grace . In his first game with the Browns on 17 June he went 1 @-@ for @-@ 3 with one RBI . The Browns , who were 23 – 32 at the time Heath joined the club , finished the 1946 season 66 – 88 . Heath finished with 12 home runs and 57 RBIs in 86 games with the Browns .
Again , the Heath tendency for resentment and trouble led to the Browns trade . Washington had a utility infielder , Sherry Robertson , who was the nephew of owner Clark Griffith . During games , Heath would ride Robertson on the bench , calling him " owner 's pet " , in reference to the possibility that Robertson was only on the team due to that relationship , and the possibility that Robertson was better paid than Heath . This was the subject of a column in the Washington Post after Heath was gone by longtime sports writer Shirley Povich , who hated to see the Heath bat leave Washington .
The Browns were the second team in the AL to add black players to their roster after the Indians signed Larry Doby in July 1947 . Willard Brown and Hank Thompson were teammates of Heath 's during the 1947 season , but Heath was described as committing a " petulant display of prejudice " towards Brown after Brown hit a home run with one of Heath 's old bats . Brown preferred to use a heavy bat and did not bring his own after being told by the Browns the team would supply him with bats . Brown found one of Heath 's damaged bats and applied tape to the affix the knob to the end of the bat . When he tried to use the bat during a game , the umpire told him he could not use the bat with tape applied , so Brown discarded the loose fragments of the bat and proceeded to hit a home run during the at @-@ bat . When he returned to the dugout , however , Heath destroyed the bat when he hit it against the dugout wall .
Heath had a career @-@ high 27 home runs during the 1947 season , but the Browns finished in eighth and last place in the AL . In the Browns ' final game , Heath was already in the clubhouse showers when it was his turn to bat in the ninth inning . Upon the conclusion of the season , Browns management was looking to overhaul the team roster . Browns General Manager Bill DeWitt tried to shop Heath to a National League team rather than leave him in the AL . On 4 December it was announced the Boston Braves of the National League had acquired Heath .
= = Boston Braves = =
Unlike the Browns , the Braves were contenders all the way to the end of the 1948 season . In a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on 3 September , and with the Braves tied for the NL lead , Heath hit a two @-@ run home run and the Braves went on to win the game , 3 – 1 , and stayed in first place for the remainder of the regular season . With the Braves up five games in the NL standings and four games remaining on their regular season schedule , the Braves had a match @-@ up with the Brooklyn Dodgers on 29 September but according to teammate Clint Conatser , Heath asked Braves manager Billy Southworth for the night off but his request was denied . During the game , Heath attempted to score from second base and slid towards home plate to try and beat the tag by Dodgers catcher Roy Campanella . As he slid , his foot got caught in the dirt which caused his ankle to twist . " I began to slide about five feet from the plate . Funny thing , I generally get my spikes up off the ground , but this time I didn 't . I looked at my foot , which was twisted all the way around , and honestly I thought it would come right off " , Heath said the next day from a local hospital . After playing in the majors for parts of 12 years , he would be forced to miss the World Series as it was later diagnosed he fractured his ankle . He called the broken ankle " the biggest disappointment of my life . " A widely published newspaper photograph of the play showed Heath sliding toward the plate , mouth open in shock , with his leg bent mid @-@ ankle with the lower ankle rotated ninety degrees to the upper ankle . He was quoted asking himself " Why did I slide ? " when he was carried off the field on a stretcher and later put in an ambulance . In 1964 , Heath said :
" I guess I didn 't tuck my leg while sliding . Carl Furillo ( Dodger rightfielder ) made the throw . He had a great arm and I was out a mile . They ( sportswriters ) said it was an unnecessary slide in a game that didn 't mean anything . The hell it was , you always slide . Besides Johnny Sain ( Braves pitcher ) was after his 23rd win and we wanted to shove Brooklyn into third place . "
Heath 's regular season came to an end , as he batted .319 with 20 home runs on the season . The Braves ' season came to an end after six games in the World Series as they lost to the Indians , four games to two .
Heath played in the minors the following season before eventually rejoining the Braves during the 1949 season . In a game on 28 August , Heath helped tie the Cincinnati Reds with a home run in the ninth inning and helped win the game for the Braves with another in the 10th inning . He ended his final major league season after 36 games into the 1949 season . He batted .306 with nine homers and 23 RBIs . In October 1949 , the Braves placed Heath on waivers and general manager John Quinn offered him a managing position with a team in the Braves farm system , but he never accepted Quinn 's offer to manage . Baseball historian Bill James when summarizing the 1940s listed Heath as the recipient for his designation of " A Better Ballplayer Than a Human Being . " Southworth said , " They told me when I got him from the American League that Heath was a troublemaker . If he is , I 'd sure like to have eight other troublemakers like him . "
= = Retirement = =
Before he retired from professional baseball , Heath appeared in 57 games for the Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League . He was later fired from the team . In 1951 , he was given a trial basis with the Rainiers but was never signed .
Sportswriter Franklin Lewis interviewed Heath and asked if he would do anything differently in his career if he was given the chance . Heath responded , " I wouldn 't gag around as much . I shouldn 't have popped off . It 's all right for little guys to talk loud , but not a big ox like me . "
In his 14 @-@ season major league career , Heath posted a .293 batting average and a .509 slugging average , with 194 home runs , 1 @,@ 447 hits , 887 RBIs , 777 runs , 279 doubles , 102 triples and 56 stolen bases in 1 @,@ 383 games played . Bobby Thomson surpassed him in 1955 to become the major leagues ' home run leader among foreign @-@ born players . Heath was the first player to hit a home run in all AL and NL ballparks . He was named as one of the " Top 100 Greatest Indians . " In 1988 he was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame .
He worked briefly as a scout for the Cleveland Indians . He later worked as a color commentator with the Rainiers and did advertising work in the Seattle area . During one game while Heath provided commentary , he cursed into the microphone on @-@ air and later apologized . A station manager later approached him regarding the incident and Heath responded by throwing the manager down a flight of stairs .
Heath died of a heart attack in Seattle at age 60 . He had suffered a heart attack in 1957 at the age of 43 . He was survived by two daughters and one son .
= Banksia aculeata =
Banksia aculeata , commonly known as prickly banksia , is a species of plant of the family Proteaceae native to the Stirling Range in the southwest of Western Australia . A shrub up to 2 m ( 7 ft ) tall , it has dense foliage and leaves with very prickly serrated margins . The unusual pinkish , pendent ( hanging ) flower spikes , known as inflorescences , are generally hidden in the foliage and appear during the early summer . Although it was collected by the naturalist James Drummond in the 1840s , Banksia aculeata was not formally described until 1981 — by Alex George in his monograph of the genus .
A rare plant , Banksia aculeata is found in gravelly soils in elevated areas . Native to a habitat burnt by periodic bushfires , it is killed by fire and regenerates from seed afterwards . In contrast to other Western Australian banksias , it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi .
= = Description = =
A bushy shrub , Banksia aculeata grows up to 2 m ( 7 ft ) tall , with fissured grey bark on its trunk and branches . It does not have a woody base , known as a lignotuber , that many other banksias have . The leaves are from 4 – 9 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long , and 0 @.@ 8 – 3 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) wide , with sharply pointed rigid lobes on the margins . Appearing in February and March , the cylindrical flower spikes — known as inflorescences — are from 6 – 9 cm ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long , growing at the ends of short leafy 2 @-@ 3 year old side branches . Hanging downwards rather than growing upright like most other banksias , they are composed of a central woody spike or axis , from which a large number of compact individual flowers arise perpendicularly . These floral units are made up of a smooth tubular perianth that envelopes the flower 's sexual organs . It is 3 – 4 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and pink at the base grading into cream . In late bud the end of the perianth has a characteristic four @-@ angled ( squarish ) appearance . It then splits at anthesis to reveal the smooth straight pistil , which is slightly shorter than its enveloping structure at 3 – 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long . The fruiting cone , known as an infructescence , is a swollen woody spike embedded with up to 20 massive follicles ; the withered flower parts persist on the spike , giving it a hairy appearance . Oval in shape , the follicles are wrinkled in texture and covered with fine hair . They are 3 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long , 2 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 1 – 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) high , and 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 in ) wide .
The obovate ( egg @-@ shaped ) seed is 4 – 5 cm ( 1 5 ⁄ 8 – 2 in ) long and fairly flattened , and is composed of the wedge @-@ shaped seed body ( containing the embryonic plant ) , measuring 1 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) wide , and a papery wing . One side , termed the outer surface , is grey and wrinkled and the other is black and sparkles slightly . The seeds are separated by a sturdy dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle . Known as cotyledons , the first pair of leaves produced by seedlings are cuneate ( wedge @-@ shaped ) and measure 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long by 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in ) wide . They are dull dark green , sometimes with a reddish tinge , and the margin of the wedge is convex . The auricle at the base of the cotyledon leaf is pointed and measures 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 ⁄ 8 in ) long . The hypocotyl is thick. smooth and dark red . The obovate to oblong seedling leaves are 4 – 9 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 in ) wide with serrated margins , with v @-@ shaped sinuses and sharp teeth .
The related Banksia caleyi is similar in appearance but can be distinguished by its recurved ( curving downwards ) leaf margins , and smaller follicles and perianths . Its flowers appear from October to December .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia aculeata was first collected by James Drummond on one of his three trips to the Stirling Ranges between 1843 and 1848 , though he did not recognise it as distinct from B. caleyi — this was only discovered over a century later by Alex George . George described B. aculeata in his 1981 monograph " The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) " . He based the species on a specimen collected by him on Chester Pass Road in the Stirling Range east of Cranbrook on 20 March 1972 . He gave it the specific epithet aculeata ( Latin for " sharp " ) , in reference to the sharply pointed leaf lobes .
George placed B. aculeata in B. subg . Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike ; in B. sect . Banksia because of its straight styles ; and B. ser . Tetragonae because of its pendulous inflorescences . He considered its closest relative to be B. caleyi , from which it differs in having narrower leaves with fewer , larger lobes ; longer perianths , which grade from red to cream rather than from cream to red ; shorter pistils ; and also differences in the follicles , seeds and flowering time .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . George 's B. ser . Tetragonae was found to be monophyletic , and therefore retained ; and their analysis of the relationships within the series supported the placement of B. aculeata alongside B. caleyi .
B. aculeata 's placement in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
B. elegans ( incertae sedis )
B. subg . Banksia
B. ser . Tetragonae
B. elderiana
B. lemanniana
B. caleyi
B. aculeata
The arrangement of Thiele and Ladiges was not accepted by George , and was discarded in his 1999 revision . Under George 's 1999 arrangement , B. aculeata 's placement was as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia
B. ser . Salicinae ( 11 species , 7 subspecies )
B. ser . Grandes ( 2 species )
B. ser . Banksia ( 8 species )
B. ser . Crocinae ( 4 species )
B. ser . Prostratae ( 6 species , 3 varieties )
B. ser . Cyrtostylis ( 13 species )
B. ser . Tetragonae
B. lemanniana
B. caleyi
B. aculeata
Since 1998 , Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is rather different from previous taxonomic arrangements , but support the placement of B. aculeata alongside B. caleyi in a clade corresponding closely with B. ser . Tetragonae . A 2013 molecular study by Marcel Cardillo and colleagues using chloroplast DNA and combining it with earlier results found that B. aculeata was sister to B. lemanniana and that B. caleyi was the next closest relative .
Early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. aculeata is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
B. aculeata is native to the foothills of the Stirling Range in the southwest of Western Australia , occurring at elevations between 250 and 500 m ( 820 – 1650 ft ) , in shrubland in gravelly , clayish soils . The annual rainfall is around 600 mm ( 24 in ) . It is a fairly rare plant , with most populations consisting of fewer than 100 plants . With fairly small populations and a narrow distribution , B. aculeata is considered rare , but is not currently classed as endangered because at least some populations are thought not to be under immediate threat . The Department of Environment and Conservation of the Western Australian State Government classes it as " Priority Two – Poorly Known " flora .
= = Ecology = =
Like many plants in Australia 's southwest , Banksia aculeata is adapted to an environment in which bushfire events are relatively frequent . Most Banksia species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire : reseeders are killed by fire , but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank , thus promoting recruitment of the next generation ; resprouters survive fire , resprouting from a lignotuber or , more rarely , epicormic buds protected by thick bark . Banksia aculeata is killed by fire because it possesses neither thick protective bark nor a lignotuber to reshoot from . However it is serotinous — it accumulates an aerial seed bank that is released only in response to fire — so populations typically recover rapidly after fire . This strategy makes it depend upon a suitable fire regime , however . Plants take three to four years to reach flowering after a bushfire .
Pollinators have not been observed , and the flowering period is brief when compared with other banksias . However , the flowers appear when little else is in flower , rendering it a valuable food source .
Banksia aculeata has previously been reported as moderately susceptible to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi , but in a recent study this pathogen was found to have no direct impact on the species . As a result of this finding , together with the low percentage of populations infested or facing imminent infestation , the species was classed as having a very low extinction risk .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia aculeata grows slowly , taking five to six years to flower from seed . Regarding its potential as an ornamental plant , Alex George observes that the flowers are brightly coloured but have a short life and are obscured by the foliage , which is quite prickly . However he considers both the new foliage and the infructescence are attractive . This species can grow in a range of soil types so long as they provide good drainage . The nominal pH range is from 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 . It prefers full sun , although it will grow in partly shaded situations but produce fewer flowers . It will tolerate light pruning .
= Gebelein predynastic mummies =
The Gebelein predynastic mummies are six naturally mummified bodies , dating to approximately 3400 BC from the Late Predynastic period of Ancient Egypt . They were the first complete predynastic bodies to be discovered . The well @-@ preserved bodies were excavated at the end of the nineteenth century by Wallis Budge , the British Museum Keeper for Egyptology , from shallow sand graves near Gebelein ( modern name Naga el @-@ Gherira ) in the Egyptian desert .
Budge excavated all the bodies from the same grave site . Two were identified as male and one as female , with the others being of undetermined gender . The bodies were given to the British Museum in 1900 . Some grave @-@ goods were documented at the time of excavation as " pots and flints " , however they were not passed on to the British Museum and their whereabouts remain unknown . Three of the bodies were found with coverings of different types ( reed matting , palm fibre and an animal skin ) , which still remain with the bodies . The bodies were found in foetal positions lying on their left sides .
From 1901 the first body excavated has remained on display in the British Museum . This body was originally nicknamed ' Ginger ' due to his red hair ; this nickname is no longer officially used as part of recent ethical policies for human remains .
= = Excavation = =
In 1895 and 1896 the ruins at Abydos , Tukh , Hierakonpolis and Gebelein were excavated . In 1892 Jacques de Morgan , Director of Antiquities in Egypt , proved that pottery found at Abydos and Nakadah pre @-@ dated the dynastic period , stimulating interest by many European Archaeologists . As each excavation was completed , local Egyptian residents would continue to search the sites for remains . In 1895 E. A. Wallis Budge , on behalf of the British Museum , procured inscribed coffins and funerary furniture from the 12th Dynasty tombs at Al @-@ Barshah by working with the Egyptian Service of Antiquities . Budge started purchasing predynastic finds from the locals including bowls , spear and arrow heads , carved flint and bone figures and partial human remains ( described as chiefly bones without skin or flesh remaining ) .
In 1896 , Budge was approached by a resident of Gebelein who claimed to have found more mummies . Budge was taken to the bodies , and he immediately recognized them as from the predynastic period and the first complete pre @-@ dynastic bodies identified . He began excavations and a total of six mummified bodies were removed from shallow sand graves at Baḥr Bila Mâ ( Waterless River ) located at the eastern slopes of the north @-@ most hill at Gebelein .
The only grave goods were a pot found with the female adult body and partial remains of wicker , fur and linen with the other bodies . In the predynastic period bodies were usually buried naked and sometimes loosely wrapped . In such a burial , when the body is covered in warm sand , the environmental conditions mean that most of the water in the body is quickly evaporated or drained away , meaning that the corpse is naturally dried and preserved . This method was widely used in the pre @-@ dynastic Egyptian period , before artificial mummification was developed . The natural mummification that occurred with these dry sand burials may have led to the original Egyptian belief in an after @-@ death survival and started the tradition of leaving food and implements for an afterlife .
All bodies were in similar flexed positions lying on their left sides with knees raised up towards their chin . In comparison , most bodies excavated from Egypt dating to the predynastic period are in a similar position , however at Merimda Beni Salama and El @-@ Amra bodies were found on their right sides . From the time these bodies were buried up until the Middle Kingdom period , the dead were laid on their sides . After this period they were buried on their backs ( dorsal position ) , and from the Fifth Dynasty the bodies were always fully extended .
Archaeological interest in Gebelien started in the early 18th century and was included in Benoît de Maillet 's Description de l 'Egypte . The site includes the remains from a temple to the deity Hathor with a number of cartouches on mud bricks and a royal stela from the 2nd Dynasty and 3rd Dynasty . Later period finds include 400 Demotic and Greek ostraca from a 2nd – 1st century BC mercenary garrison . As well as official excavations , many artefacts from the site were traded on the antiquities market and can be found in the museums of Turin , Cairo , Berlin , Lyons and the British Museum .
= = Description = =
The bodies were buried in separate shallow graves , placed in the fetal position ( knees raised towards their heads ) , which was the most common form for Egyptian burials of the time .
In 1967 a series of X @-@ rays and photographs of all mummified bodies in the British Museum 's Egyptian Antiquities collection provided a detailed analysis for the mummies from the Gebelein excavations . The findings are summarized below :
The first body excavated had red hair , this led to the nickname of " Ginger " by curators and later by the public . After the Human Tissue Act 2004 , the British Museum has developed policies for ethical treatment of human remains and no longer uses this nickname .
= = = Death of Gebelein Man = = =
In November 2012 it was revealed that EA 32751 ( Gebelein Man ) had probably been murdered . A CAT scan of the mummified body taken at the Cromwell Hospital in London showed that Gebelein Man had been aged about 18 to 20 at the time of his death and had been well muscled . Under his left shoulder blade the scan revealed a puncture to the body ; the murder weapon had been used with such force that it had slightly damaged the shoulder blade but had shattered the rib beneath it and penetrated the lung . It was believed that the injury had been caused by a copper blade or flint knife at least 12 cm in length and 2 cm wide . Daniel Antoine , the British Museum 's expert on human remains , believes that Gebelein Man had been taken by surprise by the attack as there were no defense wounds .
= = Exhibition history = =
The mummies were acquired by the British Museum in 1900 . One male adult body , museum number EA 32751 ( then nicknamed " Ginger " ) , went on display in 1901 , and was the earliest mummified body seen by the public . Apart from maintenance , it has been on continuous display in the same gallery since 1901 . In 1987 the body was temporarily taken off display for restoration and a female mummified body replaced it . She was nicknamed " Gingerella " even though the body has long brown hair .
The male body , EA 32751 , is displayed in a reconstructed sand grave in the British Museum in room 64 and case 15 . Though Budge wrote of " pots and flints " with the body , these artefacts were not acquired by the museum . A number of Egyptian grave goods taken from similar graves of the period are instead used in the display . The grave goods include black @-@ topped clay pots that were typical of the predynastic period through to Naqada II , and plain and buff coloured pots and bowls typical of slightly later periods . There are also slate palettes , hard stone vessels and flint knives which would be associated with more elaborate burials of the historical period .
One man was wrapped in a skin , a second in a mat of palm fibre , and the third was rolled up in a reed mat . The woman was without covering , and the only pot in her grave contained what seemed to be a sort of dried porridge ...
I unpacked the first man we had taken out of his grave at Gebelên one Saturday in March 1900 , in the presence of Lord Crawford and the Principal Librarian , and when it was laid on a table it was as complete as when I first saw it at Gebelên . But when it was examined again on the following Monday morning it was discovered that the top joint of one of the forefingers was missing , and it has , to my knowledge never been found since . The body was exhibited at once in the First Egyptian Room , and for the first time the British public saw a neolithic Egyptian .
Of the other five bodies , only the female adult , given museum number EA 32752 , has been exhibited . In 1997 @-@ 8 the body was part of a tour to Rome as part of the Palazzo Ruspoli , Ancient Faces exhibition . Again in 2001 the body went to Birmingham as part of the Gas Hall , Egypt Revealed exhibition . In 2001 before going out on loan , the body had some restoration using Japanese kozo paper to secure a loose finger , reattach a rib and to reattach some locks of hair . Strips of polyethylene were used to reduce movement of the right arm .
= The Day the Violence Died =
" The Day the Violence Died " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17 , 1996 . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer . Kirk Douglas guest stars as Chester J. Lampwick , Alex Rocco as Roger Meyers Jr . , Jack Sheldon as an anthropomorphic constitutional amendment , Suzanne Somers as herself , and Phil Hartman as Lionel Hutz . The end of the episode features Lester and Eliza , versions of Bart and Lisa Simpson that appeared in The Tracey Ullman Show in the 1980s .
In the episode , Bart meets Chester J. Lampwick , who claims and successfully proves that he is the creator of Itchy from The Itchy & Scratchy Show . Lampwick sues Itchy and Scratchy Studios , the owner of the Itchy and Scratchy characters , which he claims stole his idea . After the studio awards Lampwick a US $ 800 billion settlement , it is forced into bankruptcy and shuts down . When The Itchy & Scratchy Show is replaced by a parody of Schoolhouse Rock ! ' s " I 'm Just a Bill " segment , Bart and Lisa try to bring the show back . They find a legal precedent that could help their cause , but before they can act , other kids save the day instead .
The episode finished 47th in ratings for the week of March 11 – 17 , 1996 with a 9 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode received a generally positive reception from television critics . DVD Movie Guide and the Los Angeles Daily News enjoyed the episode 's focus on The Itchy & Scratchy Show . Criticism of the episode focused on its observations of generic television shows .
= = Plot = =
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